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W.“ . :..,,.,'.«»”~ ’ ,_. .., 1313;: J V - u 4 Jpn I s MICHIGAN STATE UNIVE RRRRRRRRRRR W! ”ill/{NI/Ifl/III 1 /I////I///Ixu 3 1293 01028 1818 LIBRARY Mlchigan State Universlty This is to certify that the dissertation entitled FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FACULTY ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION presented by JON MARK ARMON has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Educational Administration m Major professor Date September 14. 1294 PLACE ll RETURN BOXtoromwothl-chookoufmnwncord. TO AVOID FINES Mum on or baton duoduo. DATE DUE ‘ DATE DUE DATE DUE .~_-J t 1 at?! - “- l --- --- [—1 MSU loAnNflnnatm Mon/Emu Oppoflmfly lmwon ‘ m1 EACTORs THAT INFLUENCE FACULTY ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION BY Jon Mark Armon A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment Of the requirements for the degree Of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1994 ABSTRACT FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FACULTY ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION BY Jon Mark Armon To prepare students for meaningful lives and careers, faculty in U.S. higher education design, implement, and assess many curriculums. Institutional educators attempt daily to achieve missions and purposes through instructional services. These faculty hold some degree of organizational commitment. The central purpose of this study was to measure levels of faculty organizational commitment in higher education and to seek antecedents and correlates in faculty demography and perceptions. Many changes in U.S. higher education since World War II include increased numbers and types of post-secondary institutions, increased student enrollments, underprepared and older students, equal access to all regardless of income, and increased numbers of part-time faculty. With tighter institutional budgets, tenure under scrutiny, and salaries becoming less attractive, higher education faculty are still to some degree committed to their institutions. However, faculty have also recently been revisiting their own organizational commitment. To study the level of organizational commitment of faculty in private, independent, not-for-profit higher education, all faculty (n=326) on three Baker College system campuses were surveyed. Organizational commitment was measured according to mean level of responses on the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire originated by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979); overall mean level was 5.20 ("slightly agree") on a seven-point scale. Results were compared and correlated with ten demographic and five perceptual variables. Organizational commitment level did not vary demographically by campus location, faculty age, gender, system employment longevity, teaching load, marital status, primary wage earner status, and daily commuting distance. Commitment level did vary by employment status and highest educational degree achieved. Organizational commitment correlated positively with perceptions of openness of communication system, professional growth opportunities, socialization opportunities, pay satisfaction, and personal agreement with collegiate mission. U.S. higher education needs proactive self—analysis. Commitment of faculty is central to higher education's success. Education is a service industry, faculty want to help their institutions, and administrations should communicate with faculty openly, honestly, and frequently in face-to-face dialogues centered around their missions. DEDICATION And thanks to God who makes all things possible. To John, Helen, Karen, and Charissa--a wonderful support group. To the memory of Wallace Stevens. And, consequently, to the silvery glitter in and of East Brush Creek which is both real and imaginary in green and blue ways. It is a "third commonness with light and air, a curriculum, a vigor, a local abstraction..." (Stevens, 1978, p.533). iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Fred Whims, who knows more than he teaches, but who teaches more than he knows; to Lou Hekhuis, Marylee Davis, and Eldon Nonnamaker for their continual support; to Joe Levine and Murari Suvedi for their genuineness, dedication, and candor. To Bob Jewell, Ed Kurtz, and Rick Amidon--the system and campus presidents who approved and supported this study. To the faculty of Baker College who participated in the study and love their students. Our planet needs more people like these. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FACULTY ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION INTRODUCTION STATEMENT Of the PROBLEM BACKGROUND Of the PROBLEM PURPOSES of STUDY SIGNIFICANCE Of STUDY DESIGN STUDY DEFINITIONS SAMPLE METHODOLOGY ASSUMPTIONS STUDY LIMITATIONS STUDY ORGANIZATION CHAPTER II - REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW of the LITERATURE ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT, CULTURE, and CLIMATE ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT and FACULTY DEMOGRAPHY and PERCEPTIONS DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES PERCEPTUAL VARIABLES and CLIMATE SUMMARY vi 12 14 15 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 24 26 34 36 40 43 CHAPTER III - DESIGN, METHODS, and PROCEDURES DESIGN, METHODS, and PROCEDURES SAMPLE SELECTION INSTRUMENTATION VALIDITY and RELIABILITY DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES STATISTICAL ANALYSIS DESIGN SUMMARY CHAPTER IV - FINDINGS and DATA ANALYSES FINDINGS and DATA.ANALYSES DESCRIPTIVE DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVE PERCEPTUAL STATISTICS ASSOCIATIONAL DEMOGRAPHIC and ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT QUESTIONNAIRE (OCQ) STATISTICS ASSOCIATIONAL PERCEPTUAL and ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT QUESTIONNAIRE (OCQ) STATISTICS SUMMARY CHAPTER V - CONCLUSIONS REVIEW Of PROBLEM REVIEW Of STUDY PURPOSES and METHODS REVIEW Of FINDINGS DISCUSSION and CONCLUSIONS REFLECTIONS about the STUDY IMPLICATIONS for FUTURE RESEARCH SUMMARY vii 44 44 44 46 46 48 51 53 54 54 56 63 66 74 76 77 77 78 81 85 89 9O 93 APPENDIX A - COVER LETTER, DEMOGRAPHIC and PERCEPTUAL QUESTIONNAIRE, and ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT QUESTIONNAIRE (OCQ) REFERENCES viii 94 98 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE NUMBER NUMBER 1 Population Size and Overall Return # and % 56 2 Population Size and # and % of Usable Responses in.Aggregate and by Campus 57 3 Sample Population Size and # and % of Usable Responses by Full-time (FT) and Part-time (PT) Faculty 58 4 Actual FT and PT Faculty Sample # and Response # and 8 58 5 % of Faculty Within First Three Age Intervals 59 6 Gender of Respondents in Aggregate and by Campus 59 7 % of Employment Longevity Within First Three Intervals in Aggregate and by Campus 60 8 Full-time and Part-time Status of Respondents in .Aggregate and by Campus 61 9 Number and Percentage of Highest Educational Degree of Respondents in Aggregate and by Campus 61 10 Mean # of Classes Taught by Faculty in Aggregate and by Campus 62 ll % of Married Faculty in Aggregate and by Campus 62 12 % of Primary Wage Earner Faculty in Aggregate and by Campus 63 13 % of Faculty Commuting 20 Miles or Less Daily 63 14 % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus of Openness and Clarity of Baker College Communication System or Network 64 15 % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus of Opportunities for Professional Growth Within the Baker College System 65 ix 16 17 l8 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus about Opportunities for Interaction and Socialization with Colleagues at Baker College % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus about Remuneration Satisfaction % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus about Individual "Livingfliof the Baker College Mission OCQ Measures of Central Tendency in Aggregate and by Campus Analysis of Variance of OCQ Means Mean Levels of Organizational Commitment by Full-time and Part-time Faculty Status in Aggregate and by Campus t-test of OCQ Raw Scores (Mean) by Full-time and Part-time Faculty by Status t-test of OCQ Raw Scores (Mean) by Full-time and Part-time Faculty by Campus t-test of OCQ Means by Gender in Aggregate and by Campus Analysis of Variance of OCQ Means with Highest Educational Degree Attained in Aggregate and by Campus OCQ Means by Highest Degree in Aggregate and by Campus t-test of OCQ Means by Marital Status in Aggregate and by Campus t-test of OCQ Means by Primary Wage Earner Status in Aggregate and by Campus Pearson's r of Age, Classes, Longevity, and Commute with OCQ Means in Aggregate and by Campus 65 66 66 67 67 68 68 69 7O 71 71 72 73 74 30 Pearson's r of Communication, Professional Growth, Socialization, Pay, and "Living" the Mission with OCQ Means in Aggregate and by Campus xi 75 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE NUMBER NUMBER 1 Percentage of Usable Responses by Campus 57 xii Chapter I Factors That Influence Faculty Organizational Commitment in Higher Education Introduction Why do people do what they do? This question and its variations have been of central research interest in business and industry since the end of World War II. Business and industry efficiency engineers throughout the twentieth century, following Frederick W. Taylor's principles of 1911, have conducted numerous time and motion studies to enhance workers' on-the-job performance (Postman, 1992, p. 51). As those jobs change and technology advances, more sophisticated evaluative techniques are used to measure productivity and output. So too in the anachronistic "white collar" or professional workforce, interest in how and why persons perform has continued to increase. Simultaneously and without doubt, higher education, both public and private, has endured growth pains in the latter half of the twentieth century, both in numbers and types of higher educational institutions in the marketplace. Additionally, higher educational marketplace competition has intensified and is a matter of record in small and large communities, from public to private, from associate degree—granting to baccalaureate and graduate degree-granting institutions. As in business and industry, these institutions' employees have become more subject to performance reviews and research studies over the last several decades, especially with regard to efficiency and effectiveness. "Do more with less" has become a higher educational administrative dictum. The unprecedented growth in post-secondary institutions through the 19705 lulled many into the misperception that nothing but the same was to come. But in the eighties and through the present, the budget in many states and in higher educational institutions themselves has not been as accessible nor as abundant. Retrenchment, redefinition, and revisitation are but three of the buzz words in academe in the past fifteen years. Many missions and purposes have been recast, expanded, even sometimes abandoned. Student populations overall, in national terms, have grown, along with changing demography and increased federal and state financial assistance to students themselves. But with increasing numbers of needy student hands stretched out, states and the federal government have also been revisiting their individual disbursements to students. Commonly in the 19905, student grants have largely given way to student loans--which will need to be repaid. All these factors have served to tighten the fiscal controls in higher education at all levels. When such constrictions occur, academic managers--administrators, department chairs, and deans--must also be more frugal with their disbursements. As the largest segment of budgetary outlay at most campuses, faculty salaries are central to rather than immune to such institutional monetary concerns. Obviously too and somewhat aside from monetary issues, however, many generally positive national changes in higher education have not been equally effected among all institutions. Survival has become, for more than a few institutions, the new management style. Scholarship, once a denotation and benchmark of performance and ability used for judgment in awarding tuition money, has been redefined as need. Still central, however, through ‘ myriad changes in the higher educational landscape has been the faculty member. The faculty member--whether called instructor, professor, advisor, counselor--is still the primary source of product delivery in the higher educational function. As the culture of higher education has been evolving, requirements for faculty membership have also been changing. What have these changes caused? What is the faculty member like today? What is the faculty member's level of commitment to the workplace? And how does that level of commitment relate to various individual demographic and perceptual factors? "One of the most significant changes Since World War II is the great growth of faculty power, coupled with rapid faculty professionalization" (Hodgkinson, 1971, p.99). "Commitment is not only important to understand because of the impact it has on these critical human resources issues, but it must be recognized as a core issue because it lies at the root of human capacity to be influenced" (Salancik, 1978, in Larkey, 1990, p. 5). Statement of the Problem The literature does not reveal a clear View of the organizational commitment of faculty in higher education. Additionally, the literature about organizational commitment of faculty in higher education reflects little about the antecedents and correlates of such organizational commitment. What are the personal or intrinsic and organizational or extrinsic factors which influence faculty compliance in and commitment to their colleges and universities? Especially, what are these factors of influence which operate in private, independent, not-for- profit higher educational organizations? Faculty members, by and large, do not typically work independently of an institutional base, a campus. Rather, they bring their services, more or less on a contractual and daily basis, to the location where they serve students and the community. As a quid pro quo group, they instruct, work on committees, revise curriculum, conduct and publish research, and to some degree work and volunteer at large in the community. In private higher education, however, the significant and primary institutional emphasis is on teaching. In that effort, faculty over time establish a relationship with a particular institution, participate in its various committee and other functions, and through their participation develop an institutional subculture or various subcultures. The place where most of these activities occur is also a place where students gather with faculty, formally and informally. Before, between, and after classes, faculty also fraternize among themselves. All these workplace occurrences or events can validly be supposed to contribute to faculty attitudes and perceptions of not only themselves, but their institutions as well. To pursue their careers, faculty need their institutions to a large degree; these selfsame institutions need their faculty. The basis and boundaries for a relationship with varying degrees of participants' commitment is naturally established. There exists a mutual and reciprocal relational need for each other. The literature does not provide a clear view of faculty commitment to the organization. Additionally, it does not reflect the antecedents and correlations of faculty organizational commitment, either demographically or perceptually. To gain insights into this problem, this study was designed to investigate the levels of organizational commitment of faculty in private, independent, not-for-profit higher education and to investigate demographic and perceptual factors of influence. Background of the Problem As faculty are participants and members in academic, utilitarian organizations (Etzioni, 1975, p. 31), they depend upon salaries for their livelihood. While utilitarian, higher educational institutions are also normative because faculty generally comply by internalizing "directives accepted as legitimate" (p. 40). Their compliance and involvement range from high to low, from positive to negative, from commitment to alienation (p. 9). These faculty comprise higher educational institutions' "middle ranks" (p. 41). "Etzioni's (1961) typology of organizations provides a framework for conceptualizing the value orientation of organizations" (Shaw and Reyes, 1990, p. 10). This View of the organization allows for affective and intracultural introspection, especially of the faculty member within a work climate. Faculty, consequently, are critical to the success of their respective organizations on a daily basis. Etzioni further determined that faculty attitudes are highly influential on student attitudes, that faculty "lead" students, and that positive concern for students' welfare produces greater student performance (p. 209). Such issues as faculty attitudes and student outcomes and assessment bear directly on faculty organizational commitment. Astin (1993) additionally noted that faculty commitment is directly and positively correlative with relationship with administration and satisfaction with quality of students (p. 39). Reyes and Keller (1986) found that those individuals with only utilitarian values held less job satisfaction than those with a normative value orientation (p. 10). When the organization recognizes the central role of faculty, it simultaneously acknowledges a concern that faculty truly choose to participate personally and professionally in the organization. This participation cannot be effective if it is passive compliance. "The basic requirement is not mere acceptance of goals and standards, but commitment. Such commitment is necessary not only with respect to the overall successful competition of the organization but with respect to all the specific subgoals associated with performance" (McGregor, 1967, p. 127). The institution would like to enhance such relationships. Naturally it follows that the institution would hope for strong levels of faculty commitment to institutional goals, purposes, and practices. Faculty need administrators who empower them to perform optimally. "The backbone of effective empowerment and motivation is trust" (Dilenschneider, 1992, p. 65). Furthermore, these relationship can be created and improved in high-involvement organizations. "Employee involvement...has been shown to have significant effects on organizational effectiveness" (Lawler, 1992, p. 4). "Human response to information about performance varies with commitment to goals" (McGregor, 1967, p. 125). The impact of this management perception is far-reaching: Individuals in high-involvement organizations are asked to make substantial, even extraordinary commitments to the organization. They are expected to tailor their careers and aspirations in many ways to particular characteristics of the organization. It is hard to ask people for this commitment and unreasonable to expect it from them if in fact the organization is unwilling to commit to seeing that they remain as employees (Lawler, 1992, p. 240). These views are echoed by many in administration and management today, especially as academic managers " are becoming more dependent on their employees" (Toffler, 1990, p. 210). And administrations can't force feed these attitudes (Dilenschneider, 1992, p. 66). Additionally, as many collegiate organizations in the 1990s are pursuing multiple positive methods to become more efficient, organizational design has become more important; proactive streamlining and retrenchment have been departmentally and institutionally mandated and are becoming commonplace. It is a fact that "[O]rganizational design has also been established as an antecedent of commitment" (Chieffo, 1991, p. 22). This antecedent behavioral structure becomes a way to build "satisfaction and commitment...through the creating of a 'vision' and an 'organizational culture'" (p. 23). However, "organizational structure alone assures the development of no particular individual commitments" (Newman, 1993, p. 11). To become "lean and mean" are positive ideas to fiscal managers. In the enhancement of the relational structure of the organization to its employees, the faculty, it has also been established that "[IJndividuals committed to a vision beyond their self-interest find they have energy not available when pursuing narrower goals" (Senge, 1990, p. 171). With Taylor's earliest efficiency goals still relevant, systematic thinking and behavior reminiscent of the time and motion studies have permeated the higher educational landscape in many states' college and university structures. Mere survival and/or desired growth both depend on a solid set of relationships between all echelons of an academic organization and its faculty. If an academic organization in higher education aims and drives toward a successful future, it needs somehow to promote the perception that individuals can benefit, can further their own interests by attaching to the organization (Bernard, 1948, p. 163, in Frost, 1991, p. 6). Hodgkinson (1971) noted that William James in 1897 recognized the need for wholistic, organic thinking and interrelationships within social organisms (in Frost, p. 6). This mutuality or interdependence, a reciprocal set of relationships, relies on a trustworthy commitment, a collaboration between partners, faculty in concert with the administration. "The contributions of personal efforts which constitute the energies of organizations are yielded by individuals because of incentives" (Barnard, 1968, p. 139). "The autocratic dean has little to commend him as far as improving relationships between the administration and the faculty" (Hodgkinson, 1971, p. 46). There needs to exist a mutual collegiality of purpose and commitment to achievement. "Any social structure is bound together by social cement which consists of equal parts of reciprocity and trust" (p. 139). Blake and Mouton (1985) noted the need for 10 interdependence in their seminal work, The Managerial Grid _l£. Speaking of high concern for both production and people, they said: "The highest attainable level of integration is possible only through leadership that meets the mature needs of people to commit themselves to corporate objectives through contributions that are beyond the ordinary" (p. 82). Still other researchers have found that organizational identification is "related to the member's higher-order need satisfaction" (Hall, Schneider, and Nygren, 1970, p. 176). Maslow's hierarchy of needs-- security, social, esteem, autonomy, and self-fulfillment-- identifies some of these needs (Schultz, 1990, pp. 321-322). The administrator or academic manager clearly must recognize these needs, as well as have knowledge and facility in developing relationships which help faculty fulfill such needs. Non-affirming, argumentative supervisors will do little to build positive relationships, but they will impede individuals' organizational commitment (Hodgkinson, 1971, p. 46). Congeniality--from genuine mutual concern—-is necessary in supervisor and subordinate relationships (Infante and Gorden, 1991, pp. 301-302) and may lead to strong group cohesion through social ties which may positively influence commitment among all participants (Martin and O'Laughlin, 1984, p. 280; Blau, 1987, p. 252); good job-related communications also influence commitment (Martin and O'Laughlin, 1984, p. 281; Eblen, 1987, p. 193). Involving 11 faculty in participative decision-making process and facilitation of supportive work relationships also improves commitment (Reyes, 1992, p. 18). "Top management, immediate supervisors, and co-workers all convey the sorts of information important to the organizational commitment process" (Allen, 1992, p. 358). "When an individual identifies himself with a group, a leader, or a cause, he is in effect saying that the goals and values associated with that cause have become his own. He then self-consciously directs his efforts toward those goals and gains intrinsic satisfaction through their achievement" (McGregor, 1967, p. 127). Likert (1967) believed that "the greater the loyalty of the member of a group toward the group, the greater the motivation among the members to achieve the goals of the group, and the greater is the probability that the group will achieve its goals" (p. 64). Hall (1981) thought commitment to be the "soul of work...the sense of purpose that guides one's activities... that justifies one's investment of self...that defines one's role and reason for being" (p. 87 in Frost, 1991, p. 11). There is, without doubt, moreso now than ever before a need for all higher educational institutional units to be interdependent, to have the "right hand know what the left hand is doing." Knowledge of organizational commitment of faculty when correlated with faculty demography and overall perceptions of the institution will give higher educational organizations a clearer and better understanding of 12 themselves and their inner workings. Such knowledge may, in consequence, be used in a proactive approach in faculty role clarification (Monroe and Denman, 1991, p. 59) and to institutional self-analysis, self-management, and self- renewal. Purpose of Study The purposes of the study were to gain insights into the level of organizational commitment of full-time and part-time faculty at the three largest Baker College campuses for analysis and to compare those levels of organizational commitment to ten demographic and five perceptual items. Those individual demographic variables were: campus location, faculty age, gender, employment longevity, full-time or part-time status, highest educational degree, number of classes being taught, marital status, primary wage earner status, and commuting distance. The individual perceptual variables used in correlation were: Openness of communication system, professional growth opportunities, socialization opportunities, pay satisfaction, and agreement with the college mission. The Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979) was used to measure levels of organizational commitment. The null hypotheses of the study were as follows: 1) there would be no differences between or among the three campuses in mean levels of faculty organizational commitment, 2) there would be no relationship between faculty organizational commitment 13 scores and various faculty demographic characteristics, and 3) there would be no relationship between faculty organizational commitment scores and various faculty perceptual characteristics. As in any higher educational setting, faculty are central to institutional functioning. As such, their affective views on the OCQ will provide data of value to higher education administrators at many levels, as well as to faculty themselves. Organizational units of operation like departments and divisions should benefit. While faculty have been studied from many perspectives in numerous research studies over many years, their commitment to the overall collegiate organization, and especially on three campuses within one collegiate system, should provide new data for analysis. In the literature search, no single college- or university-based studies were found, nor any within just one college system. Additionally, no studies of private, independent, not-for-profit colleges or universities were located. This study should strengthen the knowledge based of organizational commitment as a variable, especially as it relates to the demographic and perceptual items investigated. Data analysis Should provide well-grounded information relevant to academic managers and institutional supervisors to build strategies for managing faculty in the latter 19905 and into the twenty-first century. The data will furthermore give solid footing to the immediate 14 perspectives of administrators who operate within multi- campus systems, especially those in private, independent, not-for-profit organizations. Significance of Study Once a level of faculty commitment to the organization has been determined, opportunities to use the data to build faculty hiring and interaction strategies may arise. Administrative awareness of faculty organizational commitment clearly needs to be enlarged so that on-going self-assessment and administrative procedures and practices can be modified to improve efforts in developing and enhancing faculty organizational commitment. Such commitment is crucial to the daily functioning of the higher educational organization. Efforts to improve the knowledge base about administrative organizational commitment practices with respect to faculty will not only create greater understanding about it, but such knowledge should also allow for facilitation in the administrative effort to improve organizational and faculty relationships, as well as the overall institution. As part of the problem relative to organizational commitment of faculty in higher education is a lack of information about antecedents and correlates, the demographic aspect of the study was based upon the literature review which revealed infrequently and minimally used demographic characteristics. The correlational element of the study was also based on the literature review which 15 located no such prior studies; additionally, various researchers of prior studies suggested that future organizational commitment investigators undertake larger and more complete approaches of the sort in this study. Design Because the problem is a lack of knowledge of the levels of organizational commitment of faculty in private, independent, not-for-profit higher education and the antecedents and correlates of such commitment, this study was conducted as descriptive and correlational survey research using the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979) in conjunction with ten demographic informational request items and five perceptual response items (see Appendix A). The purpose of the study was to measure levels of organizational commitment of faculty in higher education and to seek demographic and perceptual data for comparison and correlation. Survey research was chosen because of the researcher's interest in the topic of faculty organizational commitment and the availability and accessibility of a large purposive and convenience sample within one college system. The null hypotheses of the study were as follows: 1) there would be no mean differences in levels of organiza- tional commitment as measured by the OCQ between or among the three sample campuses; 2) there would be no relationship of demographic characteristics of respondents with OCQ scores in terms of campus location, faculty age, gender, 16 employment longevity, employment status, highest educational degree, class load, marital status, primary wage earner status, or commuting distance; and 3) there would be no relationship of perceptual characteristics about Baker College with OCQ scores in terms of openness of communication system, opportunities for professional growth, opportunities for socialization with colleagues, pay satisfaction, and "living" of the mission. The demographic and correlational aspects of the study were based upon the literature review which revealed no such thorough prior studies and a suggestion by various researchers that such studies be conducted. Subsequent to an initial review of the literature and investigation of various synonyms for commitment such as job attachment, involvement, interest, and career focus, organizational commitment was selected because it presented the least degree of definitive or construct overlap and was least contaminated (Morrow, 1983, p. 491). The definition of "positive involvement as commitment" (Etzioni, 1975, p. 9) was consistent with the criteria which the designers of the OCQ relied on for the development of the instrument: 1) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and values, 2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and 3) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization (Porter, et a1., in Steers, p. 46, 1977). 17 Such a definition and corresponding survey instrument would adequately measure the level of organizational commitment of faculty. The instrument itself was tested widely by the designers for both reliability and validity over a broad spectrum of professional and non-professional job categories during a "9-year period and included over 2500 employees from nine widely divergent work organizations" (Mowday, Steers, and Porter, 1979, p. 225). They discerned that "commitment represents something beyond mere passive loyalty to the organization. It involves an active relationship" (p. 226). As a lS-item survey, the instrument measures responses on a seven anchor Likert-type scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree, with six of the items requiring reverse scoring to avoid potential positively worded response bias. Study Definitions Organization: "a complex pattern of communication and other relations in a group of human beings"; a "role system" (Simon, 1957, p. xvi); people in positions to seek specific goals, results, or outcomes (p. 18); a set of beliefs and consequent practices by members Private: not religiously, governmentally, or publicly supported; not having sectarian financial support Not-for-profit: not proprietary, organized for the common good, members don't benefit by net earnings, and members don't exert political influence (IRS Code of 1986, Sec. 501) 18 Independent: not financially or in any other way dependent on an external organization or entity for existence or perpetuity Faculty: any person teaching at least one class during fall quarter, 1993, and whose primary organizational responsibility was teaching and not administration Commitment: "positive involvement" and "compliance" (Etzioni, 1975, pp. 4, 9; "1) strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and values, 2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and 3) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization" (Porter, et al., in Steers, p. 46, 1977) Loyalty: faithfulness (Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 10th ed., 1993, p. 691) Compliance: "relation in which an actor behaves in accordance with a directive supported by another actor's power, and to the orientation of the subordinated actor to the power applied" (Etzioni, 1975, p. 3) Administration: "lines of organization, governing policies, the rules and regulations, the patterns of behavior" (Simon, 1957, p. xiii); the "getting thing done" function in and of an organization (1) Utilitarian: an "organization in which remuneration is the major means of control" (Etzioni, 1975, p. 31) Normative: an organization in which "compliance rests principally on internalization of directives accepted as legitimate" (Etzioni, 1975, p. 40) Sample As a sample population for study, the faculty from the three largest campuses in the Baker College system were chosen; these were Flint (n=174), Muskegon (n=79), and 19 Owosso (n=73) (total n=326). The other five campuses in the system are generally much smaller than the primary three. This choice was made because each of the three selected campuses has a student population over one thousand, each has its own president, and each has a large enough cohort of faculty to support such a study. All faculty on each of the three campuses were surveyed, both full-time and part—time (total n=326). The definition of a faculty member was anyone who was teaching at least one class during fall quarter of 1993 and whose primary job responsibility was not administration. This definition eliminated deans and other administrators whose primary function was not instruction of students. Once the design was established, the researcher secured permission of the Baker College system president and each of the independent campus presidents before conducting the study. These individuals conveyed their permission in the form of a signed cover letter which was a part of the survey instrument when it was distributed. This presidentially endorsed letter also introduced the investigator, explained the purpose of the study, and ensured respondent confidentiality and anonymity; it also contained the standard Michigan State University required statement of voluntary participation (see Appendix A). Methodology Lists of all faculty who were teaching at least one class during fall quarter, 1993, on one of the three 20 involved campuses were secured. Distribution of the questionnaires was made during the second week of the quarter. The researcher distributed and collected the completed survey instruments on the Muskegon campus. Having made contact with two reliable and responsible system colleagues on each of the Flint and Owosso campuses, the researcher delivered appropriate numbers of sealed survey packets to these two individuals. They had agreed to coordinate communication with the researcher and to distribute the survey packets; a sealed collection box was placed into the faculty lounges or faculty workrooms on the three campuses for return of the completed instruments. As they were anonymously completed and completely uncoded except for campus location, a separate collection box for a signed 3 x 5 card was placed alongside the survey collection box. Survey respondents were asked to turn in their surveys. as soon as possible and then within 48 hours also sign and submit the 3 x 5 card into the separate carton. These cards were then used at the end of four weeks in comparison to individual campus faculty master lists for the follow—up or second request distribution of questionnaires. This individual method of collection was chosen because of its convenience and avoidance of potential mailing difficulties in terms of wasted or lost time and potential loss of items. This method produced from all three campuses an overall 77 percent usable response rate to the 21 instrumentation packet with only one follow-up request and redistribution. Following collection of the survey instruments during fall quarter of 1993, data collation began in January, 1994. Initial OCQ mean scores were computed for each campus, for each full-time and part-time cohort on each campus, for all full-time faculty and for all part-time faculty from the three campuses combined, and for the composite group of all faculty from all three institutions. The null hypotheses of the study were that there would be no mean level of difference of faculty organizational commitment scores between or among the three campuses, that there would be no relationship of demographic characteristics of faculty with OCQ scores, and that there would be no relationship of perceptual characteristics of faculty with OCQ scores. These hypotheses were tested using ANOVA, t-tests of independent means, and calculating Pearson's r correlation coefficients. Various OCQ comparisons to and correlations with demographic and perceptual responses were made. Assumptions The researcher assumed that faculty hold some degree of organizational commitment to their employing institution, as each campus provides faculty with students and accommodations to carry out their various educational and professional activities. These accommodations include classroom and office space, as well as clerical and mechanical support. 22 Second, it was assumed that organizational commitment is not a constant, but that it is a stable enough construct to be adequately measured and is influenced by identifiable organizational variables. Third, the definition of organizational commitment, as conceived by the OCQ instrument originators, and the instrument itself are sufficient to measure a stable construct that is worth investigating with respect to faculty in higher education. Fourth, employees from other higher educational and noneducational entities studied and presented in the literature review have appropriate and worthwhile levels of organizational commitment for comparison to faculty organizational commitment levels in the Baker College system. Fifth, those surveyed would be satisfactorily responsive, secure in their confidentiality and anonymity, and literate enough to respond critically and honestly. Finally, the researcher presumed that data gathered and analyzed from the three campuses identified will have application to other campuses in the Baker College system, as well as some generalizability to other private, independent, not-for-profit colleges and universities. Study Limitations The primary limitation of the study was that it investigated only the faculty from three campuses in the Baker College system, a private, not-for-profit, independent 23 collegiate system in Michigan. The study's generalizability is specifically controlled by the sample selected, with some direct generalizability to other campuses in the Baker College system. Some degree of comparison to other similar systems of private higher education may also be possible Study Organization This study of organizational commitment of faculty in higher education will be arranged into five sections or chapters. These are as follows: Chapter One--Introduction, Problem Statement, Background of Problem, Purposes, Significance, Basic Research Design, Study Definitions, Sample, Basic Methodology, Assumptions, Limitations, and Study Organization. Chapter Two--Review of the Literature. Chapter Three--Design, Methods, and Procedures; Sample Selection; Instrumentation; Validity and Reliability; Data Collection Procedures; and Statistical Analysis Design. Chapter Four--Data Analysis and Findings of the Study. Chapter Five—-Review of Problem, Review of Study Purposes and Methods, Review of Findings, Discussion and Conclusions, Reflections about the Study, and Implications for Future Research. Chapter II Review of the Literature "For this is the dawn of the Powershift Era" (Toffler, 1990, p. 3). With this administrative and managerial presentiment in mind, the United States has moved from agricultural to industrial to informational stages of work orientation, the latter two stages primarily during the twentieth century. Now as the American culture nears entrance into the twenty-first century, management and administrative analysts commonly have called this the age of the "knowledge worker" (Drucker, 1974, p. 177), an age in which "managers are becoming dependent on their employees for knowledge" (Toffler, 1990, p. 210). Implicit in these well-established paradigm shifts throughout all organizations, and particularly in institutions of higher education because of specialized expertise and diverse technologies that seem to have grown exponentially, is the need for administrators and managers to understand their workers more fully now than ever before. As organizations in the 19905 have begun to flatten out rather than remain hierarchically bureaucratic (Nanus, 1989, p. 135), equality and interdependence have become paramount catchalls for organizational relationships. Understanding of the faculty member more fully by academic administrators can improve higher education's functions if and when such knowledge is organizationally applied; understanding the 24 25 organizational commitment of faculty can help to improve the higher educational institution's overall effort and to assess its outcomes. The primary goals of this study were to determine the levels of organizational commitment of all faculty on the three largest Baker College system campuses and to compare those levels of commitment. Further comparisons included ten demographic and five perceptual variables for correlation and analysis. The ten faculty member demographic items were: campus location, faculty age, gender, employment longevity, full-time or part-time status, highest educational degree, number of classes being taught, marital status, primary wage earner status, and commuting distance. The five faculty member perceptual items were: openness of system communication network, professional growth opportunities, socialization opportunities, pay satisfaction, and agreement with college mission. Blasingame (1981) asserted that to "expose specific problem areas, the data should be 'sliced' by demographic and/or organizational variables into the smallest subgroups feasible without revealing individual identity" (p. 11). To these ends, Chapter II, Review of the Literature, exposes what has been studied and found about organizational commitment and the need to understand it, as well as organizational commitment's relationship to these listed demographic and perceptual variables. 26 As specific outgrowth of management investigations of the workforce, especially since World War II, the literature in organizational commitment is abundant proof that employees at all echelons and in all types of work organizations have been researched and studied (Mowday, Steers, and Porter, 1979, p. 225). From exacting and historically legendary time and motion studies in labor and industry to statistical process control and cost containment analyses today, personnel are still central to the work and productivity effort, whatever it may be or however defined. Many workers, faculty included, have grown more knowledgeable and professional in most work fields. As these conditions have manifested themselves--from business to industry to medicine to education--observations of these events and the people who make them have increased. The study of organizational commitment is not a new research orientation; however, it is still valid and in its infancy, especially in terms of educational organizations. Organizational Environment, Culture, and Climate To understand the level of organizational commitment of faculty, one must first know something about work organizations. Work organizations have environments and contain personalities, and from these they develop cultures and climates. "High intrinsic satisfaction from work, positively associated with positive involvement, characterizes the work of professionals, although this commitment is sometimes dissociated from the organization 27 and the job and vested in the work itself, for which the profession--not the organization--serves as a reference group and object of involvement" (Baumgartel, 1955; Meltzer, 1956, in Etzioni, 1975, p. 53; Mottaz, 1986, p. 214; Angle, 1983, p. 11). "When you ask people what it is like being part of a great team, what is most striking is the meaningfulness of the experience. People talk about being part of something larger than themselves, of being connected, of being generative...singular periods of life lived to the fullest" (Senge, 1990, p. 13) It appears widely perceived that the "content of an organizational culture is associated with employee commitment" (Lahiry, 1994, p. 52). "The managerial task is to help the organization achieve and maintain high commitment, and heavy reliance is therefore place on the intrinsic power of identification" (McGregor, 1967, p. 127). Self-role congruence is very important to such organizational commitment (Hill, 1984, p. 18). These orientations and developments directly influence the behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs of all who participate in the activities of the organization, and it becomes necessary to more clearly understand the nature of the relationship between the faculty member and the higher educational organization. Both play central roles in the organizational commitment process and relationship (Angle and Perry, 1983). In the instance of a college or university--or a system--those participants include 28 students, maintenance staff, clerical and office personnel, various administrators, and faculty themselves. Faculty are most directly involved with delivering the goods and services of the organization to the primary customers, the students. The "'product,' the educated person" carries the services of the higher educational institution back to society (Drucker, 1989, p.245). It is, therefore, critical to administrative management knowledge to understand the faculty member as objectively as possible so as to develop and establish appropriate and conducive environmental, cultural, climatic, and operational conditions which are positive and mutually beneficial. Autocracy in administration is detrimental to such processes. "the autocratic dean has little to commend him as far as improving relationships between the administration and the faculty" (Hodgkinson, 1971, p. 46). "Influencing group members to realign goal-directed behavior for the good of the organization are [sic] attributes of both successful leadership and successful conflict management" (Lewis and Jobs, 1993, p. 49). "If leaders are to create the environments where followers can be successful, they must be adamant about the structures and processes which enable employees to give their best" (Potter and Fiedler, 1993, p. 68). Such views in management literature are legion and soundly based. Additionally, "management's efforts to gain commitment must stem from solid, worthwhile values" (Flaterman, 1987, p. 12). Drucker (1974) spoke of these 29 needs in the interdependent relationship of employees and their supervisors: "Nothing quenches motivation as quickly as a slovenly boss. People expect and demand that managers enable them to do a good job and work productively and intelligently. People have indeed a right to expect a serious and competent superior" (p. 303). Leadership is the lifting of a man's vision to higher sights, the raising of a man's performance to a higher standard, the building of a man's personality beyond its normal limitations. Nothing better prepares the ground for such leadership than a spirit of management that confirms in the day-to-day practices of the organization strict principles of conduct and responsibility, high standards of performance, and respect for the individual (p. 463). "The productivity, indeed the social cohesion, of every developed society rests increasingly on the ability to make knowledge work productive and the knowledge worker achieving" (p. 177), and "one self-motivation and self- direction can make" the knowledge worker "productive" (p. 176; Peters and Waterman, 1982, p. 72). "Supervisors with the best records of performance focus their primary attention on the human aspects of their subordinates' problems" (Likert, 1961, p. 7). In acknowledging the influence of positive organizational interrelationships, other researchers have also noted environmental effects on employees' attitudes and productivity. "Organizational design has also been established as an antecedent of commitment" (Chieffo, 1991, p. 22; Glisson and Durick, 1988, p. 75). One way to build 30 such "satisfaction and commitment is through creation of a 'vision' and an 'organizational culture'" (p. 23). Furthermore, such commitment needs to be self-chosen. "Choice is crucial to commitment" (Waterman, 1987, p. 299). This vision, a buzz-word of the 19805, is more than a mirage, an abstraction. "Vision empowers people to change." It "must exist at all levels of the organization" (Belasco, 1990, p. 98). "Individuals committed to a vision beyond their self-interest find they have energy not available when pursuing narrower goals" (Senge, 1990, p. 171). If and when this leadership vision is specified and constructed, when it is perceived and believed, employee involvement increases. With regard to organizational productivity and performance levels, "what there really is is a commitment gap. Leaders have failed to instill vision, meaning, and trust in their followers. They have failed to empower them...Regardless ...the key and pivotal factor needed to enhance human resources is leadership" (Bennis and Nanus, 1985, p. 8). And "Employee involvement...has been shown to have Significant positive effects on organizational effectiveness" (Lawler, 1992, p. 4). As one example, Angle and Perry (1981) concluded that in most organizations, there is a "definite negative relationship between organizational commitment and voluntary turnover" (p.12). In an attempt to effect such positive results, managements, academic managements included, must recognize that "it is management, and management alone that makes 31 effective all this knowledge and these knowledgeable people" (Drucker, 1989, p. 223). It is incumbent that academic administrators understand that "Management is about human beings" and that "Every enterprise requires commitment to common goals and shared values. Without such commitment there is no enterprise, there is only a mob. The enterprise must have simple, clear, and unifying objectives. The mission of the organization has to be clear enough and big enough to provide a common vision" (p. 229). "Managers draw on all the knowledges and insights of the humanities and social sciences--on psychology and philosophy, on economics and history, on the physical sciences and ethics. But they have to focus this knowledge on effectiveness and results-- on healing a sick patient, teaching a student, building a bridge..." (p. 231). The building of such bridges is essential to a functioning society, for "Education fuels the economy. It shapes society. But it does so through its 'product,‘ the educated person" (p. 245). Even Peters and Waterman (1982) noted that "the productivity factor is not so esoterically Japanese as it is simply human...1oyalty, commitment through effective training, personal identification with the company's success and, most simply, the human relationship between the employee and his supervisor" (p. 39). "Treating people...as the natural resource may be the key to it all" (p. 39; Marsh and Mannari, 1977). 32 In light of the managerial and leadership concern to establish a positive environment in the organization from which a positive culture and climate can emanate, the contemporary leader--including the department chair, the dean, or the academic vice president--would do well to study the business models of effective management as those are what the relationships between faculty and the organization reflect. "Improving the leadership orientation of schools and universities must start with the teaching staff. Unfortunately, few teachers or college faculty know much about leadership and the subject crosses traditional departmental disciplines. Administrators need to give high priority to this subject and support efforts to improve the faculty's ability to recognize, motivate, and enhance leadership skills" (Nanus, 1989, p. 197). Moreover, it is apparent that faculty "lead" students and that this leadership and concern for students' welfare produces greater student performance (Etzioni, 1975, p. 209). Administrators must become more aware that they have a need to lead in all facets of organizational development. Drucker (1974) said that "We do know that we have to move from 'managing personnel as a 'cost center' and a 'problem' to the leadership of people" (p. 166). As organizations of all sorts, including and perhaps especially higher educational institutions, have attempted to adapt to the rapidity of twentieth century change, the speed of such changes seems to continue to increase. What 33 higher educational organization has not radically altered its curriculum or policies or marketing strategies in the last ten years alone? "In the decade of the 1990's we are moving from managing control to leadership of accelerated change" (Naisbitt and Aburdene, 1990, p. 239). To that end, many managers and futurists have observed that "The dominant principle of organization has shifted, from management in order to control an enterprise to leadership in order to bring out the best in people and to respond quickly to change" (p. 218). When organizations in higher education make these adaptations, they are working toward continuous improvement along with a new outlook called lifelong learning. Individuals with such vision and energy become empowered and "see themselves as meaningful...They are involved and committed to their activities, and they gain satisfaction from the success of those activities" (Byham, 1992, p. viii). These "transformative" leaders "shape and elevate the motives and goals of followers" (Bennis and Nanus, 1985, p. 217). There is clearly an established and recognizable need for college and university administrations to understand the levels of organizational commitment of faculty to their institutions, as well as the nature of those commitments. 34 Organizational Commitment and Faculty Demography and Perceptions Faculty serve both students and the institution in clear and distinct ways. They carry the responsibility of the organization to educate students through transmission of knowledge, interpersonal and relational development, role modeling, advisory capacities, and mentoring and tutoring. They serve the community at large as volunteers, direct ambassadors of the college or university, and as researchers seeking and applying new knowledge. Faculty also serve in the capacity of institutional committee personnel at various organizational levels. They participate formally and informally across many strata of the institution's functions. Overall, their presence and activities within the organizational environment are products of and contributors to the development, change, and perpetuation of the organization's culture. AS such, local and internal communities are constructed; as in all such entities, various loyalties, attachments, and commitments are formed and evolve over time. Organizational and system researchers who study such environments and their participants have found organizational commitment as a variable to be a stable and worthwhile construct of study. One observer, Cyert (1983) has noted that, Unfortunately, management in education is still a concept that stimulates a negative reaction from many academics. As a result, organizations in higher education tend to neglect management 35 concepts and practices. (p. vi in Frost, 1991, p. 42). This predisposition seems today to be giving way to more modern thinking in light of recommendations from organizational behavior, management, futurist, and leadership authors such as Drucker, Waterman, Toffler, Bennis and Nanus, Dilenschneider, Byham, Fiedler, Jobs, Belasco, MIT's Senge, Lawler of USC, Naisbitt and Aburdene, and a host of others. Understanding the higher educational institution as a work organization with utilitarian and normative values (Etzioni, 1975, p.31 and p. 40), is mandatory for effective academic administration, especially as faculty comprise the "middle ranks" (p. 51; Shaw, 1990, p. 10). Such administration must also recognize that faculty must self-choose to participate within the organization; as Waterman noted, "Choice is crucial to commitment" (1987, p. 299). And the "right kind of commitment should motivate beneficial work behaviors" (Reilly and Orsak, 1991, p. 327). Such choice of participation begins to establish the nucleus of a positive or negative relationship, a level of positive or negative organizational commitment. The term organizational commitment is one that also has synonyms, yet it appears to have the greatest utility of application and clarity of use (Morrow, 1983). In a facet study of six foci of such commitment studies, she found that organizational commitment is a "function of personal 36 characteristics...and situational factors related to job setting" (p. 484). She studied organizational commitment for concept redundancy and definitive overlap. In summary, "Operationally, all the measures...protestant work ethic, career salience, job involvement, central life interest, organizational commitment, and union involvement...revea1ed some problems with construct contamination relative to other work commitment concepts, with organizational commitment demonstrating the least degree of overlap" (p. 491; Wiener and Gechman, 1977, p. 47; Morrow and Wirth, 1989, p. 52; Tucker and McCoy, 1988, p. 12). Additionally, she reconfirmed the internal consistency and relative stability of the OCQ as a measure of organizational commitment. Demographic Variables Demographically, many environmental variables have been of interest to researchers studying the construct of organizational commitment, some specifically in higher education. {Astin in What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993) found that faculty salaries, fringe benefits, and student body quality were much less important to faculty morale than overall job satisfaction (p. 39; Mathieu, 1991, p. 607). Hall, Schneider, and Nygren (1970) had earlier found that individual organizational identification is "related to the member's higher—order need satisfaction" (p. 176; Schultz, 1990, pp. 321-322). Sheldon (1971) reported that "professional commitment increased with work experience" (p. 143). As age increases, 37 supervisory behavior and organizational climate become more individually important as predictors of commitment than do team cohesion and task challenge (Brooks and Seers, 1991, p. 53; Murphy, Owen, and Gable, 1988, p. 21; Maehr and Kleiber, 1987, p. 12). "As with age, job involvement and intention to remain demonstrated increased commitment over time" (Morrow and McElroy, 1987, pp. 337, 343). Ornstein and Isabella (1990) found that "organizational commitment was significantly lower during the age 30 transition (29-32) than at all other ages" (p. 8). However, younger employees with high organizational commitment were more willing to self-develop than older employees were (McEnrue, 1989, p. 64). Koch and Steers (1978) in studying employee turnover discerned that "age, tenure, and pay were positively related to attachment...Education was inversely related to attachment" (p. 124; Murphy, Owen, and Gable, 1988, p. 21). Angle and Perry (1981) affirmed that turnover decreases as organizational commitment increases (p. 12). They further confirmed the good psychometric properties measurable through the OCQ (p. 4). Steers (1977) earlier found that "commitment is associated with increases in an employee's desire and intent to remain with an organization" (p. 54). Contrastingly, Sass and Canary (1991) found that "neither length of employment nor tenure in the career were associated with...commitment" (p. 288). Furthermore, commitment is not able to be linked with absenteeism 38 (Mathieu and Kohler, 1990, p. 42; Randall, Fedor, and Longnecker, 1990, p. 20; Rotter and Mills, 1982, p. 10). In terms of gender studies and organizational commitment, Hrebinak and Alutto (1972) found females to Show "less of a propensity to change employing institution than their male counterparts." Women showed greater costs attached to "interorganizational mobility" (p. 562). However, women placed more highly in the organization tended to have higher commitment levels than their subordinates of the same gender (Fagenson, 1984, p. 7). In seeking causes of organizational commitment, Mathieu and Hamel (1989) developed a model from prior research, especially Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979), and found generally consistent results with prior research (p. 313). They suggested that further research on organizational commitment should not "aggregate different employee groups and examine only generalized effects" (p. 314). Studying professionalism, Morrow and Goetz (1988) found commitment to be relatively strongly indexed with it. Morrow and Wirth (1989) found a need to assess professional commitment as a "segment of...work commitment" (p. 52). In tracing causes for various levels of such commitment, career plateauing or the "point in a career where the likelihood of additional hierarchical promotion is very low (Ference, Stoner, and Warren, 1977)" demonstrated negative correlation with commitment (Stout, Slocum, and Cron, 1988, p. 75). 39 According to many researchers, more appropriate future studies of organizational commitment should include full- time and part-time faculty (Koch and Steers, 1978), comparisons between and among campuses, including faculty longevity (Morrow and McElroy, 1987), and involve gender comparisons, campus locations, and faculty longevity (Buchanan, 1974). A wide variety of such approaches would seem to best fit the needs of the study of organizational commitment (Mathieu and Hamel, 1989, p. 315; Mathieu and Farr, 1991, p. 127). For instance, Cheng (1990) noted that individuals with an internal locus of control tended to be more committed ...than those with an external locus of control (p. 39). Leaders--academic department chairs, deans, and other administrators--of educational employees need to be aware that their own organizational commitment is necessary to those selfsame leaders' management knowledge and skill set (Dale, 1990, p. 10; Wise, Darling-Hammond, McLaughlin, and Bernstein, 1984; Crosson, 1985). "When you ask people what it is like being part of a great team, what is most striking is the meaningfulness of the experience. People talk about being part of something larger than themselves, of being connected, of being generative...singular periods of life lived to the fullest" (Senge, 1990, p. 13). If academic managers can develop such an environmental climate and promote such a culture, such memberships Should abound and elevate performance and morale. The "Content of an 4O organizational culture is associated with employee commitment" (Lahiry, 1994, p. 52). Frost (1991 in an unpublished dissertation which was a comparative, descriptive study based on the use of the OCQ at Carnegie-Mellon in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, a private university, and Ohio University, a public institution, surveyed both tenured and nontenured faculty and found no inter-institutional difference of level of faculty organizational commitment based on longevity (pp. 73-80). Combined mean scores for both institutions' level of faculty commitment corresponded to the high end of the "neither disagree nor agree" anchor point on the OCQ. Tenured faculty commitment scores were only slightly higher than nontenured faculty scores. Perceptual Variables and Climate With respect to perceptual or affective variables employed in this study, there does appear in the literature an administrative mandate for clear, unambiguous, direct communication, especially with reference to new and part- time faculty. Such clarity is "critical to the assimilation and socialization of employees into any organization" (Monroe and Denman, 1991, p. 59). Organizational climate, which subsumes communication climate, is a perceptual or affective variable. When it is perceived to be positive, employee organizational commitment is higher; the same can be asserted for communication climate (Guzley, 1992, p. 395). Such faculty-held perceptions lead to increased 41 faculty participation (p. 396). It must be noted, however, that Hodgkinson (1971) disregarded institutional factors as useful in appeals to faculty loyalty (p. 143). Additionally, Eisenberg, Monge, and Miller (1983) found that "job involvement and communication network involvement" interact "as predictors of organizational commitment" (Guzley, 1992, p. 398). Shaw (1990) believes that "organizational commitment is an especially important outcome of the use and distribution of organizational power" (p. 12). This involvement can be effected through participatory decision-making and supportive work relationships (Reyes, 1992, p. 18; Pitner and Charters, 1988, p. 35). "Top management, immediate supervisors, and coworkers all convey the sorts of information important to the organizational commitment process" (Allen, 1992, p. 358). Perceptions of employees about the communication process or network hold strong links to employee organizational commitment (p. 364). The leader's communication style is directly linked to employee commitment (Eblen, 1987, p. 192). Relational or maintenance communication efforts by administrators concerning dual career issues will also become increasingly important as two-career couples mobilize and relocate professionally (Lay and DeWine, 1986, p. 19). Perceptions of professional growth Opportunities also seem to be directly related to organizational commitment. When employees believe that they can fulfill their 42 individual professional needs by participating within the organization, their organizational commitment is enhanced (Tang and Gilbert, 1992, p. 7). Additionally, strong group cohesion through social ties may positively influence commitment (Martin and O'Laughlin, 1984, p. 280). Job variety and good job-related communications also hold positive influence on individual commitment (p. 281). "Supervision and work group cohesiveness" positively relate to individual organizational commitment (Blau, 1987, p. 252). Administrators must be proactive and clarify roles of faculty to establish an atmosphere conducive to commitment (Monroe and Denman, 1991, p. 59). With respect to salary concerns or pay satisfaction, this issue may be related to job stress and burnout. Additionally, low pay may strongly influence career leavers, those who opt to change professions to seek career fulfillment (Blau, 1981, p. 101). Some of those who change career fields may not necessarily lack organizational commitment (Blau, 1988, p. 296). In studying the "impact of extra-work variables such as marital stability, family planning, individual career planning, and other family- related variables such as perceived financial status, coping behaviors, and having relatives" close by, even having available and convenient counseling and support services, some researchers conclude that all these factors may impinge on career commitment more than organizational commitment or 43 community commitment (Steffy and Jones, 1988, p. 209; Lay and DeWine, 1986.) Overall, many individual demographic and individual perceptual variables may have direct and/or indirect relationship to the level of individual and campus faculty organizational commitment. Summary Chapter II, Review of the Literature, has exposed findings about organizational environment, culture, and climate; organizational commitment and faculty demography and perceptions; demographic variables; and perceptual variables and climate. Chapter III Design, Methods, and Procedures This chapter presents the full study design, methodology, instrumentation, data collection procedures, and statistical analysis design involved in investigating organizational commitment of faculty in private, independent, not-for-profit higher education. Because the problem is a lack of knowledge about levels of organizational commitment of faculty in higher education and the antecedents and correlates of such commitment, the purpose of the study was to measure the levels of organizational commitment of faculty in private, independent, not-for-profit higher education and to determine demographic and perceptual antecedents and correlates of such commitment. Primarily, this study was a descriptive, correlational investigation of the level of organizational commitment of faculty on three campuses within one private, independent, not-for-profit collegiate system. This study also attempted to determine intra-campus and inter-campus differences and correlations for varying levels of organizational commitment relative to demographic and perceptual variable information gathered in conjunction with the use of the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ). Sample Selection The three largest Baker College campuses were selected because of Baker College's historically longstanding 44 45 existence as a private, independent, not-for-profit institutional system in the state of Michigan, and its accessibility to the investigator. Originally founded in Muskegon in 1888 by Woodbridge Ferris, the predominately business-oriented institution has undergone various name changes and campus acquisitions over 106 years; it currently has eight intrastate campus locations throughout the lower peninsula, and it serves approximately eleven thousand students. The merger of campuses into one system occurred in 1986. All faculty on the three largest campuses--Flint, Muskegon, and Owosso--were selected as the study sample because these campuses are larger than one thousand students each, and each campus has a large enough cohort of faculty to make such a study feasible. Additionally, each of these three campuses has its own campus president. Both full-time and part-time faculty make up the teaching staffs on all three campuses; two of the campuses, Flint and Owosso, also have bargaining unit representation for faculty. .As a convenience or purposive sample for the study, the faculty from the three campuses during fall quarter totaled 326 members. For definitive purposes, a faculty member was any individual whose primary responsibility was teaching and who taught at least one class on any of the three campuses during fall quarter, 1993. Administrators who taught one or more classes during this time frame were excluded from the study by definition. The total population and sample on 46 these three campuses during that time period was 326 individuals; 174 were from flint; 79, from Muskegon; and 73, from Owosso. The survey was distributed to all faculty on the three study campuses during the second week of the quarter in early October of 1993. Instrumentation Based upon an electronic database search, a literature search, and a review of dissertations and faculty-oriented topics, as well as the professional, academic interests of the investigator, faculty were chosen to be studied. The Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) (Mowday, Steers, and Porter, 1979) was selected for such a study because of its generally widespread use in diverse employment and career fields by many researchers but its very limited exposure and use in educational enterprise. (See Appendix A). The literature search revealed no applications of the OCQ within one college system with multiple campuses. No specific uses of it were found solely within private, independent, not-for-profit contexts. In conjunction with the OCQ, ten demographic and five perceptual variables were investigated for comparison and correlation. Validity and Reliability Additionally, the originators of the OCQ and other researchers have widely subjected it to deliberate and careful scrutiny and found it to be valid and reliable in multiple contexts and over a broad span of time. Morrow 47 (1983) in her facet study investigated six aspects or forms of work commitment: protestant work ethic, career salience, job involvement, central life interest, organizational commitment, and union commitment (pp. 489—491). Organizational commitment as a concept or construct demonstrated the least overlap or redundancy (p. 491). She also suggested that "multitrait-multimethod assessments might improve confidence in these measures" (p. 497); this suggestion can clearly be taken to mean the addition of demographic and perceptual variables in the measurement of organizational commitment. In a later study this same researcher reported that two other researchers, Price and Mueller (1986), had found the OCQ to be reliable, as prior research has also asserted (Morrow and McElroy, 1987, p. 336). In this study of career stage and commitment levels, she suggested investigating how "cohort time, age, position, and occupational and organizational tenure" relate (p. 344; Morrow and Wirth, 1989, p. 46). In yet another subsequent study of professionalization, she and her fellow researcher suggested that the "notion of work commitment" might not be as "broad as implied" in her 1983 facet study (p. 109). Using the OCQ with the substitution of the word "profession" for the word "organization," Morrow and Wirth (1989) found the instrument once again to be reliable and valid, as well as to have multiple applications in both scope and career field settings (p. 44). 48 Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979), the originators of the OCQ, reviewed a stream of research using 2563 employees, none of whom were faculty at any level, in nine divergent organizations and found the instrument to be internally consistent, reliable, and valid in several ways (p. 224). "Organizational commitment was defined here as the relative strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular organization" (p. 226). It is "characterized by at least three factors: (1) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and values; (2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization; and (3) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization" (p. 226). These definitive tenets are consistent with Etzioni's organizational view of "positive involvement as commitment" (1975, p. 9). Internal consistency was very high (Mowday, Steers, and Porter, p. 230), as was test-retest reliability (p. 234). Convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity were equally sound (pp. 234-239). These researchers also called for broader study of the concept or construct to better understand employee' attachment to organizations (p. 245). Data Collection Procedures The Organizational Commitment Questionnaire itself (OCQ) (see Appendix A) contains 15 items to be answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale, with anchors from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." Six of the items 49 are reverse scored to avoid positively worded response bias. As an affective or perceptual instrument, the OCQ was selected for use in this study in combination with inquiries about ten individual demographic and five individual perceptual variables, all centered on suggestions found in the literature review and/or from discussion with doctoral committee advisors. The OCQ was used in investigating levels of faculty organizational commitment for comparison to and correlation with demographic and perceptual characteristics of respondents. Based upon research which revealed many investigators' suggestions to seek correlative variables to organizational commitment and investigative advisory discussions, the demographic variables chosen for inquiry were: campus location (Flint, Muskegon, or Owosso); faculty age (lo-year intervals); gender; system employment longevity (5—year intervals); full-time or part-time status; highest educational degree (Bachelor's, Master's or Doctoral); number of classes taught during fall quarter, 1993; marital status; primary wage earner status (yes or no); and daily round-trip commuting distance (lO-mile intervals). Perceptual variable informational requests were oriented around 7-point Likert-type scale responses identical to the OCQ format, from "strongly disagree" to strongly agree." The five affective measurement statements were about openness of the college system communication network, professional growth opportunities, colleague interaction and 50 socialization opportunities, pay satisfaction, and "living" of the college mission (see Appendix A). The OCQ in this study was combined with a presidentially endorsed and supportive cover letter which introduced the investigator, explained the purposes of the study, confirmed the promise of anonymity and confidentiality of responses, supplied the standard and required university informed consent disclaimer clause, and made a request for participation of faculty. Approval for this study from the Michigan State University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects was received on August 24, 1993, prior to the conducting of the study itself. The entire combination--including the letter, the demographic and perceptual items, and the OCQ itself--was presented as one nonstapled, standard eight-and-a-half by eleven-inch, folded four—page document. This folded questionnaire was sealed in a college letterhead envelope and distributed directly through the faculty mail system on the three campuses, with faculty name control lists used for distribution. Included in each envelope was blank 3 x 5 card which was to be signed and deposited into a separate collection box within 48 hours of the deposit of the survey itself. No name or other individually identifying mark was to be entered on the questionnaire, nor were forms coded except for campus location. The 3 x 5 cards were later compared against the master name lists so that no 51 unnecessary second request surveys would be given to those who had already responded. ' Four weeks after the initial distribution of survey packet envelopes, second requests, identical to the first distribution except for a brief note taped to the front of the envelope explaining the second request, were distributed to those who had not submitted the 3 x 5 signature card according to reconciliation with the control or master name lists. The second request was the final request; overall, a 77 percent usable response rate was generated from the three campuses using this method. Statistical Analysis Design In this descriptive and correlational study, data analyses were formulated around the study's null hypotheses: 1) there would be no inter-campus differences in mean levels of faculty organizational commitment, 2) there would be no relationship of demographic characteristics of faculty with OCQ scores, and 3) there would be no relationship of perceptual characteristics of faculty with OCQ scores. Because the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) is answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale from anchor points of "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," each returned, usable survey instrument was scored by adding the 15 responses, with care given to the six reverse-scored items, and dividing by 15 to determine a mean score. Initially, campus mean scores of level of faculty organizational commitment were calculated by adding all 52 individual campus scores and dividing by the total number of returned, usable survey instruments. A two-tailed test of statistical significance was used to analyze data from each campus..A t-test for means was also widely applied, as was the use of ANOVA among the three campus data collections. Basic descriptive calculations and displays of demographic data were made for both intra-campus and inter- campus observations and comparisons. Descriptive and comparative perceptual statistics were also reported for all three campuses. Comparisons of OCQ means on an intra-campus basis were made first between full-time and part-time faculty. Means, ranges, and standard deviations were used as appropriate for reporting all intra-campus data. Tables were particularly useful for inter-campus comparisons. Organizational commitment levels of faculty by demographic category were equally intra- and inter-campus compared and displayed when relevant as descriptive data to the study. With respect to the five perceptual or affective variables answered on the Likert-type continuua, mean levels of response were correlated with levels of organizational commitment through calculation of Pearson's r coefficients. .Again, intra- and inter-campus data were compared and reported numerically. Additionally, as much of the data met assumptions for parametric tests, t-tests for various means were computed and reported. 53 Summary Chapter III, Design, Methods, and Procedures, has clarified issues of basic study description, sample selection, instrument selection and development, validity and reliability data and support, data collection procedures, and basic statistical analysis design. Chapter IV Findings and Data Analyses The purpose of this study was to gain insights into the levels of organizational commitment of full- and part-time faculty at the three largest Baker College campuses through analysis and comparison to 10 demographic and 5 perceptual items. Those individual demographic variables were: campus location, faculty age, gender, employment longevity, full- time or part-time status, highest educational degree, number of classes being taught, marital status, primary wage earner status, and commuting distance. The individual perceptual variables used for correlation analysis were: openness of communication system, professional growth opportunities, interaction and socialization opportunities, pay satisfaction, and agreement with the college mission. The null hypotheses of the study were: 1) that there would be no mean levels of difference of faculty organizational commitment scores between or among campuses as measured by the OCQ, 2) that there would be no relationship of demographic characteristics of faculty with OCQ scores, and 3) that there would be no relationship of faculty perceptual characteristics with OCQ scores. Testing of these hypotheses was conducted through the use of measures of central tendency, ANOVA of OCQ scores among the three campuses, and ANOVA of OCQ scores by highest educational degree attained. To assess differences in OCQ scores by the categorically reported demographic 54 55 characteristics of full—time or part-time status, gender, marital status, or primary wage earner status, t-tests of independent means were employed. Continuously reported data of demographic characteristics of faculty age, class load, employment longevity, and commuting distance were also compared to OCQ scores through the calculation of Pearson's r correlation coefficients. The perceptual characteristics of faculty which were also reported as continuous data dealt with openness of communication system, opportunities for professional growth, Opportunities for socialization, pay satisfaction, and "living" of the college mission. These data were also compared to OCQ scores through calculation of Pearson's r correlation coefficients. While higher educational faculty have been investigated from various perspectives in numerous studies over many years, the literature search revealed no individual college- based or individual university-based studies of organizational commitment of faculty, nor any within only one higher educational system. Additionally, this search of the literature included no intrasystem studies of private, independent, not-for-profit colleges or universities. The instrument used to measure the level of organizational commitment of faculty was the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979) (see Appendix A). The 15-item instrument is 56 responded to according to a Likert-type scale with anchors from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," with 6 items requiring reverse scoring to ensure absence of positively worded response bias. This chapter includes the three campuses' aggregate data and descriptive and correlational analyses relative to demographics, perceptions, and OCQ scores. It also includes individual campus data and analyses relative to demographics, perceptions, and OCQ scores. Descriptive Demographic Statistics The overall unit of analysis in this study was all faculty, both full- and part-time during fall quarter, 1993, at three Baker College campuses in Flint (n=174), Muskegon (n=79), and Owosso (n=73), Michigan (total n=326). As a target population of 326 potential respondents, a 70 percent response rate was desirable. Overall 263 response were received for a return rate of 80.67 percent as illustrated in Table 1. Table 1 Population Size and Overall Return # and % # of Faculty # and % Returned 3-campus total 326 263 80.67% (In tables which follow in this chapter, percentage totals may not equal 100 because of rounding to tenths.) Of the 263 responses, 13 questionnaires were disregarded because of nonresponse to various items. The 57 250 usable responses accounted for an actual usable response rate of 76.69 percent as reflected in Table 2. Table 2 Population Size and # and % of Usable Responses in Aggregate and by Campus Campus # of Faculty # and % of Usable Responses Aggregate 326 250 76.69% Flint campus 174 132 75.86% Muskegon campus 79 64 81.01% Owosso campus 73 54 73.97% During fall quarter of 1993 on the three campuses, full-time faculty (n=66) comprised 20.25 percent of total faculty; part—time faculty (n=260) comprise 79.75 percent of total faculty. The overall three—campus total usable responses rate was 250 of 326 or 76.69 percent. Of the 250 usable responses, 132 or 52.8 percent were from the Flint campus; 64 or 25.6 percent were from Muskegon; and 54 or 21.6 percent were from Owosso as illustrated in Figure 1. Muskegon 25.8% I Owosso El Muskegon El Flint Figure 1 Percentage of Usable Responses by Campus 58 Table 3 Sample Population Size and # and % of Usable Responses by Full-time (FT) and Part-time (PT) Faculty Sample Size # and % of Usable Responses FT PT FT PT FT PT Aggregate 66 260 55 195 83.33 75.00 Flint campus 37 137 29 103 78.38 75.18 Muskegon campus 22 57 21 43 95.45 75.44 Owosso campus 7 66 5 49 71.43 74.24 Of the 250 usable responses, 55 or 22 percent were from full-time faculty, and 195 or 78 percent were from part-time faculty. The usable response figures quite nearly parallel the actual full sample percentages of 20.25 percent full- time and 79.75 percent part-time faculty in aggregate from the three campuses as displayed in Table 4 Table 4 Actual FT and PT Faculty Sample # and % and Response # and % Aggregate Total FT PT 66 20.25% 260 79.75% Aggregate Response FT PT 55 83.33% 195 75.00% (22% of 250) (78% Of 250) This section pertains to age demographics. From the three campuses, the overall mean for age intervals was 2.824 or the low end of the third age interval of 41-50, with an overall standard deviation of 1.022. The largest percentage or 41.6 percent (n=104) of total respondents fell into the 59 modal interval age range of 41-50. On all three campuses, overall 75 percent of respondents fell into the first three age intervals or were less than 51 years of age. Table 5 portrays largest percentages within the first three age intervals. Table 5 % of Faculty Within First Three Age Intervals Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso 77.6% 78.0% 75.0% 79.0% This section focuses on gender data. In terms of gender of respondents, overall from the three campuses, 137 or 54.8 percent females and 113 or 45.2 percent males returned usable questionnaires. Table 6 provides a breakdown of gender percentages by campus. Table 6 Gender of Respondents in Aggregate and by Campus # and % Female # and % Male Aggregate 137 54.8% 113 45.2% Flint campus 77 58.3% 55 41.7% Muskegon campus 29 45.3% 35 54.7% Owosso campus 31 57.4% 23 42.6% Only the Muskegon campus showed a higher male response rate. This section focuses on employment longevity. Relative to length of employment in intervals of five years, respondents fell largely within the first interval-~64.4 60 percent in Flint and 75.9 percent in Owosso. In Muskegon, 46.9 percent of respondents fell into the first interval and 21.9 percent into the second. Overall from the three campuses, 94 percent or 235 of 250 respondents had been employed by Baker College less than 16 years; 156 faculty or 62.4 percent had been employed less than 6 years. In Owosso, only 1 of 54 respondents had been with the organization longer than 10 years, and that individual's longevity would necessarily have been gained at another Baker campus as the Owosso campus has only been in existence since 1984. The overall three-campus mean length of employment of respondents by intervals of five years was 1.608. Table 7 depicts percentages of employment longevity within the first three intervals of 15 years or less. Table 7 % of Employment Longevity Within First Three Intervals in Aggregate and by Campus Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso 94.0% 96.2% 85.9% 98.1% Aggregate and individual campus faculty employment questionnaire response in terms of full-time and part-time status is reported in Table 8. 61 Table 8 Full-time and Part-time Status of Respondents in Aggregate and by Campus Campus # and % FT # and % PT Aggregate 55 22.0% 195 78.0% Flint 29 22.0% 103 78.0% Muskegon 21 32.8% 43 67.2% Owosso 5 9.3% 49 90.7% This section focuses on highest educational degree attained by faculty. As a three-campus aggregate, the 250 responding faculty held collegiate degrees accordingly: 89 or 35.6 percent held Bachelor's degrees, 145 or 58 percent held Master's degrees, and 16 or 6.4 percent held doctoral degrees. In combination and by campus, Table 9 provides a degree profile. Table 9 Number and % of Highest Educational Degree of Respondents in Aggregate and by Campus Campus Bachelor's % Master's % Doctorate % Aggregate 89 35.6% 145 58.0% 16 6.4% Flint 48 36.4% 76 57.6% 8 6.1% Muskegon 17 26.6% 45 70.3% 2 3.1% Owosso 24 44.4% 24 44.4% 6 11.1% This section focuses on number of classes taught by faculty. In terms of class load during fall quarter of 1993, the average or mean for all 250 respondents was 2.712, with a standard deviation of 1.551. Overall, 81 faculty respondents taught only one class in that term. Table 10 62 illustrates mean number of classes taught by faculty in aggregate and by campus. Table 10 Mean # of Classes Taught by Faculty in Aggregate and by Campus .Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso 2.712 2.833 2.938 2.148 Full-time faculty contractually teach five classes during each of the fall, winter, and spring quarters. Part- time faculty may teach as many as five classes during fall quarter, with a total of no more than 14 classes for the three terms. AS an anomaly, one questionnaire respondent indicated inexplicably that he or she had taught six classes during the fall, 1993, ten-week session. Table 11 depicts martial status data of faculty. Overall, 196 of 250 respondents are married. Table 11 % of Married Faculty in Aggregate and by Campus Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso 78.4% 73.5% 84.4% 83.3% Table 12 illustrates primary wage earner data of usable responses of faculty in aggregate and by campus. 63 Table 12 % of Primary Wage Earner Faculty in Aggregate and by Campus .Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso 54.8% 56.8% 56.3% 48.1% This section pertains to daily commuting distance of faculty. In aggregate, more than one third of faculty commuted 10 miles or less daily to and from work. Table 13 illustrates percentage of faculty who commuted 20 miles or less daily. Table 13 % of Faculty Commuting 20 Miles or Less Daily Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso 64.8% 68.2% 76.6% 42.6% In Owosso, 24.1% of faculty commuted over 50 miles daily. Descriptive Perceptual Statistics Following responding to the ten demographic items, faculty next were presented five perceptual items in the questionnaire to which they were to respond. These items were to be answered on the same 7—point Likert-type scale as is used in the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) itself. This scale uses anchors from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," with the fourth or mid-point being "neither disagree or agree." The five perceptual items related to the faculty's personal views as follows: 1) clearness and openness of the Baker College communication 64 system or network, 2) ampleness of opportunity for professional growth within the Baker College system, 3) ampleness of opportunity for interaction and socialization with colleagues at Baker College, 4) satisfaction with pay and perquisites, and 5) individual beliefs about "living" the mission of Baker College. This section focuses on views of openness and clarity of the Baker College communication system or network. The aggregate mean level of response was 5.232 with a standard deviation of 1.543. Table 14 depicts individual campus views of the Baker College communication system. Table 14 % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus of Openness and Clarity of Baker College Communication System or Network Location Disagreement Neutrality Agreement Aggregate 16.0% 10.8% 73.2% Flint 15.2% 9.8% 75.0% Muskegon 23.4% 9.4% 67.2% Owosso 9.3% 14.8% 76.0% This section details views concerning opportunities for professional growth within the Baker College system. The mean level of response was 5.408 with a standard deviation of 1.563. By individual campus, Table 15 illustrates such perceptions. 65 Table 15 % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus of Opportunities for Professional Growth Within the Baker College System LOcation Disagreement Neutrality Agreement Aggregate 12.4% 10.8% 76.8% Flint 10.6% 9.1% 80.3% Muskegon 14.1% 15.6% 70.3% Owosso 14.9% 9.3% 75.9% This section focuses on perceptions of opportunity for interaction and socialization with colleagues. The mean level of response for the three campuses was 4.972 with a standard deviation of 1.634. Table 16 depicts levels of opinion about such Opportunities. Table 16 % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus about Opportunities for Interaction and Socialization with Colleagues at Baker College Location Disagreement Neutrality .Agreement Aggregate 20.4% 10.8% 68.8% Flint 22.6% 12.1% 65.2% Muskegon 20.3% 4.7% 74.9% Owosso 14.9% 14.8% 70.4% This section pertains to views of remuneration--pay and perquisites--satisfaction. The mean for the three campuses was 4.628, at the lower end of the "slightly agree" selection. The standard deviation was 1.899, indicating a wide range of feelings about the issue. By individual 66 campus, Table 17 portrays measures of opinion about remuneration satisfaction. Table 17 % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus about Remuneration Satisfaction Location Disagreement Neutrality Agreement (Aggregate 29.6% 8.4% 62.0% Flint 31.0% 7.6% 61.4% Muskegon 28.1% 10.9% 60.9% Owosso 27.9% 7.4% 64.8% This section pertains to views of personal "living" of the Baker College mission. The mean for the 250 respondents was 5.516 with a standard deviation of 1.293. Table 18 displays percentages of such opinion. Table 18 % of Some Measure of Disagreement, Neutrality, and Agreement in Aggregate and by Campus about Individual "Living" of the Baker College Mission Location Disagreement Neutrality Agreement Aggregate 4.0% 23.2% 72.8% Flint 5.3% 28.0% 66.6% Muskegon 0.0% 20.3% 79.8% Owosso 5.6% 14.8% 79.6% Associational Demographic and Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) Statistics From the three campuses, mean scores on the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) were Similar across the 250 usable responses. Based upon a 7—point 67 Likert-type scale of responses from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree" over 15 items, with 4 being "neither disagree nor agree," the three-campus OCQ mean was 5.20, indicating a "slightly agree" position. By campus, Table 19 depicts OCQ aggregate and campus means and measures of central tendency. Table 19 OCQ Measures of Central Tendency in Aggregate and by Campus Location DJ Minimum. Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Aggregate 250 17 104 5.20 .975 Flint 132 17 104 5.23 .971 Muskegon 64 41 100 5.22 .855 Owosso 54 32 101 5.11 1.119 The null hypothesis that there would be no difference in level of organizational commitment of faculty between or among the three campuses was not rejected because analysis of variance confirmed that hypothesis at the alpha level of p<.05. Table 20 presents ANOVA results. Table 20 Analysis of Variance of OCQ Means among Campuses Sum of Source Squares IDF Mean Square F=Ratio P 3 Campuses 130.445 2 65.223 0.303 0.739 Error 53093.491 247 214.953 Demographically aside from campus location, faculty organizational commitment levels were compared to their 68 full-time or part-time status, gender, highest educational degree attained, marital status, primary wage earner status, age, number of classes taught, Baker College employment longevity, and daily commuting distance. In terms of full-time or part-time status of faculty with respect to levels of organizational commitment, in combination from the three campuses the full-time OCQ mean was 4.96; the overall part-time OCQ mean was 5.27. These results are displayed in Table 21. Table 21 Mean Levels of Organizational Commitment by Full-time and Part-time Faculty Status in Aggregate and by Campus Location Full-time OCQ Mean Part-time OCQ Mean Aggregate 4.96 5.27 Flint 4.96 5.30 Muskegon 4.96 5.22 Owosso 4.96 5.11 With regard to gender and level of faculty organizational commitment from 250 responses, an independent t-test supplied the following results in Table 22. Table 22 t-test of Aggregate OCQ Raw Scores (Mean) by Full-time and Part-time Faculty Status Group N Raw Scores (Mean) SD (Mean) 1 55 74.400 (4.96) 18.455 (1.23) 2 195 78.995 (5.27) 13.224 (0.88) Separate Variances T= 1.726 DF= 70.4 Prob.= .089 Pooled Variances T= 2.072 DF= 248 Prob. = .039 69 The null hypothesis that the aggregate demographic characteristic of employment status as full-time or part- time faculty would have no relationship with faculty OCQ scores was rejected at the p<.05 level. By individual campus, t-test data of OCQ mean levels of commitment by full-time and part-time status are displayed in Table 23. Table 23 t-test of OCQ Raw Scores (Mean) by Full-time and Part-time Faculty by Campus Campus Group N Raw Scores (Mean) SD (Mean) Flint 1 29 74.379 (4.96) 20.951 (1.40) 2 103 79.534 (5.30) 12.095 (0.81) Separate Variances T= 1.267 DF= 33.4 Prob.= .214 Pooled Variances T= 1.695 DF= 130 Prob.= .093 Muskegon 1 21 74.429 (4.96) 13.044 (0.87) 2 43 80.163 (5.34) 12.434 (0.83) Separate Variances T= 1.677 DF= 38.1 Prob.= .102 Pooled Variances T= 1.705 DF= 62.0 Prob.= .093 Owosso 1 5 74.400 (4.96) 25.967 (1.73) 2 49 76.837 (5.12) 15.939 (1.06) Separate Variances T: .206 DF= 4.3 Prob.= .847 Pooled Variances T= .307 DF= 52.0 Prob.= .760 By individual campus, the null hypothesis that full-time or part-time faculty employment status would have no relationship with OCQ scores was not rejected at the p<.05 level. In reviewing OCQ scores relative to gender differences, independent t-tests were used to determine the statistics reported in Table 24. 70 Table 24 t-test of OCQ Means by Gender in Aggregate and by Campus Location Group N Raw Scores (Mean) SD (Mean) Aggregate 1 113 77.779 (5.19) 15.663 (1.04) 2 137 78.153 (5.21) 13.757 (0.92) Separate Variances T= .199 DF= 224.9 Prob.= .843 Pooled Variances T= .201 DF= 248 Prob.= .841 Flint 1 55 77.782 (5.19) 16.132 (1.08) 2 77 78.844 (5.26) 13.438 (0.90) Separate Variances T: .399 DF= 102.8 Prob.= .690 Pooled Variances T= .412 DF= 130 Prob.= .681 Muskegon 2 29 77.448 (5.16) 12.841 (0.86) 1 35 78.971 (5.26) 12.956 (0.86) Separate Variances T: .470 DF= 60.0 Prob.= .640 Pooled Variances T= .470 DF= 62.0 Prob.= .640 Owosso 1 23 75.957 (5.06) 18.573 (1.24) 2 31 77.097 (5.14) 15.613 (1.04) Separate Variances T: .238 DF= 42.5 Prob.= .813 Pooled Variances T: .245 DF= 52.0 Prob.= .808 The null hypothesis that gender would have no relationship with OCQ scores was not rejected at the p<.05. Analysis of variance of OCQ mean scores with highest educational degree attained revealed the data presented in Table 25. Table 25 71 Analysis of Variance of OCQ Means with Highest Educational Degree Attained in Aggregate and by Campus Location Sum of Squares Aggregate 1894.960 Error 51328.976 Flint 413.981 Error 27399.739 Muskegon 787.026 Error 9753.911 Owosso 2041.667 Error 12877.167 DF 2 247 2 129 2 61 2 51 947. 207. 206. 212. 393. 156. 1020.833 252. Mean Square 480 810 990 401 513 949 493 F-Ratio 4.559 0.975 2.507 4.043 P 0.011 0.380 0.090 0.023 The null hypotheses that highest educational degree attained would have no relationship with OCQ scores was rejected at the p<.05 level. To further clarify this analysis of variance, provides a View of OCQ mean score by highest educational Table 26 degree attained in aggregate from the three campuses and by individual campus as well. Table 26 OCQ Means by Highest Degree in Aggregate and by Campus Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso A t-test of independent means furnished the marital Bachelor's 5.44 5.33 5.22 5.56 5.05 5.13 5.07 4.78 status results displayed in Table 27. Master's Doctorate 5.14 5.51 5.33 4.58 72 Table 27 t-test of OCQ Means by Marital Status in Aggregate and by Campus Location Group N Raw Scores (Mean) SD (Mean) Aggregate 1 196 78.133 (5.21) 15.027 (1.00) 2 54 77.444 (5.16) 13.156 (0.88) Separate Variances T: .330 DF= 94.6 Prob.= .742 Pooled Variances T= .306 DF= 248 Prob.= .760 Flint 1 97 79.299 (5.29) 14.668 (0.98) 2 35 75.914 (5.06) 14.209 (0.95) Separate Variances T= 1.198 DF= 61.9 Prob.= .236 Pooled Variances T= 1.180 DF= 130.0 Prob.= .240 Muskegon 1 54 77.648 (5.18) 13.477 (0.90) 2 10 81.700 (5.45) 8.138 (0.54) Separate Variances T= 1.282 DF= 19.6 Prob.= .215 Pooled Variances T: .917 DF= 62.0 Prob.= .363 Owosso 1 45 76.222 (5.08) 17.495 (1.17) 2 9 78.556 (5.24) 13.227 (0.88) Separate Variances T= .545 DF= 142.0 Prob.= .657 Pooled Variances T= .378 DF= 52.0 Prob.= .707 The null hypothesis that marital status would have no relationship with OCQ scores was not rejected at the p<.05 level. Also investigated was the primary wage earner status of faculty with regard to OCQ means. Table 28 contains such data. 73 Table 28 t-test of OCQ Means by Primary Wage Earner Status in Aggregate and by Campus Location Group DJ Raw Scores (Mean) SD (Mean) .Aggregate 1 137 78.453 (5.23) 14.957 (1.00) 2 113 77.416 (5.16) 14.246 (0.95) Separate Variances T: .560 DF= 242.9 Prob.= .576 Pooled Variances T: .557 DF= 248 Prob.= .578 Flint 1 75 77.307 (5.15) 15.886 (1.06) 2 57 79.842 (5.32) 12.629 (0.84) Separate Variances T= 1.021 DF= 129.7 Prob.= .309 Pooled Variances T: .990 DF= 130.0 Prob.= .324 Muskegon 2 28 77.036 (5.14) 11.374 (0.76) l 36 79.250 (5.28) 13.929 (0.93) Separate Variances T= .700 DF= 61.8 Prob.= .487 Pooled Variances T= .682 DF= 62.0 Prob.= .498 Owosso 1 26 80.654 (5.38) 13.732 (0.92) 2 28 72.857 (4.86) 18.644 (1.24) Separate Variances T= 1.758 DF= 49.5 Prob.= .085 Pooled Variances T= 1.739 DF= 52.0 Prob.= .088 The null hypothesis that primary wage earner status would have no relationship with OCQ scores was not rejected at the p<.05 level. To compare age intervals, number of classes taught, Baker College employment longevity intervals, and daily commuting distance intervals with OCQ means, correlation coefficients were calculated as presented in Table 29. 74 Table 29 Pearson's r of Age, Classes, Longevity, and Commute with OCQ Means in Aggregate and by Campus Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso Age/OCQ .176 .216 .138 .115 Classes/OCQ -.154 -.199 -.085 -.192 Longevity/OCQ -.056 -.129 -.011 .018 Commute/OCQ .009 .035 -.007 .133 The null hypotheses that age, class load, employment longevity, and daily commuting distance would have no relationship with OCQ scores were not rejected because none of the four demographic characteristics using Person's r reflected any strong relationship at the .500 level or above. Associational Perceptual and Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) Statistics Based upon responses to five perceptual items following the ten demographic inquiries, measures of association were drawn between faculty views of openness of Baker College communication system or network, opportunities for professional growth within the system, opportunities for socialization and interaction with colleagues at Baker College, remuneration (pay and perquisites) satisfaction, and personal "living" of the Baker College mission and the OCQ mean scores. These five perceptual items were answered using the same seven-point Likert-type scale as is used in the OCQ. Anchors ranged from 1, "strongly disagree," to 7, "strongly agree," with 4 being a "neither disagree nor 75 agree" response. Using the perceptual responses, correlation coefficients were calculated with the OCQ scores. Table 30 presents these correlation coefficient statistics. Table 30 Pearson's r of Communication, Professional Growth, l Socialization, Pay, and "Living" the Mission with OCQ Means in Aggregate and bngampus ‘ Aggregate Flint Muskegon Owosso Commun/OCQ .608 .608 .500 .771 '4 Progro/OCQ .490 .422 .501 .616 Social/OCQ .334 .227 .404 .541 Pay/OCQ .382 .323 .303 .582 Mission/OCQ .521 .468 .532 .683 The null hypotheses that faculty views of openness of communication system, opportunities for professional growth, and "living" of the mission would have no relationship with OCQ scores were rejected because coefficient values were generally .500 or higher. In aggregate from the three campuses, the null hypotheses that opportunities for socialization and pay satisfaction held no relationship with OCQ scores were not rejected but were rejected for the Owosso campus alone. Of further but not central investigation, using the three campuses' aggregate data with regard to campus location, analysis of variance revealed that none of the five perceptual items held statistically significant variance from campus to campus at the p<.05 alpha level. 76 However, two items relating to views of opportunities for professional growth within the system and "living" of the mission did have inter-campus variance probabilities of 0.066 and 0.056, respectively. To reject any further investigatory null hypotheses that view of opportunities for professional growth and "living" of the mission would have no variance by individual campus with OCQ scores at the p<.05 level would be to invite the possibility of a Type II error. That is, perhaps the null hypotheses would be false but would not be rejected solely on a statistical basis. Additionally, aggregate data analysis of variance of these five perceptual items with highest educational degree attained Showed that perceptions of openness of communication system (0.039) and opportunities for professional growth (0.035) did statistically vary at the significance level of p<.05. As these data were not central to this study, these ANOVA findings were not reported in tables. Summary Chapter IV, Findings and Data Analyses, has contained descriptive aggregate and individual campus demographic, perceptual, and OCQ statistical data. It has also contained statistical associational analyses between and among many variables, specifically t-tests of independent means, analyses of variance, and correlation coefficient calculations. Chapter V Review of Problem Faculty members in higher education participate in utilitarian, normative organizations (Etzioni, 1975, p. 31). They internalize "directives accepted as legitimate" (p. 40). But little is known about why they accept such directives, and little or less is known about their levels of organizational commitment, especially in terms of their individually comparative demographic characteristics or correlative personal perceptions of their organizations. The clear parameters of their organizational compliance and commitment are not present in the literature. Because higher educational administrators rely heavily and directly on faculty services to carry out the missions and goals of their organizations, these managers need to enlarge their knowledge base about faculty so as to develop and perpetuate solid relationships with them. As a consequence of such sound relationships, increased organizational commitment and interdependence may occur for both, and increased organizational effectiveness may result. Higher educational institutional leaders proactively need to "create environments where followers can be successful" (Potter and Fiedler, 1993, p. 68). "PeOple have a right to expect a serious and competent superior" (Drucker, 1974. p. 303). In such environments, where seriousness and competence are normal, "self-motivation and self-direction" can make faculty "productive" (Peters and Waterman, 1982, 77 78 72). Chieffo (1991) and Glisson and Durick (1988) also found that organizational design impacts commitment. Faculty need to be empowered to Share the institutional vision, the direction which higher education administrations perceive and should communicate (Bennis and Nanus, 1985, p. 8). Organizational commitment, if studied and understood, may have associative characteristics in faculty which can be managed, enhanced, and facilitated to improve such commitment levels. This managerial function is essential (McGregor, 1967, p. 127). Institutions of higher education can benefit from such investigations and applications of knowledge resulting from the study of organizational commitment of faculty. Review of Study Purposes and Methods The purposes of this study were to investigate the levels of organizational commitment of higher educational faculty and to compare those levels of organizational commitment to ten demographic and five perceptual variables. The individual demographic variables were: campus location, faculty age, gender, employment longevity, full—time or part-time status, highest educational degree, number of classes taught, marital status, primary wage earner status, and daily commuting distance. The individual perceptual variables were: openness of communication system, professional growth opportunities, interaction and socialization opportunities, pay satisfaction, and agreement with collegiate mission. All faculty from the three largest 79 campuses in the Baker College system, each of which is over one thousand students and has its own president, were chosen as the sample population. The instrument used to gather data to determine individual levels of organizational commitment was the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979). The null hypotheses of the study were that: 1) there would be no mean level of difference of organizational commitment of faculty between or among the campuses involved in the study, 2) there would be no relationship of demographic characteristics with levels of organizational commitment, and 3) there would be no relationship of perceptual characteristics with levels of organizational commitment. The sample for the study was all faculty, full- or part-time during fall quarter, 1993, who taught at least one class on a campus and whose primary organizational responsibility was not teaching. From the three campuses, Flint (n=174), Muskegon (n=79), and Owosso (n=73), a total sample of 326 respondents was available; 250 usable responses were received for a 77 percent usable return rate. The methods used to conduct the study involved preparing the instrument as a single, unstapled, four-page item for distribution during the second week of fall quarter, 1993. Instruments had as a first sheet a presidentially endorsed cover letter on Baker College letterhead which introduced the researcher and study 80 purposes, explained the procedures for data collection, assured the respondents of anonymity and confidentiality, and requested voluntary participation. The second page (the back side of the cover letter) contained a list of the ten demographic response items and the five perceptual items. The final two pages of the survey instrument were the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire itself. Folded first down the middle between the four pages, and then twice more as letters are folded, the entire instrument was placed with no tracking or identification markings into an uncoded Baker College letterhead envelope for distribution into faculty mailboxes on each of the three campuses. Collection boxes for completed surveys were placed in campus workrooms near mailboxes for ease of return of the instruments. Alongside each collection box was another smaller box designed for collection of signed 3 x 5 cards; these cards were to be submitted within 48 hours of return of the OCQ itself. These 3 x 5 cards were then used to reconcile names against faculty master lists. When second or follow-up requests were distributed, earlier respondents' names had been eliminated, and extra duplication of materials and efforts was unnecessary. After four weeks, second requests were distributed with brief explanatory notes taped to the outside of previously prepared instrument envelopes. After another three to four weeks, all instruments were gathered from collection boxes. 81 This distribution and collection method produced a usable response rate of 77 percent. Data collation and processing began during January, 1994. Initially, OCQ mean scores were computed for each of the three campuses, with statistical tests conducted between and among campus OCQ means. These OCQ data were statistically reported. Relevant demographic and perceptual data tabulations were developed and reported. Additionally, OCQ comparisons to and correlations with demographic and perceptual data were calculated and reported. Review of Findings Findings of this study of organizational commitment of faculty in higher education generally aligned in four categories: demographic statistics, perceptual statistics, Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) statistics, and overall demographic and perceptual OCQ statistical comparisons and correlations. Overall from a total sample of 326 faculty (20.25% were full-time and 79.75% were part-time), 250 usable responses were received for a 77 percent usable response rate. Individual campus usable response rates were as follows: Flint, 76 percent; Muskegon, 81 percent; and Owosso, 74 percent. Of all usable responses, 55 or 22 percent were from full-time faculty and 195 or 78 percent were from part- time faculty. (Perhaps the high response rate might have been attributable to the researcher's having had 20 years' longevity in the system, having been well-known and perhaps 82 well-respected, having carefully selected assisting colleagues on the other campuses, having used clear and well-organized instrumentation, and/or having had the support of the system and campus presidents to conduct the study). Demographically, the Flint campus provided 52.8 percent, the Muskegon campus 25.6 percent, and the Owosso campus 21.6 percent of usable responses. The overall mean age interval of respondents was 2.824 or near the low end of the third interval of 41—50 years of age. Female responses accounted for 55 percent of the total usable questionnaires returned. In terms of length of employment, 94 percent of respondents had been with Baker College less than 16 years; 62 percent had been employed by the college less than 6 years. Educationally, 36 percent of fall, 1993, faculty in the study held Bachelor's degrees, 58 percent held Master's degrees, and 6 percent held doctorates. The mean class teaching load was 2.7, with a standard deviation of 1.551. Some 196 of the 250 respondents were married, and 55 percent were the primary household wage earners. In terms of daily commuting distance, 78 percent of respondents traveled 30 miles or less round trip. Perceptually, 73 percent of respondents Slightly, moderately, or strongly agreed that the Baker College communication system or network is clear and open; 16 percent somewhat disagreed, and 11 percent were neutral. 83 With respect to ample professional growth and development opportunities within the Baker College system, 77 percent believed to some degree that there were such opportunities. Another 12 percent disagreed, with 11 percent neutral. Of all usable responses, 69 percent indicated that ample interaction and socialization opportunities with colleagues existed at Baker College. Some 20 percent disagreed, while 11 percent were neutral. In reference to satisfaction with pay and perquisites, 62 percent of usable responses indicated some degree of satisfaction. Nearly 30 percent were in some disagreement, while another 8 percent neither disagreed nor agreed. The fifth perception investigated was whether individuals perceived that they "lived" the mission of Baker College. Almost 73 percent agreed, and 4 percent disagreed. Another 23 percent were neutral. Overall, based on 250 usable responses, the mean level of organizational commitment of faculty from the three campuses was 5.20, the position of "Slightly agree." The results varied only slightly from campus to campus, with the mean for full-time faculty being an identical 4.96 on each of the three campuses. By part-time status, campus OCQ mean results were as follows: Flint, 5.30; Muskegon, 5.22; and Owosso, 5.11. As one null hypothesis of the study was that there would be no mean level of difference between or among the three campuses in terms of level of organizational commitment of faculty, that hypothesis was not rejected at the p<.05 alpha level. Analysis of variance revealed a P 84 value of 0.739 among the three campuses in terms of OCQ scores. In using OCQ mean scores in comparison to and correlation with demographic characteristics of faculty, OCQ mean scores did not vary by campus location, faculty age, gender, longevity, teaching load, marital status, primary wage earner status, or commuting distance. There was statistically significant OCQ mean level variance according to t-tests for independent means by full-time or part-time status when OCQ mean scores were combined from the three campuses, but not when each campus was considered individually. Analysis of variance also revealed that the highest educational degree attained influenced OCQ mean levels. Perceptually, in aggregate from the three campuses, the five perceptual response items received the following Pearson's r values when tested with OCQ mean scores: openness of communication system, .608; professional growth opportunities, .490; interaction and socialization opportunities, .334; pay satisfaction, .382; and "living" of the mission, .521. From this study, it can be concluded that pay satisfaction and socialization opportunities hold the least, if any, predictive correlation with faculty organizational commitment scores. It can further be concluded that perceptions of "living" of the collegiate mission and opportunities for professional growth may have some crude 85 predictive correlation with OCQ mean level scores. Faculty view of openness of the college communication system or network clearly had some reasonably predictive positive correlation, especially on the Owosso campus where the correlation coefficient was .771. Discussion and Conclusions Demographically, the 250 Baker College faculty who returned usable questionnaire responses were predominantly part-time employees. Of the 678 class sections taught by faculty involved in the study during fall quarter, 1993, nearly two thirds or 423 classes were taught by part-time faculty. When organizational commitment scores as measured by the OCQ were investigated, these part-time faculty reflected higher mean level OCQ scores than did full-time faculty, with a statistically significant pooled variances T score probability of .039 at an alpha level of p<.05. Perhaps part-time faculty, who often have other primary occupations, hold strong commitment to education as a community service opportunity for themselves. Or, perhaps part-time faculty hold high aspirations to become full-time faculty and consequently wish to be perceived as more highly organizationally committed than full-time faculty appear to be. Additionally, there was no statistically significant difference between full-time and part-time faculty contingents in terms of pay satisfaction. An initial but paradoxical and dangerous assumption possible from this 86 study is that pay satisfaction and part-time faculty status have no negative bearing on OCQ mean level scores, and perhaps that part-time faculty bring greater levels of commitment to the organization. Perhaps other and unknown variables, singly and/or in combination, mitigate for higher organizational commitment scores for part-time faculty and mitigate for lower OCQ scores for full-time faculty. Nevertheless, organizational commitment scores as measured by the OCQ on individual campuses in this study would seem to have no statistically significant attachment or comparability to employment status and pay satisfaction. Higher educational administrators and other researchers might carefully note and consider such findings. These academic managers need to further investigate how employment status as full-time or part-time faculty influences organizational commitment, but not without investigating simultaneously the level of quality of instruction which such faculty deliver, or other overriding variables of influence. Organizational commitment of faculty in higher education is not independent of certain selective demographic and many perceptual considerations. It was not surprising, based upon the review of the literature, that eight of the ten demographic variables appeared to hold no comparative or correlative influence on OCQ scores. Those variables were campus location, faculty age, gender, employment longevity, teaching load, marital status, primary wage earner status, and commuting distance. 87 It was also consistent with the literature review that OCQ mean level scores varied by highest educational degree attained. Analysis of variance of OCQ scores with highest educational degree attained showed an aggregate probability of .011 over 250 responses. By individual campus, only the Owosso campus reflected such a statistically significant finding (p<.05) with a probability of .023. Muskegon's probability was .090 and Flint's was .380. As the literature had indicated, highest educational degree attained and OCQ mean scores appear to vary inversely. There was noticeable OCQ mean score depreciation from Bachelor's to Master's degree status; doctorate OCQ mean scores increased in aggregate and on the Flint and Muskegon campuses, but not in Owosso. These deviations, however, seem suspect because of the small number of doctorate degrees held by respondents overall, only 16 of 250. These deviations seem even more suspect when it is noted that from Flint, 8 individuals were doctorally degreed. In Muskegon, the figure was 2 and in Owosso, 6. These observations suggest need for further research with respect to how organizational commitment of faculty varies as faculty purportedly gain autonomy and independence by achieving more advanced educational degrees. Furthermore, it seemed normal that 60 to 70 percent of usable responses to some degree agreed with all five perceptual variables. Those variables in order of investigation were individual views of openness of 88 communication system, Opportunities for professional growth within the system, interaction and socialization Opportunities with colleagues, pay satisfaction, and "living" of the college mission. It was interesting to find that the first and last of the five perceptual variables, openness of communication system and "living" of the mission, reflected the highest positive OCQ correlations, with opportunities for professional growth next most clearly and statistically associated with OCQ scores. Perhaps as several sources in the literature review related (Baumgartel, 1955; Meltzer, 1956, in Etzioni, 1975, p. 53; Mottaz, 1986, p. 214; Angle, 1983, p. 11), commitment is sometimes dissociated from the organization and the job and is directly attached to the work effort and activity itself. This implication deserves further scrutiny and investigation. Overall, a curiosity remains about why OCQ mean scores were not higher, in the range of "moderately agree" or "strongly agree." What are the other or unknown variables which influence levels of organizational commitment of faculty in higher education? Additionally, what openness of communication system or network and what "living" of the college mission precisely mean to faculty are two areas which afford new avenues of investigation. It also seemed worthwhile to note that both the Flint and the Owosso campuses have bargaining unit representation for their full-time faculty, and Muskegon does not. While 89 this fact was not an element in this study, it did cause the researcher to question why full-time faculty mean scores on the OCQ were statistically identical for all three campuses at 4.96 as the first null hypothesis had posited. Other demographic and perceptual variable data, when compared, were also relatively consistent among the three campuses, with only slight and insignificant variations. As a further research curiosity, it may be that bargaining unit membership has negligible, if any, influence on organizational commitment levels of faculty in higher education. Reflections about the Study The problem around which the study was organized is that the literature does not contain adequate information about the levels of organizational commitment of faculty in higher education, particularly in private, independent, not- for-profit educational systems. Furthermore, the literature has little that is clear and sound about the antecedents and correlates of such levels of organizational commitment among faculty in higher education. The purpose of this study was to gain such insights for consideration, analysis, and relevant application by higher educational administrations. This study deserves replication, especially with respect to perceptual or other affective measures. The topic of organizational commitment of faculty in higher education deserves further and more correlational research, especially apart from demographics. As many demographic 90 considerations appear to hold little impact on such commitment, future studies of organizational commitment need to avoid demographic characteristics and branch out into other territory, including that of other affective measures, those personal or individual perceptions of the organization other than those employed in this study. For instance, what does the term "organization" as it pertains to colleges and universities mean to faculty? Perceptual items of this sort might include some measures of how faculty view teaching as an activity devoid of institutional membership; whether faculty view themselves as locals or cosmopolitans in the teaching enterprise; whether faculty see teaching as more or less important than research activities or community service activities; whether faculty sense more personal or individual commitment to a discipline, to a community, to their families, to an organization, to students only, or to their careers; and particularly whether faculty feel empowered by their organizations to function optimally. Faculty are college and university internal audiences and need to be encouraged to feel central to their institutions' success (Dilenschneider, 1992, p. 66). Implications for Future Research Perhaps faculty organizational commitment scores vary by the individual's view of his or her personal internal or external locus of control. Another worthwhile investigation might be a comparison of faculty effectiveness and 91 organizational commitment to determine whether organiza- tional commitment is even necessary to the faculty function of teaching. These are potentially powerful and important considerations in regard to measurements of organizational commitment and its correlations. Clear responses to these curiosities would certainly aid academic managers and administrators in their treatment of and interrelationships with higher educational faculty. Higher educational faculty continue to be fertile ground for research in understanding institutions of higher education and their operations. As the twenty-first century looms near, all academic administrators and managers might give ear to the need to build smoothly functioning, cohesive, and interdependent work units, including clerical personnel. Teamwork will become more critical in practice and an even more common intra-institutional focus. In higher educational organizations, "traditional structures that foster individualistic purposes must give way to the idea of mutual purposes-~to the notion that the sum of our effort is greater than its parts" (Finley, 1994, p. 65). Synergy is more than today's buzz-word. .Additionally, today's business organization models are not nearly so disparate and discrete from educational organization models as they once were; similarities will become more common in the future. The educational establishment, too, must become flatter and less hierarchical as it continues to compete into a 92 tighter and more fiscally restraining and accountability- demanding future. Toffler's view of the "knowledge worker" as autonomous and powerful in the twenty-first century should not be disregarded as mere futuristic guessing (Powershift, 1990). Live, face-to-face faculty, even in light of distance learning and electronic educational experimentation, will continue to be the primary institutional resource for delivery of higher education's product in the near and foreseeable future. Faculty in higher education need to be openly and clearly communicated with by administrations. They need to be provided opportunities for professional growth and development. Competent administrators might study well the faculty to build the necessary positive and interdependent relationships with them, to recognize proactively and patiently that faculty and administration are not separate entities in and "us" and "them" academic landscape. Higher educational organizations need all their elements to be in unison, in synchronization, in collaboration and not conspiratorial competition if they are to survive and thrive into the future. If, as John Dewey and significant others thought, higher education is central to preparing useful and worthwhile citizenry, higher education, with faculty at the core, must learn more about itself and its levels of organizational commitment. Higher educational organizations and faculty are day by day critically involved in the nation's highest service. 93 Summary Chapter V, Conclusions, has contained a review of the problem, a review of the study purposes and methods, a review of the findings, discussion and conclusions, reflections about the study, and implications for future research. APPENDIX A Introductory Letter, Demographic and Perceptual Information Questionnaire, and Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) APPENDIX A Dear Faculty Member: As a doctoral candidate in College and University Administration at Michigan State University, I would appreciate your filling out the enclosed questionnaire and information sheets. Please deposit the folded four-page questionnaire into the collection box on your campus. Your anonymity and confidentiality are guaranteed, and the documents have not been individually coded in any way. Faculty organizational commitment is the focus of my study, and the questionnaire is an independently developed instrument to help me collect data for analysis. With Baker College approval and support, as indicated by the signature of the system president and your campus president, the gathered data will become the basis for my dissertation. Responding to the questionnaire and answering the information requests should take you less than ten minutes. Please respond openly. Findings and analyses will be commonly available upon completion of the study. To ensure your privacy and anonymity, but to help my tracking of any late respondents, please sign and deposit the 3 x 5 card into the separate collection box on your campus after you have deposited the questionnaire. I can then remove your name from any follow-up list. You indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning this questionnaire. Thank you. Baker College System President Baker College Campus President Baker College of Muskegon Faculty Member 94 l. 2. 10. 95 APPENDIX A Demographic and Perceptual Information Questionnaire PleasecirclearesponsetoallMitems: Campus location: Flint Muskegon Owosso Age interval: 21-30 31-40 Gender: Female Male 41-50 51-60 61-70 71+ Years with Baker College (part of a year equals a year): 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31+ Baker College employment status: Full-time Part-time Highest educational degree attained: Bachelor's Master's Doctorate Number of classes you're teaching at Baker this quarter: 1 2 3 4 5 Marital status: Single Married Are you the primary wage earner in your home? Yes No Distance you drive daily to and fiom work in miles: 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51+ Hem circle your am on the 7-poiut Lita-Hype scale beside each item: The Baker College communication system or network is clear and open. There are ample professional growth and development opportunities within the Baker College system. There are ample interaction and socialization opportunities with my colleagues at Baker College. My remuneration (pay and perquisites) is satisfactory. I "live" the mission of Baker College. Moder- Neither Moder- Strongly ately Slightly Disagree Slightly atcly Strongly Q'sagree Disam Disagree Nor Agee Agree m Am 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 96 APPENDIX A Qmanizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) Instructions: Listed below is a series of statements that represent possible feelings that individuals might have about the company or organization for which they work With respect to your own feelings about the particular organization for which you are now working - Baker College - please indicate the degree of your agreement or disagreement with each statement by circling one of the seven alternatives beside each statement. Moder- Neither Moder- Strongly ately Slightly Disagree Slightly ately Strongly Defines _gt_Disa eeDliagm WASTE? ASE-s Am 1. Iamwillingtoputinagreatdealof r 2 3 4 s 6 7 efl'ort beyond that normally expected in order to help this organization be successful. 2. I talk up this organization to my friends 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 as a great organization to work for. 3. I feel very little loyalty to this I 2 3 4 s 6 7 organization. 4. Iwouldacceptalmostanytypeofjob r 2 3 4 5 6 7 assignment in order to keep working for this organization. 5. I find that my values and the organization's r 2 3 4 5 6 7 values are very similar. 6. Iarnproudtotellothersthatlampartof r 2 3 4 s 6 7 this organization. 7. Icouldjustaswellbeworkingfora r 2 3 4 s 6 7 different organization as long as the type of work was similar. 8. This organization really inspires the best i 2 3 4 s 6 7 in me in the way of job performance. 9. It would take very little change in my 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 present circumstances to cause me to leave this organization. 10. I am extremely glad that I chose this 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 organization to work for over others I was considering at the time I joined. 11. There's nottoomuchtobegainedby r 2 3 4 s 6 7 sticking with this organization indefinitely. 97 APPENDIX A Moder- Neither Moder- Strongly ately Slightly Disagree Slightly ately Strongly Dim Diggee Disam Nor Agree Agree Am Agree 12. Ofienlfinditdifiiculttoagreewiththis r 2 3 4 s 6 7 organization's policies on important matters relating to its employees. 13. Ireallycareaboutthefateofthis r 2 3 4 5 6 7 organization. 14. Formethisisthebestofall r 2 3 4 5 6 7 possible organizations for which to work. 15. Deciding to work for this organization 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 was a definite mistake on my part. Mowday, Richard T., Steers, Richard M., & Porter, Lyman W. (1979). The measurement of organizational commitment. 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