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DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE ___= __L_j __ L___ [__ fl ll ll MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution Wows-9.1 ..“—u_—__..——_._..._. . ____ A STUDY OF LIFE TRANSITIONS AND ADAPTATIONS AS REPORTED BY UNEMPLOYED ADULTS WHO HAD EXHAUSTED UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE BENEFITS BY Rose Meraglia Caicco A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1994 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF LIFE TRANSITIONS AND ADAPTATIONS AS REPORTED BY UNEMPLOYED ADULTS WHO HAD EXHAUSTED UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE BENEFITS BY Rose Meraglia Caicco This study examined life transitions and adaptation to change as reported by unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. The findings were applied to two models. Firstly, to Nancy Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition and, secondly, to Hopson and Adams‘ seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. Twelve participants formed the study group and were personally interviewed by the researcher. An interview guide was used to ensure everyone was asked the same questions. All interviews were tape recorded and later transcribed. The following questions guided this study. 1. What impact has the transitional status had on the unemployed? 2. What support systems do the unemployed access? 3. What individual characteristics are more likely to enhance one's ability to adapt to a transition? 4. To what degree does Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition fit the study group of unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits? 5. To what degree did the participants fit Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions? 6. What relationship was there between levels of education and plans, if any, to add to those educational levels? The major conclusions of this study were as follows: 1. Schlossberg's model was a useful tool in that it provided direction and served as an organizer for working with adults in transition. For practitioners, it can serve as a model for assessing the types of interventions one might use. 2. Hopson and Adams' model was helpful in identifying where participants were in the adaptation process. 3. Although both models were helpful and useful for the research conducted, they lacked specifics. 4. The social assistance systems were out of sync with the needs of adult learners wanting to access education and training. 5. The needs of many adult learners were not being met by the educational system. To three very important friend and husband Leopoldo, Lorrie-Ann, who supported me while I worked full time and people in my life, my best and my daughters Louise and and endured my many absences earned three degrees. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Completion of this dissertation has made me appreciate how much educators need to be flexible and understanding. These traits are essential in order to be able to encourage students to reach their goals. Living 300 miles from campus and holding down a full-time job provided many challenges and none of this would have been possible without the flexibility and understanding of several people. Dr. Howard Hickey got me started in my Master's program at Michigan State University a decade ago and has been my mentor and friend through several rough spots in both degrees. He represents everything an adult educator should be and will always hold a special place in my heart. Dr. Richard Gardner, my advisor through my Master's program, kindly agreed to also serve on my dissertation committee. He has been generous of his time and very supportive throughout the process. Dr. Robert Poland, a leader in business education, has been a valuable contributor to my committee and I appreciate his encouragement and input. Dr. Sheldon Cherney was my dissertation director until his retirement in 1993. His coaching and guidance up to the point I wrote the comprehensive examinations was a major factor in completing that stage. Thank you. Dr. Casmer Heilman took over as dissertation director. In a very short time, he understood my needs and was insightful enough to recognize where I wanted to be, sometimes before I did. His patience and guidance in helping me meet some very tight personal timelines was invaluable. Special thanks go out to my dear friend Marg Simpson who was a reader and supporter of my research. As a counsellor, she encounters many students who are at crossroads in their lives and her caring and commitment to people is boundless. This dissertation could not have been completed without the twelve subjects who gave of their time and opened up their lives and their homes to me. Of necessity, they must remain nameless. My wish for them is that they can move through this transition and learn from it so that they can be stronger as a result of their experiences. I think of them often and wish them only the very best. And finally, to my parents Linda and Giovanni Meraglia who always taught me to be the best I could be. The measure of success is not your standing in school or status in life, but rather, your ability and desire to achieve your personal best. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ......................... CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................... The Problem .............................. Background ............ . .................. Theoretical Framework ......... . .......... Purpose and Research Questions ........... Significance of the Study ................ Limitations of the Study ................. Definition of Terms ...................... CHAPTER 2: Organization of the Study ................ REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........... Introduction ........................... Developmental or Age/Stage Theory ...... Transitional or Life Events Theory ..... Individual Timing or Fanning Out Theory ........................ A Model for Analyzing Human Adaptation to Transition .......... Characteristics of the Transition ...... Role Change: Gain or Loss ........ Affect: Positive or Negative ..... Source: Internal or External ..... Timing: One-Time or Off-Time ..... Onset: Gradual or Sudden ......... Duration: Permanent, Temporary or Uncertain ...................... Degree of Stress .................. Characteristics of Pretransition and Posttransition Environments... Interpersonal Support Systems ..... Institutional Supports ............ Physical Setting .................. Characteristics of the Individual ...... Psychosocial Competence.... ....... Sex (and Sex-Role Identification.. Age (and Life Stage)....... ....... State of Health ...... . ............ Race/Ethnicity..... ............... Socioeconomic Status .............. vii 8 9 10 12 13 13 15 19 20 28 28 29 3O 31 31 32 33 33 34 34 CHAPTER 3: CHAPTER 4: Value Orientation ................. Previous Experience With a Transition of a Similar Nature.... Adaptation to Transition ............... Hopson and Adams' Seven-Phase Model of Stages Accompanying Transitions Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale ............ Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale ......... Summary ................................ METHODOLOGY ............................ Introduction ........................... Design of the Study .................... Selection of the Sample ................ Field Procedures ....................... Data Analysis .......................... Summary ................................ PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ...... Introduction ........................... The Study Group ........................ No. l - Charles .................. No. 2 - Morgan ................... No. 3 - Barrie ................... No. 4 - Clark .................... No. 5 - Gary ..................... No. 6 - Donna .................... No. 7 - Wendy .................... No. 8 - Angelica ................. No. 9 - Marilyn .................. No. 10 - Kenny ................... No. 11 - Peter ................... No. 12 - Rick .................... Summary of the Study Group ............. Background Characteristics of Subjects. Past Work History ...................... Comparing Schlossberg's Model to the Study Group .................. Characteristics of the Particular Transition ........................ Role Change: Gain or Loss ........ Affect: Positive or Negative ..... Source: Internal or External ..... Timing: One-Time or Off-Time ..... Onset: Gradual or Sudden ......... Duration: Permanent, Temporary or Uncertain ...................... Degree of Stress .................. viii 34 35 39 43 44 46 47 47 47 49 53 58 59 60 88 89 91 91 92 93 94 94 95 Characteristics of the Pretransition and Posttransition Environment.... 98 Interpersonal Support Systems ..... 98 Institutional Support Systems ..... 103 Physical Setting .................. 103 Characteristics of the Individual ...... 105 Psychosocial Competence ........... 105 Sex (and Sex-Role Identification). 108 Age (and Life Stage) .............. 109 State of Health ................... 110 Race/Ethnicity .................... 111 Socioeconomic Status .............. 112 Value Orientation ................. 115 Previous Experience With a Transition of a Similar Nature. 116 Adaptation to Transitions .............. 117 Hopson and Adams' Seven-Phase Model of Stages Accompanying Transitions. 119 Summary ................................ 122 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION FOR PRACTICE 123 Introduction ............................ 123 Design of the Study ..................... 124 Case Study Summaries .................... 126 Responding to the Research Questions.... 132 The Models .............................. 157 Schlossberg ........................ 157 Hopson and Adams ................... 160 Implications for Practice ............... 160 The Social Assistance Systems ........... 160 Education ............................... 162 Other Issues ............................ 163 Recommendations for Further Research.... 164 APPENDICES... ...................................... 166 l. Internal-External Locus of Control ............. 166 2. Life Events and Stress Scale ................... 170 3. Consent Form ................................... 171 4. Interview Guide ................................ 172 5. Approval from UCRIHS ...................... 175 6. Script Describing Hopson and Adams' Model of Adaptation to Transitions ...................... 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 178 ix Figure 1 Table 1 FIGURES AND TABLES Three Transition Perspectives ............ A Model for Analyzing Human Adaptation to Transitions .............................. Hopson and Adams' Seven-Phase Model of Stages Accompanying Transitions ........... Self-Identification of Stages ............. Gordon's Tools for Interviewing .......... Participant Characteristics as a Percentage of Total Group ............................ Individual Characteristics ................ Group's Work History ...................... Group's Employment and Unemployment History Characteristics of the Transition ......... Reported Incidents of Life Change Units... Support Systems Accessed by Participants.. Income Before Job Loss and Current Income 14 23 41 121 55 63 64 85 86 90 97 101 114 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Problem Clarence Abbott never figured on following in his daughter's footsteps in school. But somehow that's where the 40-year-old former steelworker ended up going after reluctantly finding himself in need of a new career (Sault Star, November 14, 1992). Adults continuously experience transitions in their lives. Broadly defined, a transition is "Any event or nonevent that results in change in relationships, routines, assumptions, and/or roles within the settings of self, work, family, health, and/or economics" (Schlossberg, 1984, p. 43). Some examples are leaving home, getting or losing a job, getting married, having children, losing a loved one, and retiring. Why do some people adapt to transitions better than others? Why does one person adapt to one transition well and not to another? Nancy Schlossberg developed a model for analyzing human adaptation to transition and said that it is not the transition itself that is of primary importance, but rather how that transition fits with an individual‘s stage, 2 situation, and style at the time of the transition. In addition» these variables have more or less importance depending on the transition and the group being studied. In developing her model Schlossberg (1981) looked at three major factors that influence adaptation to transitions: 1. The characteristics of the particular transition 2. The characteristics of the pre- and posttransition environments, and 3. The characteristics of the individual experiencing the transition. Schlossberg maintains that all three sets of factors interact to produce adaptation or failure to adapt as an outcome. The purpose of this study was twofold: 1) To examine life transitions and adaptation to change as reported by unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. 2) To apply the findings to two models: i) Nancy Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition and ii) Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. 3 BACKGROUND Canada has provided subsidies, protected markets, and generally insulated the Canadian workforce from external forces in business and industry. In Canada_at_thg_ Crossroads, Professor Michael E. Porter, made the following point: Increasing globalization of trade and investment, accelerating technological changes, rapidly evolving company and country strategies, and--more recently--the Free Trade Agreement with the United States, represent significant discontinuities in the nature of international competition confronting Canadian-based industry. Together, these forces are pushing Canada away from the "comfortable insularity" of the old order. They will both magnify long-standing competitive weaknesses and hasten the pace of structural adjustment to a new competitive reality. (p.6) In 1991, 80 per cent of the jobs lost in Canada were lost in Ontario. Markets were declining in steel, nickel, auto production, and forest products. Canada entered a new era and Ontario, with its reliance on manufacturing, would be a heavy loser. In 1992, unemployment in Canada continued to be over 11 per cent as a result of declines in the marketplace, global competition, restructuring, and technological changes. The consequence for many workers was a transition from employed to unemployed. From a local perspective, figures provided by Employment and Immigration Canada show Sault Ste. Marie's unemployment rate for 1992 to be 16.3 percent compared to 10.8 percent provincially and 11 percent nationally. 4 A search of the Current Index to Journala in Education, the Education Index, Dissertation Abstracts, ERIC, as well as Statistics Canada publications, revealed very little .research with respect to the unemployed after they had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. Most of the literature dealt with the unemployed who were still in receipt of unemployment insurance benefits. In 1982, Employment and Immigration Canada (June 1984) began monitoring soon-to-be exhaustees. Statistics Canada tracks the number of unemployed who have exhausted benefits but reports on post-exhaustees is not consistent. On January 13, 1994, Statistics Canada reported that the number of unemployed without benefits soared "...to 623,000, almost 400,000 or 172 percent more than before the recession struck in early 1990" (Sault Star, January 21, 1994). The report pointed out that these figures do not include groups like the self-employed who were not eligible to receive unemployment insurance benefits, discouraged workers, under- employed workers, or the long-term unemployed. Another report quoted Statistics Canada as saying that "Young people have been frozen out of a shrunken job market, older workers have been squeezed into part-time work and job prospects for the long-term unemployed remain bleak" (fiéELE §£§£1 January 27, 1994). Exhaaateaa_§tudy, Technical Study 7 (1981) was based on a 1976 survey and sought to identify, among other things, how many unemployment insurance exhaustees turned to welfare 5 once they depleted their benefits. A similar study was in progress at the time of writing and will use data collected in the 1990 census, however, no other study was found in the literature search. For the period covering June 16, 1991, to June 13, 1992, 64 percent of the people who exhausted unemployment insurance benefits in Canada were in the 25-44 age bracket. These people have a potential work life of between 21 to 40 years remaining before the mandatory retirement age of 65 and before federal security pensions commence. Neither the social assistance agencies nor Employment and Immigration Canada track workers once they have dropped off the unemployment insurance rolls. Both in Canada and the United States, reports are made available by the federal government and provide the number of unemployed who are collecting unemployment insurance benefits or are involved in education and/or training. These education or training programs are generally sponsored by the government or former employers. After that, the literature is quite sparse and the unemployed become part of the hidden unemployed or discouraged worker population. Employment and Immigration Canada (1981) reported that 30 percent of laid off workers find jobs at the same rate of pay as previous employment, and approximately 30 percent find work at a lesser rate of pay. There does not appear to be much research on the remaining 40 percent. This latter group would be the focus of this study. 6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Since the early 19005, psychologists like Jean Piaget have conducted research on infancy, childhood, and adolescence (Rubenstein, 1975). Piaget emphasized the stages one must go through to develop the thinking processes of adults. Others like Erik Erickson (1950) studied the stages of moral development, but it was not until the early 1970s that adult development theories received considerable attention. According to Schlossberg (1984) the assumption was that once people survived the ups and downs of adolescence, the path was clear for long periods of relative stability until the end of one's life. This was largely because basic values were established, and major decisions which affected the balance of their lives, had already been made. "For an adult to admit uncertainty and discontent, to switch careers or lifestyles, to appear as other than, "mature" or "stable", was seen as deviant and even neurotic" (p. 4) - Today theorists like Levinson (1978), Sheehy (1976), Lowenthal (1975), and Neugarten (1979), are paying more attention to the middle and late years. Although there is general agreement that people do go through various stages in life, there are differences as to what theorists say about adult development. Depending on the theorist, adult development has been called developmental theory, transition theory, and life-span development. Within these three general groupings, there are many variations. Lee 7 Knefelkamp (1985) summed it up well when she said "The different theories can best be seen as a mosaic of necessary pieces....Each family of theories shares certain basic assumptions and similar constructs in describing development or pointing to influential factors in development." PURPOSE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS As people become accustomed to a consistent and regular income, it can be assumed that they will come to rely on the income generated and develop a pattern of spending. When the income is reduced or cut off, lifestyle changes are necessary. If the loss of income is temporary, people can make adjustments for a reasonable period of time but what happens when the loss is for an unknown period of time? What if the job a person has held for 5, 10, 15 or more years suddenly disappears permanently? What happens when all savings are exhausted and the bottom has fallen out of the employment market? How do people cope? What are their support systems? How do they adapt to the changes which face them? What is the impact on their psychological, personal, and social lives? What are their expectations for future employment? In order to attempt to answer some of these questions, this researcher decided to interview between 10 - 15 unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. The information gathered from the participants was examined and compared with the following models: 8 1. Nancy Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition and 2. Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. The following questions served as a guide for the research: 1. What impact has the transitional status had on the unemployed? 2. What support systems do the unemployed access? 3. What individual characteristics are more likely to enhance one's ability to adapt to a transition? 4. To what degree does Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition fit the study group of unemployed adults who have exhausted unemployment insurance benefits? 5. To what degree do the participants fit Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions? 6. What relationship is there between levels of education and plans, if any, to add to those educational levels? SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY An initial review of the literature pointed to a gap in studies of unemployed adults after they had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. Existing studies focused on outplacement services prior to plant closings, training 9 during the period displaced workers were on unemployment insurance benefits, and short-term training. A body of literature did not exist which studied the exhaustee group. This study is intended to contribute to the literature and provide insight into how adults deal with the transition from employed to unemployed. include the following: 1. Specific contributions or potential outcomes might A broader understanding of adult development or transition theory and the impact of job loss on unemployed adults who have exhausted unemployment insurance benefits; A broader understanding of the assimilation and adaptation process of job loss on unemployed adults; A broader understanding and the significance of the stress levels experienced by unemployed adults; A broader understanding of how unemployed adults look for new employment, support groups, and information on education and training; A broader understanding of the role of education for unemployed adults. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The limitations of the study were as follows: The number of participants and the fact they were all volunteers. 10 2. The sample was small therefore any conclusions cannot be generalized to other similar groups. 3. Several of the findings were based on the oral interpretations by the participants and the researcher. 4. Direct access to the study group was made difficult by The Freedom of Information Act and Protection of Privacy Act. The researcher had to rely on key informants to act as intermediaries. 5. The study could be limited by the accuracy and honesty of responses. 6. Some adult development theorists would not be included. Definition of Terms Frequently used terminology and concepts utilized in this study are defined here. The theoretical and research foundations will be presented in the literature review. Transition: Any event or nonevent that results in change in relationships, routines, assumptions, and/or roles within the settings of self, work, family, health, and/or economics" (Schlossberg, 1984, p. 43). Adaptation: Adaptation to transition is a process during which an individual moves from being totally preoccupied with the transition to integrating the transition into his or her life (Schlossberg, 1981, p. 7). 11 Unemployment Rates: According to Statistics Canada (1992), the official unemployment rate is determined by quoting the unemployed as a percentage of the employed population. To be considered unemployed, one must not have worked in the week being quoted or what is called the reference week. In addition, one must be available to take a job. If someone is on temporary layoff or is scheduled to return to work within four weeks, he/she is also counted as unemployed. The unemployment rate does not take into account people who are underemployed. For example, it excludes part—time workers who would prefer full—time employment. It also excludes discouraged workers who have given up looking for work because they believe there is none. Official rates include only people who are actively seeking employment. Key Informant: The key informant is any person who gives information relevant to any of the strategy problems of a study. In this role, the person does not give information directly related to the objectives of the interview. He helps by....locating or contacting respondents (Gordon, 1980, p. 136). Volunteers: People contacted by the key informant to determine interest in becoming involved in the study. Participants: Volunteers who agreed to become part of the study group. 12 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY The study is presented in five chapters as follows: Chapter I: Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter II: III: IV: V: Includes an introduction and background to the problem, theoretical framework, purpose and research questions, significance, limitations, and a statement and organization of the study. Review of related research. The design of the study and methodology. Presentation and analysis of data. Conclusions and Implications for practice. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction This chapter contains a review of three main perspectives on transitions, a model for analyzing human adaptation to transitions, and a seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. The three main perspectives on transitions are shown in Figure 1, page 14, which is an adaptation of a diagram used by Santrock (1981, p. 491) and are as follows: 1. Developmental or age/stage theory 2. Transitional or life events theory, and 3. Individual timing or fanning out theory. It should be noted that there are many variations of these theories and numerous terms which sometimes serve to confuse but, as Lee Knefelkamp (1978) points out, they all share certain assumptions and have similar constructs. The interest by theorists and researchers in adult development, as opposed to childhood and adolescent development, has continued to grow since the early 19705. As this interest 13 Three 'Il'ansition Perspectives Developmental or Age/Stage Theory Late Proud to Adulthood be 303 65" 71+ Late Adulthood Thou htful Transition g. 60-64 Seventies . . 65-70 Culmmatron of Middle Selective Adulthood Sixties 55-59 57-64 Age 50 Transition F'CCSIY'C 50-54 Fifties Entering 53'56 Middle ll Adulthood ' ”WWW 46-50 Reckontn g Mid-life ”'52 Transition F t' 4145 ’3", '° 8 ttling Forues e Down 41-45 3440 Mid-life A88 30 Passage Transition 35-40 28-33 Entering Catch-3O the Adult ”'34 World , 23—27 3mg Early Adult 223'; es Transition ”’22 Pulling Childhood Up Roots 3““ 16-21 Adolescence LCVlnson Sheehy l4 , , Individual Transrtlonal or Timing or (“0‘ age related) (not age related) 1. Pre-retirement 1. Historical Couples (calendar) Time 2. Middle-aged Parents 2. Life (chronological) Time 3. Newlyweds 3. Social 4. Graduating (age norms and High-school expectations) Comeback Seniors Time Decade Deadline Decade Lowenthal Neugarten Adapted from John W. Santrock, Life-Span Development, 1981 Figure 1 Three Transition Perspectives 15 has flourished, so has the need to understand how adults grow, change, and adapt to transitions. DEVELOPMENTAL 0R AGE/ STAGE THEORY Some would argue that Gail Sheehy was a journalist and not an adult development theorist, but her book Passages: The Predictable Criaaa of Adult Life, (1976), renewed interest in developmental theory, especially the mid-life crisis. Sheehy reported on 115 interviews with people she describes as being a "pacesetter group--healthy, motivated people who either began in or entered the middle class, though some began in poverty, even ghettos" (p. 23). Her subjects were men and women ranging in age from 18 to 55 and were high achievers. Her work suggested that adults go through progressive, predictable, age-linked stages, each offering challenges that must be met before moving on to the next stage. Sheehy's stages are broken out into ten "passages". The first of these is at ages 16 - 21 which she calls the "pulling up roots" stage when one begins to search for his/her identity and independence both physically and emotionally. -Thisis followed by the "trying twenties" from ages 22 - 28, where young adults' dreams begin to take shape as they prepare for lifework and find a mentor, if possible. 16 "Catch-30" from ages 29 - 34 is a time of discontentment and reassessment of dreams made in the previous stage. Sheehy maintains that couples at this stage might divorce if their level of discontent is serious enough. The wife who was previously content staying at home, may now be anxious to go back to work. The husband may want more children and a change in careers. Each sees the other as being selfish. People at this stage either reorder commitments or intensify them. The "deadline decade" makes up the 35 - 45 age passage and includes what Sheehy calls the "midlife passage" (35 - 40) and the "frantic forties" (41 - 45). She sees this as both a time of danger and opportunity. We have the opportunity to redefine the first half of our lives but run the risk of becoming self-destructive in our search for answers. According to Sheehy, "Is this all there is?" is a typical question asked by people at this stage. Sheehy calls the "half-century reckoning", ages 47 - 52, and the "freestyle fifties", ages 53 - 56, the "comeback decade". This is a time when we are free to make choices based on what we like to do as well as what we want to do. A new and refreshed sense of purpose gives us permission to be free to choose. The final three passages are the "selective sixties" (57 - 64), the "thoughtful seventies" (65 - 70), and the "proud to be eighties" (71 and up). Here people separate what is truly important in life such as work, loved ones, 17 and friends. Sheehy says that as one grows older, there is a need to strike a balance between giving to others and accepting help from others. Sheehy found that transitions were often difficult because it required letting go of familiar techniques that had previously worked. Comfort levels were disturbed and so were safety nets. However, Sheehy said that in order to grow, we must be prepared to temporarily surrender security. Sheehy established that adult life is punctuated by critical or "marker events" such as childbirth, marriage, graduations, divorce, and getting or losing a job. In her opinion, marker events are not as important as life stages. The underlying impulse toward change is already present and a marker event may or may not trigger it. If the event is traumatic, it can sidetrack movement from one stage to another. Although Sheehy's work was based, in part, on the work of Daniel J. Levinson, he did not come out with his own book until Sheehy wrote Passages. In The Seasons of a Man's Life, (1978), Levinson described ten eras in the male life cycle as a process or journey from a starting point (birth) to a termination point (death). There may be detours and variations along the way, but as long as the journey continues, it follows the same basic sequence. His analogy of the seasons portrayed a series of periods or stages within the life cycle. Each stage is qualitatively different and, like the seasons, has 18 its own distinctive character. Although each season has something in common with the one that precedes it, it also has differences. His sample consisted of 45 blue-collar and white-collar males and Levinson sought to identify "relatively universal genotypic age-linked developmental periods" (p. 49). He identified four overlapping periods each roughly 25 years in duration as follows: 1. Pre-adulthood to age 22 (including childhood and adolescence). 2. Early Adulthood: 17 to about age 45 3. Middle Adulthood: age 40 to roughly age 65 4. Late Adulthood: 60 to about age 85. Levinson suggests that late, late adulthood starts sometime around 80 but that little research has been done on this stage. His studies took place over an eighteen month period from late 1968 to early 1970. Levinson's subjects ranged in age from 35 - 45 and were divided into four occupations: industrial laborers, biology professors, business executives, and novelists. Some supplemental interviews took place with four subjects who were the center of discussion throughout the balance of the book. The author's emphasis was primarily on the mid-life decade but was extended to cover the late teens as well as the late forties. 19 Levinson's timetable between transitions is very rigid and averages four or five years with stable periods which last 5 to 10 years. According to Levinson, each developmental period is distinguished by its own life style which has biological, physiological, and social aspects. He emphasizes that developmental tasks must be mastered at each stage. He concludes that no season or period is better than the others. TRANSITIONAL OR LIFE EVENTS THEORY Theorists who fall into the transitional or life events theory study the event or transition rather than chronological age because they believe that it is more important when trying to evaluate and understand human behavior. Lowenthal & Pierce conducted a longitudinal study which focused on "four transitional groups of men and women in the San Francisco area: graduating high school seniors, newlyweds, middle-aged parents, and pre-retirement couples" (Leibowitz & Lea, 1985, p. 6). When the study was started, each of these groups was facing a major life transition. The conclusion reached was that it is "less important to know that a person is 40 years old than it is to know that the person is 40 with adolescent children, recently divorced, and about to enter the work force" (p. 6). Whether a newlywed, a first-time parent, or a retiree who has lead an active life, people will encounter many of the same problems regardless of their age at the time of the 20 transition. Therefore, according to Lowenthal & Pierce, life events or transitions are more important than chronological age when one is attempting to evaluate and understand behavior. INDIVIDUAL TIMING OR FANNING OUT THEORY Bernice Neugarten maintains that changing times and different social expectations affect how various cohorts, or groups of people born in the same time period, move through the life course. Our values, attitudes, expectations, and behaviors are influenced by the period in which we live i.e. World Wars, Depression, progressive 505, etc. Neugarten examined adults' social clock for significant life events in the late 503 and again in the late 70$. Her study asked the same questions of men and women and the results were significantly different 20 years later. For example, in the study,the best age for a man to marry was given at between 20 and 25. In the 503, 80 percent of men and 90 percent of women agreed. In the 705, it went down to 42 percent for both men and women. Neugarten also points out that although biological maturation heavily influences childhood development, such is not the case with people in young and middle adulthood. They are more affected by their own experiences and the timing of those experiences. Chronological age is an increasingly unreliable factor of what people will be at various ages. 21 She emphasizes the importance of age groups or cohorts and says that the stereotype is to suggest that as people age, they become more and like each other. In truth, they become less and less alike. Neugarten asserts that people's lives are like the spreading of a fan; the longer they live the greater the differences between them. For example, 10 year olds are more similar to each other than 60 year olds are to other 60 year olds. Neugarten gives considerable attention to generational differences and distinguishes among three kinds of time: historical (calendar), life (chronological), and social (age norms and expectations) time. If we are to understand a particular life history, we must view it in an historical context, and, as historical times change, prescriptions for age-appropriate behaviors are lessening. For example, economic maturity for many young people is being delayed as more choose to continue in post-secondary education. Child- rearing practices are changing also as more women choose to have children later in life, if at all, and fathers are more involved with raising children. There is no biological necessity for our behavior, however, according to Neugarten, many of us still look at historical time for the ordering of major life events, for example, when to take jobs, marry, or have children. Neugarten also argues that social clocks guide our lives and people who are "off time or out of sync" are likely to find life more stressful than those who are on 22 schedule. To be widowed at 30 is more traumatic than to be widowed at 60 or to have children at 40 versus 20. A MODEL FOR ANALYZ I NC HUMAN ADAPTAT I ON TO TRANS I T I ON Nancy Schlossberg disagrees with the concept of a single, universal timetable for adult development or that one can predict the crisis in people's lives by knowing their age. Generally, she concurs with theorists who take a life-course perspective but admits to being eclectic in her approach to developing her model for analyzing human adaptation to transition. She looks not only at how transitions affect an individual's life but also how the individual copes with them. Although Schlossberg developed the model being used in this study (see Figure 2, p. 23), she compiled it by drawing on several theorists to help her express and explain it. Some of these include Lowenthal, Chiriboga & Thurnher (1975), Neugarten (1977, 1979), Fiske (1977), Weiss (1976), Troll (1975), Tyler (1978), Liberman (1975), Moos and Tsu (1976). Bringing in all these theorists adds to the richness of her model but sometimes it serves to confuse the reader. Schlossberg points out that a transition is only considered a transition if it is interpreted as such by the person experiencing it. If, for example, menopause does not have much impact on a particular woman, does not change her set of assumptions nor her relationships, then (in my view) it cannot be regarded as a transition. 23 A Model for Analyzing llunlan Adaptation to Transition TRANSITION iivent or nonevent resulting in change or assumption Change of social networks Resulting in growth or deterioration (TIIARAfT'lI-ZRIS'I'ICS or (TIMRACITERIS'I‘K TS 0F CHARACTERISTICS or 'nIII I‘AR’IIt‘lIi.AR PRli'l'RANSI'IION AND 1m; INDIVIDUAL TRANSITION POS'i'i'RANSi'l'It )N ENVIRONMENT Role (.‘hange: gain or loss intemal Support Psychosocial Affect: positive or S ystcm: (Tmnpetence negative iuthnate relationships Sex (and Sex-Role Source: internal or Family unit itientiiicatitm) external Network of friends Age (and Life Stage) Timing: on-time or institutional Supports State of Health off—time Physical Setting Race/Ethnicity ()nset: gradual or Socioeconomic Status sutltlen Value ( )rientation Duration: permanent, Previous Experience tunfinath whhaummNMnof uncertain ' a similar nature I )cgrcss of Stress ADA PTATIUN Movement through phases following transition: pervaslvcness through reorganization Depends on: 1) Balance of Individual's resources and deficits 2) DitIerences to pre- and post-transition environments re perception, supports, and individual 80hlossberg, N.K., "A Model for Analyzing Human Adaptation to Transition," THE COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST, Vol. 9, N0. 2, 1981, 2‘18, Copyright 1981 by the Division of Counseling Psychology of the American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc. Figure 2 A Model for Analyzing llulnun Adaptation to'll'amitiuns 24 If, however, another woman experiences menopause as an event that marks her passage from youth to old age, from sexuality to nonsexuality, then in this case it constitutes a transition. In this model, then the transition is defined by the individual (p. 7). Schlossberg uses the term transition broadly in her model and includes not only the obvious ones like graduations, new job, marriage, first child, and bereavement, but also ones which are not so obvious. She calls these, like loss of one's career aspirations, "nonevents". Schlossberg believes the process of adaptation to transition is complicated. As a result, she developed this model for analyzing human adaptation to transition as a way to bring together many of the variables which impact on the outcome of an individual's transition. My belief is that it is not the transition itself that is of primary importance, but rather how that transition fits with an individual's stage, situation, and style at the time of the transition. Moreover, I believe that different variables have different salience depending on the transition and the group being studied (Schlossberg, 1981, p. 5). Schlossberg's model contains three major sets of factors that influence adaptation to transition, all of which impact on the success or failure of the adaptation. These are listed below and a brief overview follows thereafter. 1) The characteristics of the particular transition, 2) The characteristics of the pre- and posttransition environments, and 25 3) The characteristics of the individual experiencing the transition. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRANSITION This part of the model consists of a set of seven common variables: role change, affect, source, timing, onset, duration, and degree of stress. 1. Role change: Gain or Loss Schlossberg draws on the work of Lowenthal, Thurnher and Chiriboga (1975) who differentiate between role gains and role losses. Role gains might be getting married, taking a job, or getting a promotion versus role losses such as divorcing, retiring, or being widowed. Whether the transition is a positive or a negative change, it will be accompanied by a certain degree of stress. 2. Affect: Positive or Negative Some transitions, like a promotion, will elicit positive feelings while others, like losing a job, will have negative ones. Here too, regardless of whether the feelings are positive or negative, some degree of stress will be experienced. 3. Source: Internal or External The degree of control one perceives he/she has over the transition will impact on the level of adaptation. For example, the person who chooses to retire should be able to 26 adapt to the transition with less difficulty than one who is forced into early retirement by circumstances beyond one's control. 4. Timing: On-Timaapr Off-Tima Schlossberg draws on Neugarten's (1977) theory that "there exists a social prescribed timetable for the ordering of major life events" (p. 9) and most adults judge themselves to be "on time" or "off time" based on that social timetable. Neugarten also maintains that society is becoming less age relevant. For example, going to school was once reserved for the younger set but that is no longer the case as we experience a "graying" of our schools. Schlossberg suggests Neugarten's theory may be valid. However, society still holds on to age relevancy. 5. Onset: Gradual or Suddap Some transitions are expected either because they are seen to be part of every day life or because they are planned. Graduating from school or setting the date of one's retirement are gradual transitions so people have time to adapt and even prepare for them. According to Schlossberg, transitions which are unexpected or sudden are more difficult to deal with because one has not had the opportunity to rehearse or practice for them, for example, the untimely death of a spouse, an acute illness, or a natural disaster like an earthquake. 27 Neugarten postulates that this fact helps to explain why the widow of 60 has an easier time of adjusting to her situation than does a widow at 30....Obviously there is some relation between gradual onset and the "ontimeness" of a life event" (Schlossberg, 1981, p. 9). 6. Duration: Permanent.aTamporary. Uncertain The level of difficulty one experiences when adapting to change will also be influenced by the length of time one must experience the change. Schlossberg uses some examples which serve to illustrate this point. A wife who follows her husband in order that he may complete a graduate degree will be able to deal better with the inconvenience of the move because it is temporary. Once he is done school, they will return to their home. Someone entering the hospital for minor surgery will be able to better manage the transition because it is limited in duration and the inconvenience will not last long. A permanent change desired by an individual will also be more comfortable. Perhaps the greatest degree of stress and negative affect is connected with uncertainty...To have an illness whose cause and prognosis is uncertain may be more stressful and unsettling than to know for sure that one has a terminal disease" (Schlossberg, 1981, p. 9). 7. Degree of Stress The final factor to be considered in this set of characteristics is the level of stress one experiences when faced with a transition, be it positive or negative. Schlossberg used Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment 28 Rating Scale (Journal of Paychosomatic Research, 1967, pp. 213-218) which is discussed later in this chapter. It assigns numerical values to a list of life events such as death of a spouse (high at 100 on the scale) to minor violations of the law (at the low end of the scale at 11). If an individual has gone through several changes within the past year, that person is more likely to experience higher stress levels and is more vulnerable to illness. CHARACTER I ST I CS OF PRETRANS I T I ON AND POSTTRANS I T ION ENV I RONMENTS In discussing environment, Schlossberg uses the word in a broad sense and includes interpersonal support systems, institutional supports, and physical setting. 1. Interpersonal SupportaSyatgma Schlossberg's (1981) definition of interpersonal support systems includes intimate relationships, the family unit, and a network of friends. Intimate relationships involve "trust, support, understanding and the sharing of confidences" (p. 10). Schlossberg draws on the work of Fiske and Weiss who report that "in the absence of overwhelming external challenges, most individuals find the motivation to live autonomous and satisfying lives only through one or more mutually intimate dyadic relationships" (Counaeling Adulta, 1977, p. 19). 29 The family unit has long been identified as being very important to how people deal with stressors in their lives. Evidence of the importance of the family unit as a support system in times of transition comes from the San Francisco study. Lowenthal and Chiriboga (1975) found that, of their four "stress" types, the challenged had the highest ratings on family mutuality, and the overwhelmed the lowest (p. 11). One's network of friends is an important component of one's social support system. For this part of her model, Schlossberg pulls from the work of L. Troll (Early and Middle Adulthood, 1975) who reports on research done with divorced women who say "that one of the most stressful side effects of divorce for the woman is that she automatically loses many of the "family friends" that were available to her as part of a couple" (p.11). Losses of this type can also result from residential moves or death of a spouse. Friends and neighbours often provide the support to help people through crises situations. Schlossberg suggests that interpersonal support is important-~even essential--to successful adaptation. 2. Laatitutional Supporta Once again Schlossberg expands her definition. In institutional supports, she includes "occupational organizations, religious institutions, political groups, social welfare or other community support groups...to which an individual can turn for help" (p. 11). 30 The importance of institutional supports became evident to Schlossberg when she was interviewing a group of government employees at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Their jobs had been eliminated as part of a work reduction plan and, at first, "these men were shattered at having lost their jobs. Their initial reactions were shock, numbness, and disbelief, followed by bitterness and anger directed against their former employer" (p. 11). NASA assigned counselors to work with this group on an individualized basis. In addition, the employer conducted intensive workshops which provided practical support and retraining to assist them with finding new work. In a subsequent interview, the workers reacted favorably not only because of the support the program provided but also because it showed a level of care on the part of the employer. 3. Physical Satting "The importance of physical setting--used broadly to include climate and weather, urban or rural location, neighborhood, living arrangements, and workplace--is so obvious as to be easily overlooked" (p. 11). Although Schlossberg includes this in her model, she does not go into as much depth as the other factors. She acknowledges that researchers are now paying more attention to personal space and "tentatively suggests that perhaps the most important 31 dimensions in this category are comfort, privacy, and aesthetics" (p. 12). CHARACTERI ST I CS OF THE INDIV I DUAL The third major set of factors in this model involve the individual him/herself. Schlossberg suggests that some observers use the individual's characteristics as the sole measure of success or failure to adapt to transitions. Her model restricts the characteristics to eight which she considers significant, acknowledging that there could be more. These are psychosocial competence, sex (and sex role identification), age (and life stages), state of health, raceeethnicity, socioeconomic status, value orientation, and previous experience with a transition of a similar nature. 1. Psychosocial Competence In keeping with the balance of the model, Schlossberg continues to draw from the existing literature. Here she uses F. Tyler's (1978) research which has been empirically tested and "postulates a 'three-faceted personality configuration, the competent self,‘ involving: (a) self- attitudes, (b) world attitudes, and (c) behavioral attitudes" (Schlossberg, 1981, p. 12). As part of self-attitudes, Tyler included a "moderately favorable self-evaluation, an internal locus of control,...and a sense of responsibility" (p. 12). 32 The important elements of Tyler's world attitudes are optimism, which can also be thought of as hope, and moderate trust. He suggests moderate trust because too much or too little can reduce an individual's overall effectiveness. The behavioral attributes used by Tyler to describe competent people included "an active coping orientation; high initiative; realistic goal setting; substantial planning, forbearance and effort in the service of attaining goals; and a capacity for enjoying success, suffering failure, and building from both" (p. 12). People who sought out information and made plans beforehand were more likely to adapt to new situations. However, Schlossberg does caution that research has been conducted by Lieberman (1975), and Lowenthal and Chiriboga (1975), among others, to indicate that the effectiveness of adaptation may depend not only on the situation or the transition, but also on the individual's stage in life at the time of the transition. 2. Sax (and Sax-Rolg Identification) Although Schlossberg included this factor in her model and believes there are differences in the way men and women deal with transitions, she admits more research is needed on sex differences because it is a very complex issue. Some of the differences may be cultural in nature and suggests that men have been taught to hide emotions and deny problems while women have greater freedom of expression in 33 our society. In addition, men and women experience different kinds of transitions "men in connection with work, and women in connection with family life" (p. 13). 3. Age (and Life Stage) There is a plethora of information about the relationship between age and one's ability to adapt to change. Schlossberg points out that analysis is difficult because most experts agree that chronological age is not important compared to biological, psychological, social, and functional ages. This is further complicated by the fact that the process of aging itself requires adaptation over the course of one's life. She does suggest, however, that life stage may be more useful than chronological age in studying transitions. Schlossberg uses an example of a study conducted by Rosen and Bibring (1968) on men ages 37 to 67 who had been hospitalized following a heart attack. "Whereas the younger men were generally cheerful and the 60-year-olds fatherly and easygoing, the 50-year olds were hostile, withdrawn, depressed, and difficult as patients" (Schlossberg, 1981, p. 13). The explanation offered is that the older men were experiencing "on time events" but the 50-year olds were fighting the thoughts that they were aging which was in line with being "middle aged". 34 4. Spapa of Health An individual's state of health will have an affect on his/her ability to adapt to transitions. Ill health may in fact be the transition some people are dealing with, resulting in increased stress. 5. RacelEthnicity One's racial/ethnic background may influence how someone deals with transitions. One's ability to adapt is "probably mediated through other factors such as value orientation and cultural norms...One's racial/ethnic background may be an isolating factor, making adaptation more difficult" (p. 14). 6. Socioaconomic Staapa The data are inconclusive as to the relationship between socioeconomic status and one's ability to adapt to transitions. Schlossberg suggests this may be due to the fact that different factors are used to measure socioeconomic status: income, occupation, education, or a combination of these. She also suggests that lower-income families may experience more stress than middle-income families because they need to deal not only with financial restrictions but also with restrictions in "health, energy, space, and ideas for coping with crisis" (p. 14). 35 7. Value Orientation Schlossberg reports that one's ability to adapt to transitions is influenced by his/her basic values and beliefs. Religious beliefs can both help and distress people. For example, an individual's grief over losing a loved one may be assuaged by the belief that there is life after death or that it is God's will. A Catholic woman may be distressed over the church's stand on abortion. "A man from a Protestant background who has grown up with a strong commitment to the work ethic may find forced unemployment especially hard to take, quite apart from the financial strain it entails" (p. 15). 8. Previous Experience with a Transition of a Similar Nature Past experience with one successful transition is a good indicator for a successful adaptation tola similar one. However, the opposite can also be said if the experience was not positive. It may, in fact, contribute to a negative mind set resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy for future transitions. Notwithstanding the fact that Schlossberg describes each of the variables separately, she does not intend that they be treated that way. Rather, they are intended to work together and act as mediators between the transition and the adaptation process as well as provide a mechaniSm for formulating interventions. 36 ADAPTAT I ON TO TRANS I T I ON In developing her model, Schlossberg has attempted to provide a forum whereby practitioners can identify some of the factors which may assist them with identification of a transition and where an individual may be in the adaptation process. The interest and research on human adaptation continues to grow but there are still many unanswered questions as to why people react differently to change. One person may lose a job and be devastated while another may look at it as an opportunity to do other things. Further, why might the same person react differently to a similar change at another time in his/her life? As stated earlier in this chapter, Schlossberg does not believe the transition to be of primary importance but rather it will depend on where the individual may be in his/her stage in life as well as the situation itself. Also, the variables presented earlier will vary in significance and are dependent on the transition and the individual being studied. Information presented to this point is what Schlossberg suggests one needs to know in order to identify and assist people who are in a state of transition. She has focused on three major sets of characteristics dealing with the transition itself, the pre- and posttransition environments and the individual him/herself. How one moves through the transition to the adaptation stage will depend on the 37 variables within these characteristics and the balance of the individual's resources and deficits. She provides an example from the study conducted by Lowenthal, Thurnher and Chiriboga (1975) of two women who suffered from a similar health problem, a slipped spinal disc. The physical discomfort is similar for both women but what is different is the resources. One woman was a tenured university professor who received emotional support from family, friends, and colleagues, and generally copes well. The other woman worked as a potter and was not paid well. She had recently gone through a divorce and her support system was not strong. In addition, she had previously undergone a double mastectomy. Both her self-esteem and physical stamina were low and her coping abilities were average at best. The professor's resources were strong while the potter's were in a deficit situation, making adaptation far more difficult for the latter. When attempting to identify why one person responds differently to the same transition at different stages of life, Schlossberg says "The answer is partially that the resources-deficits balance changes: at one point, resources outweigh deficits, so adaptation is relatively easy; at another point deficits outweigh resources and adaptation is correspondingly more difficult" (p. 8). The work of C.M. Parkes (1971) suggests that changes are important only if "...they affect the individual's 38 "assumptive world," which includes "everything we know or think we know. It includes our interpretation of the past and our expectations of the future, our plans and our prejudices" (p. 8). Schlossberg has adopted Parkes‘ view and calls it the "degree of difference between the pretransition and the posttransition environment" which was detailed earlier in this chapter. It is this difference which will affect the way the individual interacts with the world and, more specifically, with the family, work, and the community. Views on adaptation vary according to Schlossberg. She makes reference to the work of R. White (1976) who describes three strategies which are necessary for moving toward adaptation "securing adequate information, maintaining satisfactory internal conditions, and keeping up some degree of autonomy" (p. 7). White suggests that one's ability to adapt should be evaluated only after some time has lapsed and not on short-term observations since one's abilities not only develop but are also progressively modified with experience and time. Schlossberg points out that while White's dynamic View of the adaptation process is a more productive way of measuring adaptation, it "...contrasts sharply with the static view, which is epitomized by such terms as "mental health," "life satisfaction," "homeostasis,' and "effective role and social functioning" (p. 7). 39 She turns next to Moos and Tsu (1976) whose studies identified two phases in the adaptation process. The first phase is acute, followed by a reorganization phase. During the first phase, a person directs his/her energies to downplaying or minimizing the impact of the stress. Once a person accepts the reality of the situation, they are said to have entered the reorganization phase. Another important contributor is R. Hill (1965) who makes the analogy that the reaction one has to a crisis is like a roller coaster. "The crisis event occurs, the individual "dips down" into a period of disorganization, gradually "rises up" again, and levels off into a period of reorganization" (p. 7). This description is similar to the studies conducted by Kubler-Ross (1969) with people who realize they are dying. Even though these theorists, among others, provide some insight into the adaptation process, Schlossberg suggests more empirical work is necessary to identify common elements as well as variables of the process in order to help us understand not only how people adapt to change but why they adapt differently at various stages of life. HOPSON AND ADAMS' SEVEN-PHASE MODEL OF STAGES ACCOMPANYING TRANSITIONS Like Schlossberg, Barrie Hopson and John Adams wanted a model which would help them understand and explain the transition process, perhaps even predict human responses to 40 events. They wanted to link theory with practice so that one could describe the human experience of transition and consequently developed the model shown in Figure 3, page 41. The cycle has seven phases in our current manner of describing them. The identification of these seven phases has come about through content analyses of reports from over 100 people who have attended transition workshops for the purpose of understanding and learning to cope more effectively with transitions they were experiencing (Hopson, et a1, 1977, p. 9). The seven phases, briefly, are as follows: 1. Immobiliaation or Shock: This first phase is one of shock and confusion. An individual may feel overwhelmed, unable to reason or think clearly, or even feel numb. The transition may be negative or positive. Minimiaation or Denial: One moves into the second phase which is characterised by minimizing or denying the importance of what has taken place. This reaction is considered a common delaying tactic. Depreaaion and Self-Doubt: Reality hits at this phase and one begins facing the fact that some change has taken place. Even if the change was voluntary, a dip in feelings is likely when one may not know how to manage the necessary changes. 4i moon??? warn—89:83. Uwfim Co .362 emu—Edozm .333. can condom m runs .ucH .mcowpmuHHnsa mamm to cowmmHELma an cmpcwcama .co_pmHUOmm< Hmowuofiocozma cmuHcmE< one do amofiocoxma mcwfimmcsou do cowmw>wo use an Emma .N .02 .m .~o> .HmeOBoxo>ma oszmmzzoo mxe =.mcowuwmcmce Low: mcwaou roe mmwmmpmcpm cowucm>emch= ..w.a .ommcn< w ..z.4 .cmssmcm K 6.585. Hogans; wormcaaficooa. mewflm no 3662 mgnmégom page. one ccmdcm TBABT OOOIN 42 Acceptance of Reality or Letting Go: The previous stages were still connected to the past or pre- transition condition. When one moves into phase four, he/she is letting go of the past and moving on with an accompanying rise in feelings. Testing Optiona: This is a more active phase where one might try something new--behaviors, life styles, coping strategies--because there is a lot of personal energy. _aarch for Meaaiag: This is a reflective phase where one looks at how and why things have changed and tries to make sense of what has happened. It is here that one might begin to understand the meaning of the transition and its resultant changes. Internalization or Integration: This is the readjustment phase where one internalizes the meanings and incorporates them into new behavior. Before proceeding, we want to make it clear that seldom if ever does a person move neatly from phase to phase as it has been described and diagrammed. It is more likely that these representations are of the general experience and that any given individual's progressions and regressions are unique to his or her unique circumstances. For example, one person may never get beyond denial or minimization. Another may end it all during depression. Yet another might experience a major failure just as things begin to look up, and 'jump' back to a less active, more withdrawn posture (Hopson, et al, p. 13). 43 What is important for people in transition to realize is that any change provides an opportunity for growth. Hopson suggests a transition is like a journey. A transition simultaneously carries the seeds of our yesterday, [and] hopes and fears of our futures...Nature abhors a vacuum and stability. A stable state is merely a stopping point on a journey from one place to another. Stop too long and your journey is ended. Stay and enjoy but with the realization that more is to come. We may not be able to stop the journey, but we can fly the plane (p. 39). Throughout her model Schlossberg does not make use of many instruments to measure the various characteristics she details. Part of the reason was that the components she tiescribes under each set of characteristics vary, depending on.the transition, the individual, and the environment. IIowever, there were two exceptions. The first was Rotter's Iriternal-External Locus of Control Scale (Appendix 1, P. 168) which is often referred to as the I-E Scale. The Seacond was Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Sczale (Appendix 2, p. 172), also known as Life Events and StLress Scale. An overview of these instruments is Presented here. ROTTER' S INTERNAL-EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL SCALE When a reinforcement is perceived by the subject as following some action of his own but not being entirely contingent upon his action, then, in our culture, it is typically perceived as the result of luck, chance, fate, as under the control of powerful others...we have labeled this a belief in external control. If the person perceives that 44 the event is contingent upon his own behavior...we have termed this a belief in internal control (Rotter, 1966). Although Julian Rotter and his colleagues were not the first to attempt to formulate a model to measure general expectancy or belief about locus of control, theirs is used extensively. The first attempt was made by E.J. Phares (1965) when he developed a 13 item Likert-type scale as a means of measuring one's belief in internal-external control. His model was revised by other researchers but the work done by Rotter, Liverant, and Crowne (1966) remains the most widely used. Theirs is a forced-choice 29 item questionnaire which includes 6 filler items intended to make the purpose of the test ambiguous. A careful reading of the items will make it clear that the items deal exclusively with the subjects' belief about the nature of the world. That is, they are concerned with the subjects' expectations about how reinforcement is controlled. Consequently, the test is considered to be a measure of generalized expectancy (Rotter, 1966). The score is the number of underlined items. A score of 1 represents the most internal and goes up to 23 which is the most external. See Appendix 1, page 168. HOLMES AND RAHE'S SOCIAL READJUSTMENT RATING SCALE Psychologists and psychiatrists have long studied coping behaviors of people under extreme stress. Some of 45 these studies resulted from accounts of survivors from concentration camps, observations of how families coped with severe injuries, or how survivors coped with the death of loved ones. Other studies emphasized normal life events like entering school, graduating, changing or losing jobs, births and deaths. Holmes and Rahe were following up on studies which associated the onset of illness with clusters of life events. They developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale which consisted of different life events scaled according to the amount of "readjustment" they were judged to require; for example, death of spouse (100 Life Change Units), divorce (73 Units), marital separation ( 65 Units)...and so on (Moos, 1976). Social readjustment included changes in one's normal pattern of events without regard to desirability. A person was deemed to be in crisis if a cluster of life events totalled 150 Life Change Units or more in a year. They found a direct link between health changes and major life events as measured by Life Change Units. The total score is derived by adding up the numerical values assigned to each life event. As one would expect, the more events one experiences in one year, the higher the score. The closer one is to 150 Life Change Units, the greater the likelihood one is in a crisis situation. 4 6 SUMMARY Acknowledging that there are many theories on transitions and how people adapt to transitions, this review has focused only on the ones most pertinent to the study at hand. The purpose of this study was to study life 'transitions and adaptations as reported by unemployed adults vflio had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. The Suzudy tested two models. The first was Schlossberg's model of‘ analyzing human adaptation to transition and the second, Ikxpson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying truansitions. Both models were, in effect, superimposed on time results of the study and used as the tools to measure tdie transition and the stages of adaptation. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Introduction The purpose of this study was to examine life truansitions and adaptation to change as reported by Inienmdoyed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance beuiefits. Much has been written about adult development, transitions, and how adults adapt to transitions, some of ydrich has already been reviewed in chapter two. The approach taken was to gather data from unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. A tape- reccmded interview format was used and the results were applied to models developed by Schlossberg and Hopson and Adana” This chapter will describe the methodology employed for collecting and analyzing the data. DESIGN OF THE STUDY Since one of the goals of a research degree is to contribute to the body of literature, this researcher embarked on a review of the existing literature to determine where gaps might exist. Both in Canada and the United 47 48 States, literature can be found with respect to the ‘unemployed if they are collecting unemployment insurance Ibenefits or are involved in education and/or training programs which are sponsored by government or former enmdoyers. After that, the literature is quite sparse and 'the unemployed are then considered part of the hidden tinemployed or discouraged worker population. This researcher worked for many years with adults in a commnunity college setting and developed a keen interest in tdie area of adult development. Consequently, it was decided ‘to Imake unemployed adults the focus of this research and to apply the theories of transition and adaptation to the study grwoup. The participants for the study would be drawn from tflae city of Sault Ste. Marie, a northern community in the Province of Ontario, Canada. A review of the literature revealed that the case study Inethod would be the most appropriate for the purposes outlined in this thesis. Yin (1984) points out that a large proportion of dissertations and theses in the social sciences use case studies as a research strategy. The case study method is but one of several ways of doing social science research. Other ways include experiments, surveys, histories, and the analysis of archival information (as in economics studies) (p. 13). Part of the reason this method is popular among social scientists, according to Yin, is that it "allows an investigation to retain the holistic and meaningful Characteristics of real-life events". .an instance of the case and that instance may be the basis for the study. they require large sample sizes. (Borner Society (1943) is a classic example of this type of 49 SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE When conducting field research, it is important to find research. The study has been highly regarded in spite of its being a single-case study, covering one neighborhood ("Cornerville") and a time period now nearly fifty years old. The value of the book is, paradoxically, its generalizability to issues on individual performance, group structure, and the social structure of neighborhoods. Later investigators have repeatedly found remnants of Cornerville in their work, even though they had studied different neighborhoods and different time periods (Yin, p.15). For the purposes of this study, it was decided that the sample size would be no less than 10 and no more than 15 unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. It was felt that a saturation point would be reached with that sample size. In other words, information would start to repeat itself and would serve no useful Purpose in quantity or quality of information gathered. Participants in this study had to meet the following criteria: 1. Be unemployed adults aged 25 - 44, 2- Have a work history of at least seven years, 3- Have been unemployed no more than two years, 4. Have exhausted unemployment insurance benefits, It is unlike other types of research which William F. Whyte's Street 50 5. Been unsuccessful in finding employment in jobs which were equivalent to the ones they lost, and, 6. Not currently involved in education or training. The rationale for selecting the sample was based on the fEiCt that the 25 - 44 year old population is, according to Ehnployment and Immigration Canada (EIC), the most employable giroup and represents two-thirds of the working population. Ir: addition, if the subjects had at least a seven year ennployment history (an arbitrary figure), they would not be palrt of the habitually unemployed which would have made for a. different study. A cap of two years was put on the length of time the Stzudy group was out of work as a means of excluding the habitually unemployed or long-term unemployed. Literature Iplrepared by EIC suggests that some people look at the year tliey receive unemployment insurance as an extended vacation. Deciding to include people in the study group who had been cnat of work for two years would take the study beyond the "extended vacation" period. Schatzman and Strauss (1973) in discussing how one gets started on field research suggest that one "...begins his research with his first contact, wherever that may be, and Inakes his way from there by depending on successive infornmnts to guide or cue him to other persons and places" (13. 47). The researcher used Schatzman and Strauss' first step Strategy. She approached her contacts in the community and 51 asked them to become, what Gordon (1980) called, key iriformants. These key informants were counselors, administrators, and others who worked for community organizations which provided services to the unemployed. Tfiie key informants contacted volunteers and generally eurplained the purpose of the research to them. If the vc>lunteers were still interested permission was requested to pzrovide the researcher with their telephone numbers. After tkiis point, the key informants were no longer involved with trie'study. — The researcher telephoned the volunteers and provided triem with an overview of the research, the length of time tliey would be involved, a guarantee of complete Cconfidentiality, and informed them they could withdraw at ally time without obligation or repercussions. Any questions were answered immediately and, if they were still iriterested, a time was arranged for a personal interview. 1&11 volunteers agreed to continue. As the study progressed, additional names were provided 3b)? participants in the study. These participants, in effect, became key informants as described above. The same Prnacedure was followed so that neither names nor telephone Innnbers were given directly to the researcher without prior Permission. In total 23 volunteers were interviewed but only 12 met the criteria set out previously. Even though the eligibility criteria was discussed over the telephone prior 52 to making an appointment for the interview, 11 people did not, in fact, qualify and were not part of the study group. The reasons for disqualification were as follows: 6 two were attending school two were receiving unemployment insurance 0 0 five had been unemployed more than two years 0 one had been working for less than seven years 0 one did not keep her appointment although attempts were made to reschedule. The final sample, eight men and four women, was known only to the researcher. Six of these were as a result of the contacts made by the key informants from the community and the other six came from participants who were part of the study group. In effect, the participants who provided additional names had dual roles for a brief period, that of participants and key informants. Interviews were scheduled at a time and location which was convenient to them. Most interviews took place during the day with only one taking place in the evening. Locations selected by the volunteers were a local community college, the volunteer's home, and, in only one instance, the .researcher's home. Prior to commencing the interview, volunteers were twequested to sign a consent form which outlined the purpose of? the research as well as their right to refuse to answer tarty'question or to withdraw at any time. See Appendix 3, Page 173. 53 All participants were interviewed using an interview guide and a set of open-ended questions. See Appendix 4, page 174. Interviews were recorded (with prior consent), transcribed, and all tapes were subsequently erased. FIELD PROCEDURES Field work involving human subjects requires approval of Michigan State University's Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS). The Committee seeks to ensure the rights of human subjects and forces the researcher to assess any potential risks to the subjects. copy of the committee's approval is found as Appendix 5, page 177. The method selected for this study was the tape- recorded interview which was approximately one hour in duration for each subject. Tapes were transcribed by the researcher within 24 hours. According to Ives (1974): In theory, the tape recording is still a secondary document, because the interview itself is primary, the tape being no more than the best available record of that interview. But since there is no way yet available of returning to the interview itself, the point is moot (p. 87). Gorden (1980) has a model of tools for interviewing Ithich is divided into strategy areas, technique areas, and tactic areas. His model is shown in Table 1, page 55. Iriterviewing is an accepted field research method and as Such is well established. When one is deciding on validity and which research method to use, Gordon suggests it depends or: circumstances. 54 Interviewing is most valuable when we are interested in knowing people's beliefs, attitudes, values, knowledge, or any other subjective orientations or mental content....The exploratory values of the unstructured interview are impossible to attain in a questionnaire where there is no opportunity to formulate new questions or probe for clarification. (p. 11) Further, Gordon (1980, pp. 61-62) identifies five advantages of the interview over the questionnaire. These are as follows: 1. The interview provides more opportunity to motivate the respondent to supply accurate and complete information immediately. The interview provides more opportunity to guide the respondent in his interpretation of the questions. The interview allows a greater flexibility in questioning the respondent. The interview allows a greater control over the interview situation. The interview provides a greater opportunity to evaluate the validity of the information by observing the respondent's nonverbal manifestations of his attitude toward supplying the information. 55 Table l Gordon's Tools for Interviewing Strategy Areas Technique Areas Tactic Areas Selecting respondents. Selecting interviewers. Selecting the time and place. Structuring the interview site. Selecting recording method. Selecting mode of contact. Deciding number of contacts. Supplying context for question. Selecting appro- priate wording. Regulating scope of question. Structuring the answer. Loading questions appropriately. Using silence. Using pacing and inflection. Showing appro- priate attitudes. l. Regulating sequence of topics. 2. Providing transitions 3. Varying sequence of questions. 4. Varying topic control. 5. Meeting resistance. 6. Preventing falsifica- tion. 7. Using informal post- interview. L. Gordon, Interviewing: fractics, 3rd ed., 1980, Strategy. TechniquesI and p. 143. 56 The interview guide (see Appendix 4, p. 174) not only provided some direction but also helped to ensure that the objectives of the interview were met. The guide was not intended to provide structure and quite often the information was provided to the researcher out of sequence. As Gordon (1980) says: In a sense, the interviewer uses the interview guide as a motorist uses a road map. It reminds him of possible routes to many objectives and is a convenient way of recording where he has been and what he has missed (p. 60). The interview guide had a face page with the participant's name and other personal information which would identify him/her but this was separated from the balance of the interview guide which contained the questions. There were two reasons for doing this. One, it guaranteed the confidentiality of the responses. Two, it reduced potential for bias when entering the data since the responses were separated from the personal data. Like most things, there are limitations in the interview method. One is the language a participant might use. Since the group's work background was quite varied, it ‘was necessary for the interviewer to ask for clarification id) some technical or work related terms to ensure clarity. There was also the possibility that the participant may Provide false information. For example, some participants Were receiving general welfare assistance and should have declared all income to the case worker but admitted they did Exit. The reason for the candor may have been that 57 confidentiality was discussed prior to the interview taking place. This assurance was also provided in writing (see Appendix 3, p. 173). This candor could also be attributed to the rapport developed between her and the interviewee. An additional limitation could be the interviewer's own experience with displaced workers. One's biases and spheres of familiarity could filter information or make one see events as one wants to see them. To protect against this as much as possible tapes were transcribed verbatim to reduce the possibility of filtering information and perhaps biasing the results. Each interview was started with some general conversation to put the participant at ease followed by an offer to answer any questions about the research. The researcher explained the policy Michigan State University has through UCRIHS which seeks to ensure the rights of human subjects. Participants were requested to sign the consent form which all did. Next, the following explanation was provided by the researcher: My primary purpose is to listen, try to understand,.and to report the findings of the group. Only you and I know you are part of the study group and it will remain that way unless you choose to tell anyone. There are no right or wrong answers--only information which I will gather and use as part of my research findings. I have some questions I have prepared but you are free to refuse to answer any of them. I will be asking you some questions about your work background as well as your education and training. In effect what I will be doing is taking you back in time, talking about what's happening with you now, and then ask you some questions about any plans you may have for getting back to work. I do not make any guarantees that the information you 58 provide, or that the research that I am doing, will make any difference to your employment but I do plan to share it with anyone who might benefit from its contents. The researcher then asked if there were any questions about what we were doing that day. At this point, permission was requested to tape record the interview. The researcher shared with the participant that she would be better able to concentrate on what was being shared instead of taking time to write things down. The researcher would be the only one who would have access to the tapes and they would be erased immediately after they were transcribed. This method would also guarantee a more accurate recording of information. In all cases permission was granted. The researcher used the interview guide, listened actively, and probed further when questions may not have been answered completely. DATA ANALYSIS All tapes were transcribed by the researcher within 24 hours. The interview guide (Appendix 4, p. 174) had been developed prior to the interviews taking place. The format ‘was such that it matched Schlossberg's model and its three rnain sets of characteristics, i.e., the transition, the eurvironment, and the individual. The variables under each Set of characteristics had also been organized in the interview guide. As it became necessary to report on the iriformation gathered, the responses were already partially Otfiganized and it became a matter of extracting the data. 59 Two instruments were also used. One was Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (Appendix 1, p. 168) and the other was Holmes and Rahe's Life Events and Stress Scale (Appendix 2, p. 172). Both instruments were described in Chapter 2. SUMMARY This chapter has presented the design of the study and the methodolgy used to select the sample. Field procedures and the method of tape-recorded interviews were explained. An explanation was also provided as to how the data were analyzed. CHAPTER 4 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction The purpose of this study was twofold: 1) To examine life transitions and adaptation to change as reported by unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. 2) To apply the findings to two models: 1) Nancy Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition and ii) Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. Participants in this study had to meet the following criteria: 1. Be unemployed adults aged 25 - 44, 2. Have a work history of at least seven years, 3. Have been unemployed no more than two years, 4. Have exhausted unemployment insurance benefits, 5. Been unsuccessful in finding employment in jobs which were equivalent to the ones they lost, and, 6. Not currently involved in education or training. The following questions served as a guide for the research: 60 61 The following questions served as a guide for the research: 1. What impact has the transitional status had on the unemployed? What support systems do the unemployed access? What individual characteristics are more likely to enhance one's ability to adapt to a transition? To what degree does Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition fit the study group of unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits? To what degree do the participants fit Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions? What relationship is there between levels of education and plans, if any, to add to those educational levels? The subjects in the study group would be compared to Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transitions as well as Hopson and Adam's seven-phase Inodel of stages accompanying transitions. THE STUDY GROUP The interviews which provide the data base for this study were conducted over a six-week period in May and June 1993, at a location which was convenient to the interviewees. What follows is a brief description of each 62 interview which will provide the reader with an opportunity to know the participants a little better. Readers are reminded that all dollars quoted in this study are in Canadian funds which are historically valued below the American dollar. In March 1994, the Canadian dollar was valued at approximately 60% of its American counterpart. For example, $1,000 Canadian would be worth $600 American. All names used are pseudonyms. Table 2, page 63, lists participant characteristics as a percentage of the total group. Table 3, page 64, lists individual characteristics. No. 1 - Charles Charles is 32, married, and has four children under the age of six. His wife does not work outside the home. He had been employed full time for the past fourteen years making what he called "real good money" at $15 an hour. Now, he would be willing to look at $10 an hour just to get started again. He receives $1,700 monthly ($20,000 annually) through General Welfare Assistance. I've never been around the house so much in my life. I try to work around the house and help with the kids more. Anything to keep busy but even that is limited because things cost money. We don't have any money to do anything. There's tension between me and my wife, especially when people start calling you for money and stuff like that. I was always able to meet my bills. I feel I've lost control of my life and what I can do. 63 Table 2 Participant Characteristics as a Percentage of Total Group Variable N Total Percentage* Gender Male 8 66.7 Female 4 12 33.3 100 Age 25 - 30 l 8.3 31 - 35 9 75.0 36 - 40 1 8.3 41 - 44 1 12 8.3 99.9 Marital Status Single 2 16.7 Married 8 66.7 Separated 0 -- Divorced 2 16.7 Widowed 0 12 -- 100.1 Number of Dependents None 3 25.0 1 l 8.3 2 0 -- 3 4 33.3 4 3 25.0 5 l 8.3 more than 5 0 12 -- 99.9 Residence Own 7 58.3 Rent 3 25.0 Live at home 2 12 16.7 100 Grade level of education Grade 9 - 10 0 -- Grade 11 1 8.3 H.S. graduate 5 41.7 Comm.Coll.grad. 3 25.0 Some univ. 1 8.3 Univ. grad. 2 12 16.7 100 ¥ *Percentages do not total 100 due to rounding 64 Table 3 Individual Characteristics Marital No. of Educational Gender Age Status Depend. Residence Achievement 1 M 32 M 5 Own Comm.College 2 M 33 M 4 Rent High School 3 M 34 S 0 At Home University 4 M 32 M 3 Own Comm.College 5 M 43 M 4 Own 1 yr. Univ. 6 F 34 D 3 Rent High School 7 F 33 M 4 Own University 8 F 31 M 3 Own Grade 11 9 F 37 D 0 At Home High School 10 M 31 M 1 Own Comm.College 11 M 35 M 3 Own High School 12 M 28 S 0 Rent High School 65 When Charles graduated from high school, he moved to western Canada and worked at a variety of jobs—-grounds work, labor, basic construction, and mining. He felt very much in control because he was young, single, and able to move around as much as he wanted to because jobs were plentiful. After doing that for a couple of years, Charles moved back to Sault Ste. Marie and worked with the local steel mill. Again, he found employment easily. Even when "the big crash" came in 1982, Charles was able to find work but then decided to go to a community college where he earned a diploma as a forestry technician. This led to employment in the forestry area and this required some unwanted travel away from home. He moved back to Sault Ste. Marie once more and found work at the paper mill where he stayed until he was laid off one year ago. Moving around was not a problem for Charles before because he was single. Now, a family and a vested interest in a home, make him less mobile. Charles and his family live in a very modest home where he spends time renovating as time and money permit. This too has been put on hold until things improve. It helps that he and his wife have very supportive families but his friends don't come around anymore. "They seem to leave you like a sinking ship if you don't have the money to go out and do the things we used to". 66 Charles stays in touch with some of the people he once worked with and follows up on any leads. He keeps an eye on the newspaper and the job boards at the Unemployment Insurance Office. He said he does not find the staff there very helpful. He also visits places he thinks might have openings always to be told they are not hiring until the economy turns around. Going back to school is a consideration but he would need financial support to do that. "I still have a family to feed". No. 2 - Morgan Morgan is 33, married, and has three children under four years of age. His wife does not work outside the home which they rent. Morgan acquired his high school diploma in 1972. He has been self-employed, worked with small and large machines, been a maintenance manager, repaired small engines, as well as having worked as a truck driver. Although he has changed jobs five times in the past, it was always by choice with one exception. At that time he was laid off for eight months before he was called back to work. Morgan learned to drive a variety of vehicles-- dumptrucks, vans, flatbeds, tankers filled with 12,000 gallons of liquid, and has licenses to verify this. He finds this line of work exciting. Put him in a classroom, however, and he is bored. 67 I registered in a machine shop course once. They wanted me to put it all down on paper. I couldn't do that but put it in front of me and I could break it down piece by piece. I could tell you how it's built but to put it on paper, I just go blank. Figuring things out on my own-~that's a challenge to me. Because he was so adaptable at working with his hands, Morgan never had difficulty finding work. There was always someone looking for people like him who were willing to train while they worked. Finding another job wasn't too hard. Now, it's impossible. I've always made it a habit to keep a list of all the people I deal with--suppliers, customers, and so on. I contacted them personally but no luck. I even took the phone book and hit every place I could. I check the newspapers at the library and research the places before I contact them so I know a bit about the company but nothing works. Morgan helps around the house and does more with the kids but things are tense. "The money really changed. I was making over $50,000 a year. Now I have $1,800 a month ($21,600 a year) through general welfare. I still fix things on the side and don't report it. I couldn't make ends meet without that". Looking for new work has been very difficult because the competition now comes from very qualified people. Morgan said that even the elected representatives tell you it's tougher than ever with an unemployment rate of 80% in the trades area in Sault Ste. Marie. The welfare people call you up and ask you why you didn't get the job they sent you on. I suggest they tell them to hire me. They think the system is that you walk in and they hire you. It doesn't work that way. Everybody's looking for a job. I 68 want to be off the system more than they want me off. I went for one interview and the guy told me point blank he wouldn't hire me because I knew more than he did. He said I was overqualified. I can't win. Either I'm overqualified or underqualified. Morgan would go back to school if it was something which could hold his interest and if he could have some means of support. With a wife and three children, expenses still have to be met. Under the general welfare system, he could not go back to school on a full time basis and still receive benefits. He must be ready, willing, and able to go to work and school would interfere with looking for a job. Morgan has been unemployed for the past 15 months. No. 3 - Barrie For 34 year old Barrie, a university degree in recreation did not bring the employment he envisioned. When he graduated from university in 1981 he felt he caught the brass ring when he started working for the local municipal office as an aquatics instructor. That feeling was short lived when a strike interrupted his work. But even that worked in his favor when he changed careers and worked in the local steel mill. Barrie was quite happy because he was flaking more money. However, after two years, he was unemployed once more. He decided to move to Toronto where he worked primarily in sales. In 1989 he returned to college to obtain a real estate license but the timing was not good. The economy was not conducive to a new agent building a clientele. 69 I've been through the unemployment system four times but never this long. I've been laid off six months once and a year and a half in the mid 805 but it was never as bad as this. It's very frustrating and depressing. I know I could do a good job. I'm versatile and am a hard worker but that's not enough anymore. Barrie was earning about $50,000 a year at his peak. Now he must live on $400 per month ($4,800 annually) through General Welfare Assistance. He almost regrets having told the Welfare office that he lives with his mother and is not paying rent. That reduced his benefits by $200 a month. There are no new clothes. You keep your car together at all costs. Forget vacations or travel. There's no extras. My social life is zero. I used to fill my tank twice a week. Now I fill it every 4-6 weeks. I don't have cable TV anymore. Because I like to read, I buy used books or go to the library. I can't afford to buy what's on the best seller list anymore. Not taking his frustrations out on other people has become a real challenge for Barrie. He feels trapped, bored and angry. He tries to relieve his stress by walking and doing things that don't cost money. Gaining 30 pounds has not improved matters. The question he dreads most is "What are you doing now?" followed by "Have you put on weight?" Barrie has sent out between 300 - 400 resumes over the past year and did have some interviews. He has several resumes ready to go--one for industry, one for sales, and one for recreation. He was quite upset when a recreation job was not made available because he was overqualified and it only paid $14,000 a year. 70 Hell, that would have been a big raise! It was triple what I make now. That was my decision to make, not theirs. I know it would have been stepping back 10 years for me but what choices do I have? The British American Bank Note jobs in Sault Ste. Marie had 3,200 applications for 40 jobs. I felt like I was in a food line like I see in Russia. Even the local TV picked it up. Barrie has a box in his basement full of dishes and things he would need to make a quick move if a job came up elsewhere. He is not tied to Sault Ste. Marie but he would need financial support to move elsewhere and get set up. He has no savings. Getting off social assistance is something Barrie wants very much. People have a stereotypical image of people who are on social assistance and this bothers him to the point that his own brother does not know the situation he is in. At the time of the interview, Barrie had been unemployed for 17 months. No. 4 - Clark Clark lives in his own home with his wife and two children under the age of eight. Except for two short periods when he was laid off, Clark has worked full time since graduating from an apprenticeship program in 1977. This time around, he has been unemployed for 13 months. Clark's wife does not work outside the home. I've been laid off before but I always knew I would be called back. Maybe before it wasn't so bad because we didn't have the house and the kids. The kids play a big part in things now. The little guy is only seven years old but he tells his sister not to ask for anything because daddy doesn't have any money. It really hurts. 71 Clark doesn't find his wife very supportive. "She's always grouchy when I'm at home but I haven't talked to anyone like counsellors or anything like that. I don't say much. I keep it all inside". In an attempt to bring in some extra money, Clark does some "under the table" work and hopes nobody reports him. He fears he will lose his income of $1,510 a month ($18,120 yearly) through General Welfare Assistance if that happens. He had been accustomed to earning $42,000 a year. As Clark goes through some of the job search activities, he is frustrated by his lack of current skills. How do you get a job in something else that you're not really trained at? Employers want you to get on the job and be productive. Nobody can afford to train anymore like they used to. If you don't have the qualifications, somebody else does. I feel caught. Going back to school to retrain is an option for Clark but once again, money becomes a factor. He would need financial support both to go to school and to meet his daily expenses. General Welfare Assistance will not allow him to be in school full time, hence his feeling of being caught. In the meantime, he hangs on to the hope of being called back to his previous job at the steel mill where he was making $20 an hour. No. 5 - Gary Gary is a little older than the others in the study group. At 43, he owns his own home in the country where he 72 lives with his wife and three children ranging in age from 13 to 20. His wife works on a casual basis and he does odd jobs for friends and neighbors. Sometimes he gets paid for this but he finds it hard to ask for money from friends because he has done work for them in the past for free. Gary started working as a machinist apprentice as soon as he graduated from high school in 1967. He found work quickly in the oil fields of Alberta or the mines and steel mills of Ontario. Being very mechanically inclined made it easy for him to move around, especially before he was married. Moving around throughout Canada was an adventure for Gary. When he was laid off 16 months ago, Gary was earning $40,000 a year. Now, he estimates the annual family income to be in the area of $15,000. Although going back to the steel mill would be nice, Gary doesn't have too much hope of that happening. Instead, he has scaled down his spending and lives a very simple lifestyle. The workplace has changed so drastically. It's not a short layoff now. It's layoffs of undeterminable lengths of time including, perhaps, closure of the plant itself. You're out of a job and everybody around you is out a job. You feel like you're on the Titanic. When he was laid off previously, Gary returned to school until he was called back to work. The thought of going to school once more appeals to him but it has to have some level of guarantee for him. He wants to be sure there's a job waiting at the end. For now, he and his wife 73 are making ends meet and he is willing to wait for the economy to turn around. Gary says he would be content with a $10 an hour job. He is not willing to entertain anything less but then adds "It depends on how bad things get and how quickly". Study No. 6 - Donna Donna is 34, a single parent of three children under the age of 16, and lives in a small apartment because she cannot afford to rent elsewhere. She does not want to go into subsidized housing because she believes it would not be good for her children. Donna finds there is a lot of overcrowding in those areas and anything she looked at was generally run down. When Donna was married, her family income was about $60,000 a year. Now she receives a total of $17,000 a year from provincial Family Benefits and child support from her former husband. She completed high school and worked in a variety of jobs as secretary, mail courier, landscaper, and office Inanager. Donna has been unemployed for 16 months. Donna worries about her children and what life will be like for them. She is convinced that education is the way to a better life for her children and she spends a lot of tiJne with them to make sure they do their homework every dayn "We're a spiritual family and the kids and I talk 74 about things. We talk about life and what can happen to you". Donna's jobs have been quite physically demanding but she doesn't complain. I don't mind the hard work or the long hours but right now my kids need me. Their dad's not here so I worry that if I don't stay close to them, they have nobody to be there for them. I've always been able to find work before but now it's really hard to get in anyplace. I'm a single parent and I need to make more than I do on welfare. Donna's family is very supportive as are some of her friends but she wants desperately to be independent. She also wants to have privacy and being on social assistance takes that away from her. Going back to school is something that appeals to Donna because she wants to be proud of herself and she wants her children to feel proud of their mother. The problem becomes one of access in that she wants to be home during the day when her children come home for lunch and after school. Her afternoons are free but transportation is a problem since she does not own a vehicle. Correspondence or televised courses would suit her needs but anything she has looked into has either been too expensive or did not interest her. ,NQ. 7 - Wendy Wendy, 33, and her husband were accustomed to an annual iJmcome of $70,000 a year but when she lost her job 16 months agcn they dropped down to the $30,000 her husband earned. Wendy said they could manage on that if they did not have a Inortgage and a car loan. They spent according to their 75 projected income. As a result, they found themselves overextended when one income was lost. Selling their home was considered, however, the housing market is very poor. "Financially, our life has been a disaster". They had to refinance their home and extend their mortgage from a 7 to a 25-year amortization period. As a result, they owe more now than when they first purchased it. They have three children under the age of nine. Wendy has a university degree and found a job immediately upon graduation in 1982. She worked as a programmer analyst until her employer filed for bankruptcy in 1991. Some of the former employees of that firm opened up their own business and offered her a job. As a result, she did not have any breaks in employment until she was let go as part of a restructuring effort. "I felt hurt, betrayed. I did so much for them, even while I was on maternity leave, and this is the way they paid me back". Wendy's in-laws and her family are very supportive but the company she worked for did not offer any assistance in dealing with the job loss. I'm not sure I would have taken advantage of a support group if one had been offered--a punching bag would have been better. It would have been nice to have had someone to vent those frustrations with. My husband listened but I needed to have some dialogue, to have things thrown back at me so I could think about them differently. He is working so doesn't really understand what it's like. 76 For Wendy, retraining is something she considers but only if it is something she can do in her own home while she looks after her children. Financially, she cannot afford to go to school full time and pay for a sitter for the children. In addition, Sault Ste. Marie does not offer university programs which interest Wendy so she does not see herself back in school in the immediate future. No. 8 - Angelica Angelica, 31, is worried about her chances of finding work again. Her husband is in school full time and his union pays for this. They live with their children, 11 and 13, in a modest home which is not paid for. Their income is $30,000 annually, down from $50,000. Angelica worked in the food services industry for ten years. The past 18 months of unemployment have been very difficult. She was laid off twice before for brief periods but this time she believes it's different. In the past, it was much easier to get back in the workforce. One job seemed to lead to another. Now, there isn't as much turnover in jobs because people are hanging on to what they have. I keep a resume in my purse all the time just in case I'm someplace and I may need one. I want to be ready. Another difference for Angelica and her family is the lifestyle change. They used to bowl in a mixed league but had to give it up. Their friends stopped coming by and that hurts. They expected more from long-term relationships. 77 "We eat a lot more spaghetti. Basically we've tightened our belt. You try to reorganize your lifestyle and establish a new comfort zone but it isn't easy". Angelica's marriage was in difficulty at one point which resulted in a separation. They were able to work it out but there are still tense moments. No. 9 -4M§rilyn At 37 and divorced, Marilyn finds it very difficult to deal with the fact that she has had to move back home and live with her parents in order to make ends meet. Marilyn worked for 16 years in a variety of jobs which have ranged from clerical to self-employment. She was earning $40,000 a year at her peak. Consequently, the past two years of unemployment have been unlike anything else she has ever experienced. Marilyn remembers being unemployed on three previous occasions but they were for brief periods. She also recalls times when she had two part-time jobs while going to school. "Now, I can't get one either part time or full time. I feel like a total failure in my personal and business life. My self esteem has really taken a beating". She is under medical care for eating disorders, insomnia, bad nerves, and she has started smoking. Marilyn believes all of these problems are stress related. Marilyn completed one year of college and would not hesitate going back to school if she could get funding. 78 While on General Welfare Assistance, she is not allowed to be in school full time and this upsets her. While I'm on social assistance, I can't go to school. I have to be looking for work. I've been told I'd be better off if I was pregnant or had a kid. I get $659 a month right now ($7,900 a year). If I had a kid, I'd get $1,400. It's really discouraging. I think it adds to society's burden keeping people like me on welfare and not in school. Marilyn also believes her age works against her. At 37, she believes she is too old for some programs for the unemployed which are geared for people under the age of 24. In other instances, she believes she has been turned down because she is overqualified. When she was interviewed for a job which paid $8.00 an hour (approximately $16,000 annually), she jumped at the chance to take it. Marilyn was told she would not be satisfied in the long term and would likely quit. She offered to sign a one year contract but to no avail. If I could get a full-time job at minimum wage, I'd take it in a minute. I know I could supplement it with Avon or other things that would top it up. I just need a start. No. 10 - Kenny Kenny is 31 and lives with his wife in their mortgaged home. They have no children. After graduating from college with a Business Administration diploma in 1984, Kenny started working for a large distributorship in Toronto. Over a period of eight years, Kenny changed jobs twice by choice with no periods of unemployment. For three years 79 prior to lay-off, he had been working at the local paper mill for approximately $20 an hour. He has not been employed for the past 18 months. A minimum wage job looks good right now. Although the lay off was expected, Kenny was "Disappointed. Angry. Depressed. Surprised. All of those things. I thought I might be laid off for the better part of the winter but not for this long". Kenny's wife works part time and they stick to a very tight budget. Their combined income was approximately $65,000 a year. This has been reduced to $15,000 and has impacted on their lifestyle. "We've always watched what we buy but we're more careful now. We certainly don't buy prime rib. We look for the buys and the specials". No. 11 - Peter Peter is 35, married, and has two children under the age of 11. As a construction worker, he was accustomed to seasonal unemployment. This meant he collected unemployment insurance during the winter months but each spring he would be working again. This lasted for 15 years but now things are different. Peter has not worked for 18 months and he is receiving General Welfare Assistance of $1,512 per month ($18,144 annually). This is a considerable drop from $60,000 a year. He would be very happy making half that amount right now. 80 Peter has his high school diploma but school was not a positive experience for him. I never did very well in school. I never enjoyed it at all. I can't spell worth beans. They pushed me along. That bothers me. That bothers me when I have to go fill out a resume and my wife isn't there to help me spell a word. Even though his memories of school are not good, Peter feels he would have a different attitude now because he is older and would be more serious about his education. He would like to take some computer courses. However, finances would hold him back. "City welfare doesn't pay for education for people like me. If I was a single parent, I would get more help for schooling". No. 12 - Rigk Rick is 28, single, has a high school diploma and worked steadily for seven years as a truck driver and later as a papermaker. He has not been working for the past two years and is receiving financial support through General Welfare Assistance. My income before losing my job was about $40,000 a year. Now I make $637 a month (7,644 annually) through general assistance. Recently I filed for personal bankruptcy. I have spiralled into the depths of hell. It wasn't a happy day for me to finally have to admit defeat. In the past, I was able to get a job but now I can't get anything at any level. When he is not sending out resumes, Rick is spending time volunteering with theatre groups, coaching children's hockey, and going fishing. He has a need to keep busy. 81 Like others in the study group, Rick is angry that he is unable to go to school full time and remain on General Welfare Assistance. Social assistance will not support me while I'm in school and I think that stinks. They will pay me to stay home but not to be in school. They are paying me a pittance as it is but that money would be better spent helping to educate me. I think the percentage of people who are on welfare and want to stay there is small. Personally, I can't see why it isn't mandatory that people who are on welfare either be in school or be made to do volunteer work. Rick also feels that information is hard to come by and that the three levels of government, municipal, provincial, and federal, play the "shuffle game". If one group can't help you, they send you to the other one. This is very frustrating to Rick. "I've been sloughed off, pushed aside, given beautiful stories of how things will open up soon. As far as I'm concerned, they're just making the numbers add up so they look busy". SUMMARY OF THE STUDY GROUP Although this researcher did not set out to study unemployed workers who were in receipt of social assistance, that is what resulted. Nine of the twelve were supported through General Welfare Assistance or Provincial Family Benefits while the remaining three were supported by employed spouses. This is discussed fully later in this chapter under socioeconomic status. 82 Virtually all of the participants had attempted to find work through the newspapers, friends, and former associates. Two made extensive use of the out-of-town newspapers carried by the library in an effort to search for jobs elsewhere. Only one was aware of a career center in Sault Ste. Marie because he had been sent there by a job developer from the social assistance office. However, even this participant was not aware that the center provided assistance with career counselling and job search techniques. All of the participants were interested in retraining or additional education but cited lack of financial support as the primary reason for not doing so. As one person put it "The bills don't stop coming in just because you're out of a job and going back to school. I need income support to _go to school and to feed my wife and kids too." The other important factor for all of the participants was that there be some level of guarantee that there would be a job at the end of any training or retraining. Fifty per cent of the group had at least one year of post- secondary education. All but one of the balance of the group had graduated from high school. It was important for them to have a purpose for going back to school and they were looking for someone to give them guidance as to where the jobs were going to be and what they needed to do educationally to get one. Two of the participants shared 83 some negative experiences about their time in school and they were hesitant to put themselves in that situation again. Two of the participants were single parents who needed child care support. One did not want to leave her children with anyone but wanted to access education in her own home or on her own terms. She said she had looked into taking courses through correspondence or through the educational television channel but found them too expensive. One participant wanted a more practical approach to education. "Why should I go through so many hoops? I want what I need to get me a job. I don't need all those other things that young kids take like psychology and that kind of stuff." BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBJECTS Of the twelve participants, eight were male while the remaining four were female. This distribution of unemployed was somewhat different from the provincial averages for 1992 which, according to Statistics Canada, were 60 percent for unemployed males versus 40 percent for unemployed females. Table 4, page 85, provides an overview of the group's work history. Table 5, page 86, presents the group's periods of employment and unemployment. Nine of the participants were between the ages of 31 - 35 while the remaining 3 were equally split among the other three age groups, 25-30, 36-40, and 41-44. Eight 84 participants were married, 2 were single, and 2 were divorced. Nine participants reported one or more dependents. Seven participants owned their homes although they still had mortgages to pay. Three participants rented accomodations and two lived at home. Both participants who were living at home did so because of economic conditions. They moved back after being laid off from work in larger centers in Ontario. They reported the cost of living to be 40 to 50 percent higher than in smaller centers, especially for rent and transportation. They felt they had no other choice but to ask if they could return to their parental homes. Both reported being on General Welfare Assistance and finding it difficult living with parents. The loss of privacy and independence was very difficult. The house rules left behind as young adults resurfaced once they were back. One woman said "My mother thinks I'm 7 instead of 37. She still tells me to put my hat and gloves on and wants to know where I'm going, who I'm going with, and what time I'll be back. I haven't had to do that for almost 20 years." 85 Table 4 Group's Work History Variable N Percentage* No. of years employed full time 7 - 10 6 50.0 11 - 13 0 -- 14 - 16 4 33.3 17 - 19 l 8.3 20 - 22 0 -— 23 or more 1 12 8.3 99.9 Length of time most recently unemployed 12 months 1 8.3 13 - 18 months 3 25.0 19 - 24 months 8 12 66.7 100.0 No. of times previously unemployed None 2 16.7 1 0 -- 2 4 33.3 3 4 33.3 4 l 8.3 5 0 -- more than 5 1 12 8.3 99.9 *Percentages do not total 100 due to rounding 86 Table 5 Group's Employment and Unemployment History Years Employed Length of Time Full Time* Unemployed 1 14 12 months 2 19 15 months 3 10 17 months 4 15 13 months 5 25 16 months 6 10 16 months 7 7 16 months 8 10 18 months 9 16 24 months 10 8 18 months 11 15 18 months 12 7 24 months *Median = 13 years 87 PAST WORK HISTORY Leibowitz and Lea (1985) suggest that most people will have two or three career changes in their lifetime. "The once-and-forever career choice is becoming a myth due to rapid technological, organizational, and personal realities" (p.xi). "Employment and Immigration Canada said that Canadians now entering the labor force will likely change jobs five to seven times during their working years compared with two or three of their parents" (MacLean's, March 15, 1993, p. 31). One participant said "My dad worked for 46 years in the mines until he retired. He was a tradesman so I figured I had a job for life too when I got my machinist's papers. Never thought it would be any different." My father retired from an organization where he had worked for almost 30 years....That wasn't all that unusual a situation for people who retired in the 19605 and 703. They tended to stay with an organization for many years. It's different today (Farr, p. 2). The study group had a minimum of seven and a maximum of 25 years' work history (median of 13 years) and might have expected to have a job for life as the generation before them did. Six of the participants had worked full time between seven and ten years prior to being laid off permanently, four between 14 - 16 years, and one had worked for 25 years. Ten had lost at least one job before but virtually all of them reported the current experience to be different. A 32-year-old male with 14 years' work history, a spouse and 88 four children under six said "I've been laid off before but this is the worst. I wouldn't throw a dog out there right now. It's rough." A 34-year-old single university graduate who was forced to move back home to live said "I've been through the system four times in ten years but never for this long. I'm versatile and am a hard worker but that's not enough anymore. It's very frustrating and depressing." A single parent of three young boys finds it difficult to be a mother and work at the same time. "I don't mind the hard work or long hours but I need to find work that will let me be home with my kids when they need me. I've always been able to find work before but now it's really hard to get in anyplace." COMPARING SCHLOSSBERG'S MODEL TO THE STUDY GROUP Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transitions was described in Chapter 2 and the first part of this chapter has described the study group in some detail. The three major sets of factors in Schlossberg's model are repeated here for convenience. They are as follows: 1. The characteristics of the particular transition, 2. The characteristics of pre- and posttransition environments, and 3. The characteristics of the individual experiencing the transition. What follows is a comparison of the study group to each set of factors in Schlossberg's model. 89 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICULAR TRANSITION This part of Schlossberg's model consists of a set of seven common variables: role change (gain or loss), affect (positive or negative), source (internal or external), timing (on-time or off-time), onset (gradual or sudden), duration (permanent, temporary, uncertain), and degree of stress. Input for six of the eight variables (role change, affect, timing, onset, and duration) was obtained from the participants during the interviews. The interview guide had been prepared in such a way that each of the variables would be addressed. The responses were later tabulated by the researcher and the results are shown on Table 6, page 90. The input for source came from the instrument developed by Liverant, Rotter, and Crown which measures internal/external locus of control and is described in Chapter 2. Stress scores were a result of the instrument developed by Holmes and Rahe which is also described in Chapter 2. Each of Schlossberg's variables will be reported on separately. 90 Table 6 Characteristics of the Transition Variables Role No. Change Affect Source* Timing Onset Duration Stress** 1 X NEG I-10 Off G U 190 2 X NEG I-8 Off 8 P 255 3 X NEG I-7 Off G P 301 4 X NEG I-10 Off G U 263 5 O NEG I-7 Off G P 130 6 O NEG I-8 Off G P 145 7 O NEG I-1O Off 8 P 154 8 X NEG I-9 Off S P 429 9 X NEG I-6 Off S P 651 10 X NEG I-5 Off G U 210 11 X NEG I-lO Off G U 191 12 X NEG I-6 Off G P 230 X=Experienced role change *Schlossberg uses the term O=Did not experience "Source" as well as Int./Ext. role change Locus of Control. Using Rotter's scale: NEG=Negative 1 - 12 = Internal POS=Positive 13 - 23 = External G=Gradual **Scores as measured by S=Sudden Holmes & Rahe Events Scale. Cumulative scores > 150 P=Permanent indicate crisis levels U=Uncertain 91 1. Role Chenge: Gein or Loss Nine participants reported changes in their roles. Eight of these were males. One male and one female reported a significant change in their roles because they were 34 and 37 years old respectively and had to move home with parents. After earning sufficient money to comfortably support themselves, their income had been reduced from over $50,000 and $40,000 respectively per year to approximately $4,800 and $7,900 per year from General Welfare Assistance. The major change for the remaining eight males were their involvement with child care and housework. They did more of both. Three participants reported no significant change in their roles. One male reported he lived in a country setting and he was very involved with the outdoors. He found enough work in his surroundings to keep him busy all the time. The other two participants were females who, although they reported significant lifestyle changes, did not experience changes in their roles as wives and mothers. 2. Affect: Pgeitive or Negative All of the participants experienced negative affects from losing their jobs. One man who had worked for 14 years with three brief periods of unemployment said: I was very upset and angry. There were a lot of four-letter words when the kids weren't around. I was angry to lose a job that paid that well. I never figured it would be so hard to find work again. Even in the last recession, I could always plant trees. There was always a way to earn money 92 but this time, there are no extra jobs. That was the most frightening thing. Wondering what we were going to do with four kids now. This participant's sole source of income was approximately $20,000 annually from General Welfare Assistance to support a family of six. His earnings had been about $32,000 per year. When asked if he had a reservation or minimum rate he would look for in his next job, he said: I was making real good money at $15 an hour. Some guys were making $30 with overtime. I'd look at $12, even $10 now. I need to have something to start now. I don't tell my friends I'm on assistance. It's always had that stigma and it always seemed that if you're on assistance, you don't want to work. 3. Sourceie Internal or External Schlossberg's model suggests that an ...individual adapts more easily to transitions in which the source is internal....The issue here is one of perceived control over one's life" (p. 9). Someone who plans for retirement is likely to adapt more easily than someone who is forced into an early retirement by ill health or by an employer. Holmes and Werbel (1992) report the results of a longitudinal study of 186 unemployed adults which measured, among other things, locus of control. "Rotter's (1966) concept of locus of control is the most well-known formulation of generalized beliefs about control. People with internal locus of control believe life events are contingent on their own behavior" (p. 23). The results of 93 their study indicated that "Individuals who became reemployed within 3 months of job loss were more "internal" in locus of control...than individuals who remained unemployed" (p. 22). Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, described in Chapter 2, measures from 1 to 23 with 12 being the center point. People who are "internal" can measure from 1 which is extremely internal, to 12 which is hovering around the "external" range. Very external people would be at the opposite range or 23. One interesting finding was that all participants measured between 5 and 10 on Rotter's scale making them all internal in this measure of control. All had been unemployed between 12 and 24 months. The findings in this study, therefore, do not support this part of Schlossberg's model since all participants had been unemployed more than three months and were internally controlled. 4. Ii_ing: On-Time or Off-Time Whether one looks at Neugarten's social theory of events or Schlossberg's suggestion that society still holds on to age relevancy, this transition would have to be seen as "off time". Eleven of the participants had completed at least high school. All of them had worked full time for a minimum of seven years and expected to have gainful, full- time employment. 94 One participant was a tradesman like his father before him. His father retired after 46 years with one employer and this participant expected no less. This was a common theme throughout the interviews. 5. On-set: Gradual or Sudden Eight participants expected to be laid off due to a general decline in the economy. One such incident was reported as follows: "It was expected. The rumour mill at the Tube Mill is always working so you expect it but when it does come, it's always a blow." For another worker in another organization, it was sudden. "It was really sudden. Everything was working fine and one day there was a big meeting telling us about the budget cut. There was no more funding. They laid 40 people off." Even though the majority of the group studied expected the lay off, this researcher does not believe the circumstances to be "expected" in the same way as postulated by Neugarten. She looks at expected transitions to be along the lines of planned events like getting married, having children, or retiring. 6. Duretion: Permenent, Temporery, Uncertain Eight participants expected to be laid off but expected to be called back initially. As weeks turned into months, they no longer expected to return to work and considered the lay off to be a permanent one. The remaining four were 95 uncertain if there was any hope for returning to their previous positions. I saw it coming. The writing was on the wall. I expected there would be a downturn because the economy was slowing down and Algoma Steel was in trouble but I thought I'd still be able to make a living. I never expected to end up on social assistance. Even my brother doesn't know I'm on welfare. I don't want anybody to know. 7. Degree of Stress The final factor in this set of characteristics is the degree of stress one is under when experiencing transition. Holmes and his colleagues defined a life crisis "as any clustering of life change events whose individual values summed to 150 Life Change Units (LCU) or more in one year. They found a direct relationship between the magnitude of the life crisis and the risk of health change (Moos & Tsu, 1976, p. 12). Using Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) sometimes referred to as Life Events and Stress Scale (Appendix 2, p. 172), it was identified that ten of the participants were experiencing very high levels of stress ranging from 154 to 651 Life Change Units. People with total scores of 150 or more are deemed to be in crisis. The remaining two were also fairly high at 130 and 145. The scores were calculated by adding up the numerical values of life events identified by each participant. If a participant reported going through several of life events in one year, the scores were higher. Table 7, page 97, is an adaptation of the original scale reported in Table 6 and referred to in Appendix 1, page 168. Table 7 lists the 96 number of times an event was reported by the study group. For example, one reported being divorced, two reported marital separation, three reported death of a close family member, etc. When asked about changes in health, the most common ones reported were weight gain due to reduced physical activity and not being able to afford to do many of the things done before. As one person put it: I've put on the beef. I've never weighed more than 180 in my life. Now I'm almost 200 and climbing. I don't feel good. I can't afford to join the Y anymore so it's hard to stay fit. I always worked hard and that kept my weight down. Another person said: I get a lot of heartburn and headaches. I suffer from nausea and tension. I don't sleep like I used to either and I always feel restless. I'm tied to home because I don't have money to do anything. There's tension because of finances between me and my wife, especially when people start calling you for money and stuff like that. It never happened to me before. I feel I've lost control of my life and what I can do. A single parent of three said: I tie myself up in knots worrying. I try to stay calm and tell myself that something will come up but I can't seem to get out of this. When I get really nervous, I lose my hair. I go completely bald. I've done that to myself twice. I've lost it completely and have had to wear wigs. 97 Table 7 Reported Incidents of Life Change Units No. of Times Event Reported Divorce ..................................... Marital separation .......................... Death of close family member ................ Personal injury or illness .................. Marital reconciliation ...................... Change in health of family member ........... Sex difficulties ............................ Business readjustment ....................... Change in financial state ................... Death of close friend ....................... Change to different line of work ............ Increased arguing with spouse ............... Mortgage over $10,000 ....................... Foreclosure of mortgage or loan ............. Change in responsibilities at work .......... Son or daughter leaving home ................ Trouble with in-laws ........................ Outstanding personal achievement ............ Spouse begins or stops work ................. Begin or end school ......................... Change in living conditions ................. Revision of personal habits ................. Trouble with boss ........................... Change in work hours or conditions .......... Change in residence ......................... Change in recreation ........................ Change in church activities ................. Change in social activities ................. Mortgage or loan less than $10,000 .......... Change in sleeping habits ................... Change in family reunions/get togethers ..... Change in eating habits ..................... Vacation .................................... Christmas ................................... Minor violations of the law ................. H H NHmwmubNmNNNhHUh-bukNNI-JNN\l-bobl-‘NNMAI-“NOON!“ Adapted and reprinted from Journel of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 2, Holmes, T.H. & Rahe, R. H., The Social Rcadjustment Rating Scale, 213-218, copyright 1967, with kind permission of Elsevier Science Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington 0X5 1GB, UK. 98 Changes in lifestyles were reported by all the participants. "We used to go out once a week. We'd take the kids out for pizza or do something. Now we can't afford to do anything. You're in the house constantly." Another change. "Before we used to bowl on Sunday. We'd have a couple of beers and have lunch over there. That would run you $20. Now we bowl, my wife brings a thermos of coffee, I bring a can of pop and we eat at home before we leave." Another perspective is brought in by a father who said: We're fortunate because our kids are small. They're not at the point where they have designer jeans and they kind of like having me around. But I'd like to set an example for them too. I try to explain to them I'm looking for a job. It's stressful. CHARACTERISTICS OF PRETRANSITION AND POSTTRANSITION ENVIRONMENT The second set of factors in Schlossberg's model deals with the environment both before and after the transition. She defines environment broadly and includes three aspects: (1) Interpersonal support systems 2) Institutional supports, and 3) Physical setting. 1. Interpersonal Support Systems Schlossberg discusses a study of white-collar workers who received support from colleagues and supervisors, consequently, they were believed to weather some stress relatively well. In another study it was found that 99 Factory workers who had been laid off from their jobs found that stress-related physiological changes (elevation of cholesterol and serum uric acid levels) were more likely to occur among those workers who received little support from their family, friends, and neighbors (1981, p. 10). Schlossberg draws on the work of Hill (1965) and Lipman-Blumens (1976) which points to the importance of the family unit in the adaptation process. They focused on family integration and adaptability and suggest that "the bonds of coherence and unity running through family life, of which common interests, affection, and a sense of economic interdependence are perhaps the most prominent" (p. 11). An individual's network of friends can be both stressful and supportive. Because it is an important social support system, it can become stressful if an individual loses that network as a result of a transition like a divorce. It's not only a matter of dividing one's assets but, in many instances, one's friends. Loss of a job can bring similar losses of support. One participant interviewed said: This is the first time in 15 years I didn't buy a golf membership. I made contacts on the golf course and that's gone too. It's a Catch 22 situation. Another comment: I can't afford to go to the Greyhound hockey games anymore so my networking has been curtailed. This is very stressful because I am no longer part of the business scene. I'm out of circulation and you know the saying-~out of sight, out of mind. 100 A further comment: My wife's supportive. Friends don't come around anymore. They seem to leave you like a sinking ship, some of them anyway. It's like you don't have the money to go out and do things we used to. It's like you're a doormat. In a way it's good because you know who your friends really are and when things turn around, we'll be polite but know not to get involved anymore. Not bitter or anything. Just smarter. Readers are referred to Table 8, page 101, for a listing of support systems accessed by participants. Table 8 also lists the scores registered on the locus of control scale and the stress scale discussed previously. Participant numbers 2 and 4 reported they preferred to handle things themselves and did not like relying on anyone else. Their stress scores were 255 and 263 respectively. A score of 150, according to Holmes and Rahe, is at a crisis level. This might assume that people who internalize their problems may be more prone to stress. One of these self-reliant participants had this to say: When I have a major problem, I grab my fishing gear and take off. I need to spend time by myself, sit around and think it out. I keep to myself. It drives my wife crazy because she doesn't know what I'm thinking half the time. That's the way I deal with things. The other person who liked to deal with situations by himself said: I'm usually the kind of guy who doesn't say much. I just keep it inside. It's my personality. That's the kind of guy I am. I usually don't talk much about that kind of stuff. 101 Table 8 Support Systems Accessed by Participants gift. Self Spouse Friends Family Instit. A* B** 1 X X X 10 190 2 X 8 255 3 X 7 301 4 X 10 263 5 X X X 7 130 6 X X X 8 145 7 X X X 10 154 8 X X 9 429 9 X X 6 651 10 X X X 5 210 11 X X X 10 191 12 X X 6 230 * Scores on Locus of Control Scale **Scores on Stress Scale 102 The other two who reported a preference for independence were participant numbers 5 and 11 (also males) but they did include two other sources of support. These two registered stress scores of 130 and 191 respectively. One might infer from this that additional support systems reduce the levels of stress, however, others who reported they had the support of friends and family had higher readings on the scale. Five reported spouses as their primary support system and at least one other support; nine reported friends; seven reported family; and three reported institutional support (church, Alcoholics Anonymous, counselling). Six of the interviews were conducted in the participants' own homes. All six had spouses and four of them were present during the interview which might infer a level of support. The other two spouses were working. Participants who reported staying in touch with former colleagues for a while after they became unemployed indicated that did not last very long. Some of the reasons given were a sense of not fitting in anymore, or feeling like an outsider. As time passed, they saw themselves as being out of touch with what was happening in the workplace and felt like outsiders. Two of the participants shared that they were jealous of those still working. They also reported hearing "gloom and doom all the time" so that meetings were always negative. This made participants feel 103 even more distressed and they stopped joining former co- workers for coffee. 2. lgetitutionel Supporte When asked if their former employer had provided any assistance or support, ten said no, one said yes, and the other participant was uncertain. One participant accessed a religious institution for support. She was involved with the Baptist church, its choir, and its activities. Another was part of Alcoholics Anonymous and had been for all of her adult life. A third person was receiving counselling assistance to deal with several transitions in addition to job loss. The potential benefits of institutional supports became clearer to Schlossberg when she and Leibowitz conducted a study with government employees at NASA which was referred to earlier in this chapter. Although they were initially shattered and shocked about having lost their jobs, proper interventions turned these feelings into favorable ones. It would appear that the majority of the group studied were left to fend for themselves. 3. Physical Setting Schlossberg suggests more research is required in this area but some work already completed points to the need for people to be comfortable in their physical setting. Her definition includes "climate and weather, urban or rural 104 location, neighborhood, living arrangements, and workplace" (1981 p.11). She goes on to say that "All these factors may contribute to stress, sense of well-being, and general outlook and thus may play a role in adaptation to transition" (p. 12). It was interesting that the person who scored lowest in Holmes and Rahe's stress event test (130), was moderately internal (7) using Rotter's scale. He considered himself to be at the final phase (integration) of Hopson's adaptation model, was an individual who emphasised several times throughout the interview that-he was happy being able to live independently and be his own boss. Some guys look at the Steel Plant as being some_ kind of parent or provider. I don't look at it that way. I'm here for now. You hire me. I'm available whenever you see fit or whenever I see fit. Otherwise you go your way and I go mine. My life does not evolve around Algoma Steel. I have so many other qualifications. I rely on nobody. In the past I've been able to find work and I have confidence in my ability to be able to do that again if I need to. This participant lives in a country setting on Lake Superior, about 40 kilometres from the city. He said he was not on social assistance of any kind. His wife worked and earned $1,200 per month. He picked up odd jobs whenever the opportunity presented itself. Because his home is far from fire services, he thought his insurance premiums were too high so he cancelled and does without coverage. We're not really socially active people so that hasn't really made a difference. Anything I do outdoors doesn't cost a lot of money so I handle things there pretty good. I don't drink or smoke so I don't worry there either. 105 Schlossberg suggests that the most important dimensions of this category are "comfort, privacy, and aesthetics". Perhaps this participant is an instance of the case. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL The third major set of factors to be considered in this model involve the individual him/herself. Schlossberg recognizes there are many individual characteristics but the ones she focuses on for her purposes are as follows: (1) Psychosocial competence (2) Sex (and sex role identification), (3) Age (and life stages) (4) State of health (5) Race-ethnicity (6) Socioeconomic status, (7) Value orientation, and (8) Previous experience with a transition of a similar nature. Each of these characteristics is described separately here. 1. Peychoepciel Competence Recognizing there are many terms and constructs which come under this heading, Schlossberg chose to restrict her definition to include (a) self-attitudes, (b) world attitudes, and (c) behavioral attitudes. One of the measures under self-attitudes is locus of control. All participants were internally controlled using 106 Rotter's scale. This was reported earlier in this chapter and will not be repeated here except to say that people who regard themselves to be internally controlled generally believe there is a cause and effect relationship to their actions. The belief is reversed for externally controlled individuals. World attitudes focuses on optimism, which can also be thought of as hope, and moderate trust. Moderate trust is suggested because too much or too little can reduce a person's overall effectiveness. Schlossberg reports Chiriboga and Lowenthal as two researchers who view hope "as an important psychological resource, connected with goal-directed striving or simply with maintenance of the status quo" (p. 12). They perceive hope as a key factor in adaptation. Although questions were not aimed specifically at trust and hope, words like betrayed, trapped, frustrated, and depressed, were often used by the participants. That is not to say that they all lost hope but they appeared to lose trust in a system on which they had come to rely for long- term employment as had historically been the case. Behavioral attitudes focus in on several areas but primarily on goal setting and active participation in seeking out and using information. This information- gathering process should then be used to make plans in pursuit of goals. 107 All participants reported seeking employment in traditional modes such as newspapers, employment centers, former colleagues, friends and family. Two reported more extensive research involving out-of—town newspapers and applications for employment. One participant reported sending out 300-400 resumes over the previous year but this was too costly for him to continue. He also had a box of things packed and ready to go anywhere he could find suitable employment. One major stumbling block reported most frequently by participants were homes and families they preferred not to leave. However, they said they would leave if a good job was guaranteed elsewhere. Concerns were expressed with having to sell homes in a poor housing market and the very real possibility of losing what little equity they had built up. Another barrier was their inability to leave the city to look for work elsewhere due to a lack of funds to support their job search. When asked if they had participated in job clubs, community organizations for the unemployed, career centers or other similar activities, there was a general lack of knowledge about these services. This might lead to one of two conclusions. Either these organizations did a poor job of getting their message out or these participants did not make any serious attempts to seek out the information. 108 2. Sex (and sex-role identificetion) Schlossberg admits that sex and adaptation to transition are complex areas and that more research is required. However, she does make the following point. Many observers have suggested that, because in our culture men are taught to hide emotion and deny problems whereas women are given greater freedom to express their feelings, men present a more favorable picture with respect to mental health. Despite appearances, however, women's greater capacity for intimacy and mutuality may make it easier for them to adapt to certain transitions (1981, p. 13). She believes that, in many respects, it is more meaningful to talk about sex-role identification than sex as a consideration in adaptation to transition. Men and women's ability to adapt may be influenced by the norms by which they have been socialized and the extent to which they have internalized these norms. Consequently, a woman may find herself at a disadvantage if she fits the female stereotype as one who is helpless, passive, and dependent. According to Schlossberg, men and women experience different kinds of transitions. Men experience transitions in relation to work and events in their own lives. Women, on the other hand, experience transitions in relation to children or other family members. For example, illness of a family member could result in a transition for the woman and the way she relates to her assumptive world. As this researcher conducted her study, she did not find a hesitancy on the part of either sex to share personal detail, particularly when the participants were assured of 109 anonymity, confidentiality, and the fact that there were no other researchers involved. Some of the interviews lasted longer than the prearranged hour because the participants had so much to share. One reason could be that they felt they had a captive audience and, even though they were advised to the contrary, they may have thought this researcher could somehow use influence for their employment. 3. Age (end Life Stege) Much has been written about this topic but Schlossberg points out that most experts agree that chronological age is relatively unimportant compared to biological age, psychological age, social age, and functional age. When personality considerations are factored in the issue becomes even more complex. A further complication is that the aging process is itself a series of individual adaptations. Puberty and menopause are two examples of biological and physiological changes. Another consideration is the timing of the transition. As Neugarten points out, social clocks guide our lives and if events are "off time or out of sync", life is likely to ~be more stressful. Participants of this study were between the ages of 28 and 43. All were at a stage in life where they felt reasonably assured of long-term work. Even though ten participants had experienced unemployment at least once 110 before, none had expected to remain unemployed as.long as they were. It would be reasonable to assume that the transition being studied was "off time" and therefore more stressful as evidenced by the scores on the Holmes and Rahe scale discussed earlier in this chapter (see Table 6, page 90). 4. _tete of Heelth One's state of health affects how he/she adapts to a transition. 111 health itself is a transition and how one adapts to it depends on the individual's coping abilities among other things. Health has a subjective as well as an objective aspect. For instance, Shamas and his associates, comparing self-ratings of health with degree of actual incapacity, classified people as "health pessimists," "health optimists," and "health realists" (1981, p. 14). None of the participants reported any major health problems except for a high degree of stress discussed previously. Weight gain, heartburn, headaches, turning into "shutins" and difficulty with sleeping were the most common changes reported in health. One participant said he started smoking out of boredom, something he had not done in years. For some people, stress was elevated when they were faced by inquiring friends. Although a question such as "What are you doing these days?" may appear to be routine, almost mechanical, it is upsetting for people who do not have a meaningful response. One person reported feeling guilty because he could not say that he was working. 111 Another change reported frequently was the change made in purchasing food which may also be related to one's health. Participants reported they were more selective in what they purchased now eliminating such things as junk food. I love milk but it costs too much so I drink water except for the kids. The wife is always complaining the shelves are empty. She just got her income tax back and she spent $300 stocking them. We're not starving but our spending habits have changed. I don't buy the cereal that's $4.00 a package. I don't buy Carnation milk. If I buy any, it's the no-name brands. We gypsy shop all over the place to save money. 5. RacelEthnicity The criteria for participation in this study was presented at the opening of this chapter. No questions were asked on race or ethnicity. Everyone interviewed was Caucasian. However, this was not by design. 6. Socioeconqmic Stetus Six of the interviews were conducted in the participants' homes at their request. Questions with respect to economic conditions were restricted to income levels both before and after losing employment, lifestyle changes, and changes in spending habits. The only other measure of socioeconomic status was this researcher's observation of the homes visited. Although one might question the subjectivity of these observations, none other is available since no one else was 112 involved in the interviewing. None of the homes visited would be classified as middle class. They were very modest, very clean, and orderly. One might also suggest that this was due to the fact that interviews were planned and the visual order was for the benefit of the researcher. However, there were other factors. For example, homes had crafts proudly displayed on walls. When this researcher commented, she was told "the wife" did it or some similar comment. Participants were quick to point out that time was no object so they did as much as they could around the house not only to make it more attractive but also to occupy their time. Some even tried their hand at things they had not attempted before like carpentry and wiring. The only constraint was money to do things like paint or modernize facilities. "Last year I totally redid my mother's back yard out of sheer boredom. It looked spectacular. It should. I spent 40 hours a week working on it." All homes had television sets. Two had VCR units. Furnishings were modest but comfortable. Of the twelve people interviewed, three relied primarily on spousal income. One spouse had full-time employment although he too had lost a better paying job. The other two spouses were employed on a part-time basis. Eight relied on General Welfare Assistance. Only one of these had ever been on assistance before and only for a three-week period until he found new employment. The other 113 person was on provincial family benefits which supports single parents. None reported having any savings they could draw on because these had been exhausted earlier. When one looks at income levels before job loss and the current level of income for the study group in Table 9, page 114, some interesting facts surface. For example, what was once the bottom of the income ladder became the top of the current income scale. Where previously all but one person earned more than $40,000 per year, now all participants had incomes of under $35,000. Two-thirds of those had a family income of under $20,000. When asked if they had a reservation or minimum wage they would be expecting on their next job, all the participants interviewed had revised their expectations downward considerably. Six said minimum wage would be acceptable for now which at the time this study was done was $6.35 per hour for most jobs in Ontario. This translated into a gross salary of $13,208 per year for a 40-hour week. All of the participants wanted to have a fresh start with a new job and a desire to be independent and off social assistance. One male said he lied about being on the system because of the stigma he believed to be attached to being on social assistance. 114 Table 9 ' Income Before Job Loss and Current Income Before Job Loss Current Income Income Category % Freq. % $10,000 - 14,999 0 4 33.3 $15,000 - 19,999 0 4 33.3 $20,000 - 24,999 0 2 16.7 $25,000 - 29,999 0 1 8.3 $30,000 - 34,999 8.3 l 8.3 $35,000 - 39,999 0 0 0 $40,000 - 44,999 41.7 0 0 $45,000 - 49,999 16.7 0 0 $50,000 or more 33.3 0 0 Totals 100.0 12 99.9* *Percentages do not total 100 due to rounding 115 The other six said they had to have more income than they were currently receiving from social assistance because a new employer was not likely to provide similar benefits such as prescription drugs. This was especially important for families with young children. One of the participants had this to say. Sometimes I think we made too much under the union. That's one of the reasons we're not working. I make $19.50 an hour when I'm working. For a laborer, that's good money but I wonder if we're really worth it. 7. yelue Orientetion Schlossberg suggests that one's ability to adapt to transitions is influenced by basic values and beliefs. People often turn to their religion to help them through difficult times, however, religious belief can also be a stressor. For example, someone with a Protestant background would likely have a strong work ethic and forced unemployment would add to the other stressors associated with being out of work. Two of the participants reported involvement with their church and volunteered that they looked to their faith to help them through their crises. That is not to say that the other members of the group did not have some ties to a religion but simply that it was not an issue which came up. 116 8. Previous Experience with a Transition of e Similar Nature Schlossberg reports there is general agreement by experts who believe that if someone has successfully adapted to a transition once they are likely to repeat that success in a similar transition. "The past experience has provided both constructive attitudes about the event and behavioral competencies that were reinforced by the success experience" (p. 15). This statement was not corroborated by the participants in this study. Ten participants had lost a job at least twice before. One construction worker reported being laid off seven times in 15 years but never as long as this last time. He said "It's a sick feeling. It doesn't matter how many times you're laid off, it's still a sick feeling, especially these days. You never know when your next job's coming. It's constantly gnawing at you." Of those who had experienced unemployment before, the major difference reported this time was the inability to find new work. I've been laid off before but this is the worst. I don't like to say it's hit bottom because then it sounds as if you've lost hope and you should never lose hope. Things will turn around but it's going to take time. Another commented: I find the job market has been turned upside down. There's a hell of a lot more competition for entry level positions than ever before. I can never remember applying for so many jobs. I must have sent out 300-400 resumes over the last two years. 117 That costs money too. There are so few jobs available that when they advertise, they get flooded. Other differences reported were age discrimination and reverse discrimination by some of the male participants. "The first words out of the interviewer's mouth was that they expected someone younger. I'm 34. They expected someone 21 or 22. I had spent 10 years doing exactly what they wanted so when I didn't get the job, I was shocked." Discrimination due to overqualification was also reported. Recently I was turned down for a job because I was overqualified. I was surprised. I thought they would take the most qualified candidate. Obviously if I applied for the job I was prepared to take it. The pay was only $14,000 a year to start. That would have been a big raise from what I get on welfare. All of the participants reported they were actively seeking employment. They used various means which included looking through job ads, visiting employment centers, applying directly to employers, networking, contacting former co-workers, and going to the library to research out- of-town jobs before applying. ADAPTATION TO TRANSITIONS Having described the main characteristics of Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition, attention is turned now to the adaptation Process itself. Schlossberg sees adaptation as movement through phases. For example, a new mother is totally 118 preoccupied with her new role but as time passes, she integrates this transition into her lifestyle. Schlossberg attempts to explain why some people adapt more quickly to transitions than others and why the same individual adapts differently over his/her lifetime. Ease of adaptation to a transition depends on one's perceived and/or actual balance of resources to deficits in terms of the transition itself, the pre-post environment, and the individual's sense of competency, well-being and health (p. 8). In addition, she suggests that one's past experiences influence adaptation. Adaptation depends in part on the degree of similarity or difference in one's assumptions about self and in one's environment (especially the interpersonal support system network of relationships) before and after the transition (9. 8). Each of the characteristics of Schlossberg's model and the components which support them were dealt with at length earlier in this chapter, therefore, they will not be repeated here. Schlossberg suggests that an individual moves into a transition state if the crisis results in change which would include attempts to deal with the upset. The end of the transition state is evidenced by a life organization and a stable new identity. What is missing from her model is a way of processing all this complex information in such a way as to be able to measure or evaluate an individual's balance sheet of deficits and resources. In the absence of such a balance Sheet, Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages 119 accompanying transitions was used and is discussed in the next section. Because all of the participants were quite preoccupied with being unemployed at the time of the interviews, they continue to be in the transition state and not the adaptation stage. HOPSON AND ADAMS ' SEVEN-PHASE MODEL OF STAGES ACCOMPAN Y I NG TRANS I T I ONS The seven phases previously presented in chapter 2 were as follows: 1. Immobilization or shock 2. Minimization or denial 3. Depression and self-doubt 4. Acceptance of reality or letting go 5. Testing options 6. Search for meaning 7. Internalization or integration. At the end of each interview, Hopson and Adams' model was presented and explained to each participant. A copy of the script used is included as Appendix 6, page 178. Each participant was asked to identify the primary stage they thought they were in by marking an "x" on their copy of the model. An explanation was offered that the theory suggests people may be in more than one stage and that they might move back and forth on the scale. As each of the stages was being explained, all of the participants acknowledged they had gone through them and were quick to point to the one 120 they believed themselves to be in at that moment. At the beginning of this report, participants were given numbers as well as pseudonyms. Both identifiers have been used consistently throughout this text and are repeated below for the reader's convenience. No. 1 Charles No. 7 Wendy No. 2 Morgan No. 8 Angelica No. 3 Barrie No. 9 Marilyn No. 4 Clark No. 10 Kenny No. 5 Gary No. 11 Peter No. 6 Donna No. 12 Rick Figure 4, page 121, reports the results of this self- identification process. The numbers identify where each participant placed an "x" on Hopson and Adams' model. Six identified themselves primarily at stage 6 (search for meaning), four at stage 5 (testing options), and two believed themselves to be at stage 7, integration. Since all participants were still unemployed at the time of the interview, one would not expect that they would be at stage 7. When questioned further, one male was very content to be living in the country with his own routine and a small income brought in by his wife. He did not like going into the city any more than he had to and he earned extra income when he needed it by doing odd jobs for other people. The other male had made a decision to sign up for duty overseas in one of the underdeveloped countries and he appeared to be Quite happy with his decision. 121 83% to ccuaaufiaéom v tans .ocH .mcowmeWHnsa comm to cowmmeLma so nmpcwtama .cowpmHUOmm< Hmowmoflocozma :mowtms< mzp to smofiocoxma mannmmcaoo to cowmw>wo mcp ma Pmms .m .02 .m .Ho> .Hmeonozo>ma wanmmzsoo mm» =.mcowpwmcmte nu“: ocwaou tom mmwmmpmtpm cowpcm>twch= ..n.a .ommtn< a ..z.4 .Lmesmtm ‘Ia/En'ooow . c8835 1 _ 98:65.? waRcaanoo< mmwfim no 352 ognméoim .8331 was commom 35 to 1.885825% 122 Solely on the basis of this researcher's conversations with the participants and analyzing the data provided to her, this researcher concurs with the stages selected. SUMMARY This chapter has presented an analysis of the data. The data was compared to characteristics of Nancy Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition. The data was also applied to Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. Generally speaking this researcher concurs with the models as presented by Schlossberg and Hopson and Adams. Some differences were found, however, and these have also been presented in this chapter. Further discussion on the differences are reported in Chapter 5. CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Introduction The purpose of this study was twofold: 1) To examine life transitions and adaptation to change as reported by unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. 2) To apply the findings to two models: i) Nancy Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition and ii) Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. Participants in this study had to meet the following criteria: 1. Be unemployed adults aged 25 - 44, 2. Have a work history of at least seven years, 3. Have been unemployed no more than two years, 4. Have exhausted unemployment insurance benefits, 5. Been unsuccessful in finding employment in jobs which were equivalent to the ones they lost, and, 6. Not currently involved in education or training. 123 124 The following questions served as a guide for the research: 1. What impact has the transitional status had on the unemployed? 2. What support systems do the unemployed access? 3. What individual characteristics are more likely to enhance one's ability to adapt to a transition? 4. To what degree does Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition fit the study group of unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits? 5. To what degree do the participants fit Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions? 6. What relationship is there between levels of education and plans, if any, to add to those educational levels? DESIGN OF THE STUDY A detailed explanation of the procedures used for this study was provided in Chapter 3 therefore the overview presented here is brief. This researcher contacted individuals who worked extensively with the unemployed and requested their assistance in contacting potential participants for this study. This was necessary because, in Ontario, under the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act, it is prohibited to release information to anyone for any purpose 125 without prior approval of the person(s) involved. It was necessary, therefore, for the intermediaries to contact volunteers and request permission to provide this researcher with their names. The intermediaries provided a total of 17 names. Some of the volunteers who became participants, asked the researcher if she were interested in hearing from others who might qualify for the study and six additional names were provided. The participants were also asked to act as intermediaries for the same reasons mentioned above. In total, 23 names were submitted but only 12 met the pre-determined criteria. Although criteria was discussed with each volunteer prior to arranging the interview, 11 did not qualify. Sometimes this was not evident until well into the questioning so that all 23 interviews were completed. This researcher did not investigate why the criteria for participation was misunderstood. What was very evident, however, was that everyone had a story to tell or something they wanted to express to anyone who would listen. This researcher may have been that "someone" for them. Reasons for disqualification were as follows: 0 two were attending school 0 two were receiving unemployment insurance 0 five had been unemployed for more than two years 0 one had been working for less than seven years 0 one did not keep her appointment although attempts were made to reschedule. 126 All interviews were tape recorded and an interview guide was used to ensure all participants were asked the same questions (see Appendix 4, p. 174). CASE STUDY SUMMARIES A brief synopsis of each participant is presented here in order to provide the reader with an overview of the group. No. 1 Cherlee Charles is 32, married, and has four children under the age of six. His wife does not work outside the home. He had been earning $31,200 annually but now he and his family must live on $20,400 annually through General Welfare Assistance. A community college diploma is not enough to get him back to work and he believes he cannot afford to back to school. "I feel I've lost control of my life and what I can do." No. 2 Morgen Morgan is 33, married, and has three children under the age of four. His wife does not work outside the home. His income dropped from $50,000 a year to $21,600 on social assistance. He had a variety of jobs over 20 years and never had difficulty finding a new one. 127 Morgan finds it very hard this time because of the competition from very qualified people. Although he is very versatile and learns quickly, he does not have the paper credentials. Returning to school to retrain is something Morgan would consider if it could be more practical and not as theoretical. No. 3 Berrie Barrie thought he had caught the brass ring when he graduated from university in 1981 and landed a job in his field. He doesn't feel that way now. "I've been through the system four times but never for this long. It's very frustrating and depressing." His income has dropped from $50,000 a year to $4,800 a year. He is on social assistance. Barrie is very informed on the "right" things to do to search for new work. He networks, reads newspapers, goes to the library, and prepares himself well for interviews but to no avail. Barrie keeps a box packed in his basement and is ready to go wherever a job might take him. No. 4 Clark Clark and his wife have two children under the age of eight and they find it very difficult to make ends meet. His wife does not work outside the home. Their family income has dropped to less than half of what it was before . 128 he lost his job--from $42,000 to the $18,120 he receives from social assistance. Clark feels trapped. He realizes his skills are not current and he is willing to learn but employers expect that people come fully trained. Going back to school is not an option right now because people who are collecting General Welfare Assistance cannot be in school full time. No. 5 Gary At 43, Gary is a little older than the other members of the study group. He owns his home in the country where he lives with his wife and three children. His wife works on a casual basis and Gary does odd jobs for friends and neighbors. They do not receive any form of assistance. When he was laid off 16 months ago, Gary was earning $40,000 a year. He estimates the family income now to be in the area of $15,000 but he says he is content because he and his family live a very simple lifestyle and they get by. Gary had started university before he became a machinist and would not mind going back to finish what he started. He is quick to add, however, that it would have to have some guarantee of a job at the end. For now, he is willing to wait for the economy to turn around. No. 6 Donna Donna is 34, a single parent of three children under the age of 16. She has her high school diploma and has 129 worked at a variety of jobs. She has been unemployed for the past 16 months. Her family income dropped from $60,000 as a result of a marriage breakdown in addition to losing her job. Donna's income is $17,000 a year from Provincial Family Benefits (FBA) and child support payments. FBA is social assistance for single parents. Donna worries about her children and what life will be like for them. "We're a spiritual family and the kids and I talk about things. We talk about life and what can happen to you." Donna worries so much that the stress causes her to lose her hair. She has gone completely bald twice and wears wigs to cover up. Unlike the participants who receive General Welfare Assistance, Donna is able to return to school and continue receiving financial support but she is not willing to leave her children in the care of others. Education programs do not meet her needs because she must attend classes held at their facilities. No. 7 Wendy Wendy, 33, and her husband earned a combined annual income of $70,000. When she lost her job and he changed his, it dropped down to $30,000 a year. They found they had to refinance their home to consolidate debts and they now owe more on it than when they first bought it. Wendy and her husband do not qualify for assistance. — 130 Retraining is something Wendy would consider if it was something she could do in her own home while she looks after her two children. Since Wendy already has a university degree, she sees her options as being limited since the community does not have a major Canadian university nearby. No. 8 Angeliqe Angelica is 33, married, and has two children. Her husband lost his job at the steel mill but is being paid to go to school and retrain. She, on the other hand, is having difficulty completing her high school education because of what she calls red tape. Angelica had harsh words to say about the high school system and its lack of flexibility. Angelica worked in the food services industry for ten years until she became unemployed 18 months ago. "In the past, it was much easier to get back in the workforce. Now there isn't as much turnover because people are hanging on to what they have." She keeps a resume in her purse at all times just in case an opportunity presents itself. No. 9 Merilyn Living at home with her parents is not what 37-year-old Marilyn envisioned for herself. A difficult divorce and no job have reduced her earnings from approximately $40,000 a year to about $7,900 annually on General Welfare Assistance. 131 Marilyn recalls having two part-time jobs while going to school. Now, she would be happy with one. Marilyn is under medical care for eating disorders, insomnia, and bad nerves. Marilyn's experience over the past 20 years has been office and business related but none of that is helping her now. She believes her age works against her. Marilyn is also upset with the social assistance program. "I think it adds to society's burden keeping people like me on welfare and not in school." No. 10 Kenny Kenny is 31, married, and is one of three participants who is not on social assistance. His wife works part time but their total income has dropped from $65,000 to $15,000 a year. He would like to do things around the house but even something as simple as painting takes money. They always look for bargains and specials. Kenny is open to going back to school but says he needs financial assistance to do that. No. 11 Peter Peter is 35, married, with two children under age 11. For the previous 15 years, he earned approximately $60,000 a year, including overtime pay. Now he and his family live on $18,144 annually through GWA. Peter 132 questions if the unions are part of the problem today. "I make $19.50 an hour when I'm working. For a laborer, that's good money but I wonder if we're really worth it." Peter does not have positive feelings about returning to school. He was also resentful that he was pushed through the high school system. "That really bothers me. It bothers me when I have to go fill out a resume and my wife isn't there to help." No. 12 Rick Rick is 28, single, and was accustomed to earning $40,000 a year. A drop to approximately $7,600 annually through GWA resulted in his filing for personal bankruptcy. "I have spiralled into the depths of hell." Rick wants to be back in school. He has a high school diploma and would like to pursue a university education but the system does not allow it. Rick believes very strongly that the percentage of people who are on welfare and want to stay there is very small. "Personally, I can't see why it isn't mandatory that people who are on welfare either be in school or be made to do volunteer work." RESPONDING TO THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS The research questions are repeated here for the reader's convenience. 133 1. What impact has the transitional status had on the unemployed? 2. What support systems do the unemployed access? 3. What individual characteristics are more likely to enhance one's ability to adapt to a transition? 4. To what degree does Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition fit the study group of unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits? 5. To what degree do the participants fit Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions? 6. What relationship is there between levels of education and plans, if any, to add to those educational levels? The sample used for this study was small, therefore, any conclusions drawn can only relate to this population and may not be generalizable to other populations. Since the first three research questions are tied into Schlossberg's model, each of them will be answered concurrently with question four. Question No. 1: What impact has the transitional status had on the unemployed? Question No. 4: To what degree does Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition fit the study group of unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits? 134 The first set of factors, characteristics of the particular transition has seven components: role change, affect, source, timing, onset, duration, and stress and were discussed in detail in Chapter 4. The results were also presented in Table 6, page 90. This study generally supports Schlossberg's model in all but two areas, onset and source. A brief overview of the results is provided here. 1. Role chenge The most notable changes were reported by males who described themselves as being house bound. They reported generally being more involved in housework and child care. Virtually all of the males were anxious to use their time and skills for activities such as painting, remodelling, or repairing homes they owned or rented. They reported feeling stressed with too much time on their hands and lack of funds to tackle these projects. Two participants had been living and working out of town but lack of funds forced them to move back home with parents. This was a source of stress because, once again, they had to live by parental rules. The move was regressive and demoralizing. Females reported lifestyle changes due to reduced income but their roles were not noticeably changed. They 135 did more-of the same things like housework and caring for children. Meles experienced more role lees then femeles. Melee hed more negetive role impegt than females in the transition from employed to unemployed. The_etudy group fit§ this part of the model. 2. Affect Affect can be positive or negative. All of the participants reported negative affects from losing their jobs. The one most commonly reported by all participants was loss of income which impacted negatively on lifestyle and their ability to meet expenses. All participants experieneed negetive effecte from the Lgepeition from employed to unemployed. The etudyegroup fits this pert of the model. 3. Source This component deals with internal/external locus of control. Schlossberg suggests that individuals adapt more easily to transitions where the source of control is internal. Holmes and Werbel (1992) report that individuals who become reemployed within three months are more internally controlled than those who remained unemployed. This infers that people who are unemployed longer than three months are externally controlled. 136 All participants scored between 5 and 10 on Rotter's Locus of Control scale making them all internal by this measure. The range of scores was almost identical for males (between 5 and 10) and females (between 6 and 10) hence no conclusions could be drawn about relationships between locus of control scores and males and females. All participants had been unemployed from between 10 and 24 months which is more than the 3 months suggested by Holmes and Werbel. This pert of Schlossberg's model is not consistent with theestudy group since ell perticipants appeared to be internelly controlled. 4. Timing Adaptation to a planned or "on time" transition like marriage, having children, or retirement, is less difficult than one which is not planned or "off time." All perticipents reported thie trepeition to be off timeeend therefore supporteithe theory thet edeptetion to transition is made more difficult if unplanned. 5. Onset When discussing onset, Schlossberg suggests it is either gradual or sudden. If it is expected or gradual, like retirement or children leaving the "nest", then it can 137 almost be like a dress rehearsal, making the transition easier. Although two-thirds of the participants reported they expected to be laid off as a result of the changing economic times, it was unexpected when it actually happened. Consequently, it ie more difficult to cetegoriee thie peepeitioneee gregpel or euddeneeince it would appear to be both. Thi§_pert of the model does not fit well with the study group's transition. 6. Duration The level of difficulty one has with a transition is tied into the length of time one must deal with the change. A transition which is temporary or short in duration is less difficult than one which is uncertain or lasts longer. A permanent change, if desired, will also be easier. One-third of the study group reported the transition to be uncertain in duration. While the remaining two-thirds reported the transition to be permanent, it was not desired, therefore, it was not easier. Furthermore, those who reported a permanent job loss did not know when or where they would be working again. As a result, uncerteinty wee eeeoci_ted with the trensition meking adaptation difficult. Since ell perticipants were uncertein ebout the duration of their stete of unemployment, this pert of 138 Schloeeberg's model fits with whetewes reported by the study rou 7. Stress According to Schlossberg, all transitions, whether positive or negative, a gain or a loss, cause some degree of stress. Using Holmes and Rahe's measure of stress, people are deemed to be at a crisis level when they score 150. All but two of the study group scored above that level. Even those scores were close to the crisis level at 130 and 145. The other nine scores ranged from 190 to 651. See Table 6, page 90. This pert_of the model is consistent with the study group eince all participents were et (or very cloee to) the crisis level on Holmeseend Rehe's stress scale. Question No. 2: What support systems do the unemployed access? Question No. 4: To what degree does Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition fit the study group of unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits? These questions relate to the second set of characteristics, the pretransition and posttransition environments, which include interpersonal support systems (intimate relationships, the family unit, network of finiends), institutional supports, and physical setting. 139 The reader is referred to Table 8, page 101, for a listing of the support systems accessed by participants. 1. Interpereonel Support Four of the twelve participants said they preferred to handle things themselves and not rely on anyone else. A closer look at these four (participant numbers 2, 4, 5 and 11) reveals that two report additional supports, namely, friends, spouse, or family. Participants 2 and 4 list no other supports and register stress scores of 255 and 263 (150 is crisis level). Participants 5 and 11, with additional supports, register lower stress scores of 130 and 191. The inference here could be that additional support systems reduce stress levels but a closer look at Table 8 reveals higher scores by participants who also had additional support systems. The majority of support was received from friends, family, and spouses. Institutional support was reported by only three participants and were a church, a counsellng service, and Alcoholics Anonymous. Schlossberg suggests that stress is increased when an individual loses friends as a result of a transition like a divorce. She suggests the transition process one goes through from loss of a job is similar to the grieving process in the loss of a loved one. Parallel arguments can 140 be made for separation from a spouse and separation from one's place of employment. Participants either stopped seeking the companionship of former colleagues and friends or, conversely, these people stopped seeking out the participants. All participants were internally controlled using Rotter's measure. The stress scoree did not reveel e pettern wherebyeeny conclusione_eould be drewn ebout relationships between locee of control, stress levels, and eupport syetems. The support systems accessed primarily by participants were friends, family, and spouses. There is some evidence_ to demonstreee thet the higher the level of eupportyethe lower the etress level end vice veree. 2. Institutionel Ten of the participants reported no assistance by their former employer in dealing with the job loss. For two of these, the loss was gradual in that they simply were not called in to work anymore. One participant reported getting a form asking "if I wanted to see a psychiatrist" but provided no assistance with completing resumes or applications for other employment. Only one person reported two one-day seminars, one on job search techniques and the other on the 141 marketplace. "It didn't really hit me because I figured I'd be back to work by summer." One participant was aware of a career center in the city but was not aware that they did career counselling. He thought they only helped people look for work and he knew that only because he was told to go there by his counsellor at the social assistance office. One female participant reported more involvement with her church. Another reported participating in Alcoholics Anonymous meetings but this had also been part of her lifestyle prior to losing her job. A third female was involved in regular professional counselling. No other support groups were reported. The only participants who sought out institutional supports were female. Four of the males made strong statements that they would not have taken advantage of the opportunity, even if it had been made available. Schlossberg suggests that "young women tend to seek support from a variety of sources, including clergy, counselors, and lawyers, whereas men and older women seek support from a more limited number of sources" (p. 11). Although Schlossberg does not provide ages to distinguish between "young and older women", this study verifiee thet women seek outeide eupport more then men. 142 3. Physicel Setting Physical setting is one of the characteristics in Schlossberg's model and includes climate and weather, urban or rural location, neighborhood, living arrangements, and the workplace. Schlossberg points out that more research is required in this area but suggests a need for people to be comfortable in their physical setting. All but one of the participants lived in an urban setting and this one person appeared to be the one most comfortable with where he was in life. He measured 130 on the stress scale, the lowest score of the group. He mentioned several times throughout the interview that he enjoyed living in a country setting where he knew all his neighbors. One might conclude that since he is comfortable in his physical setting, he is more advanced in his adaptation to transition from employed to unemployed. Schlossberg acknowledges more research is required in this part of her model. It was not peesible to identify e fit between physieelesetting_end the etudy group pertly beceuse the model doee not provide sufficient guidence. Question No. 3: What individual characteristics are more likely to enhance one's ability to adapt to a transition? Question No. 4: To what degree does Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition fit the study group of unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits? 143 These questions incorporate the third set of characteristics in Schlossberg's model and deals with the individual and focuses on psychosocial competence, sex (and sex-role identification), age (and life stage), state of health, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, value orientation, and previous experience with a transition of a similar nature. 1. geychoeociel cgmpetence Schlossberg restricts psychosocial competence to self- attitudes, world attitudes, and behavioral attitudes. Self- attitudes include locus of control which has already been discussed as part of the first set of characteristics in this chapter. The important element in world attitudes is trust and hope. Although questions were not aimed specifically at trust and hope, words like "betrayed", "trapped", "frustrated", and "depressed", were used often by the participants. That is not to say that they all lost hope but this researcher does believe that they lost trust in the system they had come to know and rely upon for employment. Behavioral attitudes focus primarily on goal setting, actively seeking out and using information, and making plans in pursuit of those goals. Generally, participants appeared to have given up in these areas. Some said they continued to look in newspapers 144 and employment centers but they deemed it to be an employer's market and competition was stiff from more qualified candidates. A new company opened up, advertised for 40 positions, and had over 4,000 applications submitted. Participants did not appear to know what steps to take in setting goals other than what might be considered by some to be traditional job search techniques, i.e., newspapers, personal contacts, networking, and former colleagues. Four of the participants had never completed a resume. The study group had a positive self image using internal locus of control as a measure, had lost trust in the system to assist with re-employment, and did not know how to set goals beyond what they had already done. The model doeeenoteprovide cleer benchmarks for meeeuring peychoeociel competence. Beeed on whet heeebeen provided, theeetudy group doee fit Schlossberg's model in that participants were experiencing difficulty in adapting to the trensition from emplgyed to unemployed. 2. Sex and sex-role identification Schlossberg suggests that our culture has taught men to hide their feelings and deny problems whereas women are more open and expressive. Because of this, men may appear to be more in control of their emotions. "Despite appearances, however, women's greater capacity for intimacy and mutuality 145 may make it easier for them to adapt to certain transitions" (1981, p. 13). Four of the eight males did state they preferred to deal with problems themselves. See Table 8, page 101, for a list of support systems accessed by participants as well as a listing of locus of control and stress scores. Two of these males (Nos. 2 and 4) did not identify any other support systems. They registered stress scores of 255 and 263. The other two (Nos. 5 and 11) did report other support systems and scored lower at 130 and 191. Participants 6, 7, 8, and 9 were female. Two of these had the highest stress scores of the entire group at 651 and 429. The highest score was registered by a female who had been divorced within the previous year. She had no children. The other female was also divorced two years earlier and was caring for 3 children. All participants were internally controlled by Rotter's scale. Schlossberg points out that this is a complex area and more research is required. Although one may be tempted to make some assumptions about sex-role identification, Lee information gethered from this study group did not provide enough evidence to drew eny conclusions ebout this pert of the model. 146 3. Age (end Life Stegel Schlossberg points out that analysis for this characteristic is difficult because most experts agree that chronological age is not important compared to biological, psychological, social, and functional ages. She disagrees with the concept of a single, universal timetable for adult development or that one can predict the crisis in people's lives by knowing their age. The study group ranged in ages from 28 to 43. Ten reported no change in their marital status as a result of becoming unemployed. Two reported a separation and one subsequent reconciliation. One reported a divorce prior to losing her job. The interview questions were geared towards the transition from employed to unemployed, and were not intended to focus on other transitions the participants may have been experiencing. Consequently, the results of this study cannot be used to generalize where the participants are in relation to age and life stage except to use Levinson and Sheehy's age/stage theory discussed in Chapter 2. These are also illustrated in Figure 2, page 23. Using Levinson's developmental model of age/stage theory, the study group would be primarily in the Age 30 Transition or the Settling Down stage. Sheehy would have them primarily in the Catch 30 and the Mid-life Passage stages. Knowing this does not advance one's understanding 147 of how this study group dealt with the transition under study. It is generally agreed, however, that events that are "off time or out of sync" are more stressful than ones which are planned, expected, or on time. Using thieeevent ee_e _eesure of "timeliness"eell perticipeepe reported experiencing high levele ofeetrees in their liyee. This is borne out by the scores on the Holmes and Rahe Life Events Stress Scale reported earlier in this chapter. 4. §£§L§ of Heelth All participants reported some change in health resulting from being unemployed. The high stress levels have already been reported and will not be repeated here. The reader is referred to Table 7, page 97, for a report on the number of times participants identified health problems. These are listed below for convenience. 0 Personal injury or illness 2 0 Change in sleeping habits 2 0 Change in eating habits 5 0 Sex difficulties 2 0 Change in health of family member 4 Four participants reported weight gain ranging from 20 to 40 pounds. Severe headaches were reported by two people and heartburn was reported by one participant. One female 148 reported losing her hair completely on two occasions as a result of the stress she was under. There is no doubt that participants experienced significant stress and some health related problems, however, based on the results shown on Table 7, there is no pattern which can be identified and reported on since the results are random. 5. RaceZEthnicity One's racial/ethnic background may influence how someone deals with transitions. Schlossberg suggests that one's ability to adapt is "probably mediated through other factors such as value orientation and cultural norms...One's racial/ethnic background may be an isolating factor, making adaptation more difficult" (1981, page 14). All participants in the study group were referred to the researcher by intermediaries or by the participants themselves. There was no intent to create a representative sample of the community nor did one result. All participants were Caucasian. However, this was not by design. Since this characteristic was not addressed specifically, no conclusions can be drawn about the study rou 149 6. Socioeconomic Stetus The data are inconclusive as to the relationship between socioeconomic status and one's ability to adapt to transitions. Schlossberg suggests this may be due to the fact that different factors are used to measure socioeconomic status: income, occupation, education, or a combination of these. She also suggests that lower-income families may experience more stress than middle-income families because they need to deal not only with financial restrictions but also with restrictions in "health, energy, space, and ideas for coping with crisis" (p. 14). The reader is referred to Table 9, page 114, for a report on the group's income before job loss and income reported at the time of the interviews. Readers are reminded that all dollars quoted in this study are in Canadian funds which are historically valued below the American dollar. In March 1994, the Canadian dollar was valued at approximately 60% of its American counterpart. For example, $1,000 Canadian would be worth $600 American. Participants' gross annual salaries dropped between $20,000 and $40,000. What was the bottom of the income scale at between $30,000 - $34,999 prior to job loss became the top of the scale at the time of the interviews. People who had earned about $20 per hour ($41,600 annually) were not only prepared but eager to accept full-time employment in the $10 per hour range. All participants had become 150 accustomed to a fairly regular paycheck over their work history which ranged from 7 to 25 years. Some short periods of unemployment were reported prior to this one but none was as long as the current period which ranged from 12 to 24 months. If level of education is to be used as a measure of socioeconomic status, six had post-secondary education, five had completed high school, and one had completed grade 11. Generally, the group reported being active in social and sports activities prior to losing their jobs. Some examples were golfing, YMCA memberships, hockey, bowling, dancing, travelling, snowmobiling, and skiing. Since all of these reported activities involved fees or costs, they were eliminated entirely except for one person who said he still tried to bowl weekly. Now, however, he ate at home and brought a thermos of coffee to drink where he previously would eat out with his wife and "have a couple of beers." Individuals within the group appeared to isolate themselves from all but the closest of family. Although not measured through the use of any instrument, one might infer they suffered from a loss of self-esteem. One might also suggest they experienced a drop in social status, either perceived or real. The drop in income by all participants in this study can easily be identified as a source of stress and lifestyle 151 change. Apart from that, es in Schlossberg's model, the data are inconclusive for verificetion of this component. 7. yelue Orientetion According to Schlossberg, one's ability to adapt to transitions is influenced by basic beliefs. Schlossberg mentions that religious beliefs can also be a stressor. For example, someone from a Catholic background would have higher levels of stress from an impending divorce. A Protestant who was brought up with a strong work ethic would find forced unemployment difficult to cope with in addition to the financial loss. One participant had a close affiliation with the Baptist church and she had experienced a divorce within the previous year. Another female reported being part of a spiritual family. Both women were divorced and unemployed. The results ere inconclueive but two of the highest stress scores were reported by theee individuals. 8. Previous Experience With a Transition of e Similar Nature Schlossberg reports on experts who believe that if someone has successfully adapted to a transition once, they are likely to repeat the success in a similar transition. This study does not verify those beliefs. Ten members of the study group had lost a job at least twice before and all reported it was different this time. They said it was 152 unlike anything they had experienced before and that it was much worse. The main difference reported was the inability to find work of any kind even though their expectations for high salaries had all but evaporated. The other differences reported were reverse discrimination by males, age discrimination, and discrimination due to overqualification. It was not possible to evaluate the previous job losses and where participants of this study were in relation to their resources at that time. The results of this study can only reflect the impact of the current transition and its effect on participants. Besed on these results, the conclusion is thet this study does not confirm thie component of Schloesberg's model. Perticipeepeewere not able to adapt more eesily to this trensition despite the fact thet 10 out of the 12 hed loet e job et leaet twice before. Question No. 5: To what degree do the participants fit into Hopson and Adams' Seven Phase Model of Stages Accompanying Transitions? Schlossberg's model provides a forum for analyzing human adaptation to transition. Her model is helpful in that it lists characteristics one might investigate if one is attempting to identify if a person is in transition. It does not identify where that person might be in the transition stage. For this reason, it was decided to 153 include a second model, i.e., Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. The reader is referred to Appendix 6, page 178, for a script used to describe the seven stages to participants. The stages are on a continuum as follows: 1. Immobilization or shock 2. Minimization or denial 3. Depression and self-doubt 4. Acceptance of reality or letting go 5. Testing options 6. Search for meaning 7. Internalization or integration. Schlossberg's model is taken one step further by adding Hopson and Adams' model, however, it too falls short in that it does not have a practical application. In the absence of a measure, participants were read the script, were encouraged to ask for clarification if desired, and then were asked to mark an "x" on the model. Through this process of self-identification, six reported themselves primarily at stage 6 (search for meaning), four at stage 5 (testing options), and two at integration. The results are reproduced in Figure 4, page 121. The numbers shown on Figure 4 are exactly where the "x" was placed by the participant on their copy of the model. No attempt was made to reorganize them numerically or logically. 154 When discussing Hopson and Adams' model with the participants, they shared examples of experiences at some of the stages. Although some said they were probably in more than one stage, they were asked to choose one primary stage. Knowing the activity in advance, this researcher attempted to predict the choice the participant might make, without sharing her thoughts with the participant. In all cases, the stage selected by the participant was the same one selected by this researcher. Hopson and Adams' model is simple but effective. Participants nodded agreement, smiled, or otherwise acknowledged they recognized the stages the model described. The phases one goes through in job loss have been compared to the grieving process one experiences with the loss of a loved one. Two people who had gone through the grieving process within the past year acknowledged they experienced similar feelings. Based on the process of self-identification by participants and verification by this researchery one can conclude the study group does fit Hopson end Adams' model. Question No. 6: What relationship was there between levels of education and plans, if any, to add to those educational levels? Six of the study group had some post-secondary education. All but one of the remaining six had completed high 155 school and even that person had completed at the grade 11 level. See Table 2, page 63. Some Issues with respect to access to education were common. of these were as follows: Limited program offerings Time required to complete programs was too long Hours courses were offered were not convenient or flexible Too expensive Education was not offered in such a way as to be conducive to raising a family Not enough flexibility in the way courses were offered. Some suggestions were to offer more on television or independent study so that people could choose their own hours of study. "I need to be able to drop in and drop out depending on my shift. I can't start a program and then not show up for work when I'm called in. I can't afford to lose the money." Desire to learn at one's ability level. "Don't lock me in too fast or too slow. Let me learn at my own pace." Need to have recognition for what people already know. "I've been a greasemonkey all my life but I don't have the papers to prove anything. Give me credit for that so I don't need to sit in all the classes. Just teach me about new computerized cars and let me go." 156 9. Need for financial support while going to school. "I still have bills to pay and a family to support. How can I do that and still go to school?" 10. The General Welfare Act which does not allow recipients to be in full-time attendance at school. "Social assistance will not support me while I'm in school and I think that stinks." 11. Need to have a guarantee of a job when they finished retraining. All but one of the participants was willing to return to school to further their education or training. When questioned further as to the reason for not wanting to further his education, he said his experiences had been so negative that he had no desire to return. He did see the need for it and, if conditions were right, he would consider it. The reasons provided above, however, serve as barriers to this group's plans to add to their educational levels. When one examines the list of issues with respect to access to education, most of them are not new end heye_peee eepressed for over twenty yeers. It is sefe to conclude that educators end/or_governments in chepge of education do not listen to whet potentiel students heve to eey. Many of these were identified by Carp, Peterson and Roelfs (1974) and reported by Patricia Cross (1981, p. 99). 157 THE MODELS The transition from employed to unemployed has been analyzed using Schlossberg's model of analyzing human adaptation to transition. The model has three sets of characteristics: that of the transition, the pretransition and posttransition environment, and those of the individual. In addition, the transition was plotted against Hopson and Adams' seven-phase model of stages accompanying transitions. Schlossberg: Schlossberg's model for analyzing human adaptation to transition has been useful because it provided some direction and served as an organizer for working with people in transition. For practitioners, it can also serve as a model for assessing the types of interventions one might use when counselling adults in transition. The model was unclear, however, in that it did not provide benchmarks to measure where people might be in the transition process. Schlossberg suggests that the process is a dynamic one and that, generally, adaptation can be assessed in terms of the balance of one's resources to deficits. She provides some general information on what she means by "the individual's resources-deficits balance" but is short on specifics leaving practitioners on their own to come up with measures. 158 There were four areas where Schlossberg's model did not fit with the study group and these will be repeated here briefly. 1. Source The greatest difference in the findings of this research and those of Schlossberg's model are in the area of source or internal/external locus of control. She suggests that individuals adapt to transitions more easily if they are internally controlled. Holmes and Werbel report that individuals who are reemployed within three months of losing their jobs are more internally controlled than ones who remain unemployed. Theee finding; were not confirmed. All twelve perticipents of this study were internelly controlled end had been unemployed between 10 end 24 months. 2. Onset When discussing onset of a transition, Schlossberg suggests it may be either gradual or sudden. If a transition is expected or gradual, like retirement or children leaving the "nest", then it can be almost like a dress rehearsal making the transition somewhat easier. Teee component doee not fit the model. Two-thirds of the perticipants expected to be leid off but it wes uneepected when it came. This becomes both graduel and expected but 159 not in the same categery as retirement or children leeving home. 3. See (eed seeerole identifiqetion) Schlossberg suggests that our culture has taught men to hide their feelings and deny problems whereas women are more open and expressive. Because of this, men may appear to be more in control of their emotions. Schlossberg is very theoretical about sex-role identification and does not provide enough guidance. If one uses stress scores as a meesure of how men end women cope with emotions, this pert of her model ie not borne out. The two higheet scoree were registered by women whogecceesed eupport of femily, friends,eend institutions. Some of the meles scored eignificently lower. 4. Previous Experience With a Transition ofeeeSimilar Nature Schlossberg reports agreement by experts who believe that if people have successfully adapted to a transition once, they are likely to repeat the success in a similar transition. Ten membereeof the study group hed lost e_job at least twice before end all reported it wes different this time. Some components of her model do not fit with certain transitions, and repeated unemployment is one of those. 160 Hop§on end Ademe: It was beneficial to have Hopson and Adams' model because it helped participants and the researcher identify where they were in the continuum of adaptation to transition. The explanation was much simpler to follow than Schlossberg's model and participants had little difficulty in understanding and relating to it. However, this model was also incomplete in its provision of benchmerks which could more accuretely measure the stages. IMPL I CAT I ONS FOR PRACT I CE There were some recurring themes that did not necessarily fit the characteristics of either model used in the study but which are nevertheless quite important. The Sociel Assistance Systeme It was quite evident to this researcher that we have a system of social assistance in Ontario which is detrimental to furthering one's education and training. People on General Welfare Assistance (GWA) cannot be in school full time and be on assistance. The rationale when the system was originally set up was that people on GWA should be available for work and going to school would negate that. The system is currently under review but it is difficult to say how long it will be before reforms take place. The futility and anger expressed by participants of this study was genuine. They were angry about being put in 161 a position of being paid to stay home when they could be doing something which would improve their chances of being employed. Furthermore, they were resentful about being on social assistance due to circumstances beyond their control. The stigma associated with receiving social assistance was a source of embarrassment. In the province of Ontario there are two systems of social assistance, one for single parents which is under the Family Benefits Act (FBA) and the other is municipal or General Welfare Assistance (GWA) for singles and families. Monthly allowances under FBA are higher and include benefits like dental and prescription drugs. Recipients can attend school on a full-time basis. GWA, on the other hand, does not provide these benefits and recipients are not allowed to be in full-time attendance at school. One of the participants said she would be better off financially if she got pregnant since she would then receive more in monthly allowances and benefits. All residents of Ontario are covered for normal medical and hospital expenses. Three levels of government work with the unemployed and pay benefits. These are the Federal (Unemployment Insurance), the Provincial (Family Benefits), and the Municipal (General Welfare Assistance). The latter two are commonly referred to as welfare. There is very little literature which cross references these agencies yet there is much to be learned. For example, it was not 162 possible to obtain up-to-date figures on the number of unemployment insurance exhaustees who were in receipt of social assistance. The last report was completed in 1982 and was based on the 1976 census. In Canada, much like the United States, the communication and cooperation between the Federal and Provincial levels appears to be minimal at best. Educetion Some of the recurring themes regarding barriers to access to education were presented as part of the findings. When one reviews these barriers to education the reader will probably recognize them from other literature in that they are generally not new issues. They have been part of the literature for at least two decades. That being the case, one might ask why the system is slow to respond to those needs. One might ask additional questions such as, Who is education serving? Is it the political party of the day? The education system? Management? Faculty? Students? There may be several answers to these questions but one thing appears clear. The perticipeeee in thieestudy did not believe their needs were being met. All members of the group said they would further their education if some of the barriers mentioned above did not stand in their way. This begs an additional question which might be; are these barriers real or perceived by the group in an effort 163 to explain away something they do not really plan to take advantage of? Other Issuee Recently, this researcher took over a senior management position after almost 20 years in the classroom. One thing has become abundantly clear and that is that we have an educational system which is so connected to our political system that it ties education's hands. This researcher is not advocating a system with no accountability but one which could react with more haste than is possible now. Because this is not currently the case, operators of private facilities are taking advantage of the opportunity to fill in the gaps community colleges cannot or will not fill. Another situation which is made very difficult is the management/union operations which is guided by a provincially negotiated collective agreement. There are probably some good reasons why the collective agreement was put in place but it has failed to keep pace with the paradigm shift in education. The collective agreement evolved over a period of time when students were more traditional, i.e., they entered post-secondary institutions directly from high school. Today, the student population is very diverse and flexibility is not always possible under the rigid structure of a collective agreement. 164 Both management and union are in a fight for survival as our economy and the educational system restructure to meet increasing demands for access to education. The government is faced with huge deficits and level of financial support to this publically funded post-secondary system is not keeping pace with the demand. The answers to these issues and questions are beyond the scope of this study but would be interesting research for others to pursue. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH This research contributes to the study of life transitions and adaptation to change as reported by unemployed adults who had exhausted unemployment insurance benefits. Further research could include a longer term study. It would be beneficial to track all or some of the subjects through the entire cycle of transition from shock and immobilization to integration. Longer term research would also be able to take the model and the instruments used in this study and compare the results over a period of time to determine changes, if any. Statistics on the unemployed are reported by various agencies who use similar age categories. Generally, these are 14—19, 20-24, 25-44, 45—64, and over 65. Further 165 research could take another age category and compare it to this study. In the absence of more in—depth studies by governments, a longitudinal study might track unemployment insurance exhaustees from the time they exhaust benefits until they are reemployed or find some other means of support. One might then be able to track transitions experienced by unemployed adults with more accuracy. As mentioned above, further research could include answers to questions about who education serves and why some of these long standing issues about access remain as issues. APPEND I CES APPENDIX 1 166 APPENDIX 1 Internal - External Locus of Control DIRECTIONS: Circle the answer for each number that matches the answer you most strongly believe. 1) a. Children get into trouble because their parents punish them too much. b. The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are too easy with them. 2) ee Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck. b. People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make. 3) a. One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don't take enough interest in politics. Q; There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent them. 4) a. In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world. pp Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he tries. 5) a. The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense. he Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental happenings. 6) e; Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader. b. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of their opportunities. 7) ee_ No matter how hard you try some people just don't like you. b. People who can't get others to like them don't understand how to get along with others. 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) In: If" I?” I?" l?‘ I?” 167 Heredity plays the major role in determining one's personality. It is one's experience in life which determine what they're like. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen. Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action. In the case of the well prepared student there is rarely, if ever, such a thing as an unfair test. Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work that studying is really useless. Becoming a success is a matter of hard work, luck has little or nothing to do with it. Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time. The average citizen can have an influence on government decisions. This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do about it. When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work. It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow. There are certain people who are just no good. There is some good in everybody. In my case, getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck. Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin. Who gets to be boss often depends on who was lucky enough to be in the right place first. 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) 24) If” If" If” I?" 168 Getting people to do the right thing depends on ability, luck has little or nothing to do with it. As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims of forces we can neither understand, nor control. By taking an active part in political affairs the people can control world events. Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental happenings. There really is no such thing as "luck". One should always be willing to admit mistakes. It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes. It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you. How many friends you have depends upon how nice a person you are. In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones. Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three. With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption. It is difficult for people to have control over the things politicians do in office. Sometimes I can't understand how teachers arrive at the grades they give. There is a direct connection between how I study and grades I get. A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should do. A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are. 169 25) ee Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to me. b. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life. 26) a. People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly. pp There's not much use in trying too hard to please people, if they like you, they like you. 27) a. There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school. b. Team sports are an excellent way to build character. 28) a. What happens to me is my own doing. he Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the direction my life is taking. 29) ee Most of the time I can't understand why politicians behave the way they do. b. In the long run, the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on a local level. Rotter, Julian B., "Generalized Expectancies for Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement", in Psychological Monographs: General end Applied, 1966, 80, 11-12. Copyright 1966 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission of the publisher and the author. APPENDIX 2 170 AE£§N21¥_Z LIFE EVENTS AND STRESS SCALE SCALE iflnnl VALUE Death of spouse ....................................... 100 Divorce ............................................... 73 Marital separation .................................... 65 Jail term ............................................. 63 Death of close family member .......................... 63 Personal injury or illness ............................ 53 Marriage .............................................. 50 Fired at work ......................................... 47 Marital reconciliation ................................ 45 Retirement ............................................ 45 Change in health of family member ..................... 44 Pregnancy ............................................. 40 Sex difficulties ...................................... 39 Gain of new family member ............................. 39 Business readjustment ................................. 39 Change in financial state ............................. 38 Death of close friend ................................. 37 Change to different line of work ...................... 36 Increased arguing with spouse ......................... 35 Mortgage over $10,000 ................................. 31' Foreclosure of mortgage or loan ....................... 30 Change in responsibilities at work .................... 29 Son or daughter leaving home .......................... 29 Trouble with in-laws .................................. 29 Outstanding personal achievement ...................... 28 Spouse begins or stops work ........................... 26 Begin or end school ................................... 26 Change in living conditions.. ......................... 25 Revision of personal habits ........................... 24 Trouble with boss ..................................... 23 Change in work hours or conditions .................... 20 Change in residence ........... .... .................... 20 Change in schools ..................................... 20 Change in recreation .................................. 19 Change in church activities ........................... 19 Change in social activities ........................... 18 Mortgage or loan less than $10,000 .................... 17 Change in sleeping habits ............................. 16 Change in family reunions/get togethers ............... 15 Change in eating habits.................... ........... 15 Vacation ............. . ................................ 13 Christmas ............................................. 12 Minor violations of the law ........................... 11 Reprinted from Joureel of_g§ychosometic Research, Vol. 2, Holmes, T.H. 6 Rahe, R. H., The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, 213-218, copyright 1967, with kind permission of Elsevier Science Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington 0X5 1GB, UK. APPENDIX 3 171 APPENDIX 3 CONSENT FORM To whom it may concern: The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding of the transition process and adaptations to transition as experienced by unemployed adults. I will be asking you some questions about your background, your education and/or training, your employment history, and your family, if applicable. In addition, I will be asking you about your experiences as they relate to the transition process from employed to unemployed status. This interview will take approximately one hour. If we do not complete all of the questions, I would like to talk to you again. The total time involved in our interviews will not exceed three hours. All the results will be treated with strict confidentiality and your name will not be used in any research report. Participation is voluntary; you may choose not to participate at all, refuse to answer some questions, or discontinue the interview at any time. There is absolutely no penalty for taking any of these actions. If you wish to have a copy of the general findings of this report one will be furnished upon request. By signing this form, you indicate that you understand the purposes of the study and that you are voluntarily agreeing to participate in the study. Respondent's name APPENDIX 4 172 APPENDIX 4 I.D. No. INTERVIEW GUIDE My primary purpose is to listen, try to understand, and to report the findings of the group. There are no right or wrong answers--only information which I will gather and use as part of my research findings. I have some questions I have prepared but you are free to refuse to answer any of them. Name: Phone No.: Address: Own: Rent: Age: Marital Status: Gender: Dependents: Ages: Length of time employed: Length of time unemployed: 173 I.D. No. 1. Tell me a little bit about yourself, your working background--where, how long, type of work. 2. What is your level of education/training? -formal -informal -on-the-job training -experiential learning (hobbies, self-taught) Chegecteristics of the trensition 3. Tell me about your job loss. 1) Was it expected or sudden? ii) When did you first learn or perhaps suspect you might lose your job? 4. How did you feel or react to hearing about losing your job? 5. Is this a temporary situation? i) Do you expect to return to your previous job or employer? 6. Have you ever lost a job before? If so, was the experience similar or different? How? Pre/post trensition environment (interpersonal, institutional) 7. When you lost your job, did you have any support‘ systems (family, friends, colleagues) who were able to understand what you were experiencing? 8. Did your employer offer any assistance? If yes, what kind? Was this sufficient? If no support, what would you have liked to have had in place? 9. Has your lifestyle changed? If so, how? i) What was your household income before losing your job? 10. 174 ii) Do you have any source of income now? If yes, what? How much? iii) If no, how do you survive? Have you always lived in Sault Ste. Marie? Characteristics of the individuel 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Have there been any changes in your personal life? marital status role within the family your health your family's health Since losing your job, how have you occupied your time? Have you locked, or do you plan to look, for new work? Are you experiencing any difficulties with finding new employment? Is there anything that would help you with the job of looking for a job? Are you willing to move from the Sault to find work? Do you have any plans to add to your education or training? If so, what? If not, why not? What kind of work would you like to have? What pay range are you expecting? Hopson has a model of stages one goes through when one is experiencing transitions. Based on your experience, where would you say you are in his model. Is there anything I have not asked that you would like me to know about and consider for inclusion in my study? Would you be willing to be part of a group interview? APPEND I X 5 175 APPENDIX 5 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY June IS, 1993 TO: Rose Caicco 68 Fort Creek Drive Sault Ste. Marie, ON CANADA P6C 5T9 RE: IRB #: 93-083 TITLE: A STUDY OF LIFE TRANSITIONS AND ADAPTATIONS AS UNDERTAKEN BY RECENTLY UNEMPLOYED ADULTS CATEGORY: l-C REVISION REQUESTED: N/A APPROVAL DATE: April 27, I993 The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects‘ (UCRIHS) review of this project is complete. I am pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately proterted and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate. Therefore, the UCRIHS approved this project including any revision listed above. UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to continue a project beyond one year must seek updated certification. Request for renewed approval must be accompanied by all four of the following mandatory assurances. l. The human subjects protocol is the same as in previous studies. 2. There have been no ill effects suffered by the subjects due to their participation in the study. 3. There have been no complaints by the subjects or their representatives related to their participation in the study. 4. There has not been a change in the research environment nor new information which would indicate greater risk to human subjects than that assumed when the protocol was initially reviewed and approved. There is a maximum of four such expedited renewals possible. Investigators wishing to continue a project beyond that time need to submit it again for complete review. UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects, prior to initiation of the change. Investigators must notify UCRIHS promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to contact us at (517) 355-2l80 or FAX (SW) 336—] l7l. Sincerely, avid E. Wright, Ph.D. UCRIHS Chair APPEND IX 6 176 APPENDIX 6 SCRIPT DESCRIBING HOPSON AND ADAMS' MODEL OF ADAPTATION TO TRANSITIONS In an attempt to describe the various stages people go through when they are experiencing a transition, Hopson and Adams came up with a general pattern of adaptation. Not everyone experiences these stages in the same order. Some stages may be longer or deeper than others. In addition, people may go back to previous stages or be in more than one stage at a time. After listening to brief descriptions of each of the seven phases, I am going to ask you to identify where you think you are in this model. The transition I am primarily focusing on is loss of employment although there may be more than one transition going on in your life at one time. Stage 1: Shock end Immobilieetion This is when you first learn about losing your job. Up to this point it may even have been a strong rumour but now it has really happened. Learning that you have or will lose your job soon leaves you immobilized or paralysed emotionally. Stage 2: Minimization or Deniel It is suggested that people at this stage try to minimize or deny the fact that it has happened to them. It may appear impossible to believe that after many years of working in a secure environment, that you have lost your job. This is the "It can't be happening to me" stage. Stage 3: Depressioneend Self-doubt When the full realization that you have lost your job sets in, you may experience a feeling of intense sadness or perhaps even depression. In acute cases, people are very irritable, pessimistic, and experience a sense of helplessness. You may even blame yourself and say things like "If only I had...". Self-esteem may be at an all time low. If this stage is prolonged and severe enough, professional counselling may be necessary. 177 Stage 4:' Letting Go Although little is known about this stage, it appears to be one where you start to let go of the old and may become less resistant to change. You may even start to think you can't do much about the past and need to start thinking about the future. Stage 5: Testing Options At this stage, you start to think about options or alternative. Some examples may be to wait to see if you might get your old job back, explore possibilities about going back to school or moving to a new city, or applying for work in other fields. Stage 6: Seerch for Meenieg This is where you might ask yourself questions like "What happened here? What has this all been about? Have I learned anything from this experience?" As people search for meaning in their lives, it activates commitment to values, views, or behavior. This is where you might think about what you might change or do differently if you had to do it all over again. Stage 7: Integration As a result of the experiences you have gone through in this transition, you may rethink your lifestyle and change some things. Here you may integrate some of the old with the new and is considered a point of readjustment. B I BL I OGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Aslanian, Carol B., et al, Americans in Trensition: Life Changes es Reesons for Adult Leerning, College Entrance Examination Board, New York, 1980. 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