THE COMPARISQN OF QUALW‘! OF
MAN CAKES PREPARED FRGM
[DRY AND FROZEN MiXES

T‘nesi-s far fit; Deg?” ed M. S.
MlCI‘fi‘GfixN STATE CCLLEGE
Giéva Afihrgarm‘ Sai‘fimr

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meriqfi‘fir Quality or" main
Cakes Preparea from Dry and Frozen
Mixes

presented by
Olive Margaret Batcher

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Master of Snifinnfl_4kqmein—Eoods—and Nutrition

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Major professor

Date “a! 18. 1959

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout ftom your record.
TO AVOID FINES return on or More data due.

DATE DUE \ DATE DUE DATE DUE

MSU In An Affirmative ActionIEqud Opportunity Inetnuion
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THE COMPARISON OF QUALITY OF PLAIN CAKES PREPARED

FROM DRY AND FRO ZEN MIXES

By
OLIVE MARGARET BAICHER

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Foods and Nutrition
School of Home Economics

1950

 

 

AC KNOW LED GEAEQ T

The writer wishes to express her gratitude to
Dr. Pauline Paul for her invaluable guidance and
counsel throughout the study; and to Dr. Wilma Brewer,
Annanell Jubb, Ruth Marin, Jean Carstensen,

Marguerite Nearnberg who served on the scoring panel.

, ,n _ an."
:3 ~ 3‘7." 1." 1! (a

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . 3
Frozen cakes and batters . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Baked vs. batters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Aging of baked products . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Temperature and staling . . . . . . . . . . . 7

High temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . 7

low temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Aging of batters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Recommendations for freezing . . . . . . . . 10

Ready mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Commercial ready mixes . . . . . . . . . . . 14
laboratory mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Subjective and objective measurements of cake

quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Characteristics of a standard cake . . . . . 17
Subjective measurements . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Objective tests of batter . . . . . . . . . . 19

Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Objective tests of'baked cake . .

Compressibility . .

Moisture content

METHODS OF PROCEDURE . . .
Design of experiment
Ingredients . . . . .

General procedures .

Preliminary preparations

Frozen cakes and batters

Laboratory mix . .
Procedures . . . . . .
Fresh cake . . .
Frozen batter . .

Frozen cake . .

Cake made of laboratory

Cake made of commercial

ready

Objective tests . . . . . . . . .

ViflCOSity Of batter e e e e 0

Specific gravity of batter .

VOlume o e o e e 0

Standing height 0 o e o e e e

Compressibility . . . . . . .

Moisture content

Subjective tests . . .

Page
21
22
23
24
24
25
26
27
27
28
29
29
30
50
30
51
31
51
31
52
32
32
53
53

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS . . .
Batter characteristics
Viscosity . . . . .
Specific gravity .
Palatability scores . .
Volume . . . . . .
Appearance . . . .
Color . . . . . . .
Flavor . . . . . .
Tenderness . . . .
Texture . . . . . .

General Conclusions

Analysis of variance of

Objective tests on baked cakes .

Weight . . . . . .
Volume . . . . . .
Compressibility . .
Moisture content .
SUMMARY'AND CONCLUSIONS . .
REFERENCES . . .A. . . . .
APPENDIX . . . . . . . .

palatability scores

Page
54
54
35
57

.59
59
42
45
45
44
45
45
46
48
48
48
52
54
59
62

68

Number

1.
2.
5.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

10.

11.

LIST OF TABLES

Title

Viscosity of Batters
Specific gravity of batters
Mean palatability Scores
Average Mean Scores ani "F“ values
Mean Weights of baked cakes
Mean Volumes of baked cakes
Standing heights of baked cakes
Compressibility Test results on baked cakes
Mean moisture contents
Mean preparation times

Detailed Account of cake costs

Temperature data at scoring periods

Page
56
58
4O
47
49
50
51
55
55
57
7O
71

INTRODUCTION

Recent advances in food technology have resulted in
the introduction of many new types of predicts to the re-
tail:market. Among these new commodities, baked products
in frozen or ready-to-mix form.have become increasingly
popular.

In the frozen food field, various types of ready-to—
bake frozen batters and doughs, as well as the prebaked
variety, may be found. Homemakers are interested in
frozen pies, doughs, and baked products of all kinds,
although their sale has been limited.heretofore by a lack
of home freezer storage space.

Ready mixes are sold throughout the country, with
cake, roll and pie crust mixes the most popular. Last
year, there were 58 companies making 72 cake mixes, 2O
manufacturers sald a mix for rolls and 45 companies made
pie crust mixes. Each month 50 to 40 million baking mixes
are sold, quadrupling the sale of three years ago (Paddle-
ford, 47).

The advantages of these commodities to the homemaker
are obvious. A quality product at a reasonable cost is
the goal of both homemaker and manufacturer. A homemade

product without the labor required to produce it is the
Adesire of many homemakers.
Evidence that freezing may be a means of retarding the

appearance of aging characteristics in baked products has

2
been offered. Freezing has been a partial solution to the
problem.of staling which has long been a matter of economic
importance.

Although ready mixes aui frozen unbaked and prebaked
products are widely used, very little technical data are
available concerning the relative qualities of these pro-
ducts. This study was initiated to obtain some information
‘concerning the merits of frozen cakes, cakes prepared from
frozen batters, a commercial ready mix and a laboratory
ready mix as compared with freshly baked plain cakes.

Since there is some evidence of deterioration in.the quality
of cakes prepared from frozen batters and of frozen cakes,
storage tests were included in.the study. Costs and pre-

paration times were also recorded for comparative purposes.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Frozen Cakes and Batters

History

The freezing of baked products is not new. Midwestern
farmer's wives, Alaskans and prospectors have been freezing
doughs and pies for many years. In northern.latitudes,
freezing temperatures were used for preservation of feed
long before their use was consuiered for oomnercial pur-
poses.

More recently, locker renters were among the first to
experiment with frozen baked goods, and in 1956 frozen un-
baked goods were first marketed commercially in Chicago.
However, due to a lack of cabinets the venture failed, to
be revived again in 1944 in Illinois. In 1958, United Air-
lines became interested in keeping pastry dough overnight
‘by placing it at a temperature of 58-4O°F, Later, they
kept dough in a frozen state 90 days or more in perfect
condition (Anon,2). Since then, homemakers and bakers
alike have been freezing baked goods of all kinds. This
practice has grown tremendously with the increased use of

the home freezer.

' 8

Baked vs. Batter

Baked products, such as bread and cake, may be frozen

as batters or doughs ami as baked products. Both methods

4
have advantages. In the case of batter, it is easier to
package; it requires less freezer or locker space; it re-
quires less preparation befdte freezing, but more after its
removal from.the freezer; the finished cake seems more moist
with a flavor more like that of a freshly mixed and baked
cake; the cruht is crisp. A frozen baked cake, on the other
hand, requires less time to prepare fer serving after it is
taken from storage, as it only requires thawing; there is
less chance of failure. In general, baked cakes are more
successful as frozen pgoducts than are unbaked batters due
to superior keeping quality.

As is the case with so many frozen products, the storage
life of frozen batter or of frozen cake is limited. The
quality of any frozen product slowly decreases in propor-
tion to the length of storage time. Recommendations vary
as to maximum.storage times for quality cakes.

Frozen Batter Egozen Cake

 

Dawson (17) 6-8 weeks -----
Eckblad (21) ----- 4 months
Fenton and Darfler (22) 2-8 weeks 4 months
Graham.(25) , 2 months 2 months
Hudson (50) 2 months 11 months
Meyer, Buckley, Moore (40) 6 months 9 months
Sunderlin, Collins, Acheson (57) 4 months -----
Tressler and Evers (61) 2-8 weeks 4 months
Winter, Hustrulid, Anderson (64) ~---- 5-4 months

The crust of’a fresh bread is dry, crisp and brittle.
The crust has hygroscopic properties so that it readily ab-
sorbs moisture. As bread ages, moisture from the interior

penetrates the crust making it soft and leathery. During

5
aging, the crust loses some moisture to the atmosphere,

especially in relatively dry places. When this moisture
evaporation is prevented, by wrapping or by storage at
high relative humidities, the staling of the crust is

: accelerated.

The staling of'the crumb is not as easily explained.
Crumb staling is characterized by a hardening of the tex-
ture. The crumb becomes tougher and more crumbly as bread
stales. There is a deterioration in flavor, both in aroma
and taste. Alsberg (4) stated that staling of the crumb
is a change in flavor and.texture that.develops with time.
The rate at thich the changes occur varies with the
characteristic observed.

The changes in the crumb during staling are apparently
of a physical nature. Cathcart (12) reported that a chemical
analysis showed little appreciable difference between fresh
and stale breads. Alsberg (4) concluded from the nutrition-
al data available that there was no material difference in
the food value or wholesomeness of fresh and stale breads.

Several theories as to the cause of staling in bread
have been expressed. Excellent reviews of the theories
may be found in the articles by Cathcart (12), Geddes and‘
Bice (24), and Pyler (55).

The deterioration of a baked product with storage has
been investigated to a greater extent than of an unbaked
product. The changes occurring during the storage of’the un-

' baked frozen products do not resemble those in the baked

“5-3

 

frozen product.
The physical changes occurring during the storage of
bread.and of cake are similar. Much.of the research has

concerned the changes in bread.

Aging gf Baked Products

 

(Bice and Geddes (8) stated ”Staleness is a generic term
covering a number of ill-defined changes occurring in bread
as it.ages.”' Softness of bread appears to be the criterion
used as the index of freshness.

The term “staling" includes all the changes that occur
in the finished loaf of bread or cake on storage. These
changes include volatile losses, oxidative changes and
changes in the structure of the crumb. 7

Much research has been conducted to determine the
causes of staling of baked products, especially in the case
of bread. Two of has most effective methods of delaying
staling are the use of high and of low temperatures. Of
the two, the use of low temperatures is more practical
(Cathcart,12).

Bread and cake stale more rapidly than crackers and
cookies. Shelf life of the latter is limited by stability
of the shortening, the actual staling reactions occurring
at an almost imperceptibly slow rate (Pyler, 52). The high-
er the actual moisture content of a baked product in its

initial fresh state, the more pronounced are the changes

riff—2.

 

occurring in staling.

Temperature and Staling

High temperatures: Hutchinson (52) stated that staling
of the crust might be retarded by storing bread in a moderate-
ly dry place. .However, the staling of the crumb was acceler-
ated by such a.procedure. In general practice, the crust
is sacrificed for a fresh crumb.

Fuller (25) reported that the staling of the crumb could
be retarded by holding fine bread at 60°C (140°F) or higher.
Bradley (9) reported bread would keep fresh indefinitely at
165°F. Bread staled more rapidly during the first 12 hours.

The chief limitation to the use of heat in preserving
the freshness of bread is the practical difficulty involved
in preventing the development of bacteria and molds within
the crumb. Sporiferous bacteria gave bread a penetrating
off—aroma, ihich.was apparent within 12 to 24 hours, render-
ing the bread unsalable. Kata (54) stated that this diffi-
culty might be overcome by the addition of some acid react-
ing ingredient.

Another diffimulty encountered in high temperature
storage is the humidity conditions of the storage cabinet
which.must be'carefully controlled to prevent the crust
either from.becoming soft and leathery or from drying out.

A third difficulty to this method may be found in the

statement by Geddes and Bice (24) that vitamin losses might

use

8
become significant, as thiamin losses become greater with in-

creased temperature and moisture during storage.

Cathcart (12) believed that heat as a means of retarding
the aging of bread did not seem to offer practical possibili-
ties due to the development of penetrating off-aromas and to

the crusty flavor which was generally imparted to the crumb.

E! temperatures: Several investigations (6, l5, 14,
54) have been made concerning the use of low temperatures as
a means of retarding the aging of bread. In general, they
have concluded that the maximum rate of staling occurred be-
tween -2 and -5°C (27°F) and the rate decreased as the tempera-
ture was raised or lowered. The lower the temperature, the
longer the bread remained in a fresh condition. At -lO°C
staling was greatly retarded. At -22°C bread remained in a
fresh condition for several days. Bradley (9) reported
bread remained fresh months at -50°F. It is thought that
if the tanperature were low enough, bread would never stale.

The 'chief limitation to this method of retarding staling

in baked products is cost.

m 9; Batters

Normally, batters are baked as soon after preparation
as possible, but they may be kept in a frozen state for a
while, A number of studies (22, 26, 2‘7, 50, 40, 57, 61) have
~ shown that freezing has a‘ deleterious effect on vo lune,-

appearance, texture and flavor of cakes baked from frozen

I.

,.

 

9
batters. The longer the storage time, the greater the
changes. =

The cakes produced from the stored batters have small
volumes, are apt to have grainy, coarse, heavy or soggy
textures with a tendency toward large air holes or tunnels.
Poor flavors and appearances have also been reported. The
crusts may be hard, smooth and pale. Meyer, Buckley and
Moore (40) reported that cakes baked of unthawed batters
were more compact, had slightly smaller volumes and were
humped rather than rounded in shape when compared to cakes
baked of thawed batter.

The changes occurring during storage of cake batters
have been attributed to.loss of some of the leavening ac-
tion during the freezing and thawing processes. Hutchings
and Evers (51) believed the prolonged exposure of the baking
powder with moisture in the frozen cake batters to be the
cause of poor products. Tressler and Evers (61) recorded an
acrid off-flavor, associated with baking powder reactions,
to be more pronounced with longer storage times. Watts,
Iehmann, and Goodrich (62) stated that frozen.products made
with combination baking powder developed off odors more
rapidly than those made of pyrophosphate baking powder.
Hudson (50) recommended phosphate baking powder for leaven-
ing plain cake batter.

Graul (26) related the theory of denaturation to the

characteristics observed in the cakes baked from frozen

lO

batters. She reported a tendency for the cakes baked from
older batters to shrink from the skies of the pan during
baking and cabling. A lack of glaze on the top crusts and
a rounded shape were also noted. An increase in moistness
of cakes baked from.frozen batter stored 8 months was evi-
dent. These characteristics resemble those observed in over-4
beaten batters, and mechanical agitation is one of the ways
in which denaturation may be attained.

Tressler and Evers (61) also suggested that denatura-
tion of certain proteins might occur as a result of freez-
ing. -That colloidal systems age ani become irreversibly
changed upon freezing is a well known fact. It seems ob-
vious that aging cannot be separated from such denaturation.

Recomendationg for freezing batters and cakes

Colleges, government laboratories am the frozen food
industry have been experimenting with the production of frozen
cooked and baked products. Their results have been released
in the form of recomendations or guides of the "how to do
it“ type (17, 21, 22, 25, 46, 47, 61, 64).

a Rabak (54) asserted that the protective efficiency of
a package was a deciding factor in the storage life of
frozen foods. Baked products normally have a moisture con-
tent of about 20%. Woodroof (66) stated that frozen baked
products whether cooked or uncooked gradually lost moisture

through desiccation or evaporation. Cathcart (12) listed

ll
packaging as one of the most effective ways of controlling
the moisture content of a frozen baked product. This is
especially important if the product is to be stored for any
length of time. Most studies recommended that all baked
goods be sealed in moisture and vapor proof wrappings.
Suggested wrappings included moisture-vapor-proof cellophane,
pliofilm, latex and aluminum foil, besides the containers
used in.freezing fruits and vegetables for the frozen batters.

Desiccation is known to occur if large pockets of air
are retained inside the package. The internal drying within
a package is evidenced by a heavy deposit of frost on the
inner surface of the vapor barrier and around the food.

The transfer of moisture from the food to the surrounding
air has been attributed to fluctuations in storage tempera-
‘ ture. Therefore, air space around the product should be
reduced to a minimum to prevent excessive dehydration and
staling. A solid pack is essential to good keeping quality.
Dawson (17) recommended that room be allowed for expansion
of the batter during freezing if containers are used in the
storing of batter.

Baked frozen products tend to dry out and develop a
staleness of flavor more quickly than do similar freshly
baked products after thawing. Cakes should be used as soon
as possible after thawing.

It is generally recommended that baked products be

thawed in the wrapping material as an aid in preventing con-

12
densation of moisture on the crust and the consequent loss
of crispness of the crust. Thawing of batter in the wrapper
aids in preventing desiccation and flavor volatilization.
Frozen batters should be baked immediately after thawing.
Thawing may be accomplished by any of several methods:

1. at room temperature for several hours

2. in front of a fan

5. in a slow oven (250-5OOOF) for 20 to 50 minutes

4. in the refrigerator. This method is preferred
for thawing a filled or frosted cake. This type of cake is
generally not recommended for freezing as the filling or
frosting does not always freeze satisfactorily.

Several investigators have reported the need of thawing
loaf or cup cake batters completely before baking in order
to prevent formation of humps or cracks. These are caused
by the setting of the outside of the batter before the
center has had time to thaw and expand. If batters are
frozen in cartons, they should be transferred to baking
tins before they have completely thawed; then allowed to
finish thawing in the pan before baking. Layer cakes,
because the batter is shallow, may often be baked without

th'ingo

2L,

 

15
Ready Mixes

Prepared mixes, no matter how gomi or bad, give an
oven freshness to a product which customers cannot have
from a baker's product baked several hours before they

are served.

History

Technically, the present pro-mix industry dates to the
Civil War aid the first blending of baking powder about
1860. The first acid phosphate baking powder was patented
in 1864 (Anon, l). Shortly thereafter, cream of tartar,
alum and sodium aluminum sulfate powders appeared (Anon,

1; Bolton 29). Since then, homemakers and bakers alike
have been combining large batches of dry ingredients for
future use in baked products. Self-rising flour was first
marketed in 1875. However, it was n61: until about 1900
that fine first commercially successful self-rising flour
was produced (Holton, 29). Aunt Jemima Ready Mix for
Pancakes, introduced in 1889, became the first nationally
distributed ready mix (Paddleford, 47). Ready mixes of
various kinds for home consumption came onto the market
in the early 1950's (Holton, 29).

As the general trend toward convenience and time saving
in the {reparation of meals grew, the use of the ready mix

*was accelerated. Mixes have had a definite development

14

during war periods. During World War I with a shortage of
help, many bakers developed their own mixes. During World
War II with many product shortages, such as sugar and fat,
and with the improvements made by producers of mixes, many
homemakers turned to them as time and point savers. In
general, the specific advantages of a ready mix are its
keeping qualities at room temperature and its adaptability.

Much research has gone into the commercial development
of ready mixes for baked products. Such research has in-
volved studies of rancidity of fats, packaging materials,
use of dried milks and eggs, chemical reactions between
ingredients during storage, and misuse of the product in
the preparation of the final product in the home (Dietrich,
19). Since the product does not leave the factory in the
form in which it is consumed, there is need for a large
margin of error in the use of a commercial ready mix. Such
information was obtained for the benefit of the individual
company conducting the research, and very little concerning
the results of these studies is available to the general
public. A few published papers have brought to the fore-
ground some information about commercial ready mixes which

might be applicable to a home prepared mix.

Commercial Ready Mixes

 

There are two general types of commercial ready mixes.

Some are fully prepared and require only the addition of

15
water. The semi-prepared mixes require shortening, egg,
sugar, or spices and other ingredients, in addition to the
liquid. In either case, a homogeneous ready-mix is desired.
The brands vary in quality of ingredients, manufacturing
techniques and packaging materials. Most are a blend of
materials naturally in a fairly dry state with the addition
of some materials which have been commercially dried.

Usually a plastic fat is mixed with the pre-blended
mixture of powdered ingredients. The time of mixing depends
on the degree of penetration of fat into the flour particles,
and the flow properties desired in the final mix (Holton, 29).
However, a dried fat, egg, milk premix may be added to the
other dry ingredients. This gives different results than
those produced with the addition of shortening in plastic
form (Holton, 29).

The baking powder used in most mixes is of the phosphate
type (Anon, 5). Calcium acid pyrophosphate baking powder is
slow acting a room temperature, while monocalcium acid
phosphate acts more rapidly (Marx, 59). Usually, the leaven-
ing agent in a commercial ready mix is increased to a
percentage above that included in ordinary cake formulas.

The leavening agent will usually comprise about 1% 0f the
dry mix formula, flavoring as low as 0.0025% and flour or
sugar 50 - 50% (Dietrich, 19). Shortening is usually 10-25%
of the total dry mix (Holton, 29).

There are problems with every ready mix. Besides the

16
formula and actual compounding of a ready mix, shelf life

or keeping qlality is probably the most important considera-
tion. Biochemical changes occurring during the storage of
cake mixes have a serious effect on the baked product
(Dietrich, 19; Holton, 29). Ingredients must be compatible
from the chemical standpoint. The addition of emulsifiers
and antioxidants to shortening has helped to remedy the
rancidity problem, prevalent in early (1915) ready mixes
(Marx, 59). Much of the trouble encountered in ready mixes
has been due to the moisture content. Moisture can be con-
trolled by the avoidance of hygroscopic materials in ready
mixes and by packaging. Fat exuded through an inadequate
wrapping is apt to become ralcid and affect the whole
product. Therefore, the wrapping material should be grease-

pI‘OOfo

Laboratory Mixes:

Contrary to the frozen food industry, in which a number
of laboratories and homemakers have experiment ed with the
freezing of baked products, the ready mix experimentation
has been confined almost entirely to commercial production.
Recently, however, Sunderlin and co-workers at Purdue
University (36, 58) devised a "master mix" (to be made at
home) which can be used for many baked products with slight
modifications. In making the mix, the shortening should

contain an emulsifier. This emulsifier allows the batter

17

to take up more sugar and liquid than is ordinarily accom-
plished in the creaming process (Briewa, 10). For storage
at room temperature, a hydrogenated shortening should be
used in the ready mix to retard rancidity development.

Sunderlin and co-workers (36, 58) recommended the addi—
tion of cream of tartar to the mix. Slightly better results
were obtained if the cream of tartar was used in cake mixes.
The main difference was in tenderness. Less destruction
of thiamine during baking occurred if tlre reaction was
slightly acid. A slightly alkaline reaction in a white
cake caused an off-color crumb (Dietrich, l9).

Subjective and Objective
Measurements of Cake Quality

Characteristics 3f 1 standard cake

Butter cakes are of (a) loaf, layer or cup type, or
(b) of the pound type. They should be of good volume; have
an evenly browned, level top that is dull rather than shiny;
have a fine uniform grain with fiiin cell walls; have a
texture that is soft and resilient, not crumbly 0r moist,
with a light tender crumb; and have a delicate, sweet
evenly blended taste (Halliday and Neble, 28; Lows, 37;

Miller and Barnhart, 41; Nason, 42).

Sub J ective measuremen ts

The ultimate test for any product is its eating quality.
The best flavor, texture or eating quality is that which the

18
public prefers in a given food. Organoleptic tests are
conducted to decide how near the standard the unknown
sample comes.

The validity of organoleptic tests is based on several
fundamental assumptions (Platt, 50).

1. Reaction of the same judge to exactly the same food
will continue to be the same throughout the period of the
test.

2. Difference between two sanples is greater than the
difference between successive lots or batches of'the same '
sample.

5. Preferences expressed represent reliable, reproduc-
ible decisions and not mere guesses which may easily be
reversed.

Organoleptic tests are the only ways in which many
important qualities of food products may be expressed. In
the laboratory, eating quality or palatability of a product
is divided into its component parts., Trained judges are
asked to discriminate between samples by noting large and
small differences in the various characteristics. These
differences are usually rated as to their degree of accepta-
'bility. Written records of sensations and impressions are
Ikept. An evaluation of these records is used as a basis

for determining the relative quality of a smnple.

19

Organoleptic tests are not sensitive enough for critical
evaluations in some cases. In storage tests, characteristics
may have to be remembered for a period of time. In order to
eliminate the personalfactor, much time and thought have
been spent on the development of Objective tests for use
in testing the qualty of foods. The results of these tests
are correlated with those obtained by organoleptic pro-

cedures.

Objective tests 9: batter

In the case of baked products, means have been devised
to measure objectively many of the physical characteristics
of both the unbaked and final product. Fbr the unbaked
product, viscosity (the resistance of a system to flow)
and.specific gravity (the ratio of the weight of batter and

the weight of an equal volume of water) of a batter are used.

Viscosity: It became evident during thepreliminary
studies that there were vast differences in the viscosities
of the cake batters made from ready mixes and fresh cake
‘batters. The relationship between.the batter and its final
product has been reported by several people. These investi-
gators reported positive carrelations between the viscosities
of plain cake batters and cake scores ('7, 15, 58, 52).

Cake batters having high initial viscosities produce cakes

of’good volume and crumb texture, whereas those having low

20
viscosities produce cakes of small volume, coarse grain and
harsh rubbery texture.

Viscosity is apparently affected by the extent of mixing
as well as variations in formula. Lowe (57) stated that the
texture of the finished product varied with this variation
in viscosity.

Brody (11) stated that the greatest single factor affect-
ing viscosity of batter was air content. Air content of
batters, in turn, was affected by mixing method and time,
taupe rature of ingredients, type of shortening used, pro-
portion of liquid ingredients at each stage, and kind and
amount (if any) of syrup used.

Microscopic examinations (Collins, 15) of the batter in-
dicated that in thin batters, there were very few gas
bubbles, which were of large size and scattered throughout
the batter irregularly. Evidently, the batter was not
viscous enough to hold the gas liberated by the baking
powder, and the air incorporated in mixing. Thin pouring
batters produced inferior cakes. This type batter is
associated with oil in water emulsions. In thick batters,
the gas bubbles were numerous, small and were either evenly
distributed and close together, or in grape-like clusters.
Due to their viscous nature, the thick batters allowed less

elcape of air and gas bubbles.

21

Specific gravity: The specific gravity is closely
related to the amount of air incorporated in a batter or
its lightness. Nason (42) reported that very quick methods
of mixing in which small amounts of air were incorporated
gave inferior cakes. Dunn and White (20) reported a
positive correlation between lightness of batter and cake
volume. Tinklin and Vail (60) fourfl that low specific
gravity batters tended to give cakes which were tender arxi

compressible and were of good volume.

Objective tests 2}; baked cake

Several tests have also been developed to measure some
of the physical characteristics of baked prodlcts by ob-
jective means. That baked products age may be noted in
changes in tm physical characteristics vhich occur with
time. The aging rate may be indicated by the degree of
change in the characteristic measured when compared with
the fresh sample. Besides measuring staling rates, the
objective test may also compare the properties of baked
products prepared under different conditions. Some methods
may not give true pictures, since they are subject to uni-

forlnity in pore structure of the crumb.

22

Compressibility: Compressibility of the crumb is a
means of determining the tenderness of a fresh product as
well as the increasing hardness of a product during staling.
Bice and Geddes (8) differentiate between "crumb softness"
and "crumb firmness". The former is deformation of the
crumb under a constant load and is an indication of fresh-
ness. This method is more common than “crumb firmnes s"
which is the load or weight reqlired to produce a given
depression and is an indication of aging. A number of types
of equipment have been designed to measure the distance
through which a crumb can be compressed. Most of the tests
operate on the principle of subjecting a bread or cake
crumb, usually in the form of a slice of specified thick-
ness, to a specific weight for a given amount of time and
observing the amount of compression obtained (5, 16, 44, 51).

In some cases, crumb elasticity may be measured as
well in that the amount of recovery in a given period of
time may be determined after compression (Nicolayev, 45).

Fuller (25) stated the chief objection to compressi-
bility in determining staling rates was the lack of unis-
formity in pore structure of the crumb which affected the
results without being a staleness factor. A more open grain
was apt to be more easily depressed. The greatest change
in compressibility occurred during the first 8 hours after
baking, at which time subjective tests indicated the bread
to be still fresh.

25

Moisture content: Baked products lose water through
evaporation. However, Platt (48) noted that differences
between the moisture contents of fresh ail stale breads
treated in the same manner were exceedingly small. Weiss
(65) stated that cakes having high ratios of sugar'and
shcrtening were moister than ordinary cakes.

The absorption capacity or the ability of a crumb to
imbibe water decreases during staling. This change may be
followed by several procedures in which the crumb is'pulver-
ized in water and the amount of water held by the crumb meas-
ured by volume of sedimentation after the method of Katz
(55) or by centrifugation according to the method of
Cathcart aid Luber (14). The amount of water absorbed by
a known weiglt of baked product might also be determined
(Swartz, 59).

Other methods are available in determining the staling
rates of'baked products, but are not as widely used as those
mentioned above. The tests are discussed by Geddes and Bice

(24); Cathcart (12), and Pyler (55).

METHODS OF PROCEDURE

Design of Experiment

The quality of loaf cakes prepared from fresh and frozen
batter, laboratory and commercial ready mixes, and a thawed
cake that had been frozen were compared objectively and
subjectively.

The cakes and batters to be frozen were prepared at
the beginning of the study in large batches, and frozen
in smaller units to be used at each evaluation period.

The laboratory ready mix was also prepared and divided
into smaller units.

Evaluations as to quality were made after the units
had been in storage for O, 4, 8, 16, and 24 weeks. Five
replications were made at each evaluation period.

Two cakes were prepared for each treatment for an
evaluation period. One cake was used for the objective
tests, the other for subjective. Each cake would cut

into eight 1/2 inch slices using a mitre box.

25
Ingredie nts

All ingredients, with the exception of the milk and
eggs, were Obtained at the beginning of he study and were
stored at room temperature in the laboratory until needed.

The shortening (a hydrogenated vegetable oils) and the
cake flour *& were stored in their original containers. A
new container of’each was used at each evaluation period.

A phosphate double-acting baking powder 4"” was used.
Pure vanilla was the flavoring for all cakes with the ex-
ception of'those made from the commercial ready mix Which
already contained the flavoring.

The Dairy Industry Department of Michigan State College
supplied.the fresh milk as needed. Fresh eggs were obtained
from the Food and Nutrition Storeroom at each evaluation
period and stored in the refrigerator until needed. The
eggs fbr'a day's tests were beaten.together’and then
divided to make the day's series as uniform as possible.
Both the milk and eggs were removed from the refrigerator
approximately two hours before they were to be used in
order to allow them to reach room temperature.

The commercial cake ready mix **** was stored im.the

original cartons at room temperature throughout the study

to simulate home conditions.

* Crisco
is Swansdown
was Rumfbrd
sew» Betty Crocker Party Cake Mix

26

General Procedures

Records

Room, cake batter, and oven temperatures were recorded
as well as the relative humidity at the time of scoring the
cakes. Records were also kept as to weighing, mixing and

baking times and cost of ingredients.

Pans

 

All cakes were frozen and/or baked in aluminum all-pur-
pose food pans* (pint size). The pans, 4" x 4-1/2" x 1-5/4"
at the top, were lined with waxed paper out to fitthe
bottom. The pans were equipped with aluminum lids which

were used only with the frozen batters.

D

Bak ing

as»
A gas oven , equipped with a thermostat, was employed

throughout the series. The cakes were baked at 550°F (176°C)

for 55 minutes .

Cooling

After cooling 15 minutes in the pan, right side up on.

a wire cake rack, the cakes were removed from the pans and
were allowed to finish cooling right side up on the same

cake rack.

45 Reynolds Aluminum Traypak
45* Magic Chef

27

Preliminary Preparations

Frozen Cakes and Batters

 

Lows (57) was the source for the plain cake recipe

used for the frozen cakes and the frozen batters.

shortening 1/2 cup 112 grams
sugar 1-1/2 cup 500 grams
9888 2 96 grams
milk 1 cup 244 grams
cake flour 5 cup 500 grams
salt 1/2 t. 2 grams
baking powder 12 grams
vanilla 1 t. 5 c.c.

At the beginning of the study, ten batches were pre-
pared for the frozen cakes or batters. A batch consisted
(of three times the formula.

The mixing procedure was as follows. The fat and
sugar were creamed two minutes with a flat beater on low
speed of a mechanica1.mixer*. The beaten egg was added
and mixed one minute. The batter was removed from the
mixer, and two-thirds of the milk was added. The batter
was then stirred five strokes by hand. All of the flour
was added and the batter was stirred for 100 strokes by
hand. The batter was replaced on fine mixer and mixed one
minute at low speed. The remainder of the milk was added
and stirred by hand for 50 strokes. For each cake, 200
grams of batter was used.

The batters to be frozen were covered with a moisture-

} Kitchen-Aid

28
vapor-proof cellophane slightly larger than file pan and
fitted snugly in order u: decrease the amount of surface
exposed to air. An aluminum cover was then fitted to the
pan and sealed mechanically. The batters were then
frozen and stored.

The batters to be used for frozen cakes were baked,
cooled to room temperature ani wrapped.amd sealed in
moisture-vapor-proof cellophane. The cakes were then frozen
and stored.

Cakes and batters were frozen in circulating air at
-20°C and were stored two months at -18°C. They were then
removed to a commercial locker plant where they were held

the desired additional length of dme.

Laboratory Mix

Sunderlin and co-workers at Purdue University developed

the formula fer the laboratory or "master“ mix (56, 58).

cake flour 500 grams
baking powder 14 rams
salt 5. grams
cream.of tartar 1.4 grams
sugar 14 grams
shortening 119 grams

The formula made four cups or one pound of mix. For
this study a single batch consisted of four pounds of mix.

The mixing procedure was as follows: The baking powder,
salt, cream of tartar, and sugar were stirred into the flour

and sifted together three times. The shortening was cut

29
into the flour until the consistency resembled corn meal
(two minutes at low speed on.the mechanical mixer*). The
mix was packaged in 540 gram.portions in polyethylene bags
which were closed as tightly as possible and fastened with
a rubber band. The mix was stored at room temperature

throughout the study.
Procedures

At each evaluation period, the cakes were baked in
the morning from 10 to 12 and were scored at 1:45 in the
'afternoon. The order in which the cakes were mixed and
baked varied each day so that no one cake was allowed con-

sistently to stand longer than the rest.

areas sass

. A single recipe of plain cake batter (p 27 ) was pre-
pared at each test period for comparative purposes. The
procedure for mixing was as follows: The fat and sugar
were creamed two minutes (about 400 strokes) with a
wooden spoon until light and fluffy. The sugar was added
gradually. The eggs were added and the mixture was beaten
one minute (about 150 strokes). Two-thirds of the milk,
containing the vanilla, was added.andstirred five strokes.
All the flour was added.and stirred 150 strokes. The re-
mainder of the milk was added and stirred 50 strokes. Each

cake contained 200 grams of batter.

* Kitchen Aid

30

Frozen Batter

The pans containing the frozen batter were removed

from the freezer and placed on wire cake racks at room
temperature. The batter was allowed to thaw 2 to 2—1/2
hours or until the batter temperature had reached 20°C,

at which time the cakes were baked.

Frozen Cake

The frozen cakes were ranoved from the freezer ard
allowed to thaw in the cellophane wrappers on wire cake
racks for three hours at vhich time they had reached room

temperature.

Cake Made 2: Laboratory Mix

 

The formula for the cake was as follows:

mix 540 grams
sugar 250 grams
milk 244 grams
eggs 96 grams
vanilla 5 00.

The sugar was stirred into the mix. The milk (containing
the vanilla) was gradually added to the mix and the batter
was beaten three minutes or until smooth (about 450 strokes).
The beaten eggs were added and the batter was beaten 1
another minute (about 150 strokes). Each cake contained

200 grams of batter.

51

Cake Made 23 Commercial Ready Mix

 

The commercial ready mix contained, besides the regular
dry ingredients and shortening, artifidal flavoring and dry

milk solids.

mix 1 - 16 ounce package
water 240 grams
eggs 96 grams

The water was gradually added to the mix, and the batter was
beaten three minutes until smooth (about 450 strokes). The
eggs were added and the batter was beaten another minute.

Each pan was filled with 200 grams of batter.
Objective Tests

Viscosity a: Batter

 

The stiffness or resistance to flow of each batter at
room temperature was determined. A viscosimeter* was used
employing a N0. 26 wire, a small cup (5 cm. in diameter),
revolving at 20 RPM, and plunger (1 cm. in diameter) and 50
cc. of batter. The reading in degrees MacMichael was taken

at 5 seconds. A low reading indicates a thin batter.

Specific Gravity_g§ Batter

The ratio of the weight of a cup of batter (at room
temperature) and the weight of an equal volume of water was

obtained.

* MacMichael Viscosimeter

52

Specific gravity : wt. batter igram§)_
wt. water Tgramsf

A standard measuring cup was filled 1/2 full with batter,
tamped 12 times rotating the while and then filled complete-
ly and tamped 12 times more. It was then leveled off with

a spatula and weighed.

Volume

The volume of each cake was measured by seed dis-

placement.”

Standing He ight

The average height of the center cut of cake was ob-
tained by measuring in centimeters the height at both ends,
center and between these places, making a total of five

measurements .

Compres sibility

A penetrometer “b“ was used to determine the compressi-
bility or tenderness of the cake crumb. Discs of cake one
inch in diameter and 1/2 inch thick were compressed 5
seconds by a flat disc 1 inch in diameter carrying a weight
of 122 grams. Measurements were made in millimeters. Four
readings were averaged for each cake, using the 5rd and 4th
slices, two discs from each slice.

is National Manufacturing Company Volumeter
*** New York Testing Laboratory Penetrometer

33

Moisture Content

The moisture contents of the cakes were determined by
drying the cakes at 120°C with forced air circulation in a
semi-automatic moisture tester*. Two determinations were
made for each cake, using the 5rd and 4th slices. Readings
in percent moisture were taken every half hour for two
hours or until the moisture change for two successive half-
hour readings was 0.05% or less. The moisture content re-

ported was the average of the final readings.
Subjective Tests

The cakes were scored for volume, appearance, color
(inside and outside). flavor, texture, tenderness and general
conclusions by five judges. The judges were requested to
record comments concerning any outstanding features noted.

A sample of the score sheet used is shown on page 69

in the appendix.

4* Brabender

34
- DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The quality of a.cake might be evaluated by the batter
characteristics, palatability scores, results of objective
tests, preparation times and cost of ingredients.

For simplification purposes, LRM will be used to
designate the cakes prepared from the laboratory ready mix

and CRM for those prepared from the commercial ready mix.
Batter Characteristics

There was a tendency for the ready mixes to clump
during storage. If these clumps were broken up before the
addition of any liquid, the cake was easier to mix. The
addition of the liquid to the ready mix was important when
the cake was mixed by hand. If too much liquid was added
initially, the resultant batter was apt to be lumpy, a con-
ditionmwhich.was rather difficult to remedy at that point.

Apparently, the commercial ready mix contained a high
proportion of a rapid acting baking powder as its leavening
agent, as the baking powder reacted very quickly at room
temperature. The cakes were baked as soon as possible after
mixing and the objective tests on the batter were made as
soon as was practicable, in order to prevent undue loss of
1eavening.e The reaction time of the baking powder in the

other cake batters was not discernible.

r’lr

Viscosity

It became evident in the preliminary studies that there
were large differences in the viscosities of the batters pre-
pared from ready mixes and the fresh plain cake batter. The
differences persisted throughout the study. The viscosity
data are summarized in Table I.

The batters of the ready mixes were generally much
thinner and did not offer much resistance to movement. This
was especially true of the batter from the CRM which gave
the lowest viscosimeter reading. The fresh batters were
much more viscous and offered greater resistance to move-
ment as shown by their greater viscosity readings.

The lower readings in viscosity of the frozen batters
when compared with the fresh batter may be explained by
mixing since the frozen batters had been mixed mechanically.
Viscosity is affected by extent of mixing as well as formula
variations.

A wide Variation in viscosity was often encountered
even when proportion of ingredients and mixing techniques
were standardized. Collins (15) also observed this
tendency. Room temperature and/or humidity variations may
have influenced the viscosities of the batters and caused
the variations between replications. The variations due to
treatment were much greater than those due to length of

storage as indicated by the differences in F values in

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57
Table 1. From the data available, no explanation is
offered as to the cause for the variations due to storage

time.

Specific Gravity

 

S

The specific gravity is closely related to the amount
of air incorporated in the batter or its lightness. The
more air incorporated in a given batter, the lower the
weight of a given volume of that batter, and therefore the
lower the specific gravity. Table 2 summarizes the specific
gravity data for the various cake batters.

The fresh cake batter had the lowest specific gravity,
indicating a lighter batter than the others. The highest
specific gravity values were for the ready mix batters. In
general, there was an increase in the specific gravity of
the batters with increased storage time.' This increase for
the frozen batter might be explained by a loss of leavening
agent during the long storage period.

There was a significant interaction between length of
storage and treatment indicating that all the cakes did not
respond in the same manner. There is less than one chance
in twenty that this was not a real difference.

Some of the variations in specific gravity might be

explained by the highly significant negative correlation

38

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39
coefficient (-O.596) between specific gravity and room
temperature. As the room temperature decreased there was
a tendency for the specific gravity of the batter to
increase. There was no attempt to maintain a constant

room temperature.

Palatability Scores

The mean scores of the cakes in each test period are
shown in Table 5. The highest rating a cake might receive
for a given characteristic is seven, the lowest one. A
rating of seven would indicate an excellent product in that
characteristic; a rating of one would indicate a very poor

product.

Volume

The cake judged as having the greatest volume was that
prepared of fresh batter. Good volumes were also reported
for the frozen cakes. There was a tendency for these cakes
to raise slightly in the middle, which gave a rounded con-
tour to the cake. On the other hand, the cakes prepared
from ready mixes were flat, which gave the impression of
much smaller volumes.

The most striking differences in volume were noted with
the aging of the frozen batter. The cakes baked of thawed
batter, that had not been stored an appreciable length of time,

corresponded closely in volume scores to those of the fresh

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42

cakes. As the time of storage increased, the volume scores
for the cakes decreased. There was a tendency for the cakes
stored 16 to 24 weeks to hump in the center. The higher
volume scores at 24 weeks are not explainable.

There was a general over-all shrinking in the size of
the frozen cakes with freezing storage. Since the general
relationship of height to width was not altered, this ten-

dency is not indicated in the scores for volume.

Appearance

 

The fresh cake received the highest appearance scores.
This cake had a slightly rounded pebbly top that was not
shiny. The crust was crisp and yet not hard.

The cake that had been frozen had a smooth, relatively
even crust. The crust had softened, lost its crispness
and was slightly rubbery.

The frozen batter produced cakes comparable in appear-
ance to the fresh cakes for the first 8 weeks of storage.
However, after 16 weeks of storage, the crust was hard,
pale and smooth. The general appearance of the cake
resembled that of an over-mixed fresh cake.

The appearance of the ready mix cakes were quite
different from those of the fresh cakes. The crusts were
shiny, pebbly and were at times sticky, and characteristic
of an excessive amount of sugar. The crust of the CRM

cake was apt to be hard and rubbery.

43

Color

Although there were slight differences noted in the
color of the exterior and interior portions of the cake
with the various treatments there was not much difference
in the scores for these characteristics. All the cakes
were acceptable whether lighter or darker in color.

When the frozen batter had been aged for 16 and 24
weeks, the crusts of‘the cakes were pale, which explained
the slightly lower scores for these cakes. The crusts of
the frozen cakes were generally darker than those of flma
fresh cakes. The ready mixes produced cakes with slightly
darker crusts, which might have been due to the higher
sugar content in these formulas.

The color of fine cake crumb was determined to a large
extent by the egg yolks. In general, except for the CRM
cakes, the crumbs of the cakes were creamy white. The
commercial ready mix produced cakes with a slightly deeper

yellow crumb than did the other batters.

Flavor

The cakes made oi'fresh batter generally received the
highest scores for flavor. The LRM cakes closely rivalled
the fresh cakes in flavor. The lower flavor score in some

cases might be explained by a sugary crust.

44

On the other hand the CRM cakes received the lowest
scores for flavor. The vanilla flavoring was found to be
objectionable by several of the judges. The flavor was
described as perfumy sweet. One judge suggested the flavor
to resemble that of sour milk and soda. 2

The storage of the cake or batter in the freezer pro-
duced little change in the flavor of the cakes except for
an increased stale or aged flavor which was noted after
16 and 24 weeks of storage. The.pure vanilla flavoring did
not produce off-flavors in the frozen batter or frozen cake,
such as those reported by Graul (26, 27) with the use of an
artificial vanilla flavoring. After 24 weeks of storage,
the flavor of the cakes prepared from frozen batters had
traces of the baking powder residue. However, only one

person commented on heat factor.

Tenderness

In general, the cakes were very tender and resilient.
The fresh cakes were given the highest scores fbr tenderness.
The frozen cakes were at times described as being too tender
since they crumbled readily when handled.

The cakes prepared from frozen batters were tender
through the first 8 weeks of storage. After 16 weeks of

storage, the cakes were hard and compact, however.

The cakes prepared from the commercial ready mix were
the least tender. Also, they were not as resilient as the.

other cakes, but tended to stick together.
Texture

The texture of the fresh cake was fine grained though
uneven and was scored high. The texture of the LRM cake
was even, but was not as fine grained as the fresh cake.

The textures of the frozen cakes were moist and soft.
They tended to clump and crumble due to their moistness.
The texture of the frozen batter cakes closely resembled
that of the fresh cake after 8 weeks of storage. After 16
weeks of storage, however, the cakebecame more compact and
hard and closely resembled heavy bread.

The textures of the CRM cakes were more even than
those prepared of plain cake batter. However, the texture
was coarse grained. The air holes were larger and the
walls were thick and coarse. The texture more nearly re-
sembled that of sponge cake than butter cake. The cakes
were moist to the touch and it is believed that this factor
was the cause of the peculiar crumbling tendency of the

interior.

General Conclusions

 

In general, the cakes prepared of fresh batter were

given the highest scores. Cakes prepared of frozen batter

46
closely resembled the fresh cakes initially. However, as
storage time increased, the scores for this cake dropped.
The LRM cakes were generally rated second. The frozen
cakes were scored down for moistness and lack of crust.
The CHM cake was the least liked cake, due principally

to its flavor.

Analysis g£_Variance 93 Palatability Scores

 

 

The data were analyzed for variation due to treatment,
time in storage and the interaction between storage and
treatment. Analysis for variation due to replication could
not be made, since the corresponding replications of all
treatments for each storage period were not comparable.

These variations were included in the error term. Table 4
gives a summary of this analysis.

The differences attributed to treatment were highly
significant for all scoring factors with the exception of
the color factors. The scores for color were not analyzed
statistically since the differences were so slight (Table 3).
The differences attributed to storage were highly significant
for flavor, tenderness, texture and general conclusions.

The interactions between storage and treatment were
highly significant, indicating a lack of similarity in

response of the various treatments to the length of storage.

Hosea was one as aseeahnwam as
Hosea an any as pseeaeasmam *

 

47

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sew 00 swab b0 a£0.00 a*H.0b www.ma **0.00 pnospmoaa
mous> m
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nopumn souoam

 

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Hsaosow

 

mosas> cm: “as noaoom cams owwno>< .>H sands

48
Objective Test Results

W e l gilt

The mean weights of the various cakes may be found in
Table 5. The figures indicate that the baked cakes weighed
about the same. However, a statistical analysis of the
results revealed that tiere were differences due to treatment.
The cakes that weighed the least were thos prepared from

frozen batter.
Volume

The mean volumes of the baked cakes are listed in
Table 6. The figures indicate that the largest cakes
were those prepared from fresh batter. The volumes of the
cakes prepared of ready mixes and the frozen cakes were
similar. As the storage time increased, the volume of the
cakes prepared of frozen batter decreased. Storage had
little if any effect on the frozen cake volumes. The
effects of treatment on volume of cakes might be more
clearly seen in the standing heights of the cakes as shown
in Table 7.

The volume and appearance of cakes prepared of frozen
batter were altered as the length of storage increased. As
the over-all volume decreased with storage, the contour or
shape of the cake also changed. Whereas initially the

difference between the end and center measurement of the

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Table VII. Standing Heights of Baked Cakes

(height in cm. of middle slice)

‘

 

Storage Time

CRM cake

LRM cake

Frozen cake Frozen batter cake

Fresh cake

(weeks) (section)

 

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52

middle slice of cake varied between 1.1 and 1.5 cm., after
24 weeks at sub-zero temperatures the difference increased
to 1.7 cm. indicating an increased tendency toward humping.

Correlation coefficients between the volume scores and
the actual volumes as determined by the seed displacement
method were calculated. The correlation coefficient of
-FO.644 for volumes for the frozen batter cakes was highly
significant. None of the other correlation coefficients
were large enough to be significant statistically (-O.l4

for the CR! cakes to 40.551 for fresh cake).

Compressibility‘

 

The results of the compressibility tests are summarized f

in Table 8. The wide ranges within a treatment and storage
period were probably due to texture differences rather than
to an actual difference in tenderness. If averages alone
are considered, we find that the fresh cakes were the most
tender.

Freezing rather than length of storage apparently had
the greatest effect on the compressibility of the frozen
cakes. Length of storage was probably the more important
factor in the case of the frozen batter cakes. As the
cakes were held for longer'lengths of time at sub—zero

temperatures, they became more compact and tougher.

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54

There were no significant correlations between the
penetrometer readings and the scores on tenderness except
for the frozen batter cakes which was highly significant
(+ 0.688).

The value of the compressibility test as a means of
evaluating the tenderness of baked products prepared by
different methods is questionable, since the test is

greatly influenced by texture differences.

Moisture Contents

 

The mean moisture contents of the cakes are summarized
in Table 9. There was a highly significant difference in
the moisture contents between the various cakes. The
differences due to length of storage were also highly
significant. I

The cakes made of commercial ready mixes had the
highest moisture contents; the fresh cakes the lowest.

The differences in moisture contents of the baked cakes
were probably due to the proportions of liquid and dry
ingredients in the formulas. The data suggests no

explanation as to the variations due to length of storage.

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56
Preparation
Preparation Time

A summary of the times required to perform the various
operations in the preparation of the cakes is shown in
Table l0.

Substantial amounts of time were saved by the prepara-
tion of large batches of batter which was then frozen in
either prehaked or batter form. However, during the thaw-
-ing period, many minutes were added thereby increasing the
total preparation times for these items.

The preparation of the ready mix in the laboratory also
reduced the time required to make each cake. The cake fiuat
required the least number of minutes to prepare was that
made from a commercial ready mix, in Which much of the
measuring and mixing had been done previously by others.

In both the preparation of file laboratory ready mix
and tin batter which was frozen in baked or unbaked form, a
mechanical mixer was employed. The preparations might be
accomplished manually, in which case, the preparation time

required to make either cake would be increased considerably.

Cost of Cakes

The cost of the cakes varied, depending on the cost of

the ingredients and the amount required per cake. The

57

 

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58

average cost of two 8" layers was

fresh cake 39.97 cents
frozen cakes 39.97 cents
cakes made of frozen batter 39.97 cents

cakes of laboratory ready mix 35.76 cents
cakes of’commercial ready mix 44.50 cents

A detailed account of the cake cos ts may be found in
the Appendix. The figures listed include only the costtof
the actual ingredients used. Since the smma formula was
employed for the fresh and frozen items, the-cost of in-
gredients is the same. The costs of wrapping the frozen
items and of maintaining a low temperature in order to
freeze the items ani keep them in a frozen state were
additional costs which were not included here.

The cake made of the laboratory mix cost less to make
when based on ingredient costs. The proportion of dry in-
gredients to liquid ingredients was much smaller for this
cake which accounts for the differences in ingredient
costs.

The cakes made of fine commercial ready mix were the

most expensive.

59
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The quality of plain loaf cakes prepared from dry and
frozen mixes were compared. large batches of‘the labora-
tory ready mix and.of the cakes and batters Which were to
be frozen were prepared, and stored in.smaller units for
O, 4, 8, 16, 24 weeks. Evaluations of fine cakes prepared
from the stored units ani from fresh batters were made.

Five replications in each evaluation period were made.

Objective and subjective techniques for judging the
quality of fine cakes were used. The cakes were scored sub-
jectively for volume, appearance, color, flavor, tenderness,
texture and general conclusions. Objective measurements
included viscosity and specific gravity of‘the batter, and
weight, volume, compressibility and moisture content of the
cakes. Records were also kept as to preparation times and
costs of the various cakes.

There were significant differences in the viscosities
and specific gravities of the batters prepared of the various
treatments. Those prepared of ready mixes were much thinner
than either the fresh or frozen batters. The batter of the
commercial ready mix was the thinnest. Variations due to
treatment werd much greater than those due to length of
storage. A highly significant negative correlation between
specific gravity and room temperature may explain some of

the variations in specific gravity.

i

r.

60

The palatability scores for the various treatments
showed the fresh cakes to be best for all factors except
texture in which the laboratory ready mix cake scored
slightly higher. The preferences for the various cakes
as indicated by the general conclusion scores, were:
fresh batter cake, laboratory ready mix cake, frozen cake,
frozen batter cake, and commercial ready mix cake. With
increased storage time, scores for the frozen batter cakes
dropped -- the greatest decrease occurring at the 16 week
evaluation period. Highly significant interactions in the
palatability scores between treatment and storage indicate
that the cakes did not respond in a similar manner with
increased storage. Although color differences were noted
among the treatments, the differences in the scores were
not significant.

In general, the results of the objective tests agreed
with the palatability scores. Greater differences were
noted among the treatments than with length of storage.

The fresh cake was of larger volume, more easily compressed
and lower moisture content than the cakes prepared by the
other treatments. The cakes prepared of the ready mixes
had good volumes, were not as easily compressed and had the
highest moisture contents. The greatest changes with
length of storage occurred in the frozen batter cakes. The
volumes of the cakes decreased, the crumb became more com-
pact, and there was a tendency for the cakes to hump in the

center.

61

Correlations between palatability scores for volume
and volumes as determined by seed displacemalt tests, and
between tenderness scores and compressibility test results
were significant for the frozen batter cakes only.

The preparation of the cakes from the commercial ready
mix required the least amount of time, but these cakes
were the most expensive. The fresh cakes required the
most time to prepare. The laboratory ready mix cake was
the least expensive to make. I

From.these results, it appeared that:

1. Fresh batters produced the best quality cakes as
detennined by subjective and objective evaluation techniques,
but required the greatest preparation time.

b 2. Cakes may be frozen for future use with slight
detrimental losses due to freezing.

5. Initially, cakes prepared of frozen batter were
similar in all.respects to the fresh cake, but as storage
time increased there was a sharp decrease in quality,
which was especially noticeable after 16 weeks of storage.

4. The laboratory ready mix produced cakes that were
slightly inferior to the cakes prepared of fresh batter,

, and were the least expensive to make.

5. The cakes prepared of a commercial ready mix re-
quired.the least amount of time and were the most expensive
to prepare. Their quality was the poorest of the cakes in-

cluded in this study.-

-3.

4.

5.

7.

8.

10.

Val.

15.

REFERENCES

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1946. The possibilities in frozen baked goods.
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Alsberg, C.L. 1936. Stale bread problem. Wheat
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Bailey, L. H. 1930. A simply apparatus for measur-
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Berrigan, D. G. 1937. Use of lard in cake baking.
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Bice, C. W., and W. F. Geddes. 1949. Studies on
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Briewa, K. E. 1949. New ways to make a.cake. Maine
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Brody, H. 1947. Problems in baking. Baker's Digest
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Cathcart, W. H. 1940. Review of progress in research
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14.

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65

, and S. V. Iuber, 1939. Freezing as a
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32: 556.

Combs, Y. F. 1944. An instrument for determining the

compressibility and resistance to shear of
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Dawson, R. M. 1947. How to prepare foods for freez-
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1947. Preparation of foods from the
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Dietrich, L. E. 1938. Rigid quality control makes
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Dunn, J. A., and J. R. White. 1937. Factor control in
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Graham, J. 1949. Freezing fruits, vegetables, ani
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1947. How storage affects frozen cakes
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Hutchings, G. In, and C. F. Evers. 1946. Quality
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Hutchinson, J. B. 1936. The staling ani keeping
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1948.

Kaufman, E. W. 1946. Common ailments of qiality in
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Katz, J. R. 1928. Gelatinization.and retrogradation
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1934. Change in tie swelling power of

bread crumb during staling. Baker's Weekly.
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Kirkpatrick, E., and G. Sunderlin. 1949. The master
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52.

55.

56.

,{W}

58.

59.

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63.

64.

66
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Pyler, E. J. 1948. Staling of bread. Baker's Digest.
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Ref. Eng. 42 (5): 416.

 

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Watts, B. M., B. Iehmann, and F. Goodrich. 1949.
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67

65. Woodroof, J. G. 1944.- Preserving foods by freezing.
Georgia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 233.

66. and I. S. Atkinson. 1945. Freezing
preservation of cooked foods. Georgia Agr.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 242.

 

APPENDIX

69

 

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71

Table XII. Temperature Data at Scoring Periods

 

 

Mean Mean Mean

Storage Room Temperature Relative Batter Temperatures
Weeks Humidity Fresh Frgzen

OF 7% °c c

O 81 57 22 21

4 78 37 2O 19

8 75 35 25 18

16 76 39 2O 2O

24 72 49 21 19

 

 

 

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