ABSTRACT SYSTEMIC INTERPRETATION OF AN ANALHSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN PREDOMINANTLY’BLACK ELEMENTARY’SCHOOLS By Charles H. Beady, Jr. This study was developed from what many perceive to be a need for establishing a data base that is specifically representative of populations of black Americans, a data base from which inferences can be made to facilitate the development of counseling models that will be effective in use with these populations. The primary purpose of this study was to determine if an analysis of the relationship of academic climate variables to academic achievement in predominantly black elementary schools would support a major premise advanced by the proponents of the systemic approach to counseling. Proponents of systemic counseling view the cause of most mental health problems as originating within social systems as opposed to originating within the client. The premise advanced states that the social- psychological climate that prevails in a given social system is the primary cause of certain behaviors ex- hibited by that system's members. Charles H. Beady Jr. Support for this premise was sought through the testing of the hypothesis which stated that the measures of school academic climate used in this study would significantly account for variance over and above that accounted for by measures of mean school socio-economic status (SE8). SE8 is a crucial element in the hypothesis because of the commonly voiced notion that the effects of school environments are inseparable from the effects of SES. Since the study was correlational, causal inferences could not be made concerning the findings. Thus, support for the premise stated above was determined by the direction of the findings. This means that if the findings of this study should not support the hypothesis advanced, a reconsideration of the hypothesis and/hr the premise stated above would be in order. If the hypothesis should be supported, the implications of the correlations could be discussed, through causal inferences could not be made. The units of analysis were 30 elementary schools having student body populations of greater than 50% black. These schools were randomly sampled from a population of 221 Michigan elementary schools, which comprise the state's total population of elementary schools having predominantly black student bodies. Charles H. Beady Jr. The instruments used were revised versions of separate but interrelated teacher, student, and principal questionnaires developed by Brookover, Gigliotti, Henderson, and Schneider, (1973). The questionnaires were designed to measure different aspects of academic climate, based primarily upon student, teacher and principal perceptions. The mean responses of h,7h7 students, 1&3 teachers, and 30 principals were analyzed in this study. Achievement data were provided by Research, Evaluation and Assessment Services, Michigan Department of Education. SES data were gathered from both students and principals and were coded using a modified version of the Duncan Socio-Economic Index scale (Reiss, Duncan, Hatt, & North, 1961). The data were collected by black and/or integrated research teams consisting of individuals who had been trained to administer the questionnaires. The academic climate variables used in this study were developed from factor analyses of data generated from a study by Brookover (1975) using the same in- struments as those used in this study. The sample from which Brookover's data were collected consisted of 69 randomly sampled Michigan elementary schools, including seven schools that had predominantly black student bodies. Charles H. Beady Jr. The data were analyzed using forward inclusion multiple regression. An a priori alpha level was set at .05. The hypothesis tested was supported when SES and academic climate variables were entered into multiple regression equations in varying orders. Three of the la academic climate variables entered into the regression equations significantly accounted for variance over and above that accounted for by SES. However, SES did not significantly account for variance over and above that accounted for by academic climate variables. SES accounted for 37.5% of the variance when it was entered into the regression equation first. An additional 31.1% of the variance was accounted for by entering the academic climate variables into the equation after SES. The academic climate variables accounted for 59.1% of the variance when they were entered into the regression equation before SE8. SE8 did not significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables. The academic climate variable, student reported sense of futility, was identified as the single independent variable which accounted for most of the variance among the achievement levels of the schools in the sample. This variable was a measure of the students' perception of their ability to control or influence Charles H. Beady Jr. the "system" around them, particularly those aspects of the school system which influence achievement. A coeficient of -.71 was obtained when student reported sense of futility was correlated with achievement. This variable alone was responsible for 85% of the total variance significantly accounted for by academic climate variables and SES, where academic climate variables were entered into the regression equation first and SES entered last. Thus, the evidence from the study supported the hypothesis advanced. The evidence further indicates that student reported sense of futility may have the single most important effect on achievement of all the independent variables considered in the study. The analysis of the relationship between academic climate variables and achievement in predominantly black schools supported the following conclusions: 1. Student sense of futility, teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement, and teacher-principal efforts at improving achievement may significantly affect mean school achievement in Michigan's predominantly black elementary schools, regardless of the mean socio-economic status in these schools. 2. 3. Charles H. Beady Jr. Student sense of futility may have the most significant impact of all the aspects of academic climate measured in the study, upon mean school achievement in Michigan's predominantly black elementary schools. Changes in the mean socio-economic status (e.g., by busing) of Michigan's pre- dominantly black elementary schools may not effectively improve achievement without concomitant changes in academic climate. Since it is assumed that mean school socio-economic status cannot be as readily affected as changes in academic climate, it was concluded that improve- ment in the achievement levels of Michigan's predominantly black elementary schools may be most readily effected by changes in academic climate. The social-psychological climate of a given social system may be the primary cause of certain behaviors exhibited by that system's members. This conclusion is congruent with a systemic interpre- tation of the results of the study. Charles H. Beady Jr. The most salient implication derived from the preceding conclusions is that educators, counselors, and others in related fields should not look ex- clusively to the individual for the purpose of determining the cause of that individual's so-called "deviant" behaviors, and instead focus attention on the effects that social system "behavior" may have on in- dividual behavior. References Brookover, W.B. Elementary school social environment and school achievement: ase . u y n progress, MIcHIgan State UnIversIty, 1975. Brookover, w.s., Gigliotti, R.J., Henderson, R.D., & Schneider, J.M. Elementary school social environment and school achievement. East ns ng, c .: o ege o r an evelopment, Michigan State University, 1973. Reiss, A.J., Duncan, O.D., Hatt, P,K., & North, C.C. Occupations and Social Status. New York: The ree Press, 1961. SYSTEMIC INTERPRETATION OF AN ANALYSIS OF THE ‘RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN PREDOMINANTLY BLACK ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS By a!“ >‘ Charles H. Beady, Jr. A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, and Personnel Services 1975 DEDICATION To my wife, Maxine, for the continued love, support, understanding, and encouragement she has always given, and in memory of her mother, Starlight. Also, to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Charles H. Beady, Sr., for all that they have done for me. 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To the Chairman of my Committee, Dr. Herbert M. Burks, Jr., I wish to express my sincerest appreciation, not only for the hours he spent in helping me prepare this document, but also for the sound advice and guidance he has provided me for the past two years. To my Project Director, Dr. Wilbur B. Brookover, a sincere thank you for an invaluable learning ex- perience, both personally and academically. To Dr. Thomas S. Gunnings, who served as a member of my Committee, special thanks are due. The continued concern he has shown, for both my academic and personal welfare, lifted me when I was down and gave me direction when I was up; I will be forever grateful. To Dr. Gloria S. Smith, who served as a member of my Committee, I am sincerely grateful for her guidance, support, and friendship. To Dr. John H. Schweitzer, who served as a member of my Committee, and whose technical assistance with the statistical aspects of this study was invaluable, a sincere thank you. The fact that I was able to call on him, day or night, puts me in even deeper debt of 111 gratitude. To Dr. Bob B. Winborn, who served as a member of my Committee, although he was on sabbatical during the past year, I am grateful for his initial guidance and support. Further gratitude and appreciation are extended to Joseph Wisenbaker for his assistance with the various, and often frustrating, aspects of working with the computer; to Sandi Watts and Kathie Alcoze for an excellent Job of typing the rough drafts of the study; and finally, to my sister-in-law, Elaine Talley, for the hours she spent typing the final document. This research document was made possible by two grants from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare: 2T21 MH13174-02 and NIE-G-74-0020. I appreciate the support of the National Institute of Mental Health and the National Institute of Education. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABI‘ESOO00......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. LIST OF FIGURESCOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Chapter I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM............... need for the Studysssseesseosssssoes Purpose Of the StudyOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. TheoryOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.00 Definition of Terms................. Testable Hypothesis................. Overvj-eWOOOOOOOOO.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO II. RELATED LITERATURE..................... Chapter Oveer-ewOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0000...0.0 Systemic Counseling and School Climate Research................. System Behavior Literature.......... Urban Counselor Training Literature. III. METHODOLOGY, PROCEDURES, INSTRUMENTA- IV. TION, AND DECISION MODEL............ ovePVIewOOOOOOOCO00......0.0.0000... POPUIationOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO sampleOOOOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Procedures and Methodology.......... Securing SES and Achievement DataOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOO InStr‘mentationOOOOO0.0......0...... D801310n model-0.0...00.00.000.00...O Assumptions of the Model...... ANALYSIS OF DATAOOCOOOOOOOOOO0.00.... Overvj-eWOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.00... Page vii xi 17 19 21 21 23 3O “2 42 44 55 57 63 67 7O 72 72 Chapter Factor Analysis...................... Construction of Academic Climate variableSOOOOO0.0.00.0...000...... Multiple Regression Analysis......... Explanation of Forward Inclusion..... Results of Test of Hypothesis........ Multicollinearity.................... Identification of Academic Climate Variable Accounting for Most varianceOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.000... D18CUSS1onOOOOOOOOOOO0000......0.000. v. SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... smaryOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOO LimitationsOOOOOOOO000.00000.0.0.0... Conclusions.......................... Discussion........................... Recommendations...................... ResearChO.0.0000000000000000000. Education....................... counselingssssssssssesssssssssoe Counselor Training Programs..... APPENDICESOOOOCOOO0000......000.000.0000.... APPENDIX A. FACTORS PRODUCED BY BROOKOVER (1975), USED IN DETERMING MEASURES OF ACADEMIC CLIMATE.. B. QUESTIONS CONTAINED IN EACH ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLE........ C. INTERCORRELATIONS OF MEAN SCHOOL SOOIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (SES), AND ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLESOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0000000 D. MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF ACHIEVEMENT, SOCIO- ECONOMIC STATUS (SES), AND ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLES.... LIST OF REFERENCESCOO.OOOO00......00.0.0... vi 13 13 145 145 149 153 155 161 161 162 162 163 165 165 198 226 232 23” LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.1 Original Sample of Predominantly Black school-8.000.000.0000...0.0.0.... Schools Dropping Out of Original Sample of Predominantly Black Schools........ Final Sample of Predominantly Black schOOIBOO0.00.00.00.00OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Percent of Students Completing Question- naires in Predominantly Black Ele- mentary Schools, by Race.............. Summary of Split-Half Correlations Test-to-Test Correlations (1975-75) and Correlations of 1973-74 and l974-75_Michigan Assessment Tests, Administered in a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly Black Michigan Elementary Schools.................... Summary of the Reliability Coeffi- cients for the Internal Consis- tency of Academic Climate variables...00OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Summary of Multiple Regression (Forward Inclusion) of Mean School Socio- Economic Status and Academic Cli- mate Variables on Mean School Achievement in a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly Black Michigan Elementary Schools, Where SES Was Entered First and 14 Academic Climate Variables Were Entered Next with No A Priori Hierarchy EstablishedOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQ vii Page 45 47 49 54 62 55 84 Table Page 4.2 Summary of Multiple Re ression (Forward Inclusion? of Mean School Socio-Economic Status and Academic Climate variables on Mean School Achievement in a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly Black Michigan Elementary Schools, Where 14 Academic Climate variables Were to be Entered First with No A Priori Hierarchy Established and SES Entered Lastsssseesesseesesesssso 91 4.3 Summary of Multiple Re ression (Forward Inclusion? of Mean School Socio-Economic Status and Academic Climate variables on Mean School Achievement in a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly Black Michigan Elementary Schools, Where 13 Academic Climate variables Were Entered First with No A Priori Hierarchy Established and SES Entered Lastssssssssessssesessessssss 95 4.4 Summary of Zero Order Correlations Maintained by 16 Academic Climate variables and SES with Mean School Achievement and Mean School SE8 of a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly Black Michigan Elementary Schools................... 100 4.5 Summary of Multiple Re ression (Forward Inclusion? of Mean School Socio-Economic Status and Academic Climate variables on Mean School Achievement in a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly‘Black Michigan Elementary Schools, Where SES Was Entered First and 14 Academic Climate variables Entered Next With No A Priori Hierarchy Eatablishedssassesseeessesesseossssss 103 viii Table Page 4.6 Summary of Multiple Re ression (Forward Inclusion? of Mean School Socio-Economic Status and Academic Climate Variables on Mean School Achievement in a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly Black Michigan Elementary Schools, Where 14 Academic Climate Variables Were to be Entered First with No A Priori Hierarchy Established and SES Entered matOOOOOOOO000.00.00.00... 107 4.7 Summary of Multiple Re ression (Forward Inclusion of Mean School Socio-Economic Status and Academic Climate Variables on Mean School Achievement in a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly Black Michigan Elementary Schools, Where 13 Academic Climate variables Were Entered First with No A Priori Hierarchy Established and SES Entered “BtOOOOOCOOOOOOCOCOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCO 111 4.8 Paired Comparisons of variance Signi- ficantly Accounted for By SES and Academic Climate variables, Where Academic Climate variables Were Included in Regression Equations on the Basis of Highest Zero Order Correlations with Achievement or 830.00.00.00.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 115 4.9 Summary of Partial Correlations Main- tained by Student Reported Sense of Futility and Mean School Socio- Economic Status with Achievement, Where Student Reported Sense of Futility Was Entered in Three Separate Multiple Regression Equations Behind SES, and SES Entered in Three Separate Multiple Regression Equations Behind Student Reported Sense of Futility............. 130 4.10 Summary of Three Separate Multiple Re- gressions (Forward Inclusion) of Mean School Socio-Economic Status and Three Academic Climate variables on Mean School Achievement, Where SES Was Entered into the Equations First, and Student Reported Sense of ix Table Page Futility Was Entered in varying OrderOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.OOOOOOOOOOOOO 131 4.11 Summary of Three Separate Multiple Re- gressions (Forward Inclusion) of Mean School Socio-Economic Status and Three Academic Climate variables on Mean School Achievement, Where Student Reported Sense of Futility Was Entered into the Equations First, and SES Was Entered in Varying Order.... 134 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 Model of the Process of Social System BehaV1orOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 10 3.1 Geographic Distribution of Schools in the Final Sample, Exclusive of the Detroit Area.................. 51 3.2 Geographic Distribution of Schools in the Final Sample, from the Detroit AreaO.0.0..00......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 52 4.1 Illustration of the Masking of variance Due to the Effects of Multicolli- nearity, Where the Results of the First and Third Multiple Regression Analyses Are Considered Simul- t8090u31y......a.....o....o.......... 125 xi Chapter I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Need for the Study Presently, there exist a number of theories and varying approaches to counseling, but few address themselves to the black experience. The few that do usually depict blacks in an unfavorable light (Gunnings, 1971). Traditionally, counselors have given little attention to the mental health needs of black Americans. In the spirit of Ralph Ellison's Invisible‘ggg (Ellison, 1952), counselors have failed to make an objective assessment of cultural differences and the extent to which these differences warrant the formulation of new counseling models that will be effective tools for confronting the problems that affect the lives and mental health of black Americans. The prevailing assumption has been that one simply could transfer counseling techniques from one culture to another. Bell (1971) pointed out that this notion is geared for failure. He stated that the black psychologist who practices traditional counseling methods often is shocked to find that his black clients 2 perceive him as being an "Oreo cookie" (black on the outside, and white on the inside). The literature contains a plethora of articles written by black counselors and psychologists (Bell, 1971; Franklin, 1971; Gunnings, 1971; Mosby, 1972; Thomas, 1972; White, 1972; Williams & Kirkland, 1971) illuminating the need for formulating and seeking empirical support for psychological theories and models that will serve, not subjugate, black people in America. Theories and models that accurately represent the black experience are essential to the formulation of effective solutions to problems that come to bear on black Americans. Traditional counseling models have been ineffective in this respect (Williams a Kirkland, 1971). The need for the research with which this study is concerned lies at the heart of what White (1972) had to say about the ineffectiveness of traditional theories. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to understand the life styles of black people using traditional theories developed by white psychologists to explain white people. Moreover, when these traditional theories are applied to the lives of black folks many incorrect, weakness-dominated, and inferiority-oriented conclusions come about. (9. 43) Again, the field of counseling needs theories and models, and empirical support for models and theories that can serve black clients effectively. This project is an effort in that direction. 3 Purpose of the Study Each year, disproportionate numbers of black students in this nation's schools continue to score well below national norms on standardized assessment instruments. Counselors traditionally have asked "What is wrong with them?"--a posture that automatically places the onus of the problem upon the student. However, noted thinkers in the fields of counseling and psychology (Gunnings & Simpkins, 1972; Banks & Martens, 1973; Stubbins, 1970) have suggested that counselors who continue to ask this question are in effect, blaming the "victim" for the cause of the problem. This new type of thinking has serious implications insofar as the fields of counseling and psychology are concerned. It suggests the possibility of al- ternative frameworks for assessing and moving toward eliminating the problems that millions of Americans, particularly urban residents, face daily. As a result of the insight he has gathered in terms of the mental conditions of oppressed peOple in the United States, Gunnings (1973) has formulated ‘what many feel to be an effective alternative for assessing and moving toward the elimination of these zxroblems and the symptoms they produce, including 4 such symptoms as substandard achievement in the urban classroom. This approach is called "systemic counseling." Proponents of the systemic approach to counseling argue that the prevailing climate of a given social system is the primary cause of behavior exhibited by that system's members, including those members whose Astatus in the system--by virtue of age, race, socio- economic status, sex, and the like--renders them virtually powerless to affect that climate. The purpose of this study is to determine whether or not an analysis of the correlations between system climate and achievement in predominantly black elementary schools yields results which are congruent with the preceding tenet. Theory In addition to counseling those individuals whose mental health is jeopardized by the climate maintained by a social system, the systemic approach to counseling suggests that social systems and subsystems should be "counseled" to change the prevailing climate. Appelbaum (1970) discussed the major theories of social change. He concluded that these theories become relatively useless as one consults them in order to identify factors that may be manipulated to validate the theories or facilitate change. 5 Writing about the need for good, comprehensive theories of social change, and recognizing the in- adequacies of existing theories of social change, Bennis and Peter (1966) have suggested the use of specially trained behavioral scientists as change agents. Their purpose would be to facilitate desired social change. Several years later, Gunnings (1971) stated that the United States social system is the cause of many of the mental health problems that millions of Americans face. He suggested that counseling programs begin to train counselors as change agents. Dennis and Peter (1966), and Gunnings and Simpkins (1972) see the change agent as necessary for bringing about social change. Unlike Gunnings, however, Dennis and Peter do not present undesirable social system characteristics as the reasons behind certain behavior. One can conclude, therefore, that although the function of the change agent is similarly intended, the purpose differs. While Bennis and Peter emphasize the change agent's role as bringing about desired social change, Cunnings (1971) links social change to mental health. In his view, the process of systemic intervention involves bringing about desired social change by challenging and rectifying those inequities in the system that impinge upon the mental health of millions of oppressed Americans. r O One finds, therefore, that the relationship between social change and mental health becomes crucial to the purpose of the systemic change agent. Thoughts on social change and on changing systems are by no means a new occurrence. In the 19th century, for instance, Charles Darwin provided many of the analo- gies that social scientists needed for thinking about social change. Notions of evolution still dominate most theories of social change (Appelbaum, 1970). It was probably the volatile 1960's, however, that fostered the current emphasis on the need for social change. In the early 1970's, the systemic philosOphy was introduced. Concurrently, there appeared in the literature numerous articles addressing the types of issues that generally support the systemic approach to counseling as a viable alternative to more traditional approaches. Banks (1972), for instance, viewed the behavior that blacks were exhibiting, as they rioted and denounced the system, as normal, rational, and predictable responses to the behavior that social systems exhibited toward them. Sikes (1971) asked, "Can counseling psychology give some attention to our national illness" (p. 103)? Franklin (1971) questioned the direction of the counseling process where the counselor assumes that the client must learn to cope 7 with the world and disregards the inequities that the system has perpetrated upon the client. These writers and others (Williams a Kirkland, 1971; Bell, 1971; Lewis & Lewis, 1974; Dworkin & Dworkin, 1971; Caplan a Nelson, 1973) have called for a re-evaluation of the counselor's role and a reordering of the counsel- ing process. The systemic philosophy seeks to reorder the counseling process by placing a new emphasis on problem definition. In the past, counselors have sought the cause of the problem as residing within the client. The systemic philosophy maintains that, for the most part, the cause of the problem is external to the individua1--residing within the climates of the systems or subsystems that prevail over the client. Thus, the counselor who is attending to the behavior of the client is merely treating a symptom that is the result of the problem. This is not to say that counselors should not consider the behaviors exhibited by their clients. This is to say, however, that (a) as long as causes remain unchecked, symptoms will continue to exist, and (b) how a problem is defined will determine how the solution to that problem will be pursued. If the location of the problem is incorrectly traced, the solution to the problem will be evasive. Caplan and Nelson (1973) have written: 8 The way a social problem is defined determines the attempts at remediation--or even whether such attempts will be made--by suggesting both the 'foci' and the techniques of inter- vention and by ruling out alternative possibilities. More specifically, problem definition determines the change strategy, the selection of a social action delivery system and the criteria for evaluation. (9. 200) If social systems are responsible for the symptoms that many clients bring to the counselor, then the pre- ceding position more than justifies the need for new direction in the counseling process. Given the far- reaching implications of the systemic philosophy, its assumptions certainly warrant testing. Reaction to the introduction of the systemic approach to counseling has ranged from skepticism to unqualified acceptance. The former reaction is usually generated by a lack of understanding of what is meant by "counsel- ing the system." Counseling the system involves formulating and implementing strategies designed to facilitate change in system behavior. There are no clear-cut abc's of strategy formulation because the formulation and implementation of strategy are dictated by the nature of the problem. The major undercurrent that guides and determines the "systemicness" of a strategy, however, is that the proponents of the systemic approach to counseling view the causation of the problem as residing within the system, and not the client. A 9 A clear and concise understanding of this notion is essential to obtaining a comprehensive grasp of the purpose and intent of systemic intervention. Like- wise, an understanding of the process of systemic intervention is better facilitated through a working knowledge of the process and the components that determine social system behavior. The model presented in Figure 1.1 was develOped by the writer as a graphic representation of this process and its determining components. The model illustrates the behavioral relationships that exist among social systems, sub- systems, and the groups that constitute their popula- tion membership. 10 .essuumunsu Woo n50Mman socuo no toa>anoo are ooeoaaoea oeaaax son» ca>onon one .nnonsos sauna» nuaoasom no osoa>snon can escapaaps on» socosau now on one one .hs>sson . senses pooandoou an oooananwo anoa>snon one noosauapa one .uo«>snon sous». Hudson .oaousaoau .osa assod> sauna snosom was» smash coo ocoauaoou coon» wcaonouso one wedges 0» economy new: sooaaoson hao>apoaon one on: unssoa>aoca smock file «choose: used «com .anonssi acadadosu no aoa>snon one noosesauca assuumonsn use assauau nozuo no nod>onon 0:9 canon on .02. codenamed uo Ho>0H .ssusau oases nooooouooa .ows .wos .coamaaoa .oosh wcaosueca cacao-u uo amass: a an oozaEAOpoc aw menses assuauooa no nousapuasusoo :- as Housmanss no Honcho Hudson a ca sauna» Social System Er \e: auashunsa ansannsu ”asepnaunsm oco esoamww .so«>o:op one ouosaao saunas Houses no accede unseen mussasa a sa .sasp ca .co«ns .ho«>sn \ .‘I/ : uon menace sevens Hosp £33.: .326» page scams coon» phoneme one .caousaaa .naaanspoo .usen woos on» sou .oao«>anon one soosuaaaa soon: cause na>aoca scone ”saunas: hauuhvudcdac< all. sesame Hudson ooaaaoua co .uuonsoa moans» unusaeoc no noa>snon on» neocosau:« wasunhnnsn can launch» nonpo Ho noa>snon one aoa>snom aopnhm asaoom ho ammooam on» no Hmooz H.H oaswfim maqsis tstsos 11 Any group of interacting individuals may be said to constitute a social system if two major criteria are met. First, interaction is structured by social system members' perceptions of roles, status, and positions. Secondly, interaction is mediated by a defined set of rules, goals, and purposes. A social system usually contains subsystems. As one examines the characteristics of a social subsystem, one finds that a social subsystem must meet the same criteria regarding individual interaction as does a social system. The major difference between the two rests in the determination of at what level the unit under analysis is to be studied. A social subsystem is, then, an infrastructure--one of the component parts whose interaction with other subsystems, together with their individual members, comprise the larger social system. If, for instance, one is considering achievement in a given elementary school, the school may be studied as a social system. If, on the other hand, one is considering achievement in a school district, the same school may be treated as a social subsystem. Perhaps the most crucial point the model is intended to illustrate is that individual interaction is the primary component in the determination of social system and subsystem behavior. 12 The interacting individual members of social systems and subsystems may be conceptualized as constituting two groups--administrator members and recipient members. Membership in either group is determined by a number of factors including race, religion, sex, age, socio-economic status, level of education, and so forth. Administrator members of a social system are those members whose perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors, for the most part, establish, support, and maintain the climate that prevails in the social system. Administrator members make and enforce rules through utilizing the varying levels of power that are inherent in the roles, status, and positions they assume. Recipient members of a social system are those individuals who are relatively powerless with respect to making and enforcing the rules that govern individual, and therefore, social system behavior. The perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors exhibited by recipient social system members, however, can and do influence the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors exhibited by administrator members. The degree of this influence is determined by the same kinds of factors that determine group membership. Again, these factors include race, religion, sex, age, socio-economic status, level of education, and so forth. While an individual member of a social system or 13 subsystem will belong to either one group or the other, that individual will, almost without exception, simul- taneously belong to a number of other social systems and subsystems. Moreover, the individual's status as a recipient member in one system may change to that of administrator member in another, and vice versa. A teacher, for instance, who is taking evening classes may be perceived as an administrator member while teach- ing in her classroom "social system." On the other hand, she may be perceived as a recipient member in the classes she is taking as an evening student. In her role as teacher, she makes and enforces many of the rules that, in part, determine the climate (i.e., academic climate) in her classroom. In her role as student, she abides by the rules that determine class- room climate, and has relatively little input into determining what those rules are. As one grasps the nature and process of the be- havioral relationships that exist among social systems, subsystems, and their individual members, it becomes apparent that the process of systemic intervention-- system counseling--involves formulating strategies that will utilize these relationships to the client's benefit. Since recipient members and administrator members are identified as the primary determinants of social system behavior, either or both will likely l4 become the central focus of any strategy formulation. While the process of systemic intervention is conducive to a holistic approach to changing social system behavior, it is not restricted to this macro level. The relationships among system members and among systems and subsystems can be even more conducive to intervention at a micro level. Any given problem, for instance, may dictate that the systemic counselor need not view the total United States social structure as the most appropriate "system" for which to develop modification strategies. A crucial point to be under- stood when discussing the process of systemic inter- vention is that social systems, subsystems, and the primary determinants of their behavior are interrelated, and that change in one will or can have substantial effect on the other. A number of writers from a variety of educational backgrounds have addressed social issues and concerns in ways that substantiate the existence of reciprocal behavioral relationships among social systems, sub- systems, and their individual members. Addressing the status of elementary school youngsters as recipients of praise and reproof, Jackson (1968) wrote: School is also a place in which the division between the weak and the powerful is clearly drawn....Teachers are indeed more powerful than students in the sense of having greater 15 responsibility for giving shape to class- room events, and this sharp difference in authority is another feature of school life with which students must learn to deal. (p. 10) Green (1974) saw the problems that plague urban schools as closely tied to the problems that plague the larger urban society. He suggested that teachers and administrators must do more than educate. They must, he suggested, crusade against the problems that prevail in urban America if the quality of education in the cities is to be improved. Banning (1974) suggested that in establishing effective educational programs, a mutually dependent partnership should exist between the student and his environment. Schoenauer (1972) wrote: The process of a system leads to the realization that the system under analysis is actually composed of many subsystems, the output of one such subsystem becoming an input to a subsequent subsystem. (p. 484) These writers have clearly illustrated their commitment to the belief that a social system, its subsystems, and system members can and do influence one another's behavior. Discussing social change vis-a-vis educational reform, Levin (1974) took the behavioral relationships ‘that were illustrated in the system behavior model (Page 10) to their logical conclusion. He suggested tkuai: the behavior of the American educational system 16 for the most part is determined by the climate that prevails in the total U.S. social structure. In this regard he wrote: "In short, only when there is a demand for educational reform by the polity will 'educational reform succeed" (p. 316). Levin's argument is supported by Knowles and Prewitt's (1969) perceptions of a changing national attitude toward the role that this nation's institutions have played in propagating racism. His argument is further supported by William Ryan's (1971) victim-blaming model. What is implied in these works is that con- tradictions constantly being pointed out in the American system of democracy are becoming so apparent that the system finds itself in the precarious position of having to "put up" in order to keep from "shutting up." One could, therefore, argue that because of this shift in the national climate, blacks and others who have suffered social injustices have made social gains that were all but impossible prior to the last decade. By following Levin's argument as it flows consistently with the behavioral relationships outlined in the system behavior model, it subsequently becomes apparent that continued social change in the United States will have to involve commitments from all sectors of the total society. An additional purpose of the systemic approach to counseling is to facilitate these commitments, for they are necessary to bring about the types of social 17 changes that are conducive to the positive mental health of all the system's members. Definition of Terms Although many of the following terms have been defined previously, their definitions are presented again, in this section, for the convenience of the reader. Social System: Any group of interacting individuals may be said to constitute a social system if two major criteria are met. First, interaction is structured by social system members' perceptions of roles, status, and positions. Secondly, interaction is mediated by a defined set of rules, goals, and purposes. Social Subsygggm: A social subsystem must meet the same criteria regarding individual interaction as does a social system. The major difference between the two rests in the determination as to what level the unit under analysis will be studied. A social subsystem is, then, an infrastructure--one of the component parts whose interactions with other subsystems together with their individual members, comprise the larger social system. The System: This term refers to the total United States social structure, including its social systems, subsystems, and individual members. 18 Academic Climate Variables: A set of social-psychological factors that reflect those norms, expectations, attitudes, and behaviors exhibited by teachers, principals, and students that are thought to account significantly for variance in achievement among schools. Academic Climate: The interaction of those norms, ex- pectations, attitudes, and behaviors exhibited by principals, teachers, and students that are thought to have a significant mediating impact upon student achieve- ment. Socialvgystem Climate: The interaction of those norms, expectations, attitudes, and behaviors exhibited by social system members that are thought to influence other attitudes and behaviors exhibited by social system members. Social System Behavior: The resulting consequence of the interaction of certain norms, expectations, attitudes, and behaviors exhibited by social system members. Administrator Members (of a social system): Those individuals whose attitudes and behaviors, for the most part, establish, maintain, and support those rules that govern individual system member behavior, which, in turn, is a primary determinant of social system climate and behavior. Recipient Members (of a social system): Those individuals who are relatively powerless with respect to making and 19 enforcing those decisions and rules that govern in- dividual and, therefore, social system behavior. Systemic Counseling: An approach to counseling in which the cause of non-organic mental health problems is viewed as originating within social systems as opposed to originating within the client. Testable Hypothesis The following hypothesis was tested during this investigation: Measures of academic climate will significantly account for differences in achievement levels among predominantly black elementary schools, over and above variance accounted for by socio-economio status. An additional question that was also investigated is: Which of the academic climate variables account for most of the variance in achievement levels among predominantly black elementary schools? Overview The need and purpose of this present research, along with the hypothesis and an additional question of interest to the study, have been presented in Chapter I. In Chapter II, a review of the literature pertinent to the study has been presented. Presented in Chapter III are descriptions of the population and sample, along with descriptions of the procedure, methodology, and decision 20 model used in gathering and analyzing the data. Chapter Iv contains analyses of the data generated by the study, followed by a discussion of the results. Chapter v contains a summary of the study. Also in this chapter, limitations of the study and implications of the findings are discussed, followed by the conclusions drawn. The final section of Chapter V contains a list of recommended uses for the findings of the study. Chapter II RELATED LITERATURE 2121113.! While the systemic approach to counseling was introduced in the early 1970's, almost no studies exist to confirm or refute its tenets. The literature, however, contains books, articles, and research efforts related to many of the issues in which the major premises of the systemic philOSOphy are deeply rooted. This study will involve an attempt to determine if an analysis of the relationship between academic climate and achievement in predominantly black elementary schools is congruent with the supposition that the prevailing climate of a given social system is the primary cause of certain behaviors exhibited by its members. This supposition is a major premise of the philosophy that underlies the systemic approach to counseling. This chapter will examine literature dealing with systemic and school climate research, system behavior literature and urban counselor training literature. In the first section, previous research on systemic counseling and on elementary school climate 21 22 will be reviewed. There is a paucity of research in both areas. As previously mentioned, almost no research exists that attempts to test the systemic approach to counseling or the tenets inherent in its philosophy. Only a few researchers have endeavored to study school climate as it relates to achievement. Braithwaite (1974) advocated a systemic interpretation of the data generated by a study he undertook. Gamble (1973) compared systemic counseling techniques versus traditional counseling techniques. These two studies will be discussed. Two studies--Coleman, Campbell, Hobson, McPartland, Mood, Weinfield, and York (1966), and Brookover, Gigliotti, Handerson and Schneider (1973), have had a profound impact upon the elementary school climate literature. Therefore, these two studies will constitute the central focus of this first section. The second section is concerned primarily with what counselors, psychologists, educators, and others in related fields have said about the impact that the United States social system and its subsystems have had on the behavior of its members. This section represents a sample of some of the issues that are inherently related to the systemic philoSOphy-- issues that have been documented by professionals from a variety of backgrounds. 23 Finally, the third section focuses primarily on what has been written about training urban counselors. Black counselors and psychologists perhaps have had the loudest voice in criticizing traditional counsel- ing programs for their lack of sensitivity to the needs of black Americans. Their criticisms will be examined and discussed along with the views of others on the need for reorienting the traditional counseling process. Systemic Counseling,And School Climate Research In a study involving self-disclosure differences between black and white inmates in a federal prison, Braithwaite (1974) reported that both black and white inmates disclosed most about themselves to their "closest inmate friend." Braithwaite suggested that this finding has implications for the hiring practices that many correctional institutions presently maintain. These implications led him to advocate a systemic interpretation of his data. Braithwaite wrote: The most significant identifiable variable stifling the psychological well-being of minority inmates is un- doubtedly the lack of Black and minority personnel at all levels. Affirmative action efforts aimed at recruitment of minority personnel are mandatory if minority inmates are to survive and return to society with rejuvenated role models. (p.94) Also, as a result of another study involving 24 incarcerated inmates Braithwaite (1973) recommended that systemic intervention would probably play a significant role in increasing the amount of self- disclosure that an inmate is willing to maintain with a counselor. Gamble (1973) tested for the effects that systemic counseling techniques (vs. traditional counseling techniques) would have on a group of black college freshmen. He found no significant differences between the effects of the independent variables (traditional counseling techniques and systemic counseling techniques) on the dependent measures (grade point average and credits earned). Considering the time factor involved (10 weeks), the strategies that Gamble employed would have needed to be more intense and comprehensive to have approached the types of changes suggested by his major hypothesis (differences in gradepoint average). Although Gamble's study is presently the only one that poses an intended direct test of the systemic approach to counseling, other studies exist that address some of the issues that tend to support the systemic approach to counseling as an effective alterna- tive to more traditional approaches. Perhaps the best known study that addresses one such issue is the "Coleman Report" (Coleman et a1., 1966). The basic issue of the Coleman study is one that impacts heavily 25 upon the central premise of the systemic philosophy. It concerns the defining of variables to which variation in academic achievement among elementary schools can be attributed. The systemic philosophy argues that individual behavior (including academic behavior) is mediated to a large extent by the behavior of the social systems in which the individual functions. James Coleman's work has contributed significantly to wide acceptance of the notion that socio-economic status (SES) accounts for the greatest portion of variance in achievement among schools. He contends, however, that the achievement levels among schools are also affected to a small degree by the differences in schools. These differences include factors such as curriculum, physical facilities, and teacher differences. Coleman suggested that school differences affect minority students more than they affect white students. That is, achievement levels among minority students depend more on the schools they attend than do achievement levels among white students. Though there is no argument with respect to the direction of Coleman's findings, a study by Brookover et a1. (1973) suggests that Coleman did not pursue the question of school differences as they relate to achievement. According to Brookover, Coleman failed to make a comprehensive analysis of the relationship 26 of social-psychological factors to achievement. Brookover's data suggest that the high correlations maintained by SES with respect to achievement may be due to the fact that SES and certain social-psycho- logical factors that exist among schools are highly related. In that same study of academic climate in elementary schools, Brookover identified low SES schools with high mean achievement levels, and high SES schools with low mean achievement levels. Identifi- cation of these schools alone suggests that something other than SES may be the causal factor in mean achieve- ment level differences for these schools. Brookover hypothesized that measures of academic climate would account for variance in mean school achievement, over and above variance accounted for by SES. His data showed four climate variables accounting for over 63% of the variance in achievement among the schools in the sample when the effects of SES, race, and urban-rural community type were controlled. These variables were: (a) student sense of futility, (b) teacher future evaluations-expectations, (c) teacher reported push of individual students, and (d) student present evaluations-expectations. In reviewing the literature on school climate Boocock (1966) reported that: On the level of the whole school. . .the research evidence indicates that certain 27 types of environments, namely those in which intellectualism and academic achieve- ment are positively valued, are productive of learning. The trick here is to under- stand just what combination of individual and system characteristics produce various intellectual climates. . . .(p. 41) Brookover's study seems to have been a step in that direction. The identification of academic climate variables and the correlations between these variables and the achievement level of the schools in the sample suggest that high- and low-achieving schools differ with respect to the academic climates that they maintain. These findings have great significance for the systemic philosophy. Coleman's conclusions do not contradict the notion espoused by the proponents of the systemic approach to counseling, being that, system behavior mediates the behavior exhibited by system members. If Brookover's conclusions are representative, however, then they have greater significance for the systemic philosophy, because the data identify a set of variables that may be used to improve the achievement of low-achieving youngsters. However, Brookover's findings warrant caution in generalizing beyond the sample because of statistical limitations and the sampling procedure used. Also, research concerning school climate has been rather neglected (Boocock, 1966; Brookover et a1. (1973). Recently, however, researchers seem to be 28 giving more attention to the area. Several studies (Summers & Wolfe, 1975; Gies, Leonard, et a1., 1973; Michigan Department of Education, 1975) tend to support Brookover's conclusions that school climate may play a significant role in determining achievement levels among schools. Henderson (1972), comparing academic climate variables in black and white elementary schools, found significant differences in the climates that black and white elementary schools maintain. These findings are consistent with those of Brookover et a1. (1973), and Coleman et a1. (1966). That the academic climate in predominantly black schools would differ from that of white schools is consistent with the notion advanced by the proponents of the systemic approach to counseling, i.e., that there are culturally unique factors that must, of necessity, be considered in the formulation and use of counseling theories and procedures with black and other minority clients. This supposition is also con- sistent with Brookover's: Coleman's and Henderson's conclusions that black youngsters sense less control. There appears to be agreement among the major research efforts on school climate that black youngsters suffer a greater sense of futility than do whites. Analyses of the data generated by the Coleman study (Coleman et a1., 1966; Mayeske, Wisler, Beaton, Weinfield, 29 Cohen,Okada, Proshek, and Tabler (1972), suggest that school differences cannot be separated from the variance accounted for by SE8. On the other hand, Brookover's data suggest that academic climate variables may cause achievement variations among schools. This apparent greater sense of futility on the part of black students, coupled with the differences in academic climate between black and white schools reported by Brookover et a1. (1973) and Henderson (1972), as well as the conclusions drawn by the Coleman study certainly warrant additional investiga- tion of the relationship between academic climate and achievement in predominantly black elementary schools. In reviewing the literature one finds that a compre- hensive analysis of the relationship between academic climate and achievement focusing exclusively on a random sample of predominantly black elementary schools has not been undertaken. In addition to seeking support for the philosophy that underlies the systemic approach to counseling, this study represents an effort toward rectifying that situation. Again, previous studies concerning the relation- ship of school climate to achievement have far-reaching implications insofar as the systemic approach to counsel- ing is concerned. Inherent in such studies is the testing of the supposition that the behavior of a social system mediates the behavior of that system's members. 30 This is the major premise of the systemic philosophy. Also, the nature of such studies directly relates them to important social issues in which this supposi- tion becomes a central focus. Some of these issues will be examined in the following sections. System Behavior Literature Traditionally, counselors have sought the cause of the problem as residing within the client. Brookover and Erickson (1975) pointed out that in school, for instance, undue emphasis frequently is placed upon the child who has failed to learn a particular skill, and not enough emphasis is placed upon the social system in which learning occurs or does not occur. The same notions hold true when one considers the negative perceptions that black people often have about whites. Preoccupation with placing the onus of the problem upon the client often has rendered counselors blind to the fact that these perceptions are simply rational and predictable responses to hostilities often perpetrated by whites (Banks, 1972). As a result of a study he conducted on a group of black college students, Banks (1970) concluded that black attitudes toward the white majority are growing increasingly unfavorable. He attributed this to the system's unfair treatment of blacks. He suggested that 31 counselors with traditional orientations are going to have to modify their approaches to counseling black students if they hope to play an effective role in resolving the problems in which these changing attitudes are entangled. It seems that whenever counselors have been faced with "deviant" behavior they have consistently turned to assessing the psychological characteristics of the individual (Brookover & Erickson, 1975). If, for instance, one youngster appears to excel in mathmatics and another appears to be slow, generally it is assumed that the faster learner is more intelligent than the slow learner. Brookover and Erickson (1975) point out, however, that even retarded Russians learn to speak Russian better than some of America's "bright" students who endeavor to learn the language. The point here, they contend, is not to devalue the role of the relationship of individual characteristics to the learning process, but rather to point out that the right social conditions have a great deal to do with what is learned. Kozol (1967) presented an excellent documentation of the effect that social conditions can have on a group of individuals. He pointed out that social conditions in the Boston school system had a devastating impact on the mental health and general welfare of black youngsters in that system. In addition, prevailing social 32 conditions had a delimiting impact on teacher effective— ness and a debilitating effect on what few positive attitudes existed in teachers. Certainly, the impact that a teacher can have on learning has been well demonstrated (see Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). Kozol concluded that a lack of humane considera- tion stifled the cognitive and affective development of the youngsters, and survival for the teachers was contingent upon maintaining silence. Essentially this meant maintaining the status quo. Baker and Hansen (1972) indicated that institutional employees often are, in fact pressured by the institution to perpetuate and not oppose its views. In a study of school counselors, the researchers tested the validity of that hypothesis. Their data suggested that school counselors in practice and school counselors in training prefer to practice counseling techniques that adhere to the "traditional" counseling model. That is, they prefer to maintain a counseling relationship that does not require the counselor to take action on behalf of the client. Morgan (1974) concurred with the conclusions of the Baker and Hansen study. He suggested that most counselors have chosen not to rock the educational boat, and are not encouraged by their employers to do other- wise. The conclusions reached by Baker and Hansen and 33 those reached by Morgan are consistent with what numerous thinkers and writers have had to say about the role that America's social institutions have played in the continuing story of social inequity. Knowles and Prewitt (1969), for instance, have put into historical perspective the roles that most of our major social institutions--from the schoolhouse to the courthouse--have played in denying black and other non-white Americans many of the rights and privileges granted to the mainstream culture. Their comprehensive account of institutional racism shows that America's institutions have resisted and continue to resist the types of changes necessary to bring about social equality. Knowles and Prewitt conclude that white America is slowly realizing that the so- called "Negro problem" may in fact be a white problem. Ryan (1971) found that conclusions drawn by white researchers such as Moynihan-—that the plight of black people in the United States results from the pathology inherent in the black family-~13 an attempt to ration- alize the inequities and injustices that the system has perpetrated upon this group. Ryan cites many glaring examples of white America's attempts to blame the victim for causation of the problem. Those who practice victim-blaming, Ryan suggested, are not necessarily blatant racists bent on dedicating 34 their lives to notions of white supremacy. Often they are well meaning individuals who sincerely want to help the victims of social injustice, but they cannot bring themselves to attack the system that has been so good to them. The result, Ryan concluded, is a national strategy of victim-blaming. This strategy manifests itself in a multitude of "patch- them-up" programs formulated to help the "culturally disadvantaged“ overcome their "deficiencies." These notions are reflected in the goals and practices of compensatory education programs, rehabilitation centers, half-way houses, mental health organizations, counsel- ing programs, and so forth, that exist around the nation (Ryan, 1971). The literature indicates that many issues addressed in this section of the review of literature are re— flected in the perceived inadequate training received by most counselors who are currently working, or who intend to work, in the urban setting. The issues surrounding the training of urban counselors are the topic of the following section. Urban Counselor Training Literature An excellent example of victim-blaming is apparent in the labels that the system affixes to victims of its injustice. Labels such as "culturally deprived" and "culturally disadvantaged" imply not only a lack of 35 culture but also pathology on the part of those to whom they are affixed. Those who use and perpetuate the use of such labels obviously are influenced by the Deficit and not the Difference model of Afro-American behavior (valentine, l971£ Simpkins, Williams, & Gunnings, 1971). The blame-the-victim.model is so pervasive and ingrained in this society that it almost takes a conscious effort to avoid slipping into that mode. Its widespread use is apparent even among blacks. Nevertheless, these labels imply that there is something pathological and inherently deficient about the behaviors that blacks exhibit. Their use is not only unwarranted but wholly inaccurate (Simpkins, Williams, & Gunnings, 1971; Vontress, 1969). Proponents of the Difference model of Afro-American behavior maintain that behaviors exhibited by blacks are not deficient but simply culturally determined and different (Simpkins, Williams, a Gunnings, 1971; Williams & Kirkland, 1971; Stikes, 1972). They hasten to point out that the pathology often associated with the behavior of blacks generally can be attributed to inherent deficiencies in the system. They suggest that the persistent clinging of counselors to the Deficit model of black American behavior obviates the need for counselors to become familiar with the psychodynamics of the black culture. 36 Cognizance of and sensitivity to cultural differences are essential in establishing effective therapeutic relationships with black clients (Gunnings, 1971; Sikes, 1971; Bell, 1971; Franklin, 1971; Patterson, 1971; Williams & Kirkland, 1971; Mitchell, 1971; Vbntress, 1970; Calia, 1966). Establishing an effective therapeutic relationship with black clients also requires obtaining a complete and thorough under- standing of the pathology inherent in those relation- ships that white institutions heretofore have established with the black community (Sikes, 1972). Finally, establishing effective counseling relationships with blacks involves introducing counselors to models that are potentially helpful in resolving the problems that impinge upon the mental health of black Americans (Mitchell, 1971; Franklin, 1971; Gunnings, 1971). The literature indicates that traditional counseling programs have failed to prepare counselors on all three counts. The literature addressing itself to preparation of counselors who can work effectively with blacks is not extensive; however, what has been said and written has wide-ranging implications insofar as counseling is concerned. Some serious charges have been levied con- cerning the responsiveness of the field to the needs of black Americans. In many cases, these charges concern nor just responsiveness, but the ability to respond. 37 Lending support to charges that traditional counsel- ing programs are ineffective in preparing black counselors are a number of articles by white counselors and pay- chologists suggesting that counseling programm in general need to reassess and modify their traditional orientations. Some go so far as to suggest that the survival of the field is contingent upon the reassess- ment and modification of these orientations. Morgan (1974), for instance, suggested that if counselors re- fuse to become true helpers by taking action on behalf of the client, they may find themselves dysfunctional and obsolete. These writers are also beginning to offer alternatives to traditional counseling orientations. Consistent with his belief that an unsatisfactory school setting is a causal factor in unsatisfactory school outcomes, Malcom (1974) offers a Center/Satellite model for educational change. Banning and Kaiser (1974) came to the same conclusion with respect to the environ- ment's impact on individual behavior. In the same vein, Dworkin and Dworkin (1971) suggested that "many counselors have never considered that the anxieties and frustrations of people may be attributed to sick environments that thwart normal, healthy, creative development" (p. 479). Therefore, they are not helping but hindering the client who comes to them seeking a resolution to a problem. Lewis and Lewis (1974) suggested that counselors who are leaving their offices and taking action on behalf of 38 their clients are developing a deep and pervasive understanding of the system that may be the major source of the client's anxieties. They, therefore, have outlined a series of steps that they felt will help in the formulation of effective change strategies. For many, notions of intervening in the behavior of social systems is a novel concept. Hornstein (1973), however, suggested that strategies and tactics of social intervention are being implemented daily. He suggested that change agents have made their presence felt for some time, but what they do has developed in atheoretical fashion. Dustin (1974) concurred with Hornstein about the relationship of change agents to social change. He suggested that "the necessary behavior for change agents is to define a linkage role for themselves with access to decision makers and to members of the system at lower levels" (p. 423). Following these notions, Hornstein suggested that students ought to be exposed to individuals who are identified as change agents for the purpose of relating what they do and how they do it to theoretical frameworks. He concluded that such ex- posure will help students become more efficient in their abilities to conceptualize and formulate intervention strategies. The literature suggests that one of the most salient shortcomings of counseling programs, with respect to the preparation of black counselors, has been their 39 consistent failure to admit black students in any significant numbers (Mitchell, 1971; Gunnings, 1971). This posture automatically excludes the training of many counselors who are most sensitive to the black culture and most dedicated to rectifying the inequities that the system has perpetrated. If one could say that accepting blacks into counsel- ing programs in significant numbers was not an obstacle, then the problem would be lessened considerably. Instead, potential counseling students who happen to be black are faced with two more obstacles. Not only are good candidates screened out by admissions policies and practices, but those who are admitted are exposed to curricula that do not prepare them to function effectively in the urban setting (Sikes, 1971; Bell, 1971). Gunnings (1971) pointed out that as far as admitting blacks into counseling programs is concerned, the old game of "tokens" appears to be in operation--one or two won't hurt. Gunnings suggested that admissions committees should be restructured so as to include a meaningful amount of black input into the admissions process. This, he suggested, would increase the chances of accepting the black student who is not an academic "superstar" but simply a potentially good urban counselor. Another obstacle of concern for the black student, as well as the white student who is interested in or 4O intends to counsel in the urban setting, is the lack of theories, courses, and models that adequately reflect the black experience or the urban experience. The field desperately needs researchers and counselors who can help move the field toward a better understanding of the psychodynamics of being black and living in America. In formulating and implementing programs that will train effective urban counselors, Franklin (1971)—-like Gunnings and Simpkins (1972), Banks (1970), and others-- suggested that the practice of placing the onus of the problem on the victim be thoroughly examined. In defining the role of the urban counselor, these writers suggest that among his other obligations to the client, he also must be an agent of social change, an activist, and an advocate. Franklin (1971) wrote: This broader definition means that the counselor does not act on the client alone but instead actively confronts those systems within the larger community which contributes signifi- cantly to the conditions of the client. (p. 109) Opinions expressed in the literature suggest that an effective urban counselor will have to be cognizant of the role that the system plays in the mental health of urban residents. They suggest that his effective- ness often will be contingent upon the extent to which he is prepared to act on behalf of the client. They suggest that with adequate training the urban counselor will recognize the inadequacies in the educational 41 system rather than blaming the students. Opinions expressed in the literature also suggest that proper training will produce urban counselors who are quick to recognize why many social service systems are geared to fail those who need them.most. They suggest that effective programs will produce urban counselors who are quick to recognize that hundreds of murders a year in cities such as Detroit, Michigan, are not the problem but rather a symptom. Finally, the opinions expressed in the literature suggest that these are the types of counselors who must be produced if counseling is going to establish a meaningful re- lationship in the urban community. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY, PROCEDURES, INSTRUMENTATION, AND DECISION MODEL Overview The major thrust of this study was to determine whether or not an analysis of the correlations be- tween academic Climate variables and achievement in predominantly black elementary schools is consistent, or inconsistent, with a major premise of the philOSOphy underlying the systemic approach to counseling. This premise states that the prevailing climate in a given social system is the primary cause of certain behaviors that are exhibited by that system's members. The "social systems" that were chosen as the units of analysis for this study were randomly sampled pre- dominantly black elementary schools. Questionnaires designed to measure academic climate were completed by the principal, fourth and fifth grade teachers, and fourth and fifth grade students in each of the schools in the sample. Collection of data for a given school was contingent upon the willingness of district administrators and the school's principal to have their teachers and students participate in the 42 43 study. In this chapter the population and sample will be described, as well as the methods, procedures, and the decision model used in collecting and analyzing the data for this investigation. Population The population from which the sample that was in- vestigated in this study was drawn consisted of 221 predominantly black elementary schools in the State of Michigan containing fourth and fifth grade units. Fourth grade units were chosen to be used in the study because each year the Michigan Department of Education administers an assessment battery to all fourth grade students in the State. Fifth grade units were in- cluded in order to increase the sample size per school and, therefore, increase the reliability of mean student responses. An additional reason for including fifth grade units was that achievement data were available at the beginning of this study for fifth grade students (who were fourth grade students during the previous year). These achievement data were utilized in the study to compute preliminary statistics. A predominantly black elementary school is defined as one having a student body composition of greater than 50% black. The population of schools in the State of Michigan having a greater than 50% black student body an composition was determined from data provided by the Research, Evaluation and Assessment Service of the Michigan Department of Education. Sample The initial sample from which data were to be collected consisted of 40 schools, randomly drawn from the population cited above. School numbers, along with the location of the schools they represent, and 1973-74 mean achievement are presented in Table 3.1. Principals were assured that their schools would not be identified by name. Therefore, numbers have been substituted for school names. The method by which 45 Table 3.1 Original Sample of Predominantly Black Schools School Location Mean Achievement, 1973-74 101 Flint 45.8 102 Flint 45.0 103 Detroit 45.9 104 Detroit 44.9 105 Port Huron 60.5 106 Detroit 42.7 107 Detroit 62.9 108 Covert 52.4 109 Detroit 39.9 110 Detroit 46.8 111 Detroit 58.5 112 Detroit 44.1 113 Detroit 50.9 114 Detroit 57.6 115 Detroit 55.5 116 Detroit 50.7 117 Detroit 31.6 118 Detroit 60.3 119 Detroit 41.3 120 Flint 62.7 121 Grand Rapids 34.3 122 Benton Harbor 35. 123 Flint 55.8 124 Buena Vista 67.9 125 Ypsilanti 45.6 126 Detroit 53.4 127 Detroit 47.6 128 Detroit 50.6 129 Detroit 46.8 130 Detroit 43.3 131 Detroit 83.9 132 Detroit 67.3 133 Detroit 55.1 134 Detroit 33.8 135 Detroit 43.3 136 Detroit 49.0 137 Detroit 44.8 138 Detroit 47.3 139 Detroit 32.5 140 Highland Park 73.2 Overall Mean 50.3 46 schools were selected, was simple random sampling. Each population member was assigned a unique number. The sample was then drawn through the use of a table of random digits. Each school was chosen in the order of the appearance of the number it was assigned in the table of random digits. Ten schools were lost from the initial sample because of the unwillingness of administrators to have their schools participate in the study. These schools along with their location and 1973-74 mean achievement, are presented in Table 3.2. The fact ten schools were lost from.the initial sample 47 Table 3.2 Schools Dropping Out of Original Sample of Predominantly Black Schools School Location Mean Achievement, 1973-74 106 Detroit 42.7 107 Detroit 62.9 116 Detroit 50.7 119 Detroit 41.3 120 Flint 62.7 123 Flint 55.8 125 Ypsilanti 45.6 127 Detroit 47.6 134 Detroit 33.8 137 Detroit 4.8 Overall Mean : 48.77 constituted a potential problem with respect to the representativeness of the final sample. With this in mind, the researcher executed a "t" test to determine whether or not the schools dropping out of the initial sample were statistically different from the final sample with respect to achievement. At alpha : .05, no significant difference was found between the schools. The null hypothesis--that there is no significant difference in the final sample--was not rejected. It was, therefore, not reasonable to conclude that the schools in the final sample came from a different population (with respect to achievement) than those dropping out of the initial sample. As a result of the sampling 48 procedures employed, as well as the geographic distri— bution of the schools in the final sample, it is reasonable to assume that the 30 schools in the final sample-~13.7% of the state's pOpulation of pre- dominantly black schools--are representative of the population from which the sample was drawn. The final sample of schools, their location, and 1973-74 mean achievement are presented in Table 3.3. The geographic 49 Table 3.3 Final Sample of Predominantly Black Schools School Location Mean Achievement, 1973-74 101 Flint 45.8 102 Flint 45.0 10 Detroit 42.9 10 Detroit 4 .9 10 Port Huron 60.2 10 Detroit 52. 109 Detroit 22.9 110 Covert .8 111 Detroit 28.5 112 Detroit 4.1 11 Detroit 50.9 11 Detroit 57.6 115 Detroit 55.5 117 Detroit 31.6 118 Detroit 60.3 121 Grand Rapids 34.3 122 Benton Harbor 35. 124 Buena‘Vista 67.3 126 Datr01t 530 128 Detroit 32.6 129 Detroit .8 130 13315130113 I430 3 131 Detr01t 830 9 132 Detroit 67.3 133 Detroit 25.1 135 Detroit 3.3 136 Detroit 49.0 138 Detroit 47.3 138 Detroit 32.5 1 Highland Park .13LZ Overall Mean : U1 0 c O) 50 location of each school in the final sample is repre- sented in Figures 3.1 and 3.2. The list containing the population of schools from.which the sample was drawn was obtained from the Research, Evaluation and Assess- ment Service of the Michigan Department of Education. 51 Figure 3.1 Geographic Distribution of Schools in the Final Sample, Exclusive of the Detroit Area BlonaVists .124 Stand Rapids r|ing Port ‘I’lfll Mann '2' .102 In? tovstt .108 Benton Hathor .122 .=school fl lower MICHIGAN 52 p.9-hua 223.. a ‘ o... o ___-v mn_A'. Ave”. 2.. .2. .3. .2. s._ e__ Av Av... en_A-_ .._-v ~__ .9... Ave”. .._ ...s .ee.=._= son< paospon on» some .oaosmm Hogan esp ca maoonom mo soapsnaspsan canoosmooc m.m ensues 53 A distribution of the fourth and fifth grade students taking the student questionnaire was computed for each school in the final sample, by race. The distribution showed a range of 41% to 100% black, with a mean of .86%. The distribution is presented in Table 3.4. 54 TABLE 3.4 Percent of Students Completing Questionnaires in Predominantly Black Elementary Schools, by Race. School Location Race or Ethnic Background ack cano e mer can n an 101 Flint 96 Ol 03 00 102 Flint 100 00 00 00 10 Detroit 99 OO 01 00 10 Detroit 99 00 01 00 105 Port Huron 47 14 39 00 108 Covert 66 OO 33 01 109 Detroit 100 00 00 00 110 Detroit 87 06 05 O2 111 Detroit 100‘ 00 OO ' 00 112 Detroit 99 00 01 00 113 Detroit 100 00 OO 00 114 Detroit 99 OO 01 00 115 Detroit 100 00 00 00 11 Detroit 100 00 00 00 11 Detroit 100 00 00 00 121 Detroit 79 O8 13 00 122 Benton Harbor 57 00 43 00 124 Buena Vista 79 14 05 O2 126 Detroit 100 00 00 00 128 Detroit 100 00 00 00 129 Detroit 100 00 00 00 130 Detroit 58 08 34 00 131 Detroit 48 O3 42 07 132 Detroit 99 OO 01 00 133 Detroit 100 00 OO 00 135 Detroit 93 01 06 00 136 Detroit 100 00 00 00 138 Detroit 100 00 00 00 139 Detroit 99 OO 01 00 140 Highland Park 80 02 18 00 55 Procedures and Methodology After the sample was drawn, letters were sent to the superintendent of schools of each district in which schools in the sample were located, asking for their cooperation in the study. Upon receiving consent from the superintendent of schools, letters were then sent to the principals of each school, soliciting their cooperation. Upon receiving the consent of the school principal, a date was arranged, at the convenience of the principal, to dispatch a team of data collectors to have the principal and each fourth and fifth grade homeroom teacher fill out a questionnaire, and to administer questionnaires to fourth and fifth grade students. Seventeen individuals, a group consisting primarily of faculty wives and graduate and under- graduate students, including the researcher, were trained to administer the questionnaires used in the study. Two training sessions were devoted to the administration of the student questionnaires and the procedures by which information was to be obtained from principals and teachers. Those individuals collecting data were instructed to ask each principal to complete a questionnaire. Teachers were to be asked to complete their questionnaires away from their class- rooms while a member of the data collection team~ administered the student questionnaire to that teacher's 56 students. Teachers were asked to leave their class- rooms to insure that students would feel free to ask questions, and would not feel pressured by the teacher's presence to respond to the questions in a certain way. The students were told that their individual responses to the questionnaire items were confidential and, therefore, would not be seen by their principal or teacher. Each data collector was instructed to read each question and each response to the students so as to insure that students did not fail to respond as a result of differential reading abilities. The race or ethnic background of each student was recorded either by the data collector, or by the student circling the appropriate letter in the race-ethnic code contained on the first page of each student question- naire. After the two training sessions, practice was provided for those who desired it by having them collect data at Cornell Elementary School in Okemos, Michigan. For the purpose of facilitating rapport with principals, teachers, and students, either all black or integrated teams of data collectors were sent into the schools to collect data. After data were collected in each school, all question- naires were coded. Principal questionnaires were coded 57 using a three-digit number representing the school. Teacher questionnaires were coded using a five-digit number identifying the school and teacher. In several cases one teacher served as the homeroom teacher for more than one class. In such cases, the teacher's questionnaire was duplicated for each additional homeroom the teacher taught. Teachers having more than one homeroom were asked if differences in the homerooms warranted changes in any of the responses in the duplicate questionnaires. Changes were made, when necessary, on that basis. Student questionnaires were coded using an eight-digit number identifying school teacher, student, and the student's race or ethnic background. Identification of individuals was made by reference to a number rather than a name. Participation in the study by principals, teachers, and students was voluntary. Questionnaires were completed by 4,747 students. Participation for teachers was 96%, with 143 teachers completing questionnaires and six teachers refusing to participate. Principal partici- pation was 100%, with all 30 principals completing questionnaires. Securing SES and Achievement Data During the period of data collection--November, 1974 to March, 1975--arrangements were made with the 58 director of the Research, Evaluation and Assessment Service (REAS) of the Michigan Department of Education to obtain socio-economic status (SES) and achievement data for each school selected in the sample. The SES information provided by REAS was used to test the reliability of the SES measures used in the study. The achievement data for the school year 1974-75 provided by REAS are a dependent variable of primary concern to this study. Achievement data for 1973-74 were also obtained from REAS in order to execute preliminary tests and correlations. Each fall, the Michigan Department of Education administers, through REAS, a state-wide assessment battery to all fourth and seventh grade students. In the 1969-70 State assessment test, items were included to measure the socio-economic status of each student taking the battery. Because of the hostile reception those items received from a number of sources, in- cluding parents, teachers, and administrators, they were dropped after the administration of the 1970-71 assessment test. As a result, the SES data provided by REAS were outdated. The purpose of including these data, however, was to provide a test of the validity of the SES measures used in this study. For this purpose, the data were adequate. The mean SES level of each school used in this study 59 was originally to have been determined by students' responses to item 8 on the student questionnaire: What type of work does your father do? (Give a short description of his job) 1 Students' responses to this item were to be coded by using a modified version of the Duncan Sociodlconomio Index scale (Reiss, Duncan, Hatt, a North 1961). However, since questions previously administered by the Michigan Department of Education concerning SES had provoked hostile receptions by parents, teachers, and administrators, particularly in the Detroit school system, administrators in the Detroit school system were reluctant to have researchers asking students questions concerning their socio-economic backgrounds. As a result, admission into the sample of schools located in the Detroit school system became contingent upon research teams 325 having students respond to the question designed to measure SES. A measure of SES was crucial to the study; therefore, in order to circumvent this problem, the principal in each of the sample schools located. in the Detroit school system was asked to submit a random sample of the occupations of the parents of fourth and fifth graders. Sampling instructions were sent to each 1When administering this question, data collectors were instructed to ask, "What type of work does your father do, or the person who takes care of your family financially?" 60 of the principals to insure that sampling procedures were uniform and random. Each of the 30 principals in the sample returned a list of 50 occupations, ran- domly sampled from the occupations of the parents of all fourth and fifth grade students. These occupations, like the occupations listed under student questionnaire item number 8 by students in the sample who were not in the Detroit school system, were converted to a corre- sponding number on the Duncan Socio-Economic Index scale. Either the SES information provided by principals or the SES information provided by students was used as a measure of SES for the schools in the sample. The SES data provided by the Research, Evaluation and Assessment Service and the SES data collected in the study were correlated, yielding a correlation coefficient of .65. The probability of the random occurrence of this correlation was .001. Considering the fact that the SES data provided by REAS were four years old at the time of this study, a correlation of .65 was considered reasonable. Until recently, the State assessment battery administered to Michigan students consisted of norm referenced tests. In 1973, however, as a result of pressure brought to bear primarily by the State legis- lature, criterion referenced tests were substituted for the norm referenced tests, and continue to be used. 61 The results of criterion referenced tests used by the State of Michigan are not as readily compared, one against the other, as are the results of the norm referenced tests previously used by the State. This is because the results of the criterion referenced tests, unlike the results of the norm referenced tests, are not presented in single score form. This fact posed a problem to the study in that a single score summary was necessary for inclusion in the statistical model used for analyzing the data generated by the study. This problem was resolved, however, after it was determined that the criterion referenced test results could be reduced to single score form by averaging the percent of objectives each student obtained on the tests contained in the State assessment battery. Split- half reliabilities between the single score summaries of odd and even items yielded correlation coefficients of .99 for reading and .98 for mathematics, indicating that the single score summaries have very high internal consistency. Single summary achievement scores for the mathematics and reading tests contained in the State assessment battery were then correlated, yielding a coefficient of .97. Combined mathematics and reading summary scores were also correlated with the word re- lationship tests included in the State assessment battery, as a test of validity. This correlation yielded a coefficient of .84. Correlations of the mean achievement of each school in the sample between 1973—74 and 1974-75 62 assessment data yielded a coefficient of .83. These correlations are presented in table 3.5. TABLE 3.5 Summary of Split-Half Correlations, Test- to-Test Correlations (1974-75), and Corre- lations of 1973-74 and 1974-75 Michigan Assessment Tests, Administered in a Random Sample of 30 Predominantly Black Michigan Elementary Schools Tests Correlated Correlation (r) Probability of Chance Occurence Odd Items Reading with .99 .000 Even Items Reading Odd Items Mathematics with .98 .000 Even Items Mathematics Mathematics with .97 .000 Reading Word Relationship with Mathematics and Reading .84 .000 1973-74 Mathematics and Reading with .83 .000 1974-75 Mathematics and Reading 63 Instrumentation Three instruments were used in collecting the data for this study. They were revisions of the separate but interrelated principal, student, and teacher questionnaires developed by Brookover et a1. (1973) for use in a study of elementary school academic climate. In that study Brookover analyzed the differences in academic climate among several pairs of elementary schools. Two criteria were used in the selection of schools for each of the matched pairs. First, the schools had to be similar with respect to the control variables--SES, racial composition of student bodies, and community type. Secondly, the schools had to be dissimilar with respect to the dependent variable, achievement (i.e., high-achieving schools were paired with low-achieving schools). The purpose of the study was to identify school social climate factors that would significantly predict the variation in mean school achievement. The results of factor analyses of the data generated by Brookover's school climate study helped to identify 10 factors as constituting academic climate. These factors were: (a) students' perceptions of present evaluations-expectations, (b) students' perceptions of future evaluations-expecta- tions, (c) students' perceptions of schools' academic norms, (d) student reported sense of futility, (e) teacher present evaluations-expectations, (f) teacher future 64 evaluations-expectations, (g) teacher perceptions of parent-student achievement push, (h) teacher reported push of individual students, (1) teacher reported feelings of job satisfaction, and (j) teacher perception of student academic improvability. Four of the 10 climate factors accounted for 63% of the variation in mean achievement when the effects of SES, race, and urban-rural community type were controlled. Those factors were: (a) student sense of futility, (b) teacher future evaluations-expectations, (c) teacher push of individual students, and (d) student present evaluations-expectations. "Student sense of futility" alone, accounted for nearly 45% of the variance. These figures demonstrate the construct validity, and to some extent, the reliability of the initial in- struments. Caution in generalizing the validity and reliability of the instruments beyond the sample is warranted, however, because the sample was not randomly selected. The results of the analyses of the data generated by this study (see Chapter IV) showed that the revised research instruments demonstrated construct validity with respect to the sample. The construct validity of the instruments--their ability to do what they were designed to do--was demonstrated in that they supported the hypothesis advanced in this study by 65 significantly accounting for variance beyond that accounted for by SES. The internal consistency of the items in each of the academic climate variables was computed using the reliability subprogram of the Statistical Package for the Social Scienceg, or SPSS (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Stein- brenner & Bent, 1970). Resulting coefficients in- dicated high internal consistency for almost all of the academic climate variables, thus high reliability for the research instruments. These results are pre- sented in Table 3.6. TABLE 3.6 Summary of the Reliability Coefficients for the Internal Consistency of Academic Climate variables. Academic Climate Variable Reliability Coefficient Student Reported Sense of Futility .92 Student Perceived Teacher Push for Student Improvement .88 Student Academic Competition NOrms .82 Student Perceived Present Evaluations-Expectations .88 Student Perceived Future Evaluations-Expectations .93 (continued) 66 TABLE 3.6 (continued) Academic Climate variable Reliability Coefficient Teacher Present Evaluation- Expectations of Students Teacher Future Evaluations- Expectations of Students Teacher Perception of Parents' value of Education Teacher Perceived Student Competition and Teacher Push Teacher-Perception of Student Drive for Academic Improvement Teacher-Principal Encourage- ment for Improvement Principal Future Evaluations- Expectations of Students Principal Perception of Parental Concern Principal Evaluation of School Principal Present Evaluation- Expectations of Students Principal Efforts at Improving Achievement .88 .93 .70 .62 .79 .78 67 Decision Model The statistical model that was used to analyze the data generated by this study was forward inclusion multiple regression. The nature of the multiple re- gression model is such that it establishes the degree of relationship that exists between independent and dependent variables. The study, therefore, is not ex- perimental. This subject warrants attention because of the general acceptance of the notion that causation cannot be implied from a non-experimental study. Campbell and Stanley (1963), for instance, advance the experiment as "the only means for settling disputes regarding educational practice" (p. 2). Though the writer concurs with this position, this concurrence does not preclude recognition of the value of correlational research. Baggaley (1964), defending the status of the correlational study as a viable research tool, finds that some conditions are not conducive, or as con- ducive, to experimentation as others. He also suggests that the non-experimental study can provide valuable "negative" evidence that can be used in solving re- search problems. The identification Of variables, through corre- lational methods, whose inclusion in an experimental study is not necessary or critical, could prove to be 68 a crucial investment in terms of eliminating those variables where they serve to inhibit the study for reasons of finance, expenditure of time, energy, and so forth. In accordance with the preceding rationale, the findings of this study should offer a valuable con- tribution to the literature by identifying variables that may or may not be critical to future research, through the use of correlational statistics and the multiple regression model. The multiple regression model has the power and capability for handling the number of variables generated by the data collected in this study. This model is appropriate for data having more than one measured independent or predictor variable. The linear regression model relating the dependent variable to the independent variables is: Where there is only one predictor variable, the model is the simple regression model. Where there is more than one predictor variable, the model is the multiple regression model. The model that was used to analyze the data generated by this study is: 69 " P0 * P1 x11 * P2 x12 " "“Pq x lq I El .< H I N I 80 + pl le + P2 xNQ + ...+pq X Nq + EN 2 ll Legend: Y The dependent variable, achievement. A regression weight relating observed 'W II values of X to observed values of Y. x An independent variable. E = Error. The model, as it relates to this study, may be interpreted as follows: Achievement1 SES1 (Climate Variable 12...F)1 are predicted Achievement2 by SES2 (Climate Variable l2...f)2 AchievementN SESN (Climate variable l2...f)N SES accounted for a certain percentage of the variation in achievement levels among the schools in the sample. Residual variance was accounted for by academic climate variables. Residual variance is the primary focus of the hypothesis advanced in this study. The accuracy of prediction in multiple regression 7O analysis will vary as a function of the pr0portion of the number of variables entered into the regression equation to the number of units in the sample. The number of parameters being estimated in the multiple regression model is equal to the number of predictor variables entered into the equation plus one (number of predictor variables + 1). Where the number of vari- ables entered into the equation is equal to the number of observations in the sample (number of variables in equation : number of observations in the sample), the amount of variance accounted for by the equation will always equal 100%. This means that the model over- estimates the amount of variance accounted for. How- ever, as the number of observations in the sample is increased over the number of variables entered into the equation, this over-estimation of variance is accounted for and, therefore, the accuracy of prediction is increased. The number of units in the sample used in this study was 30. With this in mind, the number of variables to be entered into the regression equation was set at 15 or less. Assumptions of the Model The multiple regression model assumes that: 1. The sample was drawn at random from a specified population. 71 2. Observations were made independently. 3. Error is normally distributed with a mean of zero and variance 0'2. The methodology and selection procedures for this study were carefully assessed and designed to meet these assumptions. An a priori alpha was set at .05 as the level of significance for this study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA Qverview In this chapter, the analyses of the data generated by this study will be presented. The data were computed on the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6500 computer at Michigan State University, utilizing the subprogram multiple regression analysis, forward inclusion, developed by Nie et al. (1970), The major purpose of this study was to determine whether an analyis of the relationship of academic climate variables to achievement in a random sample of predominately black elementary schools would be congruent with the notion advanced by the proponents of the systemic approach to counseling which states that the social-psychological climate that prevails in a given social system is the primary cause of certain behaviors exhibited by the system's members. Support for the preceding tenet was determined by whether the hypothesis advanced in this study, which was concerned with whether or not measures of academic climate would significantly account for variance in achievement beyond that accounted for by the mean 72 73 socio-economic status (SES) of the students in a given school, was supported or refuted. The study also sought to determine which of the academic climate variables accounted for most of the variance in the achievement levels among the schools in the sample. In the final section of this chapter, the results of the test of the hypothesis, along with discussion, and some implications of other findings, will be presented. An alpha level of .05 was selected to determine the statistical significance in testing the hypothesis advanced in this study. Factor Analyppp Several varimax rotation factor analyses were executed using either the mean student, principal, or teacher response to each questionnaire item, across all schools sampled, for the purpose of determining which questionnaire items loaded together as measures of different aspects of academic climate. The resulting factors proved to be inconsistent with the loadings that were anticipated based on the logical construction of the questionnaire items. The fact that the questions did not load as they were logically keyed to do was attributed, in part, to the probability that a sample of 30 units was so small as to render the factor analyses unstable. Brookover (1975). studying academic climate in Michigan elementary schools, factor-analyzed the 74 responses to the items contained in the same instru- ments used in this study. His analyses were executed on data collected from a random sample of 69 Michigan elementary schools. The sample included 62 predominantly white and seven predominantly black schools. The resulting factors were consistent with anticipated loadings. It was therefore decided that the variables constructed on the basis of Brookover's factor analyses would be used as measures of academic climate in this study. Construction of Academic Climate variables Factor analysis has often been described as a "hunting license." It is a statistical procedure that creates factors based on correlations. Brookover (1975) executed three varimax rotation factor analyses. The first analyzed the responses to 52 items contained in the student questionnaire. The second analysis was performed on 48 items contained in the teacher questionnaire. The third factor analysis was performed on 20 items contained in the principal questionnaire. The factors that emerged from the analyses were used as guidelines for the construction of academic climate variables. After the results of the factor analyses were obtained, Brookover and his research staff determined 75 which questionnaire items statistically and/hr logically fit into which climate variables. Items were deleted, retained, or shifted from one variable to another on this basis. Thus, the items contained in the academic climate variables were finalized on the basis of logical as well as statistical considerations. In total, 16 variables were produced as measures of academic climate --five student variables, six teacher variables, and five principal variables. Student‘variable 1. Student Reported Sense of Futility Five items in this variable are a modification of the "sense of control" variable used by Coleman et.al. (1966). This variable is concerned with the student's perception of the extent to which he or she can influence those factors in the academic environment that impact upon his or her academic achievement. This variable contains 16 items. Student variable 2. Student Perceived Present Evaluations-Expectations .1 This variable was constructed to reflect students' expectations and evaluations of "significant others” --parents, teachers, and friends--concerning how they perceive students' chances of going to, and completing high school. It contains six items. 76 Student variable 3. Student Perceived Future Evaluations-Empectations This variable was constructed to reflect students' expectations and evaluations of parents, teachers, and friends concerning how they perceive students' chances of going to, and completing college. It contains 11 items. Student variable 4. Student Perceived Teacher Push for Student Improvement The items in this variable are concentrated upon students' perception of the extent to which teachers do or do not urge students to improve academic achieve- ment. The items are also intended to measure students' perceptions of how hard the teacher will work to insure the academic success of students. This variable contains four items. Student variable Student Academic Com etition Norms This variable is concerned with how students compared their school to other schools academically. It also re- flects students' perception of the importance that peers place on doing school work. This variable contains six items. Teacher variable 1. Teacher Present Evaluations- Expectations of Students ,3 The items forming this variable reflect the 77 immediate evaluations that teachers have of their students and the expectations they hold with respect to how many students will go to and complete high school. This variable contains eight items. Teacher Variable 2. Teacher Future Evaluations- Expectations of Students .1 The items in this variable are concerned primarily with the expectations teachers hold with respect to how many of their students will go to and complete college. This variable contains nine items. Teacher Variable 3. Teacher Perception of Parents' value of Education This variable measures teachers' perception of the value that parents place on education and their desire for feedback from the school concerning the progress of their children. It contains four items. Teacher variable 4. Teacher Perceived Student Competition and Teacher Push This variable was designed to measure teachers' perception of student competition for good grades and the extent to which teachers push their students to achieve higher academically, particularly those who they do not feel have the resources or ability to do so. It contains seven items. 78 Teacher variable 5. Teacher Perception of Student Drive for Academic Improvement AA This variable measures teachers' perception of the extent to which students voluntarily attempt to improve upon previous school work, and the number of students who seem content to Just 'get by" in their school work. It contains six items. Teacher variable 6. Teacher-Principal Encouragement for Improvement The items in this variable reflect teachers' expressed desire to help students improve upon previous school work and teachers' assessment of the amount of support and assistance the principal is willing to provide for better educational programs. This variable contains four items. Principal variable 1. Principal Present Evaluations- Expectations of Students _g The items forming this variable reflect the immediate evaluations that the principal has of his or her students and the expectations the principal holds with respect to how many students will go to and complete high school. This variable contains four items. Principal variable 2. Principal Future Evaluations- Expectations of Students One item in this variable reflects principals' perception of their schools to other schools academically. 79 The other items measure the expectations that principals hold with respect to how many of their students will go to and complete college. This variable contains four items. Principal variable 3. Principal Perception of Parental Concern This variable measures principals' perception of parents' concern for the academic progress of their children. It contains five items. Principal‘Variable h. Principal Evaluation of School The items in this variable are concerned primarily with how principals view the present academic status of their schools and the improvability of that status. This variable also concentrates on principals' percep— tion of how others view the academic status of their schools. It contains five items. Principal Variable 5. Principal Efforts at Improving Achievement This variable reflects how often principals suggest ways of improving student achievement to teachers and how often principals meet with teachers to discuss ways of improving achievement. It contains two items. (the preceding explanation of variables was taken, in part, from.Brookover and Schneider, 1975). 80 Multiple Regression Analzsis Multiple regression analysis (forward inclusion) was used to test the hypothesis and explore the additional question of concern to this study. Hypothesis: Question: The social-psychological variables used as measures of elementary school academic climate will significantly account for variance in achievement levels among the schools in the sample, as measured by the Michigan State School Assessment Index, over and above variance accounted for by SE8, as measured by the research instruments. Which of the academic climate variables account for most of the variance in achievement levels among the schools in the sample? An a priori alpha level was set at .05 to represent the level of significance acceptable for this investigation. Explanation of Forward Inclusipn The statistical program utilizing the forward in- clusion multiple regression procedure used in analyzing the data was developed by Nie et al. (1975). The pro- gram.allows for hierarchical, non-hierarchical, or mixed inclusion of variables into the regression equation. 81 when variables are not entered into the equation by a predetermined hierarchy, the program will enter in- dependent variables into the equation on the basis of partial correlations. The first variable the computer enters into the equation, where no a priori hierarchy has been determined, is the one having the highest simple r or zero order correlation with the dependent variable. Succeeding variables are entered on the basis of the next highest partial correlation of the remaining independent variables with the dependent variable. That is, remaining variables are entered in the order of the highest correlation that one of them maintains with the dependent variable after the effects of the pre- ceding variable have been removed by entering it into a multiple regression equation. This means that if three independent variables are to be entered into a multiple regression equation using forward inclusion, with no a priori hierarchy established, the variable having the highest zero order correlation will be entered first. The next of the remaining two variables having the highest partial correlation to the dependent variable will be entered second. The third variable will be listed last because it has the lowest partial correlation with the dependent variable, which was determined by its intercorrelation with the first two variables, as well as with the dependent variable. Where an a priori hierarchy has been determined, 82 the computer will enter independent variables into the multiple regression equation in the order specified, regardless of next highest partial correlation. The situation in which one or more independent variables is to be entered into the equation in some specified order, followed by, or preceded by a group of independent variables with no specified order, is considered mixed inclusion. Where it is specified that a group of variables with no a priori hierarchy established is to be entered preceding one or more remaining independent variable(s) whose order has been specified, the first variable listed from that group will be the one having the highest zero order correlation with the dependent variable. The second variable entered will be the one having the next highest partial correlation, and so forth. Where it is speci- fied that a group of independent variables will follow one or more independent variables whose order has been specified, the first variable listed after those whose order has been specified is that variable in the non- ordered group that maintains the highest partial correlation after the effects of the preceding variables have been removed. This variable is then followed by the one with the next highest partial correlation, and so forth. 83 Results of Test of Hypothesis In the first analysis, SE8 was entered into the regression equation first. Fourteen academic climate variables were entered into the equation next, with no a priori hierarchy established. SES plus three academic climate variables--teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement, student reported sense of futility, and teacher-principal encouragement for improvement, respectively--significantly accounted for 68.6% of the variance in achievement among the schools in the sample. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 4.1. H s 3 mad I (L. 84 :om. *Nmo. *Omo. #500. #000. OH.HO mm.mo NH.®O mm.mo wu.wa 3H0. ONO. Hmo. oma. mwm. CON. mam. mam. mmm. mmm. Acoscapcoov mmm. wmw. mm». mmh. Nam. 3mm. mma. mow.u mem. Nam. mcofipmp uomQNMnmCOHpmsflm>m weapon accompm pcmEo>onoeH you pcoEowmnmoocm Hmoaocanmunozomoe mpHHHpmm mo oncom ompmoaom pcoUSPm pcoe um>onQEH oasoomo< pom o>HnQ accompm mo coapaoommm genomes mmm use» mace m capsm m cwcszo mm mm m escapes: h seesaw echcpcm cansans> ecpm cosmeanspmm znommncfim anoanm < 02 sad: exoz nonopcm moanmanm>.omeHHo oHEoomoe ea one woman nonoecm mmz mmm ononz .mHoozom mumpcoEon cmwanofiz momam mapcmcHEoooam om no oHoEmm Eoocmm m ca pcoao>oano< Hoonom coo: co moanmanm> opmefiao anoomoe one msumvm oHEocoom uoHoom Hoonom coo: no AcoamsaocH onmznomv coammomwom oaoapasz no mensesm H.d mqmde 85 03:. Nam. 0mm. mmo. 0mm. 00.00 m0.H0 00.00 mm.mo m:.Ho boo. NHO. ado. mmo. wao. H05. :55. wa. am». mam. Aconcapcoov :00. 000. mum. New. New. omH. 5mm. hmm. 0mm. mmm. pcmeo>omQEH ucoosum mom chum monomme oo>fioonom pcmcspm Hoonom mo coapwsam>m Hmaaocanm menoz coapfipoasoo oesocmo< pcoospm mucoospm mo mcoapmpooQNMImcoHpm: nam>m coupon nonomoe upcoospm no mcoapmp noooKMuncoHumsam>m pcomonm genomes 0H m can» mmoH m oapmm h owcmno mm mm m maadpdsz m oHaEHm oonopcm manuamm> ccpm Aecsceucocv H.e memes 86 mo. u sagas as casemencmams 005. 00.00 H00. n00. mam. 30H. cooocoo Hancommm no coapaoonom amoaocdnm ma mum. 0H.00 N00. wow. wow. ems. coapmosom no osam> .mpconmm mo coauqooaom nonomoa 3H ems. No.00 moo. eom. emm. mme. spacescm eo escape» uooQNMImcoapmsam>m museum Hmoaocanm ma ham. wm.00 moo. mm». mom. 0mm. anamorpm mo mcoapmp noomxmumcoapmsam>m pcomoum Hmaaocaam ma :mm. 50.00 oao. Hm». 0mm. Hem.- pace uo>ofino< w2H>onmeH cs mpeoeem aseaoeahm am can» mama m oapmm m owcmso mm mm m mandpass h mHQEHm omnmpcm manmahm> mopm Accusepcocv H.e memes 87 Table 4.1 and succeeding tables that will be presented concerning forward inclusion multiple re- gression analysis should be interpreted as follows: §§gp: Reflects the order in which independent variables have been entered into the equation. variable Entered: Indicates which independent variable has been entered into the equation at a given step. Simple r: The zero order correlation of a given independent variable with the dependent variable. The Simple r also reflects the direction of the correlation. Multiple R: The combined correlation of all independent variables that have been entered into the multiple regression equation, with the dependent variable. The Multiple R does not reflect the direction of the multiple correlation. §?: The product of the Multiple R when squared. It represents the combined variance accounted for by all independent variables that have been entered into the multiple regression equation. R2 Change: Reflects the amount of variance accounted for by an independent variable, beyond that accounted for by the variable that preceded its entry into the multiple regression equation. It should be noted that where only one variable has been entered, R2 change is simply represented by the numerical 88 2, since there has been no change. value of R F Ratio: Provides a test of tre null hypothesis that a given independent variable is not signifi- cantly accounting for variance beyond that accounted for by those variables that have preceded its entry into the multiple regression equation. P less than: Reflects the extent to which an obtained F Ratio may be a function of chance. For instance, where an a priori alpha level has been set at .05, probability values of greater than .05 would indicate that an obtained F Ratio is probably due to chance. It is therefore concluded that the independent variable considered, is not significantly accounting for variance beyond that accounted for by those variables that have preceded its entry into the multiple regression equation. Where probability values are less than .05, the apposite conclusion is drawn. Of the lh academic climate variables entered into the multiple regression equation, three-~teacher percep- tion of student drive for academic improvement, student reported sense of futility, and teacher-principal encouragement for improvement--significantly accounted for 31.1% of the variance in achievement levels among schools in the sample, over and above that accounted for by SES at alpha = .05. The hypothesis is supported by this analysis. 89 At this point, the maJor question of concern to this study has been answered. The final interpretation of the results, however, is also contingent upon whether or not SE8 would significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables, and if it did significantly account for residual variance, how much? Thus, a second multiple regression analysis was executed entering academic climate variables into the equation first with 8E8 set to be entered last. This analysis showed student reported sense of futility, and teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement, respectively, as significantly accounting for a total of 59.1% of the variance in achievement among the schools in the sample. The variance accounted for by the remaining academic climate variables f entered into the regression equation was not significant. This regression analysis was terminated by the computer when it attempted to enter the thirteenth academic climate variable, student perceived teacher push for student improvement, into the multiple regression equation: therefore, that independent variable along with principal perception of parental concern and SE8, was not entered into the equation (the computer will terminate the multiple regression procedure when the I level of variables that are to be entered into the equation, with no a priori hierarchy established, is ' 90 too low and therefore insufficient for further computation). Since the procedure was terminated before 8E8 was entered, it could not be determined from this analysis if SE8 would significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables. The results of this analysis are presented in Table h.2. Aconcapcoov mma. Hm.m0 mmo. 0pm. mam. «ma. ucoEo>opaEH pom cacaowmnsoocm HmmHocanmumonomoB : mp0. :m.m0 0:0. 8mm. 008. «mm., mummcSpm no mcoapmpooaxm umcoaumsam>m pcmmomm ponomoe m *mmo. mm.mo mwo. Ham. mm». emm. pace uo>onQEH ofisoomo< pom c>aeo cecescm eo 91 compaoonom monomoe m $000. mm.mm mom. mom. mow. mou.u zpfiaapsm no omnom scchoecm psccsum H use» case m chasm m cmssno mm mm m manages: s seesaw ececpcm cansaes> eccm peso ecsspem new use ecssaflnspsm meceshcam accuse < 02 spa: pmnam nonopcm on on one: moanmanm> opmsaao oesoomo< ea ononz .maoonom mnmpcosoam comanofiz momam mapcmCHEooomm om mo oHoEmm soocmm a ma pccso>oano< Hoonom new: so moanmaum> cassaao oesoomo< one aspepm caeocoom uoacow Hoonom can: no AcoamsaocH onmznomv coaooonmom camavasz no massesm N.: mnm¢s 92 0mm. mam. mam. mmo. 00.00 :0.H0 :m.00 om.mo moo. NHO. HHO. bmo. me». one. mmh. NH». Aconcapcoov mom. How. mmm. 5:0. mm:. 5mm. 0mm. 00:. mucoospm no mcoapmp nooQKMumcoHpmsam>m weapon Hmoaocamm menoz compapoosoo oHEooooe pcoodpm munocspm mo mcoapmp noooxmumcoapmsam>m unomonm Hammocanm mpcoospm no mcoapmpoooxm uncoapmsam>m oasesm nosomoa seep used m cache m cwsseo m m m smashes: h seesaw ecscpcm cansass> ecpm m m Ascseacsoev m.e mamas oopmcfiemop onscooono coammonwom* * m0. u mSQHm pm pamOHMcham* .x. .8. mom. Ho.00 000. omh. 0N0. H3N.u ucoEm>oHno< wca>omaEH pm manomum Hoqaocanm NH 93 mmw. m0.00 000. . mm». 0pm. ems. coapmosom no osam> .mpconmm no coapqoonom genomes Ha sum. mm.oo :00. mm». oem. emm. Hooncm no coapmzam>m Hmoaocanm 0H mam. mm.oo moo. mme. New. -emm. seoepspocoxm uncoapmsam>m museum oo>aoomom pcocsum m can» once m cause m cmsseo m m m sameness h seesaw ocscpsm cansahc> ccem N m Accsefipsoov m.= memes 9a Since SE8 was not entered into the preceding equation, a third multiple regression analysis was executed, leaving out the academic climate variable that caused the termination, with SE8 again set to be entered last. Again, the variables student reported sense of futility, and teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement, significantly accounted for a total of 59.1% of the variance. SES, upon being entered last, did not significantly account for additional variance. The results of this analysis are entered in Table “.3. m u 3. m~qHMH30. mmo. 0:0. 000. «On. NH». 050. 5mm. Ham. mom. Aconcapcoov New. mam. mm». mm». mo». 00:. «ma. mmm. mum. 005.: mucousum no meoapep noomeumcoapmmHm>m oaspmm essence pcoso>onan non pcosommasoocm HmmHoCHnmunonoooe mucoospm no escape» nooaKMumcoHpmSHm>m economm honoree pcoso>oam IEH oflsoomo< non o>Hna pnoodpm mo cofipmoomom nosoaoe mpaaapsm no chasm counoaom pcooopm can» mood m Odpmm m omcmso m «K m sameness m oaafiam nonopcm oanaanm> acpm puma omnmvcm mmm one cmnmddnmpmm machmhmdm «hadhm < 02 and: pmhdm oohmpcm Ohmz mmdnmfihm> upmedao oafimomo¢ MH 0&033 .maoonom hampcosoam nemanodz xomam zapcmcfisoooam 0m no seesaw Boocmm a ma pcoao>oano¢ Hoonom can: no moaneanm> oposaao oqsoomo< one aspepm ofiaocoom m.# mam<8 uoaoom Hoonom can: no AcoamsaocH onmznomv :oammomwom oaaauaoz no mnesssm mH0. 0N3. 0H0. mam. 0N.00 00.00 :O.Ho 30.00 000. moo. NHO. HHO. AoosCHpcoov mm». 035. oz». 0N5. >00. m00. H00. 000. 3mm. 00:. ~00. 0mm. mcoHpmuoonm nmcoHpmSHm>m onspsm oo>Hoonom ucoodpm mucocmpm mo mCOHpmu nooaxmamcoapmsHm>m museum HmQHocHnm menoz :OHpHpoQEoo onsoomo< pcoospm mucoompm mo mmoHpop noomKMuchHpmsHm>m pcomoam HmoHocHam 0 can» muoH m OHpmm h owcmno m N mm m cHeHcHsz a oHQEHm oonopcm oHpeHmm> ocpm Accusapcocv m.: mamas mo. u seaHs as pcseeesteme 97 HOH. mo.mo mmo. mme. mm0. NHO. 0mm mH mom. Ho.oo ooo. 0me. oe0. Hsm.u pace uo>oHSo< MQH>omQEH pm manommm HmQHocflmm NH 000. mo.oo ooo. 0me. oe0. ems. soHpmooom no osHm>r.mpconem mo cOHeooonom nonomos HH sem. mm.oo soo. 0me. oew. emm. Hooecm no coHpmsHs>m HmoHocHam 0H can» sscH m cease m manage mm mm m cHoHcHsz h cHosHm schcpem chsaes>v ecpm Hoochpcoov m.s mnmm pcomoam monomoa 0 H00. mm.mo use. emm. mmm. emH. osoaosooooxm uncoHamsHm>m pcomoam oo>Hoomom pcocdpw m mmH. 0s.mo smo. mmm. mom. emm. canoe soeodooosoo oHsoomo< accospm s *sHo. Hm.0o HoH. Hum. awe. moe.- eoeHaosm «o coccm ecosooom oeoosom m #000. 0H.mo msH. omm. Hme. mmH.- ozo2c>oooeH mom pcoeommasoocm HeoHosHmmumoSomoa m #000. 0e.0H memo mem. NHO. NHO. 0mm H use» sooH m cause m oweoso we mm m oHoeoHsz o oHosam oooooom oanahs> scam ooeoHHososm moonshoam escape e oz and: oxoz oohooem moHanam>_oposHHo caeooec< H one pnnHm oomoecm no: mum omen: .mHoonom enmeeoson cemHnodz xoeHm HezmmHeooonm om ho oHQEsm soccom a :H pace uo>oano< Hoonom see: so uoHneHmm>_opmaHHo ofiaooec< one seesaw caaoooom uoHoom Hoosom coo: no AcoHusHoCH unexpomv conmommom oHoHpHsz no haesasm m.s mumm ocomonm HmoHoCHmm pcoEo>oH£o¢ wcH>onQEH pm epooeem Hcoaocahm pcoEo>onQEH accospm mom norm genomes oo>Hoomom pcoospm Hoosom no modemsHm>m HeoHocHam 0H e can» scoH e oaosm m owcmno mm m m oHeHoHsz n quaHm nonopcm oHanam> ooom Accessosoov m.s memes anon-JCHQCCO» man: “Aqkrmnxrb oopmmdshop onsoooono conmomwoh oHoHuHsz * e no. a seoHs as ossoeeacwam * 105 .x. *. emm. mm.oo moo. mm0. sHm. smm. osoflosoocoxm ummoHpmSHm>m museum OQ>HGORmm PCOOS¥m 3H mms. 00.00 eoo. mm0. mH0. 0ms. mucousum no mmOHpmpoonKmumcoHpms aHm>m weapon HmQHocHam mH Hmm. oo.Ho 0H0. 0mm. mom. mm0.- seem eososoe one ooeoaooosoo oeoosom oo>Hoomom genomes NH mew. em.Ho mHo. 0H0. mo0. 00s. upccoopm no ecoHpmuoooKmamcoHums uHm>m museum noncaca HH seep socH m oHosm m omssso mm mm m oHoHoHs: s oHoEHm oohoosm caosHhs> ooom AcosCHpcoov m.s mqmm anemone oo>Hoomom unscrew m osH. mm.mo «mo. «00. mHm. emm. sshoz eoaoaooosoo oafioomo< 9:00:90 s meo. mm.mo omo. om0. s0e. «mm. mucoospw no mcoHpmp noomxm:mcoHpmsHm>m pcomonm nonomoe m *smo. mm.so meo. omm. woe. me.- oooso>ososH- sou ecosowonmoccm HmoHcCHmmunonoooa m *ooo. mm.wm mom. mom. moe. moe.- eoeHHosm co omcom cocoooom ooossom H can» shod m oaosm m omooso mm mm m cHoaoHsz s oHQEam eoooocm oHosHos> ooom puma nonopcm 000 one cosmHHnmpmm enonmnon HnoHnm < 02 anz emnHm ooaopcm on on one: moHanmm> opmaHHo oHsoomo< H onon3 .mHoonom enmpcoEon :aston mome ercmcHEooonm om no oH_amm seesaw a :H psoso>oHno< Hoonom coo: no moHanpm> oemEHHo oHSoomoe one mspmpm oHEocooMuoHoom Hoonom coo: no A20HmsHosH camznomv conmonwom oHoHuHsz no znmsesm 0.: mamas A ”osnfinvP-oov W oww 33L... 108 00s. 00H. 00H. He.00 sm.Ho 0e.Ho m0.Ho moo. 0H0. H00. mmo. s0e. 0me. ose. 0He. AcosCHpcoov se0. 0ms. 0mm. 00s. emm. mucoosem no mcoHpmp nooaxmumnoHpmsz>m onspsm HmmHoCHnm upcoozpm no mooHpep noonxmnmcoapmsHm>m anemone HmoHochm upcoosum no mooHpmpoooKmumcoHpes uHe>m choose nosomoa Hoosom no moHpmSHmbm HmoHOCHnm 0 cos» ocoH m Boom m omsseo mm mm m 333:: a 395m oosooom oHpsHos> ooom Aco:CHpcoov 0.s mamas oopmcHEnop endoscope conoonwon oHQHpHsz * * mo. u seoHs co occoaeaomam * 109 0se. es0. emm. eem. HH.00 NN.00 0s.00 Nm.oo moo. moo. moo. #00. 0ee. 0ee. mee. 00e. N00. H00. 0e0. 0e0. ems. Nmo.: st. 00H. .2. .3. GOHpmosom no omHm> .muconom no coHpqoomom nocomoa mH zoom nonomoe one soaoaooosoo oeoosom co>Hoonom someone NH msoHpepoome nacoHessHe>m museum co>Hooaom encompm HH pcoEo>ongsH 9:00:90 now some monomoe co>Hoonmm pcmoagm 0H can» unoH m oapmm h omcmno mm m oHoHoHsz a oHoEHm oomopcm oHanmm>_ noun Accusaosoov 0.: memes the » temi SE3 d varia for b sense to: 1 “88 110 Again, a third analysis was executed leaving out the variable that caused the regression procedure to terminate, entering SE8 last. The results showed that SE8 did not significantly account for additional variance beyond the variance significantly accounted for by the academic climate variables, student reported sense of futility, and teacher-principal encouragement for improvement. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 4.7. 111 Acoschmoov eoH. om.mo mmo. emm. mm0. emH. scoaosooooxm -chHpsmHm>m acomonm oo>Hoomom pcoompm m osH. mm.mo «mo. «00. mHm. emm. cahoz eoaoapoosoo oHsocmo< pcoospm s Neo. Nm.mo omo. om0. s0e. Nmm. upcoozpm no ecOHpmp uoonHMuchHpmsHm>m pcomonm genomes m esmo. mm.so meo. com. «me. mmH.- ososoeososH mom pnosommnmoccm HsoHocHnmnnonosoa N .000. mm.mm mom. mom. moe. moe.- eoHHaosm co oesom ooosoocm opossum H use» cooH m cause m omsseo mm mm m oHoHoHss a oHosam eohopcm oHnsehs>. ooom puma oonoamm mmm one conoHHnepmm escasnon HuoHnm < oz :sz pmth ooaoucm one: ooHneHno>_oessHHo oHsooso< mH ones: .uHooncm enapcoaon :aston xcsHm menocHsooonm om no oHQEmm soonem s eH pcoso>oHno< Hooeom one: so moHnoHae>_oposHHo oHsooec¢ one ospmpm oHaococm uoHoom Hoosom coo: no AmoHochnH onezhomv :oHouonwom oHoHpHmz no massssm e.s Han. AUQNSCfiUCOUV New» ENHKNQE ’11 I‘llI‘g 112 mos. He.oo H0m. sm.Ho 00H. 0e.Ho me. m0.Ho HooSCHpoooV moo. s0e. sew. mms. mocoosom mo escapee noooxmumCOHpmsHm>m oasesm HmQHoCHnm 0 0H0. woe. mom. 0mm. cocoosom mo mcoaoco nooqunmCOHuwsz>m economm HmQHoCHmm 0 HNo. ose. 000. 00s. mocoosom eo mCOHpmpoonmnmCOHpms uHm>m mmsusm nonomoe e mmo. mHe. 0:0. emm. Hoonom eo :0Hum5Hm>m HmoHoCHnm 0 use» cooH m ofiosm m omeoso mm mm m cHoaoHsz o oHoeHm soooocm oHooaoo> ooom Accusapcoov e.s memes mo. u seoHs os oesoaoecwew * 113 mwo. ss.mo Hso. me. mom. «H0. wmw sH wee. HH.oo woo. wee. www. ems. eoaososom eo ome> .mpconwm mo coHpoconom nonowoe mH esw. mw.oo moo. wee. wa. wwo.- seem sonosoe one coaoaooosoo osoosow oo>Hoonom monowoe NH emm. os.oo moo. wee. mew. swm. ocoaocooooxm uncoHumSHm>m ensure cm>Hmohmm pcmosam HH eem. Nm.oo soo. 00e. 0e0. 00H. pcoEo>onmEH accospm you seem genomes 00>H00hom wcoospm 0H can» osoH m oHosw m owcceo we mm m cHoaoHs: s oHous oosooem oHosHes> ooow Acoschnoov e.s wands 114 Paired comparisons of the amount of variance that was accounted for by SES, and the academic climate variables that were selected to be entered into the regression equations on the basis of highest zero order correlations with achievement or SES, showed differences ranging from 0.0% to 6.5% depending upon the pair of analyses considered. A summary of the paired comparisons of the regression analysis is presented in Table 4.8. 115 TABLE 4.8 Paired Comparisons of Variance Signifi- cantly Accounted for by SES and Academic Climate Variables, Where Academic Climate Variables Were Included in Regression Equations on the Basis of Highest Zero Order Correlations with Achievement or SE8 Academic Climate ' Academic Climate Variables: Selected Variables: Selected on the Basis of on the Basis of Highest Zero Order Highest Zero Order Correlations with Correlations with Achievement SE8 Regression Equation Command: Enter SE8 First. Enter 14 academic climate variables next, with no a priori hierarchy.established. Variance significantly Variance significantly accounted for by SE8 : accounted for by 8E8 = 37.5% 37.5% difference : 00.0% Variance significantly Variance significantly accounted for by aca- accounted for by aca- demic climate variables demic climate variables ; 31.1% 3 24.6% difference : 06.5% (continued) 116 TABLE 4.8 (continued) Academic Climate Variables: Selected on the Basis of Highest Zero Order Correlations with Achievement Academic Climate Variables: Selected on the Basis of Highest Zero Order Correlations with SE8 Regression Equation Command: Enter 14 academic climate variables first, with no a priori hierarchy established. Enter SE8 last (Regression was terminated) Variance significantly accounted for by aca- demic climate variables . 59.1% difference : SE8 was not entered because the F level of variables preceding SE8 were insufficient for further computation Variance significantly accounted for by aca- demic climate variables 01.1% SE8 was not entered because the F level of vaviables preceding SE8 were insufficient for further computation (continued) 117 TABLE 4.8 (continued) Academic Climate Academic Climate Variables: Selected variables: Selected on the Basis of Highest on the Basis of Highest Zero Order Correlations Zero Order Correlations with Achievement SE8 Regression Equation Command: Enter 13 academic climate variables first, with no a priori hierarchy established. Enter SE8 last. variance significantly' variance significantly accounted for by aca- accounted for by aca- demic climate variables demic climate variables 3 59.1% = 58.0% difference - 01.1% . variance significantly Variance significantly accounted for by SES = accounted for by SE8 = 00.0% 00.0% difference : 00.0% 118 _!ulticollinearity The fact that SES significantly accounted for variation in the achievement levels among the schools sampled, when entered into the multiple regression equation first, yet did not significantly account for variation in achievement when entered into the equation last, is attributable to the effects of multicollinearity. According to Nie et a1. (1975), "Multicollinearity refers to the situation in which some or all of the independent variables are very highly related"(p.340). In effect, what happens in the situation where three independent variables, for instance, are highly related, the entry of any one of the variables first, will reduce the partial correlations that the second and third variables maintain with the dependent variable. This reduction may or may not function to the extent that the second and third variables fail to significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by the first variable, where a predetermined alpha level has been established. This is because the ability of an independent variable to account for residual variance, where multicollinearity exists, is contingent upon the zero order correlation that all independent variables considered maintain 119 with the dependent variable. The zero order correlations of all independent variables used in this study, presented in Appendix C, show that many of these variables are highly related. The correlation of SES and student reported sense of futility, for instance, yielded a coefficient of -.77. Obviously, these two variables are highly related. Moreover, the measure of student reported sense of futility was more highly related to the dependent variable achievement (-.71) than was the measure of SES (.61). Therefore, the finding that SE8 did not significantly account for variance beyond that significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility and other academic climate variables, yet student reported sense of futility and teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement did significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by SE8, is assumed to be reasonable. One should not misconstrue these findings as suggesting that the variance initially accounted for by SE8 (Table 4.1), was rendered insignificant in the third analysis (Table 4.3) where SE8 was entered into the multiple regression equation last. Rather, the findings mean that the variance initially accounted for by 8E8 was masked by the effects of multicollinearity where 8E8 was entered last. Likewise, the great reduction 120 in the amount of variance significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility, where it was entered into the multiple regression equation third instead of first, is also a result of the masking effect of multicollinearity. In the first multiple regression analysis (Table 4.1), upon being entered first, SE8 significantly accounted for 37.5% of the variance in achievement among the schools in the sample. Three academic climate variables--teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement, student reported sense of futility, and teacher-principal encouragement for improvement-- significantly accounted for 15.0%, 9.1% and 7.05 of the variance, respectively, for a total of’31.l% of the variance in achievement beyond that accounted for by SE8. On the other hand, when academic climate variables were entered into the multiple regression equation first (Table 4.3) two of the previous three academic climate variables, student reported sense of futility, and teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement, significantly accounted for 50.2% and 8.9% of the variance, respectively, for a total of 59.M% of the variance in achievement among the schools in the sample. SE8, upon being entered last, did not significantly account for variance beyond that signifi- cantly accounted for by these two academic climate variables. 121 The preceding figures illustrate the masking effect of multicollinearity, where certain variables were entered into the multiple regression equation in varying orders. That is, when the results of the two analyses are considered simultaneously, SE8 concealed a great percentage of the variance that student reported sense of futility significantly accounted for (Table 4.1) because SES and student reported sense of futility are highly related. However, the additional 9.1% of the variance that student reported sense of futility accounted for beyond that accounted for by 8E8 indicated that it accounted for variance beyond that which was also accounted for by SE8. The fact that in the first analysis, three academic climate variables significantly accounted for variance beyond that accounted for by SE8, whereas only two academic climate variables significantly accounted for achievement variance in the third analysis, is also attributable to the masking effect of multicollinearity. The notion of the masking of variance is further illustrated in Figure 4.1, where the results of the first and third multiple regression analyses have been simultaneously represented graphically. To summarize thus far, the fact that SE8 signifi- cantly accounted for variance in the first analysis but did not significantly account for variance in the third Variance significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility, upon being entered into the equation first. Residual variance significantly accounted for by teacher perception of student push for academic improvement 3090033 vd sol bednuooos vldnsolilnala eonslusV 0919309 poled noqu .vdiildul 10 cause bsduoqsu .3suil moldsupe ed: odnl vd 103 bednuooos vidnsollinaia eonslusv Isnbleefi _ oimebsos uol dauq dnsbuda lo aoidqsousq usdossd dnsmsvouqmi B s Variance accounted for by teacher—principal encourage- ment for improvement that was masked by the effecth of multicollinearity, where student reported sense of futility was entered into the equatiOn first. A m Variance significantly accounted for by SES that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where student reported sense of futility was entered into the equation first. C, 1D, E 3 Residual variance accounted for by teacher perception of student push for academic imprOVe- ment, student reported sense of futility, and teacher-principal encouragement for i rovement, respectively, where SE8 was entered in o the equation first. 125 FIGURE 4.1 Illustration of the Masking of Variance Due to the Effects of Hulticollinearity Where the Results of the First and Third Multiple Regression Analyses are Consi— dered Simultaneously ' 1 A 1A " _p 1 : Variance significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility, upon being entered into the equation first. D ; Residual variance significantly accounted for by teacher perception of student push for academic improvement B : Variance accounted for by teacher-principal encourage; ment for improvement that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where student reported sense of futility was entered into the equation first. A - Variance significantly accounted for by SES that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where student reported sense of futility was entered into the equation first. C, 1D, E = Residual variance accounted for by teacher perception of student push for academic improve— ment, student reported sense of futility, and teacher-principal encouragement for improvement, respectively, where SES was entered into the equation first. 1‘ a Variance significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where SE8 was entered into the equation first. II I-I dnabuda vd col bednuooos vidnsolllngia eonslcsv becadns gated noqu .vdliidul 10 cause bsdcoqeu .3311? coldsups and aim: 2d 101 bsdnuoooa vidnaoillnais sonsiusv Isublaafi : G olmsbsos sol dauq dnobuda lo noidqsocsq csdosed dnemsvouqmi 125 FIGURE 4.1 Illustration of the Masking of Variance Due to the Effects of Multicollinearity Where the Results of the First and Third Multiple Regression Analyses are Consi- dered Simultaneously ' C, 1A B : Variance accounted for by teacher-principal encourage- ment for improvement that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where student reported sense of futility was entered into the equation first. Variance significantly accounted for by SES that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where student reported sense of futility was entered into the equation first. 1D, E = Residual variance accounted for by teacher perception of student push for academic improve— ment, student reported sense of futility, and teacher-principal encouragement for improvement, respectively, where SES was entered into the equation first. a Variance significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where SE8 was entered into the equation first. ésjgaggigg l lonlcq-ssdossd vd col badnuooos eosslssv = 8 1d bewasm asw dad: duassvosqml so! than ' " as dnsbnds scsdw .vdlsaenliioolsiun lo ¢ V no taupe add odnl bacadne asw 23111301 lo 125 FIGURE 4.1 Illustration of the Masking of Variance Due to the Effects of Multicollinearity Where the Results of the First and Third Multiple Regression Analyses are Consi- dered Simultaneously A 1A C ‘10 A - Variance significantly accounted for by SES that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where student reported sense of futility was entered into the equation first. C, 1D, E = Residual variance accounted for by teacher perception of student push for academic improve- ment, student reported sense of futility, and teacher-principal encouragement for improvement, respectively, where SES was entered into the equation first. 1A : Variance significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where SE8 was entered into the equation first. , 1 -V‘F‘ ‘4 / . 5" . - fl .. Pro-0’5“ ,.« mun » \\\ asw Jadd 338 vd do? be3nuooos vi3nsoi?ingle eonslusv . A emsdw .v3lusenliiooi3ium ?o a399??9 ed3 vd befiasm 0301 bece3ne asw v3lil3u? ?0 sense bs3uoqsu 3nsbu3e .3211? nol3sups sd3 sefloas3 vd so? bs3nuooos sonslssv Isubiaefl : 3 lCII .0 «evosqml oimebsos so? dauq 3nebu3a ?o noi3qeossq bus .v3lil3u? ?o sense bs3uoqec 3nebu3e l3nsm .3aemevouqml so? 3nemegscuocns Isqionluq-usdose3 sd3 03a: bsss3ne esw 838 scsdw .vievl3osqssu .3311? nol3sups -..i,-i--.—_..A use.._” a. .. _--.., , _ .x __.___ 125 FIGURE 4.1 Illustration of the Masking of Variance Due to the Effects of Multicollinearity Where the Results of the First and Third Multiple Regression Analyses are Consi- dered Simultaneously 1A = Variance significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility that was masked by the effects of multicollinearity, where SE8 was entered into the equation first. 126 analysis is attributable to the effects of multicollin- earity--the intercorrelations that the four independent variables considered, maintained among themselves. By the same token, the fact that three academic climate variables significantly accounted for variance beyond that accounted for by SES when SES was entered into the multiple regression equation first, and only two academic climate variables significantly accounted for variance when 833 was entered last, is attributable to the effects of multicollinearity. In addition, the fact that the academic climate variable, teacher per- ception of student drive for academic improvement, significantly accounted for 15.0% of the variance in achievement in the first analysis yet only accounted for 8.9% of the variance in the third analysis, and student reported sense of futility significantly accounted for 50.2% of the variance in the third analysis yet only accounted for an additional 9.1% beyond the variance accounted for SES in the first analysis, is also attribu- table to the effects of the interrelationship of the variables presently considered. The fact that SE8 was entered behind 13 academic climate variables in the third multiple regression analysis executed (Table &.3) may raise some doubts concerning the ability of SES to significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables simply because of the number of variables that 127 preceded its entry into the multiple regression equation. This is not the case however. As was previously indicated, the ability of an independent variable to significantly account for variance beyond that significantly accounted for by variables that have preceded its entry into the multiple regression equation is a function of the intercorrelations existing among independent variables and/or the strength of a given variable's relationship to the dependent variable. To illustrate the preceding notion, six additional multiple regression analyses were executed entering the independent variables SES and student reported sense of futility into the multiple regression equations with predetermined hierarchies established, along with the two other academic climate variables--teacher perceived student push for academic improvement, and teacher- principal encouragement for improvement--that signifr-' cantly accounted for variance in either the first or third initial multiple regression analyses (Tables 4.1 and h.3). In three of the six analyses, SES was entered first into the multiple regression equation. In the next three, student reported sense of futility was entered first. Also, in the first three analyses, student reported sense of futility was entered second, third, and fourth behind SE8. Likewise, SES was entered second, third, and fourth 128 behind student reported sense of futility in the next three analyses. The analyses show that in each case where SE8 was entered first, it significantly accounted for 37.5! of variance in achievement among the schools in the sample. They further show that in each case where SE3 was entered first, three academic climate variables significantly accounted for an additional 31.15 of the variance beyond that accounted for by SES, and that student reported sense of futility significantly accounted for residual variance regardless of whether it was entered second, third, or fourth behind SE8. Changes in the amount of residual variance significantly accounted for by student reported sense of futility are, again, attributable to the interrelationship existing between student reported sense of futility and the variable(s) preceding its entry into the multiple regression equation. The analyses show that where student reported sense of futility was entered into the multiple regression equation first, it significantly accounted for 50.2% of the achievement variance. SE3 failed to signifi- cantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables, whether it was entered 129 second, third, or fourth behind student reported sense of futility. The results of the six analyses indicate that although SE3 significantly accounted for variance in the achievement levels of the schools sampled, it failed to significantly account for variance beyond that signifi- cantly accounted for by academic climate variables re- gardless of the point at which it was entered into the multiple regression equation. The fact that the signifi- cance level of the variance accounted for by SE8 changed depending upon its point of entry into the multiple regression equation is, again, attributable to the effects of multicollinearity, which means that in each case where SES was not entered first, the variables preceding its entry into the multiple regression equation reduced the partial correlation of SES to the dependent variable achievement, to the extent that it was in- sufficient to account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables. The opposite was true in each case where student reported sense of futility was not entered first. A summary of the partial correlations maintained by SES and student reported sense of futility as they were each entered into three multiple regression equations is presented in Table 4.9. The results of the six multiple regression analyses are presented in Tables h.10 and 4.11. mo. u means as pcmoaeacmam* mm0. $0.30 :Nm. 3 M *:NO. om.mo :m:.: 3 m How. ms.ao mam. m m *omo. sa.mo mm:.. m m mms. mm.oo and. m H *oao. as.eo as:.- m a we can» mama 03mm coapmaonmoo can» mama 0.3mm cogmaonnoo 1. r, m m Hmapumm seem coapmsumr,u[. m m Heavens mmpm conpasem spnaapsm no macaw ompsoamm new season soumpcm spaanpsm pcmospm schema sunbeam mam no wmcmm supposes acmespm meanness no mmcmm oopnoamm uncoupm season mcoHpmSUM coammmnwem bananas: opmnmaom means an nonopcm mmm use .mmm season macapmsdm coamoenmom bananas: opmnmqem means an omampcm mm3 mpdaapsm mo macaw ceanoaem pcoosum omens qpcoeo>oazo< new: mspmpm oesocoomuoaoom Hoonom new: one mpaaapsm mo omcom pmpnoaom peopspm an posampcamz meoapmaonnoo Hmfipnmm mo znmsesm m.: MAMonmEH you pcosemmnsoocm *ismo. mm.mo oso. mm0. mum. «we. 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Hmm. mos. mum. coHpsmopmm genomes m apHHHpsm so macaw *tooo. mm.mm mom. mom. mos. moe.- ompuoemm pcmnapm H can» umoH m oHpmm a secure mm mm m oHaHpHsz a oHasHm essence mHnaHea> swam 11 m soapssam Aeoschcoov HH.: memes 137 Identification of Academic Climate variable Accounting ’ for Most variance ‘ The question of which academic climate variable would account for most of the variation in achievement is answered by examining the zero order correlations that academic climate variables maintained with achieve- ment, as well as by examining the results of the regression analyses. When correlated with achievement, the academic climate variable, student reported sense of futility yielded the largest coefficient of all independent variables, including SE8. The coefficient yielded was -.71. When academic climate variables were entered into the regression equation first, with no a priori hierarchy established and 333 entered last (see Table u.3). the academic climate variable, student reported sense of futility, alone accounted for 50.2% of the variance in achievement where the total variance significantly accounted for was 59.1%. In the multiple regression analyses where SES was entered first and academic climate variables next, with no a priori hierarchy established (Table h.1) student reported sense of futility was listed third, behind SES and teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement. As was previously noted, the fact that student reported sense of futility only con- tributed an additional 9.1%’to the total variance significantly accounted for was attributed to its relation- ship to SE8. When correlated, SES and student reported 138 sense of futility yielded a coefficient of -.77. The effects of this relationship caused the partial corre- lation that student reported sense of futility main- tained with achievement, after SE8 was entered into the multiple regression equation, to drop below the partial correlation maintained by teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement. Thus, student reported sense of futility was listed third behind SE8 instead of second. However, the fact that student reported sense of futility was able to account for 85% of the total variance accounted for when academic climate variables were entered first into the multiple regression equation with no a priori hierarchy established and SES entered last (50.2% : 85% of 59.1%) clearly establishes it as the single independent variable that accounts for most of the variance in achievement among the schools in the sample. Discussion On the basis of paired comparisons of the initial multiple regression analyses executed (Table h.8), it was determined that eliminating two academic climate variables on the basis of lowest zero order correlations with achievement as opposed to eliminating two variables on the basis of lowest zero order correlations to SE8 resulted in differences with respect to the magnitude of the amounts of variance accounted for by SES and 139 academic climate variables. The variables chosen for entry on the basis of correlations with achievement almost consistently accounted for more variance in achievement than did the variables chosen for entry on the basis of correlations with SES. There were, however, no differences with respect to the direction of the results. That is, in the first pair of analyses, academic climate variables significantly accounted for variance beyond that significantly accounted for by SES. In the second pair, academic climate variables significantly accounted for variance before the analyses were terminated. Finally, in the third pair, SE8 did not significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables. The results of the preceding analyses support the hypothesis advanced in this study. Several of the measures of academic climate used in the study sig- nificantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables. Because of the apparent interrelationship of academic climate variables and SES, as indicated by zero order correlations of academic climate variables with SES. as well as the results of the regression analyses, the findings suggest that increasing the mean socio-economic status of students in schools like the ones in the sample used in this study without concomitant changes in academic climate, may not significantly improve no academic achievement. On the other hand, the results suggest that it may be possible to improve academic achievement by changing the academic climate that prevails in a given school, regardless of the mean socio— economic status of the students in that school. Next, the six additional multiple regression equations that were executed using the four independent variables that significantly accounted for variance in the initial analyses, illustrated how the variance significantly accounted for by an independent variable in one analysis was masked by the effects of multicol- linearity where that variable was entered at a different step in other analyses. These six analyses also illu- strated that where SE3 was entered into the multiple regression equation second, third, or fourth, behind student reported sense of futility, it failed to signifi- cantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by the variables that preceded its entry into the equation. In contrast, however, where student reported sense of futility was entered second, third, or fourth behind SE3 it consistently accounted for variance beyond that accounted for by SE3, and the other variables that preceded its entry into the multiple regression equation, thus indicating that the ability of an independent variable to account for residual variance is primarily a function of the strength of the relationship of that independent variable to the dependent variable over the effects of multicollinearity. These analyses supported the initial lhl finding that SE3 does not significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables. The identification of the academic climate variable, student reported sense of futility, as accounting for most of the variance in achievement among the schools in the sample was supported by the findings of Coleman et a1. (1966), Henderson (1972), and Brookover et al. (1973). These researchers found that where they made comparisons, black students reported a higher sense of futility, or lower sense of control over their academic environments than white students. It was therefore anticipated that a high negative coefficient would result when achievement and student reported sense of futility were correlated. The negative coefficient yielded when student re- ported sense of futility and achievement were correlated was the only negative correlation that was anticipated. Upon examining the zero order correlations presented in Table n.4, however, it can be seen that two additional academic climate variables, principal efforts at improving achievement, and teacher perceived competition and teacher push, were negatively correlated with achievement. The zero order correlations presented in Table 4.“ reflect the direction of the correlation of academic climate variables and SES with higher 1&2 achievement. That is, based on a priori considerations, it was determined how teachers, students, and principals in higher achieving schools would probably respond to the questions contained in the academic climate variables. The actual direction of the responses of teachers and principals to the questions contained in the academic climate variables, principal efforts at improving achievement and teacher perceived student competition and teacher push, were inconsistent with the directions that were anticipated. The direction of these two correlations with achievement warrants discussion. Based upon the questions contained in the two variables and the direction of their correlations with higher achievement, the correlations suggest that principals of the higher achieving schools contained in the sample rarely discuss ways of improving student achievement with their teachers. It is also suggested that teachers in the higher achieving schools in the sample do not perceive a high sense of competition for the best grades among their students. Also, the teachers in the higher achieving schools indicated that they do not encourage those students who they feel do not have the resources or ability to achieve higher academi- cally. One explanation of the negative correlation of the academic climate variable, principal efforts at im- proving achievement, and the dependent variable, lh3 achievement is that principals in the higher achieving schools are probably satisfied with the achievement levels of their schools and thus see no need to suggest ways of improving it. On the other hand, the principal of a lower achieving school would seem to be an individual who would be most concerned with improving achievement. With respect to the negative correlation of the academic climate variable, teacher perceived student competition and teacher push, teachers in the higher achieving schools in the sample would probably suggest that there is no need for competition among students for the best grade when they can all get the best grade without competing among themselves. These same teachers probably feel that it does not make sense to encourage a student to do something that he or she cannot do, whatever the reason. On the other hand, teachers in lower achieving schools may feel that only a few will "make it" and that competition helps to strengthen determination. Thus, they may encourage an atmosphere of competition that extends even to those who they feel may not have the resources or ability to achieve higher. Investigation of these notions certainly seems warranted. Further examination of the zero order correlations presented in Table 4.h indicates that a number of the academic climate variables maintained high correlations lhh with the dependent variable, achievement. The fact that only three academic climate variables significantly accounted for variance beyond that accounted for by SE3 suggests that the relationship of the remaining variables to achievement may have been rendered insignificant in the multiple regression analyses due to their inter- relationship with the variables that did significantly account for variance. Therefore, the results of the analyses should not be interpreted to mean that the remaining academic climate variables may not have some impact upon achievement. This notion should be further investigated before any conclusions are drawn. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, CONCDUSIONS, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary This study was developed from what many perceive to be a need for establishing a data base that is specifically representative to populations of black Americans, a data base from.which inferences can be made to facilitate the develOpment of counseling models that will be effective in use with these populations. The primary purpose of this study was to determine if an analysis of the relationship of academic climate variables to academic achievement in predominantly black elementary schools would support a major premise advanced by the proponents of the systemic approach to counseling. Proponents of systemic counseling view the cause of most mental health problems as originating within social systems as opposed to originating within the client. The premise advanced states that the social-psychological climate that prevails in a given social system is the primary cause of certain behaviors exhibited by that system's members. Support for this premise was sought through the 145 146 testing of the hypothesis which stated that the measures of school academic climate used in this study would significantly account for variance over and above that accounted for by measures of mean school socio- economic status (SES). SES is a crucial element in the hypothesis because of the commonly voiced notion that the effects of school environments are inseparable from the effects of SES. Since the study was correlational, causal in- ferences could not be made concerning the findings. Thus, support for the premise stated above was deter- mined by what Baggaley (l96u) called "negative evidence." This means that if the findings of this study should not support the hypothesis advanced, a reconsideration of the hypothesis and/or the premise stated above would be in order. If the hypothesis should be supported, the implications of the correlations could be discussed, though causal inferences could not be made. The units of analysis were 30 elementary schools having student body populations of greater than 50% black. These schools were randomly sampled from.a population of 221 Michigan elementary schools, which comprise the state's total pOpulation of elementary schools having predominantly black student bodies. The instruments used were revised versions of separate but interrelated teacher, student, and principal 1&7 questionnaires develOped by Brookover et a1. (1973). The questionnaires were designed to measure different aspects of academic climate, based primarily upon student, teacher and principal perceptions. The mean responses of h,7h7 students, 1&3 teachers, and 30 principals were analyzed in this study. Achievement data were provided by Research, Evaluation and Assess- ment Services, Michigan Department of Education. SES data were gathered from both students and principals and were coded using a modified version of the Duncan Socioeconomic Index scale (Reiss et a1., 1961). The data were collected by black and/hr integrated research teams consisting of individuals who had been trained to administer the questionnaires. The academic climate variables used in this study were developed from factor analyses of data generated from a study by Brookover (1975) using the same in— struments as those used in this study. The sample from which.Brookover's data were collected consisted of 69 randomly sampled Michigan elementary schools, including seven schools that had predominantly black student bodies. The data were analyzed using forward inclusion multiple regression analysis,An a priori alpha level was set at .05. The hypothesis tested was supported when SES and academic climate variables were entered into multiple regression equations in varying orders. 1A8 Three of the 1A academic climate variables entered into the regression equations significantly accounted for variance over and above that accounted for by SES. However, SE3 did not significantly account for variance over and above that accounted for by academic climate variables. SE3 accounted for 37.5% of the variance when it was entered into the regression equation first. An additional 31.D% of the variance was accounted for by entering the academic climate variables into the equation after SES. The academic climate variables accounted for 59.1% of the variance when they were entered into the regression equation before SE3. SE3 did not significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables. Thus, the lack of negative evidence suggests that the social-psychological climate that prevails in a given social system may be the cause of certain he- haviors exhibited by that systemfis members. The academic climate variable, student reported sense of futility, was identified as the single independent variable which accounted for most of the variance among the achievement levels of the schools in the sample. This variable was a measure of the students' perception of their ability to control or influence the "system" around them, particularly those aspects of the school system which influence achievement. A coefficient of -.71 was obtained when student reported sense of futility 149 was correlated with achievement. This variable alone was responsible for 85% of the total variance sig- nificantly accounted for by academic climate variables and SES, where academic climate variables were entered into the regression equation first and SES entered last. Thus, the evidence from the study supported the hypothesis advanced. The evidence further indicates that student reported sense of futility may have the single most important effect on achievement of all the independent variables considered in the study. Limitations Several limitations regarding the execution of this present research have emerged after reviewing the procedures, methodology, instruments, and the decision model used in gathering and analyzing the data. They are as follows: 1. Occupation has long been considered the single, most accurate measure of socio-economic status (SES). A commonly accepted definition of SES. however, is yet to be formulated. Therefore the same uncertainties that center around the lack of a commonly accepted definition of socio-economic status are applicable to the findings of this study. 2. As was previously noted, this research was correlational rather than experimental. 3. 150 That is, variables were identified and their statistical relationships were computed. Hewever, no empirical evidence was provided concerning whether or not the effects of a certain variable or combination of variables was responsible for these relationships. Because of this fact, causal inferences cannot be made regarding the findings of this study. One of the primary underlying assumptions or this study was that aspects of elementary school academic climate could be identified, and that academic climate significantly accounts for varying levels of achievement among elementary schools beyond that accounted for by mean school socio-economic status. It was further assumed that elementary school students could, and would, differentiate between their perceptions of school—level and classroomelevel academic climate, and that student questionnaire items would reflect this differentiation. Since this study did not offer empirical evidence that student responses re- flected school-level or classroomrlevel academic climate, the preceding factor must be considered a limitation. 151 A. An additional underlying assumption of this study was that subjects' reported perception's would accurately reflect whether or not, or the extent to which certain situations, behaviors or attitudes actually existed on the part of others. For instance, the question, "How many of the students in this school do more studying for weekly tests than they have to?" serves. as a good example of this assumption. The research instruments were designed, for the most part, to solicit perceptions, for it is generally accepted that an individual's percep- tions are real, for that individual. The study did not seek to determine the accuracy of respondents' perceptions because the study was concerned with responses to these per- ceptions, as measured by mean school achieve— ment. However, the extent to which respondents were able to accurately assess certain situations, behaviors, or attitudes of others may possibly be considered a limitation. Hopefully, the preceding limitations reflect an obJective review of this research. In general, the study appears to be sound with respect to the procedures, methodology, and the decision model used in collecting and analyzing the data. For the most part, the limi- tations that have been identified do not appear to 152 Jeopardize the external validity of the findings. However, some question can be raised concerning whether or not students' responses reflect their perceptions of classroomvlevel or school-level academic climate. The construction of student questionnaire items suggests the assumption that elementary school students could and would differentiate between their perceptions of school-level and classroom-level academic climate. However, conclusions regarding this particular assumption cannot be made until this question has been investigated. Elk 153 Conclusions ‘Based upon the findings of this study, as well as the pro- cedures, methodology, and assumptions, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Since the sample used in this study was randomly selected and the methods of data collection are assumed to be consistent, the findings are therefore applicable to the population from which the sample was drawn, namely, (a) Certain academic climate variables significantly accounted for variance beyond that accounted for by SES, (b) SE8 did not significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by academic climate variables, and (c) Student reported sense of futility was the academic climate variable that accounted for the most variance in achievement among the schools sampled. Student sense of futility, teacher perception of student drive for academic improvement, and teacher-principal efforts at improving achievement, as measured by the research instruments used in this study, may significantly affect mean school achieve- ment in Hichigan's_predomdnantly black schools, regardless of mean socio-economio status in these schools. 3. 5. 15h Student sense of futility may have the most sig- nificant impact of all the aspects of academic climate measured in the study, upon mean school achievement in Michigan's predominantly black elementary schools. Changes in the mean socio-economic status (e.g., by busing) of Michigan's predominantly black elementary schools may not effectively improve achievement with- out concomitant changes in academic climate. The results of this study should not be inter- preted to suggest that mean school socio-economic status has no impact upon mean school achievement. However, since it is assumed that changes in mean school SES cannot be as readily effected as changes in academic climate, it is concluded that improve- ment in the achievement levels of Iichigan's predominantly black elementary schools may be most readily effected by changes in academic climate. Since it was assumed that social systems have similar components and behavioral properties, as defined in Figure 1.1, the findings concerning the social systems (schools or classrooms) in this study are apparently generalizable to other social systems. Thus, the lack of ”negative evidence” from the find- ings of this study suggests that the social-psycho- logical climate of a given social system may be the primary cause of certain behaviors exhibited by 155 that system's members. Because evidence has not been presented indicating whether student responses reflect school-level or classroom- level perceptions, the specific findings of this study concerning student perceptions, cannot be generalized to the school as a whole. However, because the classroom social system and the school social system are assumed to have similar components and be- havioral properties to other social systems thus, to each other, the behavioral properties of the social system that was the focus of student responses can apparently be generalized to the school as a whole. Discussion The conclusions drawn from this study have far- reaching implications for education, counseling, and related fields. For those educators who are concerned with improving achievement in schools like those in the sample, the evidence from this study suggests that it may be possible to improve achievement regardless of the mean socio-economic status of the students. In this study, a set of academic climate variables that may be significantly contributing to the variation in the achieve— ment levels among the schools in the sample has been 156 identified. The findings indicate that changing the mean socio-economic status of the students in these schools without concomitant changes in academic climate may not effectively enhance academic achievement. The results of this study seriously challenge the potential effectiveness of counselors who simply attempt to modify the behavior of their clients to accommodate social system norms, since the data suggest that some social system norms may not be conducive to the growth, develOpment, and general welfare of the client. The evidence from this study suggests that this may, in fact, be the case for many black youngsters in Michigan's predominantly black elementary schools. If the way a social problem is defined determines the attempts at remediation by suggesting the foci and techniques of intervention (Caplan & Nelson, 1972), and if clients' behaviors are mediated in part by the social-psychological climates that prevail in social systems, as the results of this study indicate may be the case, then it stands to reason that those intervention techniques that fail to consider the possible effects of social system climate on client behavior will probably be ineffective with respect to problem solving. As was pointed out in Chapter I, the proponents of the systemic approach to counseling advocate a reordering of the direction of counseling techniques. They believe 157 that social systems are primarily responsible for many of the so-called "deviant" behaviors that in- dividuals exhibit. Again, if social system climates are primarily responsible for certain behaviors that clients exhibit, then the counselor who is able to recognize that the cause of the problem lies outside of the client is in a more reasonable position to formulate a resolution of the problem. The review of the literature pertinent to this study reflected concern over attempts to generalize research findings to black populations where no attempts to explore differences between black and other populations were made. This concern appears to be Justified when the results of this study are compared to findings con- cerning academic climate in predominantly white elementary schools. Upon examining the results of an analysis of the relationship of some of the measures of academic climate and SES used in this study to the achievement levels of a random sample of 62 predominantly white Michigan schools by Brookover and Schneider (1975), it was found that a number of differences existed between the results of their analyses and the results of the analyses executed in this study, even though the same types of analyses and :many of the same measures of academic climate were used (Brookover and Schneider did not use the five academic 158 climate variables obtained from principal responses to questionnaire items). It was found that differences existed with respect to which academic climate variables significantly accounted for variance, the direction of some of the zero order correlations, and the means and standard deviations of variable scores. Brookover and Schneider found that the academic climate variable, student reported sense of futility, emerged as the academic climate variable that accounted for most of the variance in achievement among the schools in their sample. Their results show, however, that student reported sense of futility did not significantly account for variance beyond that accounted for by SES. This finding suggests that the impact that "futility" probably has on achievement, in part depends upon the racial composition of a school's student body. The apparent differences in academic climate between pre- dominantly black and predominantly white schools lend credence to the concern voiced in the literature over the ineffectiveness of traditional counseling models with black populations. These apparent differences between black and white populations require counseling models equipped to handle those differences--mode1s that are effective in resolving problems related to racial or cultural differences. Although the perceived effectiveness of the systemic 159 approach to counseling is not limited to a single population, its development was fostered by a need to formulate counseling models that will be effective in use with populations of black Americans. Previous research (Henderson, 1972; Brookover et a1., 1973) support the notion that differences in academic climate exist between predominantly black and predominantly white schools. If academic climate is causally related to achievement, then given the differences that exist between predominantly black and predominantly white schools with respect to academic climate, different strategies would be necessary to effect positive changes in achievement depending upon whether the school is predominantly black or pre- dominantly white. Thus, factors related to achieve- ment may differ in terms of importance and impact, depending upon the racial composition of a school's student body. Finally, the model of social system.behavior which was formulated in Chapter I (Figure 1.1), based on the premise that the climate in a given social system is the primary cause of certain behaviors exhibited by that system's members, can be used to explain the findings of this study and thus, has construct validity. 160 For instance, the model advances the notion that administrator members of a social system, in part, determine certain behaviors exhibited by that systemfls recipient members. Evidence from this study suggests that this behavioral relationship may exist between the teachers (administrator members) and students (recipient members) of the schools in the sample. A comparison of Brookover and Schneider's findings (1975) to the findings of this study suggest that black students report a higher sense of futility than do white students. This notion is supported by previous research (Coleman et a1., 1966; Henderson, 1972; Brookover et a1., 1973). That students in predominantly black schools would report a higher sense of futility is a phenomenon that can also be accounted for by the model. The model does so by advancing the notion that recipient social system members are characterized by feelings of "powerlessness," and that race, among other things, is a factor that can contribute to this feeling. To summarize, the evidence from this research lends credence to many of the issues and concerns that were. found while reviewing the literature pertinent to this study. The lack of negative evidence concerning the philosophy underlying systemic intervention suggests that this approach to counseling may prove to be an effective alternative to traditional counseling models. 161 Recommendations In this final section, a list of recommendations is presented concerning the findings and how they might be used in future research, education, counseling, and counselor training programs. Research The findings of this study have suggested answers to some questions concerning the relationship of academic climate to achievement; a number of questions still remain. Based upon the questions that have been answered, and the ones that remain, it is recommended that future researchers: 1. Attempt to determine what causal relationships exist between the academic climate variables identified in this study and academic achieve- ment, including those that did not significantly account for variance. 2. Determine what effects school climates haveon other behaviors exhibited by students. 3. Make a comprehensive assessment of the differences in academic climate that exist between pre- cominantly black and predominantly white elementary schools. It is further recommended that research concerning social-psychological climates in other social systems, such as family, business, and secondary school, be 162 undertaken. The findings of this research have helped give direction to the approach that such studies should take. More specifically, it is recommended that these studies: 1. First, identify those social system climate variables that may be affecting certain ‘ behavior(s) exhibited by system members. 2. After identifying these variables, determine what causal relationships exist between them and the behavior(s) considered. Education Based upon the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made concerning their use in education. It is recommended that educators: 1. Formulate and test strategies that are designed to improve achievement through changes in academic climate. 2. Encourage further research concerning school climate as it relates to student behavior. 3. Expose teachers in training to the literature concerning school climate and achievement. Counseling Concerning the application of the findings of this study by counselors, it is recommended that practicing counselors: 163 Determine whether they and their clients perceive the techniques that they commonly practice to be more or less effective than techniques that are guided by the notion that social systems cause many of the problems that they are asked to resolve. That is, they should test their methods against the methods advocated by the proponents of systemic intervention. Consider the possibility that certain behaviors exhibited by a client may be caused by a social system's behavior toward that client's color or culture. This consideration would also involve the testing of presently practiced techniques against those advocated by the proponents of systemic intervention. Counselor TrainingiPrggrams With respect to counselor training programs, the 1. following recommendations are made based on the findings of this study. It is recommended that counselor training programs: Expose counselors in training to the literature concerned with the relationship of social system environment to human behavior. 164 Support and encourage research by counselors in training concerning the effects of social climate on human behavior. Provide for the study of the cultural dynamics of those minority groups with whom counselors in training intend to practice. APPENDICES APPENDIX A FACTORS PRODUCED BY BROOKOVER (1975), USED IN DETERMINING MEASURES OF ACADEMIC CLIMATE APPENDIX A FACTORS PRODUCED BY BROOKOVER (1975) , USED IN DETERMING MEASURES OF ACADEMIC CLIMATE Student Factor 1 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate'Variable, Student Reported Sense of Futility Factor Loading Score .61 13. 14. 19. How many students in this school don't care if they get bad grades? Almost all Most Half Some Almost None of of of of of How many students more studying for they have to? Almost all Most Half Some Almost none Almost all Most About half Some None 165 of of of of of of of of of of the the the the the students.....1 students.....2 students.....2 students..... students.....5 in this school do weekly tests than the the the the the the the the the the students.....1 students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 How many students in this class think reading is a fun thing to 30 and read even when they don't have to? students.....1 students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 Factor Loading Score .68 .79 .80 20. 21. 22. 23. 166 How many students in this school make fun of or tease students who get real good grades? Almost all Most About half Some None of the of the of the of the of the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 How many students don't do as well as they could do in school be- cause they are afraid other students won't like them Almost all Most About half Some None 88 of of of of of the the the the the “MACH5 students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students.....u students.....5 How many students don't do as well as they could do in school because they are afraid their friends won't like them as muc . Almost all Most About half Some None of the of the of the of the of the students.....1 students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 How many students in this school would study hard if their work wasn't graded by the teachers? Almost all Most About half Some None of the of the of the of the of the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students.....h students.....5 Factor Loading Score .63 .72 .80 .77 2A. 25. 27. 28. 40. 167 PeOple like me will not have much of a chance to do what we want to in life. Strongly agree.....1 Agree.....2 Disagree.....3 Strongly disagree.....4 People like me will never do well in school even though we try hard. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Disagree.....2 Strongly disagreeoeooo In this school, students like me don't have any luck. Strongly agree.....1 Agree.....2 Disagree.....3 Strongly disagree.....u You have to be lucky to get good grades in this school. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Disagree.....g Strongly disagree..... How many teachers in this school tell students to.try and get better grades than their classmates?. Almost all of the teachers.....1 Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....g Some of the teachers..... Almost none of the teachers.....5 Factor Loading Score Al. .77 42. .56 “30 .66 44. .82 168 Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many don't care if the students get bad grades? Almost all of the teachers.....l Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....2 Some of the teachers..... Almost none of the teachers.....5 Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many tell students to do extra work so that they can get better grades? Almost all of the teachers.....1 Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....3 Some of the teachers.....4 Almost none of the teachers.....5 Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many make the students work too hard? Almost all of the teachers.....l Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....3 Some of the teachers.....u Almost none of the teachers.....5 Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many don't care how hard the student works, as long as he passes? Almost all Most Half Some Almost none of the teachers.....l of the teachers.....2 of the teachers.....3 of the teachers.....u of the teachers.....5 169 Factor Loading Score A7. Think of your teacher. Would your teacher say you can do school .60 work better, the same or poorer than other peOple your age? Better than all of them.....l Better than some of them......2 Same as most of them.....3 Poorer than most of them.....4 Poorer than all of them.....5 .56 57. How good of a student do your parents expect you to be in school? One of the best.....l Better than most of the students.....2 Same as most of the students.....3 Not as good as most_of the students.....4 One Of the "Oratooooes 58. Think of your parents. Do your parents say you can do school work .77 better, the same or poorer than your friends? Better than all of them.....1 Better than most of them.....2 Same as most of them.....3 Poorer than most of them.....h Poorer than all of them.....5 .59 59. Would your parents say that your grades would be with the best, same as most or below most of the students when you finish high school? One of the best.....1 Better than most of the students.....2 Same as most of the students.....3 Not as good as most of the students.....4 One Of the worstooooos Factor Loading Score .88 .86 170 Student Factor 2 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate variable, Student Per- ceived Future Evaluations-EXpectations 9. If you could go as far as you wanted in school, how far would you like to go? Finish grade school.....l Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high 80h0010¢ooo3 Go to college for a while.....4 Finish college.....5 10. Sometimes what you want to happen is not what you thinE will happen. How far do you tHInE you will go in school? Finish grade school.....1 G0 to high SChOOl for a Whileoooooe Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while.....4 Finish college.....5 15. If most of the students here could go as far as they wanted in school, how far would they go? Finish grade school.....1 Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while.....4 Finish college.....5 38. How far do you think your best friend believes you will go in school? Finish grade school.....1 Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while.....4 Finish college.....5 Factor Loading Score .78 -.53 .79 -.68 45. 48. 56. 60. 61. 171 How far do you think the teacher ou like the best believes you w 1 go in scfiooI? Finish grade school.....l Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while.....h Finish college.....5 Would your teacher say that your grades would be with the best, same as most or below most of the students when you graduate from high school? One of the best.....1 Better than most of the students.....2 Same as most of the students.....3 Below most of the students.....4 One of the worst.....5 How far do you think your parents believe you will go in school? Finish grade school.....1 Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while.....h Finish college.....5 Do you parents think you could finish college? Yes, for sure.....1 Yes, probably.....2 Maybe.....3 No, probably not.....“ No, for sure.....5 Remember, you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Do your parents think you could do that? Yes, for sure.....1 Yes, probably.....2 Maybe.....3 No, probably not.....h No, for sure.....5 Factor Loading Score .51 .57 .78 .A9 172 Student Factor 3 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Student Per- ceived Teacher Push for Student Improve- ment 39. Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many tell students to try hard to do better on tests? Almost all of the teachers.....1 Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....2 Some of the teachers..... Almost none of the teachers.....5 #6. How good of a student does the teacher on like the best expect you to Be In sc 001? One of the best.....l Better than most of the students.....2 Same as most of the students.....2 Not as good as most of the students..... One of the worst.....5 #9. How often do teachers in this school try to help students who do badly on their school work? They always try to help.....1 They usually try to help.....2 They sometimes try to help.....3 They seldom try to he1p.....4 They never try to help.....5 51. Compared to students from other schools, how well will most of the students from this school do in high school? They will be among the best.....1 They will do better than most.....2 They will do about the same as most.....3 They will do poorer than most.....4 They will be among the worst.....5 173 Factor Loading Score 52. How important is it to teachers in this school that their stu- .7O dents learn their school work? It is the most important thing to the teachers.....l It is very important to the teachers.....2 It is somewhat important to the teachers.....3 It is not very important to the teachers.....u It is not important at all to the teachers.....5 53. Think about the teachers you know in this school. Do you think the teachers in this school care more, or less, than teachers in other schools about whether or not their students .69 learn their school work? Teachers in this school care a lot more.....l Teachers in this school care a little more.....2 There is no difference.....3 Teachers in this school care a little less.....h Teachers in this school care a lot less.....5 5h. Does your teacher think you .61 could finish college? Yes, for sure.....l Yes, probably.....2 Maybe.....3 Probably not.....4 No, for sure.....5 55. Remember you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Does your .60 teacher think you could do that? Yes, for sure.....l Yes, probably.....2 Maybe.....3 Probably not.....4 No, for sure.....5 17“ Student Factor A Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate variable, Student Academic Competition Norms Factor Loading Score 11. How many students in this school try hard to get a good grade on .63 their weekly tests? Almost all of the students.....l Most of the students.....2 Half of the students.....3 Some of the students..... Almost none of the students.....5 .76 12. How many students in this school will work hard to get a better grade on the weekly tests than their friends do? Almost all of the students.....l Most of the students.....2 Half of the students.....2 Some of the students..... Almost none of the students.....5 17. How important do most of the students in this class feel it is .56 to do well in schooI work? They feel it is very important.....1 They feel it is important......2 They feel it is somewhat important.....3 They feel it is not very important.....4 They feel it is not important at 811.....5 18. How important do you think most of the students in this school feel .67 it is to do well in scfiooI work? They feel it is very important.....l They feel it is important.....2 They feel it is somewhat important.....3 They feel it is not very important.....h They feel it is not important at all.....5 175 Factor Loading Score .51 50. Compared to students in other schools, how much do students in this school They learn a lot They learn a little About the same They learn a little bit They learn a lot learn? more in this school.....l more in this school.....2 as in other schools.....3 less in this school.....4 less in this school.....5 176 Student Factor 5 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate variable, Student Perceived Present Evaluations-Expectations Factor Loading Score 16. .58 26. .61 HCw important is it to you to be a good student? Very important.....1 Important.....2 Somewhat important.....3 Not very important..... Not important at all.....5 I can do well in school if I work hard. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Disagree.....2 Strongly disagree..... Factor Loading Score .41 .88 177 Teacher Factor 1 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate variable, Teacher Future Evaluations-Expectations of Students 20. 23. 24. 25. 0n the average, what level of achievement can be expected of the students in your class? Much above national norm.....l Slightly above national norm.....2 Approximately at national norm.....3 Slightly below national norm.....h Much below national norm.....5 What percent of the students in this school do you expect to attend coIIege? Less than 305.....5 What percent of the students in your class do you expect to attend college? 90% or more..... 1 70% to 2 6 CC... 33; 2: “$000002 Less than 30%.....5 What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete college. 970% to 895.....2 30% to 495.....u Factor Loading Score 26. .80 270 .62 28. 053 29. .59 320 .80 178 What percent of the students in your class do you expect to complete coIlege? 90% or more.....1 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 How many of the students in this school are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? 90% or more.....l 78; :0 33:00.00; 5 0 eoooo 30% to u Less than 30%000005 How many of the students in your Class are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? 9% or more.....1 70% t0 89%000002 50% to 69%ooooofi 30% to “9%..... Less than 30%.....5 How would you rate the academic ability of the students in this school compared to other schools? Ability here is much higher.....l Ability here is somewhat higher.....2 Ability here is about the same.....3 Ability here is somewhat lower.....4 Ability here is much lower.....5 What percent of the students in this school would you say want to go to coIIege? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%..0003 30% t0 uggooooou Less than 305.....5 Factor Loading Score 33. 069 38. .81 .84 39.- 40. .67 179 What percent of the students in your class would you sawaggt to go to coIIege? 90% or more.....1 70% to 8%000002 SC“ to 6%.00003 3% t0 14%ooooou’ Less than 30%.....5 What percent of the students in this school do you think the principal expects to attend college? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%.....2 5% to 6%ooooe3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 What percent of the students in this school do you think the principal expects to complete college? 90% or more.....l 7% to 8%000002 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 How many students in this school do you think the principal believes are capable of getting mostly A's and 3'3? 90% or more.....l 7% to 8%000002 50% to 6 ..... 30% to A9%.....# Less than 30%.....5 180 Factor Loading Score A1. How do you think your principal rates the academic ability of the .58 students in this school, compared to other schools? Rates it much higher.....l Rates it somewhat better.....2 Rates it the same.....3 Rates it somewhat lower.....u Rates it much lower.....5 A3. Completion of college is a realistic goal which you set for what per- .65 centage of your students? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to h9%.....h Less than 30%.....5 58. How many students in this school will seek extra work so that tfiey .h9 can get better grades? Almost all Of the students.....l Most of the students.....2 About half of the students.....3 Some of the students.....u Almost none of the students.....5 63. How many of the parents of the students in this school eXpect their Children .58 to complete college? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....h Almost none of the parents.....5 181 Teacher Factor 2 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Teacher Present Evaluations- Eépectations of Students Factor Loading Score 21. What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete .81 HIgH school? 90% or more.....1 7% to 2&000002 5 to 0.0003 30% to 49%.....# Less than 30%.....5 22. What percent of the students in your class do you expect to complete .81 hlgh school? 90% or more.....l 7% to 89%ooooo2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....# Less than 30%.....5 30 What percent of the students in this school would you say want to complete .97 High school? 90% or more.....l 70% to 8976.....2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....# Less than 30%.....5 31. What percent of the students in your class would you say want to complete .91 h1g5 school? 90% or more.....l 7% to 8%000002 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 4975.....4 Less than 30%.....5 Factor Loading Score 37. .60 A2. .70 AA. -.50 62. .6A 182 What percent of the students in this school do you think the principal expects to complete high school? 90% or more.....1 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 6%000003 30% to 149%.000924 L888 than 3%o00005 Completion of high school is a realistic goal whiCh you set for what percentage of your students? 90% or more.....1 70% to 895.....2 6 ..... 38% :3 43:"...2 Less than 305.....5 How often do you stress to your students the necessity of a high school education for a good Job and/or a comfortable life? Very often.....l 0ften.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....h Never.....5 How many of the parents of students in this school eXpect their children to complete high School? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents....." Almost none of the parents.....5 183 Teacher Factor 3 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Teacher Perception of Parents' value of Education Factor Loading Score 19. On the average, what level of achieve- ment can be expected of the students .53 in this school? Much above national norm.....l Slightly above national norm.....2 Approximately at national norm.....3 Slightly below national norm.....4 Much below national norm.....5 60. The parents of students in this school regard this school primarily -.77 as a "baby-sitting" agency. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Not sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 61. The parents of students in this school are deeply concerned that their .67 children receive a top quality education. Strongly agree.....l Agree. 0 o o 02 Not sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree. 0 o o 05 64. How many of the parents of students in this school don't care if their -.78 children obtain low grades? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 Factor Loading Score .74 65. 184 How many of the parents of students in this school want feedback from the principal and teachers on how their children are doing in school? Almost all of the parents.....1 Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 185 Teacher Factor 4 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Teacher Perceived Student Competition and Teacher Push Factor Loading Score 45. Do you encourage your students who do not have sufficient economic resources .48 to aspire to go to college? Always.....1 Usually.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 46. Do you encourage your students who do not have sufficient academic ability .57 to aspire to go to college? Always.....l Usually.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Neverooooos 48. It would be unfair for teachers in this school to insist on a higher -.57 level of achievement from students than they now seem capable of achieving? Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 NOt sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 49. If I think a student is not able to do some school work, I don't try to -.48 push him very hard? Strongly agree.....1 Agreeoooooe Not sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 186 Factor Loading Score 50. I am generally very careful not to push students to a level of frus- -.49 tration. Strongly agree.....1 Agree.....2 Not sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 54. How many students in this school will try hard to do better school work .74 than their friends do? Almost all of the students.....1 Most of the students.....2 About half of the students.....3 Some of the students.....4 Almost none of the students.....5 55. How many students in your class will try hard to do better schooI work .78 than their classmates do? Almost all of the students.....l Most of the students.....2 About half of the students.....3 Some of the students.....4 Almost none of the students.....5 Factor Loading Score .60 187 Teacher Factor 5 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Teacher Perception of Student Drive for Academic Improvement 52. 53. 56. 57. How many students in this school try hard to improve on previous work? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none How many students of of of of of the the the the the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 in your class try hard to improve on previous work? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none of the of the of the of the of the students.....1 students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 How many students in this school are content to do less than they sHould? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none How many students of of of of of the the the the the students.....1 students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 in your class are content to do less than they sfiould? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none of the of the of the of the of the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 188 Factor Loading 59. How many students in your class will seek extra work so that they can get Score .51 better grades? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none of the of the of the of the- of the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 189 Teacher Factor 6 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Teacher- Principal Encouragement for Improvement Factor Loading Score 47. .71 51. .43 75. .77 78. .78 How many teachers in this school feel that all their students should be taught to read well and master other academic subJects, even though some students may not appear to be interested? Almost all Most Half Some Almost none of the teachers.....l of the teachers.....2 of the teachers.....3 of the teachers.....4 of the teachers.....5 How many teachers encourage students to seek extra school work so that the students can get better grades? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none How often does administrators of the teachers.....1 of the teachers.....2 of the teachers.....3 of the teachers.....4 of the teachers.....5 the principal and/or other in this school assist and give support to the teachers on ways to improve their students' academic achievement? Very often.....1 Oftenoeoeo2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 When you are trying to improve your instructional program, how easy or difficult is it to get the principal's assistance? Very easy.....1 Easy.....2 Varies from time to time.....3 Difficult.....u Very difficult.....5 Factor Loading Score .58 -037 190 Teacher Factor 7 Also Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Teacher Present Evaluations-Expectations of Students 76. 77. One important criterion for evaluating a teacher's erformance should be how well his/ger students achieve academically. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Not Sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 In this school, there is really very little a teacher can do to insure that all of his/her students achieve at a high level. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Not sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 191 Principal Factor 1 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate variable, Principal Future Evaluations-Expectations of of Students Factor Loading Score 19. With regard to student achievement, how good a school do you think this .37 school can be? Among the best.....l Better than average.....2 About average.....3 Below average.....4 Inferior.....5 38. What percent of the students in this school do you expect to attend .82 college? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%osooo3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%....o5 39. What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete .83 college? 90% or more.....1 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 3% to u%ooooou’ Less than 30%.....5 41. How would you rate the academic ability of the students in this school .57 compared to other schools? Ability here is much higher.....l Ability here is somewhat higher.....2 Ability here is about the same.....3 Ability here is somewhat lower.....4 Ability here is much lower.....5 192 Factor Loading Score 45. How many of the parents of students in this school expect their children .63 to complete college? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none of the parents.....l of the parents.....2 of the parents.....3 of the parents.....4 of the parents.....5 193 Principal Factor 2 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Principal Perception of Parental Concern Factor Loading Score 42. The parents of students in this school regard this school as primarily -.46 a "baby-sitting" agency. Strongly agree.....1 Agree.....2 Unsure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 43. The parents of students in this school are deeply concerned that their .72 Children receive a top quality education. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Unsure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 .68 44. How many of the parents of students in this school expect their children to complete high school? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 46. How many of the parents of students in this school don't care if their -.73 children obtain low grades? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 Factor Loading Score .73 47. 194 How many of the parents of students in this school want feedback from the principal and teachers on how their children are Almost all Most About half Some Almost none of of of of of doing in school? the the the the the parents.....l parents.....2 parents.....3 parents.....4 parents.....5 195 Principal Factor 3 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate variable, Principal Evaluation of School Factor Loading Score 17. .68 18. .69 70. .70 71. .85 In your Judgement, what is the general reputation of this school among educators? Among the best.....1 Better than average.....2 About average.....3 Below average.....4 Inferior.....5 With regard to student achievement, how would you rate this school? Among the bestoooool Better than average.....2 About average.....3 Below average..... Inferior.....5 In general, how do your students' parents feel about the achievement of their children? Nearly all feel they are doing "611000001 Most think students are achiev- ing as well as they should.....2 Most think their children are NOT achieving high enough.....3 Nearly all think they are NOT achieving high enough.....4 In general, how do you feel about the achievement of the students in this school? Nearly all students are achiev- ing as well as they can.....1 Most students are achieving as well as they can.....2 Less than half of the students are achieving as well as they can.....3 Only a few of the students are achieving as well as they can.....4 196 Principal Factor 4 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Principal Efforts at Improving_Achievement Factor Loading Score 56. How often do you suggest ways of improving student achievement to .89 your teachers? Very often.....l Often.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 57. How often do you meet with the teachers as a group to discuss ways .89 of improving student achievement? Very often.....l Often.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 197 Principal Factor 5 Formed the Basis of the Academic Climate Variable, Principal Present Evaluations-EXpectations of Students Factor Loading Score 36. On the average, what achievement level can be expected of the students in .58 this school? Much above national norm.....l Slightly above national norm.....2 Approximately at national norm.....3 Slightly below national norm.....4 Much below national norm.....5 37. What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete .58 high school? 90% or more.....l 7%130 8%.00002 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 40. How many of the students in this school are capable of getting good .65 grades? 90% or more.....1 70% to 8%ooo002 50% to 6%...003 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 54. What percentage of the students in this school do you feel are capable .35 of learning to read by the end of second grade? 100%.....l 9% to 9%.....2 80% t0 8%o00003 70% to 79%.....4 50% to 69%.....5 Less than 50%.....6 APPENDIX B QUESTIONS CONTAINED IN EACH ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLE APPENDIX B QUESTIONS CONTAINED IN EACH ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLE Student Climate Variable 1: Student Reported Sense of Futility 13. How many students in this school don't care if they get bad grades? Almost all Most Half Some Almost none 14. How many students in this school of the of the of the of the of the for weekly tests than they have to? Almost all Most Half Some Almost none of the of the of the of the of the students.....l students.....2 students.....2 students..... students.....5 do more studying students.....l students.....2 students.....2 students..... students.....5 19. How many students in this class think reading is a fun thing to do and read even when they don't have to? Almost all Most About half Some None of the of the of the of the of the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students..... students.....5 20. How many students in this school make fun of or tease students who get reaI gooa grades? Almost all of the students.....1 Most of the students.....2 Almost half of the students....3 Some of the students.....4 None of the students.....5 198 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 199 How many students don't do as well as they could do in school because they are afraid other students won't like them as much? Almost all Most About half Some None How many students don't do as won't like them as much? Almost all Most About half Some None of the of the of the of the of the students.....1 students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 well as they could do in school because they are afraid their friends of the of the of the of the of the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students..... students.....5 How many students in this school would study hard if their work wasn't graded by the teachers? Almost all Most About half Some None of the of the of the of the of the People like me will not have much of what we want to in life. StUGentSoeoosl students.....2 students.....3 students..... students.....5 a chance to do Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Disagree.....3 Strongly disagree.....4 People like me will never do well in school even though we try hard. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Disagree.....3 Strongly disagree.....4 I can do well in school if I work hard. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 DisagreeooOOOB Strongly disagree.....4 27. 28. 41. 42. an. 200 In this school, students like me don't have any luck. Strongly agree.....1 Agree.....2 Disagree....o3 Strongly disagree.....4 You have to be lucky to get good grades in this school. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Disagree.....3 Strongly disagree.....4 How many teachers in this school tell students to try and get better grades than their classmates? Almost all of the teachers.....1 Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....2 Some of the teachers..... Almost none of the teachers.....5 0f the teachers that you know in this school, how many don't care if the students get bad grades? Almost all of the teachers.....l Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....2 Some of the teachers..... Almost none of the teachers.....5 0f the teachers that you know in this school, how many tell students to do extra work so that they can get better grades? Almost all of the teachers.....1 Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....3 Some of the teachers.....4 Almost none of the teachers.....5 Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many don't care how hard the student works, as long as he passes? Almost all of the teachers.....l Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....3 Some of the teachers.....4 Almost none of the teachers.....5 16. 46. 48. 57. 58. 201 Student Climate Variable 2: Student Perceived Present Evaluations-Expectation; How important is it to you to be a good student? Very important.....1 Important 0 o o o o 2 Somewhat important.....3 Not very important.....4 Not important at all.....5 How good of a student does the teacher you like the best expect you to be in scfiool? One of the best.....l Better than most of the students.....2 Same as most of the students.....3 Not as good as most of the students.....4 One of the worst.....5 Would your teacher say that your grades would be with the best, same as most or below most of the students when you graduate from high school? One of the best.....l Better than most of the students.....2 Same as most of the students.....3 Below most of the students.....4 One of the worst.....5 How good of a student do your parents expect you to be in school? One of the best.....1 Better than most of the students.....2 Same as most of the students.....3 Not as good as most of the students..... One of the worst.....5 Think of your parents. Do your parents say you can do school work better, the same or poorer than your friends? Better than all of them.....l Better than most of them.....2 Same as most of them.....3 Poorer than most of them.....4 Poorer than all of them.....5 202 59. Would your parents say that your grades would be with the best, same as most or below most of the students when you finish high school? One of the best.....l Better them most of the students.....2 Same as most of the students.....g Not as good as most of the students..... One of the worst.....5 9. 10. 15. 38. 45. 203 Student Climate variable 3: Student Perceived Future Evaluations-Expectations If you could go as far as you wanted in school, how far would you like to go? Finish grade school.....l Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while..... Finish college.....5 Sometimes what you want to happen is not what you think will happen. How far do you think you will go In school? Finish grade school.....1 Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while.....4 Finish college.....5 If most of the students here could go as far as they wanted in school, how far would they go? Finish grade school.....l Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while.....4 Finish college.....5 How far do you think your best friend believes you will go in school? Finish grade school.....l Go to high school for a while.....2 FiniSh high SChOOlooooo3 Go to college for a while.....4 Finish college.....5 How far do you think the teacher you like the best believes you will go in scfiooI? Finish grade school.....l Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....3 Go to college for a while.....4 Finish college.....5 47. Ba. 55. 56. 60. 204’ Think of your teacher. Would your teacher say you can do school work better, the same or poorer than other people your age? Better than all of them.....l Better than most of them.....2 Same as most of them.....3 Poorer than most of them.....4 Poorer than all of them.....5 Does your teacher think you could finish college? Yes, for sure.....l Yes, probably.....2 Maybe.....3 PrObably notooooeu No, for sure.....5 Remember you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Does your teacher think you could do that? Yes, for sure.....l Yes, probably.....2 Maybeooooo3 Probably not.....4 No, for sure.....5 How far do you think your parents believe you will go in school? Finish grade school.....l Go to high school for a while.....2 Finish high school.....2 Go to college for a while..... Finish college.....5 Do your parents think you could finish college? Yes, for sure.....l Yes, probably.....2 Maybe.....3 N0, probably not.....4 No, for sure.....5 205 61. Remember, you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Do your parents think you could do that? Yes, for sure.....l Yes, probably.....2 Maybee oo o 03 No, probably not.....4 No, for sure.....5 206 Student Climate Variable 4: Student Perceived Teacher Push for Student Ipprovement 39. Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many tell students to try hard to do better on tests? Almost all of the teachers.....l Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....3 Some of the teachers.....4 Almost none of the teachers.....5 49. How often do teachers in this school try to help students who do badly on their school work? They always try to help.....l They usually try to help.....2 They sometimes try to help.....fi They seldom try to help..... They never try to help.....5 52. How important is it to teachers in this school that their students learn their school work? It is the most important thing to the teachers.....l It is very important to the teachers.....2 It is somewhat important to the teachers.....3 It is not very important to the teachers.....4 It is not important at all to the teachers.....5 53. Think about the teachers you know in this school. Do you think the teachers in this school care more, or less, than teachers in other schools about whether or not their students learn their school work? Teachers in this school care a lot more.....l Teachers in this school care a little more.....2 There is no difference.....3 Teachers in this school care a little less.....4 Teachers in this school care a lot less.....5 ll. 12. 17. 18. 50. 207 Student Climate variable 5 Student Academic Competition Norms How many students in this school try a good grade on their weekly tests? Almost all of the Most of the Half of the Some of the Almost none of the How many students in this school will get a better grade on the weekly test friends do? Almost all of the Host of the Half of the Some of the Almost none of the How important do most of the students feel it is to do well in school work? hard to get students.....l students.....2 students.....i students..... students.....5 work hard to s than their students.....1 students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 in this class They feel it is very important.....l They feel it is important.....2 They feel it is somewhat important.....2 They feel it is not very important..... They feel it is not important at all.....5 How important do you think most of the students in this school feel it is to do well in school work? They feel it is very important.....l They feel it is important.....2 They feel it is somewhat important.....3 They feel it is not very important..... They feel it is not important at all.....5 Compared to students in other schools students in this school learn? They learn a lot more in this school..... They learn a little more in this school..... About the same as in other schools..... They learn a little bit less in this school..... , how much do 3 They learn a lot less in this school.....5 208 51. Compared to students from other schools, how well will most of the students from this school do in high school? They will be among the best.....1 They will do better than most.....2 They will do about the same as most.....3 They will do poorer than most..... They will be among the worst.....5 19. 20. 21. 22. 29. 209 Teacher Climate Variable 1: Teacher Present Evaluations-Expectations of Students On the average, what level of achievement can be expected of the students in this school? Much above national norm.....l Slightly above national norm.....2 Approximately at national norm.....3 Slightly below national norm.....4 Much below national norm.....5 On the average, what level of achievement can be expected of the students in your class? Much above national norm.....l Slightly above national norm.....2 Approximately at national norm.....3 Slightly below national norm.....4 Much below national norm.....5 What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete high school? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%.....2 5% to 6%000003 3% to h%00000u Less than 30%.....5 What percent of the students in your class do you expect to complete high school? 9 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 How would you rate the academic ability of the students in this school compared to other schools? Ability here is much higher.....l Ability here is somewhat higher.....2 Ability here is about the same.....g Ability here is somewhat lower..... Ability here is much lower.....5 30. 31. 37. 41. 42. 210 What percent of the students in this school would you say want to complete high school? 90% or more.....1 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 3% to h%ooooou Less than 3%. o e o 05 What percent of the students in your class would you say want to complete high school? 90% Ol‘ moreoeoool 70% to 8%ooeo02 50% to 6%000003 3% to (495.....4 Less than 30%-00005 What percent of the students in this school do you think the principal expects to complete high school? 90% or more.....1 7% to 8%ooo002 50% to 69%..... 30% to u%eeoooi Less than 3%.00005 How do you think your principal rates the academic ability of the students in this school, compared to other schools? Rates it much better.....l Rates it somewhat better.....2 Rates it the same.....3 Rates it somewhat lower.....4 Rates it much lower.....5 Completion of hi h school is a realistic goal which you set for wha percentage of your students? 90% or more.....1 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 305.....5 211 44. How often do you stress to your students the necessity of a post high school education for a good Job and/or a confortable life? Very often.....1 Often.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 62. How many of the parents of students in this school expect their children to complete high school? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 212 Teacher Climate Variable 2: Teacher Future Evaluations-Expectations of Students What percent of the students expect to attend college? What percent of the students expect to attend college? What percent of the students expect to complete college? What percent of the students expect to complete college? in in in in this school do you 90g%or mg;;.....l 7 to asses2 50% to 69%oo0003 30% to 49%....;4 Less than 30%.....5 your class do you Less than 30%000005 this school do you 90% or more.....l 70% to 891000002 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 305.....5 your class do you 90% or more.....1 70% to 895000002 50% to 69%.....3 30% t0 “9%000004 Less than 30%.....5 How many of the students in this school are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to ugfiooooou Less than 30%.....5 28. 32. 33. 63. 213 How many of the students in your class are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? 90% or more.....1 70% to 89%000002 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%eoooou Less than 30%.....5 What percent of the students in this school would you say want to go to college? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%000002 50% to 69%oooeo3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 What percent of the students in your class would you say want to go to college? 90% or more.....1 70% to 89%000002 5% to 6%....03 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%000005 How many of the parents of students in this school expect their children to complete college? Almost all of the parents.....1 Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 214 Teacher Climate Variable 3: Teacher Perception of Parents' Value of Education 60. The parents of students in this school regard this school primarily as a "baby-sitting" agency. Strongly agreeoooool Agree.....2 Not sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 61. The parents of students in this school are deeply concerned that their children receive a top quality education. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Not sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 64. How many of the parents of students in this school don't care if their children obtain low grades? Almost all of the parents.....1 Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 65. How many of the parents of students in this school want feedback from the principal and teachers on how their children are doing in school? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 215 Teacher Climate Variable 4: Teacher Perceived Student Competition and Teacher Push 45. Do you encourage your students who do not have sufficient economic resources to aspire to go to icollege? Always.....1 Usually.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 46. Do you encourage your students who do not have sufficient academic ability to aspire to go to college? Always.....l Usually.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....u Never.....5 48. It would be unfair for teachers in this school to insist on a higher level of achievement from students than they now seem capable of achieving? Strongly agree.....1 Agree.....2 NOt Sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 49. If I think a student is not able to do some school work, I don't try to push him very hard? Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 Not sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 50. I am generally very careful not to push students to a level of frustration. Strongly agree.....l Agree.....2 NOt sure.....3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 54. 55. 216 How many students in this school will try hard to do better school work than tfieIr friends do? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none of the of the of the of the of the How many students in your class will better school work than theIr classmates do? Almost all Most About half Some Almost none of the of the of the of the of the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 try hard to do StUdentSo o o o .1 students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 217 Teacher Climate Variable 5: Teacher Perceppion of Student Drive for Academic Improvement 52. How many students in this school try hard to improve on previous work? Almost all of the students.....1 Most of the students.....2 About half of the students.....3 Some of the students..... Almost none of the students.....5 53. How many students in your class try hard to improve on previous work? Almost all of the students.....l Most of the students.....2 About half of the students.....g Some of the students..... Almost none of the students.....5 56. How many students in this school are content to do less than they should? Almost all of the students.....l Most of the students.....2 About half of the students.....a Some of the students..... Almost none of the students.....5 57. How many students in your class are content to do less than they should? Almost all of the students.....l Most of the students.....2 About half of the students.....3 Some of the students.....4 Almost none of the students.....5 58. How many students in this school will seek extra work so that they can get Better grades? Almost all of the students.....l Most of the students.....2 About half of the students.....3 Some of the students.....4 Almost none of the students.....5 59. 218 How many students in your class will seek extra grades? work so that they can get Bett Almost all Most About half Some Almost none er of of of of of the the the the the students.....l students.....2 students.....3 students.....4 students.....5 47. 51. 75. 78. 219 Teacher Climate Variable 6: Teacher-Principal Encouregement for Improvement How many teachers in this school feel that all their students should be taught to read well and master other academic subjects, even though some students may not appear to be interested? Almost all of the teachers.....1 Most of the teachers.....2 Half of the teachers.....3 Some of the teachers.....4 Almost none of the teachers.....5 How many teachers encourage students to seek extra school work so that the students can get better grades? Almost all of the teachers.....l Most of the teachers.....2 About half of the teachers.....3 Some of the teachers.....4 Almost none of the teachers.....5 How often does the principal and/or other admini- strators in this school assist and give support to the teachers on ways to improve their students' academic achievement? Very often.....1 OftenoooooQ Sometimea. o oo 03 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 When you are trying to improve your instructional program, how easy or difficult is it to get the principals assistance? Very easy.....1 Easy.....2 Varies from time to time.....3 Difficult.....4 Very difficult.....5 220 Principal Climate Variable 1: Principal Present Evaluations-Expectations of Students 36. On the average, what achievement level can be ex- pected of the students in this school? Much above national norm.....1 Slightly above national norm.....2 Approximately at national norm.....3 Slightly below national norm..... Much below national norm.....5 37. What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete high school? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 40. How many of the students in this school are capable of getting good grades? 90% or more.....l 70% to 89%.....2 50% to 69%.....3 30% to 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 54. What percentage of the students in this school do you feel are capable of learning to read by the end of the second grade? 83; t01§3;:::::% t .0... 70¢ 1.379%...“3 50% to 69%.....5 Less than 50%.....6 38. 221 Principal Climate Variable 2: Principal Future Evaluations-Expectations of Students 38. What percent of the students in this school do you expect to attend college? 90% or more.....1 70% to 8%oeo002 50% to 69%.....3 30% t0 49%.....4 Less than 30%.....5 39. What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete college? 90% or more..... 30% to 9%..... 41. How would you rate the academic ability of the students in this school compared to other schools? Ability here is much higher.....l Ability here is somewhat higher.....2 Ability here is about the same.....3 Ability here is somewhat lower..... Ability here is much lower.....5 45. How many of the parents of students in this school expect their children to complete college? Almost all of the parents.....1 Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....2 Some of the parents..... Almost none of the parents.....5 222 Principal Climate Variable 3: Principal Perception of Parental Concern 42. The parents of students in this school regard this school as primarily a "baby-sitting" agency. Strongly agree. a e o o 1 Agree.....2 unsure. O O O .3 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 43. The parents of students in this school are deeply concerned that their children receive a top quality education. Strongly agrees e o o o 1 Agree.....2 Unsure. 0 o o 03 Disagree.....4 Strongly disagree.....5 44. How many of the parents of students in this school expect their children to complete high school? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 46. How many of the parents of students in this school don't care if their children obtain low grades? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 47. How many of the parents of students in this school want feedback from the principal and teachers on how their children are doing in school? Almost all of the parents.....l Most of the parents.....2 About half of the parents.....3 Some of the parents.....4 Almost none of the parents.....5 11"} .1. ii .1llll 223 Principal Climate Variable 4: Principal Evaluation of School 17. In your Judgment, what is the general reputation of this school among educators? Among the best.....l Better than average.....2 About average.....3 Below average.....4 Inferior.....5 18. With regard to student achievement, how would you rate this school? Among the best.....l Better than average.....2 About average.....3 Below average..... Inferior.....5 19. With regard to student achievement, how good a school do you think this school can be? Among the best.....1 Better than average.....2 About average.....3 Below average.....4 Inferior.....5 70. In general, how do your students' parents feel about the achievement of their children? Nearly all feel they are doing well.....l Most think students are achieving as well as they should......2 Most think their children are NOT achieving high enough.....3 Nearly all think they are NOT achieving high enough.....4 71. 224 In general, how do you feel about the achievement of the students in this Nearly all Most Less than half the Only a few of the school? students are achieving as well as they can.....l students are achieving as well as they can.....2 students are achieving as well as they can.....3 students are achieving as well as they can.....4 225 Principal Climate Variable 5: Principal Efforts at Improving Achievement 56. How often do you suggest ways of improving student achievement to your teachers? Very often.....l Often.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 57. How often do you meet with the teachers as a group to discuss ways of improving student achieve- ment? Very often.....l Often.....2 Sometimes.....3 Seldom.....4 Never.....5 APPENDIX C INTERCORRELATIONS OF MEAN SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT, MEAN SCHOOL SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (SE8), AND ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLES 226 Pom.+ mmm.+ ~m~.+ coo.— mFm.+ mvp.+ —w—.- -~.+ -—.+ omp.+ me—.+ vom.+ m_m.+ coo.— ¢F~.+ mm..- mmo.+ smn.+ mom.+ mNm.+ m-.+ mvp.+ ¢—~.+ coo.— umo.- ~F~.+ oo_.+ nmv.- N—e.+ @mv.- woe.+ moe.- mmm.+ Pw_.u NNN.+ mmp.- wwo.+ umo.u ~_~.+ ooo.— ~o~.- mm~.u ooo.F mo~.u Npm.+ owe.+ Nmm.+ emm.+ «NF.+ umm.+ omp.+ oom.u m—o.+ ooo.p mucouspm mo mcowueuuwoxm -mcoeue:_o>m ogauam Lacuna» mossesom we mco_ueuoooxm -meo_ues_e>w sachets sozoeop meo_ueuoooxm-meo_u -eape>m ossusu oo>1ootos ueoesum meowusuuooxm-mcowu -es_e>m “commie uo>woosos “seesaw «Esoz cowuwuoaeou oveooeo< uconsum acme -o>osae~ aconsum so» swam Legumes uo>woosos acoesum xuvppusm mo omeom assesses oasesom mum acoeo>oweo< meomueuooaxm -mcowues—e>m Lemmas; uo>eooioo peouaum mesoz co_u_uoosou o 2532 283...“ uses -o>osee~ oweoeeu< to» ease Losueoh oo>Foosos acousum nu “anAH.amm.mmmd~ xu__pusm mo omeom mum sausage“ «seesaw pcoem>owzo< magm meaquo onmomuxe< goomom zen: so mzomeeqmmeoommezH 222?? mme.+ woo.+ ooo.P ~o~.+ om~.+ Rom.+ eowueosom mo ospe> .mucoheo mo covuoousos Lagoon» onm.+ eon.+ ~o~.+ coo._ mmm.+ oke.+ muconaum mo meowueuuoo -xm-meowue3_e>m misuse Lagoon» NN~.+ m-.+ om~.+ «mm.+ ooo.p _me.+ mucousum mo meo_ueoooo -xmumeowue=_o>m mammoth sosuooh mmo.+ ooo.+ ~o~.+ mue.+ Pme.+ ooo.F meowueuoooxm-mcowu -eape>m «sauna uo>wousoa peooaum heo.- _~o.+ ~o~.+ Pom.+ mm~.+ ~A~.+ meo_osooosxm-heoso -e:_e>m «comets uo>woosos ueoeaum moe.+ em_.+ o_m.+ mwp.+ cep.+ eon.+ mEoz eowu_uoeeou oesooeo< ”seesaw m¢m.+ m_m.+ oo~.+ mom.+ mmm.+ o-.+ acme no>osas~ ucoosum sow cuss Lacuna» oo>woueoa acousum so..- mom.+ NNM.- nme.- ome.- moe.- »u_—+u:m mo omemm soososom semesom mm0.- som.- omp.+ ~F¢.+ mme.+ mmm.+ mum -m.+ Nmo.+ ~m¢.+ owe.+ ~mm.+ emm.+ peo2o>o_:o< ucoeo>ogoe~ zone segues» :o_ueu:om mucoosum we mueoosum mco_usuooaxm-meo_u o_eooeu< so» use cowuwuooeou mo osps> m:o_ueuuooxu mo m:o_ueuooaxu -ezpe>m misuse o>wso peoosum acousum um>Poo .mucoses mo co_u -meomusape>u -meowues_e>m oo>_ousoo ueoosum mo cowuooo -soa Legumes -Los Legumes -ooosos Lozoeoh assuam Logueoh anemone soeoeoh 228 mmm.+ e_~.+ Rem.+ mmm.+ mo_.+ oom.+ eovoeosum mo ospe> .mueosea mo cowuooosoa sogoeok _e_.+ mFo.+ _Nm.+ omn.+ mum.+ e~m.+ mucousum mo meowuepoma -xu-meo_ue=.e>m misuse Legumes Nmm.+ meo.- mpe.+ mom.+ mwo.+ oop.+ moeocsom mo meowuouuoa -xu-meowusspe>m sachets cocoons NN~.+ mm1.- Nm_.+ ego.+ mos.+ No_.+ assessoooaxm-meomo -e:_e>m msauam oo>vooeos Scoosum mmo.- mmp.- mNo.+ wmo.- mmo.+ _mm.+ meo_osooosxm-meoso -est>w “comets uo>woosos scousum NmN.+ mmN.- mem.+ “no.+ __o.- «NP.+ masoz cowapuoeeou u_Eooeo< ucoosum ~o~.+ «01.- mmN.+ oep.+ mm_.+ mmo.u uses no>osqu aeovsum sou sass segues» oo>woosoa acousum e_m.- ~o~.+ mme.- -~.- omm.- emp.+ sue—Push mo omcom wousooom bemoaum mpm.+ omm.- Noe.+ emo.+ mnm.+ mom.- mum om~.+ ~e~.- Nwm.+ em—.+ mme.+ ~m1.+ ucoso>oweo< mueoesum ueoem>oweo< _oo;om we came mueoesum ueoso>ohoEH mo meowueuooo mew>osos~ coppespe>m -eou peueoses mo meowuepooo hoe aeoeomessooeu -xm-meowue=_e>m um musoeem .eawocwsa mo eowuaoo -xmumeowoes_s>m "sowoewea-goeoeoe Sconces peowocwsa peawucwga -Lom Fenwucwsm wsausm Feo_ucwha 22259 mm0.- Nm~.+ Nm~.+ em1.- me~.- ea_.- mmo.+ mem.+ wmm.+ mm0.: nuo.+ o¢~.+ mmo.+ F—o.u mm~.+ ~m~.+ e-.+ mm0.- nmo.u mo¢.+ m¢m.+ apno.+ emw.+ mwm.+ uom.+ owm.+ oom.+ e—m.u mow.+ moe.u NNN.: mom.u vmw.+ uo~.- mom.+ mmm.- mwm.+ omm.n Noe.+ emo.+ mmm.+ mmN.- omo.u nom.u om_.+ omm.+ Pew.- mmm.+ va.+ mme.+ pr.+ Nnm.+ mmo.- nmv.+ mueoosum wo mcowueuooaxm uncowueape>u neonate _oowoewsa ucoEo>owso< a: $8.95 an assowwm Peswoewss woozom wo cowu unswe>m weewocwsa csoocou _eucosuo wo cow» -ooosoa weawocwga mucousum wo meowueuoooxm -mcowues_e>m misuse woowuewss ueoeo>osa5~ sow ueoeomessoucm weowucwssusocooow acoso>ogn .EH uwsoneo< Low o>wsa «season we cowuooosoo socoeow sass .853; ecu :o .5 -ssoseoo seoesom uo>woogoa sozoeow cowueosom wo os_s> .mpeoses wo eowuaoosoe soeoeow meowuepuoaxm -meowueape>u newness oo>wousos acoosum mELoz cowuwuoosou pews oweooso< ueooapm -o>osae~ oweoeeo< sow case goeoeow uo>woosoa acousum zuwwwuam wo mmcmm cousooom acousum mum acmeo>mwzu< EESC) wmo.+ emo.+ —no.+ mmm.+ mvo.+ oc~.+ ooo.~ mpm.+ mm¢.+ mmo.u mv~.+ -~.u mmp.+ ~uo.u m~¢.+ mwm.+ coo.— moc.n «pp.+ mop.+ mme.+ ooo.~ pv—.+ o—o.+ —um.+ omm.+ mnm.+ ¢-.+ mum.+ ~o~.+ wwm.+ meo.u m—¢.+ mmm.+ Nmo.+ oo—.+ ~NN.+ mp~.+ -~.+ mmw.u mm_.+ o~o.+ so—.+ moo.+ ~o~.+ mucousum wo meowueuuoo -xm-meowuespe>u “commas peowucwsa ueoeo>owso< a: 26.35 as mosewwm _.swoewss poozom wo cow» unswe>m peawocwsa csooeou pancakes we now» unease; weawucwss mucousum wo meowumuuoo -xm-meowuespe>m museum .eowuewsa ueoeo>osqe~ sow ueoeomesaooeu Peowuewso-soeoeow aeoso>osq us” uwsooeu< Low o>wso ueoesum wo :owuooogoe sozoeow case sozoeow use cow» swuoasou acmvaum uo>woosoa segueow eowueuseu wo oswe> .mueosea wo cowunoosoo goguoow ueoeo>osae~ oweoeeo< Low o>wgo aeoesum wo cowunoo -soa segues» guns segueow es. eo.o_ooseeo osossom soswoo uses segues» cowumoaem wo ospo> .mucosem wo cow» -aooeoa genome» mueovsum wo meowuouuoexm -meowus:~e>m 833. .853» mucoesum wo meowueuoooxm -meowuez—e>u peanuts uozueow meowusuoooxm-meowa -e:—e>m misuse uo>wousos aeovspm 231 coo.p “mo.+ o~e.+ wpe.+ moo.+ mm~.n pmo.+ «mo.- mm~.+ noo.+ ooo.p ¢N_.u mm¢.+ mmo.+ ewo.+ o¢_.+ vF—.: ou¢.+ ¢~_.u coo.p pm¢.+ omm.+ mmp.u Fno.+ ~m~.u s¢m.+ ppe.+ mm¢.+ va.+ ooo.—+ wmm.+ mmm.+ o~—.+ mmm.+ moo.+ mmo.+ mmm.+ mmm.+ ooo.~ ooF.n mco.+ mno.- mo—.+ mmm.u mmp.u owo.u oo—.- coo.— o¢~.+ m~¢.+ oom.+ mpeoospm wo meowueuooo -xmuhcowoespe>m oneness peowuewsa acoeo>owsu< 9.26.55 an 3.35 ease to lesson we es.s.s -_a>m P.s.oe.ss :soucou peueoses wo eowu -oousos peawuewto mucoeaum wo meowueuuoo -xu-meowue=pe>u 9.3:... $98: In aeoeo>osae~ sow ucoeomossoueu weowocwse-sozoeow aeoeo>osa .EL oweooeo< sow o>wto semesum wo cowuooosoa sogoeow sass Logueow use cow» -1soseeo oesessm uo>wouhos Loeoeow cowueuauu wo onwa> .mucosee wo eowuooosos segues» 3533 we meowueuuoo -xu-meowues_e>m penance weewuewes aeoso>owgo< mew>osesu we musowwm peawucwwa possum wo :owue=~e>u —enwucwwe £8 ucou .oucosam wo eowuooo neon weawocwss mossessm wo meowueuooo -xu-meowue=_e>u misuse Feowocwgo ueoeo>oses~ sow «casemessooem peawocwss-sozoeow APPENDIX D MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS or ACHIEVEMENT SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (SES), AND ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLES APPENDIX D MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF ACHIEVEMENT, SOCIO- ECONOMIC STATUS (SE8), AND ACADEMIC CLIMATE VARIABLES variable Mean Standard Deviation Achievement 53.84 8.09 SES 1.86 1.29 Student Reported Sense of Futility 38.34 2.54 Student Perceived Present Evaluations-Expectations 25.50 0.63 Student Perceived Future Evaluations-Expectations 44.65 1.49 Student Perceived Teacher Push for Student Improve- ment 17.52 0.70 Student Academic Competi- tion Norms 22.72 0.83 Teacher Present Evalua- tions-Expectations of Students 45.29 5.15 Teacher Future Evalua- tions-Expectations of Students 24.06 5.14 Teacher Perception of Parents' value of Education 15.26 1.65 Teacher Perceived Student Competition and Teacher Push 22.89 2.51 232 233 variable Mean Standard Deviation Teacher Perception of Student Drive for Academic Improvement Teacher-Principal Encouragement for Improvement Principal Present Evaluations-Expecta- tions of Students Principal Future Evalua- tions-Expectations of Students Principal Perception of Parental Concern Principal Evaluation of School Principal Efforts at Improving Achievement 19.83 15.57 14.90 9.24 21.83 15.92 8.63 2.61 1.50 2.03 3.24 2.68 2.20 1.40 LIST OF REFERENCES LIST 0? 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