| INTERNATIONAL NEWS COVERAGE ON’u.s. f . TELEVISION NETWORK INEWSOASTS: A. ORATITIcATIONs STUDY, 5 . ; Dissertation for the Degree Of :Ph. :D. I MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY SAMUEL TWU‘MASI KWAME BOAEO 1980 ‘ , DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE ‘IIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIII L 31329 06732 PLACE ll RETURN BOX To roman this checkout from you! "cord. TO A ID FINES Mum on or bdoro dd. duo. ~ m PR 3 O 2007 ABSTRACT INTERNATIONAL NEWS COVERAGE ON U.S. TELEVISION NETWORK NEWSCASTS: A GRATIFICATIONS STUDY By Samuel Nmnasi Kwame Boafo This research examined the range of motivations which underlie exposure to international news coverage on U.S. com- mercial television network evening newscasts. The main premise of the study was derived from the uses and gratifi- cations perspective of audience media behaviour. In the uses and gratifications perspective, audience members have a dyna- ‘mic, purposeful and goal-oriented role in the international news communications process. The gratifications model is based on the theoretical assumption that audience members have sets of perceived socio-psychological needs which they seek to gratify in their media behaviour. The study specifically investigated motivations for watching international news reports as they relate to (l) attention to international news reports on the newscasts; (2) antecedent audience characteristics; (3) dependence on television network for international news and (4) perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding interna- tional events. Samuel Twumasi Kwame Boafo The data were collected by telephone interviews among a sample of 276 respondents in the Greater Lansing Area during the last week in July 1980. The data were analyzed by factor analysis, Pearson product-moment correlation, partial corre- lation, t-test of difference between two correlations and 'multiple regression analysis. Eight hypothesized relation- ships were examined. The data confirmed five of the hypo- theses; the other three were not supported. A factor analysis of the responses yielded two underlying dimensions of motivations for watching international news coverage on the newscasts. The first was a Cognitive or Surveillance Dimension'which suggests that same respondents watch the news reports primarily to fulfill their perceived needs for information about events which may cause conflicts in the world, to see how foreign countries deal with each other, to keep track of changes in U.S. relations with other countries and to learn about how world events may affect their lives. The second was an Affective Dimension which indicates that some respondents watch international news reports on the newscasts primarily as a source of communkmmflxk pleasure, to meet their perceived "ludenic" needs. They find it exciting to watch the reports about events in other countries, they enjoy watching different people in different situations around the world and they find the pictures about foreign people and places interesting to watch. Samuel Twumasi Kwame Boafo Other findings of the study are: There is a positive but weak correlation between respon- dents' gratification-seeking and their attention to international news reports on the newscasts. Respondents who reported information-related motivations for watching the coverage and those reporting less information-related.motivations showed no statistically significant difference in their attention to international news reports on the newscasts. Six predictor variables studied--education, age, sex, interest in foreign news topics, cognitive and affective gratifications--accounted for only a small portion of the variance in respondents' attention to international news reports on the newscasts. A positive relationship exists between respondents' interest in foreign news topics and both their cognitive and affective gratification-seeking from international news coverage on the newscasts. A negative association exists between respondents' edu- cational level and their cognitive and affective gratification-seeking from the coverage. Respondents' dependence on television network for inter- national news was positively related to their cognitive and affective gratification-seeking as well as their perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understand- ing international news events. Samuel Twumasi Kwame Boafo Both the primarily cognitive gratification-seeking respondent and the primarily affective gratification- seeking respondent perceive the coverage to be helpful in their understanding of international news events. INTERNATIONAL NEWS COVERAGE ON U.S. TELEVISION NETWORK NEWSCASTS: A GRATIFICATIONS STUDY By Samuel Twumasi Kwame Boafo A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Communication Arts and Sciences Mass Media Program 1980 DEDICATED TO AWURADE NYANKOPON, KWABENA BOAFO ENE AKUA YEBOAH ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My gratitude and appreciation go to members of my Guidance Committee for their help, advice, cooperation and academic support during my doctoral studies at Michigan State University. I am grateful to Prof. Lawrence Sarbaugh, dis- sertation director, for his careful supervision of this dissertation; Prof. Frederic Wickert for his probing and indispensable suggestions for theoretical and methodological improvements; Prof. Thomas Muth, guidance committee chairman, for his assistance in arranging for the telephone interviews and his friendship throughout my stay at this university; and Prof. Maurice Cullen Jr., for his advice and constructive suggestions for clarity in writing. My thanks also go to Prof. John Abel and Prof. Thomas Baldwin of the Telecommunications Department for their invaluable suggestions on several aspects of the research study and to my colleagues in the Mass Media doctoral pro- gram for their help in conducting parts of the telephone interviews. I appreciate the friendship and encouragement of Prof. Jack Bain, chairman of the Racial and Ethnic Studies program at Michigan State University. The University of Ghana deserves special acknowledge- ments for its sponsorship of my studies for the masters' and iii doctoral degrees and for giving me the opportunity for intellectual growth. To my parents, I say "meda muase" for your moral support and prayers which made my stay in the United States a safe and sound one. My many social friends, especially Doretha, Yevonne, Kwasi and Ellen, deserve special awards for succeeding in making my four-year stay in the United States anything but a purely academic odyssey. The goal of education is not to increase the amount of knowledge, but to create the possibilities for a child to invent and discover, to create men who are capable of doing new things. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER I II III INTRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND INTERNATIONAL NEWS FLOW PURPOSE OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY . DEFINITIONAL ANALYSIS . . GENERAL PLAN OF DISSERTATION A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A. International News Coverage . 1. Content Analytic Studies . . 2. Foreign News in U. 8. Print Media 3. Foreign News on U. S. Commercial Television . . B. Uses and Gratifications . . . 1. Uses- and- Gratifications Model . 2. Uses- and-Gratifications Research 3. TV News Uses and Gratifications . 4. Surveillance]Information-Seeking 5. Interpersonal Utility . . 6. Entertainment/Diversion . . . 7. Gratification-Seeking and Attention to International News . . . . 8. Antecedent Conditions and Gratification-Seeking . 9. Dependence on TV Networks, Gratification-Seeking and Per- ceived Helpfulness of Reports . C. Research Hypotheses . . . . l. Rationale for Hypotheses D. Summary . . . . . METHODOLOGY . DATA COLLECTION PROCESS . A. Developing the Measurement Instrument . \l-l-‘lh-l I—' 10 15 15 15 18 20 24 25 29 31 32 33 35 36 43 CHAPTER Preliminary Stage . . . . Pre—Testing the Measurement Instrument . . Selecting Gratification Items . Interest in Foreign News Topics . Operationalization of Interest in Foreign News Topics . . Testing for Reliability of the Interest Measures . . . Attention to International News Reports . . Dependence on TV Networks for International News Perceived Helpfulness of TV Network . Coverage of International News Main Study . . Final Indices of Gratification- Seeking . . . . Testable Hypotheses : . Treatment of the Data . Characteristics of the Sample . Descriptive Statistics on Items . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. B. The 1. C. D. IV RESULTS . A. B. C. Results of Hypotheses Tests . l. Hypothesis 1a: Composite Gratification-Seeking and Attention . Hypothesis lb. .Cognitive, Affective . Gratifications and Attention . Hypothesis 2: Stepwise Multiple Regression for Gratifications-- Interest in Foreign News Topics and Demographic Variables . . . . Hypothesis 3: Interest in Foreign News Topics and Gratification- Seeking . . . Hypothesis 4: Level of Education and Gratification-Seeking . . Hypothesis 5a: Dependence on TV Networks and Gratification- Seeking . . . Hypothesis 5b: Dependence on TV Networks and Perceived Helpful- ness of Coverage Hypothesis 6. Gratification-Seeking . and Perceived Helpfulness of Coverage . 17-3 Page 61 72 85 88 91 96 104 105 107 111 117 129 131 131 133 140 140 141 143 145 147 149 153 154 CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND DISCUSSIONS . A. Review of Hypotheses Tests . B. Discussion and Implications of Findings . . C. Study Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research . . . APPENDICES A QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN PRELIMINARY STUDY . B PRE-CODED QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN PRE-TEST C QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN MAIN STUDY D INTER-ITEM CORRELATION MATRICES .- 1. Table 20: Measures of Interest in Forei News Topics . . . 2. Table 2 Gratification-Seeking Measures E CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLES 1. Table 22. Pre-Test Sample . . 2. Table 23. Main Study Sample . . 3. Table 24: Comparison of Sample and 1970 Census Data for the Lansing Standard Mbtropolitan Statistical Area (SMBA) . . . . . 4. Table 25: Exposure Patterns for Television Network News . BIBLIOGRAPHY . 11'! '1 179 185 190 200 200 201 202 202 203 204 206 207 Table - 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES Respondent-Generated Reasons for watching International News on Television Network Newscasts . Correlation Matrix of Gratification Items . Correlation Matrix: Cognitive Gratification Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation Matrix: Affective Gratification Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation of Cognitive and Affective Grati- fication Items . . . . . . . . . . . . Rank Order of .ItemAWith-Total Score Cor- rected Correlation Coefficients of Gratification Items . Item#With-Total Score Corrected Correlation Coefficients of Foreign News Interest Measures . . . . . . . . Items Discarded from Scale of Interest in Foreign News Topics . Final Items on Scale of Interest in Foreign News Topics . . . . . Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of Gratification- Seeking Items . Frequency Data on Items . Pearson Product-Moment Zero-Order Correlation Between Gratification—Seeking Components and Attention to International News Reports on Newscasts (N - 115) Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Interest in Foreign News Topics, Education, Age. and Sex on Attention to International News Reports on Newscasts (N c 115) viii 67 79 80 80 81 83 92 ' 93 94 114 135 142 144 Table 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Interest in Foreign News Topics, Education, Age, Sex and Gratification-Seeking Com- ponents on Attention to International News Reports on Newscasts (N - 115) Zero-Order Correlations Between Interest in Foreign News Topics and Components of Cognitive Gratification-Seeking (N - 276) Zero-Order Correlations Between Education and Components of Cognitive Gratification— Seeking (N - 276) . . . . . . . . Zero-Order Correlations Between Dependence on the TV Networks for International News and Components of Cognitive Gratification- Seeking (N - 276) . . . . . . . . Zero-Order Correlations Between Components of Dependence on the TV Networks and Com- ponents of Perceived Helpfulness of the Coverage (N - 276) . . . . Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Cognitive and Affective Gratification- Seeking on Perceived Helpfulness of the Coverage . . . Measures of Interest in Foreign News Topics . Gratification-Seeking Measures Pre-Test Sample . Main Study Sample . Comparison of Sample and 1970 Census Data for the Lansing Standard MetrOpolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) . . . Exposure Patterns for Television Network News ix 145 148 150 152 154 155 200 201 202 203 204 206 Figure 1. LIST OF FIGURES A General Uses-and-Gratifications Model......-. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND INTERNATIONAL NEWS FLOW The development of a technologically sophisticated means of communication has brought about revolutionary changes in communication.among nations. The communication revolution, highlighted by space satellites, advanced telecommunications, regional and intercontinental links, appears to increasingly lead to the creation of what McLuhan and Fiore (1968) termed "a global village." New communication facilities and tech- nologies have made even the most remote regions of the world accessible. They have also increased the speed of informa- tion transmission to the point where a news event in the remote areas of Africa could be reported by the mass media of Spain as quickly as by the media in North America. The new communication technology has improved man's capacity to disseminate news and information across national boundaries with amazing rapidity. Markham (1969, p. 130), in a comment on this phenomenon, observed that "mass communi- cation has made it possible ... within the present generation for mankind to become rather widely aware of world societies and the larger complex of which they are a part." What occurs in one country may have repercussions in other countries. The recent refugee situation in Cambodia (1979), the Russian invasion of Afghanistan (1979) and the Iranian Crisis (1979) all bear vivid testimony to the rippling effecu; which social and political events in one country may exert on the whole world community. It is partly because of the interdependence of countries and the global dimensions of developments in different nations that the mass media of each country devote some pro- portion of their coverage to news and information about occur- rences elsewhere in the world;*EThe underlying expectation is that, by providing news and information related to interna- tional events, the mass communication media can help in the general efforts to impart knowledge and facilitate understand- ing, peace and harmony in the world. It is also possible for the mass media coverage to create tension.among different nations. At a 1969 meeting in Montreal, Canada, sponsored by UNESCO, a group of eXperts on mass communication noted: One of the priority areas for research is the study of the role of mass media in conveying information and in helping to form attitudes about other people and other countries. ‘While the media have the potential for improving and extending international understanding, intercultural communication does not necessarily or automatically lead to better inter- national understanding. (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1970a, p. 3.) The public is the ultimate recipient of international news covered by the mass media. Transmission of news across national boundaries via the mass communication media is based on the assumption that the peOple will read, listen to or watch the news and that the coverage will help them under- stand international news events. Otherwise international news transmission would have little raison d'etre. The news consumers' attention to international news reports in the mass media, their perception of how the reports help them understand the complex web of international events in the news and the sorts of motivations which underlie their attention to the reports thus assume some significance. It is to these issues that the present investigation is addressed. The subject of the study is the relationship between audience media behaviour and gratifications from international news coverage on United States commercial television network evening newscasts. A paradox in the present rapid transmission of interna- tional news and information is an ever-growing concern over the images which one "sub-group" in the world community receives of another via its mass communication media. The concern is mirrored in the several conferences and meetings held between 1970 and 1978 sponsored by UNESCO, Third World nations and private organizations to discuss a "new world information order" and to reconsider the concept of free flow of world information (NQrdenstreng, 1979;UNESCO,1978). The Declaration on Mass Media which was adopted in November 1978 by the UNESCO General Conference in Paris culminated the long period of debates and meetings on the flow of world informa- tion. The stress in the declaration is on the contribution of the mass media to knowledge and comprehension of international issues among the general public in nations of the world. The effectiveness of the mass media in this role must be seen in terms of the response of news recipients to the international news and information transmitted by the mass media. The theme of international news flow has also attracted the attention of scholars and researchers of international communication. For over a quarter of a century, researchers have broached the issue of international news communication from one central perspective: a source-oriented perspective. In the main, the source-oriented perspective for studying international news communication seeks to determine: (1) the images the media of various countries transmit of other countries, (2) the sources of international news, (3) gate- keeping practices and (4) factors which determine the volume, type and direction of international news transmission. A search through the literature on international news communi- cation indicates that relatively little empirical research on the issue has tackled it from the audience perspective. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The present study investigated international news com- munication from the audience perspective. The study employed a uses-and-gratifications model to systematically examine the relationship between audience media behaviour and media gratifications from attending to international news coverage on telvision network newscasts. Commercial television appears to be an appropriate medium on which to focus for an investigation of the audience response to international news coverage. The television medium is ubiquitous in the American society. Ninety-seven percent of all homes in the United States have at least one television set (A. C. Nielsen, 1977). Roper (1977) reports that large segments of the American adult population use television as the only source of their news "about what's going on in the world today." Robinson (1971) noted that about 25 percent of the adult American population view, on a regular basis, newscasts trans- mitted by the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), the Colum- bia Broadcasting System (CBS) and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), the three major commercial television networks in the United States. Hester (1978, p. 86) has remarked: "The evening newscasts of the three major commercial televi- sion networks are the purveyors of national and foreign news to a large portion of the U.S. viewing public." Television was also listed by 51 percent of those surveyed in 1976 as the most credible news source (Roper, 1977). Given (1) the potential of the television medium to quickly transmit international news and (2) the dependence of the majority of the American public on the medium for news about the outside world, it is of some import to inquire about the extent to which the audience pay attention to the international news transmitted, the differential degree of attention given to the coverage and the kinds of motivations which propel such attention. Also significant is the audi- ence's perception of the contribution which the coverage of international news on television network newscasts makes to their understanding of international news events. The significance of these issues lies in the theoretical assumption that ways in which audience members approach the media content are mediating factors in explaining media effects. News reports on international events transmitted via the mass media must be seen or heard; that is, the news reports must somehow attract the attention of news viewers before the reports can be believed, be remembered or have any kinds of effect on the individual's knowledge or attitude. 1 This study has the following specific research object— tives: (1) to systematically determine and categorize the main gratification items associated with watching of international news coverage on television network newscasts; (2) to determine the relationships between level of education and interest in foreign news topics, on the one hand, and gratification- seeking from watching international news coverage on television network newscasts, on the other hand; (3) to investigate the association between the kinds of gratifications sought from the cover- age and the degree of attention to interna- tional news coverage on television network newscasts; (4) to determine the variance accounted for by (a) cognitive gratification-seeking, (b) affective gratification-seeking, (c) level of education, (d) general interest in foreign news topics, (e) age and (f) sex in predict- ing degree of attention to international news coverage on television network newscasts; (5) todetermine the extent to which individuals who depend on television networks for their international news perceive the:coverage to contribute to their comprehension of inter- national news events. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY Past research endeavours in international news communi- cation, by and large, concentrated on studying gatekeeping habits, the source, quality, volume and direction of inter- national news flow. The general tendency of previous empirical investigations has been to examine the communication of international news from the communicator and channel angle. This primary concern has distracted research attention from the significant role of the audience in the news process. International news communication is not a one-way, stimulus-response,powerful communicator-to-a-passive audience activity. On the contrary, international news communication is a process embracing sources, channels, messages and audi- ence all of which form significant components of the process. Such conceptualization of international news requires under- standing all components of the process. To work towards explicit and scientific explanations which will encompass the entire process, it is necessary to study not only the sources, the medium and the nature of the news transmitted but also the audience of the transmitted news, their motives for attending to the transmitted news and their perception of the contribution of the coverage to understanding the issues involved. Such a knowledge is gigs 322 993 for a comprehen- sion of the whole process of international news communication. An analysis of the content of the media coverage of international news does not, in and of itself, determine the nature of the audience reaction to the news covered. As Peled and Katz (1974, p. 66) have remarked, "manifest analy- sis of message content is not in itself an adequate basis for predicting the use that will be made of the message." For an understanding of the audience members' use of the media messages, one must go beyond the overt nature of the messages and explore the audience members themselves and their motives for exposing themselves to the media or media content. It is how the audience members utilize the media ‘messages which, to a large extent, determine the kind of effects the messages would have. Blumler (1972, p. 12) has observed that "the realities of audience experience ... constitute an inescapable funnel through which all mass com- munication content must flow before it can effect whatever impact it is destined to exert." Anderson and Meyer (1975) have likewise indicated that content per se has little value; it assumes value only in relation to the response it generates from the individual. To date, however, relatively little research considera- tion has been given to the realities of the audience experi- ence with international news transmitted via the mass communication media. Consequently, beside a few socio- demographic characteristics found to be associated with exposure to international news, the audience active involve- ment in the process is still an unknown factor. The significance of the present audience-oriented investigation stems from its attempt to bridge the gap and fill some of the paucity in international news communication research. The study, by investigating audience attention to international news coverage on television network newscasts and their gratification-seeking from the coverage, is pre- mised on the contention that the audience members have an active, dynamic and critical function in the communication process. A systematically gathered evidence of audience response to media coverage of international news will be a contribution to the present literature and knowledge of international news communication. Such evidence will point 10 to the function of the audience in the international news process. The findings of the investigation may also suggest, in a small way, the direction of future research efforts in international news communication which will lead to a more adequate comprehension of the process. The present study also has utility and policy implica- tions for mass media practitioners and professionals concerned about the mass media coverage of international news. Know- ledge of how the audience perceive the media coverage to contribute to their comprehension of international news evenuL their attention to the coverage and the kinds of motivations which underlie their attention can be of some value to the media in their decisions on international news coverage. The .media in developed societies have some responsibilities for modifying the perspective of their audience regarding events and people in other parts of the world. Such responsibility partly lies in covering news and information which may be of only marginal interest to the audience but which in the long run may help educate the audience about events elsewhere. An analysis of the relationship between media content and audi- ence response may point to directions for fulfilling this responsibility. DEFINITIONAL ANALYSIS Kerlinger (1973, pp. 30-31) makes a distinction between constitutive and operational definitions of constructs. A constitutive definition relates a variable or a construct to 11 other variables; it involves the use of words or expressions in lieu of the term being defined. This is what a dictionary usually does. On the other hand, an operational definition of a variable assigns a meaning to the variable by specifying the actions or behaviours necessary to measure the variable. In order to establish the appropriate frame of reference for this investigation, it is necessary to define some of the important concepts employed. Only the constitutive defini- tions are given in this section. Operational definitions or exact measurement of the variables will be discussed in Chapter III. International News Coverage is used in the present study to refer to any news story covered on television network evening newscasts which pertains to events in foreign countries in whatever context. The term also refers to news reports which concern United States relations with other nations. Television network newscasts are the early evening news programs aired at 6:30/7 p.mm by the American Broadcast- ing Company (ABC), the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). Interest in Foreign News Topics: Wolman (ed. 1973, p. 199) defines "interest" as "an enduring attitude consist- ing of the feeling that a certain object or activity is sig- nificant and accompanied by Special attention to that object or activity." The concept, "interest in foreign news topics)‘ is conceived of as a psychological disposition towards news about affairs concerning foreign nations. "Foreign nations" 12 refers to countries which exist outside the boundaries of the United States of America. Gratification-seeking: The gratifications model which is utilized in this study posits that the individual attends to the media or media content to satisfy certain perceived needs. The individual in his/her media behaviour seeks for fulfillment of the perceived needs or for certain gratifica- tions. Theoretically, gratification-seeking is propelled by needs. In this study, gratification-seeking is conceived of as self-reported reasons the individual gives for watching international news stories reported on television network news programs. Based on findings of previous studies, gratificatim— seeking from watching international news stories on the news- casts will be dichotomized into cognitive gratification- seeking and affective gratification-seeking. By cognitive gratification-seeking is meant watching international news coverage on the newscasts "primarily for information about some feature of society and the wider world" (Blumler, 1979, p. 17). Basically, news viewers who seek cognitive gratifications watch international news coverage on the newscasts primarily to acquire some information and knowledge about "the state of affairs" in the world. Affectivegratification-seeking is used to denote watch- ing international news coverage on the newscasts primarily for pleasure and entertainment or for less information- acquisition purposes. Affective gratification-seeking news viewers watch international news coverage on the newscasts 13 mainly because it "serves to pleasantly distract and refresh them" (Gantz, 1975, p. 25) and because the coverage thrills their emotions. Attention to International News Coverage: Wolman (ed. 1973, p. 34) defines attention as "selection and perception of a certain stimulus or of a range of stimuli comprising part of a complex stimulus situation." Television network news- casts encapsule a variety of news reports. It is a communi- cation situation in which audience members are exposed to a gamut of message stimuli. News viewers may be exposed to the newscasts but they may not be aware of or they may not notice all the news items. In the present study, attention to inter- national news coverage is used to refer to reported awareness of news stories covered on television network newscasts which pertain to (a) events in foreign countries and (b) about United States relations with other countries. GENERAL PLAN OF DISSERTATION Chapter I of this dissertation has presented the general introduction to the problem area and specific statements of the research questions which were investigated. The chapter briefly analyzed the rapid changes in communication technology and its implications for news and information transmission among nations. The role of the media in world understanding and in helping forge peace and harmony among various peoples in the world was also stated. The rationale of the study has 14 been delineated and a brief definitional analysis of some of the important concepts employed has also been presented. Chapter II contains a review of the literature related to the investigation of the problem. The first section of the chapter presents a review of studies undertaken on inter- national news communication. The second section reviews general mass communication uses and gratifications studies and specific studies on television news uses and gratifica- tions. The chapter further outlines the components of the uses-and-gratifications model employed in the investigation, the research hypotheses and the rationale for each hypothesis. The methodology is outlined in Chapter III. The chapter contains a description of the sample which was used in the study, Operationalization of the variables, a description of the data collection instrument and data collection process. The research hypotheses and their null counterparts as well as the statistical techniques used to analyze the data are outlined in that chapter. An analysis of the data and results of the testing of the null hypotheses are presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V presents conclusions of the investigation. The research findings and flmplications for theory building in uses and gratifications research are discussed in this last chapter. Suggestions for further studies on the problem area are also stated in that chapter. CHAPTER II A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The present investigation employs a uses-and- gratifications research model to investigate the relationship between audience media behaviour and media gratifications from watching international news coverage on television net- work newscasts. This chapter reviews two trends in mass communication research. First, a review of selected studies on international news communication will be presented. This will be followed by a review of a representative selection of mass media uses and gratifications studies. The chapter will also outline the research hypotheses for the study and the rationale for each hypothesis. A. International News Coverage 1. Content Analytic Studies: The prevailing research picture on international news communication evinces a very heavy emphasis on the nature of the communication messages and the sources of those messages. The following review of the content analytic studies on international news communication is pertinent to this investi- gation because audience members' attention to international news is shaped by availability of international news on the 15 16 newscasts. Supply of information on international events is a prerequisite for audience exposure. It is necessary, there- fore, to see what the content analytic studies have demon- strated. Studies on international news communication have attracted the interest of mass communication scholars and other social science researchers at least since 1930 when Woodward (1930), in a germinal study, examined the coverage of foreign news in 40 United States morning newspapers. He found that, on the average, the newspapers devoted about 5.2 percent of their space to "news from abroad." There was a lull in the studies between 1930 and the end of the second World War. Mewlana (1973), after an extensive survey of research studies in the United States on international communication between 1850 and 1970, reported that there were only a few publications which dealt with international news and information by 1940. Research in international news communication and in international communication in general saw a dramatic growth after the war. Mowlana (1973, p. 79) has identified four key factors which contributed to the immense upsurge of interest in international communication. These factors are: 1. post-war interest in the developing nations with a concomittant concern for both under- standing and promoting modernization; 2. broader acceptance of the idea that communi- cation analysis provides a perspective through which one can better understand society; 17 3. the expansion of education and business inter- ests across national boundaries; and 4. the sharpening of research and investigatory tools and improved means of collecting, stor- ing, retrieving and sharing data. With the upsurge of interest in international communica- tion, researchers of international news communication focused their attention on certain discernible themes. These themes include: (1) the fundamental disequilibrium in worldwide information flow (Schramm, 1964; Schiller, 1969; Hester, 1971; De Verneil, l976);K£2)-factors which affect the volume and direction of news and information flow (Galtung and Ruge, 1965; Rosengren, 1970, 1977; Hester, 1973; Larson and Hardy, 1977); (3) gatekeeping practices in the process of interna- tional news flow (Hester, 1972; Batscha, 1975); (4) the preponderant role of the industrialized supernations in the generation and transmission of news and information (Schiller, 1971, 1973; Tunstall, 1977) and (5) the paucity of and skewed coverage given to developing countries in the media of the Western world (Haisman, 1970; Semmel, 1976; Lent and Rao, 1979; Chares, Shore and Todd, 1979). The delineated themes reflect the general trend of research studies on international news and information. Com- prehensive discussions and analyses of the issues are provided in insightful articles by Frutkin (1973); Nordenstreng and Varis (1973); Schiller (1973) and in the volumes on interna- tional communications edited by Fischer and Merrill (1970, 1976). 18 Numerous research undertakings in international news communication have aimed at quantifying the international/ foreign news content in the media of different nations. Among the early studies on media coverage of international news were Kriesberg's (1946) study of Soviet news coverage in the New York Times, a 1951 study by the International Press Institute on international news in American, British, French, German, Italian and Indian newspapers and Kayser's (1953) reports on how 17 major newspapers in the world covered international news during one week in 1953. The early studies manifested the concern.of mass media scholars and practitioners over media coverage of interna- tional news. The studies also marked the genesis of a trend in international communication research. 2. Foreign News in U.S. Print Media: Studies which attempted to quantify international news coverage in the United States press have indicated that, with the exception of a few elite newspapers, the United States press generally gives only little attention to international affairs news. Hester (1972) investigated the origination, volume and V content of news flow from Latin America during June and July 1971. He found that the news transmitted from Latin America heavily emphasized crime, violence, sports, foreign relations and politics. Little attention was given to economic, educa- tional and agricultural development;:3Lent and Rao.(1979) undertook a similar study but focused on a different region 19 of the world. They quantified the coverage which Asian countries received in the New York Times, the Washington Post, Newsweek and on the newscasts of ABC television network between September 26 and October 1, 1977. The content analy- sis found, among other things, that during the week studied, 8.5 percent of the six ABC newscasts analyzed related to Asian affairs. Limited though their study may be in sc0pe and method, Lent and Rao showed that the United States media alloted little space to news from one important region of the world. Charles, Shore and Todd (1979) studied the coverage of another region of the world in one leading newspaper in the United States. They analyzed the New York Times' coverage of sub-Sahara Africa during the first halves of 1960, 1965, 1970 and 1975. The researchers discovered that the coverage was limited to a few nations: Angola, Kenya, South Africa, Rhodesia and Zaire. These nations received over 75 percent of the newspaper's coverage of sub—Sahara Africa during the period studied. Charles and his colleagues noted that those five nations were undergoing serious political changes and turmoil during the period. They observed that "coverage for other nations is sporadic but also appears to occur during periods of political upheaval" (Charles, Shore and Todd, 1979, p. 153). Similar observation was made by Pratt (1977, p. 25) who found in his analysis of the image of Africa in six news and Opinion magazines "a tendency to concentrate on those scary issues which, in the Opinion of the reporters, 20 would au fond satisfy reader demands. The majority of the countries reported ... were in the main trouble spots." 3. {gagign News on U.S. Commercial Television: Studies on United States media coverage of international news have not been limited to the print media. Some atten- tion has been given to the electronic media. Haisman (1970), for example, analyzed a sample of documentaries, special pro- grams and newscasts produced in May 1970 on the three commer- cial television networks for their coverage of international affairs. Haisman's study indicated that purely international news on the networkswas usually composed of brief items read towards the end of the newscasts by the anchormen. Almaney (1970) examined the evening news programs on commercial television networks to determine the amount of coverage given to international news in April 1969. He found that the pattern of television coverage reflected the degree of United States involvement in world affairs. The three networks devoted 52 percent of the total number of interna- tional stories covered to the Far East which reflected United States involvement in the Vietnam.war at the time. The Middle East, the Soviet Union, Western Europe and South America, in that order, ceme next. Almaney also found that, on the average, the networks devoted 8.8 minutes or 39 per— cent of their daily evening news programs to international news. Reporting his findings, Almaney (1970, p. 508) observed: 21 Since World War II, the United States has become increasingly involved in world affairs and has, in- deed, assumed the hegemony of the non-communist countries. However, in its coverage of interna- tional and foreign affairs, network television does not appear to be keeping pace with the increasing involvement of the United States in world happen- ings. The finding that United States television network cover- age of international news constitutes a small portion of its overall news coverage has been confirmed by Larson and Hardy (1977). They studied how the three commercial television networks covered international affairs between 1972 and mid- 1976. The researchers analyzed a sample of weekly evening newscasts on the three networks in their attempt to determine whether television network news programs provide systemati- cally different coverage on certain countries depending on their level of development. The study found that: (1) television network coverage of Third World countries contained a higher proportion of crisis stories than coverage of developed countries; (2) Third World countries appear relatively less often than de- veloped nations in news stories which mentioned only one foreign country and (3) Third World countries received less coverage than developed nations across all three networks. Larson and Hardy concluded that "level of development is one correlate of the extent of news coverage given to other countries." The researchers also found that between 1972 and 1975, ABC devoted 39 percent of its evening newscasts to international news; CBS alloted 37 percent of its evening 22 news programs and NBC gave 35 percent of its newscasts to international news coverage. Similar findings were reported by Larson (1978, 1979) and Hester (1978) in their content analyses of international news coverage on television network evening news programs over diverse periods. In his analysis of 180 evening news- casts on the three television networks, Hester (1978) found that from 1972 to 1976, foreign news coverage amounted to about 22 percent of the news time on the evening news programs of the networks. Hester observed that "as far as amount and types of foreign news, it mattered little to the U.S. tele- vision viewer which networks he or she was watching. All networks correlated highly in choice of subject matter of foreign news and geographic emphases" (p. 95). The preceeding section has reviewed a number of studies on international news communication. The principal objective in the review was to indicate the major issues and foci in the trend of international news research. The studies are mostly source~oriented and channel-oriented. The studies have gathered extensive amount of data on the images the media in the United States transmit of foreign countries; the sources of international news flow into the United States; gatekeeping practices and factors which affect the direction and volume of international news transmission into the United States. While the source-oriented studies on international news make no overt association, the regularity and predomi- nance of such research in the literature on international 23 communication point to a tacit assumption that the media coverage plays an important part in the audience's knowledge, perception of and attitude towards other nations. Undoubtedly, any potential effect of the mass media on images and knowledge individuals have of other countries depends on the amount and kind of news and information con- tained in the media about other nations. However, image development in individuals is a psychological phenomenon which occurs in the mental framework of individuals. It ultimately depends on whether the individual attends to the messages or not and, if he does, what motives underlie such attention. In this regard, the studies reviewed above share a common shortcoming: their usefulness in learning about the audience experience with the media coverage of international news is limited. As MbQuail, Blumler and Brown (1972, p. 158) have maintained, there is no one-tOeone relationship between the overt content of the media and the kind of response it generates from.the audience. Knowledge of audience response to media coverage of international news is not self-evident from knowledge of the content or channel for the coverage. Such a knowledge can only come from a systematic exploration of the audience experience. To date, however, few systematic studies on international news communication have focused on the audience. Relevant audience-oriented investigations of international news com- munication will be reviewed in a later section of this chapter. Suffice it to say here that those studies have found certain 24 variables to be.mmaningfully associated with exposure to international affairs news and information in the media. Sud: sociological and psychological variables as education, sex, socio-economic status, interest, perceived salience and cosmopolitanism have been established by previous audience- oriented studies to relate positively with exposure to media coverage of international news. Those variables may be employed as a baseline for further probing into the active, goal-oriented role which the audience members play in the whole international news communication process. Put differ- ently, the variables may be employed to determine and explain why certain attributes of the individual are related to their exposure to international affairs content in the mass media. The uses and gratifications model appears to be an orderly, relevant and promising model for investigating inter- national news communication from the audience perspective. The model may be used to delve into the motivations behind the audience exposure and how these motivations affect differential information processing among the audience of international news coverage on television newscasts. The next section presents a review of some uses and gratifica- tions research studies which are germane to the present investigation. B. Uses and Gratifications The uses and gratifications research tradition dates back to early attempts at empirical investigations in mass 25 communications in the 1940's and 1950's. The research tradition developed partly in reaction to early studies on the "hypodermic needle" effect of the communication media and partly as a result of an awareness among mass communica- tion scholars that the uses to which individuals put the media and media messages may be factors which mediate between media messages and media effects. A leading uses and grati- fications scholar has observed that "the uses and gratifica- tions approach came most prominently to the fore in the late 1950's and early 1960's at a time of widespread disappointment with the fruits of attempts to measure the short-term effects on people of their exposure to mass media campaigns" (Blumler, 1974, p. 10). In recent years, the uses and gratifications model has seen a popularity and currency which transcend national boundaries. A wave of media uses and gratifications research extends from.the United States across Western Europe to Israel. Swanson (1979b, p. 37) has stated that the model has become "the most popular and important to mass communication research." For a complete understanding of the uses and gratifica- tions research tradition, it will be helpful to present (1) the main orientation of the gratifications model and (2) some research studies undertaken under the model. 1. Uses-and-Gratifications Model: The general uses-and-gratifications model is audience- oriented and analyzes the mass communication process from the 26 audience perspective. The model assumes that the audience members have a dynamic, purposeful and goal-directed involve- ment in the communication process (McQuail, Blumler and Brown, 1972). Under the model, the individual's media behaviour is conceived of as an active psychological process which is aimed at gratifying certain social and psychological needs. This active involvement of the audience is in direct contrast with early theoretical reasoning on the communication process. Early structural models of communication depicted the communication "flow" from the communicator to the audience. Media research based on the models was source-oriented and focused on the power of the communicator and the manipulative effects of the messages on the audience. The major issue underlying the early media research was "what the media can do to people" (Klapper, 1960). Paralleling the notion of the powerful, omnipotent communicator and the communicated mes- sages was the concept of a passive, vulnerable and defense- less audience target which could be overcome by a persistent battery of media messages. In contrast, the uses—and—gratifications model emphasizes the active role of the audience and de-emphasizes the assump- tion of the manipulative power of the communicator or of his messages. Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch (1974, p. 24) have maintained: Compared with classical effects studies, the uses and gratifications approach takes the media con- sumer rather than the media messages as its start- ing point and explores his communication behaviour in terms of his direct experience with the media. It views the members of the audience as actively 27 utilizing contents, rather than passively acted upon by the media. Thus, it does not assume a direct relationship between messages and effects, but postulates instead that members of the audi- ence put messages to use and that such usage acts as intervening variables in the process of effect. Implicit in this observation by Katz and his colleagues is a misgiving about the onedway "hypodermic needle" effects 'model which depicted the mass communicator as doing something to a supposedly passive audience. The major orientation of the uses-and-gratifications model is not "what the media can do to people" but rather what people do with the mass medi- ated‘messages. Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch (1974) have outlined the central interests of uses and gratifications research. The authors indicate that uses and gratifications studies are concerned'with: (l) the social and psychological origins of (2) the needs which generate (3) expectations of (4) the mass media or other sources which lead to (5) dif- ferential patterns of media exposure (or engagement in other activities) resulting in (6) need gratifi- cations and (7) other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones (Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch, 1974, p. 14). A general uses-and-gratifications model is graphically illustrated in Figure l. ANTECEDENT GRATIFICATION- MASS OBTAINED CONDITIONS: SEEKING MEDIA. IGRATIFICATIONS; SOCIAL AND "’ FROM MEDIA/ " EXPOSURE " OTHER POSSIBLE PSYCHOLOGICAL MEDIA CONTENT PATTERNS EFFECTS FIGURE 1: .A GENERAL USES-AND-GRATIFICATIONS MODEL 28 There are four discernible elements in the model. First, as indicated earlier, the model posits that audience members consume mass mediated messages to fulfill personal goals such as learning about and understanding national/international issues, solving personal problems, diversion and escape. Second, audience members correlate media content with their individual needs. Individuals actively fashion mediated mes- sages to meet their own needs and interests. This notion is akin to Bauer's (1964) concept of "the obstinate audience" which refers to the purposiveness of the audience members in their media behaviour. Bauer maintains that the audience member is an active individual with a complex set of goals which conditions his response to a given communicated message. Third, the model postulates that people have a spectrum of needs some of which can be satisfied by the mass communi- cation media. After a comprehensive literature review, Katz, Gurevitch and Bass (1973) presented five classifications of social-psychological needs which may draw the individual to the mass media. These are: (1) needs related to acquisition or strengthening of information, knowledge and understanding (cog- nitive needs); (2) needs related to acquisition or strengthening of aesthetic, pleasurable and emo- tiona experience (affective, entertainment needs); (3) needs related to acquisition or strengthening of credibility, confidence, stability and status (integrative, security needs); (4) needs related to strengthening contact with family, friends, and the world (also integrative needs) and (5) needs related to escape or tension-release (escapist peeds) (Katz, Gurevitch and Haas, 1973, pp. 166- 67 . 29 Fourth, the model also postulates that motivations which propel audience members"media exposure patterns generally shape whatever effects the media may have. 2. Uses and Gratifications Research: Under the general uses-and-gratifications model, a num- ber of diverse studies have been undertaken, all of which, like the present investigation, take the audience experience as the cornerstone of their inquiry. The various studies may be grouped into four main categories. The four main cate- gories and studies exemplifying each category are briefly outlined here. Findings of studies which are relevant to the present investigation will be reviewed following this brief outline. (1) Social and Psychological Factors and Media Uses and Gratifications: Studies which fall under this category include Rosengren and Windahl's (1972) examination of mass media consumption by Swedish adults as functional alternatives for gratifying the need for social interaction; Katz, Gurevitch and Haas' (1973) research on Israeli adults' per- ception of the relative contribution of the mass media to gratifying certain socio-psychological needs and Blumler's (1976) study on the relation— ship between the social situation of British adult respondents and the kinds of gratifications sought from the mass media. 30 (2) General Mass Media Uses and Gratifications: (3) (4) Exemplifying this category are Dembo's (1973) investigation of gratifications which British teenage boys find in all the mass media; Peled and Katz's (1974) study on the functions of the mass media in Israel during the 1973 Arab- Israeli War and Smith's (1975) research on mass media uses as a basis for interaction. Specific Media Uses and Gratifications: Other studies have focused on uses and gratifications of specific mass media. These studies include Schramm, Lyle and Parker's (1961) investigation of gratifications of television among selected American children; Greenberg's (1974) corres- ponding research on gratifications of televi- sion viewing among British children and Furu's study on the perceived functions of television for children and adolescents in Japan. Content—Specific Uses and Gratifications: Studies which exemplify this category are McQuail, Blumler and Brown's (1972) investiga- tion of the gratifications British respondents sought from viewing television quiz programs, television news and other radio programs, Levy's (1977) study on uses and gratifications of commercial television news and Wenner's (1977) research on uses and gratifications of 31 political campaign news on commercial televi- sion network newscasts. The four categories serve to illustrate the major focus of most empirical investigations on media uses and gratifi- cations. The studies have generally attempted to answer the question of ghy peOple read the newspaper, watch television or listen to the radio. The issue has been probed Vin terms of primary drives and social goals, immediate rewards and delayed rewards, security, social prestige, escape, social relations and sheer information. Newspapers ... and other communications have been shown to serve a wide range of dif- ferent satisfactions for different persons, depending upon their ... background, abilities and personality characteris- tics" (Carlson, 1960, p. 547). The present study on audience attention to and gratification-seeking from international news coverage on television network newscasts falls under the content-specific category. Presented here are some of the content-specific studies whose findings have a bearing on the investigation. 3. TV News Uses and Gratifications: Uses and gratifications research studies which are most germane to this study are those which focused on television news broadcasts. Research by MbQuail, Blumler and Brown (1972), Gantz (1975), Levy (1978) and Wenner (1977) have established that televised news programs, just like other media progrems, are multi-dimensional in appeal and that 32 there is no single, homogeneous gratification which audience members seek from viewing the newscasts. Much like other categories of gratifications research, the studies have uncovered clusters of reasons or motives which audience members report for viewing newscasts by the national television networks. Reasons which audience members report are considered to be their self-defined and self- perceived motivations for watching the news. Gratification dimensions which have emerged from previous studies with regularity and distinctness are: Surveillance/General Information-Seeking, Interpersonal Utility and Entertainment/ Diversion. These same gratification dimensions have been described blelumler (1979) as constituting the three main orientations towards the media. The gratification dimensions are congruent with the four-dimensional functions of mass communications in society advanced by Lasswell (1948) and wright (1974), namely: Surveillance, Entertainment, Corre- lation and Cultural Transmission. 4. SurveillanceLInformation-Seeking: Lasswell (1948), in his exposition on.mass media func- tions in society, observed that the media serve as instruments for surveillance of the environment. At the micro- sociological level, individuals who are "information-seeking" and desire to keep tabs on developments in their immediate and remote social and physical environment use the mass media for such purposes. 33 Previous gratifications research has indicated that people watch television news broadcasts to gather news and information about the latest developments in their community, nation and the world (McQuail, Blumler and Brown, 1972; Levy, 1978) or to learn about the actions of their elected offi- cials (McLeod and Becker, 1974; Wenner, 1977). In their study of media uses and gratifications among a cross-section of Israeli adults, Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) compared the news media and non—media sources in their perceived use- fulness in gratifying certain needs. The researchers reported that one need area in which the mass media were considered "most helpful" was in satisfying the need to ac- quire or strengthen knowledge, information and understanding of the society and world in general. 5. Interpersonal Utility: Existing research studies have found that another grati— fication dimension which audience members seek from watching television news programs is "information which is perceived as useful in discussions with others" (Palmgreen, Wenner and Rayburn, 1979, p. 10). Atkin (1972) has referred to this gratification dimension as "communicatory utility" and McQuail, Blumler and Brown (1972) have used the term "social utility" to describe the same dimension. The "interpersonal utility" orientation to television news and other programs involves ‘media use as sources of conversational material, as a subject of conversation in itself ... or as something that helps an individual to 34 discharge a definite social role or to meet the membership requirements of one or more of his peer groups" (McQuail, Blumler and Brown, 1972, p. 158). The individual in watching the news programs searches for factual information which will be useful to him, beyond the moment of viewing, in his social milieu. The information which the individual acquires from watching the television news broadcasts may be useful in a variety of subsequent communication situations such as infor- mal interaction with friends and discussions at meetings and other social gatherings. Gantz (1975) reported evidence indicating a positive association between frequency of discussion of news issues and information-related motivations for watching television news broadcasts. He found that respondents who frequently engaged themselves in discussions about national and interna- tional news watched television newscasts with stronger information-acquisition motivations than respondents who were less frequently engaged in such discussions. Political mass communication research has also shown a positive albeit modest correlation between frequency of interpersonal dis- cussions of political campaign issues and attention to poli- tical news coverage on television newscasts (Sheinkopf, Atkin and Bowen, 1973). It seems plausible to expect people who often find themselves discussing news issues to perceive a need for information about the issues and to search for the relevant information when watching television news programs. 35 The need for information is not the only kind of motiva- tion which may propel audience members to watch television news programs. Research studies have established that tele- vision news watching is also associated with the need for entertainment and diversion. 6. Entertainment/Diversion: Wright (1974) added to the Lasswellian classification of media functions, the function of entertainment/diversion. Previous gratifications studies have shown that television news viewing does not always serve the function of environ- ment surveillance or information-acquisition. Some individu- als watch the news, not necessarily to gain information which they can use or which will fill up their knowledge gaps, but rather for its entertainment value. That is, the individual may expose himself to televised news stories partially because Of the pleasurable sensation which the news can sti- 'mu1ate. Both Wenner (1977) and Levy (1978), in their separ- ate studies On gratification-seeking from television network newscasts, found evidence which indicated that some people watch the news for relaxation and entertainment rather than for factual information. The finding that some audience members watch television news coverage not for factual information but for entertain- ment or diversion indicates the ability Of television news content to provide some viewers with an Opportunity for af- fective expression (Levy, 1978). The finding also relates to Bower's (1973) assertion that some people think of television 36 as primarily an entertainment medium.and may not perceive news and public affairs programs as distinct categories of tele- vision content. 7. Gratification—Seeking,and Attention to International News Reports: Previous television news gratifications studies have unearthed two elements in the news viewing situation. First, the studies have shown that certain perceived needs of the individual generally motivate viewing of news coverage on television. Second, the studies have indicated that general gratification-seeking from.watching news coverage on televi- sion.may be dichotomized into cognitive or information-related and affective or less information-related gratifications. These two elements in the news viewing situation are appli- cable to all news reports on television-~politica1 news reports, economic news reports as well as reports about inter- national events. The focus in this dissertation is on tele- vision network news coverage of international events. Among the audience members of international news cover- age on television newscasts are: (1) individuals who watch the news coverage primarily for cognitive gratifications and (2) individuals who expose themselves to the coverage pri- marily for affective gratifications. But the dichotomy Of gratification-seeking into primarily cognitive and primarily affective dos not preclude the ‘co-existence in one news viewer Of both gratification-seeking dimensions, as Gantz (1975, p. 26) indicates. However, the issue here is the magnitude 37 of the gratifications sought from viewing the news coverage. What is being propounded here is that some viewers Of inter- national news coverage on television network newscasts watch the coverage more for information-related reasons than for less information-related reasons. Conversely, some individu- als watch the coverage more for less information-related than for information-related reasons. _ Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973, p. 166) have observed that the search for information from the mass media is moti- vated by "needs related to acquisition or strengthening of information, knowledge and understanding--these can be called cognitive needs." Maslow (1963) contends that human organisms are characterized by a curiosity motive and that every human being has a need to know and understand his ex- ternal environment. To satisfy this need for cognition, to fill in the missing details of a cognitive map, individuals engage in information-seeking behavious (McCombs, 1972,. p. 181). It is such engagement in information-seeking be- haviour which is conceived of under the gratifications model as cognitive gratification-seeking. When the news viewer watches televised news coverage of international events primarily for cognitive gratifications, s/he searches for inputs from the factual information content of the coverage which is perceived to be helpful for know- ledge and comprehension of the world environment. InfOrmatkmr related gratifications may be sought from watching interna- tional news coverage on television network newscasts for such 38 diverse purposes as: (1) to fill up one's knowledge gaps about the world situation, (2) to help form one's opinion about international events and (3) for information to use in interpersonal discussions of international news issues. On the other hand, a news viewer who watches interna- tional news coverage on television newscasts primarily for affective gratifications may be motivated by "needs related to acquisition or strengthening of ... pleasurable and emotional experience or affective/entertainment needs" (Katz, Gurevitch and Haas, 1973, pp. 166-167). A theoretical explanation for the affective orientation to television news may be found in the feature of television news coverage itself. Palmgreen, Rayburn and Wenner (1980) have contended that the extensive use of video-tape to pro- vide on-scene reports Of events and people tends to heighten the perceived entertainment and arousal value of television news. The non-verbal communication cues involved in televi- sion news coverage such as the facial expressions of corres- pondents and different people in the news as well as the scenic backgrounds, the conflicts and drama Of some interna- tional news stories also create a sense of excitement for some news viewers. The above supposition is attested to by research studies on visualization of television news and its impact on audience information- and entertainment-acquisition from the news . The studies have found that visualization tends to in- crease the entertainment value of news stories (Hazard, 1962; 39 Edwardson, Grooms and Pringle, 1976). For example, Edwardson and his co-researchers found that films added to television news stories usually make the stories more interesting to the viewers but do not necessarily lead to information gain. One might expect the two dimensions of gratification- seeking (cognitive and affective) to be differentially asso- ciated with degree of attention to international news reports on television network evening newscasts. Research studies have indicated that mere exposure to a communicated message does not constitute and ensure attention. A person exposed to mass media content tends to make a series of discrimina- tions among the content units. Through the process of selec- tive attention, the person selectsocertain units of the content to attend to and blocks out other units which s/he perceives to be irrelevant to his/her interests and needs. Given exposure, the mind Of the audience exercises the option of paying or not paying attention (Bauer, 1973, p. 150). This proposition is even more relevant to exposure to tele- vision network evening newscasts. The television network evening newscast encapsules a variety of news reports. It is a communication situation in which audience members are exposed to a gamut of stimuli. The evening news viewing situation is also likely to be fraught with a number of distracting elements. Gantz (1975), Levy, (1978) and Stauffer, Frost and Rybolt (1978) have noted that television network newscasts often compete for the individual's attention with such distractions in the home 40 environment as spouse, children, dinner, newspaper, games, phonograph and housework. Components of the newscasts Often vie with the distractions for the news viewer's attention. As such, though individuals may be exposed to the newscasts, they may not be apt to watch the entire newscasts or focus on all components of the newscasts with equal attention. That is to say, the intensity of the news viewer's attention is likely to fluctuate during the newscasts. The intensity of the news viewer's attention may tend to attenuate when reports appear on the newscast about complex and abstract events such as international events. The tendency to be "mentally tuned out" during such complex and abstract news reports will vary depending on the gratifications which the viewer seeks from the news coverage. We can postulate that news viewers who seek primarily cognitive gratifications from the coverage will exhibit a higher degree of attention to international news reports than news viewers who seek primarily affective gratifications. . This proposition is based on the gratifications model which indicates that purposive search for information from the media content is a positive propeller of attention to the content units. The‘main need propelling the cognitive gratification- seeking news viewer is the need for information. For a better assimilation of the information about international events upon which depends fulfillment Of this need, this news viewer has to exercise a considerable degree of attention. On the other hand, a news viewer who seeks primarily affective 41 gratifications from the coverage can afford to pay less intense attention to the factual information about the news reports. Fulfillment of the need for entertainment will not be dependent on substantial degree Of mental concentration on the news reports. The first set of research hypotheses outlined on page 53 are intended to test the proposed relationships between the two dimensions of gratification-seeking and degree of atten- tion to international news coverage on television network evening newscasts. The role of the two dimensions of gratification-seeking in explaining the degree of attention to international news coverage on television network newscasts cannot be explored in isolation from other relevant factors. Such other factors as interest in international/foreign news tOpics, level of education and the individual's sex have been established in repeated investigations to be meaningfully associated with exposure to international news and information in the media (Star and Hughes, 1950; Hero, 1959; Robinson, 1967b; Kim, 1974). The available empirical evidence indicates that indi- viduals with a higher level of education are more likely to expose themselves to international news covered by the media than individuals with lower level of education. Interest in international or foreign news has likewise been found to be positively associated with exposure to international affairs news and information in the media. Kim (1974) also found 42 evidence which indicated that sex was a significant determinant of the amount of time respondents spent reading foreign news in newspapers. Male readers generally showed a higher degree of foreign news exposure than female readers. Both Hero (1959) and Robinson (1967b) reported that men were more likely than women to read international news in newspapers. Of central interest here is the association between cog- nitive and affective gratification-seeking and attention to international news coverage on television network newscasts. But, to be definitive, an examination of the role of gratification-seeking must take account of the factors which have been found to contribute to the individual's exposure to international affairs news and information in the media. The role of the two dimensions of gratification-seeking in predicting the degree of attention to international news coverage on television network newscasts can be assessed by examining them in conjunction with the relevant factors. It is posited that when considered in the context of other relevant variables, gratification-seeking will account for a significant portion of the variance in degree of atten- tion paid to international news coverage on television net- work newscasts. This proposition is premised on evidence presented by Palmgreen and Rayburn (1979) who found that uses and gratifications measures were significant predictors of public television viewing in the context of such traditional correlates as educational and income levels. 43 Research hypothesis 2 stated on page.$3is intended to assess the collective and individual predictive power on de- gree of attention to international news coverage on the newscasts of (l) cognitive gratification-seeking, (2) affective gratification-seeking, (3) interest in foreign news topics, (4) educational level, (5) age and (6) sex. The individual contributions of the predictor variables will be compared and their collective contribution will be examined to determine homeuch variance they account for in the criterion (degree of attention to international news cover- age on television network newscasts). The objective here is to determine the degree to which knowledge of respondents' cognitive and affective gratification-seeking will aid in predicting how much attention they give to international news items reported on television network newscasts after control- ling for the effects of the other variables. 8. Antecedent Conditions and Gratification-Seeking: The gratifications model postulates that the kinds of gratifications which the individual seeks from the media con- tent are dependent on the individual's social and psycholo- gical conditions. The social and psychological conditions are considered as antecedents to gratification-seeking from the media. McQuail, Blumler and Brown (1972, p. 115) have noted: The audience member temporarily occupies a parti- cular position in relation to what he is viewing, a position affected by a large number of factors, including those deriving from his personality, 44 social background, experience, immediate social context and, of course, from the content itself. He brings certain expectations and responds in line with these, and he derives certain affective, cognitive and instrumental satisfactions. A number of sociological and personality characteristics have been found in previous studies to relate to interna- tional orientation. Psychological attributes such as low authoritarianism, low ethnocentrism.and high cosmopolitanism have been demonstrated to associate with positive attitude towards foreign nations and people and worldmindedness (MacKinnon and Centers, 1956; Perlmutter, 1957; Smith and Rosen, 1958; Paris, 1960; Richman, 1972). Two antecedent conditions of relevance in the domain of gratification-seeking from international news coverage on the newscasts are: (1) interest in foreign news topics and (2) educational level of the news viewers. The two factors are examined in the present investigation in terms of their associations with the cognitive dimension of gratification— seeking from international news coverage on the newscasts. The factors are viewed as antecedents to perceived need for information from the media and as determinants of information- processing among the audience. This section presents a dis- cussion of the theoretic relationships between each antecedent factor and informationbseeking from the media. First is a discussion of the association between interest in foreign news topics and information-seeking about international affairs from.the media. 45 Appearing through mass communication research with consistency and regularity is the finding that antecedent self-expressed interest in a topic area is positively related to media behaviour. Members of a mass audience who are interested in a topic are most likely to pick up information on that topic conveyed through the mass media. On the other hand, those who are relatively uninterested in a topic are not likely to encounter any information about the topic in the media or if they do, are likely to "tune out" (Swanson, 1951; Robinson and Swinehart, 1973; Atkin, Galloway and Nayman, 1976; Genova and Greenberg, 1977). In their investigation of audience reaction to political advertising during two gubernatorial campaigns in 1970, Atkin, Bowen, Nayman and Sheinkon (1973) found evidence which sup- ported the relationship. .Atkin and his colleagues reported that availability ofgnlitical ads on television was unrelated to the attention given them. But, interest in the campaign contributed significantly to attention patterns among the audience. Audience-oriented studies of international news communication by Hero (1959) and Robinson (1967a) have'also empirically found a relationship between interest and information-acquisition about international events from the media. Their surveys of American citizens demonstrated a positive association between expressed interest in foreign news topics and exposure to international news content in the‘media. In his study of mass media exposure and world affairs knowledge among a sample of adult Americans, Hero (1959) 46 found self-expressed interest in foreign news topics to be a substantial positive motivation of exposure to international news information in the media. Robinson (1967a) also found interest to be a significant determinant of exposure to press coverage of world affairs in his 1964 survey of Detroit residents. As a theoretical construct, interest in a tOpic area generates or enhances the need for information about that topic. Explicating on the central bearing of interest on active information-seeking in the mass media, Genova and Greenberg (1977, p. 3.) have observed: "interest may guide information-seeking from the media; given exposure, presence or absence of interest may intervene with the kinds of atten- tion given different areas and components." Interest in foreign news topics is thought of in this study as a factor which motivates the search for knowledge and information about international events reported on tele- vision network newscasts. The existence of an interest in foreign news appears to be a necessary condition both for information-seeking about and attention to international news reports on the newscasts. In the perspective of the gratifications model, a news viewer who has high interest in foreign news topics may have a stronger need for information relating to international news events than individuals with low interest. News viewers who have interest in foreign news topics may seek cognitive gratifications from watching international news coverage on 47 the newscasts. Hypothetically, it seems plausible to expect interest in foreign news tOpics as an antecedent psychologi- cal condition to vary directly with cognitive gratification- seeking from watching international news coverage on the newscasts. News viewers' cognitive gratification-seeking from news reports on international events may be further discussed in the context of their level of education. Like interest in foreign news tOpics, education is considered here as an ante- cedent condition to gratification-seeking from international news coverage on the newscasts. A number of studies in the United States have established that education is a signifir cant predictor of exposure to international news content in the mass media. As early as 1950, Star and Hughes (1950) reported that the international news content of the media during the classic sixemonth media campaign to popularize the United Nations in Cincinnati reached 68 percent of college educated respondents, 43 percent of the high school educated and 17 percent of the elementary school educated. Level of education was also found by Hero (1959) and Robinson (1967a) to be the main sociological variable which best predicted readership of international news from news- papers. Robinson, for instance, reported a correlation of .45 between education and a world affairs information score. Robinson (1967b) again found that more educated people tend to pay more attention to world affairs information trans- mitted via the mass media. Education was positively correlated 48 at .31 and .34 with exposure to international news in news- papers and interpersonal discussion of international news with friends and work associates. Theoretically, it seems education broadens the individ- ual's scope of interest and sphere of experience. It also tendsto imbue in the individual a wide range of formal know- ledge about his immediate society and the outer world. The sociological literature is replete with empirical evidence showing that as educational level increases, the individual's knowledge horizon expands and his world outlook broadens. In addition, the number of years of formal schooling the individ- ual acquires helps develop his cognitive and communication skills. Such a development, in turn, facilitates the acquisi- tion of information about and comprehension of complex issues such as science, public affairs and international events (Smith, 1961; Wade and Schramm, 1969; Stephens and Long, 1970). News about such issues are Often presented in complex sentence structure and special vocabulary which, as Stauffer, Frost and Rybolt (1978) have indicated, may constitute con- siderable problems for the less-educated. If education sharpens the individual's cognitive and communicative skills and makes him more predisposed to acquire and psychologically process complex information, one would expect that the better educated among the general news audi- ence would be more likely to seek cognitive gratifications from international news coverage than the less educated. Put in different words, years of formal schooling ought to 49 show a positive association with both information-seeking and with a general degree of attention to international news reports on the newscasts. The relationships proposed between interest in foreign news tOpics and educational level as antecedent conditions and cognitive gratification-seeking from watching international news on the newscasts are examined through two research hypo- theses formulated on page 54. 9. Dependence on TV Networks,4Gratification-Seeking and Perceived Helpfulness of Reports: Another central issue in this investigation is the rela- tionship between dependence on television networks for inter- national news information, gratification-seeking and perceived helpfulness of television coverage to comprehending international news events. Dependence on the media in general or specific media sources for information is an important variable which shapes media effects. Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) have remarked that the degree of audience dependence on media for informa- tion is a factor which must be taken into account in attempts to understand and explain when and why media affect audience belief, attitude or knowledge. The coverage of international news events differs from media to media; some media devote more space to coverage and analysis of international events than other media. Likewise, dependence on particular media sources for news and information about international news 50 events may vary among the audience. The amount of information and knowledge an individual audience member has about inter— national news events is to a degree a function of the particu- lar media sources s/he relies on for international news. The individual's level of information and knowledge, in turn, may help determine the attitude the individual has regarding international news events. Under the gratifications model, degree of dependence on television networks for international news information refLeus the individual's satisfaction with the amount and kind Of information obtained from television networks about interna- tional news events. Other factors may also determine degree of dependence on television networks for international news information. These include (1) the strength of the individu- al's perceived need for information about international news events and (2) perception of alternative sources of_interna- tional news available to the individual. The perceived help- fulness of television network coverage to comprehending international news events is a function of the degree to whidn the audience members rely on television networks for interna- tional news information. Based on the gratifications model, we can postulate that as dependence on television networks for international news informatiOn increases, first, cognitive gratification-seeking will increase and second, the perceived helpfulness of tele- vision netwOrk coverage to understanding international news events also ought to increase. Individuals who rely mostly 51 or exclusively on television networks for their international news should be propelled more by cognitive gratification- seeking than by affective gratification-seeking to watch international news coverage on the newscasts. Similarly, individuals who depend on television for all or most of their information about international news events ought to perceive the coverage to contribute more to their understanding of international news events than individuals who are less television-dependent. The above propositions will be tested through research hypotheses 5a and 5b on page 54. The issue of perceived helpfulness of television network coverage to understanding international news events can further be seen in terms of the kinds of motivations under- lying the watching of the coverage. Content analytic studies of television network coverage of international news have indicated that the coverage tilts towards conciseness and Isimplicity, not depth or completeness. Batscha (1975, p. 223) has maintained that television coverage of international news is "fragmented, capsulized, superficial and evanescent and the viewer is prevented from going beyond the surface of the story presented." In a television panel discussion, Walter Cronkite cautioned: The public is getting brainwashed into a belief that they're getting all that they need to know from television. Somehow or other, we have to teach the American people to seek more information, to be a little more discriminating, perhaps. (Quoted in Time Magazine, February, 1965) Most individuals may not harbour the belief that they obtain all that they need to know about international news 52 events from television. Individuals, who desire to have a more complete comprehension of international news events, will have to attend to other media sources. Conversely, in- dividuals who use other media sources more extensively than television for their information about international news events may turn to television network coverage of interna- tional news with less information-related motivations. Most of their needs for information about international news events may be satisfied by other information sources. How- ever, individuals who are television-dependent for their international news information may turn to television networks with stronger information-related motivations. It seems plausible to eXpect news viewers who watch the coverage with stronger information-related motivations to perceive the coverage to contribute more to their comprehen- sion of international news events than those who watch it with less information-oriented motivations. News viewers who watch the reports purposely to be entertained or because they find them interesting may be less consciously involved in the informational inputs of the coverage. Put differently, news viewers' perceptions of how television network coverage helps them understand international news events will vary depending on the motivations underlying their viewing of the coverage. The last research hypothesis stated on page 54 is designed to put this proposition to empirical test. 53 C. Research Hypotheses The research hypotheses for the present study are derived from research on exposure to international affairs news in the mass media, empirical findings on television uses and gratifications and the theoretic discussion presented in the preceeding sections. The research hypotheses which will test the proposed relationships advanced in the previous sections are outlined below. RH : ...-18 News viewers' gratification-seeking will correlate positively with their degree of attention to international news coverage on television network newscasts. News viewers' attention to international news coverage on the newscasts will corre- late higher with their cognitive gratification-seeking than with their af- fective gratification-seeking from the coverage. In predicting degree of attention to inter- national news coverage on television network newscasts, the gratification-seeking mea- sures will account for a significant portion of the variance, over and above the variance accounted for by (1) interest in foreign news topics, (2) education, (3) age and (4) sex. 54 3H3: The higher the level of interest in foreign news topics, the greater the cognitive gra- tifications sought from international news coverage on television network newscasts. The higher the level of education, the l? greater the cognitive gratifications sought from international news coverage on televi- sion network newscasts. figs : The greater the dependence on the television networks for information about international news events, the greater the cognitive gra- tifications sought from.international news coverage on television network newscasts. RH : The greater the dependence on the television networks for information about international news events, the greater the perceived help- fulness of television network coverage to understanding international news events. 3&6: Cognitive gratification-seeking will account for more variance in news viewers' perceived helpfulness of television network coverage to understanding international news events than affective gratification-seeking. l. Rationale for Hypotheses: Research hypotheses la and 1b are related to the theore- tical proposition that gratification-seeking is a positive propeller of attention to international news reports on the 55 newscasts. The hypotheses are also related to the proposition that cognitive gratification-seeking will generate more atten- tion to the news reports than affective gratification-seeking. In both research hypotheses la and lb, the independent vari- ables are cognitive gratification-seeking and affective gratification-seeking. The dependent variable is degree of attention to international news coverage on the newscasts. Gantz's (1975) and Neuman's (1976) studies provide the empirical basis for the hypotheses. Their findings indicate that news viewers who were information-acquisition.motivated recalled more news items than news viewers who were less information-acquisition motivated. The findings suggest that information-related gratification-seeking generates greater attention to the news items than less information-related gratification-seeking. Research hypothesis 2 suggests that the news viewer's gratification-seeking, level of interest in foreign news topics, level of education, age and SEX‘Will contribute sig- nificantly to a prediction of that individual's degree of attention to international news reports when watching tele- vision network newscasts. Embedded in research hypothesis 2 is the idea that a news viewer's gratification-seeking will help us predict that news viewer's attention to international news reports on the newscasts, over and above that news viewer's interest in foreign news topics, educational level, age and sex. The predictor variables in this research hypo- thesis are: (l) cognitive gratification-seeking,‘ 56 (2) affective gratification-seeking, (3) interest in foreign news topics, (4) education, (5) age and (6) sex. The criter- ion variable is degree of attention to international news coverage on television network newscasts. The rationale for the hypothesis partly stems from.the findings by Hero (1959), Robinson (1967a) and Kim.(1974) which suggest that interest in foreign news topics, education, age and the individual's sex are significant determinants of exposure to international affairs content in the media. Lend- ing further empirical support to the hypothesis is the finding by Palmgreen and Rayburn (1979) which indicated that, when the traditional demographic variables are controlled, gratification-seeking measures were significant determinants of exposure to the media. Research hypotheses 3 and 4 indicate that news viewers who have high interest in foreign news tOpics and high level of education are more likely to seek factual information related to international news covered on the newscasts than affective gratifications. In research hypotheses 3 and 4, the independent variables are level of interest in foreign news topics and level of education respectively. The depend- ent variable in both hypotheses is cognitive gratification- seeking from international news coverage on the newscasts. The two hypotheses are rooted in the theoretical assump- tions of the gratifications model that the individual's sociological and psychological conditions partly impinge on the kinds of gratifications sought from the media content. 57 Studies by Star and Hughes (1950), Hero (1959) and Robinson (1967a) also lend empirical weight to the two hypotheses. The studies found evidence indicating that interest in foreign news topics and level of education are positive correlates of information-seeking about international events from.the media. Research hypotheses 5a’ 5b and 6 postulate positive re- lationships between (1) dependence on television networks for information about international events, (2) gratification— seeking and (3) perceived helpfulness of television network coverage to understanding international news events. The relationships posited in research hypotheses 5a and 5b are based on the theoretical concept that dependence on television networks for international news stems from a satisfaction from the coverage of the individual's need for information and knowledge about international news events. They are also based on the notion that perceived helpfulness of the coverage is partly a function of the degree of audi- ence members' reliance on television networks for such infor- mation. Empirical evidence for hypothesis 5a is provided by Gantz (1975). He found that news viewers who get most or all of their news about the United States and the world from television watched the news with stronger information- acquisition motivations than diversion-acquisition motiva- tions. The final hypothesized relationship is based on the concept that affective gratification-seeking may inhibit a conscious involvement in the informational content of the 58 coverage. The affective gratification-seeking news viewer will, thus, have a lesser perception of the helpfulness of the coverage than the cognitive gratification—seeking news viewer. In research hypotheses 5a and 5b, the independent vari- able is dependence on television networks for information about international news events. The dependent variable in hypothesis 5a is cognitive gratification-seeking and in 5b, perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding international news events is the dependent variable. Cogni- tive and affective gratification-seeking are the independent variables in research hypothesis 6 and the dependent variable is perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding international news events. D. Summagy This chapter presented a review of selected representa- tive studies on internatiOnal news communication. The main contention advanced was that the overwhelming majority of existing studies on international news communication is source- and channel-oriented. Studies which investigated the problem from the audience perspective are few. A sug- gestion was made that one way of redressing that imbalance is to employ a uses-and-gratifications model to explore the audience orientation to international news coverage on tele- vision network newscasts. 59 Subsequent to that observation, the chapter outlined: (l) the main components of the gratifications model; (2) the central concerns of research conducted in the gratifications traditions and (3) a review of television news uses and gra- tifications studies. Also presented in the chapter are some theoretical propositions, eight research hypotheses which will be used to test the posited relationships and rationale for each hypothesis. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter presents thelmocedures employed in collect- ing the data for this dissertation. The chapter outlines the questionnaire development, sampling of respondents, question- naire administration, measurement and indexing of variables of interest in the study. Also discussed in the chapter are the testable null hypotheses and their corresponding alterna- tives. The Survey Area: The data for this dissertation were collected by telephone in the Greater Lansing Area in mid- Michigan. The area comprises the city of Lansing, East Lansing, Okemos, Haslett, Bath, DeWitt, Dimondale, Eaton Rapids, Grand Ledge, Holt, Mason, Laingsburg, Perry, Potter- ville, Shaftsburg and Williamston. The estimated population for the survey area was 378,423 with about 75 percent resid- ing in Lansing, East Lansing, Holt and Okemos and the remaining 25 percent in the other surrounding areas. DATA COLLECTION PROCESS A. Developing the Measurement Instrument A.multi-stage approach was utilized to develop measures 60 61 of gratification-seeking from watching international news coverage on television network evening newscasts. First, a preliminary study was undertaken to develop the gratification- seeking measures. Second, the measures were pre-tested and refined. Third, after the main data collection, the gratification-seeking measures were factor analyzed to deter- mine dimensions underlying the measures. The procedure used is similar to that employed by McQuail, Blumler and Brown (1972), Gantz (1975), Wenner (1977), Levy (1978) and Blumler (1979) in their uses and gratifications studies. 1. Preliminary Stage: The first stage in developing the measurement instrument was a preliminary study conducted among 25 pe0ple who resided in the Lansing-East Lansing area. The preliminary study was designed primarily to develop measures of gratification-seeking by generating from.respond- ents themselves their reasons for watching international news coverage on television network newscasts. The method of generating from respondents themselves their reasons for watching international news coverage on the newscasts is con- gruous with the receiver-oriented nature of the present study. The rationale for utilizing this approach lies in the assump- tion of the gratifications model that the audience member has the capability to recognize and articulate his/her reasons for attending to the media or media fare. McQuail, Blumler and Brown (1972, p. 143) have remarked that the model assumes that "people are sufficiently self-aware to be able to report 62 their interests and motives in particular cases, or at least to recognize them when confronted with them.in an intelli- gible and familiar verbal formulation." The preliminary exploratory study involved a series of face-to-face group interviews conducted in the Lansing-East Lansing area by this researcher from May 1 to May 16, 1980. During this period, five such interviews were conducted. A questionnaire was constructed for the preliminary study (See Appendix A). ‘It was composed of both Open-ended and close- ended questions. The Open-ended questions were designed to provide a frame of reference for respondents within which they would freely but systematically express their self-perceived reasons for (l) watching television network evening news programs in general and (2) in particular, for watching inter- national news coverage on the news programs. The introductory statement to the questionnaire was intended to establish rapport with the respondents and gener- ate their motivation to cooperate in the interview. The statement introduced the researcher and briefly explained why respondents' views were requested. However, in order not to bias respondents' answers, the specific objectives of the study were not revealed. After the brief introduction, the questionnaire started with questions about the frequency Of watching commercial television network news programs, network news programs usually watched and general reasons for watching television news. Following these questions was a series of questions 63 about how and why it was important for respondents to watch reports on the news about international affairs, what was liked best and least about reports on international affairs and the degree of attention given such news reports. MOser and Kalton (1972, p. 271) have observed that a condition for ensuring a successful interview and for elicit- ing meaningful responses is "cognition" or understanding by the respondents of what is exactly required of them. The statement on the questionnaire introducing the questions on international news coverage was aimed at establishing such "cognition" by explaining to respondents what was being asked of them. After respondents had given their general reasOns for watching the evening news programs, they were informed: Generally, there are different kinds of reports on television network evening news programs. For instance, there are usually reports on the politi- cal campaigns and reports on the economy. There are also reports on U.S. relations with other countries as well as reports about what goes on in foreign countries. It was hoped that this explanatory statement would estab- lish a means for deciding what was relevant information to give and in what terms of reference their responses should be expressed. Questions on international news coverage were grouped into those concerning reports about U.S. relations with other countries, questions on reports about events m foreign countries and questions on reports about events between two or more foreign countries. This was done to further facilitate respondents' comprehension and to elicit varied responses as well as to avoid double-barreled items. 64 In addition to the Open-ended questions, the question- naire contained items designed to determine: (1) perceived dependence on television network for news about international affairs; (2) perceived helpfulness of television news cover- age to comprehending international news issues; (3) sources of international news information and (4) frequency of dis- cussion of international news. Information was also gathered on demographic characteristics of respondents. The interviews were carried out with groups of five people at a time. Generally, respondents were given copies of the questionnaire and requested to take as much time as necessary to answer them. In instances where respondents ex- pressed inability to read because of visual and/or other dis- abling problems (as was the case with a 75-year-old woman), they were separated from the group, taken to a different area and interviewed. The questions were read to them and their responses were tape-recorded. On the average, respondents completed the questionnaire in about 25 minutes. In instances where questions were read out to respondents, the interviews lasted about 5 to 10 min- utes longer. A short discussion session of about 5 minutes was conducted with the group after all respondents in the group had completed the questionnaire. The discussion dealt with respondents' answers to the open-ended items on the questionnaire and was mainly aimed at requesting respondents to elucidate answers which were considered to be too general or incomplete. Probing questions designed to seek 65 clarification and explore ambiguous or inexplicit answers were asked of respondents. Following the recommendation of Moser and Kalton (1972, p. 277), such probing questions as: "Could you tell me more about that please?" and "Could you explain a little more fully what you mean by that?" were used to follow up inexplicit or incomplete responses. The probing procedure was successful in getting respond- ents to explain such vague expressions as "to learn about interaction among foreign nations," "because nations are interdependent," and "how people in foreign countries are sensitive to the United States." When requested to give meanings of such expressions, respondents tended to explain with such statements as: "How foreign countries deal with each other;" "We all live in the same world and what happens in one country can affect our lives;" and "To see how people in other countries think about us." The researcher consi- dered such statements as simple and meaningful explanations of the vague expressions. During the discussion, respondents were also requested to indicate questionnaire items which they found difficult to answer or which did not make much sense to them. Respondents' answers to all the probing questions and their views about the difficulty or inapprOpriateness of questionnaire items were tape-recorded for subsequent tran- scription and analysis. It was hoped that by requesting mem- bers of the group to complete the questionnaire on their own before the discussion, the likelihood of one individual's 66 responses influencing other group members, and, thus, intro- ducing an element of bias in the responses would be minimized. Data collected in the preliminary study were analyzed in two ways. First, responses to the open-ended questions, which sought to determine gratification-seeking from watching international news coverage on the newscasts, were content analyzed. The objective of the content analysis was to iso- late statements about why respondents watched reports on the news programs about international affairs. The content analysis produced 12 first-person statements indicating reasons which respondents stated for watching international news coverage on the newscasts. Table 1 presents a list of the respondent-generated gratification items and the number of respondents among the 25 people who stated each reason. It most be noted here that respondents could and did give multiple answers to the open-ended questions. After the gratification-seeking items had been isolated, they were categorized into two components. These two com- ponents were categorized as: (l) cognitive component or information-related gratification-seeking and (2) affective component or less information-related gratification-seeking. The categorization was based on (1) the perceived similarity among the content of the items, (2) existing categorization in the literature and (3) on the researcher's anticipation of item clustering in an item analysis and a factor analysis which were to be performed after the pre-test and the main study respectively. 67 TABLE 1: Respondent-Generated Reasons for Watching International News on Television Network Newscasts Reason N of Responses l. I watch the reports to keep up with what's going on around the world . . . . . . . . . 7 2. I want to keep track of changes in our relations with other countries . . . . . . . . 7 3. I enjoy watching pictures Of the landscape and countryside in other parts of the ‘world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4. I want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect our lives . . . . . l7 5. To find out about events which may cause conflicts or war in the world . . . . . . ... . 6 6. To find out about how other countries are dealing with their own problems . . . . . . . . ll 7. I want to see how foreign countries deal with each other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 8. Some of the pictures shown of foreign people and places are interesting to me . . . . 3 9. I enjoy watching different people in dif- ferent situations around the world . . . . . . 4 10. I find it interesting to see reports that give you a look at other countries . . . . . . 4 1J” To learn about what citizens of other countries think about the United States . . . . 4 12. I find it exciting to watch some of the reports on events in other countries . . . . . 6 NOTE: N is the number of respondents in the total sample (25) who stated the reason. 68 The first component of seven items relates to the goal of understanding international issues and points to a cogni- tive orientation whereby the individual watches international news reports on the newscasts primarily for information and knowledge about the wider world around him. The set of cog- nitive gratification-seeking items are: 1. I watch the reports to keep up with what's going on around the world. I want to keep track of changes in our rela- tions with other countries. I want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect our lives. To find out about how other countries are dealing with their own problems. To find out about events which may cause con- flicts or war in the world. I want to see how foreign countries deal with each other. To learn about what citizens of other countries think about the United States. The other set of five items points to an affective ori- entation whereby the individual seeks for excmement, diver- sion and entertainment from watching the reports. The set of affective gratification-seeking items are: 1. I enjoy watching pictures of the landscape and countryside in other parts of the world. Some of the pictures shown of foreign people and places are interesting to me. I enjoy watching different people in different situations around the world. I find it interesting to see reports that give you a look at other countries. I find it exciting to watch some of the re- ports on events in other countries. 69 Previous gratification studies yielded some gratification items which are relevant to the present investigation. Eight relevant items generated by previous researchers are: l. 2. To keep up with events in other countries. To keep up with our country's relations with other countries. To understand what goes on in the world. To participate in the experiences of peOple in other countries. Watching reports about other countries keeps me in touch with the rest of the world. To assure that everything in the world is preth much the same . To know what the world thinks about us. To understand some of the problems facing peOple all over the world. The items were generated from.studies by Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973); McQuail, Blumler and Brown (1972); Gantz (1975); Greenberg (1974); Levy (1978) and Blumler (1979). A comparison between the items existing in the litera- ture and the items generated from respondents in the group interviews conducted in the present study is both educative and illustrative. The set of gratification items generated from respondents in the group interviews closely parallels the set of items generated from the uses and gratifications research literature. One implication of this close corres- pondence is that motivations underlying people's watching of news reports about events around the world are fairly stable. While the motivations maybe couched in varying words, they 70 basically remain the same. The comparison also indicates that the preliminary group interviews succeeded in uncovering further motivations underlying watching international news reports on television newscasts. One of the eight gratification items generated from the existing literature was selected for inclusion in the list of gratification measures used in the pre-test. The selected item was: "Watching reports about other countries keeps me in touch with the rest of the world." The main reason for adding this item was its perceived dissimilarity from the set of respondent-generated items. The item appeared to tap an aspect of gratification-seeking not revealed by the respondent- generated items. .As already indicated above, the other items are very similar to those generated fgom respondents in the group interviews. No formal statistical analysis was performed on responses given to the other items. Instead, the responses were scru- tinized to determine the extent to which the questions were eliciting meaningful information. Also, respondents' com- ments on the questions, given during the discussion, were examined for suggestions on question modifications. The scrutiny of the responses revealed that the distinction made between (1) news about events within foreign countries and (2) news about events between two or more foreign countries ‘was purely academic. It had been hoped that differentiating among three categories of international news coverage on the newscasts would help generate varied responses. However, 71 analysis of the responses and the post-interview discussion showed that most of the respondents only distinguished between news about U.S. relations with other countries and news about foreign countries in general. The close similarity in responses given to questions on (1) news about events within foreign countries and (2) news about events between two or more foreign countries demon- strated that such a distinction was an academic nicety to most of the individuals interviewed. A decision was, thus, ‘made to collapse those two categories. Two categories of international news coverage were used in the questionnaire for the pre-test and the main study. The two categories ’ were: (1) news about U.S. relations with other countries and (2) news about foreign countries. A scrutiny of the answers also indicated that some re- spondents found inappropriate the response categories pro- vided for the question on frequency of watching television network evening news programs. Respondents were requested to state the number of times a week they watched commercial television evening news programs. They were provided with seven response categories: never; less than once a week; one; twice; three times; four times; almost every evening. But respondents who watched the evening news programs on more than one network (for instance, on CBS News at 6:30 and on NBC News at 7 p.mm) could not appropriatb'fit themselves into any of the response categories given. To accommodate such respondents, it was necessary to slightly modify the 72 question on frequency of watching television network evening news programs. In both the present and the main study, respondents were asked: "About how many days a week do you watch television network news programs shown each evening on CBS, NBC and ABC?" Four response categories were provided, namely: less than once a week, one evening a week, a few evenings a week and almost every evening. In the main study, "never" was substituted for "less than once a week." 2. Pre-Testing the Measurement Instrument: The second stage in the development of the questionnaire entailed a pre-test of the gratification-seeking items and .measures of other variables in the study. Respondents in the pre-test were randomly selected from the 1980/81 Lansing Area Telephone Directory. A systematic probabilitiy sample of 80 numbers was selected for the pre- test and telephone interviews were conducted during a seven- day period from June 20 to June 27, 1980. The telephone interviews were conducted by a team of eight interviewers, made up of two senior undergraduate and six graduate students in the School of Journalism.and the Telecommunications Department at Michigan State University. The telephone interviews were conducted from the inter- viewers' own homes and offices. After a 90-minute training session, each interviewer was given a set of ten question- naires and ten telephone numbers and an instruction sheet on the conduct of the interviews. Interviewers were instructed to conduct the interviews between 7 p.mr and 9:30 p.m. and 73 to make at least three callbacks on all "no answer" and "busy" numbers during the seven-day period. On the average, it took about ten minutes to complete each telephone interview. Of the total sample of 80, 52 interviews (65 percent) were completed and 14 respondents (17.5 percent) refused to be interviewed. Seven persons (8.8 percent) disconnected their telephones after they had initi- ally agreed to the interview and there were "no answers" on seven (8.8 percent) of the numbers. Twenty-two out of the 52 respondents (42.3 percent) were males and the remaining 30 respondents (57.7 percent) were females. On the average, respondents had some college education and their ages ranged from 19 to 82 years old with a mean age of 43 years. (See Table 22 in Appendix E for a full discription of sample characteristics.) . The pre-test was done with three main objectives. First, it was done to refine the gratification-seeking measures. This was to be accomplished by (l) determining if gratification- seeking items which had initially been grouped into the same components would, indeed, cluster together in an inter-item correlation analysis and (2) selecting a few items which best represent each component of gratification-seeking. Second, the pre-test was designed to ascertain the extent to which questions intended to measure the other variables could obtain useful information in terms of the meaningfulness of 'the responses elicited. The pre-test was also aimed at determining the reliability of the scale developed to measure 74 general interest in foreign news topics. Finally, the pre- test was conducted to determine the adequacy of the whole measurement instrument. In testing out the adequacy of the measurement instrument, the following factors were considered: (1) the appropriateness of administering the questionnaire over the telephone; (2) the clarity of questionnaire items and instructions given to both interviewers and respondents and (3) interviewers' comments on how the interviews pro- gressed, problems they encountered and, based on their experi— ence with the interviews, their suggestions for modifications in the questionnaire. A pre-coded questionnaire containing mainly close-ended items was constructed for the pre-test (See Appendix C). Items on the questionnaire were designed to measure: 1. frequency of viewing television network evening news programs and network news usually watched-- i.e., Questions 1, 2, and 3; 2. gratification-seeking from watching interna- tional news coverage on the news programs-- i.e., Questions 4 through 16; 3. dependence on television for information about international events--i.e., Questions 17 and 18;. 4. perceived helpfulness of international news coverage on television network towards compre- hending international news events--i.e., Questions 19 and 20; 75 5. general interest in foreign news topics--i.e., Questions 21 through 30; 6. educational 1evel--i.e., Question 31; 7. age--i.e., Question 32 and 8. sex--i.e., Question 33. The section of the questionnaire devoted to measuring gratification-seeking contained 13 items. .As discussed in an earlier section, 12 of the items were generated from respond- ents in the group interviews conducted at the preliminary stage of this dissertation. The other item was selected from a set of gratification-seeking measures generated from the existing literature on uses and gratifications of televi- sion news. Two minor modifications were made in the wording of the gratification-seeking items. First, all first person pronouns were changed to the second person pronouns to make the state- ments sound more natural when read to respondents by the interviewers. For instance, "I watch the reports to keep up with what's going on around the world" was modified to "You watch the reports to keep up with what's going on around the world." Second, to maintain uniformity in the construction of the reason-statements, all infinitively-worded statements were changed to conjunctive expressions. Thus, "To find out how other countries are dealing with their own problems" was modified to "Because you want to find out how other countries are dealing with their own problems." 76 The 13 gratification-seeking items used in the question- naire are: 1. Because you want to keep track of changes in United States relations with other countries. 2. Because you want to keep up with what's going on around the world. 3. Because you enjoy watching pictures of the land- scape and countryside in other countries. 4. Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect your life. 5. Because some of the pictures shown of foreign people and places are interesting to you. 6. Because you want to find out about events which may cause conflicts in the world. 7. Because you enjoy watching different peOple in different situations around the world. 8. Because you want to find out about how other countries are dealing with their own problems. 9. Because you find it exciting to watch some of the reports on events in other countries. 10. Because you want to see how foreign countries deal with each other. 11. Because you find it interesting to see reports that give you a look at other countries. 12. Because you want to learn about what citizens of other countries think about the United States. 13. Because watching reports about other countries keeps you in touch with the rest of the world. To explain to respondents what was being asked of them and to elicit meaningful responses, interviewers read the following introductory statement to the section of the ques- tionnaire which contained the gratification-seeking items: 77 We are interested in the reasons why people watch different reports on the network evening news pro- grams. Here are some reasons a person may have for watching reports on network evening news programs about United States relations with other countries and reports about foreign countries. As I read each reason, please rate on a scale of zero to 100 per- cent how important it is to you when you watch the news reports. If the reason is very important to you, you would rate it 100 percent. If it is not important at all, you would rate it zero percent. If it is somewhere in between, you would rate it accordingly between zero and 100 percent. After this introduction, respondents were read each of the 13 gratification-seeking items. Respondents indicated the degree of importance each reason had for them on a per- centage scale which ranged from.zero percent for "not import- ant at all" to 100 percent for "very important." To minimize the potential effect of response sets, the cognitive and affective gratification-seeking items were approximately alternatively ordered in the section. An inter-item correlation analysis was performed on the data collected on the gratification-seeking measures. This analysis indicates the patterns of relationships among items or measures and shows if and how much the items share the same underlying concept. The inter-item correlation analysis was aimed, first, at ascertaining the extent to which items within each proposed gratification-seeking component corre- lated with one another and, second, to select from each com- ponent a few items which best reflect that component for inclusion in the final measurement instrument. It was anti- cipated that items previously grouped in the same component would correlate higher with one another than with items grouped in a different component. 78 Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were computed among the 13 gratification-seeking items. A corre- lation coefficient indexes the degree and direction of the relationship between variables. Table 2 presents a correla- tion matrix for the 13 gratification-seeking measures used in the pre-test. The average inter—item correlation coeffi- cient is .36. An examination of the patterns of correlations reveals that the measures tend to break into two groups, as has been previously proposed. One group is composed of items 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 13 which predominantly point to a cognitive component of gratification-seeking, a motivation to learn or acquire knowledge about some aspects of the world situation. The other group contains items 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 which comprise an affective component of gratification-seeking and reflect the notion of watching the news coverage primarily for entertainment and other less information-acquisition purposes. The correlation coefficients are rearranged in Tables 3, 4 and 5 to give a better picture of the pattsrns of relation- ships among the gratification-seeking measures. Presented in Table 3 are the correlations among the cognitive gratification-seeking measures. The mean inter-item correlation among this subset of measures is .40. Table 4 contains the correlations among the affective gratification- seeking measures. The mean inter-item correlation among this subset is .35. 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The alternative research hypothesis states that news viewers' attention to international news coverage on the newscasts will correlate higher with their cogni— tive gratification-seeking than with their affective gratification-seeking from the coverage. 120 Technique for Testinngypothesis 1b: Pearson product-moment correlation and t-test of difference between correlations (McNemar, 1967, p. 158). First, news viewers' scores on at- tention to international news coverage will be correlated with their scores on cognitive gratification-seeking. Second, news viewers' scores on affective gratification-seeking will be correlated with their scores on attention to international news coverage on the newscasts. Third, the difference behmau: the two correlations will be ascertained, using the following technique: t - (r12 - r13)\J (N - 3) (l + r23) _ 2 - 2 __ T \r2(1 r12 r13 r23+2r12.r13.r23) where, r12 - correlation between news viewers' scores on attention to international news cover- age on the newscasts and their scores on cognitive gratification-seeking; r13 - correlation between news viewers' scores on attention to international news cover- age on the newscasts and their scores on affective gratification-seeking; r23 - correlation between news viewers' scores on cognitive gratification-seeking and their scores on affective gratification- seeking; N - number of respondents The test is applied with N-3 degreesof freedom. If t is signifiant, we conclude that cognitive gratification-seeking correlated higher with attention to international news cover- age than affective gratificationéseeking. 121 Null Hypothesis 2: H : B - B a 0 B1 - the regression coefficient of cognitive gratification-seeking; B2 = the regression coefficient of affective gratificationrseeking. The null hypothesis states that the regression coef- ficients of the gratification-seeking measures are equal to zero. This null hypothesis indicates that the gratification-seeking measures do not account for a significant portion of the variance in attention to international news coverage on the newscasts, over and above the contributions of (1) interest in foreign news topics; (2) education; (3) age and (4) sex. Alternative Research Hypothesis 2: RH : B1 ; B2 # 0 where, B1 and B2 are as defined above. The research hypothesis states that the regression co- efficients of the gratification-seeking measures are not equal to zero. The research hypothesis specifies that the gratification-seeking measures account for a significant portion of the variance in attention to international news coverage on the newscasts, over and above the contributions of the other variables. Technique for Testing Hypothesis 2: The first step in test- ing the null hypothesis is to formulate and determine the R2 (proportion of variance explained in the criterion variable) 122 for two regression equations (Monge, 1978; Nie, g; 31., 1975, pp. 339-340). The first equation will contain the regression coefficients of (1) interest in foreign news topics; (2) education; (3) age and (4) sex. The equation which will be used is as follows: Y - BC + lel + 32X2 + B3X3 + 34X4 + E where, Y' - estimated value of the criterion vari- able--i.e., degree of attention to international news coverage on televi- sion network newscasts; B - the value of the Y intercept; it is a constant which represents the value of the criterion variable when the value of each predictor variable is equal to zero; le1 - regression coefficient of interest in foreign news topics; BZX2 - regression coefficient of education; 33X3 - regression coefficient of age; BAX4 - regression coefficient of sex; E - the residual error term; it represents the difference between the observed value and the actual value of the criterion variable. The second equation will contain the regression coeffi- cients of the four predictors listed above and the regression coefficients of the gratification-seeking measures. The equation which will be used is as follows: Y' = BC + lel + B2X2 + B3X3 + BAX4 + BSX5 +B6X6 + E where, 123 Y', 30’ lel’ BZXZ’ B3X3, B4X4 and E are the same as defined above. BSX5 - the regression coefficient of cognitive gratification-seeking; B6X6 - the regression coefficient of affective gratification-seeking. The difference between the two R2 values will be the squared partial correlation coefficient between the gratification-seeking measures and degree of attention to international news coverage on the newscasts. The squared partial correlation coefficient will indicate the proportion- al increment in the variance in degree of attention due to the gratification-seeking measures, over and above the other variables. Null Hypothesis 3: Ho .: rxy - 0 where, X - level of interest in foreign news topics; Y - cognitive gratification-seeking from international news cover- age on television network newscasts; The null hypothesis states that there is no correlation between level of interest in foreign news topics and cognitive gratification-seeking from international news coverage on television network newscasts. Alternative Research Hypothesis 3: RH : rxy # 0 where, variables X and Y are as described above. {’I‘II“ 124 This alternative research hypothesis states that the correlation between level of interest in foreign news topics and cognitive gratification-seeking from inter- national news coverage on television network newscasts differs from.zero. In specific terms, research hypo- thesis 3 indicates that the higher the level of inter- est in foreign news topics, the greater the cognitive gratifications sought from international news coverage on television network newscasts. Technique for Testing Hypothesis 3: Pearson product-moment correlation and partial correlation. Respondents' scores on interest in foreign news tOpics will be correlated with their scores on cognitive gratification-seeking from.international news coverage on television network newscasts. Null Hypothesis 4: H : r - 0 X - level of education; Y - cognitive gratification-seeking from international news cover- age on television network news- casts. Null hypothesis 4 states that there is no correlation between level of education and cognitive gratification- seeking from international news coverage on television network newscasts. Alternative Research Hypothesis 4: RH : rxy # 0 where, variables X and Y are as stated above. J I’ll ’5“ 125 Alternative research hypothesis 4 indicates that the relationship between level of education and cognitive gratification-seeking from international news cover- age on television network newscasts differs from zero. It specifies that there is a positive correlation between the two variables: the higher the level of education, the greater the cognitive gratifications sought from international news coverage on television network newscasts. Technique for Testing Hypothesis 4: Pearson product-moment correlation and partial correlation. Respondents' scores on education will be correlated with their scores on cognitive gratification-seeking from international news coverage on television network newscasts. Null Hypothesis 5a: HD : rxy = 0 where, X - dependence on the television networks for information about international news events; Y = cognitive gratification-seeking from international news cover- age on television network news- casts. This null hypothesis states that there is no relation- ship between dependence On the television networks for information about international news events and cogni- tive gratification-seeking from.internationa1 news coverage on the newscasts. 126 Alternative Research Hypothesis Sa: RH : rxy # 0 where, variables X and Y are as described above. The alternative research hypothesis indicates that there is a relationship between dependence on the television networks for information about interna- tional news events and cognitive gratification-seeking from the news coverage on the newscasts. It speci- fies that the greater the dependence on the television networks for information about international news events, the greater the cognitive gratifications sought from international news coverage on televi- sion network newscasts. Technique for Testing Hypothesis 5a: Pearson product-moment correlation and partial correlation. Respondents' scores on dependence on the television networks will be correlated with their scores on cognitive gratification-seeking from.interna- tional news coverage on television network newscasts. Null Hypothesis 5b: 0 : rxy X = dependence on the television networks for information about international news events; Y = perceived helpfulness of tele- , vision network coverage to understanding international news events. Null hypothesis 5b indicates that there is no relation- ship between dependence on the television networks for 127 information about international news events and per- ceived helpfulness of television network coverage to understanding international news events. Alternative Research Hypothesis 5b: RH : rxy - 0 where, variables X and Y are as described above. The alternative research hypothesis states that there is a relationship between dependence on television net- works for information about international news events and perceived helpfulness of television network cover- age to understanding international news events. Speci- fically, the hypothesis indicates that the greater the dependence on the television networks for information about international news events, the greater the per- ceived helpfulness of the coverage to understanding international news events. Technique for Testing Hypothesis 5b: Pearson productdmoment correlation and partial correlation. Respondents' scores on dependence on the television networks will be correlated with their scores on perceived helpfulness of the coverage to understanding international news events. Null Hypothesis 6: Ho : B1 - 82 = 0 where, B1 - regression coefficient of cog- nitive gratification-seeking from international news cover- age; J‘l'llfl 128 B2 - regression coefficient of affective gratification-seeking from international news cover— age. The null hypothesis states that the regression coeffi- cient of cognitive gratification-seeking is equal to the regression coefficient of affective gratification- seeking. The null hypothesis implies that the amount of variance accounted for by cognitive gratification- seeking in news viewers' perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding international news events will equal the amount of variance accounted for by af- fective gratification-seeking. Alternative Research Hypothesis 6: RH : B1 i B2 where, B1 and B2 are as defined above. The alternative research hypothesis states that the amount of variance in news viewers' perceived helpful- ness of the coverage accounted for by cognitive gratification-seeking is not equal to the amOunt of variance accounted for by affective gratification- seeking. The hypothesis specifies that cognitive gratification-seeking will account for more variance in news viewers' perceived helpfulness of the cover- age towards understanding international news events than affective gratification-seeking. Technique for Testing-Hypothesis 6: Multiple regression ana- lysis. Scores on the two predictor variables (cognitive 129 gratification-seeking and affective gratification-seeking) will be entered into a multiple regression equation predict- ing scores on perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding international news events. The regression coefficient (beta weight) of cognitive gratification-seeking will be compared with the regression coefficient of affective gratification-seeking to determine their relative effects on perceived helpfulness of the coverage. The regression equation which will be used is: Y' - BC + lel + BZX2 + E where, Y' - estimated value of the criterion variable-- i.e., perceived helpfulness of the coverage 232::2? understanding international news - the value of the Y' intercept; B X - regression coefficient of cognitive gratification-seeking; BZX - regression coefficient of affective gratification-seeking; E - the residual error term. D. Treatment of the Data Coding of the data gathered in this dissertation was done by this researcher with the assistance of five senior under- graduate students at Michigan State University. All five students had had coding experience; nevertheless, they were given a short training before conducting the coding for this study. Key-punching of the coded data onto computer cards i'iItl 130 and verification of the punched cards were done by profesanxsi keypunchers at the Michigan State University Computer Center. The data were analyzed on the computer at the University (CDC 6500, Version 8.0). The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Nie, gg‘al., 1975) and the Supplement to SPSS (prepared by the MSU Computer Center) were used to prepare the programs and input the data. Outlined briefly here are the relevant sub-programs which were performed on the computer: 1. Frequencies to provide descriptive statistics on the various measures; Reliability tests for the scale of interest in foreign news topics and the gratification-seeking measures; Factor analysis to determine the structural dimen- sions underlying the gratification-seeking 'measures; Pearson productdmoment correlation and partial correlation to test the following null hypotheses: 1 1b, 3, 4, 5a and 5b; a, Multiple regression analysis to test null hypothe- sis 2 and 6. ll‘iil CHAPTER IV RESULTS The data for the study were collected by telephone interviews among a sample of residents in the Greater Lansing Area on July 21, 22, 23, 25 and July 28, 1980. This chapter presents the data analysis and results of the investigation. First of all, we will present descriptive statistics on the sample studied and on the various items used in the question- naire. A. Characteristics of the Sample The demographic characteristics of the respondents are summarized in Table 23 in Appendix E. Briefly, of the 176 respondents 116 (42%) were men and 160 (58%) were women. The ages of the respondents ranged from.18 to 90; the mean age was 39.2 years. Three of the respondents refused to give their ages. Only four (1.4%) of the respondents had less than a high school education, 27 (9.8%) had some high school education, 80 (29%) finished high school, 76 (27.5%) had some college education, 60 (21.7%) were college graduates and an additional 29 (10.5%) had some postgraduate school or finished graduate work. Most of the respondents, 256 (93.1%) were White Americans, 11 (4%) were Black Americans, three (1.1%) 131 t l. 1'. .ll ( { 132 were Mexican Americans, one (.4%) was a Native American and four (1.5%) were of other races. One respondent refused to specify his race. A brief comparison between the character— istics of the sample and pOpulation characteristics is pre- sented in Table 24 in Appendix E. Briefly, respondents in the study sample were slightly more educated and Older than in the pOpulation. However, it must be noted that the pOpulation census of the Lansing Metropolitan Area was taken in 1970. It is probable that the true population characteristics of the research area have changed slightly between 1970 and mid-1980 when the present study was conducted. In generalizing the results of this study to the whole population in the Lansing Metropolitan Area, the differences in demographic characteristics of the study sample and the population must be borne in mind. To the extent that the Lansing Metropolitan Area is not very representative of the United States, the results of this study should be generalized beyond the research area with caution. The television network news exposure patterns among the respondents are summarized in Table 25 in Appendix E. Thirty-two respondents (11.6%) reported watching television network evening newscasts "one evening a week." 113 (40.9%) said they watched the newscasts "a few evenings a.wee and 131 (47.5%) reported watching the news programs "almost every evening." The evening news program on CBS was the news pro- gram watched by most of the respondents: 164 (60.5%) said 133 they usually watched the CBS Evening News as compared with 62 (22.9%) who said they usually watched the news broadcast on NBC and 14 (5.2%) who said they watched the ABC WOrld News Tonight. Some of the respondents viewed television evening news programs on more than one network. Eleven (4.1%) respondents said they usually watched the newscasts on both CBS and NBC, 6 (2.2%) said they watched the news programs on both CBS and ABC, 2 (.7%) reported viewing the newscasts on both NBC and ABC and 12 (4.4%) said that they watched the newscasts on all three networks. Five respondents (1.8%) said they watched television network newscasts but could not specify which networks they usually watched. Of the 276 respondents interviewed, 115 (41.7%) reported watching news programs broadcast on one or more of the tele- vision networks the evenings of the telephone interviews. The remaining 161 (58.3%) respondents said they did not watch the news aired on those evenings. Only the 115 responses of those who reported watching the network news programs when interviewed will be used in testing hypotheses la' lb and 2 (these hypotheses are listed on pages 140-145). However, in testing hypotheses 3, 4, 58, 5b and 6, all 276 responses will be utilized. Before the various hypotheses are tested, we will briefly discuss the descriptive statistics on the items used in the questionnaire. B. Descriptive Statistics on Items The following descriptive statistics were computed for each of the questionnaire items: mean, standard deviation, 134 variance, skewness and obtained range. The descriptive statistics on the items are presented in Table 11. Table 11 shows that the means of the gratification-seeking items varied from 49.94 for Item 2 ("Because you find it exciting to watch some of the reports on events in other countries") to 82.63 for Item 10 ("Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect your life"). The gratification-seeking items were measured on a scale of zero to 100 percent, where zero equals "not import- ant at all" and 100 percent equals "very important." When respondents were asked to state their dependence on television networks for information about United States relations with other countries (Item 11), they averaged 60.14 on a scale of zero (not dependent at all) to 100 percent (totally dependent). Respondents"mean score on dependence on television networks for information about foreign countries (Item 12) was slightly lower at 59.48 on the same scale. Respondents were also asked to indicate how helpful they think reports they watch on television networks about United States relations with other countries are in understanding those relations (Item 13). Respondents"mean score on this item was 61.69 on a scale of zero to 100 percent, where zero equals "not helpful at all" and 100 percent equals "totally helpful." On the same scale, respondents averaged 58.19, when asked how helpful they think reports they watch on tele- vision networks about foreign countries are in understanding events in foreign countries. .oHuoB otu oH OOOHHHGOO ooooo hoe :OHnB muso>o uoono uoo och o» uoo3 so» monsoon n ma .oOHHuonoo Honoo :H muoo>o so muuooou onu mo oEOo zooms Ou onuHoxo uH oon oom omoooom u as .uosuo some nuHs Hoop ooHHuoooo :wHouom 3o: mom on oops 5oz oooooom u.Hs uOOHuoHuomoOraouH 135 Om OH on. 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The items on interest in foreign news topics were measured on a five-point scale, where 1 equals "not interested at all" and 5 equals "very interested." Re- spondents' average score on reported awareness of interna- tional news stories covered on television network newscasts was 5.1 (Item 22). Both variance and standard deviations are reported in Table tho show the dispersion of scores about the means of the items. Among the gratification-seeking items, the stand- ard deviations of the affective gratification-seeking items tend to be generally higher than the standard deviations of the cognitive gratification-seeking items. The standard deviations range from a low of 20.72 for Item 10 ("Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect your life") to a high of 29.47 for Item 5 ("Because you enjoy watching different people in different situations around the world"). This means that the dispersion of scores about the means is lower for respondents when considering a cognitive gratification-seeking items such as "Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect your life" than when considering an affective gratification-seeking item such as "Because you enjoy watch- ing different peOple in different situations around the world." 139 Among the measures of interest in foreign news tOpics, standard deviation varies from a high of 1.2 for Item 15 ("Interest in news about politics within foreign countries") to a low of .96 for Item 20 ("Interest in news about rela- tions among different foreign countries"). Again, this indicates that the spread of scores about the mean is lowest for respondents when we look at "Interest in news about rela- tions among different foreign countries" and highest when we look at "Interest in news about politics within foreign countries." Skewness indicates the degree to which a distribution of cases departs from a normal curve. When the distribution is a completely symmetrical bell-shaped curve, the value of skewness is zero. Table 11 shows that virtually all the items had a negatively-skewed distribution. For example, among the gratification-seeking items, the size of the skew- ness differs from a low negative skewness of -1.49 for both Items 8 and 10 ("Because you want to keep up with what's going on around the world" and "Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect your life") to a high negative skewness of -.24 for Item 5 ("Be- cause you enjoy watching different people in different situ- ations around the world"). There is a discernible pattern in the skewness among the gratification-seeking items. The cognitive gratification-seeking items tend to be generally more negatively skewed than the affective gratification-seeldrg items. This indicates that respondents gave higher ratings 140 to the information-related than to the less information- related gratification-seeking items. It is possible that respondents gave perceived socially-acceptable responses to the items. All the measures of interest in foreign news topics also show negative skewness which range from -.38 for Item 16 ("Interest in news about racial problems within foreign countries") to -1.37 for Item 19 ("Interest in news about advances in science within foreign countries"). This indi- cates that respondents' scores on interest in foreign news topics tend to be higher when the news concerns advances in science within foreign countries than when the news is about racial problems within foreign countries. . The range is the minimum score in a distribution sub- tracted from the maximum score. The minimum and the maximum scores on the items are presented in Table 11. The table shows that the obtained scores on the various items generally covered the whole range of the scales employed to measure the items. C. Results ongypotheses Tests Hypothesis 1 : News viewers' gratification-seeking a will correlate positively with their degree of attention to international news coverage on the newscasts. Hypothesis 18 indicates that respondents' gratification- seeking from international news coverage will correlate posi- tively with their degree of attention to the coverage on the 141 newscasts. The hypothesis was tested by a Pearson product- moment correlation. The hypothesis test was based on the responses of only the 115 respondents who reported watching television network newscasts broadcast the evenings of the telephone interviews. Respondents' scores on gratification— seeking were correlated with their scores on attention to international news reports on the newscasts.1 The correlation coefficient was .15 which is significant at the .05 level. The analysis shows that the relationship between gratification-seeking and degree of attention to international news coverage on television network newscasts was low but in the direction predicted. Research hypothesis 1a received weak support in the data.2 Hypothesis lb: News viewers' attention to international news coverage on the newscasts will cor- relate higher with their cognitive gratification-seeking than with their affective gratification-seeking. This hypothesis predicts that respondents' attention to international news reports on the newscasts will correlate higher with their cognitive gratification-seeking from.the coverage than with their affective gratification-seeking. A Pearson product-moment correlation and a t-test of difference between two correlations (McNemar, 1967, p. 158) were used to test the hypothesis. Only the responses of the 115 respon- dents who reported watching television network newscasts broadcast the evenings of the telephone interviews were used to test the hypothesis. 142 In testing the hypothesis, respondents' scores on cognitive gratification-seeking were correlated with their scores on attention to international news reports on the newscasts. Respondents' scores on affective gratification- seeking were also correlated with their scores on attention to international news reports on the newscasts. The results of the correlation analysis are presented in Table 12. TABLE 12: PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT ZERO-ORDER CORRELATION BETWEEN GRATIFICATION- SEEKING COMPONENTS AND ATTENTION TO INTERNATIONAL NEWS REPORTS ON NEWSCASTS (N - 115) Correlation with Dimension Attention P Cognitive gratification- seeking .13 ns Affective gratification- seeking .10 ns Components of all gratification items .15 .05 The correlation between cognitive gratification-seeking and attention to international news reports on the newscasts was positive but not significant at the .05 level. The rela- tionship between affective gratification-seeking and attention to international news coverage on the newscasts was also positive but not significant at the .05 level. Table 12 shows that attention to the news reports had a slightly higher correlation with cognitive 143 gratification-seeking than with affective gratification- seeking. But the t-test of difference between two correla- tions indicated that the difference was not statistically significant (t value - .29, which is not significant at the .05 level, one-tailed test).3 Research hypothesis 1b was not supported by the data.4 Hypothesis 2: The gratification-seeking measures will account for a significant portion of the variance in attention to international news coverage on the newscasts, over and above the contribution of (1) interest in foreign news topics, (2) education, (3) age and (4) sex. Hypothesis 2 deals with the issue of predictive power of the gratification-seeking measures. The hypothesis predicts that, when considered in the context of other determinants, the gratification-seeking measures will account for a signi- ficant variance in respondents' attention to international news coverage on the newscasts. The hypothesis was tested by a multiple regression analysis. Only the responses of the 115 respondents who reported watching television network newscasts broadcast the evenings of the interviews were used in testing the hypothesis. In testing the hypothesis, two regression equations were formulated, predicting attention to international news cover- age on the newscasts. Respondents' scores on (1) interest in foreign news topics; (2) education; (3) age and (4) sex were 2 entered into the first equation. The R., which indicates the proportion of variance in attention to international news 144 reports on the newscasts, was computed. Table 13provides the results of the first multiple regression analysis. Table 13 shows that the R2 value for the first equation is .029. This indicates that the four predictor variables accounted for only 2.9 percent of the variance in attention to international news reports on the newscasts. TABLE 13: STEPWISE MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF INTEREST IN FOREIGN NEWS TOPICS, EDUCATION, AGE AND SEX ON ATTENTION TO INTERNATIONAL NEWS REPORTS ON NEWSCASTS (N - 115) 2 Multiple 2 R Simple Overall Variable R R Change R Beta F* P** Sex .138 .019 .019 -.138 -.136 2.19 ns Interest in foreign news topics .160 .026 .007 .073 .078 1.47 ns Age .167 .028 .002 .040 .047 1.06 ns Education .171 .029 .001 .078 .038 .83 ns *F test relates to the significance of the beta weights **ns - not significant at the .05 level Respondents' scores on (1) interest in foreign news topics; (2) education; (3) age; (4) sex and their scores on (5) cognitive gratification-seeking and (6) affective gratification-seeking were entered into the second equation. The R? was also computed for the second equation. Table 14 contains a summary of the analysis. As shown in Table 14, the computed R2 value for the second equation which contains 311 the predictors was .058, "meaning that all the predictor variables jointly accounted 145 TABLE 14: STEPWISE MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF INTEREST IN FOREIGN NEWS TOPICS, EDUCATION, AGE, SEX, AND GRATIFICATION-SEEKING COMPONENTS ON ATTENTION TO INTERNATIONAL NEWS REPORTS ON NEWSCASTS (N = 115) ' Multiple 2 R2 Simple Overall Variable R R Change R Beta F* P** Sex .138 .019 .019 -.138 -.136 '2.19 ns Interest in foreign news topics .160 .026 .007 .073 .078 1.47 ns Age .167 .028 .002 .040 .047 1.06 ns Education .171 .029 .001 .078 .038 .83 ns Affective gratificationr seeking .221 .049 .020 .104 .104 2.28 ns Cognitive I gratification- seeking .241 .058 .009 .128 .126 1.9 ns *F test relates to the significance of the beta weights **ns - not significant at the .05 level for a total of 5.8 percent of the variance in attention to international news reports on the newscasts. The increment in the variance in attention due to the gratification-seeking 2 measures is the difference between the two R. values. The F ratio was used to test the significance of the additional vari- ance explained by the cognitive and affective gratification- 5 seeking measures. The computed F value was 1.67 which is not significant at the .05 level. There is no evidence in the data to support research hypothesis 2.6 fiypothesis 3: The higher the level of interest in fOreign news topics, the greater the cognitive gratifications sought from 146 international news coverage on television network newscasts Hypothesis 3 suggests that respondents' interest in foreign news topics will correlate positively with informaticn- related gratification-seeking from international news cover- age on television network newscasts. The hypothesis was tested by a Pearson product-moment correlation and a partial correlation. Respondents' scores on interest in foreign news topics were correlated with their scores on cognitive gratification-seeking from the news coverage. The correlation between interest in foreign news topics and cognitive gratification-seeking from international news coverage was .51 which is significant at p‘<.001. A partial correlation was computed to further examine the relationship between the two variables, while controlling for the effects of education and affective gratification-seeking.7 The second-order partial correlation between interest in foreign news topics and cognitive gratification-seeking was .40 (p - #001). Both the Pearson correlation and the partial cor- relation analyses provide support for hypothesis 3. There is a significant positive relationship between level of interest in foreign news topics and cognitive gratification-seeking from international news coverage on television network news- casts. It must be stated that the second-order partial correla- tion between interest in foreign news topics and affective gratification-seeking was .14 (p = .01), controlling for II II III. I I III" III: III II I ill]- !I [lit 147 education and cognitive gratification-seeking. The signifi- cance of the difference between the two partial correlations was computed, using the t-test of significance between two correlations (McNemar, 1967, p. 158). The two partial corre- lations were: (1) between interest in foreign news topics and cognitive gratification-seeking (.40) and (2) between interest in foreign news topics and affective gratification- seeking (.14). The computed t value was 4.44 which is signi- ficent at p < .001, one-tailed test.8 This significant difference provides further evidence that news viewers who have high interest in foreign news topics seek significantly more cognitive gratifications than affective gratifications from international news coverage on the newscasts. Research hypothesis 3 was supported by the data. an.Footnote 7 it was stated that the correlation between cognitive gratification-seeking and affective gratification-seeking was .53.) Table 15 provides the zero-order correlations between interest in foreign news topics and the five components of cognitive gratification-seeking. The table shows that all the five components of cogni- tive gratification—seeking correlated positively with inter- est in foreign news topics. Hypothesis 4: The higher the level of education, the greater the cognitive gratifications sought from.international news coverage on television network newscasts. .1]. III I ‘ (I! l 148 TABLE 15: ZERO-ORDER CORRELATIONS BETWEEN INTEREST IN FOREIGN NEWS TOPICS AND COMPONENTS OF COGNITIVE GRATIFICATION-SEEKING (N = 276) Correlation with Interest Component in Foreign News Topics p 1. Because you want to find out about events which may cause conflicts in the world . 46 p < . 001 2. Because watching reports about other countries keeps you in touch with the rest of the world .43 p<..001 3. Because you want to keep track of changes in U.S. relations with other countries . 39 p < . 001 4. Because you want to keep up with what's going on around the world . 37 p < . 001 5. Because you want to know ' what's happening in the world and how it can af- fect your life . 37 p < . 001 Composite of all cognitive gratification items .51 p < .001 - This hypothesis predicts that respondents' educational level will correlate positively with their cognitive gratifi- cations sought from.internationa1 news coverage on television network newscasts. The hypothesis was tested by a Pearson product-moment correlation and a partial correlation. Respon- dents' scores on education were correlated with their scores on cognitive gratification-seeking. .The analysis indicated that the relationship between educational level and cognitive gratification-seeking was in [I l 1". ..III. I 1" I... III ll. II [It ll 149 the direction predicted but miniscule. The correlation coef- ficient was .08 which is not significant at the .05 level. To further examine the relationship between education and cognitive gratification-seeking, a partial correlation was computed between the two variables, while controlling for the effects of interest in foreign news topics and affective 9 The second-order partial correlation gratification-seeking. coefficient was -.02, which is not significant at the .05 level. . The analyses provide no evidence which points to a signi- ficant positive relationship between respondents' educational level and their cognitive gratification-seeking from interna- tional news coverage on the newscasts. Research hypothesis 4 was not supported. To find out if any of the components of cognitive gratification-seeking correlated positively with education, the zero-order correlations were computed. The correlations are presented in Table 16. , As Table 16 shows, only one of the components of cogni- tive gratification-seeking had a significant positive corre- lation with education. Hypothesis 53: The greater the dependence on the tele- vision networks for information about international news events, the greater the cognitive gratifications sought from international news coverage on the news- casts. This hypothesis points to a positive association between respondents' dependence on the television networks for 150 TABLE 16: ZERO-ORDER CORRELATIONS BETWEEN EDUCATION AND COMPONENTS OF COGNITIVE GRATIFICATION—SEEKING (N - 276) Correlation * . Component with Education p I 1. Because you want to find out about events which may cause conflict in the world .08 ns 2. Because watching reports about other countries keeps you in touch with the rest of the world . 11 p < . 05 3. Because you want to keep track of changes in U.S. relations with other countries .09 ns 4. Because you want to keep up with what's going on around the world .06 ns 5. Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how f it can a ect your life -.02 ns Composite of all cognitive gratification items .08 ns *ns - not significant at the .05 level international news and cognitive gratification-seeking from the coverage. The hypothesis was tested by a Pearson product- moment correlation and a partial correlation. Respondents' scores on dependence on the television networks for interna- tional news were correlated with their scores on cognitive gratification-seeking. The analysis showed that there is a significant positive correlation between dependence on the television networks for international news and cognitive gratification-seeking. The correlation coefficient was .33 which is significant at 151 p‘<.001. As a further examination of the relationship between the two variables, a partial correlation was computed, con- trolling for education, age, interest in foreign news topics 10 The fourth-order and affective gratification-seeking. partial correlation between the two variables was .20 (p = .001). Both the Pearson product-moment correlation and the partial correlation give statistical support for hypothesis 5a' It should be stated that, controlling for education, age, interest in foreign news topics and cognitive gratification- seeking, the fourth-order partial correlation between depen- _dence on the television networks and affective gratification- seeking was .08 (not significant at the .05 level). The significance of the difference between the two partial corre- lations was computed, employing the t-test of significance between two correlations (McNemar, 1967, p. 158). The two partial correlations were: (1) between dependence on the television networks for international news and cognitive gratification-seeking and (2) between dependence on the tele- vision networks and affective gratification-seeking. The computed t value was 2.09, which is significant at p‘<.05, one-tailed test.11 The significant difference between the two partial cor- relations is a further indication that news viewers who are high on dependence on the television networks seek signifi- cantly more cognitive gratifications than affective 152 gratifications from international news coverage on the newscasts. Research hypothesis 5a was supported. Table 17 provides the zero-order correlations between dependence on the television networks for international news and the five components of cognitive gratification-seeking. TABLE 17: ZERO-ORDER CORRELATIONS BETWEEN DEPENDENCE ON THE TV NETWORKS FOR INTERNATIONAL NEWS AND COMPONENTS OF COGNITIVE GRATIFICATION-SEEKING (N - 276) Correlation with Component Dependence on p the TV Networks 1. Because you want to find out about events which may cause conflicts in the world .24 ;><.001 2. Because watching reports about other countries keeps you in touch with the rest of the world . 21 p < .001 3. Because you want to keep track of changes in U.S. relations ‘with other countries .28 p'<.001 4. Because you want to keep up with what's going on around the world . 23 p < .001 5. Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect your life . 36 p < . 001 Composite of all cognitive gratification items .33 p < .001 Dependence on the television networks for international news correlated positively and significantly with all five components of cognitive gratification-seeking. 153 Hypothesis 5b: The greater the dependence on the tele- vision networks for information about international news events, the greater the perceived helpfulness of the cover- age to understanding international news events. Hypothesis 5b suggests that respondents who have high scores on dependence on the television networks for interna- tional news will have correspondingly high scores on perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding the events. The hypothesis was tested by a Pearson product-moment corre- lation and a partial correlation. Respondents' scores on dependence on the television networks were correlated with their scores on perceived helpfulness of the coverage. The Pearsonian correlation analysis indicates a signifi- cant positive correlation between dependence on the television networks for international news and perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding international news events. The correlation coefficient was .55 which is significant at p < .001. The relationship between the two variables was further examined through a partial correlation analysis in which the effects of age and education were controlled.12 The second-order partial correlation coefficient was .54 (p - .001). The statistical analyses indicate that dependence on the television networks for international news is posi- tively and significantly related to perceived helpfulness of the coverage to understanding international news events. Research hypothesis 5b is supported by the data. 154 The zero-order correlations between components of depen— dence on the television networks and perceived helpfulness of the coverage are summarized in Table 18. TABLE 18: ZERO—ORDER CORRELATIONS BETWEEN COMPONENTS OF DEPENDENCE ON THE TV NETWORKS AND COMPONENTS OF PERCEIVED HELPFULNESS OF THE COVERAGE (N - 276) Components Correlation p 1. Dependence on the television networks for information about U.S. relations with other countries (WITH) Perceived helpfulness of cover- age towards understanding U.S. relations with other countries .49 p:<.001 2. Dependence on the television networks for information about foreign countries (WITH) Perceived helpfulness of cover- age towards understanding events in foreign countries .48 p< .001 Hypothesis 6: Cognitive gratification-seeking will account for more variance in news viewers' perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding inter- national news events than affective gratification-seeking. This hypothesis suggests that our knowledge of news viewers' cognitive gratification-seeking will enable us to better predict their perceived helpfulness of the coverage than our knowledge of their affective gratification-seeking. The hypothesis was tested by a multiple regression analysis. Respondents' scores on cognitive gratification-seeking and 155 affective gratification-seeking were regressed on their scores on perceived helpfulness of the coverage. Table 19 presents a.summary of the multiple regression analysis. TABLE 19: STEPWISE MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE GRATIFICATION- SEEKING ON PERCEIVED HELPFULNESS OF THE COVERAGE Multiple 2 R2 Simple Overall Variable R R Change R Beta p* P Cognitive gratification- seeking .431 .186 .186 .43 .318 62.62 1><.001 Affective gratification- seeking .466 .217 .031 .38 .209 37.83 p<.001 *F test relates to significance of the beta weights The table shows that cognitive and affective gratification-seeking jointly explained a total of 21.7 per- cent of the variance in perceived helpfulness of the coverage towards understanding international news events. The simple correlation between cognitive gratification-seeking and per- ceived helpfulness of the coverage was .43 (p‘<.001). The beta weight (standardized partial regression coefficient) for cognitive gratification-seeking was .318 (p:<.001). Cogni- tive gratification-seeking explained 18.6 percent of the variance in perceived helpfulness of the coverage. The simple correlation between affective gratification-seeking and per- ceived helpfulness of the coverage was .38 (p 176 investigate the difference in actual understanding and know- ledge of international events between the highly television- dependent individual and the less television-dependent individual. One way of operationalizing actual understanding , and knowledge will be by asking respondents questions relat- ing to aspects of specific international news events such as the dates, places, facts, figures, names of personalities and countries involved in the events. It is predicted that the highly television—dependent individual will be less knowledge- able about international issues than the less television- dependent individual, after controlling for factors such as age and education. Findings from such an investigation can provide further evidence on the effect television network coverage has on shaping viewers' knowledge of international issues. This study was further limited in its examination of the relationships between audience antecedent characteristics and their gratification-seeking from.international news coverage on the newscasts. .The antecedent characteristics were limited to the individual's sex, age, educational level, interest in foreign news topics and dependence on the tele- vision networks for international news. Further research is needed which will incorporate additional socio-psychological background characteristics of the audience and examine how these characteristics relate to different gratifications sought from the news coverage. Additional characteristics which may be included-in future audience-oriented studies in 177 international news communication are cosmopolitanism, audience perception of salience of international affairs, ethnocen- trism, and worldmindedness. It is worth exploring how the characteristics relate to gratification-seeking from international news content in different media sources. Some research questions which may be asked are: How do different audience characteristics correlate with different dimensions of gratification-seeking? Which kinds of individuals turn to which media to fulfill their perceived needs for information about international events? What are the socio-psychological origins of the needs for information or diversion from international news content in the media? Research evidence relating to these questions can help link elements of the gratifications model and refine the theoretical basis of gratifications research. The period during which this study was conducted also deserves a brief discussion. The data were collected during the time of at least two major international events of sig— nificance to the American citizen. These events were: (1) the seizure of U.S. diplomats in Iran and (2) the Russian invasion of Afghanistan. To the extent that these two events received wide and continuous coverage in the American media, the events may have influenced both the kinds of gratifica- tions which the respondents sought from international news coverage and respondents' interest in foreign news topics. But it must be noted that the gratification-seeking items generated from respondents in the preliminary group interviews I'll‘l 178 corresponded closely to items generated from the gratifica- tions literature. However, to the extent that the two events received ex- tensive coverage in the media, they may have enhanced or even generated respondents'interest in foreign developments. In view of this, further refinement and validation of the scale of interest in foreign news topics is needed, as earlier suggested. Further validation could be done by administering the scale on different population segments in the United States at a different period or on respondents from a differ- ent culture. The scale can also be correlated with other known determinants of exposure to international news content in the media. A scale of interest in foreign news topics with proven validity and reliability will be a methodological asset to future research efforts which, like the present study, examine international news communication process from the audience perspective. FIIIIIIIIIIII.IIIIIII|IIIQ[[; APPENDICES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN PRELIMINARY STUDY 179 APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN PRELIMINARY STUDY Hello, my name is and I‘m from the School of Journalism at Michigan State University. We are talking with a cross-section of people in the Lansing MetrOpolitan Area to get their views on television news programs. Your views on television news will contribute to a report which could help make television news better for you and other viewers. l. About how many times a week do you watch commercial tele- vision network evening news programs? By network news, wedmean the news programs shown each evening on CBS, ABC an NBC. Never (Please go to Question #29) ) ) Less than once a week ) Once ) Twice ) ) Three times Four times ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ) Amost every evening 2. Which of these television network evening news programs do you usually watch? ( ) CBS News with Walter Cronkite (0n Channel 6) ( ) NBC News with John Chancellor (On Channel 8 or 10) ( A ) ABC News with Frank Reynolds (On Channel 12 3. Please think for a moment and then give your reasons for watching television network evening news programs. 4. Generally, there are different kinds of news reports on television network evening news programs. For instance, there are usually reports on the political campaigns and reports on the economy. There are also reports on U.S. relations with other countries as well as reports about what goes on in foreign countries. l‘ (I AIIIIFSI‘ 111]!" II. II III ' II llul ll. lllrlllll (I. ‘11: Ill-ll ‘11 I'll 'lul ll 1 180 If you could see only parts of the news programs, which parts would you like to see the most. Please rank the following parts in order of importance to you. The most important reports get a ranking of l, the second most important get 2 and so on. ( ) Reports about Michigan ( ) Reports about internal affairs in the United States ( ) Reports about U.S. relations with other countries ( ) Reports about what goes on within foreign countries ( ) Reports about events between two or more foreign countries We are going to ask you a few questions regarding reports on the 5. news programs about U.S. relations with other countries. How important is it for you to watch reports on television networ evening news programs about U.S. relations with other countries? ( ) Not important at all (Please go to Question #11 ( ) Not very important ( ) Somewhat important ( ) Important ( ) Very important What is it important for you to watch reports on television network news programs about U.S. relations with other countries? How much attention would you say you usually give to reports on television network news programs about U.S. relations with other countries? ( ) Not attentive at all ) Not very attentive ) Somewhat attentive Attentive ) Very attentive AAA/N V What do you look for when watching reports on the news programs about U.S. relations with other countries? 10. 181 What do you like best about reports on the news programs about U.S. relations with other countries? What do you like least about reports on the news programs about U.S. relations with other countries? The next few questions concern reports on television network evening news programs about what_goes on within foreign countries. 11. 12. 13. 14. How important is it for you to watch reports on televi- sion network news programs about what goes on within foreign countries? ( ) Not important at all (Please go to Question #17) ( ) Not very important (. ) Somewhat important ( ( ) Important ) very important Why is it important for you to watch reports on televi- sion network evening news programs about what goes on within foreign countries? How much attention would you say you usually give to reports on television network evening news programs about what goes on within foreign countries? ) Not attentive at all ) Not very attentive ) Somewhat attentive ) Attentive ) Very attentive AAA/\A What do you look for when watching reports on television network evening news programs about what goes on within foreign countries? 15. 16. 182 What do you like best about reports you watch on televi- sion network evening news programs about what goes on within foreign countries? What do you like least about reports you watch on tele- vision network evenIng news programs about what goes on within foreign countries? We now have a few questions concerning reports on television network evening news programs about events between two or more foreign countries. 17. 18. 19. 20. How important is it for you to watch reports on televi- sion network evening news programs about events between two or more foreign countries? ) Not important at all (Go to Question #23) Not very important Somewhat important Important AAAAA VVVV Very important What is it important for you to watch reports on televi- sion network evening news programs about events between two or more foreign countries? How much attention would you say you usually give to reports on television network evening news programs about events between two or more foreign countries? ( ) Not attentive at all ( ) Not very attentive ( ) Somewhat attentive ( ) Attentive ( ) Very attentive What do you look for when watching reports on television network evening news programs about events between two or more foreign countries? 21. 22. 183 What do you like best about reports you watch on televi- sion network evening news programs about events between two or more foreign countries? What do you like least about reports you watch on tele- vision network evening news programs about events betweaz two or more foreign countries. Now we will change the questions a little. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. How much would you say you depend on television networks for information about U.S. relations with other countries? Circle Response. Very much Much Somewhat Little Very little How much would you say you depend on television networks for information about what goes on within foreign countries? Circle Response. ' Very much Much Somewhat Little Very little How much would you say you depend on television networks for information about events between two or more foreign countries? Circle Response. Very much Much Somewhat Little Very little How much would you say reports you watch on television about U.S. relations with other countries help you understandiwhat's going on? Circle Response. Very'much' Much Somewhat Little Very little How much would you say reports you watch on television networks about events within foreign countries help you understand what's going on in foreign countfies? Circle Response. Very much Much Somewhat Little Very little How much would you say reports you watch on television networks about events between two or more foreign countries—heIp you understand what‘s going on'among foreign countries? Circle Response Very much Much Somewhat Little Very little Where do you get most of your information about what’ goes on within foreign countries? 184 30. ‘Where do you get most of your information about what goes on within foreign countries? 31. Where do you get most of your information about events between two or more foreign countries? 32. How often do you find yourself talking with other people about U.S. relations with other countries? 33. How often do you find yourself talking with other peOple about whatggoes on within foreign countries? 34. How often do you find yourself talking with other people about events between two or more foreign countries? Just a few more questions please. 35. How many years of school have you finished? 8th grade or less Some high school High school degree Some college College degree VVVVVV Some graduate school ) Graduate degree AAA/\AAA 36. What is your occupation? 37. Would you please tell us how old you are? 38. Sex: ( ) Male ( ) Female Thank you very much for your time and help. APPENDIX B PRE-CODED QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THE PRE-TEST 185 APPENDIX B PRE-CODED QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THE PRE-TEST S.T. KWAME BOAFO: 353-6761 (OFFICE) 355-2927 (HOME) COLS. RESPONDENT PHONE # ( ) RESPONDENT ID # ( ) 1-3 INTERVIEWER'S NAME ( ) DAY OF INTERVIEW ( ) CALLBACK: l 2 3 4 5 6 STATUS OF INTERVIEW: COMPLETED (1) REFUSED (2) DISCONNECTED (3) BUSY (4) NO ANSWER (5) INTRODUCTION: Hello, my name is and I‘m calIifig from the School of Journalism.atIMIchigan State University. We are talking to people in the Lansing area to get their views on television network news pro rams. I have a few questions I'd like to ask you the man/the woman of the house). 1. First, about how many days a week do you watch tele- vision network news programs shown each evening on CBS, NBC and ABC? Would you say less than once a week, one evening a week, a few evenings a week or almost every evening? (CIRCLE RESPONSE) ( 0 ) LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK (GO TO QUESTION #21) ( 1 ) ONE EVENING A WEEK ( 2 ) A FEW EVENINGS A WEEK < 3 ) ALMOST EVERY EVENING 4 2. Homeany different network evening news programs do you usually watch? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ 5 l' I If ( N s 186 3. Which network evening news programs do you usually watch? CBS News, NBC News, ABC News? (CIRCLE RESPONSE) ( 1 ) CBS NEWS ( 2 ) NBC NEWS ( 3 ) ABC NEWS ( 4 ) CBS AND NBC NEWS ( 5 ) CBS AND ABC NEWS ( 6 ) NBC AND ABC NEWS ( 7 ) CBS, NBC AND ABC NEWS ( 8 ) DON'T KNOW We are interested in the reasons why people watch dif- ferent reports on the network evening news programs. Here are some reasons a person may have for watching reports on network evening news programs about United States relations with other countries and reports about foreign countries. As I read each reason, please rate on a scale of zero to 100 percent how important it is to you when you watch the news reports. If the reason is very important to you, you would rate it 100 percent. If it is not important at all, you would rate it zero percent. If it is somewhere in between, you would rate it accordingly between zero and 100 percent. (READ EACH STATEMENT: RECORD RESPONSE) 4. Because you want to keep track of changes in United States relations with other countries. ( )Z .5. Because you want to keep up with what's going on around the world. ( )Z 6. Because you enjoy watching pictures of the land- scape and countryside in other countries. ( )% 7. Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect your life. ( )Z 8. Because some of the pictures shown of foreign peOple and places are interesting to you. ( )% 9. Because you.want to find out about events which may cause conflicts in the world. ( ) 10. Because you.enjoy watching different people in different situations around the world. ( )% ll” Because you want to find out about how other countries are dealing with their own problems. ( )% COLS: 7-9 10-12 13-15 16-18 19-21 22-24 25-27 28-30 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Now 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 187 29118.: Because you find it exciting to watch some of the reports on events in other countries. ( )% 31—33 Because you.want to see how foreign countries deal with each other. ( )% 34-36 Because you find it interesting to see reports that give you a look at other countries. ( )1 37-39 Because you want to learn about what citizens of other countries think about the United States. ( )% 40-42 Because watching reports about other countries keeps you in touch with the rest of the world. ( )% 43-45 I'll change the questions a little. Please tell me how much you depend on television networks for information about United States rela- tions with other countries. Here, zero equaIE not dépendent at all ana 100 percent equals totally dependent. ( )1 46-48 On the same scale, how much would you say you depend on television network for information about foreign countries? ( )% 49-51 Please tell me how much the reports you watch on television networks about United States relations with other countries help you understandPWhaf‘s going on. ’Here, zero equals not helpful at all and 00 percent equals very helpful. ( )% 52-54 On the same scale, how much would you say the reports you watch on television networks about foreign countries help you understand events in foreign countries? ( )% 55-57 New here are different types of news about foreign countries which are sometimes reported on television network evening news programs. For each type of foreign news I read, please tell me if you are very interested, interested, not interested or not inter- ested at all. (READ EACH STATEMENT AND RESPONSE CATEGORY: CIRCLE RESPONSE) News about the economy of foreign countries. Are you Very Not Not Interested Interested Interested Interested At all DK (§)(4)(g)(l)(3)58 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. News about Are you Very Interested (__5__) News about Are you Very Interested (___5,_) News about Are you Very Interested (___§__) News about Are you Very Interested (__i_) News about Are you Very Interested (____§___) News about you Very Interested (___2__) News about Are you Very Interested (5) News about countries. Very Interested (__§__) 188 COLS: politics within foreign countries. Not Not Interested Interested Interested At all, DK (4)( 2 )( 1) (3)59 sporting events in foreign countries. Not Not Interested Interested Interested At all DK (_&__)( 2 )( 1) (3)60 racial problems within foreign countries. Not Not Interested Interested Interested At all DK ( 4 ) ( 2 ) ( l ) ( 3 ) 61 disasters within foreign countries. Not Not Interested Interested Interested At all DK <4><2)<‘1)<3>62 armed conflicts between foreign countries. Not Not Interested Interested Interested At all DK ( 4 ) ( 2 ) ( l ) ( 3 ) 63 defense within foreign countries. Are Not Not Interested Interested Interested At all UK (4)(2)(1)(3)64 advances in science in foreign countries. Not Not Interested Interested Interested At all DK (4)(2)(1)(3)65 relations among different foreign Are you Not Not Interested Interested Interested At all DK (4)(2)(1)(3)66 189 COLS: 30. News about terrorism in foreign countries. Are you Very Not Not Interested Interested Interested Interested At all DK (5 )(4)( 2 )( 1) (3)67 Just a few final questions. 31. What was the last grade in school you finished? ( l ) LESS THAN 8TH GRADE ( 2 ) SOME HIGH SCHOOL ( 3 ) FINISHED HIGH SCHOOL ( 4 ) SOME COLLEGE ( 5 ) FINISHED COLLEGE ( 6 ) SOME GRADUATE SCHOOL ( 7 ) FINISHED GRADUATE SCHOOL ( 8 ) NO RESPONSE 68 32. Would you please tell me your age? ( ) ( 99 ) REFUSED 69-70 Thank you very much for your time and help. Goodnight. 33. RECORD RESPONDENT'S SEX: ( I ) MALE ( 2 ) FEMALE 71 APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN MAIN STUDY 190 APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN MAIN STUDY S. T. KWAME BOAFO: 353-6761 (OFFICE) COLS: 355-2927 (HOME) "“ RESPONDENT PHONE # ( ) RESPONDENT ID # ( ) 1-3 INTERVIEWER'S NAME ( ) DAY OF INTERVIEW ( ) CALLBACKS: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 STATUS OF INTERVIEW: COMPLETED (l) REFUSED (2) DISCONNECTED (3) NO ANSWER (4) INTRODUCTION: Hello, my name is and I'm calling from the TelecommunicationsDepartment at Michigan State University. We are talking with people in the Greater Lansing area to get their views on tele- vision news. I have a few questions I'd like to ask you (the man/the woman of the house), if I may have a few minutes of your time. 1. First, about how many days a week do you watch tele— vision network news programs shown each evening on CBS, NBC and ABC? Would you say never, one evening a week, a few evenings or aLmost every evening? (CIRCLE RESPONSE) ( 0 ) NEVER (THANK RESPONDENT AND EXIT OUT OF INTERVIEW) ( 1 ) ONE EVENING A WEEK ( 2 ) A FEW EVENINGS A WEEK ( 3 ) ALMOST EVERY EVENING 4 191 2. Which network evening news program do you usually watch? CBS News, NBC News, ABC News? (CIRCLE RESPONSE) ( 1 ) CBS NEWS (CHANNEL 6) ( 2 ) NBC NEWS (CHANNEL 10, 8) ( '3 ) ABC NEWS (CHANNEL 12) ( 4 ) CBS AND NBC NEWS ( 5 ) CBS AND ABC NEWS ( 6 ) NBC AND ABC NEWS ( 7 ) CBS, NBC AND ABC NEWS ( 8 ) DON'T KNOW We are interested in why people watch different reports on the network evening news programs. Here are some reasons a person may have for watching reports on the network evening news programs about United States rela- tions with other countries and reports about foreign countries. As I read each reason, please rate on a scale of zero to 100 percent how important it is to you when you watch the news reports. If the reason is very important to you, you would rate it 100 percent. If it is not important at all to you, you would rate it zero percent. If it is somewhere in between, you would rate it accordingly between zero and 100 percent. (READ EACH STATEMENT: RECORD RESPONSE) 3. Because you want mosee how foreign countries deal with each other. ( )% 4. Because you find it exciting to watch some of the reports on events in other countries. ( )% 5. Because you want to find out about events which may cause conflicts in the world. ( )% 6. Because watching reports about other countries keeps you in touch with the rest of the world. ( )% 7. Because you enjoy watching different people in different situations around the world. ( )% 8. Because you want to keep track of changes in United States relations with other countries. ( )Z 9. Because you find it interesting to see reports that give you a look at other countries. ( )% COLS: 6-8 9-11 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 10. 11. 12. 192 Because you want to keep up with.what's going on around the world. ( )1 Because some of the pictures shown of foreign people and places are interesting to you. (______) 7, Because you want to know what's happening in the world and how it can affect your life. ( )% Now I'll change the questions a little. 13. 14. 15. .16. Please tell me how much you depend on television networksfor information about United States rela- tions with other countries. If zero equals not dependent at all and 100 percent equals totally dependent, how much do you depend on television networks for information about United States relations with other countries? ( )% On the same scale, how much would you say you depend on television networks for information about foreign countries? ( )% Please tell me how much you think the reports you watch on television networks about United States relations with other countries help you understand what‘s going on. If zero equals not helpful at all and 100 percent equals very helpful, how helpful do you think the reports are in understanding United States relations with other countries? ( )% On the same scale, how much would you say the reports you watch on television networks about foreign countries help you understand events in foreign countries? ( )1 Now here are different types of news about foreign countries that are sometimes reported on television network evening news programs. For each type of foreign news I read, please tell me if you are very interested, interested, not interested, or not inter— ested at all. (READ EACH STATEMENT AND RESPONSE CATEGORIES: CIRCLE RESPONSE) COLS: 27-29 30-32 33-35 36-38 39-41 42-44 45-47 '1 I14" 1. ’llll 1‘ ‘I III! Ill-ll Ill ‘Il 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. News about Are you Very Interested (__5___) News about countries. Very Interested (_5__) News about Are you Very Interested (5) News about Are you. Very Interested (__«i_) News about countries. Very Interested (__5___) News about countries. Very Interested (__2____) News about Are you _ Very Interested (_L) 193 politics within foreign countries. Not Not Interested DON'T Interested Interested At all KNOW (4><2)<1)<_3_> racial problems within foreign Are you Not Not Interested DON'T Interested Interested At all KNOW (4)( 2 )( 1)(_3_) disasters within foreign countries. Not Not Interested DON'T Interested Interested At all KNOW <4)< 2 >< 1 )(_3_) armed conflicts among foreign Countries. Not Not Interested DON'T Interested Interested At all KNOW (4>< 2 >< 1>(_3_> advances in science within foreign Are you Not Not Interested DON'T Interested Interested At all KNOW ( 4 ) ( 2 ) ( 1 ) ( 3 ) relations among different foreign Are you Not Not Interested DON'T Interested Interested At all KNOW (z.>< 2 >< 1><3> terrorism within foreign countries. Not Not Interested DON'T Interested Interested At all KNOW (4)( 2 )( 1)(_3_) COLS: 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 194 COLS: Once again I'll change the questions a little. 24. Did you watch the network news program.this evening? ( l ) YES ( 0 )NO (IF NO, GO TO Q. 33) 55 25. Which network news program did you watch this evening? CBS News, NBC News, ABC News? (CIRCLE REPONSE) ( 1 ) CBS NEWS (CHANNEL 6) NBC NEWS (CHANNEL 10, 8) ABC NEWS (CHANNEL 12) CBS AND NBC NEWS CBS AND ABC NEWS NBC AND ABC NEWS DON'T KNOW 56 N U) AAA/\AA VVVVVV Please tell me if you saw or heard these stories on the network news program this evening. As I read each story, please answer "Yes" if you saw or heard it on the news this evening and "No" if you did not. (INTERVIEWER INSTRUCTION: READ DOWN THE LIST: READ CHECKLIST WHICH CORRESPONDS TO NETWORK RESPONDENT SAID HE/SHE WATCHED THIS EVENING) CHECKLIST OF STORIES 26. READ STORY HEADLINE FROM CHECKLIST REPORTED AWARENESS ( 1 ) YES ( 0 ) NO 57 27. READ STORY HEADLINE FROM CHECKLIST REPORTED AWARENESS ( 1 ) YES ( 0 ) NO 58 *28. READ STORY HEADLINE FROM CHECKLIST REPORTED AWARENESS ( O ) YES ( 1 ) NO 59 29. READ STORY HEADLINE FROM CHECKLIST REPORTED AWARENESS ( 1 ) YES ( 0 ) NO 60 *30. READ STORY HEADLINE FROM CHECKLIST REPORTED AWARENESS ( 0 ) YES ( 1 ) NO 61 31. READ STORY HEADLINE FROM CHECKLIST REPORTED AWARENESS ( 1 ) YES ( 0 ) NO 62 195 COLS: 32. READ STORY HEADLINE FROM CHECKLIST REPORTED AWARENESS ( 1 ) YES ( 0 ) N0 63 Just a few final questions. 33. What was the last grade in school you finished? ( l ) LESS THAN 8TH GRADE 2 SOME HIGH SCHOOL FINISHED HIGH SCHOOL SOME COLLEGE FINISHED COLLEGE SOME GRADUATE WORK FINISHED GRADUATE WORK NO RESPONSE 64 w b AAA/\AAA vvvvvvv 34. Would you please tell me your age? ( ' ) ( 99 ) REFUSED 65-66 35. What is your race? ( l ) WHITE AMERICAN. BLACK AMERICAN MEXICAN AMERICAN/SPANISH AMERICAN NATIVE AMERICAN/AMERICAN INDIAN REFUSED 67 N AAAA U'll-l-‘w vvvv Thank you very much for your time and help. Goodnight. 36. RECORD RESPONDENT'S SEX: (__;__) MALE _ ( 2 ) FEMALE 68 196 SUPPLEMENTS TO QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN MAIN STUDY: CHECKLISTS OF INTERNATIONAL NEWS STORIES ON TELEVISION NETWORK EVENING NEWS PROGRAMS BROADCAST ON WEDNESDAY, JULY 23, 1980 197 NAME OF NEWSCAST: ABC WORLD NEWS TONIGHT WITH FRANK REYNOLDS DATE OF NEWSCAST: WEDNESDAY JULY 23L 1980 (One of the Nights of tHe TelephoneInterviews) CHECKLIST OF INTERNATIONAL NEWS ITEMS (INTERVIEWER INSTRUCTION: NUMBERS CORRESPOND WITH QUESTION NUMBERS ON QUESTIONNAIRE) 26. The president of France said in Paris today that his country will continue to give asylum for political refugees. 27. The first Vietnamese cosmonaut was launched into space aboard a Soviet spaceship today. *28. The Soviet president met with the president of the African nation of Angola in Moscow today. 29. The Israeli prime minister said today that the United Nations Organization is not effective. *30. In Indonesia today, a bomb was thrown into a crowd which had gathered for a protest march. 31. The president of the Press Association in Lebanon was ‘murdered in Beirut today. 32. Four members of the Senate Judiciary Committee have been named to look into the link between Billy Carter and Libya. *Fake News Items 198 NAME OF NEWSCAST: CBS EVENING NEWS WITH WALTER CRONKITE DATE OF NEWSCAST: WEDNESDAY, JULY 23, 1980 (One of the Nights Of the Telephone Interviews) CHECKLIST OF INTERNATIONAL NEWS ITEMS (INTERVIEWER INSTRUCTION: NUMBERS CORRESPOND WITH QUESTION NUMBERS ON QUESTIONNAIRE) 26. 27. *28. ' 29. *30. 31. 32. A newspaper in Saudi Arabia reported today that Iran may release the American hostages in three weeks. Israel today criticized the United Nations debate on the Palestinian issue. The Soviet president met with the president of the African nation of Angola in Moscow today. A bomb exploded in the centre of Tehran today, killing six people and injuring several others. In Indonesia today, a bomb was thrown into a crowd which had gathered for a protest march. Two men were arrested in Maryland today in connection with the killing of a former Iranian press attache in Washington. In Paris today, memorial services were held for two 'Frenchmen who were killed recently. *Fake News Items 199 NAME OF NEWSCAST: NBC NIGHTLY NEWS WITH JOHN CHANCELLOR DATE OF NEWSCAST: WEDNESDAY, JULY 23, 1980 (One of the Nights of the Telephone Interviews) CHECKLIST OF INTERNATIONAL NEWS ITEMS (INTERVIEWER INSTRUCTION: NUMBERS CORRESPOND WITH QUESTION NUMBERS ON QUESTIONNAIRE) 26. 27. *28. 29. *30. 31. 32. A newspaper in Saudi Arabia said today that the American hostages in Iran may be released next month. A Vietnamese cosmonaut was launched into space today aboard a Soviet spaceship. The Soviet president met with the president of the African nation of Angola in Moscow today. The Israeli parliament today approved a bill to make Jerusalem the capital of Israel. In Indonesia today, a bomb was thrown into a crowd which had gathered for a protest march. In Iran today, six people were killed and several others were injured in a bomb explosion. In New York today, Billy Carter said he disagrees with President Carter's statement about his connection with Libya. *Fake News Items APPENDIX D INTER- ITEM CORRELATION MATRICES 200 APPENDIX D TABLE 20: MEASURES OF INTEREST IN FOREIGN NEWS TOPICS Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 l 1.00 2 .43 1.00 3 .13 .32 1.00 4 .26 .24 .26 1.00- 5 .27 .10 .23 .21 1.00 6 .39 .30 .17 .28 .41 1.00 7 .33 .35 .37 .45 .14 .28 1.00 Where, Item 1 - Interest in news about politics within foreign countries. 2 - Interest in news about racial problems within foreign countries. 3 = Interest in news about disasters within foreign countries. 4 - Interest in news about armed conflicts among ' foreign countries. 5 8 Interest in news about advances in science in foreign countries. 6 = Interest in news about relations among differ- ent foreign countries. 7 = Interest in news about terrorism within foreign countries. NOTE: Average inter-item correlation is .28 201 .OMHH Moo» uoommo coo OH So: one pHHoB ecu aH weHcoeems m.um£3_so:x ou uses no» omomoom u OH .noh ou wcH numonouaH one moooHe poo OHeooe ewHouom mo szonm mOHSOOHm Ono mo mace monsoon u m .oHuoa can poncho so waHom m.umn3 nuHs es moox on uses sou omsooom n m .MOHnucsoo Honuo um xooH m Dom o>Hw umsu manoeou mom ou poumououaH uH osHm sou Omnoomm u m .mOHHusooo Honuo aqu mGOHuoHou moumum mOuHGD GH mowcmno mo xoouu emox ou uco3 so» mmnooom u o .oHHoa Ono renown mflOHuosuHm uaouomme EH mHeoom ucouomep wanoum3_hohsm sou omsmoom n m .p H03 one mo umon Ono nuH3_£osou GH mom meoox mOHHucdoo Honuo ozone muuoeon :Hnouos Omnmoom u q . HHoB Ono sH muOHHmsoo Omsoo hoe EOHsz muco>o usono uao och ou usm3_:0h mammoom n m .mOHnuasoo nmtuo 6H mono>o do muuomon Ono mo mace noum3 ou waHuHoxo uH oaHm so» omsmoom u N .Hotuo some :uHS Hoop mOHHuasoo cwHouom 3o: mom on ucm3.so> omsmoom u H EOOH .Oumsz oo.H mm. on. me. mm. mm. «e. an. em. Hm. OH oo.H mm. Hm. NH. me. me. nH. em. mm. m oo.H mm. on. an. mm. no. Hm. mm. m oo.H «e. on. an. on. on. cm. s oo.H am. an. op. wN. Hm. o oo.H am. pH. on. mm. m oo.H mm. mm. Nd. o oo.H am. oq. m oo.H mm. N oo.H H 0H m m n o n e m N . H aouH mm¢3m