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EFFECTS OF CHLORINATION 0N FLOUR RHEOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES AND ON BAKING QUALITIES 0F HIGH-RATIO
AND JAPANESE-SPONGE CAKES

presented by

Scott Thomas Worthington

has been accepted towards fulfillment
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Masters Food Science

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EFFECTS OF CHLORINATION ON FLOUR RHEOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES AND ON BAKING QUALITIES OF HIGH-RATIO
AND JAPANESE-SPONGE CAKES

BY

Scott Thomas Worthington

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition

1994

.ABSTRACT

EFFECTS OF CHLORINATION ON FLOUR RHEOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES AND ON BAKING QUALITIES OF HIGH-RATIO
AND JAPANESE-SPONGE CAKES

BY

Scott Thomas Worthington

In this study, thirteen soft wheat flour samples were
chlorinated to pH 4.8 and pH 4.3, and were analyzed for their
rheological preperties and baking potentials. Sedimentation
volumes indicated a weakening of the gluten proteins with
chlorination, and alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC)
tests showed an increase in AWRC (%) with chlorination.
Rheological tests were performed on chlorinated and
unchlorinated flours. .Alveograph. meaSurements indicated
modification to starches and proteins causing increased
resistance (P) and stability (P/L), and decreasing
extensibility (L) and elasticity (G). Farinograph
measurements showed increased.water absorption in chlorinated
flours due to modification to starch granules, and increased
peak times which also can be attributed to modifications of
the proteins and starch granules. Mixograph measurements
showed significant decreases in peak time with chlorination
which may be attributed to the constant addition of water to

treatments with increasing water absorptions. Decreases in

peak time may be due to decreases in protein strength as seen
in sedimentation volumes. Viscoamylograph measurements
indicated significant changes:to the starch components gelling
and pasting properties only when the flour was overchlorinated
(pH 4.3). The baking potentials of the flours were measured
with.high-ratio and.Japanese sponge cake formulas. IHigh-ratio
cakes had peak volume and symmetry from cakes baked from the
pH 4.8 flours. Japanese-sponge cakes produced optimum volumes
from unchlorinated flours but better symmetry was observed

from the cakes produced from chlorinated flours.

Dedicated to my parents, John and Gayle Worthington, who
have made my education possible by their continual love and

support.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere gratitude is expressed to my advisor, Dr. Perry
K.W. Ng, for his guidance throughout my research project. I
would also like to thank the members of my advisory committee,
Drs. Jerry N. Cash, Patrick L. Finney, and William C. Haines
for their interest and suggestions.

Grateful appreciation is extended to Dr. Christine J.
Bergman, Mr. Luis M. Rayas, Dr. Nirmal K. Sinha, and Mr.
Hiroshi Yamamoto for their support, guidance and technical
expertise with this research.

Finally, I would like to thank my parents, sister, and
relatives for their continual love and support throughout my

education.

THUBLE:<IF CKNTTEDTTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................ ix
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................ 8
LIST OF Appendices ........................................ xi
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................ 1
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................... 3

2.1 Introduction ...................................... 3

2.2 Chlorination Procedure and its measurement ........ 3

2.3 High-Ratio Cakes Made From Unchlorinated vs
Chlorinated Flour ................................. 5

2.4 Effect of Chlorination on Individual Flour

components ........................................ 6

2.5 Effects of Chlorination on Flour Proteins ......... 7
2.6 Effects of Chlorination on Flour Starches ........ 10
2.7 Effects of Chlorination on Flour Lipids .......... 12
2.8 Alternate Methods to Chlorination ................ 14
2.9 Rheological measurements of Chlorinated Flour....l7
2.9.1 Chopin Alveograph ......................... 17
2.9.2 Brabender Farinograph ..................... 18

2 . 9 . 3 Mixograph ................................ 20
2.9.4 Brabender‘Viscoamylograph ................. 21

2.10 Summary ......................................... 22
3. MRTERIALsihND‘METEODS .................................. 23
3.1 Materials ........................................ 23
3.1.1 Wheat Samples ............................. 23
3.1.2 Chemicals ................................. 23

vi

3.2 Methods .......................................... 23

3.2.1 Milling and Chlorination .................. 23
3.2.2 Analytical Tests .......................... 24
3.2.2.1 Flour Ash Content .................. 24
3.2.2.2 Flour Moisture Content ............. 24
3.2.2.3 Flour Protein Content .............. 24
3.2.2.4 Zeleney’Sedimentation‘volume ....... 25

3.2.2.5 Alkaline water Retention Capacity

value ................................ 25

3.2.3 Rheological Tests ......................... 25
3.2.3.1 Alveograph Test .................... 25

3.2.3.2 Parinograph Test ................... 25

3.2.3.3 Mixograph Test ..................... 25

3.2.3.4 Viscoamylograph Test ............... 25

3.2.4 Cake Baking ............................... 26
3.2.4.1 nigh-Ratio Cakes ................... 26

3.2.4.2 Japanese-Sponge Cakes .............. 26

3.2.4.3 Cake Symmetry ...................... 26

3.2.5 Statistical Analysis ...................... 26

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................. 27
4.1 Soft Wheat Flour Properties ...................... 27
4.1.1 Flour Protein Content ..................... 27
4.1.2 Flour Ash Content ......................... 27
4.1.3 Flour Moisture Content .................... 27
4.1.4 Alkaline Hater Retention (AWRC) Test ...... 29
4.1.5 Zeleney Sedimentation Volume .............. 32

vii

'0“de

4.2 Rheological Measurements of Unchlorinated and

Chlorinated flours .......................... 32

4.2.1 Alveograph Measurements ................... 32
4.2.2 Parinograph Measurements .................. 39

4 . 2 . 3 Mixograph Measurements .................... 42
4.2.4 Viscoamylograph Measurements .............. 46

4.3 Baking Results ................................... 50
4.3.1 High-Ratio Cakes .......................... 50
4.3.2 Japanese-Sponge Cakes ..................... 54

4.4 Relationship Among Technological and Baking
Data ............................................. 58
4.4.1 Correlations with high-ratio cake volumes
baked at Rooster ............................ 58
4.4.2 Correlations with high-ratio cake volumes
baked at MSU ................................ 59

4.4.3 Correlations with Japanese-sponge cake

volumes ..................................... 59
. GENERAL DISCUSSION ..................................... 61
. SUMMARY ................................................ 66
. FUTURE STUDIES ......................................... 69
. BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................... 70
. APPENDICES ............................................. 76

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Meisture, Ash and Protein Contents of 13 Control
Plours ........................................... 28

Table 2. Alkaline water Retention Capacity Measurements
(AWRC) of unchlorinated and Chlorinated Flours....36

Table 3. Zeleney Sedimentation volumes of Unchlorinated and
Chlorinated Plours ............................... 33

ix

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

LIST OF FIGURES

. Effect of chlorination on

retention capacity ........

Effect of chlorination on

volumes ...................

. Effect of chlorination on

of flour samples (average

. Effect of chlorination on

of flour samples (average

. Effect of chlorination on

of flour samples (average

. Effect of chlorination on

alkaline water

...................... 31

Zeleney sedimentation

...................... 34
alveograph measurements
of 13 samples) ........ 37
farinograph measurements
of 13 samples) ........ 41
mixograph measurements
of 13 samples) ........ 45
viscoamylograph

measurements of flour samples (average of 13

samples) ..................

. Effect of chlorination on

:measurements of flour samples (average of 13

samples) ..................
. Effect of chlorination on

measurements of flour samples (average of 13

samples) ..................

...................... 49
high-ratio cake
...................... 53
Japanese-sponge cake
...................... 57

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix I. Alveograph Measurements for Unchlorinated and
Chlorinated Flours ........................... 77
Appendix II. Farinograph Measurements for unchlorinated and
Chlorinated Flours .......................... 78
Appendix III. Mixograph Measurements for Unchlorinated and
Chlorinated Flours .......................... 79
Appendix IV. Viscoamylograph Measurements for Unchlorinated
and Chlorinated Flours ...................... 93
Appendix V. High-Ratio Cake Volumes (m1) from
Unchlorinated and Chlorinated Flours Baked at
USDA ARS ..................................... 94
Appendix VI. High-Ratio Cake Measurements from
Unchlorinated and Chlorinated Flours Baked at
Michigan State University ................... 95
Appendix VII. Japanese-Sponge Cake measurements for
Unchlorinated and Chlorinated Flours ....... 96

xi

1 . INTRODUCTION

Since the 1930's, flour chlorination has been used as a
means of improving a flour's baking potential. Treating soft
wheat flour with chlorine gas bleaches its pigments (mainly
carotenoids), lowers the pH, and chemically modifies flour
components (primarily protein, starch and lipids) thereby
allowing for the production of high quality high-ratio cakes
(Tsen and Kulp 1971). The chlorinated flour is capable of
holding high ratios of shortening and sugar without collapse
(Ngo et al. 1985). Cakes made from unchlorinated flour
collapse upon. cooling. It: is likely' that chlorination
strengthens interactions between flour components and the
other cake ingredients, thus yielding a stronger internal
structure in cakes.

A major concern with the use of chlorination is the
possible generation of carcinogenic free radicals. However,
studies by Fisher et al. (1983) and.Ginocchio and Hardy (1983)
have shown that mice and rats fed chlorinated flour over a
long period of time do not develop cancer. Nevertheless, the
suspected presence of carcinogens in chlorinated flour has .
prompted Japanese companies to discontinue (Buntoko 1969) and
the E.C. countries (except the U.K.) to ban the use of
chlorinated flour (Russo and.Doe 1970). It is likely that the

U.S. may also ban the use of chlorinated flour in the future

2
to remain competitive. A.ban would influence the quality of
cakes. Therefore, in anticipation of such a ban, alternatives
to chlorination need to be developed that produce optimum
quality cakes. The objective of this study was to
characterize the effect of degree of flour chlorination on

dough rheology and baking properties.

2. REVIEW 0? LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

Soft wheat flours for cake production are chlorinated to.
bleach a flour and improve its baking potential. However, the
effect of chlorination on the rheological properties of soft
wheat flour is not well documented“ The following will review
physicochemical changes of flour' properties due to
chlorination, and effects on major constituents of flour

(proteins, starches and lipids) due to chlorination.

2.2 Chlorination Procedure and Its Measurement

Chlorine is applied to flour by bubbling chlorine gas
through the flour with continuous agitation to ensure uniform
modification of the flour components (Wei et al 1984).
Currently, flour pH is the primary method used to measure the
extent of chlorine treatment (Ash and Colmey 1973). In the
past, the degree of chlorination was measured by the quantity
of chlorine added relative to the weight of the flour (Tsen
and Kulp 1971). However, this method is less accurate than
szmeasurement. This is because flour proteins, which.vary in
content among varieties, act as buffers against the
chlorination process (Ash and Colmey 1973). This buffering
effect causes each flour to require different levels of

chlorination to obtain the same degree of modification (Barret

4
and Sollars 1961). Flours brought to the same pH are
considered to be similar in their degree of modification
regardless of variations in their'protein content, thus making
pH a dependable measure of the degree of modification by
chlorine treatment (Hoseney 1986).

The pH drop caused by the chlorination process does not
contribute to the modification of flour components, but is
only a side effect of the chlorination process. Bennett and
Devlin (1954) demonstrated this principle by adding an
alkaline material (chalk) to treated flour, thus raising the
pH. Even in the basic pH range, improving effects of the
chlorine on flour was still evident. The pH of a flour can be
used. to :monitor the degree of’ modification, but acidic
conditions do not contribute to the specific modifications
chlorine has on the flour components.

For baking high-ratio cakes (HRCs), flour chlorinated to
a pH of 4.7-4.9 produces optimum results (Hoseney 1986). If
the flour is overchlorinated, destruction of grain texture and
symmetry of the cake occurs resulting in smaller cakes with
bitter taste (Conforti and Johnson 1992). However, cakes
baked with underchlorinated flours expand well during baking,
but shrink significantly due to insufficient hydration of the
starch granules, resulting in low volume and cake collapse
(Kissell and.Yamazaki 1974). To achieve optimal chlorination,
a compromise between expansion and contraction of the cake

during baking must be found.

2.3 High-Ratio Cakes Made From Unchlorinated
vs Chlorinated Flour

When comparing HRCs from unchlorinated and chlorinated
flours, cakes made from chlorinated flour have more desirable
color, better symmetry, higher volume, and superior internal
grain score (Tsen and Kulp 1971). These improvements are
attributed to the destruction of carotene pigments and
modification of flour components which allow for increased
batter viscosity and strong internal structure.

Volume differences between HRCs baked with chlorinated and
unchlorinated flours is not visible until the last fewnminutes
of baking or after removal from the oven, where cakes made
from unchlorinated flours shrink and collapse (Bohn 1934).
Montzheimer (1931) showed that HRCs made from.untreated flour
collapsed after removal from the oven and lacked the desired
symmetry, grain and color.

Modification of flour components allows for the production
of a cake batter with increased viscosity (Ngo et al 1985)
which is partly responsible for the improved symmetry, batter
expansion, and grain score in cakes. A higher viscosity
allows the batter to entrap more air bubbles without the
formation of large air pockets in the cake's grain. In the
less viscous, untreated batters, the batter is not viscous
enough to keep air bubbles separate in small pockets, which

can allow for formation of large air pockets (Yamazaki and

6
Kissell 1978). Ngo and co-workers (1985) demonstrated that
batters from chlorine-treated flours had much higher
viscosities than batters from unchlorinated flours at 100%:.
Kissell and Yamazaki (1974) found that batter expansion for
flour chlorinated with low levels of chlorine was superior to
that for unchlorinated flour. Higher batter viscosities from
chlorinated flours allow for the production of HRCs that do

not rise excessively or collapse in the pan (Ngo et a1 1985).

2.4 Effect of Chlorination on Individual Flour Components

Chlorine-treated flour has improved cake-baking potential
due to modification of flour components (Tsen and Kulp 1971).
Alterations imposed on flour by chlorination include the
following: decreased water activity, increased hydrophobicity,
and increased oil and. water binding of starch. These
chlorine-induced alterations allow the flour components to
interact with each other enabling the flour to produce HRCs
with improved grain scores and stronger internal structures.

Immediately upon treatment with chlorine, the natural
pigments present in flour are destroyed (Hanson 1932). Flour
pigments are carotenoids, which consist mainly of
xanthophylls. These pigments give flour a creamy yellow
color, and are easily bleached by chlorine (Hoseney 1986) . It

appears that chlorine oxidizes some of the bonds in the

7
carotenoid pigment structure. This oxidation causes a
disruption of the conjugated bonds responsible for color in
the pigments. Pigment loss does not appear to have an effect
on the baking properties of treated flour; however, pigment
destruction does produce a white flour, which some consumers
find appealing.

Chlorine action also depolymerizes starch and gluten
chains of flour (Haung et a1 1982), facilitating changes in
the properties of the flour components. .Alterations to starch
granules and their surface proteins, along with modifications
to the gluten proteins are believed to be key contributors to
the improvement of HRCs. Modifications and interactions of
major flour components (proteins, starches and lipids) will be

discussed in detail in the following sections.

2.5 Effects of Chlorination on Flour Proteins

There are two major types of flour proteins: gluten
proteins and starch granule proteins. Both types of proteins
can be modified by flour chlorination (Haung et a1 1982).
Gluten molecules in the flour can be oxidatively depolymerized
by chlorine (Haung et a1 1982). In addition, this
depolymerization promotes the formation of more hydrophobic
entities on the surface of the starch granule (Seguchi 1985).

Chlorine molecules appear to attack the aromatic amino
acids cysteine and methionine on the protein chains in the

flour (Ewart 1968). A.study by Tsen and Kulp (1971) has shown

8

that sulfhydryl groups are oxidized by chlorine. Their work
has also demonstrated an increase in water-soluble proteins
(albumins) after chlorine treatment, and a slight decrease in
proteins soluble in acetic acid (glutens). Gliadins and
glutenins, which are the two main subgroups that make up
gluten proteins, were not studied individually in their work.
Further research is required to clarify how these two groups
are individually affected by chlorination. Chlorine treatment
causes significant changes in free proteins of flour, but the
role of these proteins during baking is presently unclear.

Donelson (1988) produced.HRCs from flours (chlorinated to
pH 4.8) that had the gluten removed, with no loss in volume
compared to volumes of cakes produced from flour with gluten.
Gluten was extracted from the flour and the flour was then
baked using the Kissel lean formula (Kissell 1959), which
contains no eggs or milk, eliminating all protein sources from
the ingredients. .According to their results, gluten proteins
were not required to produce HRCs of volumes similar to ones
produced by flour containing gluten. Further research is
required to clarify the role of gluten and its subunits in the
production of HRCs.

On the surface of starch granules there are low to medium
molecular weight proteins (Sulaiman and. Morrison 1990).
Chlorine is thought to modify these proteins, bringing about
changes that are beneficial in HRC production. Greenwell and

co-workers (1985) used amyloglucosidase to demonstrate that

9

chlorine altered these surface proteins. Chlorinated and
unchlorinated starch was exposed to amyloglucosidase and the
progress of enzymatic degradation was observed.using scanning
electron microscopy. Results indicated a lack of pitting in
chlorinated starch granules, while untreated starch granules
were pitted. They hypothesized that the protein layer, after
it had been modified by chlorination, formed a protective
layer around the starch granule.

A study by Seguchi (1985) helped clarify the changes that
occurred to these proteins by demonstrating that certain amino
acids on surface proteins of starch granules were modified by
chlorination, causing them to become more hydrophobic. To
detect increases in hydrophobicity, glass beads were coated
with gelatin which has the same strong oil-binding ability as
starch. when chlorinated. 1x; was determined that these
proteins produced a thin water-insoluble hydrophobic layer
after chlorination which would account for the increase in
surface hydrophobicity. Using paper chromatography, new and
more hydrophobic derivatives of lysine, tyrosine, and cystine
were shown to be produced by chlorination. Seguchi (1985)
attributed this increase in hydrophobicity to chlorine
molecules binding to these amino acids. It can be deduced
that the increase in hydrophobicity of starch granules can.be
attributed partially to the modification of these amino acids.

Seguchi (1990) observed via X-ray fluorescence that the

amount of starch-granule surface jproteins increased.‘with

10
chlorination. The additional proteins are thought to come
from the other chlorinated non-starch wheat proteins. The
increase in the amount of surface proteins and hydrophobicity
of the starch granule may allow it to complex with other
lipids and proteins in the flour resulting in stabilization of

cake batter during baking (Kulp et a1 1972).

2.6 Effects of Chlorination on Flour Starches
Starch is the most prevalent component in flour.
Modification of starch by chlorine is believed to play a role
in improved batter expansion, increased.batter viscosity, and
improved structure of HRCs (Variano-Marston 1985) . Starch
that has been treated with chlorine swells to a greater extent
than untreated starch (Hoseney 1986). Before chlorine
treatment, the starch granules are dense crystalline
structures with amorphous regions and folds. Chlorine acts on
the surface by oxidizing the starch which causes the granule
to open up (Variano-Marston 1985), and modifying its surface
proteins to more hydrophobic entities (Seguchi 1985). Newly
opened spaces in the starch granule allow water to enter and
hydrogen bond with starch chains, allowing for increased water
uptake and improved HRC baking properties.
One mechanism explaining how chlorination depolymerizes
the starch granule was postulated by Haung et al (1982) who
studied the site of oxidative depolymerization on the starch

chain. In an aqueous slurry of flour and water, oxidation of

11

Deglucosidic carbons C2 and C3 occurred, resulting in ring
openings and transformation of these carbon atoms into
carbonyl groups. This experiment was done in aqueous
conditions, while flour chlorination occurs in semi-dry
conditions (Uchino and Whistler 1962). Therefore, Haung and
co-workers (1982) performed a second chlorination test in
semi-dry conditions (13% moisture), and compared their results
with previous data. Under semi-dry conditions, practically no
oxidation occurred on C2 and C3, but extensive
depolymerization occurred as the glycosidic bonds were cleaved
by the chlorine. These conditions produced D-glucose and D-
gluconic acids, both as free molecules. Formation.of reducing
sugars D—glucose and D-gluconic acid on the ends of
carbohydrate chains could possibly act as cross-linking agents
in the internal structures found in HRC.

Chlorination also results in increased surface
hydrophobicity of starch granules (Seguchi 1987). Seguchi
(1985) attributed this increase in hydrophobicity to
alterations of proteins on the surface of the starch granules
(see section 2.4) . Hydrophobicity has been linked to a
material's ability to hold air bubbles. Research conducted by
Tomie and Okubu (1984) demonstrated that the bubble-catching
ability of materials such as cotton, silk, acryl,
polyvinylchloride, and nylon increased with hydrophobicity.
Seguchi (1987) applied this work to cake batters. Different

levels of chlorinated prime starch were made into a slurry

12
with isoamyl alcohol. Bubble volume and stability increased
with increased chlorination rates. Unchlorinated starch was

unable to produce comparable results.

2.7 Effects of Chlorination on Flour Lipids

Chlorinated lipids, like the other components mentioned,
are believed to play a role in the improvements facilitated by
chlorinated flour in HRCs (Donelson et al 1984). Chlorinated
lipids have been linked to smoother batter, improved gas
retention, greater batter expansion, and larger volumes with
fine cell structure (Kissel et al 1977). Gough et al (1978)
proposed that chlorine gas reacts with lipids by addition
reactions rather than direct oxidation, because research by
Gracza (1959) and EMBRA (1970) provide no experimental
evidence for oxidation” The exact.mechanism is unknown due to
the numerous end products that can be produced by lipid
oxidation (EMBRA 1970).

Donelson.et a1 (1984) performed reconstitution tests with
extracted lipids to demonstrate the effects of lipids on cake
volume. Hexane was used to extract the lipids from
chlorinated and unchlorinated flours, leaving defatted or base
flours. High-ratio cakes baked from these base flours were
small andhad sunken contours indicating that lipids were
required, at least in part, for cake baking improvement to be
seen. When unchlorinated lipids were added to unchlorinated

and chlorinated base flours, no improvement in cake volume was

13
seen. However, when chlorinated lipids were added to
unchlorinated and chlorinated base flours, cakes with improved
volumes and contours were produced. These results indicate
chlorinated lipids play a role in the improved volume
witnessed for HRCs baked from chlorinated flour in comparison
to cakes baked from unchlorinated flour.

A variation of this type of experiment was performed
earlier by Kissel and co-workers (1979) to determine the
importance of the presence of lipids in the flour at the time
of chlorination. When flours were chlorinated to pH of 5.2,
4.8, and 4.0, cake volume was found to improve with increasing
chlorination until overchlorination occurred (pH 4.0). In
reconstitution tests, lipids chlorinated to pH 5.2 and 4.8 and
untreated flours were placed in pH 4.0 base flour. The baking
potential of the flour improved as the chlorinated lipids were
added. The greatest baking improvements were observed when
lipids were reconstituted with the base flours in which they
were chlorinated with, indicating that the best baking ability
for chlorinated flour occurs when lipids and other flour
components have all been uniformly modified.

Heat treatment of lipids as an alternate method to
chlorination was explored by Clements and Donelson (1982).
Lipids were extracted from unchlorinated flour and were heated
at 100°C for various periods of time. When heat-treated
lipids were added to chlorinated base flour, baking tests

yielded cakes with volumes that were equivalent to chlorinated

14

control flour. However, when heat-treated lipids were added
to unchlorinated.base flour, collapse occurred in cakes after
baking; These results indicated that heat treatment of lipids
alters them allowing improved baking potential to cakes, but
only if the other components have also been chlorinated.

Lipid modification by chlorination plays a key role in the
improvement seen in cakes baked from chlorinated flour. The
exact mechanism for lipid modification by chlorine gas is
still unknown. Research has shown that lipid modification, in
addition. to :modification. of the other flour components,
contributes to improved baking potential in HRCs baked from

chlorinated flours.

2.8 Alternate Methods to Chlorination

Two directions can be taken to find.alternate methods for
chlorination. The first approach is to study the mechanisms
of flour chlorination and find a way to mimic the action of
chlorine on flour components. The other is to reformulate the
methods for HRCs so that they will be able to maintain their
volumes after baking without the use of chlorinated flour; .At
the present time, no adequate reformulation method has been
reported. ‘Various researchers have tried aging (Clements and
Donelson 1982), heat treatment (Russo and Doe 1970), and use
of other oxidizing agents (Terada et al 1982) to modify flour
allowing them to bake cakes that are able to hold high ratios

of sugar and shortening without collapse. All of these

15
ventures met with some success, but none has been implemented
in commercial milling of cake flour. This lack of change can
be attributed to the fact that the industry currently is
geared toward the use of chlorinated flour, and there are no
strong forces pushing for change.

It is known that aging of flour produces cakes of quality
similar to chlorinated flour (Hanson 1932). Exposure to air
for extended periods of time allows atmospheric oxygen to
depolymerize the flour components. In experiments by Clements
and Donelson (1982), flour aged for nine to fourteen weeks at
room temperature was compared to chlorinated flour. Cakes
baked from aged flour exhibited expansions that were
equivalent, if not greater, than the chlorinated controls.
Studies by Seguchi (1993) indicate that aging a flour (202
days at 25W3) resulted in a 3- to 4-fold increase in starch-
granule surface proteins in comparison to the control samples.
These results are similar to those of chlorinated starch-
granule proteins by Seguchi (1990).

This aging process, however, is not practical for
industrial use. Chlorinated flour produces a desirable flour
relatively quickly, which is necessary in the fluctuating
market facing today's baking companies. This advantage would
be lost if companies had to wait for their flour to age. It
is not feasible for companies to set aside space in order to
store flour for three :months while it slowly’ oxidizes.

Furthermore this would allow time for molds and pests such as

 

16
insects and rodents to contaminate the flour.

Heat treatment of flour is another alternative to
chlorination. Russo and Doe (1970) used heated air to bring
flour to 120°C which produced cakes that were superior to
cakes baked from unchlorinated flour. Use of heated air
increases the rate of oxidation, bringing about modification
of the flour at a faster rate than aging. This method has
potential for industrial use.

Gaseous ammonia as a chemical agent (to facilitate
oxidation of the flour components) was used by Terada and co-
workers (1982). Flour was placed in a desiccator containing
aqueous ammonia for 48-76 hours. Flour from this treatment
produced cake batters with increased viscosity and lower
specific gravity than batters from untreated flours, and
produced cakes with more uniform textures. However, cake
volumes from ammonia-treated flours were no better than cake
volumes produced from untreated flours. More work is required
to determine if ammonia treatment is an acceptable alternative
to chlorination relative to the quality of cakes produced and
the possible health problems caused by ammonia treatment.

The alternate methods mentioned above have had some
success in producing flour with properties similar to
chlorinated flour, but have failed to be implemented by the
industry. Use of those alternative methods seems to be
prevented by time, money, and inferior results. More research

is required to work out the problems associated with these

17

alternate treatments.

2.9 Rheological Measurements of Chlorinated Flour

Chlorination alters the rheological properties of a flour,
thereby giving it different characteristics. Instruments such
as the alveograph, farinograph, mixograph, and Viscoamylograph
are currently used to evaluate the characteristics of flour
for industrial use. The effects of different degrees of
chlorination have not been studied to a great extent, but the
use of these instruments may help to better clarify the effect

chlorination has on flour rheology.

2.9.1 Chopin Alveograph

 

The Chopin alveograph.measures the extent to which a disk
of dough can be expanded as a bubble under pressure. Air
pressure is applied to a piece of dough which is expanded in
all directions (this is different than the uniaxial stretching
of'a Brabender farinograph) until it ruptures. Several values
are used from the alveogram to determine the characteristics
of the dough tested. Overpressure (P) is the maximum height
of the alveogram multiplied by a factor of 1.1. This
measurement has been criticized because the maximum height can
vary from inconsistencies in the dough thickness (Hlynka and
Barth 1955). Despite this criticism.the P value is still used
as an indicator of resistance to deformation by dough (AACC

1990, method 54-30).

18

The L value is the average length of the five curves on
the alveogram.from.when the inflation began until the rupture
of the bubble. From the L value, extensibility of a dough can
be determined (Faridi and Rasper 1987). The P value divided
by the L value yields a ratio which indicates the stability of
the dough (Nemeth 1993). The G value is the square root of
the volume of air needed to rupture the dough. This
measurement has been used to indicate the degree of
springiness and shortness of the dough (Nemeth 1993). The W
value represents the amount of energy required to inflate the
dough until it ruptures (Chopin 1927). This value was derived
from. the area. under the curve (S). The alveograph is
primarily'used in the characterization of soft wheat flours in

North America and of bread wheat flours in Europe.

2.9.2 Brabender Farinograph

 

The Brabender farinograph measures the mixing properties
of a flour. Resistance of a dough to mixing is measured by
two Z-shaped paddles, producing a curve from.which the mixing
potential of a dough can be determined. The following
describes parameters obtained from a farinogram and their
possible relationship to flour properties.

Optimum.water absorption for a flour is determined by the
percentage of water needed to produce a maximum resistance at
500 Brabender units (BU). This value is near the amount of

water needed to develop optimum consistency of the dough for

19
bread baking and tends to increase with increasing protein
content in the flour (Shuey 1984a).

Arrival time is the time required, to the nearest half
minute, for the top of the curve to reach the 500 BU line from
the first addition of water. This measures the rate at which
the flour can take up water; generally a decrease in arrival
time is associated with an increase in protein content (by
variety) of the flour (Shuey 1984b). IPeak time (dough
development time) is the amount of time, to the nearest half
minute, needed to reach.maximum consistency starting from the
addition of water. This measurement has been correlated with
the crude protein content of the flour by Merkley and co-
workers (1939) and indicates the relative strength of the
flour (Pyler 1988).

Stability of a dough is determined by measuring the time
from when the curve first climbs above the 500 BU line until
the curve goes below the 500 BU line, to the nearest half
minute. This value gives a good indication of a flour's
tolerance to mixing (Shuey 1984b). Departure time is the
time, to the nearest half minute, from the addition of water
to when the top of the curve drops below the 500 BU line.
Generally, the longer the departure time the stronger the
flour (Shuey 1984b).

Mixing tolerance index (MTI) is the difference in BU from
the middle of the curve at the peak resistance to the middle

of the curve five minutes later. Flours with good tolerance

20
to mixing have low MTIs while the converse is true for weaker
flours. Breakdown time of a dough is measured from the
addition of water until the curve drops 30 BU below the BU
value at maximum consistency. This value is an indicator of
the dough strength. A low breakdown value indicates a weak
dough while a stronger flour will have a higher breakdown
time. Use of this value has been criticized because it can

vary greatly between operators (Shuey 1984a).

2 . 9 . 3 Mixograph

The mixograph measures a dough's resistance to mixing. A
curve is produced which allows for the determination of dough
characteristics. Measurements which can be read from the
mixogram are: peak time (the time required for dough to reach
optimum development), tolerance (width of the curve after two
minutes of mixing), stability (time curve above the center
line), and peak height (maximum height at the center of the
curve). Finney and Yamazaki (1967) were able to predict
optimal mixing time, loaf volume, oxidative requirement, and
water absorption with the mixograph. Protein content of the
flour appears to have the maximum effect in determining the
mixograph pattern (Johnson.and.Swanson 1946). The sensitivity
of this instrument is low, allowing it to aid in
classifications of flours where fine distinctions are not

required (Johnson and Swanson 1946).

21

2.9.4 Brabender‘Viscoamylggggph

The Viscoamylograph measures changes in a flour's
viscosity and pasting properties during prolonged heating.
Viscoamylograph readings can detect compositional changes in
starch granules, such as hydrogen bond.breakage, by measuring
changes in ‘the flour's gelatinization. properties (Rasper
1980). Peak.viscosity'is the point where maximum viscosity is
reached during heating regardless of temperature. This value
is important because it determines the minimum cooking
temperature in order to reach a useable consistency (Tipples
1980). Breakdown viscosity is measured after the paste has
been held at 95%: for 30 minutes. This value indicates the
stability of the starch during cooking (Tipples 1980).
Setback value is the difference between the peak viscosity and
breakdown viscosity. This value reflects the retrogradation
potential of the flour (Tipples 1980). Setback viscosity is
the viscosity measurement after the paste has been held at
50°C for 30 minutes. This value can be used as an indicator
of the stability of the paste (Pomeranz 1987). Setback is the
difference between the setback viscosity and peak viscosity.
Total setback is the difference between the setback viscosity

and peak viscosity.

22
2.10 Summary

Chlorine treatment chemically alters flour components
through oxidation, imparting on them the ability to produce
HRCs with desirable color, symmetry, and texture that does not
collapse after baking. The process of chlorination could be
discontinued in the U.S. as it has already been in most
industrialized countries of the world due to the possible
presence of carcinogens in the flour. Such a ban would be
especially detrimental to cakes baked in the U.S. because
Americans desire high levels of sugar and shortening in their
cakes. High levels of sugar and shortening require strong
internal cake structure to prevent collapse. Presently, only
flour modified. by chlorination can produce an internal
structure strong enough to provide satisfactory results.
Currently, alternative methods to chlorination are being
developed with the hope that these methods can produce flours
and cakes with properties that mimic those of chlorinated
flours and cakes. However, a practical alternative has not
yet been developed, and it is unlikely one will be, until the
basis for chlorination's positive effect on cake-baking
potential is uncovered. Thus, there is a need for more
research in the area of chlorination so that mechanisms of

flour chlorination can be better understood.

3 . MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials
3.1.1 Wheat Sample!

Thirteen wheat samples from the 1992 and 1993 crops were
used in this study. The nine varieties of the 1992 crop were
Western-grown Club (Crew and Rely), Eastern Soft White
(Frankenmuth) , Western Soft White (Kmor and Lewjain) , and
Eastern Soft Red (Caldwell, Clark, Dynasty, and Excel). The
four varieties of the 1993 were Club (Tres), Western Soft
White (Lewjain) , Eastern Soft White (Frankenmuth) , and Eastern
Soft Red (Dynasty) . These varieties provided a broad range of

genetic variability.

3.1.2 Chemicals

All were of reagent grade or better.

3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Milling and.Chlorination
The wheat samples were milled and chlorinated at the
USDA, ARS Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory (SWQL) in Wooster,
Ohio. To ensure the wheat samples were not sprouted, alpha-
amylase activity of each sample was determined according to
AACC 22-06 by personnel from SWQL. .All 13 samples were sound

(data not shown). Grain was cleaned using a Carter dockage

23

24
tester. After cleaning, the moisture content of wheat was
determined according to AACC 44-15A (1990). The wheat was
then tempered to 15% moisture basis (mb) using the moisture
content data. The wheat was milled in a Miag mill with a 45%
extraction rate. A.portion of each flour was set aside to be
used as an unchlorinated control, and two additional samples

were chlorinated to pH 4.8 and 4.3 i 0.1 according to (Kissell

and Marshal 1972) by personnel from SWQL. A reactor box
chlorinator (modified Wallace and Tiernan Laboratory
Demonstrator) was used to chlorinate the flour. Low amounts
of Rely pH 4.3 flour samples prevented its characterization

with farinograph and Viscoamylograph.

3.2.2 Analytical tests
3.2.2.1 Flour Ash Content

Flour ash content (14% moisture basis) was determined
according to the AACC Approved Method (method 08-01, AACC
1990).

3.2.2.2 Flour Mbisture Content

Flour moisture content (14% moisture basis) was determined
according to the AACC Approved Method (method 44-15, AACC
1990).

3.2.2.3 Flour Protein Content

Protein Content was determined by micro-Kjeldahl according

25
to the AACC Approved Method (method 46-13, AACC 1990) .

3.2.2.4 Zeleney Sedimentation Volume
Zeleney Sedimentation Volume was determined according to

the AACC Approved Method (method 56-61A, AACC 1990) .

3.2.2.5 Alkaline Water Retention Capacity
Alkaline water retention capacity was determined according

to the AACC Approved Method (method 56-10, AACC 1990) .

3.2.3 Rheological Tests
3.2.3.1 Alveograph Test

Alveography was performed according to AACC Approved
Method (method 54-30, AACC 1990) .

3.2.3.2 Farinograph Test
Farinography was performed according to AACC Approved

Method (method 54-21, AACC 1990) .

3.2.3.3 Mixograph Test
Mixography was performed according to AACC Approved Method
(method 54-40, AACC 1990) .

3 . 2 . 3 . 4 Viscoamylograph Test

Viscoamylography was performed according to AACC Approved

26
Method (method 22-10, AACC 1990).

3.2.4 Baking Tests

3.2.4.1 High-ratio Cakes
The high-ratio cakes were baked according to AACC Approved
Method (method 10-90, AACC 1990).

3.2.4.2 Japanese-sponge cakes
The Japanese-sponge cakes were baked according to Nagao et

al (1976).
3.2.4.3 Cake Symmetry
The symmetries of cakes were measured according to AACC

Approved Method (method 10-90, AACC 1990).

3.2.5 Statistical Analyses

 

In this study, determinations were made from the mean of
13 flour samples. For cakes, each variety was baked in
duplicate and results averaged, while singular measurements
for each sample were taken for rheological measurements.
Mean, standard deviation, one factor ANOVA, and correlation
were doneusing SuperANOVA software (Berkeley, CA). Mean
separations were performed using Fisher protected LSD with

mean square error term at 5% level of probability.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Soft Wheat Flour Properties

4.1.1 Flour Protein Content

The flour' protein contents, as determined. by' micro-
Kjeldahl, of the 13 samples used in this study ranged from 6.6
to 8.7% (Table 1). This protein range of flour is suitable
for products such as cakes and cookies. These products made
from soft wheat flour have greater tenderness, softer texture
and a more uniform internal structure than when made from hard

wheat flour (Montzheimer 1931, Hoseney et a1 1988).

4.1.2 Flour Ash Content

 

The ash content of the flour samples analyzed ranged from
0.27 to 0.40% (Table 1). This is within the acceptable ash

content range (0.36:: 0.04%) for a typical cake flour (Pyler

1988).

4.1.3 Flour Meisture Content

 

The moisture content of the flour samples ranged from 12.0
to 13.9% (Table 1). Moisture contents of good quality flours
at acceptable extraction rates (70-75%) are usually'within the
13-15% range. very damp flour (>14.5% moisture) will not
store well for more than a week or two due to increased
microbial activity. Flours around 13% moisture content have

better storage properties under cool dry conditions (Manley 1991) .

27

28

Table 1. Ash, Moisture and Protein Contents of 13 Control Flour Samples

 

 

 

Variety Ash" Moisture Protein"
(96) (96) (96)
lFall 1992
Rely 0.40 12.4 8.2
Crew 0.39 12.0 7.2
Kmor 0.37 12.2 7.8
Lewiain 0.39 12.2 7.9
Dynasty 0.30 12.2 7.5
Excel 0.30 12.4 7.3
Caldwell 0.30 12.4 6.7
Clark 0.36 12.3 7.3
Frankenmuth 0.40 12.2 8.2
IFail 1993
Tres 0.39 13.4 8.7
Lewjain 0.28 13.9 8.1
Dynasty 0.27 13.9 7.9
Frankenmuth 0.29 13.9 6.6

 

 

 

* based on 14% moisture content

 

29
4.1.4 Alkaline water Retention Capacity

The alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) measures the
amount of alkaline water held by flour at 14% moisture basis
after centrifugation and is expressed as percent of flour
weight (AACC 1990). It is a predictive test of general soft
wheat quality. In this study, AWRC of flour samples analyzed
ranged from 50.2 to 60.5% (Table 2). Two different trends
appear between the 1992 and 1993 crops, however in this study,
variations from.chlorine treatment were the focus rather than
varietal or environment differences. Yamazaki (1953) tested
the cookie-baking potential of soft wheat flours with AWRC
values from 40 to 60%. Optimum cookie baking was obtained
from flours closer to 50% AWRC. The relation of AWRC to the
cake-baking quality of a soft wheat flour has not been studied
extensively in the literature. Low water absorption is an
important quality factor of soft wheat flour since water
absorption affects dough and batter viscosity during baking
(Gaines 1986).

Results of AWRC demonstrated significant differences (F=
9.68, p<0.05) between the pH 4.3 flour and the other flour
treatments (Figure l). The .AWRC ‘values increased.‘with
increasing chlorine treatment, indicating that flour pH may

have an influence on AWRC.

Table 2. Alkaline Water Retention Capacity (AWRC) of Unchlorinated and

30

Chlorinated Flours‘

 

 

 

 

 

AWRC (96)
Variety Control pH 4.8 pH 4.3

Flour Flour Flour

lFall 1992
Rely 53.4 54.8 58.3
Crew 52.2 55.5 58.8
Kmor 55.0 57.9 61.0
Lewjain 55.0 57.9 61.2
Dynasty 54.4 55.1 57.6
Excel 55.3 54.9 56.5
Caldwell 56.2 56.8 61.2
Clark 52.5 55.3 57.3
Frankenmuth 50.2 56.0 56.7

IFall 1993
Tres 60.5 54.2 58.0
Lewjain 58.8 56.5 60.0
Dynasty 57.2 55.6 57.0
Frankenmuth 56.5 55.6 56.6

 

* based on 14% moisture content

 

mac (s)

31

 

 

 

Control Ill 4.! pH 4.3

Treatment

to 1. Eitsotr oi chlorination on slksllns wstor rstsntllon on

u
FARGIV NC) at ilo rssmplss aver sou oi 13s on p.los)
Illsrsnl toilets are slgnlicsntly dliisrsnt. at tho 616v svus.

'rsofly

32

4.1.5 Zeleney Sedimentation Volume

 

The Zeleney sedimentation test measures sedimentation

volume (predominantly swollen protein and occluded starch) of
flour in dilute acetic acid (AACC 1990).
It reflects gluten strength of the tested flours. Values (in
m1) vary from three for very'weak wheat to seventy or more for
very strong wheat (Halverson and Zeleney 1988) . In this
study, sedimentation volumes for flours analyzed ranged from
10.0 to 26.0 ml (Table 3). These values are typical for soft
wheat flours (Halverson and Zeleney 1988).

Significant differences (F= 6.09, p<0.05) were observed
between.the control and.chlorinated flours, but no significant
differences were observed between the pH 4.3 and pH 4.8 flours
(Figure 2) . The control values were significantly higher than
the chlorinated. flour values suggesting that the gluten

strengths of the flours were reduced by chlorination.

4.2 Rheological Properties of Unchlorinated
and Chlorinated Flours

4.2.1 Alveograph Measurements

In this study, alveograph measurements for control, pH
4.8, and pH 4.3 flour samples ranged, respectively, as
follows: the resistance to deformation values (P) ranged from
21.3 to 44.4 mm, 31.1 to 75.8 mm, and 53.3 to 103.7 mm; the
extensibility (L) from 69.5 to 118.1 mm, 46.9 to 87.8 mm, and
22.2 to 47.2 mm; the stability (P/L) from 0.11 to 0.44, 0.36

33

Table 3. Zeleney Sedimentation Volumes of Unchlorinated and Chlorinated

 

 

 

FIours‘
Sedimentation Volume (ml)
Variety Control pH 4.3 pH 4.8
Flour Flour Flour
IFB" 1992
Rely 17.0 14.7 14.7
Crew 12.5 11.7 11.7
Kmor 26.0 16.7 18.4
Lewjain 21.3 16.4 14.7
Dynasty 16.5 9.6 12.0
Excel 16.0 10.0 10.0
Caldwell 16.0 12.7 14.2
Clark 15.3 12.2 12.5
Frankenmuth 21.0 15.6 15.5
Fall 1993
Tres 10.0 9.5 9.5
Lewjain 21.3 14.5 16.5
Dynasty 17.0 10.5 12.5
Frankenmuth 10.5 9.0 9.0

 

 

 

* based on 14% moisture content

 

Ssdlmsnlatlon volalns (uni)

 

34

 

 

Control pH 48 pH 4.8

Trsstmsnt

Floors 2. Eiisct oi chlorination on ssllllnsntatlon volumes oi
ilour samples (svsrsgs oi 13 ssntplss). Values with dilisrsnt
Isttsrs a a significantly diilsrsnt at tho 5% lsvsl.

35
to 1.59, and 1.14 to 3.71; the swelling index (G) from 18.5 to
30.4 ml, 15.2 to 22.7 ml, and 10.8 to 15.5 ml; areas under the
curve (S) from 6.5 to 19.1 cmz, 11.4 to 21.0 cm2, and 15.7 to
2.5 cm2; and work of deformation (W) from 42.5 to 127.5, 58.9
to 137.3, and 49.7 to 163.7 Joules. Alveograph measurements
for individual flour varieties are listed in Appendix I.

Alveograph results indicate significant differences
(p<0.05) for P, L, P/L and G values for each flour treatment.
These :measurements primarily reflect the effect of
chlorination in protein and starch components of flour; There
may be oxidation of the sulfhydryl groups of the proteins
(Bushuk and Hlynka 1962) and modification of the starch
granules (Preston et al 1987).

The P values indicated significant differences (F=37.41,
p<0.05) among all three flour treatments (Figure 3A), with the
P values increasing with the degree of chlorination,
indicating an increase in the dough's resistance to
deformation with the degree of chlorination. The L values
were significantly'different (F=57.33, p<0.05) among all three
treatments (Figure 3B) with the L value significantly
decreasing as the degree of chlorination increased, indicating
a loss in the dough's extensibility as the degree of
chlorination increased. This increase in resistance and
decrease in extensibility could be attributed to the oxidation
of sulfhydryl groups by the chlorine and to modification of
the starch. Bushuk and Hlynka (1962) have shown that the

36

Figure 3. Effect of chlorination on alveograph measurements of
flour samples (average of 13 samples); A= resistance to
deformation (P), B= extensibility (L), C= stability (P/L), D=
swelling index (G), E= area (S), F= work of deformation (W);
values with the same letter are not significantly different

from each other at the 5% level.

37

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mgr.“ "”3 emu pli4.8 plus
Treatment
3 - 40 ~
0 . o
2 ..
._l
E
1 _ b
a
o _
cane pli4.8 plus Gum plus plus
Trestrnsnt Treatment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Carmel pit“ p114: Mel pit“ pH4.8
Treatment Treatment

Figure 3

38

addition of an oxidizing agent to hard wheat oxidized the
sulfhydryl groups, increasing' the dough's resistance and
decreasing its extensibility. Research by Preston and co-
workers (1987) has shown that damaged starch, which may be
similar to chlorinated starch in structural depolymerization,
causes increases in the dough's resistance (P) and decreases
in its extensibility (L).

The P/L and.G values are indicators of’a dough's stability
and swelling index, respectively; The P/L ratios were
significantly different (F=54.46, p<0.05) among flour
treatments (Figure 3C). This value increased significantly
(p<0.05) as the degree of chlorination increased, indicating
that the dough's stability increased with chlorine treatment.
Preston and co-workers (1987), however, reported that this
value decreased with increased starch damage. This
discrepancy in the literature may be due to modification of
the flour proteins by chlorination which did not occur in
Preston and co-workers (1987) damaged starch study.

The C values decreased significantly (F=67.16, p<0.05) as
the degree of chlorination increased (Figure 3D). The
decrease in G values suggests a loss of dough extensibility
with chlorination (Kent-Jones and Amos 1967). Preston and
co-workers (1987) found. that increased starch damage or
decreased water absorption (section 4.2.2) would result in
lower' G ‘values; both. of these were seen in results of

chlorinated flours in this study.

39

No significant differences (p<0.05) were seen among the
flour treatments for S (Figure 3E) and W (Figure 3F) values.
Both of these values increased as the degree of chlorination
increased.

The above results from alveograph measurements indicate
that chlorination affected properties of the flour proteins
and. starches resulting' in increased. stability, increased
resistance and decreased extensibility of cake dough with

increased chlorine treatment.

4.2.2 Farinograph Measurements

In this study, farinograph measurements for control, pH
4.8, and ij 4.3 flour samples ranged, respectively, as
follows: the water absorption from 48.3 to 54.2%, 48.5 to
55.9%, and 49.3 to 57.0%,- the peak time from 0.7 to 2.0
minutes, 0.2 to 1.5 minutes, and 1.0 to 1.5 minutes; the
stability from.1.4 to 9.2 minutes, 1.1 to 3.3 minutes, and 1.4
to 2.8 minutes; and.the mixing tolerance index from.100 to 210
BU, 50 to 210 BU, and 75 to 210 BU. Measurements for
individual flour varieties are listed in Appendix II.

Water absorption values increased significantly (F=14.63,
p<0.05) between the control and chlorinated flours (Figure
4A). Farrand (1964) reported that damaged starch can absorb
much more water than undamaged starch. It is likely that

chlorination affected starch components in a similar way.

40

Figure 4. Effect of chlorination on farinograph measurements
of flour samples (average of 13 samples); A: water
absorption, B= peak time, C= stability, D= mixing tolerance;
values with the same letter are not significantly different

from each other at the 5% level.

Absorption (96)

Stability (minutes)

41

 

 

 

 

Peak Time (minutes)

 

 

 

 

Control pH 4.3 pH 4.3 °°“"°' P” 4-3 P" 4-3

Treatment Treatment

 

 

 

 

Tolerance (BU)

 

 

 

 

Control 9H 43 PH 43 Control pH 4.8 pH 43

Treatment Treatment

Figure 4

42
The results of this study are in agreement with Hoseney (1986)
who reported an increase in water uptake by chlorinated starch
granules.

Pyler (1988) correlated. peak. time values with flour
protein strength of a flour . In this study, peak time values
were significantly different (F= 2.45, p<0.05) between the
control flour and pH 4.3 flour (Figure 4B); the pH 4.8 flour
was not significantly different (p<0.05) from the
other two treatments. Meredith and Bushuk (1962) observed
that oxidizing agents increase the time required to reach
farinograph peak time in hard wheat. They postulated that the
increase was due to the oxidation of sulfhydryl groups by the
oxidizing agent. No significant difference (p<0.05) was
observed for stability (Figure 4C) and tolerance (Figure 4D)
among the flours. However, the stability showed a decreasing
trend with increasing chlorination, while the tolerance data

showed no trends at all.

4.2.3 Maph Measurements

In this study; mixograph measurements for control, pH 4.8,
and.pH 4.3 flour samples ranged, respectively, as follows: the
peak time from.1.1 to 5.1 minutes, 0.8 to 4.2 minutes, and 0.5
to 4.5 minutes; the peak height from 30 to 50 mm, 31 to 47 mm,
and.32 to 44 mm; the stability from 1.4 to 9.2 minutes, 1.1 to
8.0 minutes, and 1.3 to 5.6 minutes; and the tolerance from

3.0 to 10.0 mm, 3.0 to 6.0 mm, and 2.0 to 5.0 mm. Mixograph

43
measurements for individual flour varieties are listed in
Appendix III.

Mixograph results indicate significant differences
(p<0.05) between the control and. chlorinated flours for
tolerance, and between control and pH 4.3 flours for peak
time. Significant decreases (F=3.320, p<0.05) for peak time
between control and pH 4.3 flours were observed, while the pH
4.8 flour was not significantly different (p<0.05) from the
other two treatments (Figure 5A). Peak times show a
decreasing trend with increasing chlorination. Constant
additions of water to flour treatments with increasing
farinograph water absorption (see section 4.2.2) may account
for the decrease in peak time. If the gluten.proteins are not
fully hydrated they do not reach maximum consistency, thus
affecting the peak time values (Hoseney 1986).

Tolerance measurements show significant differences
(F=10.01, p<0.05) between the control and chlorinated flours
with no significant difference (p<0.05) seen between the two
chlorinated treatments (Figure 5B). This decrease in
tolerance may also be due to insufficiently hydrated gluten
proteins. No significant difference (p<0.05) among the
flours was demonstrated for stability (Figure 5C) or peak
height (Figure 5D). Observations of mixograms suggest that
the flour components have been modified by chlorination.
Further research needs to be done to differentiate between

component modifications and water absorption. The results are

44

Figure 5. Effect of chlorination on mixograph measurements of
flour samples (average of 13 samples); A= peak time, B=
tolerance, C= stability, D= peak height; values with the same
letter are not significantly different from each other at the

5% level .

Peak Time (minutes)

Stability (minutes)

 

 

 

 

Control pH 4.8 pH 4.3

Treatment

 

 

 

 

Gomrol pH 43 pH 43

Treatment

45

 

Tolerance (mm)

 

 

 

Control pH 4.8 pH 4.3

Treatment

 

8

Peak Height (mm)
3 8

 

 

 

Control pH 4.8 [1114.3

Treatment

Figure 5

46
similar to findings from the farinograph studies in section
4.2.2.
4.2.4‘Viscoggylograph Measurements

In this study, Viscoamylograph measurements for control,
pfli 4.8, and.pui 4.3 flour samples ranged, respectively, as
follows: the peak viscosity from 370 to 1090 BU, 375 to 1175
BU, and 1030 to 1390 BU; the break viscosity from 330 to 870
BU, 325 to 875 BU, and 670 to 890 BU; the breakdown from 30 to
280 EU, 30 to 385 BU, and 220 to 675 BU; the setback viscosity
from 820 to 1680 BU, 810 to 1820 BU, and 1285 to 1690 BU; the
setback from 450 to 790 BU, 435 to 905 BU, and -5 to 390 BU;
and the total setback from 490 to 875 BU, 485 to 970 BU, and
470 to 850 BU. Measurements for individual flour varieties
are listed in Appendix IV.

Contrary to results in this study, Miller and co—workers
(1973) found that chlorine treatment of flour results in a
drastic decrease in a flour's viscosity. A significant
increase in viscosity (p<0.05) between the pH 4.3 and control
flours for setback, breakdown viscosity, breakdown, and peak
viscosity but no significant increase between the pH 4.8 and
control flours was observed. The results are in agreement
with Variano-Merston (1985) who reported.that the viscosity’of
a flour increases with chlorination, and.Kulp et a1 (1972) who
observed that the pasting and gelling properties of
chlorinated starch exhibited few changes in their

viscoamylograms until starch from heavily chlorinated flour

47
was used. However, Miller and co—workers (1973) reported

decrease in viscosity with chlorination.

Significant increases (F=22.04, p<0.05) in peak viscosity
between the pH 4.3 and the other two treatments were
noted, while the control and pH 4.8 treatments were
practically identical (Figure:6A). This suggests that in the
pH 4.3 flour, the starch was modified to an extent where its
viscosity was significantly higher than the other two
treatments. Chlorination has been reported to increase the
swelling rate of starch (Variano-Marston 1985), but increased
swelling does not affect viscosity (Miller et a1 1973).
Increased viscosity has been observed to be undetectable in
chlorinated flour until it is heavily chlorinated (Kulp et a1
1972).

The breakdown viscosities from the pH 4.3 flour were
significantly higher than those from the other treatments
(F=3.32, p<0.05), with the control and pH 4.8 flours being
very similar (Figure 68). This increased viscosity may
suggest that the pH 4.3 starch would be more stable (Tipples
1980) during cooking than the other two treatments. ‘Breakdown
measurements for the pH 4.3 flour were also significantly
higher (F=37.48, p<0.05) than those from. the other two
treatment flours, with the pH 4.8 flour being slightly higher
than the control flour (Figure 6C). This could suggest that

the pH 4.3 flour has better retrogradation properties than the

48

Figure 6. Effect of chlorination on Viscoamylograph
measurements of flour samples (average of 13 samples); A:
peak viscosity, B= breakdown viscosity, C= breakdown, D=
setback, E= setback viscosity, F= total setback; values with
the same letter are not significantly different from each

other at the 5% level.

49

 

Breakdown Vbeoslty (BU)

 

 

 

Carrel p014.) pllu
Treaunsnt

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“—
".
Camel pit“ pl”:
Trastaisrl
m
E .

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 6

50
other two treatments (Tipples 1980). The oxidizing nature of
chlorine could oxidize bulky hydroxyl groups on the starch
molecule to less bulky carboxyl or aldehydic groups which can
reassociate faster allowing for improved retrogradation
properties (Rasper 1980).

The setback measurements show a significant (F=27.91,
p<0.05) decrease for the pH 4.3 treatment compared to the
other two treatments, with no significant difference (p<0.05)
seen between the pH 4.8 and control flours (Figure 6D). This
may suggest the pH 4.3 flour has a greater stability than the
other two treatments which is a reflection of its improved
retrogradation.properties. The setback viscosity (Figure 6E)
and total setback (Figure 6F) show no significant differences
(p<0.05) between flour treatments. Differences in the
Viscoamylograph data indicate that the starch in the pH 4.3
chlorinated flour has been modified to a greater extent than
the other two treatments, causing differences in the pasting

ability of the starch.

4.3 Baking Results
4.3.1_§igh-Ratio Cakes
The high-ratio cake (HRC) formula (AACC 10-90) was
designed to measure a flour's cake-baking potential. This
formula contains shortening, and higher levels of sugar and

water than the Japanese-sponge cake formulation (4.3.2).

51
Cakes of this type yield optimum volumes when.made from flours
chlorinated between pH 4.7—4.9 (Hoseney 1986).

Nine varieties of the 1992 flour samples were used for
baking at SWQL, and subsequently there were inadequate amounts
remaining of these samples for baking at Michigan State
University (MSU). The four varieties of 1993 flour samples
were used for baking at MSU; Due to the differences in.baking
location, the results will be statistically analyzed
separately.

Cake measurements for control, pH 4.8, and pH 4.3 flour
samples ranged, respectively, as follows: the volume of cakes
baked at Wooster from 801 to 909 ml, 899 to 1006 ml, and 853
to 951 ml; the volumes of cakes baked.at MSU from 915 to 1029
ml, 970 to 1043 m1, and 918 to 980 ml; the volume index for
MSU HRCs from 8.15 to 10.4 cm, 10.6 to 12.55 cm, and 9.6 to
10.5 cm; and the symmetry index for MSU’HRCs from 0.55 to 0.35
cm, 0.35 to 0.45 cm, and 0.3 to 7.6 cm. Vblume index and
symmetry index measurements were not taken for the HRCs baked
at Wooster. Measurements for individual flour varieties are
listed in Appendices V and VI.

The nine cake samples baked in Wooster demonstrated
significant differences (F=3.43, p<0.05) between the pH 4.8
flours and the other flour treatments: the control and.pH 4.3
flours;produced.cakes that.were significantly lower in volumes
(p<0.05) (Figure 7A). Peak cake volumes were obtained for the

pH 4.8 flours in comparison to the other two treatments.

52

Figure 7. Effect of chlorination on high-ratio cake
measurements of flour samples (average of 13 samples); A;
volume of cakes baked at SWQL, B= volume of cakes baked at MSU
(Michigan State University), C= volume index of cakes baked.at
MSU; values with. the same letter are not significantly

different from each other at the 5% level.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Volume hoax (cm)

 

 

Moi HI“ ”14.3

Treatment

Figure 7

 

54

Cakes baked from the four flour samples at MSU
demonstrated significant differences in volumes (F=3.43,
p<0.05) between the pH 4.8 and pH 4.3 flours, while cakes
produced from the control flours were not significantly
different from cakes produced from the chlorinated flours
(Figure 7B). A peak volume was obtained from the pH 4.8
flour, but it was not significantly different from the control
flours. A higher volume index was obtained for the cakes
baked from chlorinated flours (at MSU) compared to the control
flour (Figure 7C). No significant differences were observed
between the flour treatments in the symmetry index for MSU
baked cakes (data not shown). The control flours produced a
cake with lower volume and poorer symmetry (dipped center),
while the pH 4.3 flours produced cakes with lower volumes.
The pH 4.8 flour produced peak volumes for the HRC's baked at
MSU and SWQL, indicating that pH 4.8 is an optimum degree of
chlorination for production of AACC 10-90 HRCs with optimum
volume and symmetry. These results are in agreement with
findings from Montzheimer (1931), Bohn (1934), and Hoseney
(1986) that peak volumes were obtained from flour chlorinated

to a pH of approximately 4.8.

4 . 3 . 2 Mose-Sponge Cake

Japanese—sponge cake (JSC) has a simple formula which

consists of a 1:1:1 ratio of sugar, egg, and flour. This

55
formula is similar to ones currently being used in Japan,
where the use of chlorinated flour has been discontinued.

In this study, cake measurements for control, pH 4.8, and
pH 4.3 flour samples ranged, respectively, as follows: the
volumes from 1050 to 1205 ml, 965 to 1068 ml, and 958 to 1145
ml; the volume index from 18.8 to 20.5 cm, 17.9 to 19.7 cm,
and 17.34 to 20.55 cm; and the symmetry index from 0 to 1.25
cm, 0.7 to 1.7 cm, and 0.9 to 1.3 cm. Measurements for
individual flour varieties are listed in Appendix VII.

Volumes of Japanese-sponge cakes were significantly
different (F=13.58, p<0.05) between the unchlorinated and
chlorinated flours. There was no significant difference
(p<0.05) between the average cake volumes of pH 4.3 and.pH 4.8
flours (Figure 8A). The volume index shows that the cakes
baked from the control flours had significantly higher
(F=24.62, p<0.05) volume indices than the cakes baked from.the
chlorinated flours (Figure BB). However, the symmetry index
showed that the control flour had significantly lower (p<0.05)
symmetry than the cakes produced from chlorinated flours
(Figure 8C). Peak volumes were obtained for the control
flours but better symmetry was obtained from the chlorinated
flours. In this study, Japanese-sponge cakes exhibited
significant differences (p<0.05) in volume index and symmetry
index among the control flours and treated flours at both

levels.

56

Figure 8. Effect of chlorination on Japanese sponge cake
measurements of flour samples (average of 13 samples); A:
volume, B: volume index, C: symmetry index; Values with the

same letter are not significantly different at 5% level.

57

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Gourd pH 41 pH 4.3
Trestmsrl

 

 

 

 

Figure 8

58

The chlorination appears to have modified the flour so
that it constrains the volume of the JSC, yet provides enough
internal structure to produce a rounded top in comparison to
the flat or dipped peaks of the control flour cakes. The
constraints on the volume in the cakes produced from
chlorinated flour could. be attributed to the increased
resistance in flour proteins and starches which were observed
with the alveograph P measurements (Figure 3A). In contrast
to high-ratio cakes, Japanese-sponge cakes do not need flour
chlorinated to pH 4.8 to bake cakes of optimum volumes, but
the symmetry of cakes produced from unchlorinated flour is
inferior to cakes baked from the chlorinated flour. An
astringent odor was also observed in the JSCs produced from

the chlorinated flours.

4.4 Relationship Among Technological and Baking Data

4.4.1 Correlations with volumes of High-Ratio Cakes Baked at
SWQL. '

 

The volumes of high-ratio cakes baked at SWQL correlated
significantly with: mixograph peak time (p<0.05, r=0.42);
Viscoamylograph break viscosity (p<0.05, r=0.42); and AWRC
(p<0.05, r=0.55). Break viscosity is the only measurement
that is constant between the HRCs baked at the two different

locations (i.e., SWQL and MSU). This may indicate that the

7—1

59
increased retrogradation potential of the starch measured by
the break viscosity correlates with the volume of HRCs.
Faster retrogradation of the starch may contribute to the
increased structural strength observed in cakes baked from
chlorinated flour. The correlation of AWRC with volume could
be a useful indicator of a soft wheat flour's cake-baking
potential. Higher AWRCs enable the flour to produce optimal
HRCs. Research needs to be done to establish windows for low
(underchlorinated) or high (overchlorinated) .AWRCs that will
not produce optimum HRCs. The correlation with mixograph peak
time could reflect the different water absorptions of the

flour treatments under constant additions of water.

4.4.2 Correlations with volumes of High-Ratio Cakes Baked at
MSU.

 

The volumes of high-ratio cakes baked at MSU correlated
significantly with: alveograph P value (p<0.05, r=0.63),
Viscoamylograph peak viscosity (p=0.02, r=0.65), and break
viscosity (p<0.05, r=0.38). The viscosity' measurements
indicate the gelatinization and pasting properties of
chlorinated starch.play'an.important role in the production.of
HRCs of optimum volume. The correlation of the alveograph P
value also indicates the importance of modified starch and

protein in HRC production.

60

4.4.3 Correlations with Vblumes of Japanese-Sponge Cakes

The volumes of Japanese sponge cakes correlated
significantly with: alveograph P value (p<0.05, r=0.47), L
value (p<0.001, r=0.58), P/L value (p<0.01, r=0.42), G value
(p<0.001, r=0.57); farinograph water absorption (p<0.05,
r=0.34); mixograph tolerance (p=<0.04, r=.04); Viscoamylograph
peak viscosity (p<0.01, r=0.48), breakdown viscosity (p<0.05,
r=0.38), and breakdown (p<0.05, r=0.44). The alveograph
measurements appear to be good indicators of the volume of
Japanese-sponge cakes under the given experimental conditions.
These values reflect the modifications of the starches and
proteins by chlorination and the contribution of these
components to JSC 'volume. IFarinograph. water absorption
indicates the importance of the hydration of the starch and
protein in JSC volume. Viscosity measurements show the
importance of the modified starch components to cake volume as
was also seen in the HRCs. Positive correlations between

mixograph tolerance to JSC were also observed.

5. GENERAL DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to observe the rheological
and baking properties among 13 varieties of unchlorinated and
chlorinated (pH 4.8 and 4.3) soft wheat flours. Functional
properties of the flours were determined with analytical and
rheological tests. Modifications to the flour's components
(proteins and starches) account for the differences observed
in the results of these tests. Baking potentials of the
flours were determined using high-ratio and Japanese-sponge
cake formulas, which are markedly different in their
formulation, resulting in cakes with different volumes and
indices from chlorinated flour in comparison to unchlorinated
flours.

The properties of the soft wheat flour samples were
determined for protein content, ash content, moisture content,
alkaline water retention capacity, and Zeleney sedimentation
volume. The protein, ash and moisture contents for these
flours fell within the acceptable parameters for soft wheat
flours used for cake production. Chlorinated flours, because
of their high alkaline water retention capacity, would not be
suitable for cookie baking (Yamazaki 1953). The relationship
between AWRC and cake-baking potential has not been
extensively reported in the literature. Sedimentation volumes
decreased with chlorination indicating that protein strength

decreases with increasing chlorination. This is in agreement

61

62
with Bass (1988) who observed that gluten strength weakened
with chlorination. The transfer of gluten proteins to the
starch-granule surface of chlorinated starch, causing a 3- to
4-fold increase in the amount of proteins on the starch
granule (Seguchi 1993), may contribute to the weakening of the
gluten strength evidenced by Zeleney sedimentation volumes.

The rheological properties of the flour samples were
measured by the alveograph, farinograph, mixograph and
Viscoamylograph. Past research using these instruments
(Bushuk and Hlynka 1962, Meridith and Bushuk 1962, and Preston
et a1 1987) has primarily focused on hard wheat varieties.
These studies used.oxidizing agents other than chlorine on the
hard wheat samples, but their results are in agreement with
the results of this study.

Alveograph results indicate significant increases in
resistance (P) and extensibility (L) with increasing
chlorination. These results are in agreement with Bushuk and
Hlynka (1962) who found increases in resistance and decreases
in extensibility (an extensograph was used) of hard wheat
flours with the addition of an oxidizing agent (N-
ethylmaleimide). The increase in resistance indicates an
increase in dough strength with chlorination. This
discrepancy between results of alveograph and sedimentation
measurements may be attributed to the oxidation of sulfhydryl
groups by chlorination increasing dough strength. Results

similar to this were observed by Tsen and Kulp (1971). By

63
increasing the number of disulfide bonds in the dough the
resistance of the dough increased with chlorination.

Farinograph. results indicate significant increases in
water absorption between control and chlorinated flours, and
significant increases in peak height between control and pH
4.3 flours. The increased.water absorption can be attributed
to the modification of chlorinated starch (Variano-Marston
1985). This increased water absorption for chlorinated flour
may also have an effect on mixograph results where a constant
amount of water is added. Increased farinograph peak time
from.the control to pH 4.3 flour may be due to similar reasons
as the increase in alveograph P value.

Mixograph results indicate a significant decrease in peak
time between the control and pH 4.3 flours, and in tolerance
between control and chlorinated flours. The decrease in peak
time contradicts the farinograph peak time measurements. This
may be due to the difference in water absorptions between the
treatments. 'The chlorinated flour would require higher levels
of water for the flour to reach optimum resistance to mixing,
but constant additions of water (mixograph) to all treatments
may cause a decrease in the peak time values for the
chlorinated flours. The decrease in tolerance to mixing with
chlorination conflicts with the increased stability in the
alveograph (P/L) measurements. This difference may be
attributed to the mixograph's lack of sensitivity toward

starch, like the alveograph, and may reflect the decreasing

64
protein strength seen from sedimentation volumes.

Viscoamylograph results indicated significant differences
between the pH 4.3 flours and the other treatments for peak
viscosity, breakdown viscosity, breakdown and setback. Kulp
and co-workers (1972) found that the pasting and gelation
properties were not altered greatly until the flour was
heavily chlorinated“ This agrees with our experimental
results where significant changes were not observed until the
flour was overchlorinated (pH 4.3). Differences between the
pH 4.8 and control flours may be detectable if the
Viscoamylograph were run in a high sucrose environment similar
to a HRC batter»

High-ratio cakes (AACC 10-90) can be used as an indicator
of baking quality for soft wheat flour. This formula is
typical of an American high-ratio cake which contains higher
levels of sugar, shortening and water than Japanese-sponge
cake. The advent of chlorination allowed for the development
of these types of cakes, and chlorination is necessary to
produce high-ratio cakes of optimum volume and symmetry; Past
research by Montzheimer (1931) confirms experimental results
that optimum volumes and symmetry were obtained from the pH
4.8 flour; ZModification.of the flour proteins and starches as
indicated by the sedimentation and rheological tests
contribute to this improvement causing increased swelling and
interactions among the flour components (Kulp et al 1972).

Japanese-sponge cake formula, with its low levels of sugar

65
and no shortening added, allow this cake formula to produce
optimum cake volumes from unchlorinated flour or possibly a
flour chlorinated to a lesser degree than in this study; This
formula contains a high proportion of eggs in comparison to
high-ratio cakes. The additional amount of eggs may form a
stabilizing network when the eggs are coagulated during baking
(Guy and Pithawala 1981), lending structural support to the
cake and helping to maintain its volume. This support along
with lower amounts of shortening and sugar in comparison to
high-ratio cakes allow the Japanese-sponge cake to produce
optimum volumes from unchlorinated flours. Unchlorinated
flours produced optimum volumes with this formula but the
symmetry of cakes produced from the unchlorinated flours were
inferior to cakes baked from chlorinated flours.
Unchlorinated cakes had flat tops and some were even slightly
dipped in comparison to the dome shaped cakes produced from
the chlorinated flours. Chlorination appeared to constrain
cake volume but also allows for a stronger internal cake
structure which may be due to increasing resistance from the
proteins, and interactions of the modified starch granule

surface with the other flour components.

6. SUMMARY

Sedimentation volumes indicate a weakening of the gluten
proteins with chlorination. Chlorination appears to
oxidize the gluten proteins possibly allowing them to

associate with the starch-granule surface.

Alkaline water retention capacity (%) increased with
chlorination. This increase correlated with the volumes
of high-ratio cakes (HRCs). Currently the relationship
between AWRC (%) and.cake volume has not.been extensively

reported in the literature.

Alveograph measurements indicated modification to
starches and proteins causing increased resistance (P)
and stability (P/L), and decreasing extensibility (L) and
elasticity (G). These trends are consistent with other
researchers who studied the effect of other oxidizing
agents on these properties in hard wheat and the effect

of starch damage on hard wheat.

Farinograph measurements showed increased water
absorption and increased. peak times in chlorinated
flours. The increase in water absorption is most likely

due to modification of the starch granules. Increased

66

67
water absorption with chlorination was in agreement with
previously reported findings. Increased peak times may
be attributed to modifications to the starch and protein

components of chlorinated flours.

Mixograph measurements showed significant decreases in
peak time and tolerance with chlorination. The decrease
in peak time which conflicts with farinograph peak times
may be attributed to the constant addition of water to
treatments with increasing water absorptions which
prevented complete hydration of the flour proteins. The
decrease in tolerance may be due to decreases in the
protein strength that were seen in the sedimentation

volumes.

‘Viscoamylograph. measurements indicated significant
changes in the starch components gelling and pasting
properties of the pH 4.3 flour. These results are in
agreement with past research which observed significant
changes in a starch's gelling and pasting properties when

it was overchlorinated.

High-ratio cakes had.peak volume and symmetry when baked
from the pH 4.8 flours. These results are in agreement
with past research which found optimum HRCs were baked

from flour chlorinated to about pH 4.8.

68
Japanese-sponge cakes (JSCs) produced optimum volumes
from unchlorinated flours but better symmetry was
observed for the cakes produced from chlorinated flours.
The lower sugar, shortening and water levels and higher
egg content in comparison to the HRC formula allow
unchlorinated flours to produce optimum JSC volumes.
However, differences in formulations do not allow
unchlorinated flours to maintain optimum symmetry in

their cakes as was seen for the chlorinated flours.

7. Future Studies

Future studies should look into viable alternatives to
chlorine treatment because of its potential carcinogenic
effect.

Chlorine treatment has a profound effect on the starch
component of a flour. Chlorination results in increased
surface hydrophobicity of the starch granule and
increased water absorption via depolymerization of the
granule. Creating a modified starch with these
properties and substituting the starch from an
unchlorinated flour with this modified starch would.be a
study of interest.

Reformulation of high-ratio cake (HRC) is also an area
where future research can be focused. Modification of
HRC formula ingredients which weaken the internal
structure of the HRC (e.g. shortening and sugar) along
with the addition of strengthening agents (e.g. egg
whites and gums) would be another way to replace
chlorinated flour. The use of different ingredients may
allow the HRC to maintain its volume, symmetry and

internal structure, imparted by chlorinated flour.

69

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74

Miller, B.S. Derby, R.I. and Trimbo, H.B. 1973. A pictorial
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75

Seguchi, M. 1987. Effect of chlorination on the
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Seguchi, M. 1990. Study of wheat starch starch-granule
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76

Variano-Marston, E. 1985. Flour Chlorination: New thoughts
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research. Cereal Foods World. 23(3):114-118.

9 . Appendices

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