v: . .I} 31$. .5... ‘ :32; : i he.) A {n.ivt... 9.: .X: franri . .. ash. 5...... 2. .. 9.31.39. II 7...... . b‘; 35".}! 313i)? NPR. .95.? v tittilu: Slit .13.. —c,.p.; HR '1‘ 1. 31-15... IRAan ‘ 13) .. . J (.1751 . ....;.£..w ._ . x ‘ 91...: 95:... : .. . .. 1.... Lift. 34 4...! .15?! ‘ L. 33...?! . u.LVv~. .rn... 9:72,... r: i: . , .7 1. 4 MHHHIIHIllllllllllHllllllmlllllllllHlllUlIHllHlUl L 3 1293 01019 0993 This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE USE OF QUESTIONNAIRES TO MEASURE MOTIVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE CASE OF JAPANESE LEARNERS OF ENGLISH presented by Noriko Akimoto has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Arts degree in English Major professor Date \%0/?<: 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution LIBRARY MIchIgan State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove We checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or bdore date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 1r ' : ‘ 1: I . .- . I OCT 771 9 2003 MSU IeAn Mouth/e Mon/EM Opportunlty lnetltulon __ ~_ __ WWI THE USE OF QUESTIONNAIRES TO MEASURE MOTIVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE CASE OF JAPANESE LEARNERS OF ENGLISH BY Noriko Akimoto A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of English 1991 ABSTRACT THE USE OF QUESTIONNAIRES TO MEASURE MOTIVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE CASE OF JAPANESE LEARNERS OF ENGLISH BY Noriko Akimoto The purpose of this study was to investigate further the relationships between motivation and achievement among Japanese learners of English. In particular, this study examined the original claims of Gardner and Lambert regarding the role of integrative motivation, challenged the validity of this body of theory to the Ieaming of English as a foreign language, and reviewed the questionnaires used in previous studies. The geographical and historical differences in motivation toward foreign or second language learning were illustrated first. Secondly, the study analyzed the Japanese setting for foreign language Ieaming, and it showed the characteristics of Japanese learners' motivation. The study also illustrated the difficulty of replicating of questionnaires to measure motivation of culturally different subjects. Lastly, the study suggested some ways to better the questionnaires, and it also examined the applicability of alternatives such as classroom observation in a culturally different setting. Copyright by NORIKO AKIMOTO 1 991 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge my debt to Dr. Paul Munsell for his many hours of guidance, constant encouragement and patience. I would also like to thank professors Thomas Scovel, Steven Brown, and Masajiro Kase for providing helpful support and advice. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Tracey Light-Howard, Bertrand Trudel, Peter Hoffman, Scott North and Ellen Knight for their valuable comments and emotional support. A final tribute goes to my husband, Dr. Takashi Sugimori for helping me prepare this thesis in countless ways. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ..... vii List of Figures ..... viii introduction ..... 1 Chapter I ..... 5 A Definition of Motivation toward Foreign Language Learning Chapter II ..... 1.4 Motivation toward Learning a Second or a Foreign Language outside Japan Chapter III ..... 22 Motivation toward Foreign Language Learning in Japan A. Results of Past Studies in Japan B. Characteristics of Learners' Motivation in Japan 1. Characteristics of Japan as a Place to Study English 2. Japanese Learners' Motivation Chapter IV ----- 43 Questionnaires as a Means to Measure Motivation and Attitudes A. Examination of the Past Questionnaire items 1. Procedures Used by Gardner and Lambert (1972) 2. Procedures Used by Gardner (1985) 3. Suggestions To Develop Better Questionnaires B. What Questionnaires Can Do and Cannot Do «Their Limitations 1. Subjects' Intelligence 2. Subjects' Age and Years of Study 3. Subjects' Gender 4. Approval Motive and Social Desirability 5. Response Set 6. Cultural Interpretation C. Alternative Procedures 1. Personal Interview 2. Classroom Observation D. Development of the Questionnaires for the Japanese Setting Chapter V ----- 93 The Role of Motivation in Socio-educational Model A. Socio-Educational Model ' B. Criticism of Socio-Educational Model 1. Criticism at the Questionanire Level 2. Criticism in Data Analysis Level 3. Criticism in the Model Construction Summary and Conclusion ----- 102 Notes ----- 104 List of References ----- 106 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Intrinsic/Extrinsic and integrative/Instrumental motivation Table 2 Motivation towards English Study among University Students in Hiroshima Table 3 Motivation towards English Study among Students of University of Tokyo Table 4 Motivation towards English Study among Liberal Arts Students vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 ----- 95 Schematic representation of the theoretical model Figure 2 ----- 96 Operational formulation of the socio-educational model viii INTRODUCTION A. Purpose of Study The purpose of this study is to investigate further the relationships between motivation and achievement among Japanese students of English. In particular, this study examines the original claims of Gardner and Lambert regarding the role of integrative motivation, challenges the validity of this body of theory to the Ieaming of English as a foreign language, and reviews the questionnaires used in previous studies. The study also proposes a more comprehensive questionnaire to fit the Japanese setting. The questionnaire takes into consideration Japanese culture and its influence on attitudes and motivation. B. The Problem In Japan people study English through junior high and senior high schools for at least six years. Nowadays many working people and housewives, in addition to students, attend English class after work or during their free time. Although many people in developing countries who study English less can speak English moderately well, most Japanese speak English rather poorly when they graduate from senior high school. 2 Their English proficiency seems to remain very low. The Japanese average score on Test of English as Foreign Language (TOEFL) in 1990 was 490. Of the 187 countries surveyed, Japan was number 169. Of the 27 Asian countries surveyed, Japan was number 251. The English classrooms at American universities are full of Japanese students. They came here to study English voluntarily with a lot of enthusiasm. Nobody forced them to come to the United States to study English. However, in most cases, they are relatively silent and do not speak much English in the classrooms. C. Possible Explanations Why do Japanese learners not speak more English? Why isn't their motivation apparent in the classroom? What is the real motivation that Japanese learners of English have? Several explanations have been proposed. 1. Differences between English and Japanese languages English and Japanese are very different languages, and they appear to be mutually difficult to acquirez. Difficulty of learning English is commonly shared among Japanese, and at the same time it is also hard for American learners of Japanese. Dissociation of reading and listening, and poor performance on the decoding by the Japanese subjects were reported by Haynes (unpublished) in her comparison of the Japanese subjects with Arabic and Spanish subjects. She thinks the reason for the low performance of Japanese on the above tasks can be attributed to the linguistic differences between Japanese and English, such as the 3 three Japanese writing symbol systems, syllabic and morphemic units, and other reasons. Difficulties experienced by Japanese, then, may be the result of inherent linguistic differences and not the result of methods or motivation. 2. Schumann's Acculturation Model Schumann's Acculturation Model explains the difficulty of English language acquisition among Japanese people to some extent ...the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language (Schumann, p.34). Schumann states that the degree of social and psychological distance between the learner and the target language culture determines second language acquisition. It seems quite reasonable that Japanese and native speakers of English lack sufficient social interaction to promote second language acquisition. 3. Maximal Difference of Culture Samovar and Porter (1976), examining physical appearances, philosophy, social attitude, language, heritage, and basic conceptualizations of self and the universe and other factors, concluded that differences between Asian and Western culture are maximal. It may explain the general difficulty of Japanese in Ieaming English. 4. Teaching Methods and Environment Although several efforts have been made to improve language pedaQOQY. language teaching in Japan appears to fall short of modern 4 criteria. For example, in public junior and senior high school settings, the class size is usually more than forty, a size considered too large for the teachers to manage the language classrooms effectively. In addition, teachers are not always well- trained and are often over-worked. Because of such limitations, native-like fluency and familiarity with updated English teaching methods cannot be expected of Japanese English teachers. Even in colleges, classes are often fifty students3, and are not graded by level. One lecture is for ninety minutes. A class is usually taught once a week, that is, fewer than 25 times a year (Yasuda, 1989). These conditions could explain the lower levels of achievement. 5. Lack of Integrative Motivation According to Gardner and Lambert (1972, 1985), integrative motivation provides the best incentive for second language acquisition. Japanese students appear to lack this type of motivation. Akimoto (1988), using Gardner and Lambert's questionnaires, attempted to measure motivation and attitudes among Japanese senior high school students in Toyama Prefecture, Japan. Japanese appear to have moderately low levels of integrative orientation. Chapter I A Definition of Motivation toward Foreign Language Learning The term ”motivation" by no means has a single or constant meaning. Even Gardner and Lambert, who first distinguished integrative and instrumental motivation, fail to specify the terms adequately and shift in their definitions. Let us review the development of this difficult concept. A. St. Augustine According to Kelly (1969), the history of integrative orientation traces back to St.Augustine, who introduced Christianity for the first time to Britain. He quotes St. Augustine's words, "It is clear enough that free curiosity has a more positive effect on Ieaming than necessity and fear.‘ St. Augustine implies interest in Ieaming is more desirable than a desire to integrate oneself into the target language community. B. Comenius -The 19th Century Learners' motivation as a key concept in teaching theory began to be regarded as an important issue in the 20th century. No distinction had been made between motivation to learn a second language and motivation for other academic subjects in the 19th century. Historically speaking, the utilitarian value of foreign language Ieaming was taken as a matter of course. There were several scholars who stressed the importance of the teachers' maintaining learners' voluntary will to learn. This consideration was emphasized by reflecting on the learners who lost their motivation. 6 Quintillian (1861) wrote, “The teacher must take special pains to make sure that the pupil does not come to dislike subjects he will in time come to appreciate. For it once he hates them, this will remain with him into adulthood." This point recurred in the thinking of John Amos Comenius. He was also the first to consider the idea of language-learning readiness, and insisted on the responsibility of the teachers' creating and maintaining the pupils' motivation. C. Herbarian School -The Early 20th Century With the introduction of the Direct Method, more attention was paid to the learners' motivation or “willing interest.‘ The Herbarian School thought that these feelings rose out of the subject itself rather than from the teachers' techniques. Theorists in the twentieth century, such as Bouton (1962) expanded the idea and thought that the method should generate its own interest. D. Gardner and Lambert 1972 Historically speaking, the study on learner's motivation is a recent development. The influence factors within affective domain, such as motivation in learning, was often ignored during the time of behaviorism, so extensive study of motivation for foreign language Ieaming was not conducted before Gardner and Lambert. Gardner and Lambert considered motivation for foreign language learning different from motivation for other school subjects. Gardner explains that any other subject, such as mathematics involves the development of knowledge or skills 7 which are a part of the heritage of the student's cultural community; a second language, on the other hand, is a salient characteristic of another culture" (1985, p. 146). Gardner and Lambert gave questionnaires to Canadian students of French. They classified as having an integrative orientation those who thought meeting and conversing with varied people or understanding of French Canadian people and their way of life very important. They continued to expand their research by administering their measuring instrument in many settings, and claimed (1972) someone has 'integrative orientation“ 'if the student wishes to learn more about the other cultural community because he is interested in it in an open-minded way, to the point of eventually being accepted as a member of the other group.‘ They claimed someone has 'instrumental orientation," 'if the purposes of language study reflect the more utilitarian value of linguistic achievement, such as getting ahead in one's occupation" (Gardner and Lambert, 1972, p.3). To characterize the subjects' integrative orientation, they gave the statements like the following for English-speaking American students and asked them to rank their values (Gardner and Lambert, 1972, p.148): a. It (studying French) will help me to understand better the French people and their way of life. b. It will enable me to gain good friends more easily among French-speaking people. c. it should enable me to begin to think and behave as the French do. d. It will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people. All these concern integration toward the people of the target language. As is seen in the statement '0," integrative orientation in 1972 included the concept of Graham's "assimilative motivation' which will be discussed in the next section. E. Graham 1984 As pointed out in the above section of Gardner and Lambert, the definition of 'integrative motivation' is not precise even by Gardner. In other words, the term can be interpreted very broadly. Graham (1984), based on this reflection, made a refinement in the term by distinguishing between integrative and assimilative motivation. Assimilative motivation is the desire to become an indistinguishable member of a speech community. Although people can be integratively oriented without losing themselves in the target culture, people with assimilative motivation desire to identify almost exclusively with that target culture. F. Gardner 1985 Gardner's later questionnaires on integrative orientation (1985) includes the following revisions. The subjects were asked to rate their feelings towards the statement on a seven point scale from 'strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.“ 1. Studying French can be important to me because it will allow me to be more at ease with fellow Canadians who speak French. 2. Studying French can be important for me because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people- 3. Studying French can be important for me because it will enable me to better understand and appreciate French Canadian art and literature. 9 4. Studying French can be important for me because I will be able to participate more freely in the activities of other cultural groups. Four main changes in wordings which allow the subjects to respond more positively to the items are found here. It seems that Gardner had a broader view towards integrative orientation than in 1972 version. First, the beginnings of all the statements are changed from 'It (studying French) will..' or 'lt (studying French) should to "Studying French can be So the subjects who were not sure whether studying French 'will enable me to meet and converse with more and varied peeple (Gardner, 1972)“ might respond positively towards the statement, ”studying French can be important for me because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people (Gardner, 1985).” Secondly, although "French-speaking people' are assumed to be the people in the target community in the former statements, it is changed to “Canadians who speak French“ and "other cultural groups.“ This change enables the subjects to assume more target communities, and at the same time enables the researchers to distinguish the subjects' orientation toward French-speaking people and French-Canadians respectively. Thirdly, the revised statements cover more aspects of the target language overtly, while the original ones seemed to emphasize more just the speaking and listening aspects of language. For example, three out of four verb phrases used in the original ones are 'gain good friends,‘ 'behave,‘ and "meet and converse.“ It can be inferred that these parts of speech focus on speaking and listening. 10 Other verb phrases in the original statements such as "understand better the French people and their way of life" can be interpreted to refer to more than speaking and listening. However, it is also true that understanding of the French people and their way of life is also gained by speaking and listening to French. As for "think and behave as the French do," when the subjects of this phrase are considered, it is clear that productive aspects of the language rather than receptive ones are emphasized in this item, too. Fourthly, in the revised list, one statement which shows the goal of integrative orientation is deleted while one which focuses on the receptive aspect of the language is added. The old and new sentences are: It should enable me to begin to think and behave as the French do (original statement '0," Gardner and Lambert, 1972, p.148). Studying French can be important for me because it will enable me to better understand and appreciate French Canadian art and literature (revised statement "3," Gardner, 1985, p.179). These changes have the effect of softening the original 1972 positive view. The earlier statement seems to show a very intense desire to be accepted in the target community. Gardner and Lambert write on integrative orientation "...to the point of eventually being accepted as a member of that group," (Gardner and Lambert, 1972, p.3). In other words, the stage mentioned in the above quotation is the goal of integrative orientation. In order to think and behave as the people in another cultural community, a high level of the proficiency of the target language is needed. Learners whose L2 11 proficiency is low find it difficult to even imagine themselves able to "think and behave as French people do," since the gap between their proficiency and the imagined performance is too big. This shift is further suggested by results obtained by Akimoto using the original 1972 format. Although the result may have been influenced by its EFL setting, Japanese subjects in Akimoto's study (1988) tended to respond in almost identical ways to statements "a," "b" and "d" in the original integrative orientation index. On statement "0," "It (studying English) should enable me to begin to think and behave as the Americans do," however, responses tended to be highly varied. These subjects mentioned the difficulty of connecting English study with a change in behavior and thinking. Furthermore, thinking and behaving like native speakers sometimes requires a loss of identity as a member of their native community. Thinking like native speakers is of course not an easy task. Gardner's deleting of the above statement and changing to the statement, "...it will enable me to better understand and appreciate French Canadian art and literature (Gardner, 1985, p.179)." seems therefore to be appropriate. The statement reflects a more receptive aspect of the language, since appreciation of art and literature can be obtained by reading or listening, not necessarily by speaking and writing. Therefore, it is possible to state that the characteristics of integrative orientation in the original 1972 and the revised 1985 questionnaires are a little different from each other. On the one hand, integrative orientation which can be measured by the original questionnaire is more focused on the subjects' desire to integrate to 12 the target community. On the other hand, the revised one covers more general aspects of integrativeness including intrinsic incentive to learn the language. It can be said that the revised statements may get more positive reactions such as "strongly agree" or "moderately agree" from the subjects than the original one. G. Bailey 1986 Bailey (1986) brought integrative and instrumental motivation into clear light by connecting them with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in educational psychology. Since Gardner and Lambert's introduction of integrative and instrumental dichotomy, motivation toward foreign language learning was considered to be different from that for other school subjects. Using the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in educational psychology, Bailey tried to elaborate motivation in second language acquisition. According to psychologist Deci (1975), "organisms have a general need for feelings of competence and self-determination" (1975, p. 62), and he defined intrinsically motivated behavior as "behavior which is motivated by one's need for feeling competent and self-determining (p. 62)." I Intrinsic motivation arises from totally internal needs and desires. Deci and Porac also defined intrinsic motivation as being contingent on the absence of extrinsic rewards as the reward is said to be in the activity itself (Deci &Porac,1978). However, extrinsic motivation occurs when the motive for the activity is influenced by an outside reward, prize, high grades and other factors (Deci in Kamada, 1986). Bailey illustrated the relationship between 13 intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and integrative/instrumental motivation in the following way (in Richard-Amato, 1988, p. 369). Table 1 Intrinsic/Extrinsic and Integrative/Instrumental Motivation intrinsic extrinsic Integrative L2 learners wishes Someone else wishes L2 to integrate with the L2 learner to know the L2 culture (e.g., for for integrative reasons immigration for (e.g., Japanese parents marriage) send kids to Japanese- language schoon Instrumental L2 learner External power wants L2 wishes to achieve goals learner to learn L2 (e.g., utilizing L2 (e.g., for a corporation sends career) Japanese businessman to US. for language training) Chapter II Motivation toward Learning a Second or a Foreign Language outside Japan Since the introduction of integrative and instrumental motivation in second language Ieaming in the Canadian setting by Gardner and Lambert (1959), learners' motivation and attitudes have been examined in many settings around the world. Gardner and Lambert have qualified their hypothesis by saying "what has been most impressive is the setting-to-setting contrasts that have emerged and the basic distinctiveness of each sociocultural context" (1972, p.142). The following studies in many settings in the world show how motivation varies from setting to setting. A. Africa--Nigeria Banjo (1981) conducted a survey in 1964 on the motivation for second language Ieaming. The survey comprised 75 Yoruba men and women. The age range was 15 to 40 years with a mean of 18 years. Banjo classified the answers to the question "Why do you want to be literate?" under five categories in descending order of importance based on the number choosing each answer. All the subjects were motivated to become literate in both the local vernacular and in Engnsh. a. Practical Necessity: Ability to read and write letters was the most important reason. Ability to sign their names, to read receipts, to read street names and other reasons followed. "There 14 15 was very little reference to writing, except the writing of letters and signing of one's name" (Banjo, p.68). b. Economic Advantage: The adults, who worked in a small business, showed a strong motivation to be able to read invoices, do simple arithmetic, fix price tags on their goods in shops. Most of them desired the ability to speak English to their non-Yoruba customers. 0. Status Symbol: They wanted the other villagers to know that they were not "ignorant folk." (1. Religious Motives: The Christian adults expressed the desire to read the Bible and participate in other religious practices. e. Civic Responsibility: They wanted to be able to read their names in Voter's Lists and to read the names of candidates B. Europe-- Poland, Great Britain (Wales) 1. Poland 4 Muchisky (1985) studied integrative and instrumental motivation of English learning among Polish secondary and university students. Integrative motivation suggests that Polish Ieamers "resent the Soviet domination and affirm an allegiance to the West" (Muchisky, p.4). Instrumental motivation was represented by their desire to travel to foreign countries which are restricted strongly by the government, or to get a high paying job such as a pilot, or to get a prestigious job such as a university professor. Secondary school students' instrumental motivation was their desire to be admitted to Polish universities. Muchisky pointed out the 16 importance of investigating learning process in a variety of pedagogical and cultural settings. 2. Great Britain (Wales) Welsh people's feeling toward Welsh is inseparable from the history of the Welsh language. Before the period of Henry VII, the Welsh language was a vital and integral part of Welsh life and culture. However, it became subject to the social and cultural influences emanating from England. The existence of the Welsh language was endangered by English which had become a world language especially since the Industrial Revolution. Even so, in spite of attempts to stamp it out, the Welsh language survived. The Reformation and the Methodist Revival, which might have seemed to offer some threat to Welsh, actually helped it to survive. Jones (1966) found that Welsh speaking parents showed more positive attitudes toward their children's learning of Welsh than those of non-Welsh speaking parents. The study also showed that attitudes toward Ieaming a second language become less positive with age. Research by Owen (1960) indicates that both the length of residence in Wales and language background influenced the parents' attitudes toward learning Welsh the most. As indicated above, it is plausible that children's attitudes and motivation toward a second language Ieaming can be affected by a number of cultural characteristics. 17 C. Asia--lndia, Philippines 1. India Lukmani (1972) investigated 60 Marathi speaking female high school students in Bombay. The subjects responded to semantic differential ratings of the Marathi and English speaking communities, gave reasons for learning English, and took an English cloze test. The results showed the subjects with more instrumental orientation had higher English proficiency. Kachru (1977) stated that English can be acquired very successfully with instrumental motivation only in Third World countries where English is an international language. It means that Lukmani's finding is probably not unique to Indian learners. 2. The Philippines Gardner and Lambert (1972) studied 103 Philippine senior high school students' language aptitude, English achievement, oral proficiency as well as attitudes and motivation in 1962. The students lived in the suburb of Manila. English was used as the medium of instruction as well as being a subject matter. Since over sixty languages are spoken in the Philippines, English has been used as the language of instmction. English is also the language of business. Thus, in the Philippines, a high instrumental value is placed because success in English determines one's upward mobility and one's future. However, the results showed that five scales of the integrative motive were highly related to two measures of English 18 achievement. Especially, the integrative motive factor showed a high correlation with the subjects' oral language proficiency. They also found that 'when parents see the instrumental value of a language, they can favorably influence their children's progress in the language' (1972, p. 128). However, not all the findings of Gardner and Lambert are confirmed by other researchers. For example, Feenstra (1967) and Castillo (1969) found that the major motivation for learning English appears to be instrumental. Galang (1977) observed the types of orientation revealed by Filipino subjects, and stated 'both types of orientation (integrative and instrumental) can be equally important in the process of acquiring a second language“(in Ramos, p.5). Castillo (1969) had found that instrumentally or integratively motivated parents seemed to share the same types of attitudes. D. North America - The United States, Canada 1. The United States Language Ieamers in the United States can be categorized in the following ways. a. American minority groups whose native tongue is not English Ieaming English b. Foreign people Ieaming English c. American people whose native tongue is English Ieaming a foreign language. 19 a. American minority groups whose native tongue is not English Ieaming English In the first category, the studies by Gardner (1968) of American Indian Ieaming English is available. In his study, teachers of American Indian students were asked to rate the importance of the following orientations for their students' Ieaming English. Assimilative orientation--the aim to become like non-Indian Americans Integrative orientation--the desire to learn English to become part of both Indian and American culture Instrumental orientation--the economic and practical advantage of Ieaming English The results indicated that '87 per cent of the teachers chose integrative reasons, 11 per cent chose assimilative ones, and only seven per cent selected instrumental ones...“ (Gardner, 1985, p.52). b. Foreign people Ieaming English The studies in the second category of Foreign people Ieaming English are numerous. It is common to see the studies which mention the leamers' motivation and attitudes in relation to the materials, teaching methods and curriculum and other variables. In this section, I would like to mention about the studies whose main focus is on motivation and attitudes. c. American people whose native tongue is English learning a foreign language The first and the most comprehensive studies in this category were conducted by Gardner and Lambert (1972) in Louisiana, Maine 20 and Connecticut. The three regions were selected after a good deal of thought Louisiana and Maine have a reputation for having an important French-American subculture. Connecticut was considered a more "typical“ American region by Gardner and Lambert. The subjects were American high school students who were from English speaking homes and who were studying French in school. The number of subjects was 96 in Louisiana, 145 in Maine, and 142 in Connecticut. In all the studies, the researchers found that the essential roles played by attitudes and motivation in second language Ieaming. These factors were independent of intelligence and aptitude. The researchers also found distinctive and unique patterns of variables from setting to setting. For example, in Louisiana, intellectual capacity correlated with the ability of grammar, vocabulary and reading , not that of speaking and accent. Motivation and desire to Ieam French were facilitated more when the students received their family encouragement, which associated with a high level of achievement in French course work. In the Maine, the students' sensitivity for the feeling of others correlated with high achievement in French course. This tendency was confirmed more among girls rather than boys. Connecticut was the only place where integrative orientation had relationships with achievement in French. These results provided further evidence for the complex nature of this issue. 21 2. Canada The geographical differences cannot be too carefully considered in Canada. Gagnon (1974) demonstrated that attitudes toward learning English as a second language varied significantly from one region to another there. Gardner and his associates have investigated motivation in second language acquisition in various Canadian settings for more than 30 years. They studied primarily English speaking Canadian students Ieaming French as a second language. It is difficult to state all of the studies conducted, but Gardner (1985) concluded that 'the weight of evidence supports the generalization that an integrative motive does facilitate second language acquisition” (p.62-3). In Canadian research, integrative motive refers to positive feelings toward the community that speaks that language within the country rather than France. Gardner and his associates (1977) tested high school students in Montreal and found that the students' intention to continue studying English is related to an integrative motive. It seemed that the subjects' English competence more closely related to self- confidence derived from prior language experience. For example, students whose target language contact is limited to classroom setting tended to rate their skills, speaking skills in particular, less highly. Chapter III Motivation toward Learning Foreign Language in Japan A. Results of Past Studies in Japan Ten studies concerning motivation and attitudes in Japanese Ieamers of English have been made. Two studies dealt with junior high school students, and three studies dealt with senior high school students. Another three studies dealt with university students, while the final two dealt with adult EFL learners. The studies concerning junior high school students were conducted in 1981 and 1987. Nakazawa (1981) asked students their aim or their reason for English study. The top three responses were to pass senior high entrance examinations (23 %), to cope a with job which requires English proficiency in the future (21 %), and to converse with native speakers freely (20 %). Eleven percent of them chose cultural purposes such as to understand foreign countries and to be regarded as adults. Nakazawa also found that his junior high subjects considered English as their favorite among the five academic subjects which are included in the entrance examinations. This enthusiasm toward English, however, was not maintained for a long time. After only one year of English study, about half-of the eighth graders began to lose interest. This tendency towards lower motivation the longer they studied has also been reflected in other studies. Kamada's study (1987) illustrates how students' motivation changed from intrinsic to extrinsic because of today's competitive entrance examination, and proposed the improvement of the entrance examination system. 22 23 She examined the motivation of Japanese Ieamers toward English as applied to Condry and Chambers' Four-Phase Learning paradigm. She showed how intrinsic or extrinsic motivation manifests different learning processes in the four phases. In the first phase, Initial Engagement, many middle school students are reported to begin their English study with enthusiasm and curiosity. She stated the results of her pre-test questionnaire survey and interviews of junior and senior high school students from a private Tokyo school. Students who self-assessed their English ability high in speaking and hearing skills correlated higher in their 'liking of English" than those students who gave themselves high self- assessments in reading skill of English. Reading skills are those skills related to examination proficiency and thus extrinsic in nature. Whereas speaking and hearing skills are unrelated to examination requirements, the motivation behind the acquisition of those skills may be said to be intrinsic. ...intrinsically motivated learning achievement is linked to a more positive attitude towards that learning activity than is the more extrinsically motivated learning achievement (Kamada, p.15). In the second phase, The Process Stage, Kamada illustrates how students are socialized to perform for the extrinsic goal by comparing them with American counterparts. To do this, she examines the difference between 'studying ' and 'Ieaming' as the basis for comparison. The third State is 'The Disengagement Stage.‘ Japanese students shut off Ieaming English temporarily or permanently when the examination requirements are over. The fourth phase, The Fle-Engagement Phase, differs from person to person. Some people will never go back to studying English. Other 24 people have to study it, especially when they are working in international companies. Thus, in the above studies concerning junior high school students, it seems clear that Japanese students begin to study English with intrinsic motivation. Their motivation, however, comes to change to be an extrinsic one because of senior high school entrance examination. As Nakazawa’s study shows, more of his Japanese junior high school subjects saw instrumental value in English study rather than an integrative one if we try to categorize their responses into Gardner's dichotomy. However, as Japanese people do not have immediate target community of their English study in the country, it may be safer to categorize that their motivation appears to be more extrinsic rather than intrinsic more broadly. In the following paragraphs, we will examine the results of the three high school studies. The first study was attempted to examine the relationships among attitude, motivation and English proficiency. The first two studies attempted to examine the relationships among attitude, motivation and English proficiency. The first study was conducted by Asakawa and Oller (1977) and involved 133 Japanese high school students. The authors used the same instruments and procedures as those used in Chihara and Oller's study on Japanese adult Ieamers which would be discussed later. Factor scores from one factor of self-ratings correlated significantly with English proficiency. Ratings by students who found Japanese people as a whole "enthusiastic,“ "competitive,“ and 25 "friendly" correlated significantly with their performance on a cloze test. Surprisingly, however, when these students rated Americans, their responses did not correlate with the cloze test scores. Two factors derived from the ratings of Americans did correlate significantly with each other. One factor included “democratic,“ 'cheerful,‘ and ”enthusiastic." The other factor included "religious,” 'studious,‘ and " tactful." These findings suggest that Japanese appeared to have consistent patterns of responses, but that this pattern of attitudes was unrelated to their proficiency in English. The second study was conducted by Akimoto (1988). She studied attitudes and motivation of 238 Japanese senior high school students in Toyama by means of the scores of a written test. The questionnaires of Gardner and Lambert (1972), which she translated into Japanese, were used. Four types of correlations were discovered. The first one was in the rating of integrative orientation. Three out of four statements listed by Gardner and Lambert showed significant positive correlation with each other. The statement which showed weak correlation was 3: 'It (Studying English) should enable me to begin to think and behave as Americans do.“ The second type of correlation was found in the Preference for Japan over America scale. Seven out of eight statements showed significant correlation with each other. The key common factors of these correlations are 'Family life is more important to Japanese than it is to people in America" and “The American people would benefit greatly if they adopted many aspects of Japanese culture“ (Akimoto, p.13). Two statements in the Anomie scale “The state of the world being what it is, it is difficult for the student to plan for 26 his career' and 'The lot of the average man is getting worse, not better' also showed positive correlation. None of the above correlated with the English test score. The only item that showed a correlation with the test score was in the Desire to Ieam English scale. The subjects who preferred the English course tended to score higher on the test. Hara (1968) surveyed motivation among senior high school students. The top three reasons for English study were 'lt (English study) will be helpful in the future“ (46 %), “Because we have no choice' (41 %) and 'To understand ways of life in foreign countries" (13 %). The second reason could be interpreted as they felt English study was mandatory for their graduation and job hunting. As for studies concerning university students, lgarashi (1976), Onodera and Yoshijima (1980, 1981, 1982) and Koike (1987) surveyed their reasons for English study. In lgarashi's study, university students in Hiroshima participated. The results were as follows: Table 2 Motivation towards English Study among University Students in Hiroshima 1. To expand my culture 24 % 2. To read literature with technical terms 21% 3. Because English is a required subject 19% 4. To prepare for trip and study abroad 12 % 5. To exchange opinions with foreigners 10% 6. To get a job in which English is used 7% 7. To prepare for examinations for graduate school or job hunting 6% 8. To enhance my thinking power 4% 27 The results showed that the above reasons could be categorized as either cultural, practical or preparation for examinations. Examining the results, the researcher concluded that motivation among the university students was confusing. In the studies by Onodera (1980, 1981, 1982) and Yoshijima (1987), freshman and sophomore students of University of Tokyo were asked about their motivation to study English. 14,968 subjects responded to the questionnaires. The following table shows the results. Table 3 Motivation towards English Study among Students of University of Tokyo year '80 '81 '82 '87 average (%) Practical useful in society 36 34 36 41 37 value useful for academics 23 23 23 26 24 Cultural Interest in English 19 21 19 15 19 Value Interest in English 21 23 21 18 21 Speaking Communities The units represent the percent of the students who chose each item as their first choice. The results show that ”practical value' of English is weighed more than ”culture“ among the subjects. This trend became more remarkable as time passed. 28 Koike (1987) surveyed the aims of English study among liberal arts students. The subjects were 10,315 students from 105 universities and junior colleges. Plural responses were accepted in this research. The results showed “communication through English" and 'enhancement of culture" were the two main aims in their English education. Table 4 Motivation towards English Study among Liberal Arts Students Communication through English 60% Enhancement of Intelligence 40% Development of people 29 % with International Sense Basic Training for Specialized 11 % Educafion Others 4% The generalization of data ranging from junior college students to the elite students of University of Tokyo is difficult. Even so, reviewing the data chronologically, it may be possible to state that the practical value of English has a tendency to be emphasized. As for adult learners of English, two studies were available. The first study was conducted by Chihara and Oller (1978). They 29 involved 123 Japanese adult ESL learners in Osaka. They studied the following attitudes in relation to their EFL proficiency. The following attitudes were studied in relation to the leamers' EFL proficiency: the attitude of the subjects toward themselves; other Japanese; travel to an English speaking country; and learning English. A Japanese translation of the attitude questionnaire used by Oller, Hudson, and Liu (1977), with direct questions adapted from Gardner and Lambert (1972) and indirect questions adapted from Spolsky (1969) was used. The subjects' proficiency was measured by the scores on a cloze test. The results showed weak correlations between attained proficiency and factors distilled from the attitude measures. Some of the findings were unexplainable. For example, in the subjects' rating of Japanese people, the subjects who rated Japanese people more positively, “cheerful“ and “optimistic“ in this case, tended to have a lower score on the cloze test. In the rating of English speaking people, the scores of subjects who rated English speakers more positively, that is, “confident“ and “broad-minded“ negatively correlated with the cloze test scores. In other words, the more proficient subjects tended to rate English speakers lower. Although overall, integrative motives for Ieaming English were judged to be stronger than instrumental motives, the correlation between integrative motivation and English proficiency was not significant. This challenge to Gardner's hypothesis drew a response from Gardner ( in Chihara and Oller). He commented on the reason for the weak correlation, saying that “attitudes of the sort investigated here are probably only indirectly related to language learning“ 30 (Chihara and Oller, p.67). Chihara and Oller concluded that further studies into the nature of the relationship between attitudes and attained proficiency are needed. They also stated “another possible explanation is to question the validity of the attempted affective measures “ (Chihara and Oller, p.68). 31 B. Characteristics of Learners' Motivation in Japan In EFL settings, an English speaking community is not available to students of English. English is taught as an international language. In such environments, “many of the attitudes specifically associated with the group or the language are dormant ...“ (Gardner, 1985, p.8). The total amount of information about the culture of English speakers may be very limited, and the lack of information can lead students to have stereotyped images toward the target community. Many Japanese complain about their lack of English proficiency, especially in speaking and listening. Possible explanations were given above in the introduction. In this section, I would like to examine the characteristics of Japan as an environment for English study and analyze the relationship between the environment and motivation among Japanese Ieamers of English. To attain this aim, I will first describe several matters such as entrance examinations and English teaching pedagogy which characterize Japanese English learning setting. 1 Characteristics of Japan as a Place to Learn English a. The Entrance Examinations The ill effects of Japan's competitive entrance examinations on education have been repeatedly pointed out. More than 90% of all students go to senior high school both in Japan and the US. These are the highest rates in the world. In America, students get into public senior high school without taking an examination. In contrast, the entrance examinations are highly significant to most 32 Japanese. “Examination hell,“ to use the popular term, is dreaded by many. Tough examinations have existed since the beginning of the Meiji era. Examinations had been, of course, a part of the Confucian heritage, but until the Meiji era, when class society was abolished, “they (examinations) were less important than class, lineage, and particularistic ties“ (Flohlen, 1983, p.61). Since then, several revisions have been attempted, but the “examination hell“ continues. As the Fundamental Code of Education of 1872 states, “it is required that students master all the subjects of their school year and that they have to take examinations every year.“ Students in those days moved up to the senior class by succeeding in the examinations each year. It is said that the real central role of education was preparation for exams, despite the more idealistic claims of courses of study. (1) Content of Examinations English examinations, in particular, often have been criticized. In this section, I would like to examine the methods of testing English ability in entrance examinations as well as the contents of the examinations. (a) How English is Tested5 Below are some questions that appeared on the entrance examinations (1990) of Waseda University, which is one of the most competitive schools. Fill in the blanks with the word appropriate to all three sentences under each number. 33 (a) 1. Who is going to ( ) Jane home after the party? 2. Let's leave the matter to Bob. He will ( ) to it. 3. Do you ( ) what I mean? (b) 1. It is ( ) time that more responsible positions should be opened to women workers. 2. l have a ( ) opinion of the film director. 3. Father won the first prize in the photo contest and was in ( ) spirit. 1 What ( ) are you in? 2. Please drop me a ( ) when you have time. 3 Many people were waiting in a ( ) to get the tickets for the baseball game. Generally speaking, the ability to express oneself in written English is not tested in entrance examinations in Japan. It is common to have a section of 'English composition' in said examinations, but actually it is only a translation from Japanese to English. It is also very common to have translation from English to Japanese in these examinations. The following are some examples: (An example from Japanese to English) swatmgsfiet.:nmat%asmfi.urnbuouazafiawr bétfiwamfi.wfltbfiflfifiéo (Doshisha University, 1990) (When I happen to read a leamed book, I cannot help wondering if it is written in Japanese. What is written there must be worthy, but I found it really difficult to understand.) (An example of translation from English to Japanese) Recent dream research has shown that a person deprived of dreaming, even though not deprived of sleep, is nevertheless impaired in his ability to manage reality. He becomes emotionally disturbed because of being unable to work out in 34 dreams the unconscious problems that confuse him (University of Tokyo, 1990). (EfimfimM%c;nfi.$éfibntAu.t21fifiufibna experience | g Figure 1 Schematic representation of the theoretical model (Adapted from Gardner, 1985, p.147) 96 Gardner modified the model with emphasis on its major operational characteristics. The concept of the integrative motive is introduced in the Operational formulation of the model. He explains the integrative motive in the following way. ...both integrativeness and attitudes toward the learning situation are seen as attitudinal aspects which serve as the foundation for, or cause of, the motivation to learn a second language (p.153,1985) The concept of the integrative motive includes not only the orientation but also the motivation (i.e. attitudes toward learning the language plus desire plus motivational intensity) and a number of other attitude variables involving the other language community, out-groups in general and the language Ieaming context (p.54,1985). The operational formulation of the socio-educational model is presented in the Figure 2. SOCIAL LANGUAGE MILIEU INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ACQUISITION OUTCOMES CONTEXTS Integrative motive I' """"""""""""" I I Integrativeness N I M ' t' —— 5533' otIva Ion I Formal * Attitudes toward the Lll‘lgUlSth Ieaming situation , Informal _ Language ‘ I“. aptitude g Figure 2 Operational formulation of the socio-educational model (Adapted from Gardner, 1985, p.147) 97 B. Criticism on Socio-educational Model Although the socio-educational model has been presented in many journals, “the model has not been given the credit it deserves by the second-language teaching community“ (Crookall and Oxford, 1988, p.137). The model has undergone several modifications, and Gardner admits that it is still in the process of development. Thus, it may be safer to say that the tme model which shows actual second language acquisition process has not come. Even so, examination of criticisms on Gardner's model would be beneficial for improvement of second language acquisition models. The Socio-educational model has been criticized from three points Of view including the validity of the questionnaires, the data analysis and the construction of the model itself. The criticism's translatability to the Japanese setting is also discussed. 1. Criticisms at the Questionnaire Level a. Validity of questionnaires The validity of the questionnaire as a measurement of human affective factors was questioned by Oller (1979). Oller pointed out that human traits such as approval motive, self-flattery, social- desirability, and response set could distort the responses to questionnaires. He argued that the reason why responses correlated with language proficiency was because the social desirability, self- flattery, and response set overlapped with verbal intelligence. However, almost zero relationships between the AMI and the MLAT eliminate his explanation that intelligence determines the 98 scores (Wesche, Edwards and Wells, 1989). So we cannot argue that the verbal intelligence underlies foreign language proficiency. I 2. Criticisms in Data Analysis Level a. Construction of Attitude Motivation Index (AMI) While both the validity and reliability figures for the AMI are statistically impressive (Gardner, 1989), Skehan (1989) questioned the method used to constmct the AMI. The procedure used with AMI is to simply add up the scores obtained from ten measures such as Attitude Toward Learning French, Integrative Orientation, or Interest in foreign language. Skehan argued that, considering the complexity and subtlety of the theorizing, this unweighted addition is disappointingly simple. Given the complex nature of second language acquisition, his argument is intuitively appealing. However, if the researchers weighted the scores from setting to setting, it might yield empirical research data which are needed in this field. Thus clearer understanding of the nature of the learning context is very important. b. Integrative/Instrumental Dichotomy Originally, the idea of integrative/instrumental motivation was investigated only in Canadian multilingual settings. The researchers were able to label an integrative motivation easily because there were Ieamers who wanted to become like or even join the people of the target language community. The researchers could label all the other reasons as instrumental. 99 However, as discussed earlier, this distinction is quite controversial. To summarize, the above data appear to show that the idea of integrative/instrumental motivation from the Canadian setting is not consonant with Gardner's ambitious idea of creating a model which is applicable to various formal learning settings in the world. Gardner (1985) stated the possibility of “other orientations such as manipulative or machiavellian [sic] one and argued for developing a procedure for assessing orientations which did not depend upon a categorical system“ (p.12). Unfortunately, as long as the researchers continue using AMI, the data continue to fit into the integrative/instrumental dichotomy, and other types of motivation will not be uncovered. 3. Criticisms in the Model Construction a. The Social Milieu and Other Variables The influential role of the social milieu on second language acquisition is often stressed by Gardner, and its role is clear in the schematic representation of the model as is shown earlier. However, no items concerning the social milieu are available in the questionnaires. Although Gardner states that his model is subject to empirical testing, consistency between the measurement and the model is important. b. Attitudes, Motivation and Orientation According to Gardner's definitions, attitude is a"n evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object, inferred on the basis of the individual's beliefs or Opinions about the referent“ (1985, p.9). 100 Orientation refers to “a class of reasons for Ieaming a second language“ (p.54). Motivation is “the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of Ieaming the language plus favourable attitudes toward Ieaming the language“ (p.10). Gardner made such distinctions in case of someone without at least one of the three dispositions. For example, there may be someone who has a positive attitude toward the target language, but does not bother to Ieam the language. Such a person can be said to have a positive attitude, but not motivation. However, all of his subjects were second language Ieamers, and such a concern was not necessary. Gardner explained the relationships between motivation and effort in the following way: Effort alone does not signify motivation. The motivated individual expends effort toward the goal, but the individual, expending effort is not necessarily motivated. Many attributes of the individual, such as compulsiveness, desire to please a teacher or a parent, a high need to achieve, might produce effort as would social pressure, such as a demanding teacher, impending examinations, or the promise of a new bicycle (1985, p. 10). Gardner criticized Oller and his associates saying they made a wrong distinction among attitudes, motivation and orientation. However, 'impending examinations, or the promise of a new bicycle' are typical examples of rewards in extrinsic motivation (Deci, 1975) and this statement contradicts the tradition of educational psychology. Otherwise, it may reveal that what Gardner calls 'motivation' concerns only 'global motivation' suggested by Brown 101 (1981). It means that Gardner does not take motivation at the more micro level such as task motivation into consideration. Eventually, Ellis has come to observe that “there has been no general agreement on definitions of 'motivation' and 'attitudes' or of their relation to one another“ (1985, p.117). To save the situation, understanding of motivation in the framework of educational psychology as well as social psychology may be beneficial. Summary and Conclusion As a generalization, in countries such as Japan where a foreign language is taught as an international language, the specific community using the target language is not usually available. Information about the target communities is limited, and this lack is likely to cause misconceptions towards them. How settings are strikingly different from one another is mentioned in Chapter II. What are the characteristics of Japan as a place to study English? The characteristics of Japanese educational setting, influence of the entrance examinations, English textbooks and ineffective pedagogy have been repeatedly stressed and are summarized above. Although several efforts to improve the situation have been attempted and some are still in progress, they appear to influence Japanese contexts only moderately at present. The major trends are as follows: Typical Japanese junior high school students begin their English study with enthusiasm and curiosity, although it is not easy for them to maintain their motivation. English is likely to be taught in a fashion which does not necessarily enhance their communication ability or knowledge Of the new culture. Contrary to the expectations by Gardner, English may be taught in the same way as other academic school subjects are taught. Competitive entrance examinations require rote memorization of grammar, and the \ pedagogy has many shortcomings. As a result, students lose their motivation. All the negative facts mentioned here are not independent, but interact with each other. 102 103 In order to find the learners' mental state regarding such variables as motivation and attitudes, and to determine how these matters are influenced by their contexts, self-reported measurements such as questionnaires have been used. Although a common criticism is that self-reported measurements would be influenced by the subjects' sense of social desirability and other matters, many attempts to improve the measurements have been made nevertheless. It seems safe to claim that questionnaires can be helpful as instruments. Naturally the limitations of the measurement must be considered. Researchers could obtain more accurate data by knowing how the measurements work in different contexts. Reexamination of the contexts is essential. As for the examination of the contexts, it should be noted that it is also very important to find whether the measurement is replicable to other settings or not. Careful examination of the characteristics of the context is the first matter to consider. Chapter IV illustrated how Gardner's questionnaires for American and Canadian settings were not replicable in the Japanese context. This, however, does not devaluate Gardner's method. Open-ended questionnaires in which the subjects express their feelings freely will also help meet this need. DDTES . See TOEFL: Test and Score Manual from 1990 to 1991 (Koike, 1991). _ . According to the data obtained at the Foreign Service Institute, Japanese is one of the most difficult languages to master for American learners. To attain superior proficiency, it is expected to take 720 hours to learn languages such as Spanish, French and Italian. However, from 2400 to 2760 hours of schooling are needed for them to attain the same level in Japanese. (Liskin-Gasparro, 1982) Similar results were found in the study by Diller (1978). . From 1992, the class size of senior high schools is 40 in some prefectures (Naigaikyoiku). . It was reported in Asahi Newspaper, August 18, 1989 issue that the communist system was disintegrated in Poland in 1989. A new constitution was amended and freer election was held. Tadeusz Mazowiecki was sworn in as the first noncommunist Prime Minister in Eastern Europe since Stalin had imposed communism there 40 years ago. Thus, Muchisky's study, which was conducted in the communist Poland in 1985 before the big political change, may not reflect accurately present Situations. . All examples in this section were taken from Koko eigo kenkyu henshubu (1990a, 1990b). . Soejima (1990) checked Kenkyusha's New Collegiate English- Japanese Dictionary and Lighthouse English-Japanese Dictionaries which are the best selling English Japanese dictionary in Japan and found many mistakes. Kawakami (1991) checked several English reference books in Japan and found they were with many mistakes such as archaic grammar. . Japan's homogeneity is somewhat beginning to be lost recently. Reportedly, Japan has a population of about 124 million as of 1991. According to the Statistical Survey of Legal Migrants, the total population included 941,005 foreigners in 1988. The majority of them are Koreans with a population of 677,140. The School Basic Survey of 1988 shows that repatriate children, that is children enrolled as of May 1 whose parent(s) 104 10. 11. 105 had been engaged in overseas service and retumed to Japan from April 1 of the previous year through March 31 of the year stated, numbered 11,124 (children under six are not included in the sun/ey). Both foreigners living in Japan and repatriate children are increasing greatly, and Japan is beginning to be a more heterogeneous society than it used to be. See Likert (1932) for further information. 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