. IuIIIIIHqIIH-In I .I I NONI ~ I» .~ I - :stst , .314.“ “ 1? 33:15 I I A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION BY ROBBERY ON COGNITIVE DIMENSIONALITY Dissertation for the Degree Of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DONALD L. BLAZICEK 1976 IIIIIIII :IIIIIII‘ I I This is to certify that the thesis entitled A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION BY ROBBERY ON COGNITIVE DIMENSIONALITY presented by Donald L. Blazicek has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D. degree in Sociology Major progssor Date" May 21, 1976 0-7639 .n'll'lll.) ‘IIIFNII ABSTRACT A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION BY ROBBERY ON COGNITIVE DIMENSIONALITY By Donald L. Blazicek This study investigated the relationship between on variable of cognitive complexity (cognitive dimensionality) and the parti- cipants (both offenders and victims) in the criminal offense of robbery. A total of 26 victims and 26 offenders selected from the records of the Detroit Recorder's Court and the Southern Michigan State Prison respectively were included in the analysis. The rela- tionship was studied by comparing victim and offender responses which represented the victimization experience in cognitive space, as well as making within group comparisons. Also investigated was the relationship of the degree of cognitive dimensionality to select sociological background variables (age, race, sex, edu- cation, religion, income, and marital status). Statistical analysis strongly supported the prediction that victims would be less dimensional then robbery offenders in repre- senting the victimization experience in cognitive space. All sixteen measures of dimensionality confirmed victims to be Donald L. Blazicek significantly less dimensional. Analysis of variance interaction effects were, however, found to be significant only on the ALPHA 55% factor analytic measure of dimensionality. These effects sup- ported the hypothesis that victims would show a regression (i.e., react in a more cognitively simple manner) in representing the victimization experience in cognitive space when compared to a neutral cognitive domain of occupations. Within group differences for both victims and offenders were not found to be statistically significant. Victims were categorized in terms of the robbery experience being perceived as a threat or crisis on three variables--crisis perception (CP), im- mediate psychophysical reaction (IPR), and post victimization emotion (PVE). The predicted inverse relationship of high threat or crisis perception and low cognitive dimensionality was not } substantiated for each of these variables. Although not signifi- cant, the results did indicate trends supportive of previous research. The relationship of cognitive dimensionality to the offender's commitment to criminal behavior (CCB) and commitment to specific offense patterns (050) was found to be statistically non-significant. Lapsed time since the victimization occurrence and the measure of cognitive dimensionality showed no significant effects for either victims or offenders. Furthermore, no regression effects in the victimization domain were found among victims, nor were offenders significantly more dimensional in that domain as a result of time. Donald L. Blazicek Sociological background characteristics were shown to be generally unrelated to cognitive dimensionality. Sex of the victim was the only variable that showed consistent differences with females being more dimensional in both cognitive domains. The data provided significant regression effects in the victim- ization domain for victims' marital status. Offenders did not prove to be significantly more dimensional in that domain as compared to the neutral domain of occupations when classified by various background factors. A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION BY ROBBERY ON COGNITIVE DIMENSIONALITY By Donald L? Blazicek A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology 1976 Copyright by DONALD L. BLAZICEK 1976 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Peter K. Manning, the chairperson of my graduate committee, for his comments, criticisms, editorial skills, and scholarly suggestions in the preparation of this dissertation. I would also like to thank Dr. John H. McNamara for his methodological insight and critical reading of the manuscript. His inspiration throughout my graduate -career made unrealizable goals reachable. Gratitude is also extended to Dr. Frederick B. Haisnen forhis timely suggestions prior to the final writing of the dissertation and his influence on my professionalization earlier in my graduate training. I am also indebted to Dr. James L. Phillips who provided constant encouragement from the proposal stage to the final draft. He freely gave of his time and ideas, without which this project could not have been completed. Special thanks are also due to Ms. Anne Nieberding of the Computer Institute for Social Science Research who provided computer technical assistance. Thanks are also extended to my long-time friends Donald C. Frank and Maurice Cartier who have brought me through many cloudy days, and who have shown me horizons I might not have realized. A special acknowledgment to Susan, a patient and under- standing wife, whose tolerence during my entire professional prepa- ration made it all possible. ii The material in this project was prepared under a research grant from Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society of North America, and under Grant No. 75-NI—99-0044 from the Office of Education and Manpower Assistance, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S. Department of Justice. Researchers engaging in such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their professional judgment. Therefore, points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily repre- sent the official position or policy of the U.S. Department of Justice. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDICES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION Background of the Research Problem Theoretical Orientation of the Study Statement of the Research Problem II. OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGICAL RESEARCH Violent Personal Crimes . Property Crimes Victim Surveys . . . Victim Precipitation . The Nonreporting Victim . . . The Focus of the Present Investigation . III. ACTORS AND ACTION: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ROBBERY EVENT . Extent and Trend of Robbery . . Legal and Behavioral Classification of Robbery Perception of Opportunity . Victim Confrontation . Forced Compliance of the Victim Violence Potential . . Characteristics of Robbery Victims . . Age, Race, and Sex Characteristics of Robbery Victims . Additional Social Characteristics of Robbery Victims . . . Characteristics of Robbery Offenders . Age, Race, and Sex Characteristics of Robbery Victims . . iv Page vii xi xii Chapter ‘ Page Victim Perception of Robbers . . . . . . . 83 Past Arrest Histories of Robbers . . . . . . 85 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 IV. ROBBERY AND COGNITIVE DIMENSIONALITY . . . . . . 89 Theoretical Foundations . . . . 89 Conceptualization of Cognitive Dimensionality . . 91 Cognitive Dimensionality and the Robbery Event . . 97 The Robbery Victim . . . . . . . . . . . 97 The Robbery Offender . . . . . . 99 The Measure of Cognitive Dimensionality. . . . . 101 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 V. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGICAL ORIENTATION . . . 112 The Victim Sample . . . . . . . . 112 Locating the Contacting Victims . . . . . . 115 The Offender Sample . . . . . . .' . . . . 118 Data Collection . . . . . 120 Specification of Variable Relationships . . 121 Operationalization of Variables and Statements of Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 123 Immediate Psychophysical Reaction . ., . . . . 124 Post Victimization Emotion . . . . . . . . 124 The Robbery Offender . . . . . . . . 125 Commitment to Criminal Behavior . . . . . . 126 Commitment to Specific Offense Behavior . . . . 126 Supplemental Relationships . . . . . . . . . 127 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 VI. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Introduction . . . . . . 132 Victim--Victimizer Role Relationships . . . . . 135 Victims. Crisis Perception and Victimization . . 141 Offenders: Commitment to Criminal Behavior and Specific Offense Behavior . . 144 Time Factors, Victimization, and Dimensionality. . 148 Supplemental Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 152 Sex and Cognitive Dimensionality . . . . . . 152 Race and Cognitive Dimensionality. . . . . . .155 Age and Cognitive Dimensionality . . 157 Educational Level and Cognitive Dimensionality . 163 Religion and Cognitive Dimensionality . . . . 168 Income and Cognitive Dimensionality . . . . 171 Marital Status and Cognitive Dimensionality . . 175 Summary . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 178 Chapter VII. DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS Overview . Limitations . Discussion Victims: Crisis Perception and Victimization . Offenders. Commitment to Criminal Behavior Background Factors . . Contributions of the Present Research Implications for Victimology . Implications for Social Psychology Methodological Considerations . Strategic Considerations for Future Research. Conclusion APPENDICES BIBLIOGRAPHY vi Table 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF TABLES Summary of Major Findings on Sex, Race, and Age of Offenders and Victims for Four Major Crimes The Interpersonal Relationship between Victim and Offender, by Type of Crime, in Percent of Total The Place of Occurrence by Type of Crime in Percent of Total' . . . . . . . . . Motive of the Offender by Type of Crime in Percent of Total . . . Means of Inflecting Injury by Type of Crime in Percent of Total Victims of Robbery, by Age, Race, and Sex, Detroit Study . . . . Victims of Robbery, by Race, as Noted in Different Studies . Victims of Robbery, by Marital Status and Sex, as Noted in the Detroit Study and Syvrud Victims of Robbery, by Religion and Sex, as Noted in the Detroit Study and Syvrud . . Robbery Offenders, by Race and Age, Jackson Study Robbery Offenders, by Race, as Noted in Different Studies . . . . Intercorrelation Matrix of Cognitive Dimensionality Measures for Victims in the Victimization Domain . Intercorrelation Matrix of Cognitive Dimensionality Measures for Victims in the Domain of Occupations Intercorrelation Matrix of Cognitive Dimensionality Measures for Offenders in the Victimization Domain vii Page 14 15 17 19 20 63 69 73 75 78 80 107 108 109 Table 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Intercorrelation Matrix of Cognitive Dimensionality Measures for Offenders in the Domain of Occupations . Attrition Distribution of Detroit Robbery Victim Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . Attrition Distribution of Jackson Robbery Offender Sample . . . Means and Standard Deviations for Victims and Offenders in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Sixteen Dimensionality Measures . . . . . . Summary Results of the Two-Nay Analysis of Variance for the Sixteen Measures of Cognitive Dimensionality Means, Standard Deviations, and t-test Results for Crisis Perception (CP), Immediate Psychophysical Reaction (IPR), and Post Victimization Emotion (PVE) Variables for Victims in the Victimization Domain . . Intercorrelation Matrix of Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures with Immediate Psychophysical Reaction (IPR), Post Victimization Emotion (PVE), and Crisis Perception (CP) Variables for Victims in the Victimization Domain . . . . . . Means, Standard Deviations, and t-test Results for Commitment to Criminal Behavior (CCB) for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures for Offenders in the Victimization Domain . . . . Means and Standard Deviations for Commitment to Specific Offenses (CSO) for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures for Offenders in the Victimization Domain . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance Summary for Commitment to Specific Offenses (CSO) for Offenders in the Victimization Domain for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . . . . . Intercorrelation Matrix of Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures with Commitment to Criminal Behavior (CCB) and Commitment to Specific Offenses (CSO) Variables for Offenders in the Victimization Domain viii Page 110 116 119 136 137 142 143 145 145 146 146 Table Page 26. Means and Standard Deviations for Victims by Lapsed Time for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . 149 27. Analysis of Variance Summary for Victims by Lapsed Time in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . 149 28. Means and Standard Deviations for Offenders by Lapsed Time for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . 150 29. Analysis of Variance Summary for Offenders by Lapsed Time in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . 150 30. Means, Standard Deviations, and t-test Results for Victims by Sex for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . 154 31. Means, Standard Deviations, and t-test Results for Victims and Offenders by Race for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . . . . . . . . . 156 32. Means and Standard Deviations for Victims by Age for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . . . . . . 158 33. Means and Standard Deviations for Offenders by Age for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victim- ization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . . . 159 34. Analysis of Variance Summary for Victims by Age in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . . . . . 160 35. Analysis of Variance Summary for Offenders by Age in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . 161 36. Means and Standard Deviations for Victims by Edu- cational Level for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . . . . . . . . . . 164 37. Means and Standard Deviations for Offenders by Edu- cational Level for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures ix Table Page in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 38. Analysis of Variance Summary for Victims by Edu- cational Level in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . . . . . . . . . . . 166 39. Analysis of Variance Summary for Offenders by Edu- cational Level in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . . . . . . 167 40. Means and Standard Deviations for Victims by Religious Preference for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 41. Analysis of Variance Summary for Victims by Religion in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . 170 42. Means and Standard Deviations for Victims by Income for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victim- ization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . . . 172 43. Analysis of Variance Summary for Victims by Income in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . 173 44. Means and Standard Deviations for Victims by Marital Status for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . 176 45. Analysis of Variance Summary for Victims by Marital Status in the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations for the Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures . 177 46. Intercorrelation Matrix of Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures with Sociological Background Variables for Victims in the Victimization Domain (V.D.) and the Domain of Occupations (O.D.) . . . . . . . . 180 47. Intercorrelation Matrix of Scott ALPHA and BETA Measures with Sociological Background Variables for Offenders in the Victimization Domain (V. D. ) and the Domain of Occupations (O. D. ) . . . . . . . 181 48. Summary Table of Statistical Tests for Victims and Offenders on Sociological Background Factors . . . 182 X LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Developmental Base of Current Victimology 2. Two Dimensional Representation of a Portion of a Cognitive Space . 3. Mean Dimensionality Scores for Robbery Victims and Offenders for the Scott ALPHA, BETA, and Factor Analytic 55% ALPHA Measures . . . xi Page 30 93 139 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Conceptual Elements and Attributes within the Victimization Domain and the Domain of Occupations . 210 B. Attribute Scale Groupings Used in Computing ALPHA and BETA Dimensionality Scores . . . . 212 C. Letter of Request for Victim Interview . . . . . . 214 D. Letter of Request for Offender Interview . . . . . 216 E. Victim Interview Schedule . . . . . . . . . . 218 F. Offender Interview Schedule . . . . . . . . . 222 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Research Problem Criminological research has been characterized by a myopic focus on a single aspect of the total crime event, that is the crimi- nal. Major attention has been given to theories of causation, classification of offenders, correctional institutions, and the rehabilitation process. In this sense, "criminology is mainly the study of doers, and the prevention, control, and treatment of their behavior" (Reckless, 1967: 137). Despite the voluminous literature on crime and delinquency, few studies have been exclusively con- cerned with the victims of crime. The school of thought has developed, however, which main- tains that the victim is not only an essential element in the crimi- nal act, but often plays an important role in the commission of that act (Amir, 1967; Chapman, 1968: 153-166; Hentig, 1940; 1948; Wolfgang, 1957). While this conception has been advocated for over three decades, very little has been accomplished in terms of research design, theory construction, and the accumulation of substantive knowledge. This concern with the victim's participation in the crime event has led to a new branch of learning in criminology. This branch has been labeled ”Victimology," and one important focus of this orientation is the examination of the criminal-victim relation- ship. In the present study, victimology will refer to the study of criminal-victim relationships (Nagel, 1963; Schafer, 1968: 54-55) as opposed to the more general connotation of Victimology as a sepa- rate and distinct discipline from criminology (Mendelsohn, 1963). Furthermore, the expansion of criminological thought to include specific analyses of the victim may aid in developing a more thorough understanding of the genesis of crime. As Schafer (1968: 39-40) states: That the victim is taken as one of the determinants, and that a nefarious symbiosis is often established between doer and sufferer, may seem paradoxical. The material gathered, however, indicates such a relation. If this relation can be confirmed, and if the criminal-victim inter- actions and personal relationships can be observed in the functional interplay of causative elements, crime can be seen and understood in a broader perspective. To date, most empirical inquiries dealing with criminal- victim relationships have been associational in nature. These investigations set forth patterns of the crime event and describe relations among select variables as age, race, and sex character- istics of victims and offenders, spatial and temporal patterns of the crime, and the influence of alcohol in the crime event (Amir, 1971; Bohannan, 1960; Driver, 1961; Mulvihill, Tumin, and Curtis, 1969; Pittman and Handy, 1964; Pokorny, 1965; Schafer, 1968: 59-103; V055 and Hepburn, 1968; Wolfgang, 1958). Beyond these investigations, however, the victim-offender relationship offers rich material for the study of such encounters from other perspectives and orientations. Theoretical Orientation of the Study The present stage of theoretical development in Victimology is embryonic. As Vold (1958: 4) succinctly states in another context (i.e., criminological theory), which, nonetheless, is most appropriate for victimological concerns: "No present scheme of theoretical concepts is entirely valid or entirely sufficient to account for the full range of complexity of human behavior." The appropriateness of this statement is fully appreciated, as vic- timology not only lacks theory and systematic statements of testable hypotheses, but is only initiating collection of useable empirical information. The frame of reference employed in the present research derives from the symbolic interactionist school of thought, but most specifically from the interactional theory proposed by McCall and Simmons (1966). This role—identity model stresses the im- portance of perceptual and cognitive processes in interaction, and assumes that man has the ability to self-consciously direct his own activities. Furthermore, this orientation suggests that individual selves and identities emerge out of social structure and social situations. From this perspective, it is clear that individual behavior in the presence of others is more than a simple stimulus and response action and reaction. Interactional encounters incorpo- rate internal processes (i.e., perceptual and cognitive) which serve to establish governing mutual expectations for behavior in given social settings. The emergence of such a "working concensus" is thus an important aspect of studying interpersonal behavior. Previous interactional research (Glaser and Strauss, 1964; Goffman, 1959; 1967; Gordon and Gergen, 1968; Rose, 1962) has been directed toward the specification of variables (e.g., awareness contexts, self presentation, self-concept, role-taking ability, etc.) associated with the development and maintenance of recurrent interactional relationships and encounters. Sociologists, none- theless, have been hard pressed to formulate a theoretical account of those interactions which are non-recurrent, problematic, and consequential for the participants. This general interaction perspective provides a useful framework for viewing the interactive nature of the criminal act. Since victim-offender encounters may be considered special instances of a more universal class of conflict situations, it is of interest to investigate certain social psychological dimensions involved in this interaction. The focal concern of the present research is with exploring the dyadic relationship of victim and offender in the robbery situation in terms of the experiential or cognitive saliency of that experience. In this respect, it was asserted that the victimization event begins with the entering into some sort of relationship between criminal(s) and victim(s). While individual victimizations are highly idiosyncratic, certain dimensions of the event may be assumed to be more universally distributed, and it is in this direction that the present research was cast. The robbery victimization event being interactional in nature possesses some salient, although not entirely unique, characteristics generally not found in other social interactions, and the structural nature of this encounter cannot be ignored as an important variable. Denzin (1969) directs attention to the "situated aspects" of human conduct for interaction research. He (1969: 926) states: If behavior occurs within social situations and if the meaning attached to those situations influences subsequent behavior, then the situation becomes a dimension of analysis. Denzin proceeds to identify four components of the situation as follows: (a) the interactants as objects, (b) the concrete setting, (c) the meanings brought into the situation, and (d) the time taken for the interaction. In light of these situated aspects, the victimization event in the case of robbery may be considered as a special type of interactional occurrence charac- . terized by forced compliance on the part of the victim, and of a fleeting nature in that neither of the interactants desire to continue the relationship over any sustained period of time. The salient role orientations in the robbery encounter appear to be twofold as follows: (a) dominance of the offender over the victim and forced compliance by the victim, and (b) achievement- oriented and other-oriented, that is, the act is purposefully motivated on the part of the offender with the intent of monetary gain, and action is directed toward some person other than oneself. Social psychological research (Biddle and Thomas, 1966; Gross and stone, 1963) has shown that an individual's "role requirements" under varying conditions significantly influence his perception and behavior. Similar connotations may be advanced with regard to the robbery event. Thus, the victimizer is in a position of control and power, has planned his part in the inter- action, and has purposefully initiated the action. Conversely, the victim is in a position of forced compliance, experiences an unexpected encounter, and faces potential threat and trauma. Statement of the Research Problem The purpose of the present research is to demonstrate the utility of a social psychological perspective for personal ap- praisals of life situations. The life situation here selected is criminal victimization by robbery. The assumption was made that the phenomena of criminal victimization is of a selective and differential nature. In accord with this assumption, it was sug- gested that personal reactions to robbery victimization encounters for both victims and offenders is relative not only to their location in the social structure, but also to their respective role relations in the victimization encounter. Refraining from the more global concerns of past research, the present study sought to concentrate on the experiential level of analysis through the examination of one property of cognitive structure. This property, termed cognitive dimensionality (specified in Chapter IV), is one variable of cognitive complexity and allows an examination of indi- vidual reactions and representations of specific events in semantic space. This level of analysis was selected because of the impossibility of directly observing criminal-victim interactions and behaviors during robbery encounters. As such, it was necessary to move the data source to covert or experiential aspects of the situation in order to allow inferences from the data. Concerned with this element of the victimization event and victim-offender relationships, the present research focused on the relationship among several sets of variables heretofore generally unmentioned, and certainly underinvestigated, in contemporary victimological research. First, consideration was given to those situated aspects of the encounter in terms of the specific role relations among the participants (i.e., the offender in a planned control position and the robbery victim in an impinged position of compliance to unexpected demands). Given this structural aspect of the event, it was suspected that differential responses would accrue among the interactants in representing the experience in semantic space. Secondly, consideration was directed to victim perception of the experience as stressful or threatening to self as an important variable in accounting for differential response patterns. Third, attention was given to suspected differences among robbery offenders as a result of their commitment to criminality. Finally, since the interactionist perspective sug- gests that individual identities emerge from social structure location and that as a result of these identities individuals bring differential meanings to specific situations, it was of interest to consider the relation of sociological background factors (i.e., age, race, sex, education, religion, income, and marital status) and representations of the victimization experience in cognitive space. The approach to these specific goals will begin by first examining the past research in Victimology (Chapter II). Chapter III will consist of a general overview of the criminal offense of robbery. Chapter IV will introduce the concept of cognitive dimensionality as the major dependent variable in terms of its applicability and importance as an area of victimological concern. Chapter V will introduce, delineate, and specify the operational- ization of variables and statements of hypotheses. Chapter VI will present the analysis of the results. The final chapter will provide a discussion of the results, as well as making sug- gestions for future research. CHAPTER II OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGICAL RESEARCH This chapter is a critique of various studies, wholly or partially, devoted to the examination of the victim in the criminal act. It is designed to provide the reader with a general overview of victimological research. The present chapter does not purport to be an exhaustive, nor a critical review of the literature. The major intent, rather, is to identify and systematize diverse lines of research which have led to the present state of knowledge in Victimology, as well as to place the present investigation within that spectrum. In order to make the task manageable within the confines of this purpose, the chapter will be divided along the following conceptual and substantive considerations: (a) violent personal crimes, (b) property crimes, (c) victim surveys, (d) victim precipitation, (e) non-reporting victims, and (f) the present perspective. Violent Personal Crimes Interest in the victims of violent personal crimes became enlightened in the decade of the 1950's with a concern over sexual offenses. This interest was in part generated by extensive popular literature reinforcing the belief that: the present danger to women and children from serious sex crimes is large and is increasing more rapidly than any 9 10 other crime; that most sex crimes are committed by "sexual degenerates," "sex fiends," or "sexual psychopaths" (Sutherland, 1950: 142). Much of the concern here was with the arguments surrounding the establishment of various sexual psychopath laws. There is little need to reiterate these issues other than to mention that a base was established for incorporating the victim into criminological investigations. Since this early attention, there has been increased interest in the victim of sexual offenses. Several discussions (Amir, 1971; Guc, 1961; Gebhard, et al., 1968; Gibbens and Prince, 1963; Henriques, 1961; LaFon, et al., 1961; MacDonald, 1971; Schultz, 1960; 1973) have focussed on criminal-victim relationships. In addition to these considerations, numerous studies have shown a concern for the impact of victimization on the part of the victim (Brunold, 1964; Gagnon, 1965; Halleck, 1965; Libai, 1969; Milliken, 1950; Reifen, 1958; Weiss, et al., 1955). In addition to sexual offenses, violent personal crimes have attracted considerable investigation involving a victimologi- cal perspective. Of the voluminous number of studies on homicide, Wolfgang's (1958) appears to be the most provocative. This study examined 588 cases of criminal homicide occurring between 1948 and 1952 in Philadelphia. Wolfgang explicitly distinguished between victim and offender data in terms of age, race, and sex characteristics, as well as describing the patterns of the homicide event for such factors as method of inflicting death, time and place of occurrance, the presence and influence of alcohol, and previous 11 arrest records. In addition to these, Wolfgang reports the inter- personal relationships between victims and offenders. Several later studies--Bensing and Schroeder (1960) in Cleveland, Pokorny (1965) in Houston, Schafer (1968) in Florida, Voss and Hepburn (1968) in Chicago--have sought to confirm some of Wolfgang's more general findings, and may be considered partial replications of his study. Wolfgang's investigation has also served as an impetus and point of departure for subsequent studies on personal crimes employing the same methodological designs in order to seek patterned criminal-victim relationships. Included among these investigations are Amir's (1971) study of forcible rape, Normandeau's (1968) inquiry of robbery, and Pittman and Handy's (1964) investigation of aggravated assault. A comparison of the findings of these studies indicate striking similarities, not only across crimes, but also within the specific locales investigated. In general, it may be con- cluded that crimes of personal violence (i.e., homicide, assault, and rape) are: (a) intra-racial, (b) involving persons who are relatives, friends or acquaintances rather than strangers, (c) males and non-whites showing greater involvement--both as victims and offenders, and (d) high in propinquity in that these crimes tend to involve persons who live near to each other. In addition to the Wolfgang replication line of investi- gation, several other studies of violent personal crime have contributed to the victimological perspective. Several investi- gations (Ennis, 1967; President's Commission, 1967b: 39-40; 12 Lanzkron, 1963; Morris and Blum-Cooper, 1964: 321-379; Nakata, 1963; Svalastoga, 1962) have consistently confirmed and substantiated the intricate personal interrelationships between offender and victim. Additional studies have provided further information on: (a) sex, age, and interpersonal patterns of criminal-victim relationships (Robin, 1963; Ueno and Ishiyama, 1963), (b) the psychology of the victim (MacDonald, 1961; 1971), and (c) the impact of victimization (Halleck, 1965; Kisker, 1964; Sutherland and Scherl, 1970). The crime of robbery, when considered as a violent personal offense, tends to depart from these characteristics. While more specific detail will be given to this offense in the next chapter, some of the more noted differences are that robbery: (a) tends to be more interracial (Mulvihill, et al., 1969: 213), (b) appears to be more impersonal involving more stranger—to-stranger inter— actions (Mulvihill, et al., 1969: 222; Normandeau, 1969: 130), and (c) tends to be more spatially dislocated in the sense that distances between places of robbery occurrence and offender's and/ or victim's residences are much greater than in other crimes of personal violence (Normandeau, 1968: 269-272). Many of the aforementioned inquiries have been confined to particular offenses and particular cities or jurisdictions. In an attempt to rectify this situation, and to compile a more adequate picture of the various aspects of criminal-victim relationships and situational factors involved in crime occurrences, the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (Mulvihill, et al., 1969) prepared the first national survey of offender and 13 victim patterns for four major violent crimes. This investigation collected a ten percent random sample of 1967 offense and arrest reports from 17 large United States cities. Although the design and implementation of this survey possessed certain methodological problems, it does represent a fairly accurate profile of general patterns of victim-offender interactions. Additionally, it repre- sents one of the only current sources of extensive data which can be compared to the previous investigations of individual locales. Rather than engage in a detailed reiteration of the numerous findings of the survey, the present writer has prepared a summary table of major findings (Table l) for the age, race, and sex of offenders and victims, as well as reproducing relevant data tables from the survey (Tables 2-5). While many of these findings need to be scrutinized further, one general conclusion emerges. It is noted that in each of these offenses the criminal and his victim engage in a face-to-face inter- actional scheme, which is characterized by violence or at least the threat of violence. Given this similarity, significant vari- ations become manifestly apparent. Consequently, any attempt to analyze the underlying dynamics of a particular offense must take account of the multitudinous factors that converge in the occurr- ence of that event. The results of this survey give the clear indication that the mere compilation of various characteristics of crimes of personal violence is indeed dubious. 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