THE .INFWENCE QF SELECTED FACTORS 0N GROWTH EN S§GHF SSNGHéG AND RHYTHMRC READING Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN SKATE UNIVERSITY fiD‘n’CE JOHN—SON BOLIEEN 1967 W v star; '- THESIS 3 129 Thiswis to certify that the thesis entitled THE INFLUENCE OF SELECTED FACTORS ON GROWTH IN SIGHT SINGING AND RHYTHMIC READING presented by Joyce Johnson Bolden has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Music v / 1 I] ‘ , Zafly¢j$ (CHM/g Major professor ‘ Date_L_2_____Ma 9 1967 0-169 EEC-w} AU! 35%” ”W72“; W“, ”(M/‘1 PP 80456” W 960 11538999; (Oi/0" MARgssziffla 1‘ M W” 0* ”z m ABSTRACT THE INFLUENCE OF SELECTED FACTORS ON GROWTH IN SIGHT SINGING AND RHYTHMIC READING by Joyce Johnson Bolden This experimental study was made to determine the extent of the influence, if any, of the piano keyboard, syllables/letters, and re- corder on growth in sight singing.and rhythmic reading. In addition, the study was to investigate the contention that there was a difference in the effectiveness of modes of instruction as growth regulators in regard to sight singing and rhythmic reading abilities. Three hundred and forty-eight elementary education majors en- rolled in nine sections of Music Foundations at Michigan State University were involved in the research. Three teachers taught three sections each of this class employing for each section a different ‘mode of in- struction, i.e., piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder. Thus, Teacher X taught one section emphasizing the use of the piano keyboard, one section emphasizing the use of syllables/letters, and a third sec- tion emphasizing the use of the recorder. Teachers Y and Z used the same procedure. These three factors were used in each case as an approach to sight singing.and rhythmic reading. Each student in the nine sections was given the following tests: pre-test sight singing, pre-test rhythmic reading, post-test sight sing- ing, post-test rhythmic reading, and the Kwalwasser-Ruch Test gf Musical Joyce J. Bolden 2 Accomplishment. A questionnaire was formulated in order to obtain some information about the musical background and interest of the student. A numerical representation of this information-was included as one of the scores for each student. The nine sections were subsequently arranged into three groups composed of three sections. Each group consisted of students in sections which had used the same approach to rhythmic reading and sight singing. A Counterbalance Design was chosen for the study. This provided the controls for the treatment, groups, and teachers. A one-way analysis of variance design was selected as an appropriate statistical procedure to test the hypothesis posited. The .05 level of significance was adopted as the criterion for accepting or rejecting this hypothesis. The necessary computations were done through the Michigan State Univer- sity Computer Center. In order to ascertain the effect of the three factors on growth in sight singing and rhythmic reading, it was necessary to obtain in- formation on the following points: (1) rhythmic reading mean gain, sight singing mean gain, and total mean gain for the three groups, (2) rhythmic reading mean gain, sight singing mean gain, and total mean gain when musical training was the independent variable, (3) rhythmic reading mean gain, sight singing mean gain, and total mean gain when the Kwalwasser- .EESEHI£2£.2£.MUSiC31 Accomplishment was the independent variable, (4) rhythmic reading mean gain when sight singing mean gain was the indepen- dent variable, and (5) sight singing mean gain when rhythmic reading ‘mean gain was the independent variable. Joyce J. Bolden 3 The mean scores for musical training and the Kwalwasser-Ruch $525.2£_Musical Accomplishment were used to determine if the composition of the three groups was equal. The musical training mean scores for Groups I, II, and III were: 8.24, 7.74, and 7.62, respectively. [The Kwalwasser-Ruch Test gf‘Musical Accomplishment mean scores for each of the groups were: 173.33, 175.32, and 174.65. Thus, the results showed that the groups were basically equal. Of the three modes of instruction used in the study, the emphasis placed on syllables/letters as a growth regulator in developing sight singing and rhythmic reading resulted in this approach exceeding both the piano keyboard and recorder in effectiveness as regards rhythmic reading ‘ggin‘ggd.£g£gl.ggin. The differences in rhythmic reading mean gains and total gains for the three groups were statistically significant, in both cases, at the 0.00 level of confidence, or less than .005. Even though syllables/letters produced the greatest increase in sight sing- ing skill, this increase was not statistically significant. Musical training exerted significant influence on each group individually in sight singing. It was shown that there was no relation- ship, however, between the amount of musical training and growth in rhythmic reading and total gain. The Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2; Musical Accomplishment scores did not show any relationship with any of the areas tested: rhythmic read- ing gain, sight singing gain or total gain. THE INFLUENCE OF SELECTED FACTORS ON GROWTH IN SIGHT SINGING AND RHYTHMIC READING By 5' v' Joyce/Johnson Bolden A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Music 1967 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express sincere appreciation to Dr. Robert G. Sidnell, her Thesis Director, for his wise counsel and guidance throughout this study. She is also indebted to Dr. William.R. Sur for his continuing encouragement and assistance as her Guidance Committee chairman. Appreciation must also be expressed to others who contributed to this investigation: Dr. Paul 0. Harder, Dr. walter H. Hodgson, and Miss Martha L. White, members of the writer's Guidance Committee, for their advice and direction. Dr. George Duerksen for many helpful suggestions. Miss Mable 0. Miles, Dr. Charles M. McDermid, and Miss Eunice Wilcox, teachers in the study, for their invaluable participation. James L., the writer's husband, and Pamela Joyce, her daughter, for their patience, understanding, and encouragement. J. J. B. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Ldi/INTRODUCTION................... Music Reading and Sight Singing . . . . . . . Approaches to Music Reading and Sight Singing LD/Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . OtQGSIS a o s a a a a a a a [ /Definition of Terms . . . . . . L O der’of Presentation . . . . . y ‘. II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . StUdies Rel.ted to Sight Re‘dins a a a a e a 0‘0 StUdieB RelIted to Sight Singing a a a s a a a 0 Studies Related to Rhythmic Reading . . . . . . . Studies Related to Music Achievement and Background Summary a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a s a s a 0 III. METHOD AND PROCEDURE 0 a a a a a a a s a a a o a a Population and Setting for the Research TeaChing PersonHEI s a a a s a a s a 0 Identification of the Groups . . . . Experimental Design a s a a s a a a a PfG‘TeStS a s a a a a a a a a a a a Musical Background Questionnaire . . . . . Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2; Musical Accomplishment POSt-TeStS a a s a o a a a a a a a a a a a a a Basic QUEStions a a s a a a a a a a a a a a a 0 Organization and Analysis of the Data . . . . . . O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . a a 0 Analysis of Data Relative to Rhythmic Reading, Sight Singing, and Total Gairs for Three Groups . . . . . . Analysis of Data Relative to Rhythmic Reading, Sight Singing, and Total Gains for Three Groups, Independent Variable: MUSICGI Training a a a a a o a a a a a 0 Analysis of Data Relative to Rhythmic Reading, Sight Singing, and Total Gains for Three Groups, Independent Variable: Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2; Musical Accomplish- ment a a a a a o a a o s a a a a s a a a a a a a a 0 iii Page 10 ll 11 12 23 23 24 26 27 27 28 29 29 3O 31 33 33 37 42 Chapter Analysis of Data Relative to Rhythmic Reading Gain, Independent Variable: Analysis of Data Relative to Sight Singing Gain, Independent Variable: Gain, Sight Singing Gain, and Total Gain, Independent Variable: Overall Musical Training Gain, Sight Singing Gain, and Total Gain, Independent Variable: Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2; Musical Accomplish- Sight Singing Gain . . . . . . Rhythmic Reading Gain Analysis of Data Relative to Overall Rhythmic Reading Analysis of Data Relative to Overall Rhythmic Reading mentaaasaaaaaaasaaaaa sersaasaeaaaaassaaas V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS Findings Conclusions . . Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D APPENDIX E AND RECOMMENDATIONS iv Page 46 46 49 51 53 56 58 61 64 68 71 79 8L' 84 Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF TABLES Teacher and Factor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean Scores of Musical Training and Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2; Musical Accomplishment for Three Groups Rhythmic Reading Pre-Test Means, Mean Gains for Three Groups . . Post-Test Means, and O O O O O O O O O O O Sight Singing Pre-Test Means, Post-Test Means, and Mean Gains for Three Groups . . Total Mean Gains for Three Groups . . . . . . . . . . . Composite of Means for Three Groups . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance of Rhythmic Groups, Independent Variable: Reading Gain for Three Musical Training . . . Analysis of Variance of Sight Singing Gain for Three Groups, Independent Variable: Musical Training . . . Analysis of Variance of Total Gain for Three Groups, Independent Variable: Musical Analysis of Variance of Rhythmic Groups, Independent Variable: Training a a a a a a Reading Gain for Three Rwalwasser-Ruch Test 2; MUSiC‘l Accomplishment a a a e s a a a a a a a a a a 0 Analysis of Variance of Sight Singing Gain for Three Groups, Independent Variable: MU81C81 ACCOQQIiShment a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a L Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2; Analysis of Variance of Total Gain for Three Groups, Independent Variable: Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 25 Musical ACCOQQIiShment a a a a a a a a a a a a e a a a a a a 0 Analysis of Variance of Rhythmic Groups, Independent Variable: Reading Gain for Three Sight Singing Gain . . Analysis of Variance of Sight Singing Gain for Three Groups, Independent Variable: Rhythmic Reading Gain Page 25 34 34 35 36 37 38 40 41 43 44 43 47 Table 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Analysis of Variance of Overall Rhythmic Reading Gain, Independent Variable: Overall Musical Training . . . . Analysis of Variance of Overall Sight Singing Gain, Independent Variable: Analysis of Variance of Overall Total Gain, Independent V‘riable: Overall MUSiCEl Training a a a a a a a a a 0 Overall Musical Training . . . . Analysis of Variance of Overall Rhythmic Reading Gain, Independent Variable: Accomplishment Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2: Musical Analysis of Variance of Overall Sight Singing Gain, Independent Variable: Accomplishment Analysis of Variance of Overall Total Gain, Independent Variable: Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2f Musical Accomplishment Analysis of Variance of Rhythmic Reading Gain for Three Groups Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2: Musical Analysis of Variance of Sight Singing Gain for Three Groups Analysis of Variance of Total Gain for Three Groups . . Raw Data vi Page 49 50 51 52 52 69 69 7O 72 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION For many years the inclusion of music in the school curriculum has been foremost in the minds of music educators. A considerable .amount of time has been trying.to justify the place of music in the curriculum. "Why Teach Music," "Music, Too, Has A Place," or titles ‘with like sentiments have commonly been read. Thus, music educators set out as similitudes of defense.attorneys, armed for the fray. 1, inns book review, Circumstances, hopefully, have changed. Foster states: Frankly, it should no longer be necessary that music edu- cators continue-to vindicate the teaching of music. However, Mrs. Byer presents this section briefly and painlessly, not becoming guilting [his] of circumlocution and ethereal clap- trap. ' It is true, music has proven that it is an integral part of the school curriculum. The "why" of music has been defended, however, a recurring problem continues to rear its head--the problem of "who", tho should teach music. The problem of who should teach music, unlike that of why music should be taught, is one which has been argued primarily among music 1Jesse S. Foster, Review of Music Education 13 the Elementary .School, by Maude Gerrior Byer, Journal 2: Research 32 Music Education, v1 (Fall, 1958), 149. 2 educators. The "why” has been debated mainly by administrators and music educators. The attention that is being focused on the musical training of students preparing to become elementary teachers is partly the result of this dichotomy. Who should teach music in the elementary school, the classroom teacher or the music specialist? This same controversy was discussed in Basic Concepts ig_Music Education.2 Many of the authors took the position that the music specialist should be used in conjunction with the classroom teacher. On the other hand, many educators support the position that music should be treated as a Special subject and taught solely by the music specia- list. There is also a third opinion: There is little doubt that the best person to teach music is the classroom teacher who is musically competent. However, the application of this concept in situations where teachers lack musical competence has resulted in what is probably the most obo vious failure of the self-contained organization plan, and in the resurgence of music as a special subject taught by music specialists in an effort to rebuild elementary music programs that have fallen into decay. When music education was first introduced into the public schools, persons specifically trained in music were employed to teach. Thus, music specialists were responsible for all classroom instruction in the public schools. Later, classroom teachers were given the re» sponsibility for teaching music in elementary schools.4 Currently, 2National Society for the Study of Education, Basic Concepts in Music Education, Fifty-seventh Yearbook, Part I (Chicago: The Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1958). 3 Robert Evans Nye and Vernice Trousdale Nye, Music in the Ele- mentary School (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Ha11,Inc., 1964) 3 Fe 377 0 4Edward Bailey Birge, History_ of Public School Music in the United States (Philadelphia: The Oliver Ditson Co., 19375: 3 there are three general groups of music teachers in elementary schools.5 In group one classroom teachers are responsible for the total program. The second group is composed of music specialists who are responsible alone for the entire music program. Classroom teachers and music specialists, acting jointly to produce an effective school music pro- gram; compose the third group. This category is often the most ad= vantageous for it can combine the advantages of both the classroom teacher and music specialist. One of the new innovations being tried by some school systems is team teaching. The teacher whose strength lies in a given area teaches that area for the members of the team. A survey was made by Ernst6 of the school music programs in 48 cities whose population was over 150,000. It was revealed that the trend was toward greater use of the classroom teacher. A concern was expressed at the 1966 International Seminar on Teacher Education in Music regarding the need for education in music of the general class- room teacher. If this is the path that elementary school music is taking, then careful attention needs to be paid to the training of these elementary teachers in music. Music is an integral part of the elementary curriculum, there- fore, it cannot be isolated to the visit of the music specialist. The responsibility for its inclusion rests primarily upon the classroom teacher. It is essential that elementary teachers become thoroughly trained not only in music fundamentals, but also in the cultural back- ground of music. It is imperative that an active interest in music be SNye .nd Nye, OEO Cit”; ppe 7-80 6Karl D. Ernst, "A Study of Certain Practices in Music Education in School Systems of Cities Over 150,000," Journal pf Research 32 Music Education, V (Spring, 1957), 23-30. fostered in elementary teachers. For these reasons, considerable attention has been focused on the nature of the musical training of students preparing to become elementary teachers. One aspect of this training has been the develop- ment of the ability to read music. More specifically, there should be additional skill in sight singing and increased emphasis on rhythmic reading. MUSIC READING AND SIGHT SINGING Music reading has been one of the greatest problems of pedagogy to confront laymen as well as musicians. ‘What to ‘teach, when to teach, how to teach, and the values of teaching are perennial problems. The purposive functions and goals of music reading are varied. Wheel- wright7 1, of the opinion that "The average child needs to learn in the public schools much of the world's great folk and art music. Ability to read music merely serves as a valuable tool toward this goal. No longer must we consider it an end in itself. The process to function must be one of reading to learn worthwhile music." A similar note is sounded by Swanson8 who writes, "Unfortunately ‘many teachers become so engrossed in teaching children to 'read notes' that they fail to teach 22315, which is much more than the notes on the page." Music educators tend to agree that music reading is simply an h/ .aid through which a deeper understanding of music mmy be gained. 7Lorin F. Wheelwright, "Music Reading in the Elementary School," Education, LIX (May, 1939), 534. 8Bessie R. Swanson, Music in the Education of Children (Belmont, California: wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1962): p. 160. 5 A perusal of materials reveals that a great deal is written concerning the ability to read music with more emphasis on one aspect of this skill than the other. Inna like manner, very little is said —. .—.———..__._._ about sight singing. “In reading notation, two problems will present themselves: duration (rhythm) and pitch. . . The widespread miscono 9 ception that rhythm is less important than pitch is indeed a mystery." 10 Mathew expresses this view: What is the general standard of sight singing today? It would be interesting to know the percentage of singers who (a) Cannot read at all; (b) Can manage the easy bits; (c) Sing by ear: (d) Shamelessly beggar their neighbor; (e) Are reliable sight readers. If, as is to be feared, the numbers in category (e) are small, how is this stage of things to be altered, so that the standard may be raised to a high level, and noncreaders become the ex: ception, not the rule? He concludes that sight singing should be taught throughout a ll pupil‘s career, not just in one or two grades. Murphy points out bx another aspect: Reading is one of the most important means for the develop- ment of musical insight. . .it is primarily concerned with the ability to think music, that is, to read it silently. Vocal expression is only the objectification of this mental concept. Hence, ability to "sight sing" can hardly be regarded as the , principal goal, but rather as a concomitant learning. . . re- y/ sulting from the ability to think and to hear music abstractly. 9Parks Grant, Music For Elementary Teachers (New York: Appleton- CenturyoCrofts, Inc., 1960), p. 89. 10A. G. Mathew, "Sight Singing," The Music Teacher and Piano L// Student, XLI (April, 1962), 177. “Howard A. Murphy, Teaching Musicianshii (New York: Coleman- Ross Co., Inc., 1950), p. 152. APPROACHES TO MUSIC READING AND SIGHT SINGING The search for ways and devices to teach music reading and sight singing has been in existence for many years. Two of the oldest ways are still being used today, the Latin syllables which evolved from a method devised by Guido d'Arezzo, and an instrumental approach which was first used by Odo of Cluny. Diverse other approaches have been advocated by educators. One that has received a great deal of attena tion is the keyboard approach. It is purported that keyboard experiences and the piano key» board have distinct advantages over other approaches to music reading, among which are the abilities to understand pitch differences, intern vallic relationship of tones, and music notation. Correlated with these ideas are studies which have been made pertaining to the concept of motor-visual imagery. An important study in this area was one by Gaston.12 He concludes: ...the findings of this study indicate that motorevisual imagery cannot be severed from the music experience of the individual without damaging his tonal thinking. Futhermore, it seems evident that if there is to be any tonal thinking it must be facilitated by motorovisual imagery. In the same study Gaston points out the implications for music education: (1) Children will not learn to think tonally in an ap- proved fashion, if at all, if they are given no tools for the production of motor-visual imagery. (2) They'will need to be provided with opportunity and experience in an environ- ment rich in motor-visual stimulants. (3) They will need to have a chance to integrate the senses by means of a space-frame. (4) This space-frame should match their maturation level in complexity of manipulation. The piano 12E. Thayer Gaston, "Motor-Visual Imagery in Tonal Thinking," Music Educators National Conference, 1947, p. 100. 7 keyboard is best for the larger, more mature students, but it is probably too complex for the little child in the be« ginning grades. 14 Hargiss contends that ”a space frame is necessary in order to perceive tonal relationships, that the piano keyboard furnishes the best apace frame, and that sight singing depends not only upon this perm ception but also upon vocalomotor imagery which is acquired by vocal practice." 15 Frisch supports this statement regarding keyboard experience by also pointing out: "Keyboard experience. . .means gaining knowledge and enjoyment of music through the use of the keyboard or the classroom piano by 'seeing, hearing, and feeling.'” Nye and Nye16 observe that through the use of the piano keys board many of the problems of music notation could be minimized. The reason is that the keyboard constitutes a highly significant audioevisual tool for learning. Children enjoy "picking out tunes" and in doing so on the bells or piano they see and feel and hear the interval relationships of tones. This can lead to a real comprehension of the meana ing of the notes on the staff - a comprehension frequently lacking in children whose musical experiences have been confined to a singing approach. Melody instruments have been a part of the elementary school 131bid., p. 100. 14Genevieve Hargiss, ”The Acquisition of Sight Singing Ability in Piano Classes" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, 1960), p. 48. 15Fay Templeton Frisch, "Keyboard Experience and Class Piano Teaching," Music Educators Journal, XL (January, 1954), p. 25. 16Nye and Nye, op. cit., p. 125. 8 music program for a long time, often being used as the instrumental approach to music reading. Most generally, these instruments were the Song Flute, Flutophone and the Tonette. In recent years there has been a revival of interest in the recorder, not only by school systems, but also by adult groups. "It is an interesting paradox to find that an instrument once discarded as being unsuitable for orchestral work should be revived in classrooms as a positive means of bringing music into the lives of children. Such is the case of the recorder. . . "17 Advocators of the recorder cite reasons for its inclusion in the curriculum. These include the inexpensiveness of a genuine music instrument, the vast amount of music literature which has been written for it, the beautiful tone quality which the instrument is capable of producing, and the possible carry over from school to home, from child: hood to adulthood. Weldon18 cites two other reasons in addition to the ones just mentioned: the instrument is easy to play and the his: tory of the instrument traced back over hundreds of years fascinates boys and girls. Davis19 conducted a study with recorders used as an aid in music reading. She makes the following statement as a result of the experiment: "I have found recorder playing to be the most satisfactory approach to good music reading for children in general music classes in 17 Don Cowan, "More About Recorders," Music Educators Journal, LII (September-October, 1965), 121. 18Richard Weldon, "A Teacher's Recommendation," The Instrumenta- ‘list, XII (November, 1957), 34. 19Erma Davis, "Come, Some Music! Come, The Recorder," Musig Educators Journal, XLVII (June, 1961), 82-83. 9 the intermediate grades of the public schools,“ As the students learned the mechanics of the instrument, they learned simultaneously to read notesa Davis comments also that ”there has been much satisfaction, in» terest and improved musical understanding through experience with the recorder,”20 A third approach to music reading and sight singing is based on the use of syllables, numbers and letters; The use and value of these \V/V devices are still the subject of controversy in the elementary music pro~ gram. Should they be used? Which method is the best? These are only two of the questions which keep arising. This seems quite incongruous when it is remembered that Lowell Mason was using all three methods as 21 H early as 18383 Swanson comments that “Some of the controversy about syllables has arisen because of poor methods in using themo Either syllables or numbers. when properly used, can help children establish relationships of the tones of the scale,” In a study which was made to determine the necessary prepara» tion for elementary teachers, Stroessleriszz data revealed that more attention should be paid to deveIOping skill in reading music with syllables and numbers. A similar study was made of the required musical competencies of elementary teachers in Maryland,23 Among other 291b1d., pg 83, 21Swanson, op.cit,, p. 1700 22John Ho Stroessler, Music Teaching Competencies_g£ Stanford Elem mentar Credential Candidates, (research abstracts, Stanford University, 19495, cited by William 80 Larson, "Research Studies in Music Education," Music Educators Journal, XXXVI (June-July, 1950), 410 ' 23Jessie Lo Fleming, "The Determination of Musical Experiences Designed to Develop the Musical Competencies Required of Elementary School Teachers in Maryland," Journal 2g Research in Music Education, I (Spring, 1953), 640 10 competencies listed are these; to sing songs at sight which are of the same difficulty as folk songs and to sing at sight unison and part songs using numbers, letters, syllables, and words, All three methods, syllao bles, numbers or letters, are Simply musical devices which aid in dem veloping an understanding of tonal relationshipsof the degrees of the scalen Integrated classes in music fundamentals for elementary educa» tion majors normally include as part of the instruction instrumental ext periences and use of syllables/numbers/letterso These were the modes of instruction selected for this Study, using three specific factors: the piano, the recorder, {and syllables/letters, PURPOSE OF THE STUDY At Michigan State University the first music course required of prospective elementary teachers consists of providing these students with the necessary skills and tools to be used in teaching music in eiemen~ tary school systems, This course is taught as an integrated course comm bining keyboard, instrumental and singing experiences, theory, and listening into one termn Classes in Music Foundations, Music 1&5, meet fifty minutes a day, five days a week for one term, a total of fifty hours of instructional time, Four quarter hours credit are given“ One aspect of this training is the development of the ability to read music. The problem was how to increase facility in sight singing and rhythmic reading, It was believed that the piano keyboard, syllables/ letters, and recorder could be used as three modes of instruction for teaching sight singing and rhythmic reading, These learning modes, if emphasized, could serve as means for producing growth in sight singing 11 and rhythmic reading. The purpose of this study was to determine the exrent of the influence of seletted factors. ioen, piano keyboard, recorder, and syllables/letters, on growth in sight singing and rhythmic reading abilitiesa It was also necessary to determine which faCtor, if any, was besto By emphasizing one skill above all others in the teaching of sight singing and rhythmic reading, it was believed that gains could be made not only in the use of the keyboard, syllables/ letters, and recorder, but also in sight singing and rhythmic reading facility. Thus, a prospective elementary teacher could learn to use the keyboard, recorder and syllables/letters and at the same time gain skill in sight singing and rhythmic reading through these ape proachesn HYPOTHESIS this Study was to investigate the contention that there was a difference in the effectiveness of modes of instruction as growch regulators in regard to sight Singing and rhythmic reading abilitieso DEFINITION OF TERMS §35E£H§lfifilfl§.ia defined as the ability to sing at sight with correct pitch and rhythm» Rhythmic reading is defined as the ability to correctly clap or tap beats or rhythmic patterns at sight. The piano keyboard is used as a means of providing a space frame for the perception and understanding of tonal relationships, On the keyboard intervallic relationships are clearly visual. 12 The recorder, as well as other wind instruments, serves as a means of "feeling" or fingering notes, thereby associating the physical response with vocal imageryo §yllab1es/letters are musical devices used as an aid toward the development of understanding the tonal relationship of the degrees of the scale, a vocal response. Emphasis is defined as 100 minutes per weeko ORDER OF PRESENTATION The material presented in this study will be in the following order: Chapter II, A Review of the Literature; Chapter III, Method and Procedure; Chapter IV, Presentation and Analysis of the Data; and Chapter V, Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A perusal of studies dealing with music reading, sight reading, sight singing and rhythmic reading reveals that there exists an abun dance of published materials concerned with music reading and sight readingo There is, however, very little experimental research in the; areas of sight singing and rhythmic reading, The nature and scope of the studies presented in this chapter are diverse as are the techniques used in the evaluation processes. The literature presented is discussed according to four different categories: studies related to sight reading; studies related to sight singing; studies related to rhythmic reading; and studies related to music achievement and backgroundo STUDIES RELATED TO SIGHT READING Burnau1 made a study of the individual traits and abilities of good music sight readers as Opposed to poor music sight readers in order to discover if certain abilities tend to aid in the sight reading pro» cess. The 54 subjects used in the study ranged in age from 14 to 18 and were in the instrumental music departments of three school systemso The results showed that good music readers tended to excel in verbal 1John M. Burnau, "A Study of the Ability Patterns of a Group of Good Music Sight Readers and a Group of Poor Music Sight Readers" (un- published Master's thesis, University of Kansas, 1952), 13 14 and non-verbal intelligence, musicality, musical achievement and back- ground. However, there was no significant difference in the general musical interest and background of the two groups, Good music readers also excelled in.auditory music imageryo An interesting experiment was carried out by Kyme2 comparing the effectiveness of different approaches on the skill of reading music at sight. Experimental groups were taught this skill through the use of-shape notes. Three control groups used the traditional methods, i.e.,‘ggl:£3 syllables for the second verse of a familiar song, numbers, and instrumental training. Results revealed that the experbmental groups were superior to the control groups at the .01 level of signifi- cance. There was also evidence of compatability of the shape note technique with traditional approaches. This led the investigator to make the following statements: "It appears, therefore, that one can justify the use of this notational system even in those situations where the teacher is committed to one or another 'system' of teaching .music reading."3 "In the light of this evidence, music educators may 'wish to reappraise the shape note-system of teaching sight-singing, a system in use for over 150 years in the Southeastern United States."4 5 Lewis compared two methods of teaching sight reading to grades 2George H. Kyme, "An Experiment in Teaching Children tn Read (Spring, 1960), 3-8. 31bid., p. 8. 41b1d., p. a. 5Virginia Herron Lewis, "A Comparative Study of Two Methods of Teaching Sight Reading in Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grade Music Classes" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1945). 15 four, five and sixa-the syllable method and the word method. The sylla= ble method was superior as measured by an individual reading test (which was self-constructed) and in recognition of music themes. In the sum quisition of musical infonmation the word method was superior. It was also superior in.an increase of interest and discrimination. She cone cludes that "The study seemed to confirm that the use of-syllables im= proved sight reading efficiency; but concentration in sight reading den tracted from acquisition of other desirable attitudes, knowledge.and skills."6 It was reported by Fisher7 that perceptual skills could be in= creased through the use of the tachistoscope by projecting.a group of musical symbols to be read at sight. There.appeared to be no loss in visual accuracy, on the contrary, visual memory increased. The students in this study were of various musical levels-o3 in an elementary group and 6 in an advanced group. The study of Beck8 was not done in the area of sight reading, yet it was deemed necessary to include it in this section since it dealt with the use of keyboard experience as an approach to reading notation. The subjects were 35 third grade pupils who were taught through this method. Singing and listening lessons were.also given in 61bido ’ p0 920 7Stanley Eugene Fisher, "An Inquiry Into the Technological Methods Applied to Development of Sightreading and/or Sightsinging Techniques" (unpublished Master's thesis, Illinois'Wesleyan University, 1951). 8Mary Elizabeth Beck, "An Experiment in the Use of the Keyboard Approach to Reading Music Notation in the Third Grade" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1938). 16 conjunction with the keyboard approach, however, in an abbreviated form. She concludes that the keyboard approach did prove to be advantageous. STUDIES RELATED TO SIGHT SINGING In an experimental study McClure9 attempted to determine the relative merits of four public school music series in teaching beginning sight singing. A few years later, Kunkle10 examined methods of teaching sight singing. He contended that three of these methods--Tonic Sglgzg, Stationary 23 and Instrumental--could make contributions to a new system of teaching sight singing. The new system was called the Direct Approach Method. His approach used no syllables and presented only a few notes at a time which centered around a home-tone. This method is quite similar to the instrumental approach. In order for the singer to be- come as good a reader as the instrumentalist, it is necessary that sufficient and appropriate material be given the singer so as to provide self-motivation. This type of material is included in the thesis. The Barnes'll study investigated the effect of interval drill on sight singing skill. He reported that the experimental group which was subjected to drill performed significantly better than the control group in sight singing intervals and melody. There was also a high correlation between ability to sight sing intervals and ability to sight 9 Myrle Hubbard McClure, "A Comparison of Four Methods of Teaching Beginning Sight Singing" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1944). 10 Robert F. Kunkle, A Direct A roach £2 Sight Singing (research abstract, Duquesne University, 1946), cited by William S. Larson, "Re- search Studies in Music Education, "Music Educators Journal,XXXVI(June- 1James Woodrow Barnes, "An Experimental Study of Interval Drills As It Affects Sight Singing Skill" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1960). M] l7 sing melody. He concludes, however, that it appears that sight singing melody ability is much more complex than sight singing interval ability. Furthermore, the ability to sight sing melody seems to be dependent on more factors than were accounted for in his experiment. The effect of audio-visual aids on teething sight singing was examined by Hutton.12 Twenty fourth grade students were placed in an experimental or control group, respectively. Prea and post-tests were given in sight singing as well as tests measuring word reading ability, intelligence quotient, previous musical experiences, musical ability and desire to perform with a musical instrument. Her contention was that the use of audio-visual aids was important as a means of teaching sight singing. Furthermore, they could supply the lack of background ex: perience. The results showed that even though both groups showed signi- ficant increase in sight reading ability it was highly probable that the use of these aids would accelerate the learning process to a significant degree. It was also noted that there was no positive evidence of any correlation between sight reading ability and reading achievement at the fourth grade level. The research which had the most direct bearing on this study was one conducted by Hargiss.13 She made a thorough study of the key- board approach to sight singing. This study was made in order to de- termine if sight singing could be taught in the piano laboratories simultaneously with keyboard skills without detriment to these skills. The subjects for the study were elementary education majors who were 12Doris Hutton, "A Comparative Study of Two Methods of Teaching Sight-Singing in the Fourth Grade" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1951). 1311.178188, 020 Cite, Fe 1300 18 required to sing what they played and while they played. Results re- vealed that both the experimental and the control groups gained on the sight singing test, however, the subjects who sang what they played and while they played made highly significant gains in sight singing. It was concluded that understanding of music fundamentals and development of several kinds of imagery, which are pro- vided by instrumental experience, are important and may, of themselves, enable many persons to sing at sight to some extent. However, the addition of vocal practice and its motor imagery enables them to develop the ability much more rapidly and effectively. The act of singing contributes to sight singing ability& not to non-vocal music reading ability nor to musicality. An investigation was made by Smith15 into the evidence of auditory imagery in music reading. Three types of students--ad- vanced, intermediate, and inexperienced--were included in the study. He states that "the process of seeing a symbol and creating a sound as a result is not simple; that this process postulates a highly com- plex group of reactions. These reactions are often directly related, and in some cases, not affected by training or experience."16 His investigation showed that skill in music reading developed simul- taneously'with the development of auditory imagery and that a well developed auditory imagery appears to increase proficiency and success in sight reading. STUDIES RELATED TO RHYTHMIC READING It has been stated previously that there has been only a limited lalbid, p0 1380 15Gustavus H. Smith, "Auditory Imagery in Music Reading: An Experimental Study" (unpublished Master's thesis, Stanford University, 1947). 16Ibid, p. 5. 19 amount of research concerned specifically with sight singing. In the area of rhythmic reading there is even less material available for study. One of the few studies in this field was made by Rea.17 He states that "the main objective of this study was to determine whether or not a specialized type of training in the playing of rhythms would improve a student's sight-reading ability."18 Twenty-two students of brass instruments, ranging from grades seven to twelve,‘were placed in ex- perimental and control groups. This study was conducted during a summer training program. The results showed that both groups made a significant gain in the skill of sight reading. The gain for the ex- perimental group was greater than that of the control group, but the range of scores was wider for the control group. The conclusions drawn from this study were: 1. The gain of the experimental group over the control group was significant. 2. This gain was not due to chance but to the specialized training in the analysis and performance of rhythms. This statemfgt can be made at the 5 per cent level of confi- dence. Helwig20 contends that rhythmic understanding is a definite pro- blem of musical organizations, that an organization of this type will fail to gain true insight into the music performed. He advocates that the director extract.from scores to be performed any rhythmic problems, number these problems, and notate the proper counting above the pattern. 7 Ralph C. Rea, "Rhythm," The Instrumentalist, VII (November- December, 1952), 6,18. 5 18 Ibid., p. 6. lglbids, Fe 180 20 Herman Helwig, "Rhythmic Approach to Sight Reading, "The Instrumentalist, IX (February, 1955), 6-7. 20 These should then be rehearsed by all members before proceeding to sight read from the beginning of the score. "The sight reading results are definitely improved, and the students find a better understanding of rhythmic problems."21 STUDIES RELATED TO MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT AND BACKGROUND Eagan22 investigated the influence of the music background of college music students on their college achievement in music. The study was conducted over an eight-year period and was based on ques- tionnaires and observations. The following conclusions were made: (1) The majority of the two hundred students took private music lessons outside of school time while they were enrolled in high school. (2) The more instruments the student studied privately during high school, the better his grades were in college instrumental study. (3) The study of only one in- strument privately contributed nothing to college achievement in instrumental study. (4) The more pianos available in high school for practice purposes, the better the student did in college instrumental study. (5) College grades in vocal study . were higher for those who had some singing experience in high school. (6) Private vocal lessons during high school contributed immensely toward achieving better grades in college vocal study, while more than one year of high school singing experience con- tributed little. (7) The time spent beyond one year of high school music theory study contributed little toward the achieve- ment of high grades in college music theory. (8) The time spent beyond one-half year of high school music history and appreciation contributed nothing toward the achievement of high grades in college courses in like subjects. (9) The number of music teachers employed in the high school con- tributed proportionately to student success in college music. (10) Special music buildings, rooms, and practice rooms did not contribute much toward the student's achievement in college music. (11) A piano in the home, or a piano background, was not indispensable for success in college music. (12) Music literature in the home or home recordings did not contribute 21 Ibide, Do 79 22Thomas E. Eagan, Relationship of Music Achievement and the Home andH igh School Music Bac kground_ of College Music Majors (research ab- stract, Stanford University, 1947), cited by William S. Larson, "Research Sggggesaén Music Education," Music Educators Journal, XXXVI (June-July, , a 21 much toward success in college music. (13) Home radios con- tributed a great deal toward success in college music. (14) Children of musical parents did better in college music than did children.of unmuaical parents. (15) Pupils coming from homes with singing parents achieved higher grades in college music than did those students coming from homes where parents were instrumentally trained. (16) Musical background could be achieved privately and outside of high school. (17) The students with the highest general intelligence ratings rec ceived the highest grades in college music. Dean23 , studying factors which influence ability to predict suc» case or failure in sight singing, states that intelligence is not a very important element. Moreover, prior music training is only of slightly greater value. These two studies appear to contradict each othera-one contend- ing the musical training does help, the other, that it helps only in a small measure; one, that intelligence is of importance, the other that intelligence is not. Perhaps these differences can be explained by two facts: Eagan's study involved college music majors, Dean's, persons in teacher education; Eagan contends that intelligence is a definite factor on high grades in college music, Dean, that intelli- gence is not very important in predicting success in sight singing. SUMMARY A review of research related to sight reading indicates that several different approaches have been tried: syllable and word methods, keyboard training, shape notes, tachistoscope drill, and isolation of various traits. Each was found to have some bearing on the ability to sight read. Studies related to sight singing varied from the use of 23Charles D. Dean, "Predicting Sight Singing Ability in Teacher Education," Journal gf Educational Psychology} XXXVIII’(November,"l937), 601-608. 22 interval drill, audio-visual aids, a direct approach, auditory imagery, to a keyboard approach. All writers agreed on the importance of in- creasing the ability to sight sing, but not on the most effective approach. There were only very few materials dealing with the signi- ficance of rhythmic reading, however, the investigators in this area contended that the most important method was through the use of specialized training. Music achievement and background were shown to have some relationship, though varying greatly, to either higher grades in music or success in sight singing. CHAPTER III METHOD AND PROCEDURE This chapter is concerned with discussions of basic procedures that were used in conducting the study. The content consists of de- scriptions of the following: population and setting for the research, teaching personnel, identification of the groups, experimental design, and organization and analysis of the data. POPULATION AND SETTING FOR THE RESEARCH The study was conducted in the Music Department of Michigan State University during the academic year 1965-66. It involved nine sections of students enrolled in Music Foundations, Music 145. This course is the first of two required music courses for students prea paring to become elementary teachers. It was an integrated course which included the development of understanding and knowledge of music fundamentals, ear training, music reading, instrumental ex- periences, rhythm and tone problems. The classes met fifty minutes a day, five days a week for one term, a total of 50 hours instructional time. Four quarter hours credit was given. Keyboard experience was conducted in special laboratories. Each laboratory was equipped with twelve pianos, thus providing more extensive equipment for piano experiences. Subjects who were enrolled in the sections using the recorder as the primary mode of instruction were required to purchase individual 23 24 recorders. Individual practice rooms were available for both piano and recorder practice. TEACHING PERSONNEL Three teachers were chosen to each teach three sections of Music Foundations. A different factor was used for each of the sections taught by a given teacher, i.e., recorder for one section, syllables/ letters for another section, and piano keyboard for the third section. These teachers were selected on the basis of their experience, adapta- bility, similarity of classroom atmosphere, and interest in the study. The teachers represented a variety of teaching experiences. Teacher X had the least number of years of experience. She had taught 9 years and was most competent with factor one~-piano key- board. Teacher Y had the most amount of experience with 37 years. She was expecially proficient in the use of syllableso-factor two. Teacher 2 had 12 years of experience and was the most competent of the three teachers in the use of factor threen-recorder. Thus, each teacher's strength lay in a different mode of instruction. This was of prime importance in the study for it prevented the teacher factor from being an overriding consideration. This design was chosen for two reasons. First, it was believed that maximum instruction and learning would result in the section taught by the mode of instruction which was that teacher's primary interest and strength. Possibly, therefore, Teacher X, whose strength was the piano keyboard, could be expected to teach one of the three sections to be taught by her with greater efficiency than the other two. In order to offset this, Teacher Y was chosen for her strength in another mode of instruction, syllables/letters. In the same manner, Teacher Z was selected for his proficiency in the use of the recorder. Therefore, each of the three teachers taught one section out of the nine in his particua lar strength. Second, by requiring each teacher to use a different factor, i.e., piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, for each of the three sections taught by that teacher, it was believed that this would counter— act the possible effect of one teacher teaching at greater maximum efo fort than the other two. The danger would then be that all students in a particular group, for an example, piano keyboard, would have the . distinct advantage of a better teacher. This group might tend to perform better in sight singing and rhythmic reading, thus causing more significant growth than with the other two modes of instruction. \. TABLE I. TEACHER AND FACTOR DESIGN Fall Term Winter Term Spring Term 1965 1966 1966 Piano Keyboard Syllables/Letters ------ Section 1 Section 6 Teacher X Recorder ------------ Section 2 Piano Keyboard Syllables/Letters ------ Section 3 Section 7 Teacher Y Recorder ...D-- an...- Section 4 Recorder ------ Piano Keyboard Section 5 Section 8 Teacher Z Ibo.-- non-an SYll‘blea/ Letters Section 9 26 IDENTIFICATION OF THE GROUPS The nine sections of Music Foundations which were used in the study were divided into three groups. Each group was composed of three sections of Music Foundations classes and employed one factor as the primary mode of instruction in sight singing and rhythmic reading. The subjects were assigned to a specific group on a random basis. These subjects were prbmarily freshmen and sophomores. Their inclusion as a member of a group was only on the basis of being enrolled in that particular section. All sections were already intact as university classes. The group designated as Group I was coma posed of 106 subjects. The emphasized factor in this group was the piano keyboard. Group II consisted of 117 subjects. The factor, in this case, was syllables/letters. The last group, Group III, was com- posed of 125 subjects and the primary mode of instruction for sight singing and rhythmic reading was the recorder. The same teaching material was used for all three groups, i.e., nine sections. Due to practical existing conditions, all three factors were presented in each section. It was felt that this realistic ap- proach must be taken in the study since these were university classes. It was recognized that in order to have a truly scientific experimental design it would have been necessary to confine each section to the use of only one factor, however, to have done so would have prevented giving the prospective elementary teacher the skills necessary in an actual teaching situation. No attempt was made to dictate what was taught in the classes. However, it was requisite that the prescribed mode of instruction be used for sight singing and rhythmic reading, that emphasis 27 be placed on skill in these two areas, and reference made to the space frame of the piano keyboard, the tonal relationships of syllables/ letters and the fingering or "feeling" of intervals on the recorder, respectively. In order to counteract the employment of all three factors in the classes, emphasis was placed on only one factor. Emphasis is de- fined in this study as 100 minutes a week. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Pre-Test Every student in the nine sections was given a pre-test in sight singing and a pre-test in rhythmic reading at the beginning of the term. The same test was used for both sight singing and rhythmic reading, however, the student was only required to concentrate on one skill at a time. The investigator discovered a dearth of satisfactory sight singing tests. This was due to a number of factors, however, the most important one for this study was that “0.222 test provided a means of screening diverse levels of sight singing or rhythmic reading proficiency levels. The test that was used in this study was an adaptation, in part, by the investigator, of a test devised by Dr. Peter Wilhousky. This test was constructed so that succeeding measures increased in tonal and rhythmic complexity. A student was given one point for each pitch sung correctly and one point for each note that was clapped correctly. Each test was conducted individually by the investigator in a sight singing booth. All sight singing tests were tape recorded. Prior to administering the pre-tests, the investigator was introduced to the sections and the subjects were informed about the study which was being 28 conducted. Nevertheless, before thapre-tests were given, an attempt was made to establish rapport between the subject and the investigator. After these preliminaries, the following instructions were given: "You will be given two tests, the first one is a rhythmic reading test and ’ the second is a sight singing test. You will receive one point for every note that you clap correctly on the rhythmic reading test and one point for every pitch thatgyou sing correctly on the sight singing test. Go through the entire test." After the student had completed the rhythmic reading test he was given these additional instructions: "When the tape recorder is turned on, say your last name and sing the same test on ’la'. This is the starting pitch." Pitches were given on a pitch pipe and an attempt was made to have the student match his beginning note with the note sounded on the pitch pipe befOre starting the test. Subjects were numbered in the order of appearance. This number was then placed on an individual data card which provided space for all information concerning that subject. These numbers, in addition to the subject's name, were used to insure the correct score being as- signed to the right person. All tests were scored by the investigator. Musical Background Questionnaire A questionnaire was devised in order to secure some information relative to the musical background and musical interests of the subjects. A numerical representation of this background was assigned in order to compute this information. It was recognized that this representation was not a precise measure because there was not a method of equating the quality or content of all of the experience of each subject. However, 29 it was felt that since the same scale was employed for all subjects, some degree of uniformity had been achieved. Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2£_Musical Accomplishment The KwalwassernRuch Test 2f Musical Accomplishment was used as standardized measurement for all sections. The test is designed to measure achievement in music for elementary and high school grades. It includes materials that are expected to be measured in the course of music instruction in the first twelve grades. The areas tested are knowledge of musical symbols and terms, recognition of syllable names, detection of pitch errors in a familiar melody, detection of time signatures, knowledge of key signatures, knowledge of note values, knowledge of rest values, and recognition of familiar melodies from notation. This test was administered to each section in the sixth week of class instruction. Not only was the Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2£.§2§$£ Accomplishment used to measure achievement, it was also used to compare the musical intelligence of each section. This was important since the sections were intact groups and no attempt had been made to equate each section. The instructions and lengths of time for the standardized test were put on tape and were then played for each section. Thus, each section received precisely the same instructions. These tests were scored by the investigator in accordance with the manual which ac- companied the tests. Post-Tests At the end of each term, the same tests that had been administered 30 at the beginning of the term in rhythmic reading and sight singing were once again given and scored by the investigator. The subjects were again given the same instructions as before. The sight singing test was tape recorded once more. Scores were then placed on the subject's indiVidual data card. BASIC QUESTION S In order to ascertain the effect of the three factors, i.e., piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, on growch in Sight singing and rhythmic reading, it was necessary to define the following questions: 1. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by rhythmic reading mean gain? 2. Is there statistically significant difference In the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder as measured by sight singing mean gain? 3. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by’ total mean gain? 4. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by sight singing mean gain when mu31cal training is the independent variable? 5. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by rhythmic reading mean gain when musical training is the independent variable? 6. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by total mean gain when musical training is the independent variable? 7. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by sight singing mean gain when the Kwalwasser-Ruch Test of Musical Accomplishment is the independent variable? 8. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder,~ag measured by rhythmic reading mean gain when the KwalwasseraRuch Test of 31 Musical Accomplishment is the independent variable? 9. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by total mean gain when the KwalwassermRuch Test 2: Musical Accomplishment is the independent variable? 10. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by rhythmic reading mean gain when sight singing mean gain is the independent variable? 11. Is there statistically significant difference in the use of the three factors: piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, as measured by sight singing mean gain when rhythmic reading mean gain is the independent variable? ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Scores from the administration of precand postatest rhythmic reading and sight singing tests, the group and section to which the sub- ject belonged, the numerical representation of musical training and background, and the score from the standardized music achievement test were recorded on 4x6 cards. These data were organized on IBM key punch cards in the follow- ing order: 1. Group Number and Section 2. Musical Training Score 3. Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2£_Musical AccomplishmEnt Score 4. Pre-Rhythmic Reading Score 5. Pre-Sight Singing Score 6. Post-Rhythmic Reading Score 7. Post-Sight Singing Score A Counterbalance Design was chosen for this study. This pro- vided the controls for the treatment, groups, and teachers. The Michigan State University Computer Center provided all statistical 32 computations. Data were analyzed to test the hypothesis. A oneoway analysis of variance technique was used for this purpose. This was considered an appropriate statistical test to control for possible effects of independent factors which might influence the outcome of the criterion variables. The .05 level of significance was accepted as the standard for the significance of F statistics. In order to obtain the desired information in regard to growth in sight singing and rhythmic reading, additional variables had to be created. These variables were rhythmic reading gain scores, sight singing gain scores and total gain scores. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The purpose of the study was to determine the extent of the influence of selected factors, i.e., piano keyboard, syllables/ letters, and recorder, on growth in rhythmic reading and sight singing. The purpose of this chapter is to present the results of the study and analysis of the data obtained in the pursuit of the investi= gation. The data presented herein form the basis for answering the specific questions posited in Chapter III. Throughout this chapter, the groups representing the piano keyboard, syllables/letters, and the recorder will be designated as Group I, Group II, and Group III, respectively. ANALYSIS OF DATA RELATIVE TO RHYTHMIC READING, SIGHT SINGING, AND TOTAL GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS The three sections which composed each of the three groups were selected for inclusion on a random basis. It was of prime hm- portance for the study, however, to determine if there was any statistically significant difference between the groups. Table 2 shows the mean scores for musical training and the Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2; Musical Accomplishment. The results reveal that only .62 separates the highest mean score (Group I) and the lowest (Group III) in terms of musical train: ing. 33 34 TABLE 20 MEAN SCORES OF MUSICAL TRAINING AND EEALWASSERGRUCH TEST 9E MUSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT FOR THREE GROUPS Musical Standard Kwalwassere Standard Training Deviation Ruch Test Deviation Group I (PK) 8024 9.06 173033 1135? Group II (S/L) 7°74 8A18 175,32 9048 Group III (R) 7°62 8041 174065 10005 A difference of 1099 on the KwalwassermRuch Test is seen be: tween the highest mean score (Group II) and the lowest (Group I)o There was no statistically significant difference between the groups. Table 3 shows the rhythmic reading preatest means, post-test means, mean gains, and an analysis of variance for the three groups involved in the studyo Group I - piano keyboard, Group II a syllables/ letters, and Group III a recorders TABLE 30 RHYTHMIC READING PREmTESI MEANS, POSTaTEST MEANS, AND MEAN GAINS FOR THREE GROUPS Analysis of Variance Pres Post- Mean Std. F 8189 of Group Freq. Mean Mean Gain Devo Statistic F Statistic Group I 106 17.00 27.96 10,96 9,70 Group 11 117 19°53 30°65 11,12 9,54 Group III 125 19,73 25,62 5,89 9972 11043 0.00** *Significant at the ,05 level **Significant at the .01 level 35 Group II with a rhythmic reading mean gain of 11.12 exceeded the mean gains for Groups I and III. the F statistic was 0.00. The approximate probability of This significance is interpreted as less than .005 or the 1/2 per cent level of significance, thus showing that the results were highly significant. The results of Table 4 show the sight singing preotest means, postotest means and mean gains for the three groups. Of these groups, the one showing the highest sight singing mean and the highest sight singing mean gain was Group II with a mean gain of 3.08. On the basis of the test of significance, it was shown, however, that there was no statistically significant difference in the groups. probability of the F statistic was 0.63. The approximate TABLE 4. SIGHT SINGING PREaTEST MEANS, POSTaTEST MEANS, AND MEAN GAINS FOR THREE GROUPS Analysis of Variance Preo Post- Mean Std. F Sig. of Group Freq. Mean Mean Gain Dev. Statistic F Statistic Group I 106 4.63 7.41 2.78 5.29 Group II 117 7.14 10.22 3.08 5.72 Group III 125 6.51 8.89 2.38 5.82 .47 .63 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level 36 1 Even though rhythmic reading gains and sight Singing gains were computed separately for each group, it was deemed advisable to find out which group had the highest total mean gain. Total mean gain is defined as the combined mean gains for sight Singing and rhythmic reading. It is possible for one mode of instruction to exceed another in either sight singing or rhythmic reading but not necessarily in total gain. Table 5 shows the total mean gain for each group. TABLE 5. TOTAL MEAN GAINS FOR THREE GROUPS Analysis of Variance Mean Std. F Sig. Of Group Freq. Gain Dev. StatIStic F Statistic Group I 106 13.74 ll 68 Group II 117 14.20 11.88 Group III 123 8.27 11.76 9 J47 O0 OOW‘k *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level Table 5 reveals that once again Group II incurred the highest mean and mean gain. The probable significance of the F statistic was 0.00, or less than .005. This indicated that there was a highly signif~ icant difference among the three groups with reSpect to total gain. Table 6 presents a composite picture of all means for the three groups involved in the Study. 37 TABLE 6. COMPOSITE OF MEANS FOR THREE GROUPS Preo Pre» Postm Post: Gain Cain Tocal Group RR 58 RR SS RR 58 Ga1n Group I 17.00 4.63 27.96 7.41 10.96 2.78 13.74 Group II 19.53 7.14 30.65 10.22 11.12 3.08 14.20 Group III 19.73 6.51 25.62 8.89 5.89 2.38 8. k) ‘4 ANALYSIS OF DATA RELATIVE TO RHYTHMIC READING, SIGHT SINGING, AND TOTAL GAINS FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: MUSICAL TRAINING In addition to trying to determine the influence of the piano keyboard, syllables/letters, and recorder on growth in rhythmic reading and sight singing, other pertinent information was derived by ascertain: ing the influence of musical training on rhythmic reading gain, sight singing gain and total gain. A score was assigned each member of the study on the basis of the number of years training. This training included not only formal academic study such as general music classes and applied lessons, but also participation in music groups such as church choirs and marching bands. What would be the extent of the influence, if any, of this involvement in music on rhythmic reading gain, sight Singing gain and total gain for the three groups? An analysis of variance was run to ascertain this influence on Group I, Group II and Group III. In each case, musical training was the independent variable with the dependent variable in Table 7 rhythmic read- ing gain. The results and the probable significance of the F statistic is also shown. 38 TABLE 7. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF RHYTHMIG READING GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: MUSICAL TRAINING GROUP I Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 27 2639.61 97.76 1.05 0.41 Within Groups 78 7230.24 92.69 Total 105 9869.85 GROUP II Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 24 2536.65 105.69 1.21 0.25 Within Groups 92 8031.67 87.30 Total 116 10568.32 GROUP III Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 24 1331092 55050 0053 0.96 Within Groups 100 10388.51 103.88 Total 124 11720.43 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level 39 There‘was no statistically significant difference because the probable significance for each of the three groups was 0.41, 0.25 and 0.96, respectively. The conclusion, then, was that training does not affect the outcome of rhythmic reading gain. The same procedure was used to discover if training exerted any influence on sight singing gain. Table 8 shows the results of this analysis. In each case, the results were highly significant: Group I at the .02 level, Group II at the .01 level, and Group III at the .03 level. It is interesting to note that up to this point, the only consistent significance for the three groups was the influence of musical training on sight singing gain. Conclusions were drawn regarding the influence of training on rhythmic reading gain and sight singing gain for each of the three groups, however, it was still necessary to determine the effect of training on the total gain for the groups. Table 9 shows these results. The level of significance did not meet the required criterion of .05. Group I showed significance only at the .16 level, Group II at ”the .15 level and Group III at the .51 level. This confirmed the fact that training did not exert significant influence over the total gain in rhythmic reading and sight pinging. 40 TABLE 8. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F SIGHT SINGING GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: MUSICAL TRAINING GROUP I Source of Degrees of Sum.of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between' Groups 27 1141043 42027 1084 0.02** Within Groups 78 1795.13 23.01 Total 7 105 2936.57 GROUP II Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic ._4 Between Groups 24 1267.07 52.79 1.92 0.01** Within Groups 92 _ 2531.23 27.51 Total 116 3798.30 GROUP III Source of Degrees of Sum.of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 24 1230.25 51.26 1.73 0.03** Within Groups 100 2967.08 29.67 Total 124‘ 4197.33 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level 41 TABLE 9. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF TOTAL GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: MUSICAL TRAINING GROUP I Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 27 4541.15 168.19 1.34 0.16 Within Groups 78 9791.45 125.53 Total 105 14332.60 GROUP II Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between . Groups 24 4305.77 179.41 1.37 0.15 Within Groups 92 12068.71 131.18 Total 116 16374.48 GROUP III Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 24 3237.93 134.91 0.97 0.51 Within Groups 100 13900.36 139.00 Total 124 17138.29 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level 42 ANALYSIS OF DATA RELATIVE TO RHYTHMIC READING, SIGHT SINGING AND TOTAL GAINS FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: KWALWASSER-RUCH TEST 9}: MUSICAL AGGOMPLISHMENT The KwalwassernRuch T£s£_££_Music§l Accomplishment is a standar~ dized test that was used to help equate the groups used in the study and to help discover the effect and/or correlation between scores made on rhythmic reading and sight singing. The scores ranged from 84 to 239 in the three groups with the highest possible score being 240. The KwalwasseraRuch mean score for Group I was 173.33, for Group II a 175.32, and for Group III ~ 174.65. Rhythmic reading gain was the dependent variable in this set of analyses with the KwalwassernRuch scores as the independent variable. The results of the analyses showed that none of the groups produced an F statistic of significance. Since Group I's F statistic level of 0.96, Group IT’S of 0.85, and Group 111's of 0.50 all exceeded the required significance ratio at the .05 level, there was no statisti~ cally significant difference in the groups. Table 11 shows the results of the influence of the Kwalwasserm §3£h_33§£ 2f Musical Accomplishment scores on sight singing gain for each of the three groups. The analysis of variance revealed that the significance of the F statistics was not of sufficient magnitude: Group I _ 0.99, Group II - 0.85, and Group III - 0.50. Even though it could be concluded from the previous results that the effect of Kwalwasser-Ruch scores on total gain would be negligible, the score had to be computed. The results were as expected: Group I was significant at the .96 level, Group II at the .63 level, and Group III at the .65 level. 43 TABLE 10. ANALYSIS OF VARIANIE OF RHYTHMIC READING GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: RNALNASSEgiRUCH TESL ,OJ: swig; ACCOMPLIsmENI GROUP I Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean 51g. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F StatiStic F Statistic Between Groups 76 60s1.68 79.49 0.60 0.96 Within Groups 29 3828.17 132.00 Total 105 9869.85 GROUP i1 Source of Degrees Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 80 6631.57 82 89 0.76 0.85 Wlthlh Groups 36 3936.75 109.35 GROUP III Source of Degrees Sum of Mean Sig. of 'Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statiscic Between Groups 79 7477.06 94.65 1.00 0.50 Within Groups 45 4243.37 94.30 :lotal 124 11720.43 *Significant at the .05 level *kSignificant at the .01 level 44 TABLE 11. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SIGHT SINGING GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: KWALWASSERaRUCH,IE§£I2E MUSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT GROUP I Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 76 1672.73 22.01 0.50 0.99 Within Groups 29 1263 83 43.58 Total 105 2936.56 GROUP II Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 80 2570.89 32.14 0.94 0.60 Within Groups 36 1227.42 34 09 Total 116 3798.31 GROUP III Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 79 2395.11 30.32 0.76 . 0.86 Within Groups 45 1802.22 40.05 Total 124 4197.33 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level 45 TABLE 12. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF TOTAL GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: KWALWASSER-RUCH TEST 9: MUSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT GROUP I Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 76 8799.27 115.78 0.61 0.96 Within Groups 29 5533.33 190.80 Total 105 14332.60 GROUP 11 Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom _Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 80 11000.31 137.50 0.92 0.63 Within Groups 36 5374.17 149.28 Total 116 16374.48 GROUP III Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 79 10548.84 133.53 0.91 0.65 Within Groups 45 6589.45 146.43 Total 124 17138.29 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level A6 The results as shown in Table 12 Show quite clearly that there is no relationship between the KwalwasseraRugh Tesg‘gf Musical Accome plishment and the total gain in rhythmic reading and sight singing. ANALYSIS OF DATA RELATIVE TO RHITHMIC READING GAIN, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: SIGHT SINGING GAIN Table 13 shows the results of the effect of sight singing gain on rhythmic reading gain. For Groups I and II, sight singing gain dld not have any significant effect on rhythmic reading gain. The approximate signifim cance probability for the F statistic for each of these two groups was 0.47 and 0.64 respectively. However, Group III showed highly signifi= cant results with the approximate significance probability for the F statistic of 0.00, or less than .005. Thus. sight singing gain did exert considerable influence over the rhythmic reading gain of this group. ANALYSIS OF DATA RELATIVE TO SIGHT SINGING GAIN. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: RHYTHMIC READING GAIN Table 14 shows the results of the data concerning the ins fluence of rhythmic reading gain on sight singing gain for the three groups. The analysis of variance Shows that there was no significant difference in growth in Sight singing for two groups, Groups II and III, when rhythmic reading gain was the independent variable. Their levels of significance were .34 and .28, respectively. The results of the analysis show that the probable significance of the F statistic for Group I was highly significant at the .01 level. 47 TABLE 13. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF RHYTHMIC GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: SIGHT SINGING GAIN GROUP I Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sigo of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 24 2272028 94068 1001 0.47 Within Groups 81 7597.57 93.80 Total 105 9869.85 GROUP II Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sigo of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 24 1951,18 81030 0.87 0964 Within Groups 92 8617.14 93966 Total 116 10568.32 GROUP III Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 25 4170055 166082 2019 0000** Within Groups 99 7549.88 76926 Total 124 11720043 *Significant at the 005 level **Significant at the .01 level 48 TABLE 14. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SIGHT SINGING GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: RHYTHMIC READING GAIN GROUP I Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 30 1329067 44.32 2.07 0.01** Within Groups 75 1606.90 21.42 Total 105 2936.57 GROUP II Source of Degrees of Sum of' Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 37 1298.40 35.09 1.11 0.34 Within Groups 79 2499.91 31.64 Total 116 3798031 GROUP III Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares, Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 31 1174.53 37.89 1.16 0928 Within Groups 93 3022.80 32.50 Total 124 4197.33 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level 49 ANALYSIS OF DATA RELATIVE TO OVERALL RHYTHMIC READING GAIN, SIGHT SINGING GAIN, AND TOTAL GAIN, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: OVERALL MUSICAL TRAINING An analysis of variance was computed for each of the three groups with respect to the influence'of musical training on rhythmic reading gain, eight singing gain and total gain. It was alao deemed adviaable to compute the overall gain picture for each of the preceding factors. A look at the complete picture of the reaulta reveala that the overall rhythmic reading mean score for the 348 subjects was 9.19. The numerical representation for numbers of years training ranged from 0 years to 42 years, with the greatest frequency of 51 persona for 0 years. The acore of 42 was the result of one student having taken private leaaona concurrently on three instruments for 7-10 yeara and having been involved in numerous music organizationa, vocal and inatrumental, in junior and senior high school. Table 15 shows a statistical summary of the influence of overall training on overall rhythmic reading gain. The figures revealed that there was no significance. The probable aignificance of the F atatia- tic was 0.62. TABLE 15. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF OVERALL RHYTHMIC READING GAIN, INDE- PENDENT VARIABLE: OVERALL MUSICAL TRAINING Source of Degree: of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groupa 34 3072.89 90.38 0.91 0.62 Within 4 Groups 313 31217.21 99.73 Total 347 34290.10 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level 50 TABLE 16. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF OVERALL SIGHT SINGING GAIN, INDE- PENDENT VARIABLE: OVERALL MUSICAL TRAINING Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 34 1448.72 42.61 1.40 0.07 Within Groups 313 9513.42 30.39 Total 347 10962.14 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level The overall sight singing mean gain in the study was 2.73. In investigating the overall effect of training on overall sight singing gain the F statistic was revealed to be of insufficient magnitude to warrant the assumption of statistically significant difference. It is interesting to note, however, that when these same data were computed by group as opposed to an overall analysis, the F statistics than were shown to have a probable significance of .02, .01, and .03 for the three groups. Nevertheless, the overall probable significance of the F statistic for overall trainumg on overall sight singing was .07. Table 17 presents data concerned with the effect of training on the total gain. The mean total gain for the entire study was 11.92. The F statistic did not reveal any significance in the in- fluence of training on total gain. The approximate significance probability of the F statistic was 0.46. 51 TABLE 17. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF OVERALL TOTAL GAIN, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: OVERALL MUSICAL TRAINING Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 34 4992.84 146.85 1.01 0.46 Within Groups 313 45479.22 145.30 Total 347 50472.06 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level ANALYSIS OF DATA RELATIVE TO OVERALL RHYTHMIC READING GAIN, SIGHT SINGING GAIN, AND TOTAL GAIN, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: KWALWASSERaRUCH TEST 9: MUSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT The following tables present data which show that the overall Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2f Musical Accomplishment does not exert any signif« icant influence on overall rhythmic reading gain. Table 18 reveals that the Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2£_Musical Accomplishment did not exert any significant influence on overall rhythmic reading gain. The probable significance of the F statistic was at the .53 level. It is shown in Table 19 that the KwalwasseraRuch Test 2f Musical Accomplishment had even less influence on overall sight singing gain than it did on overall rhythmic reading gain. The probable significance in this case was 0.89. It was to be expected that with the overall total gain as the dependent variable and the Kwalwasser-Ruch as independent variable, the results as shown in Table 20 would be of negligible significance. This was confirmed by the F statistic which showed a probable significance of 0.56. 52 TABLE 18. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F OVERALL RHYTHMIC READING GAIN, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: KWALWASSER-RUCH TEST inMUSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance ‘Freedom ‘Squares ~Square 'F Statistic . F Statistic Between “Groups 126 12323.45 97.30 0.98 0.53 -Within Groups 221 21966.65 99.40 Total 347 34290.10 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level TABLE 19. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF OVERALL SIGHT SINGING GAIN, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: KWALWASSER-RUCH TEST OE MUSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F statistic Between Groups 126 3496.53 27.75 0.82 0.89 Within Groups 221 7465.62 33.78 Total 347 10962.15 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level 53 TABLE 20. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF OVERALL TOTAL GAIN, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: KWALWASSER-RUCH TEST OF MUSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 126 18031.61 143.11 0.97 0.56 Within Groups 221 32440.45 146.79 Total 347 50472.06 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level SUMMARY The primary purpose of this chapter has been to make statistical comparisons of data obtained related to the influence of the piano key- board, syllables/letters, and recorder on growth in rhythmic reading and sight singing. The eleven questions which were posed were tested in the analysis of the data using a one-way analysis of variance. With respect to sight singing mean gain, for the three groups, there was no statistically significant difference. In regards to rhythmic reading mean gain, there was a highly significant statistical difference in the three groups. With respect to total gain for the three groups, the results were highly significant. In terms of rhythmic reading gain for the three groups with musical training as the independent variable, there was no statistically significant difference. ,4 In regard to sight singing mean gain when musical training was the independent variable, there was statistically significant difference for each of the three groups. This was true in each case at less than the .05 level of significance. With respect to total gain for the three groups when musical training was the independent variable, there was no statistically signifa icant difference. In terms of rhythmic reading gain when the KwalwasseraRuch‘Eesg 2f Musical Accomplishment was used as the independent variable, there was no statistically significant difference. The comparison of the three groups in sight singing gain when the KwalwassermRuch Test 2f Musical Accomplishment was the independent variable' revealed no statistically significant difference. In regard to total gain when the independent variable was the Kwalwasseijkuch I§§£_g£5Musica1_Accomp1ishment, there was no statistically significant difference in the three groups. With respect to rhythmic gain when sight singing gain.was the independent variable, there was no significant difference for Groups I and II. However, the results for Group III were highly significant. In terms of sight singing gain when rhythmic reading gain was the independent variable, Group I was highly significant. Groups II and III were not significant. In regard to the overall rhythmic reading gain when overall musical training was the independent variable, there was no statistically significant difference. With respect to overall sight singing gain when overall musical 55 training gain was the independent variable, there was no statistically significant difference. In terms of overall total gain when the independent variable was overall musical training, there was no statistically significant dif- ference. In regard to overall rhythmic reading gain when the Kwalwasseru Ruch Test gf Musical Accomplishment‘was held as the independent variable, there was no statistically significant difference. In terms of overall sight singing gain when the Kwalwasser-Ruch Test 2£_Musical Accomplishment was the independent variable, there was no statistically significant difference. With respect to overall total gain when the KwalwassereRuch Test 2f Musical Accomplishment was the independent variable, there was no statistically significant difference. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of this experimental study was to determine the ex- tent of the influence, if any, of the piano keyboard, syllables/letters, and recorder on growth in sight singing and rhythmic reading. It was believed that the piano keyboard, syllables/letters, and recorder could be used as three modes of instruction for teaching sight singing and rhythmic reading. It was believed that these learning modes, if emphasized, could serve as means for producing growth in sight singing and rhythmic reading. This was to be part of the work in the course Music Foundations at Michigan State University. The course was one of two required music coummasfor students planning to become elementary teachers. The study was to investigate the contention that there was a difference in the effectiveness of modes of instruction as growth regulators in regard to sight singing and rhythmic reading abilities. A review of the literature revealed that numerous studies had been made vvith regard to music reading and sight singing, but relative- ly few had been made with respect to sight singing and rhythmic reading. There was evidence, however, to support the contention that sight sing- ing could be taught through the use of the piano keyboard, syllables/ letters, and recorder. Nevertheless, no study had been conducted that would reveal which approach yielded the most influence on sight singing and rhythmic reading. 56 57 Three hundred fortymeight students enrolled in nine sections of Music Foundations were involved in the study. Three teachers taught three sections each of this class employing for each section a different mode of instruction, i.e., piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder. Thus, Teacher X taught one section emphasizing the use of the piano keyboard, one section emphasizing syllables/letters. and a third section empha51zing the use of the recorder. Teachers Y and Z used the same procedure. These three modes of instruction were used in each case as an approach to sight singing and rhythmic reading. Each student in the nine sections was given the following testse premtest Sight singing, pre~te5t rhythmic reading, poetmtest sight singing, postntest rhythmic reading, and the KwalwassermRuch‘lesg‘ganpsical‘Asn complishment. A questionnaire was formulated in order to obtain some ins formation,about musical background and interest. A numerical represenm tation of this information was included as one of the scores for each student. The nine sections were subsequently arranged into three groups composed of three sections. Each group consisted of students in secn tions which had used the same approach to rhythmic reading and sight singing. All instruments were scored and the resulting data were tabulated by the invescigator. A Counterbalance Design was chosen for this study. This provided the controls for the treatment, groups, and teachers. A oneoway analysis of variance design was selected as an appropriate statistical procedure to test the hypothesis posited. The .05 level of significance was adopted as the criterion for the significance of F statistics. The necessary statistical computations were done through the $8 Michigan State University Computer Centero Fl ND INC S In order to ascertain.the effect of the three factors,ioeo, piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, on growth in sight singing and rhythmic reading. it was necessary to obtain information on the following points: (1) rhythmic reading mean gain, sight singing mean gain and total gain for the three groups, (2) rhythmic reading mean gain, sight singing mean gain and total mean gain when musical training 'was the independent variable, (3) rhythmic reading mean gain, sight aingw ing mean gain and total mean gain when the KwalwasseraRuch.Test‘2£_Musical Accomplishment was the independent variable, (4) rhythmic reading mean gain when sight singing mean gain*was the independent variable, and (5) sight singing mean gain when rhythmic reading mean gain‘was the indepen» dent variablen Groups I, II and III were found to have been equal‘with regard to musical training, The mean scores for each group were: 8924, 7074 and 70620 The KwalwassernRuch Test of yusical Accomplishment scores were: 173.33, 175332 and 17410650 Thus, the results showed that the three groups were basically equals The premtest rhythmic reading mean scores were as follows: Group I a 17.00, Group II - 19.53 and Group III - 19.739 The pre-test sight singing mean scores for the groups were: 4963, 7;14 and 6.519 1, Groups I and II with rhythmic reading mean gains of 10.96 and 11.12, respectively, exhibited larger mean gains than did Group III'with a rhythmic reading‘mean gain of 5s89o The difference in mean gains was statistically significant at the 0000 level of confidence. This is a high level of significance, denoting that these gains would probably occur less than 0005 times in 100 times, The “05 level is considered to be significant 59 (less than five in 100 t1m€5}9 thus showlng that these results were highly signlficanta Group 11 once again showed the highest mean gain of the three groups? this time in regard to sight singingo The sight singing mean gains for the groups were: Group I m 2078, Group II a 3008 and Group III m 2&380 There was not any significant difference between the groups in sight singing gaina The difference in mean gain performance was not staa tiStically significant at the 005 level of confidenceo There was a possibility that one or more of the groups might have shown Significant grownh in either rhythmic reading or sight singm ing but not necessarily in total gain, therefore, it was deemed adm visable to compute the total gain for each groupo Group II eVidenced the highest total gain of the groupsg The obtained probable significance of the F statistic of 0000 indicated that there was a highly significant difference among the gFOups'With respect to total gain» 29 A score was asslgned each subject on the basis of the number of years musical trainingo ‘Would the amount of musical training effecc any influence on rhythmic reading gain, sight singing gain or total gain? With respect to rhythmizreading gain, the answer was nega- tiveo Each of the three groups produced F statistics whose probable significance far exceeded the required level of 905» The extent of the influence of musical training on sight sings ing mean gains was significant at the 007 level of confidence, This did not meet the required level of «05, however, it was interesting to note that when the effect of musical training on sight singing was computed separately for each group, the probability of the F statistics was «02, ‘301 and 003, respectively, All three were highly significant in the case.n Nevertheless, the significance for the groups combined 60 was not of sufficient magnitude. The results of total gains when musical training was held con- stant revealed that musical training did not exert any statistical signif- icance on total gain for the three groups. 3. The probable significance of the F statistics when the KwalwasseruRuch Test of Musical Accomplishment was the independent variable with rhythmic reading mean gains, sight singing mean gains or total mean gains as dependent variables revealed that there was no sta- tistically significant difference. 4. Sight singing mean gain was used as the independent variable with rhythmic reading mean gain as the dependent variable. The results showed that Groups I and II did not produce F statistics of significance, however, Group III evidenced high significance at the 0.00 level. Sight singing gain did not influence rhythmic reading gain for Groups I and II, but for III, the results were highly significant. 5. When rhythmic reading mean gain was the independent variable with sight singing gain as the dependent variable, Group I - piano key- board produced highly significant results with probable significance at the .01 level. However, Group II - syllables/letters and Group III - recorder, did not show any statistically significant results. Thus, rhythmic reading gain exerted influence on sight singing gain for only the group emphasizing the piano keyboard. CONCLUSIONS To the extent that the measures used were accurate and valid, the following conclusions may be drawn from the study: 1. 0f the three modes of instruction used in the study - piano keyboard, syllables/letters, recorder, the emphasis placed on syllables/ 61 letters as a growth regulator in developing sight singing and rhythmic reading skills resulted in this approach exceeding both the piano key- board and recorder in effectiveness as regards rhythmic reading gain and .EEEél gain. However, even though syllables/letters produced the greatest increase in sight singing skill, this increase was not of significant proportion. 2. The only relationship found to exist as regards musical training is with the growth of each group in sight singing. It appears that there is no relationship between the amount of musical training and growth in rhythmic reading and total gain. 3. The Kwalwasser-Ruch Test of Musical Accomplishment scores do not correlate with any of the areas tested: rhythmic reading gain, sight singing gain or total gain. RECOMMENDATIONS The results of this study show conclusively that growth in sight singing skill and rhythmic reading skill can be achieved through the use of the piano keyboard, syllables/letters, and recorder as modes of instruction. The three growth regulators were most effective in the acquisition of rhythmic reading skill. 0f the three factors, the greatest gains were made through the use of syllables/letters. The second highest gains were made through the use of the piano keyboard. 1. More attention should be devoted to the development of skills on rhythmic reading and sight singing on all levels of music education. These skills can be acquired concomitantly with other areas of music which are normally included in the curriculum. More 62 specifically. it appears that the most effective mode of instruction' in terms of growrh in syllables/letters. 2. Because of exiscing circumstances it was impossible to isolate each factor taught in the groups. Emphasis was placed, how» ever, on the prescribed mode of instruction. Followmup studies in which only one faccor is taught may produce interesting results. 3. Similar studies snould also be conducred on elementary and secondary levels to discover the implications of this study on lower levels of education\ 40 The study should be enlarged to encompass varied geographic cal locations. The nature and extent of elementary and secondary music education may have a direct bearing on the study. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Birge, Edward Bailey. History of Public School Music in_the United States. Philadelphia: The Oliver Ditson CQ.,71937. Grant, Parks. 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Music in the Education gf Children. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1962. PERIODICALS Bean, Kenneth L. "The Use of Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Imagery in the Transfer of Musical Notation to the Piano Keyboard." Journal of Educational Psychology, XXX (October, 1939), 533- 541. Burrows, Raymond. "What is Keyboard Experience?," The School Musician, XXII (April, 1951), 26. 64 65 \/ Chadwick, J. Elbert. "Predicting Success in Sight Singing," Journal 3£_Applied Psychology, XVII (December, 1933), 671-674. Cowan, Don. "More About Recorders," Music Educators Journal, LII, No. 1 (September-October, 1965), 121-122. Davis, Erma. "Come, Some Music! Come, The Recorder," Music Educators Journal, XLVII (June, 1961), 82-84. v/ Dean, Charles D. "Predicting Sight Singing Ability in Teacher Education," Journal 2g Educational Psychology,XXXVIII (November, 1937), 601-608. Ernst, Karl D. "A Study of Certain Practices in Music Education in School Systems of Cities Over 150,000," Journal 2f Research in Music Education, V (Spring, 1957), 23-30. Fleming, Jessie L. "The Determination of Musical Experiences Designed to Develop the Musical Competencies Required of Elementary School Teachers in Maryland," Journal gf Research in Music Education, I (Spring, 1953). 59-67. Foster, Jesse S. Review of Music Education in the Elementary School, by Maude Gerrior Byer, Journal 2f Research in Music Education, VI (Fall, 1958), 149-150. Frisch, Fay Templeton. "Keyboard Experience and Class Teaching," > Music Educators Journal, XL (January, 1954), 25-26. Hansford, Charles and Harris, Temple. "Are we Keeping Up in Music Reading?," Music Educators Journal, XL (January, 1954), 25-26. Helwig, Herman. "Rhythmic Approach to Sight Reading," The Instru- mentalist, IX (February, 1955), 6-7. Jones, Arnold. "The Tone-Word System of Carl Eitz," Jourhal of Research in Music Education, XIV, No. 2 (Summer, 1966): 84-98. \/ Kunkle, Robert F. A Direct Approach‘gg Sight Singing (research abstract, Busquesne University, 1946), cited by William S. Larson, "Research Studies in Music Education," Music Educators Journal, XXXVI (June-July, 1950), 41. Kyme, George H. "An Experiment in Teaching Children to Read Music With Shape Notes," Journal 2: Research in Music Education, VIII (Spring, 1960), 3-8. \/ Mathew, A. G. W"Sight Singing," The Music Teacher and Piano Student, XLI (April, 1962), 177. 66 Ottman, Robert W. "Music For Sight Singing," Journal 2E Research in Music Education, IV (Fall, 1956), 144-145. Rea, Ralph C. "Rhythm," The Instrumentalist, VII (November- December, 1952), 6, 18. Riddick, Joan. "Getting to Know the Recorder Family," Music Teacher and Piano Student, XLIV (August, 1965), 325. Schmidt, Lloyd. "Let's Play Recorder," The Instrumentalist, XII (November, 1957), 32. Stilwell, Arthur. "Recorder Classes," The Instrumentalist, XII Stroessler, John H. Music Teachigg Competencies gf Stanford Ele- mentary Credential Candidates, (research abstract, Stanford University, 1949), cited by William S. Larson, "Research 'Studies in Music Education," Music Educators Journal, XXXVI (June-July, 1950), 41. . "This Sight Reading Business," Music Teacher and Piano Student. XLIV (January, 1965), 29. Weldon, Richard. "A Teacher's Recommendation," The Instrumentalist, XII (November, 1957), 34. Wheelwright, Lorin F. "Music Reading in the Elementary School," Education, LIX (May, 1939), 533-544. Whitney, Maurice. "Recorders for Everyone," The Instrumentalist, Wildman, Arthur. "Increase Your Sight Reading Skill," The Piano Teacher, VI, No. 6 (July-August, 1964), 11-12. UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL Barnes, James Woodrow. "An Experimental Study of Interval Drills As It Affects Sight Singing Skill." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1960. Beck, Mary Elizabeth. "An Experiment in the Use of the Keyboard Approach to Reading Music Notation in the Third Grade." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1938. Burnau, John M. "A Study of Ability Patterns of a Group of Good Music Sight Readers and a Group of Poor Music Sight Readers." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Kansas, 1952. 67 w//Fisher, Stanley Eugene. "An Inquiry Into the Technological Methods Applied to Development of Sightreading and/or Sightsinging Techniques." Unpublished Master's thesis, Illinois Wesleyan University, 1951. u/Hargiss, Genevieve. "The Acquisition of Sight Singing Ability in Piano Classes." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, 1960. Harris, William V. "An In-Service Training Course in Reading Vocal Music for Elementary Grade School Teachers." Unpublished Master's thesis, Hartt College of Music, 1953. v/Hutton, Doris. "A Comparative Study of Two Methods of Teaching Sight-Singing in the Fourth Grade." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1951. Lewis, Virginia Herron. "A Comparative Study of Two Methods of Teaching Sight Reading in Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grade Music Classes." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1945. McClure, Myrle Hubbard. "A Comparison of Four Methods of Teaching Beginning Sight Singing." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1944. Smith, Gustavus H. "Auditory Imagery in Music Reading: An Ex- perimental Study." Unpublished Master's thesis, Stanford University, 1947. APPENDIX A 69 TABLE 21. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF RHYTHMIC READING GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between . Groups 2 2131.49 1065.75 11.43 0.00** Within Groups 345 32158.61 93.21 Total 347 34290.10 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level TABLE 22. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SIGHT SINGING GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 2 29.94 14.97 0.47 0.63 Within Groups 345 10932.20 31.69 Total 347 10962.14 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant-at the .01 level 70 TABLE 23. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF TOTAL GAIN FOR THREE GROUPS Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Sig. of Variance Freedom Squares Square F Statistic F Statistic Between Groups 2 2626.69 1313.34 9.47 0.00** Within Groups 345 47845.37 138.68 Total 347 50472.06 *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the .01 level ;_m-—h-.-‘ ._ ) -. ~... APPENDIX B TABLE 24 RAW DATA Group and Musical Kwalwasser- Pre- Pre- Post- Post- Section No. Training Ruch RR 88 RR SS ..IA 1 13 ' 183 11 13 18 14 IA 2 01 147 12 01 19 06 IA 3 01 127 02 01 18 00 IA 4 18 204 30 07 36 08 IA 5 06 189 11 03 36 14 IA 6 06 217 36 03 53 13 IA 7 00 115 12 02 18 07 IA 8 00 160 11 02 24 01 IA 9 14 214 36 06 A36 07 IA 10 03 136 10 02 18 01 IA 11 02 084 12 02 12 03 IA 12 10 110 11 06 19 08 IA 13 07 210 25 01 45 07 IA 14 02 200 24 ‘ 07 19 07 IA 15 05 149 19 06 19 07 IA 16 22 228 53 24 53 16 IA 17 11 188 45 06 53 09 IA 18 04 141 18 01 25 03 IA 19 11 178 36 06 36 13 IA 20 01 170 11 01 18 10 IA 21 00 100 18 00 25 00 IA 22 02 187 25 07 36 03 IE 23 06 137 17 06 24 07 TB 24 08 189 30 02 36 06 IE 25 02 151 11 01 18 01 IE 26 03 176 04 07 17 12 IE 27 09 197 24 05 24 06 TB 28 00 135 03 00 18 00 IB 29 07 151 04 01 24 01 IE 30 19 223 45 ‘02 49 07 IB 31 01 182 19 01 19 02 I8 32 22 208 49 03 49 04 IE 33 17 218 35 15 25 17 IE 34 07 159 24 04 48 03 IE 35 10 171 19 13 24 10 IE 36 16 208 10 12 49 13 IE 37 00 123 11 03 11 01 IE 38 21 227 23 13 45 32 IB 39 38 168 10 01 25 08 TB 40 02 120 19 02 .25 02 IE 41 08 227 08 12 ‘17 15 72 73 TABLE 24 (continued) IE 42 06 102 10 01 35 01 IE 43 00 108 ll 02 17 03 IE 44 O3 114 11 OO 18 01 18 45 22 237 36 15 40' 22 1B 46 12 191 19 12 19 06 IE 47 08 198 O4 01 17 05 TB 48 15 193 17 25 29 17 TB 49 03 140 11 01 17 12 IB 50 00 156 10 01 10 02 IE 51 00 156 18 01 18 01 IE 52 10 186 40 04 36 07 IB 53 22 230 29 06 53 02 IE 54 04 151 09 00 09 01 IE 55 06 169 19 O7 19 02 IE 56 02 163 10 03 18 04 IB 57 11 208 04 01 35 08 IE 58 06 195 19 00 19 01 IE 59 21 181 24 13 19 14 IE 60 08 191 11 03 17 08 IE 61 13 218 53 O3 53 05 IE 62 04 155 11 01 35 01 IE 63 12 197 19 12 35 07 IC 64 28 165 10 02 22 05 IC 65 00 127 ll 00 28 06 IC 66 01 149 08 00 14 01 IC 67 05 175 13 02 11 01 IC 68 03 228 10 01 38 04 IC 69 07 203 08 02 23 02 IC 70 03 196 11 03 44 14 IC 71 01 128 00 00 08 01 IC 72 02 182 04 03 i26 13 IC 73 O3 127 00 O4 22 06 IC 74 05 140 28 05 31 06 IC 75 06 168 13 02 33 07 IC 76 O4 191 11 05 22 12 IC 77 21 184 O9 O6 26 11 IC 78 01 150 16 01 20 03 IC 79 07 124 08 01 14 02 IC 80 00 112 01 03 15 02 IC 81 01 193 08 06 21 20 IC 82 37 232 34 24 46 39 IC 83 28 178 18 05 32 04 IC 84 11 192 20 08 35 03 IC 85 00 114 02 00 14 00 IC 86 11 237 10 16 48 16 IC 87 07 207 26 00 39 01 IC 88 01 171 15 01 26 03 IC 89 00 161 08 02 19 09 IC 90 00 163 00 01 22 14 IC 91 116 230 48 04 50 27 IC 92 08 173 18 O7 33 12 74 TABLE 24 (continued) 10 93 10 177 15 06 44 07 IC 94 01 143 02 04 33 04 IC 95 01 229 12 O3 26 06 IC 96 23 194 28 12 40 10 IC 97 O3 119 08 01 22 06 IC 98 09 202 20 02 25 12 IC 99 35 222 39 '03 43 20 IC 100 01 206 16 03 34 15 IC 101 23 207 24 02 ‘39 08 IC 102 03 156 03 00 31 05 IC 103 24 209 13 04 28 01 IC 104 01 147 11 06 19 05 IC 105 01 158 O7 03 25 03 IC 106 00 158 08 06 22 05 2D 107 04 156 11 01 31 13 2D 108 00 164 11 03 23 06 2D 109 00 112 10 02 13 03 2D 110 10 201 19 05 42 112 2D 111 04 177 10 06 30 02 2D 112 08 209 45 16 49 27 2D 113 03 136 04 01 19 02 2D 114 06 162 18 08 39 13 2D 115 09 179 29 .10 48 07 2D 116 05 161 11 08 43 13 2D 117 10 212 52 18 51 29 2D 118 02 164 11 03 22 06 2D 119 00 136 10 03 38 03 2D 120 35 188 45 19 51 13 2D 121 00 124 10 03 04 03 2D 122 00 186 10 11 19 08 2D 123 14 153 24 03 15 03 2D 124 08 165 10 04 29 13 2D 125 11 207 19 23 24 15 2D 126 12 170 36 12 39 16 2D 127 20 228 25 44 33 25 2D 128 O7 191 19 03 31 06 2D 129 O9 147 18 O6 19 07 2D 130 06 196 12 10 29 .11 2D 131 00 144 10 O2 12 06 2D 132 04 217 36 '12 40 17 2D 133 00 142 10 06 25 25 2D 134 00 136 10 02 19 07 2D 135 02 157 11 02 19 04 2D 136 07 143 31 501 20 03 2D 137 15 195 25 21 35 33 2D 138 16 186 35 08 31 20 2D 139 24 211 45 41 51 31 2D 140 04 094 09 01 09 01 2D 141 02 136 10 00 18 03 2D 142 00 090 08 -04 17 03 2E 143 O9 205 11 19 28 O9 75 TABLE 24 (continued) ‘ZE 144 15 227 23 12 47 19 2E 145 O4 128 O9 01 16 03 2E 146 13 208 11 02 3O 19 2E 147 02 124 09 03 09 04 ZE 148 11 227 30 47 42 51 2E 149 05 134 09 03 24 05 2E 150 05 222 17 06 34 L4 2E 151 24 220 18 13 35 19 2E 152 01 156 09 04 13 05 2E 153 01 171 09 01 19 04 2E 154 01 172 10 02 25 08 2E 155 16 230 19 12 51 24 2E 156 10 212 35 04 48 10 2B 157 16 237 367 16 34 16 2E 158 03 113 16 01 16 06 2E 159 04 190 10 02 29 09 2E 160 00 183 10 01 31 06 2E 161 13 217 23 02 43 21 2B 162 08 205 ll 14 23 30 2B 163 06 160 10 06 23 15 2E 164 01 162 09 04 16 03 2E 165 00 157 10 02 27 06 2E 166 04 191 10 05 21 09 2E 167 13 135 10 01 28 01 2E 168 01 125 09 10 28 21 2B 169 01 140 04 02 11 02 2E 170 00 163 10 00 L23 02 2E 171 19 161 17 05 .30 12 2E 172 04 185 17 00 32 04 2E 173 01 143 10 04 28 04 2E 174 00 143 18 01 15 03 2B 175 00 143 10 01 21 05 2E 176 09 158 36 04 49 09 2E 177 00 138 17 03 25 05 2B 178 05 173 10 02 49 09 2E 179 12 176 10 06 09 12 2E 180 01 224 11 37 41 38 2E 181 06 202 11 12 41 12 2E 182 O7 131 17 02 3O 07 2B 183 09 188 10 02 22 15 2F 184 04 137 22 04 45 13 2F 185 13 234 28 14 41 10 2F 186 O4 146 07 01 16 01 2F 187 02 151 07 01 10 01 2F 188 02 213 45 15 45 13 2F 189 00 169 12 03 20 07 2F 190 19 175 20 03 41 07 2F 191 15 172 46 10 42 07 2F 192 33 196 15 O6 40 06 2F 193 08 202 33 01 32 09 2F 194 14 176 31 O3 22 06 76 TABLE 24 (continued) 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 2F 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3C 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 04 00 05 27 00 08 06 00 17 02 04 33 06 04 05 07 09 12 10 05 08 17 03 00 06 03 24 09 41 05 00 00 01 08 02 01 01 00 05 02 11 04 00 12 06 { 08 03 04 00 02 148 163 167 234 181 203 179 166 192 113 226 210 204 206 214 169 202 154 197 194 215 233 146 124 197 154 214 181 201 145 137 117 165 143 123 170 091 122 141 152 143 208 198 123 182 148 154 144 190 141 149 07 35 09 52 08 38 21 07 18 00 39 41 33 40 45 19 17 24 15 36 36 34 O7 02 22 08 42 23 41 18 ll 05 10 04 10 09 10 08 11 09 04 25 19 10 23 16 30 02 ll 09 20 00 05 04 14 01 07 02 03 02 00 08 1 1 15 08 08 09 02 03 09 14 04 05 02 01 04 07 07 14 04 00 00 06 12 05 00 02 02 12 06 02 12 00 00 00 03 02 07 01 01 19 45 33 53 34 45 37 22 33 07 3.46 47 45 45 45 24 42 41 ;29 38 41 41 32 26 35 08 49 18 49 24 25 11 17 10 18 24 18 08 36 09 11 36 ll 10 36 16 25 10 34 09 18 01 14 05 19 01 09 07 02 01 06 07 12 12 05 10 06 04 13 06 12 19 15 06 01 02 06 15 08 06 03 02 02 08 03 02 08 01 03 03 02 15 12 00 24 01 02 02 12 01 01 77 TABLE 24 (continued) 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3G 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 311 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 311 311 3H 311 31-1 311 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 05 03 03 04 02 13 17 17 00 13 ll 03 06 16 O3 O7 03 O4 08 07 0 J 00 10 02 00 3O 04 04 10 O6 O4 15 11 16 03 20 O4 24 00 O9 10 24 21 20 24 O7 02 24 01 OO 05 O7 148 159 157 147 131 185 234 223 128 215 203 136 193 209 132 196 179 178 195 128 233 174 191 142 171 228 185 188 216 141 196 189 233 188 163 239 209 235 160 .189 208 221 232 233 228 189 190 196 142 131 212 204 10 10 18 17 16 19 25 52 10 45 25 10 11 24 33 11 21 19 25 11 19 18 40 05 07 36 19 18 45 10 10 11 53 O9 10 53 19 3O 15 15 52 16 53 25 53 25 18 45 15 00 11 18 03 01 13 03 01 22 09 31 07 O3 02 00 15 01 O7 02 02 08 18 06 13 01 05 02 Ol 02 12 01 O7 07 ll 02 13 12 01 51 02 20 01 12 O6 19 13 O6 O7 04 06 O6 12 00 Ol 01 10 35 24 17 11 25 53 53 35 45 26 24 34 24 25 34 19 34 35 24 39 25 45 19 17 53 25 29 53 19 25 29 53 O9 19 53 35 36 15 15 52 16 53 45 53 33 25 53 15 10 22 '25 07 12 07 12 05 19 15 21 04 03 14 O6 16 03 03 08 03 T13 1. 4 O6 37 01 10 01 01 13 12 07 19 1.9 09 02 13 11. 05 51 18 21 O]- 13 14 1'1 13 O.” 13 Of) 19 08 23 O5 O5 O7 78 TABLE 24 (continued) 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 3H 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 3I 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 10 17 16 03 05 00 22 00 07 20 ‘02 01 07 04 08 02 14 21 03 13 13 00 05 04 02 13 01 04 12 02 15 29 02 04 01 08 42 00 00 00 05 07 05 14 02 11 15 O3 14 01 04 137 164 224 165 167 121 230 106 209 178 157 188 175 176 182 156 206 190 141 171 183 138 147 176 130 190 193 125 200 149 199 222 140 180 172 196 229 141 097 142 205 161 180 187 162 191 157 208 215 191 164 10 31 36 09 22 09 19 10 48 16 15 19 17 09 31 05 23 24 18 40 18 18 40 20 05 10 11 02 36 11 17 '.36 16 17 24 18 53 02 10 16 11 25 40 10 09 40 22 24 23 L 02 10 04 06 18 00 05 05 13 06 07 13 07 05 03 12 02 04 12 12 00 C01 04 00 07 03 02 02 06 07 07 06 03 04 07 02 06 04 16 10 02 10 03 l3 13 07 02 06 01 06 05 22 05 17 31 53 09 22 09 25 10 25 16 15 18 17 09 31 23 :,.23 25 18 25 24 18 19 19 17 17 37 18 53 17 23 25 16 35 24 18 53 10 10 16 53 38 36 18 09 45 11 26 23 25 10 03 06 27 00 07 17 02 25 07 05 01 06 19 06 03 17 13 05 06 01 02 07 02 09 1 2 06 15 03 1 2 13 08 06 08 03 26 07 01 01 05 13 l 2 09 05 08 05 07 10 10 01 APPENDIX C SIGHT SINGING AND RHYTHMIC READING TEST -4_._v.._ .—.._—..—_.._.. ---x 2.-.... _ .. ._._~__—- - - A... Hy-.. h-,-_..._...._.... -‘_ - H- ,,, n 7,, _V _ .‘ APPENDIX D Name Class Level A College Music Courses Prior to Music 3.45 1 Number of Persons in High School Graduating Class Number of Music Teachers Duployed in High School Vocal __ Instrumental Check any of the following which apply to you. If the study occurred while in elementary school, place an E under class level, ,1 for junior high school, g for senior high school and Q for college. Music Study Class Level Number of Months Private Piano Private Voice Private Instrumental (specify instrument) Class Piano Class Voice Class Instrumental (specify instrument Music Courses in Junior-Senior High School Class Level , Number of Semesters Music Literature Music Theory General Music Music Appreciation Other (specify) Performance Ehcperience Junior-Senior High School Number of years School Chorus Band Orchestra Small msemble ____ Stage Band Church Choir Church Instrumental __ Other (specify) College University Chorus University Orchestra State Singers WOmenfis Glee Club Men' s Glee Club Marching Band Informal Groups Other (specify) Recreational Instruments Number of Years Guitar Ukelele Banjo Accordian Other (specifi 5— Check any of the following items which are in your home. Piano Record Player Organ Television Radio DO any members of your family play a musical instrument? If yes, specify the member and instrument. Do any members of your family participate in any musical activities? Specify. Does your family attend musical events, 1. e., concerts, recitals, eto.? Never Seldom Frequently Extensively List the musical events, 1. e., concerts, jazz festivals, etc., you have attended since entering Michigan State University. FRclude dances. Check the types of music you most prefer. Classical Show Tunes Jazz Rhythm and Blues Ballads Light Classics Folk Music Other (specify) Sacred APPENDIX E KWALWASSER-RUCH TEST OF MUSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT For Grades IV-XII By JACOB KWALWASSER. Ph. D. Professor of Music Education Syracuse University. Syracuse. NY. And G. M. RUCH, PH.D. Professor of Education Universityof California, Berkeley Do not open this paper, or turn it over, until you are told to do so. Fill these blanks, giving your name, age. birthday. etc. Write plainly. Name ............................................................................ Date ......... . ......................... . ..... (First name, initial and last name) Age last birthday ..................... years. Birthday ............ . ........................................ (Month and day) Grade .................................... Teacher ................................................................ School .................................................... . ........................ City ....................... ........ How many years have you studied music in school? .................................... ,. How long have you studied music outside of school? ............................. ..... , (state your answer in half-hour lessons) Do not write below this line. TEST NAME OF TEST SCORE 1 Knowledge of Musical Symbols and Terms 2 Recognition of Syllable Names 3 Detection of Pitch Errors in a Familiar Melody 4 Detection of Time Errors in a Familiar Melody 5 Recognition of Pitch Names 6 Knowledge of Time Signatures 7 Knowledge of Key Signatures 8 Knowledge of Note Values 9 Knowledge of Rest Values 10 Recognition of Familiar Melodies from Notation TOTAL DO Not Turn Over The Page Until The Signal is Given! Published by the Extension Division. University of lows. Iowa City, Iowa. Copyright. 1924.by Jacob Kwalwasser and G. M. Ruch. PRINTED IN U.S A [1] TEST 1. KNOWLEDGE OF MUSICAL SYMBOLS AND TERMS DIRECTIONS: Below are twenty-five questions about music. Five answers are given to each question. Read each question and then draw a line under the right answer. The sample is already marked as it should be. SAMPLE: a is called a sharp natural flat n_o_t__e rest Begin here. 1 The first. tone of the scale is mi re do fa sol 1 2 cl is called a rest natural sharp note _ flat 2 3 The fifth tone of a scale is do fa mi sol re 3 4 g is a flat note natural rest sharp 4 5‘ h is a sharp flat natural note rest 5 6 E is a slur hold rest double-sharp repeat- bar 6 '7 .1... is called a sharp flat natural note rest 7 8 P means soft loud slow fast smooth 8 9 é is called a bar staff measure accent clef 9 10 h is a sharp flat natural g note rest 10 11 i: is a clef staff measure accent phrase 11 12 91 is called a clef staff measure accent bar 12 13 A ‘is a clef measure staff phrase accent 13 14 i? the curved line is a Slur tie hold accent rest 14 15 \f: is a rest slur hold double-sharp repeat 15 16 ii— the curved line is a slur hold rest tie accent 16 17 < means higher lower louder repeat pause 17 18 >— means higher lower louder softer pause 18 19 Allegro means lively slow repeat accent sweetly 19 20 f means fast loud slow soft smooth 20 21 cresc. means softer louder slower faster smooth 21 22 dim. means smoother louder softer faster slower 22 23 Lento means repeat accent sweetly slow lively 23 24 Legato means soft quick separated connected loud .24 25 Staccato means quick soft separated connected loud 25 [2] Test 1. Number rr'gfit-Soore _____ TEST 2. RECOGNITION OF SYLLABLE NAMES DIRECTIONS: Below are five lines of notes. The first syllable in each line is “Do“; so the name 512 has been written below it. You are to write the syl- lable names on the lines under the other notes. Begin here. fl 1 . #7 ‘ T ‘r a I A T l II If P I i U V b do ................ ........................ do ........................................ i if #4 +1 :1: a? i e) I I do ................ Test 2. Number rz'gfit- Score ...... TEST 3. DETECTION OF PITCH ERRORS IN A FAMILIAR MELODY DIRECTIONS: The song “America” is written below. One measure has been crossed out because the melody is wrong. Five other measures are wrong. Hum over the melody to yourself and cross out all five wrong measures. Begin here: Test 3. Number rzgfit ....... X5 =Score ........... l3] TEST 4. RECOGNITION OF TIME ERRORS IN A FAMILIAR MELODY. DIRECTIONS: The song “America” is written below. One of the measures has been crossed out because it has the wrong number of beats.Five other meas- ures are wrong. Hum over the song and cross out all five wrong measures. Begin here: Test 4. Number reg/ct ..... X 3 9900119 ........ TEST 5. RECOGNITION OF PITCH NAMES. DIRECTIONS: Below are four lines of notes. The first note in each line is already marked as it should be. You are to write the pitch or letter names on the lines under the other notes. Begin here: Test 5. Neunber rz'g'bt - Score ............... [4] TEST 6. KNOWLEDGE OF TIME SIGNATURES DIRECTIONS: Below are ten full measures. At the right of each are five time sig- natures. You are to draw a line under the correct time signature for each measure. The sample is marked as it should be. i 4 Halve able: (ble: SAMPLE. The time signature is ' iii-Elie Begin here: Nee tel» Nu: cola: mic The time signature is The time signature is N b 943% 9- “Lap as ISL-I L I: also Me mle: mlw It? dale. walk ml mlce OBI CO The time signature is 4 The time signature is g -2- 2 % % 4 . . . 2 5 4 3 3 5 ‘ 1' fr“ j The time SIgnature lS — — - — — 5 :1); I r i 4 4 4 8 4 6 m The time signature is gv % i % g: 6 cf ' 5 4 .M' . . . ‘ 7 g:'—-'—-—E The time Signature 18 Z E 7i- % “g- 7 U \ 3 / 8 m T... m... sigmtm .. .3, g .2. g e 8 U J) 2 9 f a The time Signature is Z '1; % g % 9 W “' i o 10 W The time signature is i g i: g 2" IO Test 6'. A'umber rngl ......... X2 - Score [5] ...- TEST 7. KNOWLEDGE OF KEY SIGNATURES DIRECTIONS: At the left below is a column often major key signatures. At the right is a column of five minor key signatures. You are to write the names of the keys on the lines at the right of each signature. Notice that there are two columns. one for major keys and one for minor. A i4 A h SAMPLES: WE .._.....D._fl.at.._ $541—— ....... Qmincr ............ J :1 Begin here. MAJOR KEY SIGNATURES MINOR KEY SIGNATURES [L i _ j . A1 2 fl ......................... 2 12%;? ........................... .12 0 AI .......................... -------------------------- OI as as as a an; L 0! 82 All 8 $511 ......................... 8 ? (LA, 9 w+ .......................... 9 OJ .0 fig ........................ m a) Test 7. Number rig/(t ........ X2 IScore.. ........ [6] TEST 8. KNOWLEDGE OF NOTE VALUES DIRECTIONS: In the measures below a note has been left out of each. You are to draw a line under the note needed to complete the measure. The sample is already marked as it should be. SAMPLE: E The note needed is i 0' ch as o Begin here. 1 éfi‘éfi The note needed is J\ J o J Jd 1 2 m The note needed is J J J5 as o 2 3 gfifi The note needed is 0 ch J Jl J 3 4 M The note needed is J 0 ch J J§ 4 5 gm The note needed is J3 ch 0 J J 5 Test 8 Number rz'gbt .......... X3- Score .......... TEST 9. KNOWLEDGE OF REST VALUES DIRECTIONS: The five measures below are incomplete and need a rest to complete them. You are to draw a line under the rest needed to complete the measure. The sample is already marked as it should be. Jl SAMPLE: m The rest needed is 7 .. ‘7 1. I U I Begin here. l The rest needed is i 7 .- 1, ‘7 I 2 The rest needed is 7 t _. '7 .. 2 3 The rest needed is 7 i L ‘7 ... 3 4 The rest needed is ._ 7 3 ‘7 t 4 5 £5 ‘ The rest. needed is ‘7 1. 7 .; i 5 Test .9 Number rzgrbL . X3=Seore ......... . [7] TEST IO. RECOGNITION OF FAMILIAR MEIODIES FROM NOTATION DIRECTIONS: Below are phrases from ten songs that you know. Hum each line to yourself and then write the name of the song or the Words of the phrase on the line at the right. The sample is already marked as it should be. SA M P L E - «Marisa. Qtfllfiflflm Waffles Begin here. Test10 Number right .......... X5 Score .......... MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. 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