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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

The Effects of Mental Imagery on Tennis
Serving Performance Across Races

presented by

William Drewry Scales III

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M. S . degree in Physical
Education and Exercise Science

 

 

 

Major professor

Date AW

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Michigan State
University

 

 

 

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Wm:

THE EFFECTS OF MENTAL IMAGERY ON TENNIS
SERVING PERFORMANCE ACROSS RACES

BY

WILLIAM DREWRY SCALES III

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science

1995

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTS OF MENTAL IMAGERY ON TENNIS
SERVING PERFORMANCE ACROSS RACES

BY
WILLIAM DREWRY SCALES III

The purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which
mental imagery affects tennis serving performance and to assess
any differences with imagery effectiveness across African
American and Caucasian races. Thirty five male college-aged tennis
players participated. Twenty were of Caucasian descent and 15
were African American. High- or low-ability tennis players were
determined according to the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP).
Pre- and post-intervention skills tests were used to specifically
assess subjects' serving ability. Treatment group subjects were led
through group relaxation and imagery procedures and given a tape of
the session. Control group subjects were introduced to a placebo
tape of nature sounds. After seven days of practice with the tapes
subjects' serving performances were recorded during a match.
Results revealed no significant performance differences between
treatment and control subjects. Although no significant race
differences in performance surfaced certain noteworthy trends were
observed.

Copyright by
William Drewry Scales, Ill
1995

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Dr. William D. Scales II
and Mrs. Diana 8. Scales. Each page of this work is a reflection of
your own existence that I have been so fortunate to have instilled in
me as your son. Thank you very much for your endless
encouragement and support through this process. I love you.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

During the process of conducting this study there were several
individuals who made noteworthy contributions. I would first like
to express sincere appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Martha E. Ewing.
Her guidance through my Master's degree program and "real-life"
situations was paramount and has helped further my progression
toward my career goals. I would like to thank the other members of
my committee, Dr. Deborah L. Feltz and Dr. Yevonne R. Smith for their
professional suggestions and critical analysis.

Very special thanks are extended to my godfamily, Wilson,
Debbie, and Lauren Copeland for their support and assistance with
locating subjects and data collection. I would also like to thank
Michelle Bradford, Tim Ballard, and Theresa Haygood for their help in
locating subjects for this study. A great deal of appreciation is
extended to Melissa Chase who gave her patient assistance with
research methods and statistical analyses. Dr. Michael A. Clark and
John Fitzpatrick deserve to be recognized for their assistance with
computer matters during this study. An expression of gratitude is

extended to Gene Orlando who helped make available the necessary

resources for acquiring subjects and has also provided insight into
helping me broaden my capabilities as a tennis coach.

i would like to acknowledge my friends and colleagues who
assisted with several aspects of this study. Thank you, Roxann Dahl
and Kelly Flynn for your aid with the necessary supplies and data
collection. Finally, special thanks are extended to, Johnny Allen,
Andrea D. Barnwell, A-Ran Chong, Geffrey Colon, Regina Cross,
Shaine Henert, Lorenzo Parker, Douglas C. Tully, and Alex Hilbert for

their moral support and assistance with data collection.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UST OFTABLES ..................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTERONE ........................................................................................................... I
Introduction
The Process of Mental Imagery ................................................................... 2
Mental Imagery and Sport Performance ................................................. 3
Research Reporting Non-Significant Results Using Imagery ......... 4
Research Reporting Positive Results Using Imagery ....................... 6
Effects of Imagery On Open- And Closed-Skilled Sports ................ 6
The Relationship Of Mental And Ability Level ...................................... 7
Racial/ Ethnic and Cultural Differences .................................................. 8
Mental Practice versus Physical Practice ........................................... 11
Assessing The Effectiveness Of Mental Imagery Use ..................... 14
Hypotheses .......................................................................................................... 16
Assumptions And Limitations ................................................................... 17
Delimitations ................................................................................................... 18
Significance .................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTERTWO ........................................................................................................ 19

Rview of Literature

CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 48
Method
Subjects ............................................................................................................ 48
Instruments ...................................................................................................... 48
Procedures ........................................................................................................ 49
CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 55
Results
CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................... 77
Discussion
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................... 95

Demographic Information Form

vii

APPENDIXB ........................................................................................................... 98
Control and Vividness of Visual Images Questionnaire

APPENDD(C .......................................................................................................... 101
University Committee on Research Involving Human Sujects
(UCRIHS) Approval Letter

APPENDD(D .......................................................................................................... 102
National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP)

APPENDIXE ......................................................................................................... 103
Mental Imagery Scripts

APPENDIX F ........................................................................................................ 107
Time Logs For Mental Imagery and Meditation Practice

APPENDIXG .......................................................................................................... 115
CompuTennis Form

APPENDIXH .......................................................................................................... 116
Post-match Questionnaire

APPENDIXI ........................................................................................................... 121

Serving Percentage Means With Standard Deviations Of
Treatment And Control Group Subjects

APPENDD(J .......................................................................................................... 122
Post-tape Serving Percentage Means And Standard Deviations
For Race And Assignment Group

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. ‘I 23

viii

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

1--

LIST OF TABLES

Means and Standard Deviations For Serving
Percentage On First and Second Serves Of High- And
Low-Ability Treatment and Control Subjects (page 57)
Means and Standard Deviations of First And Second
Serve Improvement Scores Of High- And Low-Ability
Treatment And Control Group Subjects (page 58)
Pre-Test Serving Percentage Means Of Treatment And
Control Group High-Ability African American And
Caucasian Subjects (page 62)

Posttest Serving Percentage Means And Standard
Deviations Of Treatment And Control Group High-
Ability African American And Caucasian Subjects (page
65)

Comparison Of mean Pre-Test Serving Percentages Of
Low-Ability African American And Caucasian
Treatment Group Subjects (page 68)

Posttest Serving Percentage Means Of Low-Ability
African American and Caucasian Treatment Group
Subjects (page 70)

Comparison Of Means With Standard Deviations Of
Responses To Awareness Of Mood Item Of African
American And Caucasian Subjects In The Treatment

Groups (page 72)

ix

Table 8-- Self-Reported Responses Of Pre-Serve Strategies
Implemented By African American And Caucasian

Subjects Of Both Treatment And Control Groups (page 73)

CHAPTER 1
Introduction

Popular beliefs about race and ethnicity have a major impact
on sport opportunities and the way coaches, fellow players and
spectators respond to athletes of color. For example, golf
championships sponsored by the Professional Golf Association in
1991 were held at a country club where there were no black persons
with memberships at the club because it would make white members
uncomfortable! (Coakley, 1994). Coaches in team sports have
persisted in placing black athletes into certain positions on teams
that were considered non-thinking positions. This concept of racial
stacking appears to "correspond closely with racist beliefs about
skin color and intelligence, leadership and decision making,
dependability, motivation and emotion, running and jumping, and
what many people call instincts" (Coakley, 1994, p. 253).
Additionally, evidence of these misconceptions is augmented by
reporters referring to black's athletic prowess as animal-like.

The issue of racial differences encompasses all minorities and
is not limited to the black athlete. Coakley (1994) discussed the
beliefs held by the majority culture toward Native Americans,
Hispanics, Asian Americans and African Americans and reported that
the majority culture persists in stereotypic beliefs about these
cultures, the cultures' view of sport and in which sports ethnic and
racial groups are likely to choose to participate. There is indeed a
need for more research and education to help dispel stereotypic
beliefs and gain an appreciation of the sport perspectives about
people of color.

2
From a psychological perspective similar myths have been

perpetuated. For instance when observing the learning styles (e.g.,
Ewing & Yong, 1992) of minorities, many in the majority culture
tend not to acknowledge the fact that individuals do not all grasp
the knowledge of how to do certain skills or tasks in the same
manner. Athletic performance involves many cognitive, behavioral,
and social processes thus, the issue of racial differences in learning
styles in sports also deserves consideration because learning occurs
in different cultural contexts differently.

The use of mental imagery in sport is a learned skill which
must address various ethnic learning styles in order to be an
effective tool for performance enhancement of all athletes.
However, ethnic considerations in the study of imagery in sport have
gone completely unnoticed. Consequently, in many instances,
researchers attribute the lack of effectiveness for imagery
influence on one's athletic performance to factors other than
different perceptions and learning styles among races or individuals.
The Process of Mental Imagery

Mental imagery is a process whereby and individual rehearses
or practices an activity solely through the mind. This rehearsal of
tasks in the mind is a cognitive technique that utilizes several
methods to help one prepare for an actual event. Positive self-talk,
control of attention, preparatory arousal, relaxation, elimination of
negative thoughts, and anxiety are a few of the mental strategies
thought to be important in preparing to perform in an achievement
arena (Murphy, 1990; Suinn, 1993). These strategies, which can be

practiced through, or in conjunction with, mental imagery, enable an

 

 

 

3
individual to experience an occasion in his or her head so as to

better handle the actual event when it occurs. Mental imagery has
been used to facilitate concentration, memorization, skill
acquisition, behavior modification, and sport performance (Clark,
1960; Corbin, 1972; Feltz & Landers, 1983; Kirchenbaum & Bale,
1980; Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Richardson, 1967a & 1967b).
Mental lmagem and Sport Pgrforman_cg

The evolution of applied sport psychology has brought about
vast experimentation with mental imagery to assess its influence on
sport performance enhancement (Kirschenbaum & Bale, 1980; Suinn,
1983). Generally, the direction of research in sport psychology is
concerned with the use of imagery as a psychological tool to
facilitate sport or motor skill performances (Vealey, 1986).
Utilizing a sport-related imagery process allows athletes to
familiarize themselves with potential problems and particular
scenarios of an athletic event. This use of mental imagery prior to
performance helps and athlete to rehearse an event in their head so
that they are better able to cope with and expect certain situations
during the actual contest (Orlick, 1980). Furthermore, imagery
rehearsal techniques used in sport enable athletes to transfer
themselves to competitive conditions, enhance specific correct
responses, and sometimes eliminate anxiety or negative thoughts
(Suinn, 1993). In most cases proper and complete use of mental
imagery processes enable athletes to cope with competitive
occurrences of sport which are prevalent during athletic
competition. However, the desired expectations of mental imagery

may not be achieved due to an athlete's overall imagery ability, lack

 

 

4
of relaxation, pr appropriate type of imagery for certain types of

athletes.

The field of sport psychology has introduced several models
and experimentations to better explain the value of mental imagery
in sport. These contributions to the field have allowed for
information to be applied to a number of areas within athletics.
Some researchers who have examined imagery techniques have found
it to be an effective and useful method for improving athletic
performance (Desirato & Miller, 1979; Gough, 1989; Kirchenbaum &
Bale; 1980; Kolonay, 1977; Schleser, Meyers, & Montgomery, 1980).
However, there are studies that have presented contrary results
which suggest that mental imagery has either no influence or
negative effects on one's sport and exercise performance (Epstein,
1980; Hall, Buckolz, & Fishburne, 1989; Meyers, Cooke, Cullen, 8:
Liles, 1979; Mumford & Hall, 1985; Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, &
Barnes, 1980; Wilkes & Summers, 1984).

Research Refining Non-Significamt Results Using Imagery

 

Some of the literature concerning mental imagery has not
always revealed the intended positive influence. In fact, Murphy,
Woolfolk, and Budney (1988), in a study which subjects were asked
to imagery to produce certain emotions, reported that imagery had a
negative effect on task performance. Subjects were asked to
squeeze a hand grip dynamometer as hard as they could after one of
three types of preparatory arousal (anger, fear, relaxation). Results
for the 24 male subjects indicated that the strength performance
measured from the task was less than the strength performances

recorded during the pretest. One possible explanation why these

 

 

5
researchers had negative effects would be that they were unable to

ensure that proper imagery was being used. In addition, the use of
arousal could have caused subjects to focus their energies to areas
other than the grip task.

Given the stereotypic belief that Black athletes are stronger
than White athletes (Coakley, 1994), it would be interesting to
determine if racial differences might occur under similar
conditions. The means for invoking fear and angry feelings in these
subjects could be different across ethnic or economic backgrounds.
Athletes who emerge from unsafe neighborhoods where,
unfortunately, fear has become a part of everyday life could have
different perceptions when using imagery which could in turn affect
the outcomes of strength performances on the hand grip
dynamometer.

Other investigations of mental imagery in sport have been
conducted and studies were unable to show any influence on athletic
performance. Similar to the present investigation Weinberg, Gould,
Jackson, and Barnes (1980) chose to examine three mental
preparation strategies and how they influenced the performance of a
tennis serve. The three mental strategies used for this experiment
were imagery for preparing to serve, positive self-efficacy
statements, and attentional focus. In addition, a control condition
of normal serving preparation was included. It was discovered that
none of these mental strategies was more influential on serving
performance than normal serving preparation. To help improve the
results of this study it may be necessary to assess each subjects'
imagery ability because without considerable practice with imagery

 

6
significant improvements in performance may not occur. No

significant influence of mental imagery has been noted in other
areas such as dart throwing (Epstein, 1980), leg kick tasks (Wilkes
& Summers, 1984), figure skating (Mumford & Hall, 1985), and
racquetball (Meyers, Cooke, Cullen, & Liles, 1979).
Mb Repgrting PositivefiReLults Using lmageg

Several of the studies conducted in the past have supported the
notion that imagery has positive effects on performance. Of
particular relevance to the present study is an experiment conducted
by Highlen and Bennett (1983) who chose to examine elite athletes
who participated in open- and closed skill sports. These researchers
chose these two types of sports and attempted to determine the
influence of certain imagery strategies. Elite divers (a closed skill
sport) reported using imagery strategies during training, one hour
prior to competition, and immediately before executing a dive
(Highlen & Bennett, 1983). These imagery processes were
discovered to help athletes cope with anxiety and improve
performance. Additionally, no evidence was found to suggest that
closed-skill sport athletes utilize more imagery techniques than do
open-skill (wrestling, tennis, etc.) sport athletes.
Effects of Imagery On Open- And Closed-Skilled Smrts

One of the issues raised by the Highlen and Bennett (1983)
study is how imagery affects performance of a closed-skill
performed within an open-skill sport. Tennis is considered an open-
skill sport, and the present study may find evidence to suggest that
there is more imagery used for the tennis serve which is a closed

skill. Positive effects of mental imagery on athletic performance of

7
Open- and closed-skill sports have been supported through research

of various sports and tasks such as, basketball (Meyers, Schleser, &
Okwumabua, 1982; Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983), putting (Woolfolk,
Parrish, & Murphy, 1985), volleyball (Shick, 1970), swimming
(White, Ashton, & Lewis, 1979), racquetball (Gray, 1990), women's
lacrosse (Heishman & Bunker, 1989), and gymnastics (Start &
Richardson, 1964).
'_l’_h_e Relationship Of Mental Imaggv And AbilitheieJ

The extent to which mental imagery is applicable to athletes
of varying skill levels brings forth another important concern in the
study of mental imagery. Sport psychologists, coaches, and athletes
face the question of whether or not mental imagery is appropriate
for every one. The relationship of athletic ability and imagery has
been addressed by Gough (1989), in a study which examined the
influence of imagery on batting performance of baseball players of
different ability levels. Each of the three varsity baseball players
in this study (i.e., poor ability, moderate ability, high ability) were
exposed to an imagery session which was preceded by relaxation.
Results from this study indicated that the subject with the lowest
batting ability improved his batting performance from 12% to 55%
after imagery training. The moderate ability subject showed no
significant improvement, while the highest ability subject improved
his batting performance from 50% to 70% after imagery training.

Other studies formulated to address the relationship between
ability and imagery have not been consistent with the Gough (1989)
findings. Additional knowledge concerning this issued dictates that

advanced athletes display more muscle activity during imagery use

8
than do beginner athletes (Harris & Robinson, 1986). This may

suggest a difference in the actual influence of imagery on
performance between high and low skilled athletes based on how
involved an athlete is with the imagery process. With such a
substantial increase in performance for the lowest ability subject
in the Gough (1989) study one might conclude that imagery has the
greatest influence and usefulness for lower ability athletes.
However, some information suggests that there is no difference in
imagery effectiveness across ability levels (Jowdy & Harris, 1990).

Although the aforementioned studies of mental imagery have
shown positive effects on athletic performance, each may not have
accurately assessed imagery's influence. As for the Highlen and
Bennett (1983) study, there was no mention of what type of imagery
practice was being used. Subjects reported that they were using
imagery at certain times, but the researchers failed to assess if
subjects were actually using imagery techniques. Due to the fact
that imagery is a skill, studies which have asked subjects to engage
in imagery without teaching subjects the skill may be misleading or
confounded by the subject's inability to image correctly. Thus,
researchers need to implement an instructional program of imagery
or use a test of mental imagery to add some assurance that subjects
are actually using imagery.
Racial/Ethnic and Cultural Differences

An additional shortcoming of the Highlen and Bennet (1983)
study, which is also common to many other studies, is the lack of
ethnic considerations when selecting subjects for imagery
experiments. Paying closer attention to the issue of race in imagery

9
studies may yield differential information regarding its

effectiveness. It has been shown that some information on certain
standardized tests may not be interpreted by all races the same as
intended by those who develop them (Cleary, 1968; Cleary,
Humphreys, Kendrick, & Wesman, 1975; Goldman & Hewitt, 1976;
Jensen, 1969; Samuda, 1975; Sax, 1980). Therefore, it seems
logical to explore whether race differences may also exist in how
well imagery is followed. That is, certain racial /ethnic groups
because of educational and cultural experiences may need to tap into
race-specific cues to facilitate effective mental imagery. Without
a knowledge and research base for understanding racial and cultural
differences in the use of cues, differences would be dismissed or
regarded as individual differences. This conclusion is derived from
the fact that he/she does not respond to the best of his/her imagery
ability according to an imagery approach developed by the majority
culture. Furthermore, generalizations of the influence of imagery
across sports has yet to be discovered, which makes one wonder why
the issue of race has not been addressed. One explanation to clarify
why race has not been considered would suggest that differences in
imagery effectiveness across ethnic backgrounds may not be
reasonably expected. Yet, how can one come to such a conclusion
without any empirical evidence? Thus, there is a need to
investigate racial/ethnic and cultural considerations when
attempting to completely understand the mental imagery
phenomenon.

The tapic of race differences in other psychological areas has

not gone unnoticed. For instance, Ewing and Yong (1992) examined

10
the learning style preferences among gifted African American,

Mexican American, and American-borne Chinese middle grade
students. The purpose of the investigation was to determine
whether there were significant race, gender, and grade differences
among their subjects. Evidence from the study suggested that
African American and Chinese American subjects preferred a more
visual modality learning style, while Mexican Americans preferred a
kinesthetic modality. Thus, certain racial groups studied may have
specific learning preferences when trying to acquire the skill of
mental imagery to enhance performance.

Additional research which focused on the extent to which
cross-cultural differences influence learning has provided
information relevant to the present study. For example, Lam-Phoon
(1986) compared the learning styles of Caucasian and Asian college
students and concluded that their learning styles were significantly
different. Caucasian students were also noticed to remember less
well auditorially and visually than Asian students. Sims (1988) also
contributed to the cross-cultural difference literature by revealing
that underachieving Black children significantly more than Whites
prefer auditory, visual and kinesthetic teaching. Contrary to Sims'
(1988) results, Blacks have been noticed to not have a significant
visual or kinesthetic learning style advantage over Chinese-
American, Greek-American, or Mexican-American children (Dunn,
Gemake, Jalali, Zenhausem, Quinn, & Spiridakis, 1990). The
information regarding visual learning styles in these studies is
highly relevant for the present study with the visually oriented

mental imagery phenomenon. Finally, these cross-cultural studies

11
are important because students who are taught material with an

approach which complements their learning style demonstrate
positive behavior and attitude toward the material (Dunn, Beaudry, &
Klavas, 1989).

Sociological studies have continuously shown differences in
the treatment of athletes based on race (Coakley, 1994). In the face
of ethnic diversity in sports today and to better understand the race
and performance issue, it is also important to understand
psychological/mental aspects of sport which focus on both
similarities and differences in learning and performance based on
racial/ethnic identity.

Me_nt_al Pragtice versus Physical PrLctice

Another concern in studies of mental imagery is the issue of
mental practice versus physical practice. It is generally understood
that physical practice is superior to mental practice in the
acquisition of performance of a skill. Some evidence to support the
physical practice advantage has been found in ball-and-socket tasks
(Gilmore 81 Stolurow, 1951), basketball free throw shooting (Clark,
1960), and sit ups (Kelsey, 1961). However, alternating physical
practice and mental practice is also considered to produce major
improvement in skill acquisition and performance. Whiteley (1962)
used the method of alternating physical practice and mental practice
for boys performing a complex gymnastic skill. Results of this
study showed that this method was superior to just mental or
physical practice. Similar results of this kind have been found in a
number of other studies (Egstrom, 1964; Trussell, 1952; Whiteley,
1962).

12
More recently, the technique of imagery has been expanded by

sport psychologists. Suinn (1976) developed an extension of mental
and physical rehearsal which he called visual motor behavior
rehearsal. Visual motor behavior rehearsal (VMBR) is a covert
activity whereby a person experiences sensory-motor sensations
that reintegrate reality experiences, and which include
neuromuscular, physiological, and emotional involvement (Suinn,
1993). The VMBR technique utilizes a relaxation session prior to the
actual imagery process, which includes visual, auditory, tactile,
kinesthetic, and emotional cues. This method of visual imagery has
been widely accepted, and its effectiveness for improving athletic
performance is supported by many investigations (Gravel, Lemieux, &
Ladouceur, 1980; Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983; Seabourne, Weinberg,
Jackson, & Suinn, 1985; Weinberg, Seabourne, & Jackson, 1981).
Noel (1980) conducted a study to determine the effect of
visuo-motor behavior rehearsal (VMBR) training on tennis serving
performance during tournament play. Subjects were 14 male tennis
players who were classified as being of high-ability or low-ability.
Baseline service accuracy was obtained prior to the start of the
tournament. Seven subjects (treatment group) were trained in the
VMBR process 10 days prior to the tournament, while the control
group received no VMBR training. Results reported that the high-
ability VMBR group had significant improvement in their serving
performance, while the low-ability VMBR group's serving
performance decreased. One major factor overlooked in this study
was the imagery ability of the subjects involved. Those of the low-

ability VMBR group may not have been familiar with the use of

13
imagery, and thus were not able to use it effectively. Those of the

high-ability VMBR group may have already rehearsed some imagery
techniques previously. In addition, as Noel mentioned, the imagery
scripts that were used may not have been tailored for the low-
ability VMBR group. It is necessary to present in the imagery
scripts cues that are recognizable for the athletes. Noel suggests
that the single imagery script may have been too advanced for the
low-ability group. Furthermore, the original study only tabulated
the serving accuracy in the first set. This may have been limiting in
that, during the latter sets of a tennis match is when a player will
need to utilize imagery the most so as to combat loss of
concentration, pressure, and fatigue. Finally, Noel used self-report
methods to help determine the influence of VMBR on subjects'
serving performance and, as mentioned earlier, these methods may
not be completely accurate.

The present study is a replication of the Noel (1980) study. A
major extension of the Noel (1980) study for the present
investigation will address the race variable in an attempt to build
upon the previous findings and introduce needed information
regarding racial/ethnic variation and the use of mental imagery.
Although the literature concerning mental imagery has been of some
value to the area of sport psychology, there exist certain issues that
reduce its credibility. First, the ability of researchers to assess the
degree to which imagery influences athletic performance has not
been easy. The success or failure of an athlete's performance In
many cases is not solely determined by the presence of mental

imagery. The mental imagery practice may be of some influence, but

14
it is difficult to determine to what extent, especially considering

all other aspects which may influence the outcome of a sporting
event. Secondly, of the many research studies conducted dealing
with imagery very few, if any, chose to include the variable of race
within the investigations. This is an important factor because it is
difficult to make any generalizable statements about mental
imagery's effectiveness without considering the experiences and
learning preferences of every category of people. Therefore,
research on mental imagery should be expanded to address this lack
of consideration.

Assessing The Effectivaneg Of Mental Imagem Use
Limitations may exist in utilizing self-report measures in

 

assessing the effectiveness of imagery. For example, the accuracy
of subjects reporting about the quantity and quality of the imagery
experience is not able to determined. Often times self-report
questionnaires are developed that do not completely measure
imagery's influence or do not address the entire scope of what a
subject is imagining at the time of practicing mental imagery
(Murphy, 1990). That is, some questionnaires fail to address the
influence of imagery on the less evident factor of athletic
performance. These factors may be the finer points of performance
that help determine the overall success or failure of an athlete.
However, self-report measures can be beneficial. Self-report
methods, such as the MES (Magnitude Estimation Scaling), provide
subjects with opportunities to describe imagery experiences in
detail without structural limitations which can be found in

questionnaires which employ ratings or Likert-type scales (Stevens,

15
1975). In addition, open-ended self-report techniques allow

subjects to express in greater detail their perspectives of the
effectiveness of mental imagery.

Different self-report techniques may be particularly valuable
in helping researchers understand how various groups of people
perceive and/or experience the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of
imagery. Given the reported racial differences that exist in
research for other cognitive processes and behaviors such as making
attributions in help-seeking behavior (Chetham, Shelton, 81 Ray,
1987), it is prudent to examine racial differences in perceived
effectiveness of the imagery sessions. That is, African Americans
may attribute possible changes in performance outcomes to an
imagery program because they benefit more from visual cues; where
as, Whites may attribute possible performance changes to physical
practice or confidence gained from visualizing a successful serve.

A need for the present study was devised by examining the
previous research concerning mental imagery. The main criticism of
the previous research concerning mental imagery is the lack of
consideration for racial differences of subjects. In addition, certain
shortcomings of Noel (1980) lead to a need to further the knowledge
concerning imagery and tennis performance. Therefore, the question
surrounding the present study is whether mental imagery techniques
affect tennis serving performance, and if so, are there any
differences due to the racial/ethnic backgrounds of the players.

Due to the lack of previous research dealing with the use of
imagery in tennis, the present study focuses on the extent to which

mental imagery affects serving performance only. This study is

16
necessary for sport psychologists, coaches, instructors, as well as

tennis enthusiasts, in that expanded knowledge will be gained about
the effect of mental imagery on a specific sport and task during
competition. Another purpose of the present study is to understand
any differences across race with imagery use because of the limited
information regarding this variable. Finally, the present study was
developed for the purpose of applying results to real-world settings
so benefits may increase effectiveness of tennis players and
coaches.

Hymtheses

The first hypothesis for the present study was that those
high-ability subjects were exposed to mental imagery training
would show more improved serving performances than low-ability
subjects who were exposed to mental imagery.

The second hypothesis for the present study predicted that the
serving performances of all the subjects in the VMBR groups would
show more of an improvement than subjects in the control groups.

Furthermore, the third hypothesis stated that there would be
no differences in serving performance due to race between the high-
ability VMBR and control groups prior to treatment. One does not
reach these high levels of performance without having consistent
physical ability to serve.

However, it is also hypothesized that the African American
subjects of the low-ability VMBR group will have better serving
performances than the Caucasian subjects in the low-ability VMBR
group. The predicted advantage in serving performance for the low-

ability African American subjects stems from the previously

17
reported literature concerning learning preferences. Researchers'

rationale for forming this hypothesis is that, because mental
imagery is visually oriented and African Americans have a
preference for visual styles of learning, they may be more receptive
to the procedure.

Assumptions Ana Limitations

One of the major assumptions for the present study is the fact
that the VMBR technique is useful for enhancing athletic
performance. This assumption stems from the previous research
which suggests that VMBR is a valued mechanism for enhancing
athletic performance. Along with this notion we also assume that
progressive muscle relaxation enhances the effectiveness of the
mental imagery practice. Relaxation has been shown to help make
mental imagery more effective (Berstein & Borkovek, 1973; Gauron,
1984; Hellstead, 1987; Styler & Connolly, 1984; Suinn, 1993),
therefore, we expect the same influence to occur in the present
study. A final assumption suggests that environmental factors are
controlled in this study because most matches will be held indoors,
so there should not be any negative environmental conditions that
will influence the serve ability of players in this study.

The present study may also have certain limitations. The
manner in which subjects are classified as high-ability and low-
ability subjects may be inaccurate. For example, one of the subjects
may exhibit high tennis ability overall but may have a relatively

poor serve.

18
Delimitations

The following delimitations will be imposed for the present
study. First, this study only focuses on subjects' serving percentage
and the mechanics of their serves which may influence their
accuracy, as Opposed to entire match performance. By exclusively
examining these two areas of subjects' serves, researchers can not
determine the influence of mental imagery (if any) on other aspects
of a player's performance. Finally, the study was delimited to male
subjects of a Midwest and Southern geographical region, and only
African American and Caucasian subjects were studied.
Significance

The present study is of particular relevance for the previous
and future research concerned with mental imagery effects on
athletic performance. This study contributes more specifically to
the understanding of imagery's influence on tennis serving
performance during competition. The significance in gaining this
knowledge opens up the possibility of making certain real-world
applications to tennis instruction, practice, and competition.
Coaches and players alike will find information dealing with
enhancing performance to be of the utmost importance.
Furthermore, focusing on the race variable will present a major
worth to the sport psychology field, as very few, if any, studies have
elected to examine any cultural differences with the use of mental
imagery. The findings from this study should also play a role in
igniting further research in the area of imagery associated with
tennis performance. This in turn, may help to establish some

theoretical framework for future experiments.

CHAPTER 2
Review of Literature

The experimental literature dealing with the mental imagery
phenomenon is vast and encompasses a variety of fields. For the
purposes of the present study, literature concerning mental imagery
in sport is the main interest. However, the previous studies dealing
with mental imagery in other related areas also have merit and will
be reviewed briefly. A commonality exists between each area that
has focused on mental imagery; specifically, the degree to which the
formation of mental images influences the outcomes of a particular
task. With a similar focus on mental imagery across disciplines,
related information can be shared in order to completely understand
imagery's role in learning and performing skills.

The capacity of an individual to imagine exemplifies one of the
many fascinating mind processes that has intrigued scientists and
researchers. An ability to imagine is a characteristic that describes
many human beings, but is rarely identical in any two (Ahsen, I984).
The often used phrase "an imagination running wild" underlines the
power of the mind in action and the unique creativity of a particular
person. Dreams are another form of imagining which are often times
examined to determine their meaning and are used for other
psychological evaluations. The clarity and genuineness of dreams
can seem so real it is frightening which induces further speculation
into how the mind is able to create such vivid, real-life images.
Mental images are a vital portion of one's memory. As a child many

of us remember playing such games as "Concentration" where the

19

20
object was to make a match of certain figures on the under side of a

card based on your memory of where those two figures were last
seen. Images to help facilitate memory have continued in the area of
law enforcement. Many times we hear of witnesses trying to
recreate a crime scene in their head, or of artists drawing faces to
help victims better remember and describe the characteristics of a
perpetrator. In addition, mental imagery has been a concept of
interest for many sport psychologists. Many successful athletes
have revealed how they were able to visualize images in their head
prior to, and during, athletic endeavors which enabled them to
perform at an elevated level (Vealey, 1986). These examples of the
workings of the mind to produce images illustrates the importance
of understanding mental imagery and how it works.

Mental imagery procedures have been prevalent for several
years, but may not have always been recognized as such. There is
evidence to suggest that before the turn of the century there existed
certain rituals, and expressions of spirituality, that had similar
procedures and outcomes to the modern uses of imagery. As early as
the days of Descartes (1596-1650) there is support for imagery's
presence as he states, "Man is a soul and a body, the soul being
Spiritual and the body being material, and acted like a machine"
(Ahsen, 1984). It may be difficult to determine the true meaning of
this statement but it does appear as if there was reference to some
imagery experience.

The research involving mental imagery has produced an
abundance of literature that has brought forth two theoretical

perspectives to explain why mental imagery enhances performance.

21
These two major developments are known as the

psychoneuromuscular theory and the symbolic learning

theory. The psychoneuromuscular theory suggests that during
imagery rehearsal the muscles of the body respond and activate as if
they were actually performing, but to a smaller degree of intensity.
Psychoneuromuscular theory also asserts that this muscle activity
is identical to the learning or correcting of muscle movements
during physical activity. There have been several research studies
conducted examining the psychoneuromuscular theory and many have
supported its basis (Anderson, 1981; Harris 8r Robinson, 1986;
Jacobsen, 1930; Jowdy & Harris, 1990; Shick, 1970; Schramm, 1967;
Suinn, 1980). Conversely, Feltz and Landers (1983) indicated that
"it is doubtful that mental practice effects are produced by low gain
innervation of muscles that will be used during actual performance"
(p. 48).

The symbolic learning theory proposes that the benefits of
mental practice are not due to muscle activity. Instead symbolic
learning theory mentions that mental imagery allows an individual
to rehearse the movements and prepare for the tasks involved with a
particular physical activity. An extension to the symbolic learning
theory is the belief that imagery rehearsal will have greater effects
on tasks high in cognitive content (Suinn, 1993). The notion of
mental imagery being more advantageous for cognitive tasks has
been supported by some studies involving maze-learning and
stabilometer tasks (Minas, 1978; Morrisett, 1956; Ryan 8r Simons,
1981; Wrisberg & Ragsdale, 1979). A final component of the

22
symbolic learning theory asserts that mental practice will be most

beneficial during the early stages of learning.

In the initial stages of understanding mental imagery it was
necessary to distinguish it from other related concepts. As mental
imagery
began to gain recognition it was often compared with the term
"perception". Mental imagery emerged as a distinctive concept from
perception in that it involved all sensory modalities (Richardson,
1983). Further evidence of neuropsychological aspects of mental
imagery helped it to gain attention. Continued early research with
mental imagery led scientists to conclude that the images seen
during mental imagery are produced in the right hemisphere of the
brain and can also be used to induce affect (Langhinrichsen & Tucker,
1990).

To gain a thorough understanding of the mental imagery
phenomenon it rs necessary to develop meaningful definitions.
Accurate definitions of mental imagery are important because they
are the foundations of knowledge upon which research ideas and
experiments are developed. As mentioned earlier, mental imagery is
present in a variety of areas, thus it is necessary to utilize
definitions that are specific to a distinct area of interest. For the
purposes of the present study it is essential to work with a
definition which is applicable to the sport domain. Such a functional
definition has been developed by Richardson (1969) which states,
"Mental imagery refers to all those quasi-sensory and quasi-
perceptual experiences of which we are self-consciously aware and

which exist for us in the absence of those stimulus conditions that

23
are known to produce their genuine sensory or perceptual

counterparts" (pp. 2-3). This is a sound definition and should be
useful for understanding mental imagery's role in sport.

The research on mental imagery has been associated with the
concept of mental practice. These two terms are very similar and
share some common characteristics. However, a distinction can be
made between mental imagery and mental practice, although these
terms are often used synonymously. The terms mental imagery and
mental practice are similar in that both are concepts with the
purpose of augmenting the performance of some physical activity.
Moreover, both mental imagery and mental practice involve a mental
trial of the particular upcoming physical activity. Earlier studies
which examined the concept of mental practice were developed with
the impression that mental practice was a helpful tool only for skill
acquisition (Clark, 1960; Corbin, 1972; Smyth, 1975; Vandell, Davis,
Clugston, 1943). Later developments in sport psychology have
provided some other stated differences between the terms mental
practice and mental imagery. Murphy and Jowdy (1992) make a
distinction between mental practice and mental imagery by stating
that, "Imagery refers to to a mental process. Mental practice, on the
other hand, is a descriptive term for a particular technique used by
athletes and many other individuals" (p. 222). Mental imagery
should be considered a mental process; whereas, mental practice
describes a particular technique used by athletes (Horn, 1992). In an
early analysis of mental practice, Richardson (1967a) provided a
definition which has been recognized in studies that followed.

Richardson states, "Mental practice refers to the symbolic rehearsal

24
of a physical activity in the absence of any gross muscular

movements" (pp. 95). This is a general definition and is necessary
to distinguish between other related terms such as, mental
rehearsal, imaginary practice, and symbolic rehearsal, to name a
few.

The applied psychology curriculum has exhibited the most
interest in mental imagery and has a mature history of attempting
to understand all its uses. During the early days of applied
psychology, imagery was understood
to be more than just mental pictures. Sir Francis Galton (cited in
Bugelski, 1984) understood that it applied to other perceptual areas,
and he initiated a classical approach to exploring mental imagery.
Galton felt that mental imagery was more functional for children
than adults in the areas of learning, perception, thinking, and
meaning. At this point imagery was most useful for memory recall.
Continual use of mental imagery for the study of cognitive abilities
through the 1920's and 30's focused on areas of motivation,
physiology, behavior therapy, as well as other related areas and
fields. These same types of studies are conducted today to assess
one's memory and mental imagery capabilities.

Mental imagery as a technique to enhance performance has
been of interest to the sport psychology field. In many instances,
we may hear of athletes utilizing imagery techniques prior to an
athletic event. Imagery rehearsal as used by athletes still remains
a form of ritual, to assist in the success of a sport performance.
The three major uses of imagery in sport are to enhance

performance, modify cognitive behavior, and learn skills (Cautela,

25
1986; Rushall, 1988). Each individual athlete has his/her own

specific perspective and procedures for imagery which is ultimately
intended to allow one to visualize correct performances so as to
eliminate the possibility of undesirable responses in a sport setting
(Suinn, 1983).

Upon examining the concept of mental practice from several
early studies (Jacobson, 1932; Perry, 1939; Sackett, 1934, 1935),
the issue of whether mental practice is an effective method for
enhancing skill acquisition and skill development has evolved as a
major focus for the field of motor development and sport
psychology. Vandell, Davis, and Clugston (1943) conducted one of
the first studies to determine the function of mental practice in
skill acquisition. Subjects for this study were male Junior high,
Senior high, and college freshmen students. Two motor skills were
selected for this study, a dart-throwing task and free throw
shooting. The basketball h00p had all the standard dimensions, while
the target for dart-throwing consisted of 17 concentric circles with
a number assigned to each circle. The center circle was assigned 17
while the other circles decreased in value as the circles got larger.
The mental practice group was asked to sit comfortably and imagine
themselves throwing darts at the target in the manner in which they
had done the previous day. The remaining two groups consisted of
either actual practice with no practice between days or actual
practice on each of the twenty days of the study. Informative
results from this observation revealed that directed mental practice
of a motor skill improves the performance of the later performance

of a particular motor skill. In addition, mental practice was

26
discovered to be almost as effective as physical practice in this

study. The knowledge gained from this study initiated further
research studies which also found supportive results for juggling
performance (Corbin, 1967a), free throw shooting (Clark, 1960),
volleyball serving (Shick, 1970), gymnastics skills (Start 8r
Richardson, 1964), and muscle endurance (Kelsey, 1961).

The established empirical information suggesting that mental
practice is helpful for skill acquisition raised one further issue.
Many researchers from the sport psychology and motor development
fields have ventured to determine whether mental practice or
physical practice is most beneficial for skill acquisition, skill
development, and motor task performance (Egstrom, 1964; Feltz &
Landers, 1983; Gilmore & Stolurow, 1951; Halverson, 1949; Hird,
Landers, Thomas, & Horan, 1991; Kelsey, 1961). Of the many
investigations conducted to examine the mental practice versus
physical practice debate there has been workable information
revealed to better explain which is most effective. Mental practice
is known to be helpful and is better than no practice at all (Feltz &
Landers, 1983). In addition, mental practice used alternately with
physical practice is better than either one alone (Horn, 1992; Singer,
1972; Weinberg, 1981). The notion of mental practice and physical
practice used together for better performance has initiated further
studies to determine the most effective ratio for achieving
successful task outcomes. Although there has been some generally
understood findings from various experiments, much more
information is needed to better conclude the debate between mental

practice and physical practice.

27
The process of mental imagery use in sport and other

performance- related fields is a systematic exercise designed to
bring about positive outcomes of an individual's execution of a
particular skill or task. Mentally feeling or viewing one's self
actually taking part in an activity allows athletes to rehearse the
actions of that event before physically taking part in an upcoming
endeavor. An initial awareness prior to an upcoming event via
mental imagery practice enables an athlete to better prepare for and
expect the various occurrences of the given physical activity.
Mental imagery is considered a performance enhancement tool, but
may not be successful with every athlete. Each athlete has a
different capacity for obtaining clear images, and whether or not an
athlete actually believes in the power of mental imagery is
important to its successfulness in enhancing performance (Vealey,
1986).

Several research investigations conducted by sport
psychologists have presented an abundant amount of knowledge
concerning the influence of mental imagery on performance. Some of
these research studies have shown
mental imagery to be a useful method for performance enhancement,
whereas others have shown no support or negative results in
performance with mental imagery use. In one of the premier
investigations of mental imagery, Vandell, Davis, and Clugston
(1943) noted mental imagery to be useful for improving performance
of a variety of sport skills. Knowledge of this kind was further
elaborated on by Start and Richardson (1964) who chose to

investigate imagery's influence on a gymnastic skill. Subjects for

28
this study were thirty-two males whose age ranged from 18-21, and

who had no previous practice with the chosen gymnastic maneuver.
The very basic gymnastic maneuver was known as a Single Leg
Upstart on the High Bar. Researchers of this study analyzed and
recorded the proper movements of the gymnastic skill. Instructions
of the various movements of the maneuver were devised in
sequential order to allow the subjects to better imagine the skill
while using mental imagery. Subjects practiced the gymnastic skill
five minutes daily over a six day period, and on the seventh day they
were to perform the skill for the first time. Tests of Vividness of
visual images and autonomy of imagery were administered in the
next two weeks to follow.

Results from the Start and Richardson (1964) study provided
useful information in the understanding of mental imagery. Start
and Richardson found that Vividness of imagery was not a
significant factor in the mental practice of a physical skill, whereas
kinesthetic imagery was a minor factor in the success of performing
the gymnastic skill. However, those subjects who had
uncontrollable vivid images were noticed as having low performance
scores. Finally, it was concluded from this investigation that vivid
and controllable images together are helpful for predicting
performance of a skill.

Improvements in the sport task of free throw percentage as a
result of mental imagery have been noticed in a younger population
of basketball players (Wrisberg & Anshel, 1989). In this study forty
young males, who ranged in age from 10.2 t012.4 years were
selected. Each of the participants in the study was a participant in

29
a sport skills camp and had some skill in shooting free throws.

Subjects were randomly assigned to one of four groups: 1) imagery
practice during the treatment phase of the study, 2) an arousal
learning and practice group, 3) combined imagery and arousal
adjustment group, and 4) control. A 15-minute cognitive strategy
instruction session comprised of either mental imagery, arousal
adjustment, or a combination of the two, was given to subjects in
the three treatment groups. Subjects were told to use imagery at
the free throw line prior to shooting, while arousal reduction was to
be implemented due to the normal nervousness associated with free
throw shooting.

Wrisberg and Anshel (1989) provided support for mental
imagery effectiveness for a younger group of basketball players and
their findings are also in accord with those found by Kolonay (1977).
Results from this study showed that subjects who were exposed to
the imagery condition had an improvement in their free throw
percentage. The greatest gain in performance from the pretest to
posttest was exhibited by those subjects in the imagery and arousal
combination group. Information gained from these two cited studies
suggest that mental imagery is a useful tool in the
sport of basketball for college and youth players. Additional
research which has experimented with the influence of imagery on
basketball performance has also found it to be beneficial for female
collegiate players (Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983; Kendall, Hrycaiko, 8:
Martin, 1989; Schleser, Meyers, & Montgomery, 1980), as well as
other basketball skills (Meyers, Schleser, 8r Okwumabua, 1982).

30
An extensive amount of research on mental imagery has

employed a variety of procedures and experimentations in several
sports. One interesting form of testing mental imagery is with the
use of videotape modeling. This style of testing was used by Gray
(1990) in a study examining its effectiveness with mental rehearsal
as opposed to mental rehearsal without modeling on racquetball
skills. Gray (1990) revealed that imagery rehearsal used with
videotaped modeling showed significant improvement in the
racquetball skills of 24 male beginner racquetball players. This
study provides support for the usefulness of mental imagery and is
also consistent with previous literature (Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983).
Further positive effects of mental imagery have been noticed in
other sports such as putting in golf (Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy,
1985), volleyball (Shick, 1970), swimming, (White, Ashton, & Lewis,
1979), baseball (Gough, 1989), and tennis (Davis, 1991).

Although mental imagery is intended to be a technique for
enhancing physical performance, often times negative or ineffective
results occur with its implementation. Negative effects of imagery
may surface in some instances due to a lack of consideration for the
length and duration of practice, scheduling and the character of
practice, the type of task, and individual differences of subjects
(Corbin, 1972). The issue of negative consequences of pre
performance imagery on a motor skill accuracy task of putting has
been explored (Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985). In this study
thirty subjects were randomly assigned to either a success imagery
group, failure imagery group, or a control group. Those subjects in

the success imagery group were told to imagine performing a

31
mechanically correct putt and then imagining the ball rolling right

into the cup. The failure imagery group was told to imagine
performing a mechanically correct putt, but the ball rolling and
narrowly missing the cup. The control group was instructed to just
try and make the putt. There were six trials of ten putts each for
every group of subjects.

Results from the Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy (1985) study
indicated that the successful imagery group was significantly more
accurate with their putting than the failure or control groups.
Furthermore, the positive outcome imagery group improved its
putting performance by 30.4 percent from baseline, while the failure
imagery group declined in putting performance by 21.2 percent from
baseline. Complementary results were also found in a study which
chose to include the role of self-efficacy along with mental imagery
(Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, & Aitken, 1985). The fifty subjects
in this study also attempted the motor accuracy test of golf putting.
Subjects' self-efficacy was measured prior to each of the two trials
of ten putts each. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the
five imagery groups which consisted of I) successful outcome with
motor performance, 2) failure outcome with motor performance, 3)
motor performance only, 4) successful outcome only, and 5) failure
outcome only.

Results indicated that failure imagery had a greater influence
on decreasing performance than successful imagery's influence on
improving performance. Furthermore, success or failure imagery
was found not to have an effect on self-efficacy. Researchers

concluded that pre- performance imagery can either enhance or

32
degrade performance of a fine motor skill accuracy task, and that

failure imagery appears to consistently decrease performance
(Budney & Woolfolk, 1990). A decrease in performance due to
unsuccessful imagery is consistent with other studies of its kind
(Meyers, Schleser, Cooke, & Cullivier, 1979; Powell, 1973).

Unlike the results for fine motor skill tasks, questions arose
concerning whether negative outcomes with imagery use can also
occur with gross motor skills. Murphy, Woolfolk, and Budney (1988)
addressed this issue in a study investigating the influence of
emotional imagery on the task of squeezing a hand grip
dynamometer. The thirty subjects for this study performed under
three conditions of anger, fear, and relaxation. Imagery training was
provided prior to each of the test trials. The subjects were asked to
imagine a personal situation which most closely reflected the
appropriate emotion of anger, fear or relaxation. When this emotion
was achieved subjects were to squeeze the grip dynamometer.

Results from the Murphy, Woolfolk, and Budney (1988) study
indicated that the mean strength scores on the grip dynamometer
were significantly lower in the imagery groups than the other two
groups. Furthermore, strength responses under the relaxation
condition were significantly less than the anger and fear conditions.
A decrease in mean strength performance from baseline was also
noticed in a follow up investigation (Budney, Woolfolk, & Murphy,
1987).

Along with the cases of negative outcomes of mental imagery
use there is a tendency for an absence of any change in performance

due to imagery procedures. Although the mental imagery process

33
may be carried out correctly by researchers and athletes, instances

can occur where imagery has no influence on performance. Several
mental imagery investigators have attempted to conduct studies
which expose the benefits of mental imagery use for athletes, but
have noticed ineffective results in some cases. A study of this kind
by Ryan and Simons (1981) was performed to observe imagery and
frequency of mental rehearsal as factors which influence the
acquisition of motor skills. Thirty-nine male undergraduates were
selected for this study and were randomly assigned to either a
physical practice group (PP), a mental practice group (MP), or a no
practice group (NP). Two apparatuses were used for this
experiment, a stabilometer and a dial-a-maze, which were to test
each of the subjects' perceptual motor skills.

Instructions were given to each of the subjects in the three
groups by the researchers on the procedures of the experiment.
Subjects in the PP group were given twelve 30 second trials on each
apparatus with a 30 second rest between trials. During the 30
second rest period on the stabilometer the PP group computed
arithmetic problems and unscrambled words during rests on the
dial-a-maze task. The MP subjects performed one 30 second trial on
the stabilometer and then were asked to sit, close their eyes, relax,
and as vividly as possible imagine themselves balancing on the
stabilometer. These mental rehearsal trials occurred nine times and
lasted for 30 seconds with a 30 second rest period. For the final
two trials the MP group did arithmetic problems during the 30
second rest period. During the dial-a-maze tasks the MP group

followed similar procedures as they did in the stabilometer trials

34
with one trial of actual practice, nine trials of mental rehearsal,

and the final two trials of actual practice. The NP subjects were
given one trial on the stabilometer, a 9 minute rest and then two
more 30 second trials with a 30 second rest between each trial.
Subjects in the NP group performing the dial-a-maze task were
given one trial, then a rest period during the time a PP subject
would finish the task and final tasks with a 30 second rest period.

Results from the Ryan and Simons (1981) study revealed that
performances on the dial-a-maze task showed no significant
differences between the MP and PP groups, but both were
significantly different than the NP subjects. Performance results on
the stabilometer task indicated no difference between the MP and NP
groups, but both were significantly better than the PP group. One
possible explanation provided by Ryan and Simons (1981) for the no
effect results in their investigation was minimal attention given to
Vividness and controllability of mental images. Furthermore, the
relative frequency of mental rehearsal may have been a factor
influencing the acquisition of motor skills.

Another study using similar procedures and a task like that of
the dial-a-maze in the Ryan and Simons (1981) investigation was
also conducted. Hall, Buckolz, and Fishburne (1989) sought to
examine university students' ability to recall and recognize a list of
movements. Subjects were in either high or low imagery ability
categories and were presented with a particular movement on a
computer monitor. After the presentation of the movements,
subjects were to perform a recall and recognition task of

regenerating the same movements. Results indicated that there

35
were no differences in recall and recognition performance between

the two groups of imagery ability.

Moreover, imagery has been noticed to be ineffective in more
physical tasks. For instance, Wilkes and Summers (1984) examined
imagery as well as other cognitive strategies and revealed that
those subjects exposed to mental imagery practice performed the
same as the subjects in the control group on a leg-kick maneuver.
One may assert from these results that the representative images
being imagined may be an influential factor that determines the
effectiveness of mental imagery practice (Hall, Buckolz, & Fisburne,
1989). Proper images as well as other factors have been a concern
among many researchers who have conducted similar studies and
found mental imagery to have no effect on performance (Corbin,
1967b; Epstein, 1980; Shick, 1970; Steel, 1952; Weinberg, Gould,
Jackson, & Barnes, 1980).

One popular technique for visualization known as, visuo—motor
behavior rehearsal (VMBR; Suinn, 1972) has contributed a great deal
to the mental imagery literature. Suinn (1993) refers to his imagery
development as, "a covert activity whereby a person experiences
sensory-motor sensations that reintegrate reality experiences, and
which include neuromuscular, physiological, and emotional
involvement" (p.499). One aspect of the VMBR method that
distinguishes it from other imagery methods is a relaxation process
that precedes the imagery steps. Relaxation prior to imagery is
thought to help facilitate the mental imagery process (Suinn, 1985;
Vealey, 1986). The VMBR method resembles actual physical actions

as it attends to visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic senses

36
involved during an athletic performance. However, despite the fact

that the VMBR technique is not hard to learn, Suinn (1983) states,
"The value of mental practice is influenced by the subjects' level of
skill in the mental process itself" (p. 511).

The recent conception of the VMBR technique has sparked
several research studies to test its validity for enhancing athletic
performance. In one of the first experiments using the VMBR
method, Kolonay (1977) chose 72 male college basketball players as
subjects to see if VMBR would improve their free throw shooting.
These subjects were randomly selected to either a VMBR training
group, a relaxation only group, a imagery rehearsal without
relaxation group, or a control group. The training for each of the
experimental groups was implemented during practice and lasted for
six weeks. Kolonay (1977) found that the subjects exposed to the
VMBR training improved 7 percent in their free throw shooting
accuracy. Subjects who were in the groups exposed only to imagery
or relaxation showed no difference in their free throw shooting
performance. The latter results provide support for the argument
that relaxation is important for helping the imagery process.

Further investigation of mental imagery has been conducted to
see its influence on enhancing performance. Building upon the
format used in the Kolonay (1977) study, Weinberg, Seabourne, and
Jackson (1981) added a placebo-control group to their
experimentation with mental imagery. These researchers chose 32
male subjects from a karate program and randomly placed them in
the groups of either, VMBR, relaxation alone, imagery alone, or the

placebo-control. This study was an effort to see how these four

37
conditions would influence the subjects' performance of several

karate skills. A statistically significant better performance was
noticed for the VMBR group than the relaxation only, and imagery
only groups on sparring skills. In addition, the VMBR subjects were
noted as having significantly lower state anxiety levels than
subjects in the other three conditions.

The findings in the previously mentioned articles are related
to results noticed in the Gravel, Lemieux, and Ladouceur (1980)
study which revealed that subjects in the VMBR condition had a
significant decrease in frequency of negative cognitive
interferences. Reasoning for this connection is that negative
ruminations could increase state anxiety prior to and during
performance. A number of other experiments have been performed
using similar methods in the cited articles, and many of them have
found support for the VMBR technique in improving. athletic
performance (Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983; Seabourne, Weinberg, Jackson,
& Suinn, 1985).

Relevant information for the present study has been provided
through the literature examining mental imagery in a tennis setting.
The serve in tennis is a very important aspect of the game and thus
it has been the focus for some researchers. Weinberg, Gould,
Jackson, and Barnes (1980) conducted a study to see how the serve
was affected by the use of various cognitive strategies of male and
female advanced and beginning tennis players. Participants involved
in this study were 20 males and 20 females of high- and low-ability.
The subjects for this study were to perform a tennis serving test

using one of the four mental strategies of imagery, statements of

38
positive self-efficacy, attentional focus, or no mental practice.

Results indicated that the mental preparation strategy had no
influence on facilitating the tennis serve. However it was noted in
the discussion that the average degree of clarity of images
expressed by the subjects was only at a midpoint level. This may
suggest that there was a need for more practice with the imagery in
order to help increase the vividness of images and, thus, its
effectiveness.

Davis (1991) has conducted a case study which provides
further insight into imagery in the tennis arena. This study involved
implementing a performance enhancement program to achieve
psychological and performance goals of a female freshman tennis
player. The subject in this study had been playing competitive
tennis since the age of nine and had dreams of becoming a
professional. Interviews were conducted with the subject to
determine her strengths and weaknesses in tennis. Furthermore, the
interviews allowed the subject to set certain psychological and
performance goals. Throughout the study the subject attended
meetings to monitor her progress toward the goals. In addition,
imagery sessions were scheduled with the participant three times a
week. One of the subject's performance weaknesses was with her
serve during a match. The imagery sessions used to help her achieve
her goal was found to be a positive influence. Furthermore, the
imagery sessions were also shown to be valuable in helping correct
technical areas with her forehand and backhand return of serve.

Finally, the exposure to imagery sessions helped the subject to

39
suppress negative and doubtful thoughts and maintain a positive

image during a match.

Based on the knowledge cited from research involving mental
imagery practice to this point, there are several components of
imagery which determine its success or failure for enhancing
performance. These factors which can determine the effectiveness
of imagery are imagery ability, vividness of images, imagery
perspective, and relaxation. Each of these factors deserves
attention when conducting mental imagery research for it is
believed that they have some influence on the results of imagery use
(Horn, 1992).

An individual's ability to image is a major concern when
conducting mental imagery research. Imagery ability is considered
the capacity to which a person can picture images with respect to
controllability and vividness factors. Controllability refers to the
degree to which a person is able to manipulate or dictate the
processes of his or her mental images. Vividness describes the
clarity with which a person is able to see his or her mental images.
The controllability and vividness aspects of imagery ability are so
valuable that there are instruments used to assess these two areas.
The Vividness of Visual Images Questionnaire (VVIQ; Marks, 1973)
and the Test of Visual Imagery Control (TVIC; Gordon, 1949) are two
developments which are a means of measuring these aspects.

One's ability to image is important in that it is believed that
there are differences in ability among various individuals
(Richardson, 1969). In addition, there exists the notion that mental

imagery is best suited for those who have a good degree of imagery

4O
ability (Horn, 1992). While working under these assumptions, Start

and Richardson (1964) noticed that those subjects who had a high
degree of vividness and controllability of their images showed
higher gymnastics scores than subjects with either lower
controllability or vividness ability. Hall, Buckolz, and Fishburne
(1989) provided further support for the difference in imagery ability
suggesting that individual differences in imagery ability has an
effect on motor performance. However, Hall et al. (1989) also
indicated that there were no differences between high and low
ability imagery subjects on tests of recall and memory of
performance. These findings are contradictory to the Hall, Pongrac,
and Buckolz (1985) results that indicate high ability imagery
subjects reproduce movement locations more accurately than do low
ability imagery subjects. Many other studies examining imagery
ability have provided support for the notion that good controllability
and vividness are important for affecting performance (Goss, Hall,
Buckolz, & Fishburne, 1986; Housner, 1984; Orlick & Partington,
1988; Ryan & Simons, 1982).

Through mental imagery experiments in sport psychology,
researchers have recognized that one's imagery perspective is a
factor effecting imagery effectiveness. The internal and external
imagery perspectives are specific aspects of the total imagery
perspective. Mahoney and Avener (1977) provided an explanation of
these two perspectives which states: "In external imagery, a person
views himself from the perspective of an external observer (much
like home movies). Internal imagery, on the other hand, requires an

approximation of the real-life phenomenology such that the person

41
actually imagines being inside his/her body and experiencing those

sensations which might be expected in the actual situation" (pp.
137).

An understanding of imagery perspectives of athletes is a
concept which helps to determine the style and direction of mental
imagery sessions. Mahoney and Avener (1977) have posited that the
better athletes have a tendency to use more internal imagery from
their work with elite male gymnasts. These results have led to a
fundamental belief that internal imagery is better suited for more
elite athletes, whereas an external imagery perspective is most
appropriate for nonelite athletes (Doyle & Landers, 1980; Hall,
Rodgers, & Barr, 1990; Mahoney, Gabriel, 8: Perkins, 1987; Murphy,
Jowdy, & Durtschi, 1989; Rotella, Gansneder, Ojala, & Reilly, 1980).

In contrast to the acceptance of certain perspectives for
specific ability level athletes, some researchers have asserted that
there is no relation among these variables (Meyers, Cooke, Cullen, &
Liles, 1979). Attempting to determine how imagery perspective
influences athletic performance, Epstein (1980) examined subjects
performing a dart-throwing task. Subjects for this investigation
were 33 female and 42 male undergraduate students who were
randomly assigned to either an internal imagery condition (n=30), an
external imagery condition (n=30), or a control condition (n=15). The
dart target was comprised of nine concentric circles with a number
assigned to each individual circle. The center most circle had the
highest number (9), while each of the next larger circles decreased
in number until the last circle (1). Prior to conducting the dart-

throwing task subjects were tested to determine their imagery

42
perspective. Baseline dart-throwing ability was established by

having each subject attempt 30 dart throws toward the target.
After baseline measures were established, subjects in each of the
two imagery conditions engaged in a imagery training session
representative of the perspective group for which they were
selected. A post experiment questionnaire followed which asked
targeted subjects to rate their efficacy and to identify their
thoughts prior to performing the task. Results indicated that for
mean dart-throwing accuracy, there was no significant difference
across the imagery perspective groups. Similar results for the lack
of relationship between imagery perspective and performance have
been noticed in figure skating (Mumford & Hall, 1985).

The literature suggesting no relationship between imagery
perspective and performance has not always been upheld. Unlike the
information revealed in the Epstein (1980) study, other research
studies which have examined this issue have discovered that
imagery perspective can be a determinant of favorable and less
favorable task performances (Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Morgan &
Pollock, 1977). Information suggesting that there is such a
relationship is usually in favor of internal imagery being the better
perspective which leads some to believe that external imagery has a
negative influence. In defense of the external imagery perspective,
it should be mentioned that kinesthetic cues are usually absent from
external imagery. Furthermore, during external imagery subjects
who are asked to see themselves performing a particular task

usually report becoming self-conscious and nervous which diverts

43
attention away from performance (Epstein, 1980). Further studies

are necessary to resolve this discrepancy in the literature.
Additional research surrounding imagery perspectives has
endeavored to focus on biofeedback information as a result of
athletes use of imagery. A study of this type was conducted by
Harris and Robinson (1986) to determine if athletes of varying skill
levels utilizing two imagery perspectives (i.e., internal, external)
would display a difference in muscle activity. Subjects for this
study were 36 karate students, who were classified according to
skill level as either beginning (n=16 males, 2 females) or advanced
(n=14 males, 4 females). Each subject was randomly assigned to an
imagery perspective group and chloride electrodes were applied to
the middle deltoid muscle of each arm. Each of the seated subjects
were exposed to taped relaxation and imagery instructions that were
played through earphones while being monitored by the researcher.
The relaxation procedures were familiar to the subjects because it
was used in their regular training. Subjects were instructed to
perform five right lateral arm raises by counting: Raise arm 1-2-3-
4-5, (pause 1 sec.) hold, 1-2-3-4-5, relax, 1-2-3-4-5. Muscle
activity was recorded when the arm was in the "hold" position.
Results indicated the the internal imagery perspective produced
more deltoid muscle activity than did the external imagery
perspective but this was not a significant difference. These results
are in accord with Hale's (1982) findings which also suggest that
internal imagery generates more bicep muscle activity. Further
results (Hale, 1982) reveal that advanced students preferred the

internal imagery perspective more so than the beginning students.

44
Information about muscular activity during mental imagery is

of particular value to the understanding of mental imagery. By
examining the feedback of muscle activity during mental imagery,
researchers can better determine if an athlete is actually using
imagery and the degree of sensory activity. Furthermore, by
distinguishing between an internal or external perspective prior to
imagery practice it may be easier for researchers to determine the
cause of an athlete's muscle activity. The knowledge presented from
Harris and Robinson's (1986) study which suggested that advanced
athletes prefer more internal imagery directly relates to the issue
of whether a particular perspective is more appropriate or effective
for the skill level of a particular athlete. Having raw data from
muscle activity during the use of internal or external imagery may
actually answer some of the questions regarding whether an imagery
perspective is influential for performance of a task.

Relaxation procedures to help induce mental imagery sessions
is another topic of debate in the sport psychology arena. Many of the
mental imagery practices and studies are performed by having some
form of relaxation exercise prior to moving into imagery. This order
of steps in the imagery process is commonplace in many instances
because of the belief that a considerable level of relaxation will
help facilitate mental imagery (Suinn, 1985; Vealey, 1986).
However, several researchers who have examined the role of
relaxation in imagery have not found any support to suggest that it
has any major positive influence on imagery (Gray, Harding, & Banks,
1984; Hamberger & Lohr, 1980; Weinberg, Seabourne, 8r Jackson,
1981, 1987). The discrepancy between the importance of relaxation

45
prior to imagery reveals no definitive answers. Further research

involving the relaxation technique with imagery is necessary to
determine what is best for releasing imagery's fullest potential.

The reviewed literature has reported much of the work
conducted with mental imagery. However, there are certain issues
which have not received as much attention in the literature. First,
in conducting mental imagery studies more emphasis should be
placed on measures taken to help educate athletes how to properly
use mental imagery. This should help avoid any confounding factors
of subjects not knowing how to tap into visual images. Secondly,
the amount of time practicing mental imagery before it becomes
effective is another issue deserving of more attention. In many of
the studies conducted there was no judgment of what was too much
or too little time spent practicing mental imagery. Finally, the
population of subjects used for imagery studies has been limited in
that ethnic backgrounds have not been addressed in determining if
there are any differences in imagery effectiveness among races.
Addressing this issue will help mental imagery knowledge to be
more applicable to larger populations.

The need for exploring the role of racial/ethnic factors in
mental imagery effectiveness is imperative. With the many cross-
cultural studies that have been conducted in non-athletic settings,
it is puzzling to understand why the race variable has not received
as much attention in sport psychology research. It is especially
important for sport psychology to examine this area in order to get a
broad based understanding of what factors are involved for making

imagery optimally useful for the masses. In the case of learning

46
styles, it has been pointed out that African American and Chinese

american grade students have preferences for a visual style of
learning (Ewing & Yong, 1992). This finding is especially useful for
educators in that they may adjust their teaching environment in such
a way that is comfortable for the students to achieve their greatest
learning potential.

In comparisons of Blacks and Whites learning styles, pertinant
information has been reported. It has been noted that Black children
have a significant preference for visual styles of learning than
Whites (Sims, 1988). Taking into account that imagery is such a
visual process the discovery that Blacks have a preference for visual
styles of learning must be explored in conjuction with mental
imagery research. From research of this kind scientists may find
that ceratin learning styles are also appropriate when learning and
using the mental imagery tool for performance enhancement.

Finally, racial/ethnic factors are necessary for imagery studies
focused on inducing certain emotions. As reported in the Murphy,
Woolfolk, and Budney (1988) study, methods used to invoke anger,
fear, and relaxation emotions on subjects showed no significant
impact on a hand grip task. Without acknowledging racial/ethnic
backgrounds as in the Murphy, Woolfolk, and Budney (1988) study one
can not assume that every individual responds to emotion stimuli to
the same degree or in the same manner.

The present study is a replication of Noel (1980) and attempts
to address some of the overlooked issues with mental imagery
research. The present study will provide some degree of imagery
training prior to subjects' practice with imagery on their own. This

47
design will be observed to determine its influence on the overall

results and will be compared to other literature to see if it was
actually positively influential. Furthermore, the present study's
work with subjects representing two different ethnic backgrounds
will possibly contribute information regarding any racial
differences with imagery use, susceptibility, perspective, and
effectiveness to the existing mental imagery literature.

As further experimentation and exposure to mental imagery
continues widespread use and acceptance should occur. Many
athletes and coaches who are introduced to the concept of mental
imagery are often skeptical. However, meta analysis of the mental
imagery research studies find that mental practice does in fact have
a positive and significant effect on performance (Driskell, Copper, &
Moran, 1994; Feltz & Landers, 1983). The many empirical
investigations provide a credible background for helping one to
become involved with implementing imagery practices. In addition,
the many components and common beliefs about imagery make it
known that it is a detailed process. Although there are no steadfast
theories of mental imagery, there has been enough evidence revealed
to support its effectiveness. As mental imagery research advances,
eventually, a theoretical basis will be established. This occurrence
will allow an even greater understanding of mental imagery which
should result in a great number of athletes and coaches endorsing

imagery to help enhance performance in many domains.

CHAPTER 3
Method

Subiects

Subjects for the study were 35 male volunteer college tennis
players. Of these subjects, 15 were of African American descent,
while another 20 were Caucasian. The average age of the subjects
involved with this study was 20.2 years (SD = 1.08). Ages ranged
from 17 to 25 years. Each subject was classified as a high-ability
or low-ability tennis player on the basis of the United States Tennis
Association's (USTA) National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP). Those
subjects classified as high-ability were capable of competing on
most college level teams. Thirteen of the high-ability subjects
were on a college or university tennis team at the time of the study,
while four of the high-ability subjects had previous experience on a
college or university tennis team. The low-ability subjects would
be considered club level players. Each of these subjects had been
playing competitive tennis for at least 3 years.
Instruments

A demographic survey was used to gain the necessary
background information for each subject. This survey was developed
to obtain pertinent information of subjects for use in the study (See
Appendix A). A form devised by the primary researcher was used in
the study to assess subjects' control and vividness of images. The
items on the imagery control and vividness questionnaire can be
found in Appendix B.

48

49
Procedures

Approval to conduct this study using human subjects was
obtained from the University Committee on Research Involving
Human Subjects (UCRIHS). (See Appendix C.) Subjects were selected
to participate in the study by observing their tennis ability at
various racquet clubs, local tournaments, and dual collegiate
matches located in the midwest. This selection process was based
on the USTA's National Tennis Rating Program (See Appendix D). An
assistant, who was well trained in the USTA rating system, was
employed to help with the subject selection process. Ratings of the
potential subjects were made by the primary researcher and the
assistant individually while observing play of various possible
subjects, and then compared to establish agreement between the
two raters. In the event that the two raters were not in agreement,
or a subject was thought to be playing below his true ability level at
the time of observation, the primary researcher, whose own rating
on the NTRP would place him in the high-ability group, would play a
set with the subject. The trained rater observed the play and
rerated the subject.

Ability level was described as either high tennis ability or low
tennis ability based on the NTRP ratings which can range from 1 to
7. Those subjects who received an NTRP rating which ranged from
3.5 to 4.5 were classified as low-ability for this study. Those
subjects who were classified as high-ability received an NTRP
rating which ranged from 5 to 7.

Subjects were given a written description of the study,
without revealing the purpose of the study, and permission was
obtained from subjects to participate in the study. Each of the

50
subjects was randomly assigned to either the imagery or control

group. This process of random assignment was first performed by
assigning a number to each of the subjects selected for the study.
These numbers were blindly drawn from a container and alternately
placed into the imagery (treatment) or control group. Separate
draws were made for African American and Caucasian subjects to
assure equal distribution within the treatment groups.

Base measures of service accuracy were deemed necessary to
verify overall ability assessments. Therefore, each subject was
notified by phone/mail in order to schedule a practice match prior to
testing. Matches played prior to the test day were among
participants of either group, or with a confederate of the
researcher, of similar ability, when necessary. The reason for the
practice match was to gain a base measure of serving accuracy for
each of the subjects.

To strengthen the assessment of actual tennis ability, 3
serving-specific skills test was implemented prior to the pretest
matches. This serving skills test involved each subject of high-and
low-ability being asked to attempt 12 serves into a designated
serving area following a warm-up. Six of these test serves were to
be directed into a 4' by 5 1/2' box in the deuce court (3 to a box at
the left comer, and 3 to the box at the right corner) and six to the ad
court (3 to the box at the left corner, and 3 to the right comer).
Three points were awarded to the subjects for each serve which
bounced in the designated area and one point was awarded if the
serve bounced outside the area but was in the appropriate service

box, thus scores could range from 0-36. Scores from the serving

51
skills test were totaled and subjects were classified as above

average or average servers according to their scores. A serving
skills test was helpful for determining serving ability and for
confirming the accurateness of the NTRP system.

Subjects who were assigned to the imagery condition were
gathered for a group training session 10 days prior to their first
test match. This training took place after the base measures were
gathered from the pretest matches. At this session subjects were
given a description of the relaxation and imagery process. During
this training, participants were also informed of how the imagery
process works, how one is to properly use imagery, and the ways in
which it enhance performance.

Assessments of imagery vividness and controllability were
made using the visual imagery control and vividness questionnaire
devised by the primary researcher. The imagery condition subjects
were led through the 30-minute progressive relaxation session,
followed by the tennis serving-specific imagery session (See
Appendix E for imagery scripts.) After this session subjects were
given an audio cassette tape which contained exactly the same
relaxation and imagery procedures previously conducted by the
researcher. The imagery procedures in the initial group session and
on the audio tape were conducted from an internal imagery
perspective. Subjects in the control group were given a meditation
audio cassette later the same day. The imagery condition subjects
and those in the control group were told to practice with the tape
for the next seven days. For the imagery group, three of these days

were for practicing just the relaxation portion of the tape, while the

52
other four days were for practicing the relaxation and imagery

process together. A time log (See Appendix F) accompanied the audio
cassettes for both groups of subjects to allow subjects to record
each time they practiced the session. Subjects in the control group
rated how they felt about the meditation; subjects in the imagery
group rated the degree of relaxation achieved, vividness of images,
and controllability of images.

The researcher contacted each of the subjects by phone to
verify that the tapes were being used. Verification for the imagery
group subjects was done once during the three days the subjects
were to be practicing just relaxation, and twice during the four days
of practicing the relaxation and imagery process together. The
control group subjects were contacted on either the third or fourth
day during their seven day practice with the meditation cassette.
Questions were answered and the techniques used were clarified.

On the day of the subjects' test match, members of the
research team were assigned to a particular court to record the
number of good first and second serves in a best 2 out of 3 sets
match between the subjects. To establish pairings for the tennis
matches, subjects names were randomly selected within ability
groups, and paired together to play their test match. Subject
pairings for matchplay were made regardless of their assignment to
the treatment or control condition. All the high-ability subjects
played other subjects of similar ability, while matches were also
played between subjects of low-ability. Prior to the start of each
subjects' first match, the serving skills was administered again to

53
compare the serving percentages and ability with the scores from

the prematch skills test.

Members of the research team were equipped with several
CompuTennis forms (See Appendix G) while observing a match
between subjects. The CompuTennis system is a method of charting
the events which take place during a tennis match. Researchers
were not concerned with all of the items on this form, only the
serving portion. These researchers recorded a good or bad first
serve based on the call of the subject who was receiving the serve.
Although the researcher may not have agreed with the call of the
subject, most amateur matches are played without line judges, so
this method of recording serving accuracy was used. Members of the
research team had no definitive information regarding the ability
level of the subjects, and were also unaware of whether they were
in the imagery or control group. During match play the principal
researcher walked around the tournament site to verify if the
observers were recording properly.

After each of the subjects in the imagery condition completed
their match, they completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire and
post-match questions about the match and control of visual images
during the match. Then each of the subjects, regardless of group,
completed a form (see Appendix H) which asked them to rate their
serving performance (1=much worse than usual to 5=much better
than usual), and the degree of relaxation during the match (1=much
less relaxed than usual to 5=much more relaxed than usual). The
imagery condition subjects were also asked to report the degree to

which the imagery influenced their serves during the match (1=very

54
bad influence to 5=very good influence). The imagery subjects were

also asked if they used imagery during their match. If these
subjects did use imagery, they were asked when imagery was used
and what specific images were processed during the tennis match.
Questions for each group of subjects also attempted to determine
any other cognitive strategies that were used during a match. The
control group subjects were asked if they implemented any imagery
techniques of their own during their match. After each subjects'
match they were given their service percentages and informed of a
final meeting. At this final meeting all of the subjects were

debriefed about the study and given the available results.

CHAPTER 4
Results

The results reported for this study are organized according to
each of the four hypotheses which guided the study. A statement of
the hypothesis and a brief rationale precedes mention of the
statistical methods used to test that hypothesis. Various
descriptive statistics and tables have also been presented to provide
a clearer understanding of the results. A final perspective of the
overall results serves as a summary for the observed outcomes.

In the first group of analyses, the first and second hypotheses
of the study were tested simultaneously. For the first hypothesis, it
was predicted that the high-ability subjects in the treatment group
would show greater improvement in serving performances after
mental imagery training than would the low-ability treatment group
subjects. This hypothesis was thought to be reasonable when
recognizing the fact that elite tennis players should be able to
concentrate more on cognitive or visual aspects of the game
compared to the lower-ability tennis players who still have to focus
much of their attention on the execution of various strokes in order
to hit satisfactory shots. The second hypothesis stated that the
serving performances of the treatment group subjects will show a
greater improvement than the subjects in the control group.

Descriptive statistics were run for the two treatment groups
and two ability groups to find the means and standard deviations for
both first and second serve percentages. The descriptive data (i.e.,
means and standard deviations) for serving percentages of high-and

low-ability treatment group and control group subjects are depicted

55

56
in Table 1. In looking at Table 1 it is interesting to note that the

high-ability subjects were able to maintain a

first serving percentage of around 60 for pre-test and posttest,
whereas low-ability subjects averaged 51 percent of first serves
for pre- and posttest. Another group of numbers that stand out in
Table 1 are the second serve percentages of high-and low-ability
subjects in the pre-test. The high-ability subjects managed to get
only 50 percent of their second serves in, but with a relatively large
standard deviation. On the other hand the low-ability treatment and
control subjects achieved 66 percent of their second serves in the
pre-test. Finally, it was surprising to find that the mean of 67
percent of first serves achieved by the high-ability control group
subjects was greater than the posttest first serve percentages of
both high-and low-ability treatment group subjects.

To obtain a value of improvement of serving performances, the
pre-intervention serving percentages of the treatment group
subjects were subtracted from the post-intervention percentages
for both the first and second serves. The mean degree of
improvement achieved for the groups is depicted numerically in
Table 2. In Table 2 there are some interesting numbers which should
be recognized. For instance, the -.01 mean first serve improvement
for the high-and low-ability treatment group subjects suggest that
there was no improvement in serving percentage from pre-test to
posttest. In addition, the .14 mean second serve improvement score
for high-ability treatment group subjects and the -.13 for high-
ability control group subjects shows a large difference in second

serve improvement between the two groups. By comparing the

57
improvement scores of the treatment and control groups, we see

that the control group subjects (i.e., total) got worse with second
serve performances, whereas the treatment group subjects (i.e.,
total) did not. However, the low-ability treatment group subjects
showed no improvement in second serve percentage.

Table 1

Means and Standard Deviations For Sewing Percentage On First and
53am Serves Of High- And L_ow-Abilitv Treatment and Control

Subiects

 

 

PRE-TEST POST-TEST
IST SERVE 2ND SERVE IST SERVE 2ND SERVE
Mean SD. Mean SD. Mean SD. Mean SD.

 

Treatment Group
High-Ability .59 .17 .49 .36 .58 .09 .63 .31
(N=9)
Low-Ability .52 .13 .66 .16 .51 .12 .66 .15
(N=8)

Control Group
High-Ability .65 .18 .66 .29 .67 .15 .53 .40
(N=7)
Low-Ability .50 .10 .64 .14 .51 .12 .66 .15
(N=11)

 

58
Table 2

Means And Standard Deviationa Of Firat And Second Serve

Improvement Scores Of High-And Low-ability Treatment And Control
Group Subiects

 

 

Ist Serve 2nd Serve
Improvement Improvement
M 5.0. M SD.
Treatment Group
High-Ability -.01 .13 .14 .55
(N=9)
Low-Ability -. 01 .14 .00 .23
(N=8)
Total -.01 .13 .07 .40
Control Group
High-Ability .01 .20 -.1 3 .62
(N=7)
Low-Ability .03 .15 -.07 .25
(N=1 1)
Total .02 .17 -.09 .39

 

Separate 2 X 2 (ability X treatment group) analysis of variance
(ANOVA) tests were used to assess differences in improvement on
first and second serve percentages between high-and low-ability
treatment and control group subjects. Results of the 2 X 2 (ability X

59
treatment group) ANOVA on first serve percentage improvement

revealed no significant interaction differences between tennis
ability and assignment group, F(1, 31) = .028, p > .05. For the main
effect "tennis ability" there was no significant difference in degree
of improvement, F(1,31) = .025, p > .05. A similar nonsignificant
finding was observed for the main effect of "assignment group",
F(1,31) = .383, p > .05. The serving percentage means along with
standard deviations of the main effects of "tennis ability", and
"assignment group" are presented in Appendix I. These findings did
not support Hypothesis 1 which predicted a significant difference
between high-and low-ability treatment groups on first serve
percentage improvement.

To assess the degree of second serve improvement, a 2 X 2
(ability X treatment group) ANOVA test was performed. No
significant difference in second serve percentage improvement was
found between the two treatment groups, F(1, 31) = 1.29, p > .05.
For the main effect "tennis ability" there was also no statistical
difference in the degree of improvement on the second serve, F(1,31)
= .080, p > .05. A nonsignificant interaction finding for ability and
assignment group was also revealed, F(1,31) = .484, p > .05.

These findings for improvement in first and second serve
percentages did not support the second hypothesis predicting a
difference between the treatment and control groups. It may be
concluded from these results that the mental imagery intervention
used for the treatment group subjects was not as positively
influential as desired. In addition, the placebo tape used by the
control group subjects may have been perceived as a method for

60
relaxing which helped their tennis game and made them perform

better than expected. This Hawthorne Effect may have caused some
threats to the internal validity of the study. It may be difficult to
determine exactly why these outcomes came about. Possibly the
subjects in the low-ability group realized somewhere along the way
in the study that they were characterized as such and began to play
uncharacteristically better to impress the researchers. If so, this
Avis effect may explain better serving performances of low-ability
subjects and, thus, a lack of a statistical difference. One may also
assert that high level tennis players usually have a consistent range
of serving percentages during a match, thus no significant
improvement would occur as rapidly as in 7 days.

The following set of results examined the possibility of the
race variable being a factor in differences in serving performances
that might have occurred between the subjects. This observance of
the race variable pertains to the third hypothesis which predicted
that there would be no differences in serving percentages as a result
of race between the high-ability treatment group and high-ability
control subjects. African American and Caucasian elite level tennis
players were believed to be able to consistently achieve
satisfactory serving percentages during a match. In order to test
this hypothesis 3 new variable had to be created. The race and
ability variables were combined to form four groups ( i.e., African
American high-ability, Caucasian high-ability, African American
low-ability, and Caucasian low-ability) which allowed us to make

the necessary computations.

61
The first step in testing the third hypothesis was to select

those players who were classified as high-ability. Separate 2 X 2
(race/high-ability X assignment group) ANOVAs were run on the first
and second serve performance percentages to ascertain any race
differences among high ability tennis players prior to treatment. A
descriptive statistics command was run to obtain the serving
percentages of the two groups to be tested for differences. The
mean pre-test first and second serving percentages of the high-
ability African American and Caucasian treatment and control group
subjects are presented in Table 3. In looking at Table 3 it is
interesting to note that the high-ability African American and
Caucasian subjects of both the treatment and control groups
demonstrated similar first serve percentages during the pre-test.
However, there is roughly a twenty percentage point difference
within the two assignment groups on first serve performance
percentages between the two represented races. Secondly, each of
the four groups demonstrated similar second serve percentages
during the pre-test with the exception of the Caucasian control
group subjects who averaged a mean serving percentage of .75.
Finally, it should be recognized from Table 3 that with the exception
of the Caucasian control group, each of the other three groups of
subjects demonstrated a lower second serve percentage than their
first serve when usually tennis players demonstrate higher second

serve performance percentages than the first serve.

62
Table 3

Pre-Test Serving Percentage Means Of Treatment and Control Group
flighflrilitv Afric_a_n American And Caucasian Subiects

 

 

 

PRE-TEST
IST SERVE 2ND SERVE
M SD. N M SD. N
Treatment (mp
African American Hi-Ability .50 .16 5 .49 .33
Caucasian Hi-Ability .71 .10 4 .49 .45 4
Total Group .59 .13 .49 .38
Control Group
African American Hi-Ability .51 .18 2 .44 .48 2
Caucasian Hi-Ability .71 .15 5 .75 .19 5
Total Group .51 .16 .66 .27

 

Results of the 2 X 2 (race/high-ability X assignment group)
ANOVA test for differences in serving performance on first serve
percentages according to race and ability groups in the pre-test
revealed interesting findings. Differences in first serve
performance percentage between the four groups (i.e., the
interaction of race/ability and treatment groups) during the pre-
test was not significant, F(1, 12) = .002, p > .05. However, the main

effect for race/high-ability produced a significant finding, F(1, 12)

63
= 7.82, p < .05. Specifically, Caucasian players placed 71 percent of

their first serves in compared to 50 percent for African American
players, (Mc=.71, SD. = .10; MAA=.50; S.D.= .16). The main effect for
assignment group (i.e., treatment or control) revealed no significant
difference, F(1, 12) = .006, p > .05. See Total Group means and
standard deviations in Table 3.

Next, a 2 X 2 (race/high-ability X treatment group) ANOVA was
run for second serve percentages in the pre-test. The interaction
differences for second serve performance percentages between the
four groups did not approach significance, F(1, 12) = .762, p > .05, ES
= -1.4. However, a very strong effect size was found which suggests
that group differences may exist. A lack of significance may be due
to the small number of subjects. For the main effect of race on
second serve percentages in the pre-test, a nonsignificant finding
was also obtained, F(1, 12) = .428, p > .05, ES = -1.4. Similar
nonsignificant test results were revealed for the main effect for
assignment group, F(1, 12) = .601, p > .05. The relatively large
effect sizes for these high-ability subjects in the pretest stems
from poor second serve performances by three of the groups and
fairly normal performances by the other. Noticing the effect sizes
in these groups brings about puzzling questions as to why African
American and Caucasian treatment and control subjects were giving
away considerable more points on their second serves than
Caucasian control group subjects who were of similar high-ability.
The majority of nonsignificant findings for the first and second
serves in the pre-test can be largely attributed to the small number

of subjects in each cell. This rationale is thought to be reasonable

64
from seeing the variance in some percentages as reported in Table

3.

These results for first and second serve percentages on the
pre-test did not support Hypothesis 3. Race differences were found
for the first serve only where Caucasian players scored higher than
African American players. A 2 X 2 (race/high-ability X assignment
group) ANOVA was used to test for first and second serve
performance differences in the posttest between the high-ability
race groups and treatment or control groups. Descriptive statistics
provided the means and standard deviations for both first and second
serve performance percentages of the four groups and are presented
in Table 4. In looking at Table 4 it should be recognized that the
mean for high-ability African American treatment group subjects'
first and second serve performance percentages are identical to
high-ability African Americans in the control group. Furthermore,
the mean first serve performance percentage of the high-ability
Caucasian control group subjects rs greater than the mean
performance percentage of either of the two high-ability race
groups in the treatment group. Finally, Table 4 shows again that in
the posttest three of the respective groups demonstrated lower
second serve percentages than their first serve percentage, with the
exception of the Caucasian treatment group subjects who
demonstrated a relatively high mean second serve percentage as
compared to the other three groups of subjects. This trend in poor

second serve percentages is worthy of a closer investigation.

65
Table 4

Eggsttesrt Sewing Percentage Means And Standard Deviations Of
Treatm Apd Contral Group High-Ability Africjan American And

 

Caucasian Subiects

 

 

POST-TEST
IST SERVE 2ND SERVE

M SD. N M SD.
Treatment Group
African American Hi-Ability .56 .10 5 .43 .27
Caucasian Hi-Ability .62 .10 4 .89 .03 4
Control Group
African American Hi-Ability .56 .18 2 .43 .46 2
Caucasian Hi-Ability .71 .12 5 .57 .43 5

 

The 2 X 2 (race/high-ability X assignment group) ANOVA test
provided the necessary results to determine any differences
between the four groups in posttest serving performance
percentages. The interaction of assignment group and race/ability
results of first serve percentages in the post tape indicated no
significant differences, F(1,11) = .879, p>.05, ES = -.75. For the
main effect of race/high-ability, test results failed to find any

66
significant differences with first serve percentages in the post

test, F(1,11) = .673, p > .05. Results of the test for the main effect
of assignment group also failed to reach significance, F(1,11) = .957,
p > .05, ES = -1.3. In terms of practical significance, the noted
effect sizes are valuable. An accurate first serve in tennis is often
times thought to dictate the outcome of a point. In this case the
treatment group subjetcs were not able to serve first serves as well
as the Caucasian control subjects which is an interesting occurrence
when considering winning points in a tennis match. A 2 X 2
(race/high-ability X assignment group) ANOVA was performed to
assess group differences on the second serve percentages. The
second serve results between the four groups in the posttest were
similar. The interaction results of differences in second serve
performance percentages indicated no significant differences, F(1,
11) = 2.29, p > .05, E8 = .75. It is important to notice the effect size
in this case because the second serve percentages of the Caucasian
high-ability treatment group subjects increased greatly from the
pretest, while the Caucasian high-ability control decreases, and the
African American subjects had similar performances to the pretest.
Possibly the imagery practice is perceived most useful for the
second serve of Caucasian players and more useful for first serves
of African Americans. The main effect of race/ability also
indicated no significant differences between the African American
and Caucasian groups on second serve performance percentages,
F(1,11) = .177, p > .05. The main effect of assignment group also
revealed no significant findings, F(1,11) = 4.45, p = .058, but an

evident trend was noticed which almost rendered this variable

67
statistically significant. The means and standard deviations for

first and second serving percentages of these two main effect
groups can be seen in Appendix J. The lack of significance noticed in
the first serve performance percentages could also be due to a low
population of subjects per cell. However, these results do support
the third hypothesis. Thus, elite level tennis players (i.e., high
ability) regardless of race were able to serve consistently during
the pre- and posttest matches.

The final group of analyses tested whether any serving
performance differences could be found between African Americans
and Caucasians who were exposed to mental imagery training. The
final hypothesis predicted that low-ability African American
subjects in the treatment group would display better serving
performance percentages than low-ability Caucasian subjects in the
treatment group. Only African American and Caucasian low-ability
subjects of the treatment group were included for this analysis. The
serving percentages of these two groups can be seen in Table 5.
Important values to be recognized in Table 5 are the similar
performance percentages of African American subjects on first and
second serves. The .59 mean serving performance percentage
demonstrated by the African American subjects on second serves is
only marginally higher than their first serve performance percentage
when a greater difference between the two is expected. Finally, the
.47 mean serving performance percentage of low-ability Caucasian
subjects on first serves is particularly interesting in that, a first
serve percentage less than 50 percent is usually not conducive to

winning very many points in tennis even for low-ability subjects.

68

Table 5
Comparison Of Min Pre-tast Serving Percentages Of Law-Ability

Afripan American And Caucasian Treatment Group Subiects

 

 

PRE-TEST
lST SERVE 2ND SERVE
M SD. N M 8.0. N

 

African American .58 .18 3 .59 .12 3
Low-Ability
Caucasian Low-Ability .47 .09 5 .71 .18 5

 

To test hypothesis four regarding race differences among
those who were exposed to VMBR training, separate t-tests were
performed on first and second serves for pre-test and post-test
serving percentages. The t-test results for serving performance
differences between the two groups of low-ability players in the
pre-test provided valuable information. In testing for differences
(race/ability in VMBR condition only) in first serve performance
percentages between the two groups in the pre-test, no significant
results surfaced, t(6) =-- 1.19, p > .05, ES = 1.2. Similar test results
were found for differences in second serve performance percentages

during the pre-test between the African American and Caucasian

69
low-ability players, t(6) = -.97, p > .05. The analyses on first and

second serve percentages failed to support the fourth hypothesis.
The fact that no significant differences were found between
African American and Caucasian low-ability subjects on pre-test
serving performance percentages suggests that any differences
found in the post-test performance will be a result of the treatment
and the response of the races to the intervention. There should be
no expectation of any serving differences between the two similar

ability groups prior to any form of mental Imagery intervention.

A t-test was used to test for first and second serve
performance differences following the intervention between the
low-ability race groups and the treatment groups. Means and
standard deviations for first and second serve performance
percentages of the two groups are presented in Table 6. In looking
at Table 6 one should again recognize that the .47 mean first serve
performance percentage demonstrated by the Caucasian low-ability
subjects is not very high. A mean serving percentage identical to
that in the pre-test is intriguing considering these subjects were
exposed to mental imagery to enhance their serving performance. In
addition, it should be noted that the African American subjects also
had similar serving percentages as they did in the pre-test. Finally,
in comparing the second serve percentages of the two groups there
appeared to be no large discrepancies and each performed reasonably

well.

70
Table 6

Posttest Serving Percentage Means Of Low-Ability African American
And Caucasian Treatment Group Subiects

 

POST-TEST
TST SERVE 2ND SERVE
M 8.0. N M SD. N

 

African American .56 .13 3 .72 .19 3
Low-Ability
Caucasian Low-Ability .47 .12 5 .62 .14 5

 

Results for any differences between the two groups on first
serve percentages were informative. The t-test results for the
groups was discovered to be nonsignificant, t(6) = .93, p > .05, ES =
.75. The t-test results for posttest second serve performance
percentage results of African American and Caucasian low-ability
subjects were similar to the first serve results. T-test results for
the two groups proved to be nonsignificant, t(6) = .83, p > .05, ES =
.71. The large effect sizes noted are wothy for practical
significance. The large effect size between African American and
Caucasian low-ability subjects was maintained from pre- to
posttest which could be attributed to numerous reasons. However,

the large effect size for second serves between the two groups may

71
suggest that African American low-ability athletes view imagery as

most useful for second serves similar to what was suggested for
Caucasian high-ability subjects in a previous analysis.

The results for first and second serve percentages did not
provide any support for the original hypothesis made for these two
groups. The basis of this hypothesis was formed according to
previous written literature suggesting that African Americans
preferred more visual styles of learning. With mental imagery
being such a visual activity the hypothesis was believed to be
reasonable. The degree to which this knowledge applies to tennis
skills can be questioned due to the results found in this study.
Furthermore, the question of whether the mental imagery training
was best suited to help low-ability level athletes who participate in
a highly cognitive game is still to be determined.

Due to a lack of support for the hypotheses in this study, it
was necessary to closely observe other variables that may provide
insight into the observed outcomes. First, the awareness of mood
item on the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (Vealey, 1988) was
believed to have some influence on the outcomes related to the third
hypothesis. Specifically, there may be a difference in attitude
toward the second serve between African Americans and Caucasian
tennis players. The treatment group subjects' self-reported
responses to the questions addressing an "awareness of mood during

practicing your best serve alone" are depicted in Table 7.

72
Table 7

Comparison Of Means and Standard Deviations of Responses To The
Awareness Qf Moog Item Of African American And Caucasian

Subiects ln t3 Treatment Groups

 

 

M SD N
African American 2.60 1.140 5
High-Ability
Caucasian 3.50 .577 4

 

The range of responses to this item were (1) no awareness at all to
(5) extremely aware of mood. In looking at the mean responses the
African American subjects had a low degree of "awareness of their
mood" which provided a gap between the mean responses of the two
groups of subjects. However, results of a t-test analysis reveled
that this variance in mean responses to awareness of mood was not
significant, t(7) = -1.43, p > .05. A lack of awareness of mood
about the serve could mean that there was not a great deal of
concentration or there was not much interest as to whether the
serve was accurate. The "awareness of mood" variable may also
provide insight into a subject's reactions to hitting a successful or

inaccurate serve. With this knowledge one may better determine

73
how much emphasis is placed on both the first and second serves.

Furthermore, one could reasonably assume that the race variable
may be influential in how willing subjects are to truthfully report
their particular mood. This, variance between groups may provide
support for the notion that African Americans and Caucasian high-
ability subjects may place differing degrees of emphasis on the
serve.

By taking a look at some of the items on the demographic
questionnaire researchers found other important variables to help
understand the results. One question from this form asked if
subjects implemented any pre-serving strategies of their own
during the match. This question was asked of both the treatment and
control groups. Responses to this item for African American and

Caucasian subjects are presented in Table 8.

Table 8

ielf—RamrteiRegonses Of Pre-Serve Strategies Implemented

By Afm American And Caucasian Subjects of Both Treatment And
Control Grgrpa

 

YES NO
(96 N) (96 N)

 

African American 86.7 13 13.3 2
Caucasian 95 19 5.0 1

 

74
Surprisingly, the majority of the African American and Caucasian

subjects reported that they already implemented some form of pre-
serving strategy. This finding is important when assessing the
power of the mental imagery intervention used in this study. The chi
square analysis that was run on the responses of subjects having
any preserve strategies indicated no significant differences, X2 (1)
= .76, p > .05. The fact that the majority of the subjects of both
races across assignment groups already used some type of pre-serve
strategy may mean that the mental imagery practice is something
different from what they are used to and either they are not willing
to change or the imagery was redundant with their strategy.
Researchers were not able to determine what type of strategies
were being used. However, it was apparent that these strategies
could have confounded the study.

Another item of interest on the demographic questionnaire
which provided better interpretation of the results was subjects'
preference for learning new skills. The possible responses to this
question were kinesthetic, visual, cognitive, or physical.
Researchers sought to determine how these responses related to the
serving percentages. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) was used to determine any differences in serving
percentages between African American and Caucasian subjects
according to their preferences for learning new skills. The mean
first serve percentages after treatment for African American
subjects who reported preferring either kinesthetic, visual, or
cognitive learning was .524 (SD = .140), whereas those who reported
preferring physical methods was .539 (SD =.111). For second serve

75
percentages of African Americans the mean was .536 (SD =.157) for

cognitive, kinesthetic, and visual learners, as opposed to .540 (SD =
.313) for physical learners. In the case of first serve percentages
the one-way MANOVA test revealed that there were no significant
differences between serving performances and preference for
learning new skills, F(1,31) .021, p > .05. Likewise, no significant
differences were noticed for second serve percentages, F(1,31) =
.109, p > .05. These finding are relevant because researchers were
working under the understanding that African Americans had a visual
preference for learning but we found no support for our fourth
hypothesis.

Finally, the results regarding the use of mental imagery were
also helpful for interpretation. Observing whether or not treatment
group subjects used imagery prior to their match, researchers found
that 76 percent of the subjects reported using imagery prior to their
match. The use of imagery during the match was also a factor of
interest. Researchers noticed that 94 percent of the treatment
group subjects reported using imagery during their match. When
asked whether they thought mental imagery was helpful for their
serve during the match, 64.7 percent of the treatment group
subjects reported that it was helpful. In comparing African
Americans and Caucasians on imagery use, researchers found that 60
percent of the African American subjects reported using imagery
prior to the match, whereas 50 percent of the Caucasians reported
using imagery prior to their match. For the variable of imagery use
during the match, 66.7 percent of African Americans reported using

it during the match, as opposed to 80 percent for Caucasian

76
subjects. Finally, subjects self-reported responses of imagery

being helpful for their serve during the match. Forty percent of the
African American subjects indicated that imagery was helpful for
their serve during the match, while 25 percent of Caucasian
subjects reported imagery as being helpful for their serve. Athletes'
perceptions of imagery and imagery use can provide clearer
understanding of the observed results.

In summary, the results from this study can be useful for
better understanding imagery when used in a tennis setting while
observing race factors. Although the majority of the hypotheses
were not supported statistically other observed outcomes and trends
toward significance are of value. The knowledge brought into this
study from previous literature was a basis for the hypotheses. A
lack of support for these hypotheses shows that some information is
not applicable to all domains or that there may have been some
methodological errors within the study. The differences noticed in
second serve performances of African Americans and Caucasians is
an outcome that needs to be examined further to determine a reason
for such an occurrence. Furthermore, the mental imagery
intervention proved not to be better suited for either high-ability or
low-ability subjects. Imagery may not have been as effective due to
the possibility that many of the subjects already have a pre-serving
strategy. To protect against this a screening process should be
implemented in future research before assigning groups. In addition,
an appropriate mental imagery intervention technique needs to be
dynamic enough to accommodate high- and low-ability athletes as

well as athletes of different races.

CHAPTER 5
Discussion

This experimentation with the mental imagery phenomenon has
enabled researchers to gain insight and raise questions about
imagery that have not received much attention in other studies.
Although results do not allow us to make any definitive assertions,
certain findings suggest there is a need for additional studies to
explore race variables when attempting to understand imagery use
and its effectiveness. More specifically, this experimentation
suggests less evident factors of a tennis match that can have a
strong impact on performance while using mental imagery. Some of
these important factors are the emphasis placed on the second
serve, athletes existing preserve and prematch strategies, use of
imagery during a match, and level of competition. By uncovering
subtle but valuable aspects of the tennis game through research,
studies such as this provide a basis for making sport psychology
applications to the sport. Information gained from this study builds
upon prior research with imagery and tennis which contributes to
the possibility of an established framework for imagery.

The statistical analyses provided no support for Hypothesis 1
which predicted that all high-ability treatment group subjects will
show greater improvement in serving performance than low-ability
treatment group subjects. These results left researchers feeling
particularly puzzled as to why there was no significant difference
found. The rationale for making such a hypothesis seemed quite
reasonable. High-ability tennis players were thought to have

reached a point in their sport development that would allow them to

77

78
feel fairly comfortable and confident in their physical tennis

abilities. Thus, high-ability level tennis players would have
substantial opportunities to focus on the cognitive strategies of
tennis or the visual processes of mental imagery practice during a
match. Conversely, lower-ability level tennis players need to still
pay close attention to the mechanics and execution of various
strokes in order to play with any degree of proficiency. With the
majority of attention placed on physical components, low-ability
tennis players were believed no to be able to spend much time with
the practice of mental imagery during a match.

With reasonable considerations to back our hypothesis and
knowledge gained from the literature, why were there no statistical
differences between the two groups on serve improvement? In a
similar experiment of cognitive strategies and their influence on
tennis serving performance Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, and Barnes,
(1980) found high ability subjects to have significantly better
serving performances than subjects categorized in the low-ability
group. However, results of this study were in disagreement with
those findings. One may reasonably question whether those subjects
who were placed into either the high- or low-ability classification
were truly of high- or low-ability status. In addition, one may find
it relevant to mention that there may be those players who have
good overall tennis games but are poor servers or vice versa. In
response to these concerns the significant differences in mean serve
skills test scores for high- and low-ability subjects support the
fact that subjects' assignment to either group was accurate.

Furthermore, the serve skills test itself was developed as a means

79
of additional evaluation to validate the skill assessments of the

NTRP ratings. It would seem that with these two major questions
considered in the format of the study there would be some
noticeable differences to support the hypothesis. Other factors such
as subject population, size of sample, time of year, and age of
subjects may be influential reasons for the lack of a statistically
different finding.

Several other questions and explanations have been raised in
an attempt to comprehend why there was no support for the
researcher's second hypothesis. The predicted advantage in serving
percentage improvement for all subjects exposed to the mental
imagery sessions rather than those subjects in the control group
was not thought to be an impossible occurrence because of the focus
of this study on mental imagery effects on tennis serve
performance. Furthermore, this hypothesis was formed along with
conclusions drawn from other studies which mentioned that mental
imagery can be helpful for improving athletic performances
(Desirato & Miller, 1979; Gough, 1989; Kirchenbaum & Bale, 1980;
Kolonay, 1977; Mendoza & Wichman, 1978; Schleser, Meyers, &
Montgomery, 1980; Suinn, 1972, 1977). The unexpected results
showing no difference between the control and treatment groups
was a mystery.

The discovery that the control group subjects actually showed
more improvement in first serve improvement brought about
additional questions. Noel (1980) found that low-ability control
group subjects had a greater improvement in first serve percentage

than did the low-ability treatment group subjects. How can it be

80
that these results surfaced in two different studies? In the present

study the mental imagery intervention tape was reportedly used by
94 percent of the treatment group subjects. Moreover, the question
of whether the 7-day period of mental imagery practice was long
enough to actually have a positive influence on serve performances
was explained by reports of 64 percent of subjects stating imagery
to be effective during play.

Supervision of subjects during mental imagery use and length
of intervention have been popular concerns of researchers when
conducting mental imagery experiments. In this study, methods of
supervision were implemented by contacting subjects by phone to
ensure their use of the tape. Ideally, researchers would like to have
a reliable method of monitoring each subject's practice, but it is
very difficult. The amount of time necessary for imagery practice is
a difficult issue due to individual differences of time it takes
athletes to learn, use and be influenced by mental imagery.
Furthermore, a lack of significant findings could be due to the small
number of subjects and that the control group subjects may have
been using some other pre-serve strategies. Finally, with the
emphasis of the study on the use of mental imagery to help serving
performance subjects may have focused too much of their attention
on thinking and visualizing as opposed to the actual playing of the
tennis match.

In examining the results of the third hypothesis researchers
began to utilize the race variable and its influence on mental
imagery effectiveness. The third hypothesis asserted that there

would be no differences in serving performance due to race between

81
all high-ability subjects who received the mental imagery

treatment. The results testing this hypothesis found no statistical
differences for first serve performances. Tennis players who are of
elite status should be able to serve consistently will regardless of
their ethnic backgrounds. However, the results of second serve
performances between high-ability treatment group subjects proved
to be in disagreement with our rationale. An unexpected significant
difference was found between African American and Caucasian high-
ability treatment group subjects on mean second serve percentage.
This finding showed Caucasian subjects to have significantly better
second serve percentages which made researchers ponder several
explanations for such an unlikely occurrence.

What could be the cause of the second serve differences
between African American and Caucasian treatment group subjects
considering that the first serve percentages did not differ between
groups? Is there so much emphasis placed on the first serve by a
player of a particular race that they have a tendency to overlook the
importance of an accurate second serve? Do subjects need to
mentally imagine first and second serve performances in their
practice in order to become more successful with them during a
match? These questions as well as others have been mentioned in a
discussion of these outcomes. There may have been some unknown
factors as to why the African American subjects performed so
poorly on their second serves. It is necessary to replicate this
finding with a larger sample to determine if this outcome is to be
expected repeatedly. A difference in degree of emphasis placed on

the second serve between African Americans and Caucasian elite

82
level players could exist, but that could not be determined from this

investigation. Further studies examining the race variable in tennis
are necessary in order to reveal if perceptions of value for the
second serve differ between African American and Caucasian elite
tennis players. If rehearsing the second serve during mental
imagery practice is truly helpful it exposes a shortcoming of this
study. During the mental imagery practice sessions there was no
distinction made on the audio cassette between which serve, first or
second, the subjects were performing. Once again this may be an
important factor to be considered in future imagery studies
involving tennis and race variables.

In a final analysis of the relationship between mental imagery
effectiveness and the race variable on serving performance further
questions have been raised regarding the fourth hypothesis and the
observed results. The prediction that low-ability African American
treatment group subjects would serve better than Caucasian
subjects of the same classifications was statistically inaccurate.
The premise for making such a hypothesis was formulated from
results of the Ewing and Yong (1992) study which suggested that
African Americans have a preference for visual learning. With
mental imagery being so visually based, the fourth hypothesis was
thought to be appropriate and reasonable. However, results of this
study were not able to provide any support for the Ewing and Yong
(1992) findings. The Ewing and Yong (1992) results found African
Americans to have a preference for more visual styles of learning.
However, in the present study low-ability African American

subjects' serving performances were not significantly different

83
from low-ability Caucasians, which was incongruent with the Ewing

and Yong (1992) findings.

Is the visual preference African Americans have for learning
only applicable to classroom and not athletic settings? This was a
major question of debate in this study. Tennis is a sport in which
there is a great deal of cognitive activity involved for strategies,
reading serves, and analyzing your opponent. These thinking aspects
of tennis are to be studied and learned much like schoolwork
assigned from a classroom. With this, in mind would it be wrong to
assume that a visual preference for learning in school should also be
transferred to a visual preference for learning and competing in
sports? In response to this question one might reasonably assert
that the low-ability subjects used in this study placed more
emphasis on the physical aspects of the sport in order to be
proficient as opposed to the cognitive areas involved in a tennis
match. Therefore, the time spent by subjects on the physical skills
involved in the matches were apparently taking precedence over
practicing the mental imagery skills. Furthermore, it may have been
necessary to make the imagery practice for low-ability subjects
more individualized. This would have been helpful considering the
possibility that the low-ability subjects may have been mentally
imagining incorrect serving techniques, which in turn may have
caused their serving performance percentages to decline (Suinn,
1993). Unfortunately the question of whether mental imagery is
suited for lower-ability athletes could not be determined from the

results of this study.

84
Various other observed outcomes of this investigation

provided interesting thoughts for discussion. In the case of such
poor second serve percentages for African American subjects in the
treatment group, several attributions and questions were raised as
to why this occurred. Were the high-ability African American
subjects only instructed on how to hit a powerful first serve and not
an accurate second serve? Do high-ability African American
athletes place so much value on getting the first serve in that they
lose sight of the importance of the second serve if the first one is
inaccurate? Or were the majority of the African American subjects
just "having a bad day" with the second serves? The concept of an
awareness of mood when practicing the serve was thought to be a
relevant variable to help explain the poor serving percentages of
high-ability African American subjects. In looking closely at the
mood variable for African Americans there was a smaller mean
score of awareness of mood with a larger standard deviation in
relation to Caucasian subjects. With this finding researchers can
suggest that some African Americans just hit their first and second
serves without much thought of placement and accuracy. However,
the degree to which the mood variable has a causal relationship with
poor second serves for high-ability African American subjects can
not be determined. Each of the questions raised regarding the
occurrence of low second serve percentages of African American
subjects should be entertained further in research studies of a
similar kind.

In examining the descriptive statistic results of this

experiment further questions and assumptions were generated to

85
better understand the outcomes. For instance, the fact that the

majority of subjects in either assignment group or ethnic
background reported having some form of preserve routine was an
interesting discovery. This finding was particularly important when
assessing the impact of the mental imagery tape used for this study.
Were the subjects' self-reported pre-serve strategies so
commonplace in their match routines that they were reluctant to
experiment with using the mental imagery process? Moreover, was
the mental imagery tape powerful enough to make a positive
improvement in the subjects' serving performances?

Explanations for the previous two questions deserve
discussion. First, without being able to determine what type of pre-
serve strategies subjects were using, it was difficult to determine
how great or minimal an interference those strategies were to the
mental imagery intervention. In future studies of this kind it would
be essential to extend this variable by asking subjects to provide a
brief explanation of the strategies they use (if any). This would be
helpful in that researchers could possibly show subjects how mental
imagery is similar or can be used in conjunction with their existing
strategies prior to testing their performances. The statistics of the
item effectiveness of imagery on serve during the match on the
post-match questionnaire provided some input regarding the impact
of the imagery tape. Sixty-four percent of the treatment group
subjects reported that imagery was effective for their serve during
the match. This finding would provide support for the mental
imagery tape being a positive influence. However, it is incongruent

with some of the observed serving percentages and lack of

86
statistical significance for the hypotheses of the study. The

validity of subjects' responses to items on questionnaires has been a
concern in many other studies and could will be a misleading issue
in this experiment.

Another issue worthy of discussion revolves around the use of
subjects from two different ethnic backgrounds. An area of concern
raised after the results of this study was the degree to which the
events of a tennis match might change depending upon whether
subjects were competing against someone of the same or different
race. Based on the background tennis experiences of the primary
researcher, it was believed that in some cases this may be an
influential factor. When players from two different races are
competing, it may be more than just a tennis match, but a battle
between races. A strong drive to defeat an opponent fueled by
dislike for their race can cause heightened pressure and tension.
With such feeling present during a match, mental imagery tools can
easily be discarded. In most cases during this study the matches
were between same race subjects. However, there were several
exceptions when there were different races competing. The
argument that two subjects of different races competing against
one another can possibly influence a match may be a contributing
factor for high-ability African Americans having such low
percentages of second serves. They may have been trying too hard to
"ace" their opponent on the second serve and thus left little margin
for error. The present study was unable to substantiate the validity

of whether this race mixing for competition was a factor.

87
Therefore, future studies should examine more closely this issue to

determine if it may affect the outcomes of a match.

The subjects' exerted effort and interest during testing also
tuned out to be an area of concern. Originally the format of the
study was designed such that the subjects would be playing in a
tournament-like atmosphere to facilitate positive competition and
winning attitudes. Time constraints and necessary resources caused
such a format to be altered. Each match was supervised by the
primary researcher to make sure of a satisfactory degree of effort
by subjects. However, it was difficult to determine if the
experimental match setting used to collect the data is indicative of
a subject's normal level of intensity during a competitive match
situation where there is more at stake. Some of the data collected
was during a collegiate match, but this still does not ensure a true
representation of an individual's success or failure with imagery
over time. It is the opinion of the primary researcher that a
tournament setting design which makes subjects feel as though
there is something to lose would protect against any lack of exerted
effort and provide more generalizable results.

The present study was an extended replication of Noel's (1980)
examination of VMBR use in tennis players of high- and low-ability.
It was the intention of this study to build upon the knowledge
provided by Noel as well as, try to provide additional insights to
understanding mental imagery. The methodology of the two studies
was very similar. The manner in which subjects were classified by
ability was however, more detailed in the present study. The use of

the NTRP rating system provided an accurate representation of

88
ability which made the distinction between the two ability groups

more evident. In addition, a larger, younger population of subjects
from two ethnic backgrounds were extensions of the original study.
Such additions to the original study were developed in hopes of
finding more generalizable results.

In comparing the outcomes of Noel's (1980) work and the
present study certain similarities and differences were noticed.
Working under the findings noticed by Noel (1980), the present study
hypothesized that high-ability imagery subjects would improve their
serving percentages more so than low-ability subjects exposed to
mental imagery. A similar finding of greater improvement in
serving percentages was noticed for the high-ability group but, it
was for the second serve. The first serve percentages of high-
ability subjects in the present study remained almost the same,
whereas Noel (1980) found this group to improve significantly. Why
did this difference in results between the studies occur? One might
reasonably argue that the subject population differences between
the two was a factor. Furthermore, the fact that subjects in a
tournament setting as in the Noel (1980) study may concentrate
more on the accuracy of their first serve.

Other interesting findings from the two studies are worthy of
comparison. For instance, in the Noel (1980) study the low-ability
treatment group subjects were found to have declined in their
serving percentages. Although a decline in percentage was not found
in the present study, the low-ability subjects serving percentages
were nearly identical from pre-tape to post-tape. These similar

findings brings up the question of what is the best imagery practice

89
for low-ability subjects? With this question in mind the mental

imagery tape used in the present study was believed to be suited for
high- and low-ability athletes.

Finally, in the present study support was found for the
hypothesis that predicted no difference in serving percentages due
to race. However, a trend toward significance was observed for
second serves and was due mainly to high-ability African American
subjects having such low second serve percentages. In comparing
the first serve percentages of the subjects in the present study
there is some variance with those percentages in the original study.
The first serve percentages of high-ability subjects after tape use
in the Noel (1980) study are higher than that of the present study.
Why there was variance in first serve percentages among high-
ability subjects from the two studies could possibly point to the
value of collecting data from a tournament setting and also the
existence of any race differences in mental imagery use and
effectiveness for elite level tennis players.

In summary, although the present study was not completely
statistically beneficial, it did provide valuable perspectives on
research dealing with mental imagery. By extending the Noel (1980)
study with a larger and more diverse subject population certain
events were noticed. The larger number of subjects in the present
study was found still to be rather small when subjects were broken
into the race and ability categories. However, researchers were able
to notice some numeric trends and make various assumptions about
the results. Using the race variable in this study brought about

interesting outcomes in serving percentages and imagery practice

90
responses. A lack of statistical significance did not allow

researchers to make a legitimate argument for race differences in
mental imagery effectiveness. However, there were some cases of
strong effect sizes for pre- and post-test serving performances
between the races which may have suggested some differences and
did provide some practical significance. Follow-up studies building
on the present methodologies and assumptions may find there to be
important race considerations when using and researching mental
imagery with athletes.

In drawing conclusions from the present study certain relevant
suggestions can be made about mental imagery effectiveness. First,
coinciding with Noel (1980) there needs to be careful attention
given to the design of the mental imagery tape when dealing with
high- and low-ability athletes. In the Noel (1980) study comparing
high- and low-ability tennis players' effectiveness with mental
imagery, the low-ability group declined in performance. However, in
the present investigation there was no difference between the two
groups even with critical consideration of the make-up of the audio
tape. If there is such a need for an ability specific mental imagery
practice, is there also a need for a race specific format? This
question leads to the researcher's second conclusion. Statistical
requirements for significance were not reached in this study when
testing the race variable. However, the drastically low second
serving percentages noticed by high-ability African American
subjects is an occurrence that should not remain unexplained.
Whether this is a factor of the mental imagery tape or mental

imagery practice in general could not be determined, but it is

91
believed that there is something there that previous research has to

this point not addressed. Therefore, replication of this finding is
needed with a larger sample.

In addition, researchers can logically conclude from this study
that introducing a new performance enhancement tool to athletes
can be difficult. The normal preserve and prematch routines that
athletes are used to can confound research with mental imagery.
Subjects may at first appear to be interested in the imagery process
but in a match they avoid using the process because they are more
comfortable with their normal strategies. A longer training period
and introduction to mental imagery practice could have improved the
present study and also produced more significant results. Finally, a
subject's preference for learning new skills was found not to be a
determinant of how well they were able to serve. For mental
imagery purposes in athletics this suggestion points to an
interesting connection between visual learning and performance and
should be examined further to test its reliability.

In completing the present study a wealth of knowledge was
gained which can be considered useful in a practical sense. One of
the main issues which guided this study was the degree to which
mental imagery enhanced serving performance. Many of the
previously documented studies have suggested mental imagery to be
a helpful performance enhancement tool. As this research extends
to a more diverse population, as in the present study, a logical
implication can be made suggesting that mental imagery practice
should be designed according to ability level. The tests of the race

variable did not produce any valid arguments about race differences

92
with imagery use and effectiveness. Although second serve

percentages and mood when practicing imagery may be found to be
relevant areas when using the race variable in other mental imagery
studies.

Furthermore, the supervision of mental imagery practice is
vital for reaching a degree of effectiveness. Without being able to
truly determine the amount of imagery practice a subject goes
through, sport psychologists have difficulty assessing its influence.
This brings about another implication that more time needs to be
spent practicing the imagery process than was designated. This may
leave a coach disgruntled in that it takes time away from physical
practice. However, the more an athlete becomes familiar with the
imagery procedures, they will be able to use the tool on their own
and begin to see some positive gains in performance. The mental
imagery tool has proven to be a beneficial tool for sport
performance and with continued formats of this kind its span of
effectiveness can be generalized to a broader group of people in

order to establish solid theoretical models.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Demographic Information Form

Demographic Information Form

lnthions

Please read each of the following questions carefully and
respond by writing in the space provided. Please be as accurate as
possible. Be sure to answer each question.

 

Name Race Age

1. How many years have you played competitive tennis?

2. Are you currently playing tennis for any high school, or
college/university?

(1) high school (2) college/university
(3) not currently on a team

2a. If "not currently on a tennis team", have you ever played tennis
for any college or university team?
(1) Yes (2) No
2b. If you are in college, have you ever played tennis for any high
school team?
(1) Yes _ (2) No
3. Indicate which of the following best describes your preference
for learning new skills?
_ Kinesthetic (focusing on the "feelings")
_ Visual
_ Cognitive
__ Physical practice _ Other ways, explain:
95

 

4.

7.

96

Please provide any tennis ranking that you presently have or have
had in the past.

a. Highest city ranking
b. Highest state ranking
c. Highest national ranking

 

 

 

Was the majority of your tennis instruction provided through
private or group lessons?
(1) Private (2) Group

. How would you describe the coaches who provided most of your

tennis instruction?
(1) teaching professionals

(2) amateur instructors (3) peer teachers

Has the majority of your tennis play been in a country club or
public park setting?
(1) country club (2) public park

How often have your rackets been strung with gut strings?
_ (1) Very often
(2) Sometimes (half or less of the time)

_ (3) Never

97

9. Have you ever or do you presently implement any preserving
strategies during a match? (self-talk, imagery, relaxation, etc.)
(1) Yes (2) No

9a. If yes, what strategy (ies) do you utilize during your matches?

10. Explain any goals you set for yourself prior to a tennis match.

11. Explain any strategies you utilize to help you concentrate during
a tennis match.

12. Do you have any pre-match routine to help you prepare for a
match?

(1) Yes (2) No

12a. If yes, briefly explain your routine.

APPENDIX B

Control and Vividness of Visual Images Questionnaire

 

MENTAL IMAGERY QUESTIONNAIRE

Instlugtipns

In the following questionnaire you are to read the descriptions of four
different sport scenarios. You will be asked to imagine the written sport
description on your own with as much attention to detail as possible. As you
image keep in mind that visual images include many senses such as hearing,
moods, touching, and smelling to make images seem as real as possible.

After you read each description think of all the specific aspects of that
description such as the skill, the people involved, the place, and the time.
Next, close your eyes and take a few deep breaths to become relaxed. With
your eyes closed clear your mind of any other thoughts and try imagine vivid
images of the written scenario.

There are no right or wrong images. Try to use your imagery skills to
make as vivid images as you can. Upon completion of your images of the
written scenario, please rate your imagery skills using the following scales.

for items a-d:

1 = no image present at all

2 = not clear or vivid, but a recognizable image

3 = moderately clear and vivid image

4 = clear and vivid image

5 = extremely clear and vivid image

for item e:

l = no control of image at all

2 = very hard to control

3 = moderate control of image

4 = better-than-average control of image
5 = complete control of image

98

PRACT ICIN G ALONE

Focus on the execution of your tennis serve. Now imagine yourself

practicing your serve in the facility where you normally practice without
anyone else present. Close your eyes for about a minute and try to see
yourself in this facility, hear the sounds, and feel your body performing your
tennis serve. Pay attention to your state of mind and mood while you are

performing your tennis serve. Try to see yourself from behind your eyes or
from inside your body.

a.

Rate how well you saw yourself 1 2 3 4 5
performing the tennis serve.

Rate how well you heard the sounds 1 2 3 4 5
of performing your tennis serve.

Rate how well you felt yourself 1 2 3 4 5
making the movements of your

tennis serve.

Rate how well you were aware of 1 2 3 4 5
your mood.

Rate how well you controlled the 1 2 3 4 5
image of your tennis serve.

Could you see the image from yes no

inside your body?

PRACTICING WITH OTHERS

a.

b.

Now you are performing your same tennis serve but this time you are
practicing the serve while your teammates and coach(es) are present in the
facility where you normally practice. This time, however, you make a
major mistake with your serve and mishit the ball badly and everyone
notices. Close your eyes for about one minute to imagine making that
error and the situation immediately afterward as vividly as you can. Try to
see the image from behind your eyes or inside your body.

Rate how well you saw yourself 1 2 3 _4 5
in this situation.

Rate how well you heard the 1 2 3 4 5

99

 

100

sounds in this situation.

c. Rate how well you felt yourself 1 2 3 4 5
making the mistake with your
serve.

d. Rate how well you felt the 1 2 3 4 5
emotions of this situation.

e. Rate how well you controlled 1 2 3 4 5
the image.

f. Could you see the image from yes no

inside your body.

PLAYING IN A MATCH
Imagine yourself performing the same movements of that tennis serve in a
match, but imagine yourself doing that serve very skillfully and the
spectators and your teammates showing their appreciation. Now close
your eyes for about one minute and imagine this situation as vividly as

possible.

a. Rate how well you saw yourself 1 2 3 4 5
performing a successful tennis serve.

b. Rate how well you heard the sounds I 2 3 4 5
of your tennis serve.

c. Rate how well you felt yourself 1 2 3 4 5
making the movements of your

tennis serve.
(1. Rate how well you felt the emotions I 2 3 4 5

of this situation.

e. Rate how well you controlled the 1 2 3 4 5
image.

f. Could you see the image from 1 2 3 4 5
inside your body.

APPENDIX C

University Committee on Research lnvoloving Human
Subjects (UCRIHS) Approval Letter

 

OFFICE OF
RESEARCH
AND
GRADUATE
STUDIES

University Committee on
Research Involving
Human Subjects
(UCRIHS)

Michigan State University
225 ACmiPiSlralion Building
Eist L3RSII‘Q, ‘vl.i:n:gan
488244046

USU :5 3n irrirmgrive- 5mm
ecual room/fund)! institution

101

MICHIGAN STATE

 

UNI

VERSI

TY

February 28, 1994

TO: Mr. W.

Drew Scales III

4591-3A Donerail Place
Okemos, MI 48864

RE: [R8 9’: 94-055
TITLE: THE EFFECTS OF MENTAL IMAGERY ON TENNIS
SERVING PERFORMANCE ACROSS RACES
REVISION REQUESTED: N/A
CATEGORY: 1-C,D
APPROVAL DATE: 02/17/1994

The Universuy Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects' (UCRIHS) review of this project
is complete. I am pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be

adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate.

Therefore, the

UCRIHS approved this project including the revision listed above.

Renewal :

Revisions:

Problems/
Changes:

UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with the approval
date shown above. Investigators planning to continue a project beyond one year
must use the green renewal form (enclosed with the original approval letter or when
a project is renewed) to seek updated certification. There is a maximum of four
such expedited renewals possible. Investigators wishing to continue a project
beyond that time need to submit it again for complete review.

UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects, prior
to initiation of the change. If this is done at the time of renewal, please use the
green renewal form. To revise an approved protocol at any other time during the
year, send your written request to the UCRIHS Chair. requesting revised approval
and referencing the project's [RE A“ and title. Include in your request a description
of the change and any revised instruments, consent forms or advertisements that are

applicable.

Should either of the following arise during the course of the work. investigators
must notify UCRIHS promptly: (1) problems (unexpected side effects. complaints,
etc.) involving human subjects or (2) changes in the research environment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human subjects than existed when the
protocol was previously reviewed and approved.

If we can be of any future help. please do not hesitate to contact us at (5l7) 355-2180 or FAX (SI?)

336-1171.

Sincerely,

  

UCRIHS Chair

DEW2pjm

,f’

avid E. Wright. Ph.D.

cc: Dr. Martha Ewing

APPENDIX D

National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP)

1.0

1.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

to

>1
CD

THE NATIONAL TENNIS RATING PROGRAM

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS
PLAYING LEVELS

This player is just starting to play tennis.

This player has limited experience and is still working primarily on getting the
IMIII illlt) play.

This player needs on court experience. This player has obvious stroke weaknesses
but is familiar \\r'th basic positions for singles and doubles play.

This player is learning to lodge where the ball is going although court coverage
is weak. This player can sustain a rally of slow pace with other players ol the same
ability.

This player is consistent when hitting medium paced shots, but is not comfortable
with all strokes and lacks control when trying for directional intent. depth. or power.

This player has achieved improved Stroke dependability and direction on moderate
shots, but Still lacks depth and variety. This player exhibits more aggressive net
play, has improved court coverage, and is developing teamwork in doubles.

This player has dependable Strokes, including directional intent and depth on both
forehand and backhand sides on moderate shots, plus the ability to use lobs,
overheads. approach shots and yolleys with some success. This player occasionally
forces errors when setying and teamwork in doubles is evident.

This pl; rxer h rs begun to m rster the use of power and spins and is beginning to
h rnclle prcc hrs sound loomtitk c in control depth of shots, and is beginning to
\Llfl' tactics according to opponents. This player can hit first serves With power and
accuracy and place the second sctyc and is able to rush net successfully. Aggressive
net play is common in doubles.

This player has good shot anticipation and frequently has an outstanding shot or
attribute around which a game may be structured. This player can regularly hit win-
ners or force errors offofshort balls and can put away volleys, can successfully ex-
ecute lobs. drop shots, halfvolleys and overhead smashes and has good depth and
spin on most second serves.

This player has deyc‘loped power and ’or' c'onSIstenc'y as a major weapon. This player
can yary strategies and styles of play in a competitive situation and hits dependable
shots in a stress situation.

These players will generally not need NTRP ratings. Rankings or past rankings will
speak for themselyes. The oil player typically has had intensive training for national
tournament competition at the junior level and collegiate levels and has obtained
a sectional and or national ranking The 6.3 player has a reasonable chance of
succeeding at the 1) lc\eI and has extensive srtellite tourn rrnent experience. The
7.0 is a world class player who is committed to tournament competition on the
international leyel and whose major source of income is tournament prize
winnings.

102

APPENDIX E

Mental Imagery Scripts

 

IMAGERY SCRIPT
Tennis Serve

Low-Ability

Feel the atmosphere in the tennis facility where the
tournament is being held. As you enter for your first match
notice the overall feeling in your body when you first walk

into the arena.

Recognize the odor/smell of new tennis balls in the tennis
facility. Notice other odors that are also present. Smell
the odor of tennis balls and the tarps in the facility

Feel the temperature in the tennis arena. Feel how stuffy
the air is. Notice how warm or how cold you feel as you
first walk into the tennis arena. Feel the hard court
surface under your feet as you walk onto your designated

court.

See the other matches going on around you as you enter. See
the Big Ten banners on the walls of the facility. See the
lights, notice how bright or how dim it is in the facility.
See the bleachers, and if there are any spectators sitting
in them. Notice the courts, pay attention to how clean they
are and how every court looks the same. Also notice all of

the green items in the facility.

Hear the echo of the ball being hit by other participants in
the arena. Hear the sound their racket makes as they hit
various strokes. Hear their feet shuffle across the court
as they are playing their matches. Hear an occasional
grunt, or other outburst by some of the other participants.
Hear the buzz in the lights.

***FLOW INTO SERVING ***

As you are getting ready to serve first pay attention
to your stance/body posture. See yourself positioned at the
baseline ready to attempt your first serve. Notice how you
are facing the net in a comfortable position.

Once you have postured yourself at the baseline ready
to serve, see yourself gripping the racket with the
proper/normal grip for serving. Squeeze the grip of the
racket. Feel the texture of the leather grip along your
fingers before you begin to serve.

As you assume your normal position for serving, notice
how you direct your attention to the appropriate service box
which you are serving. See yourself staring across the net
for a brief moment, focusing on the left or right (deuce or
ad) service court. Think about what you need to do to get

your serve in that box.

103

104
Now focus on the start of your service motion.

Pay attention to your toss. Notice how your tossing
arm rises upward in a fluid motion. See how your straight
tossing arm extends up over your head , and you begin to
release the ball. Observe how the ball goes straight up
into the air just out in front of your body, and just a tad
bit higher than you can reach with your racket. Notice how
perfectly placed the toss is for you to hit your best serve.

While your toss is in the air, begin to look at how
your knees bend slightly but you still maintain your,
balance. Next, see how your body uncoils so that you can
extend and hit the ball. Notice how you stretch with your
racket arm high enough to reach your toss. See your body
fully extended to make contact with the ball, while your
eyes remain locked on the ball.

See yourself coming closer and closer to contacting the
ball. As you hit the ball, notice how the muscles in your
hand, wrist, and forearm, tighten to handle the impact of
your racket contacting the ball. Feel the ease of contact
as you hit the ball right in the sweet spot of your racket.
Hear the echo of the thump sound of the tennis ball as you

make contact.

After you have made contact with the ball, follow
through in the direction of your target. See your racket
arm still moving downward from it's position high above your
head, and across your body. Pay attention to how fluid a
movement you have in your body as the momentum from your
serve carries you a few feet inside the baseline.

As you successfully get one of your best first serves
into the appropriate service box, pay attention to the
feelings you have. Pay attention to the satisfaction and

pleasure you feel knowing you have put one of your best
first serves in play. Notice your mood after hitting a good

first serve. Observe how the mood from that serve helps you
gain confidence in your serve, and also overall ability to

win the match.

IMAGERY SCRIPT
Tennis Serve

High-ability
"The Place" same as for low ability.

***FLOW INTO SERVING ***

As you are preparing to serve feel your normal body
position/posture as you stand at the baseline. Look down at
your front foot and see that you have it correctly planted
just behind the baseline as you normally would. Pay
attention to the comfortable stance you maintain while you
see the net in front of you. Feel the fuzz from the tennis
ball in your hand as you are bouncing it up and down on the
court while you continue to prepare for your first serve.
Begin to think about which serve you want to hit,
taking into consideration all factors that may affect that
decision. (Give some? —-lights, balls, favorite, etc.)

Once you have postured yourself at the baseline ready
to serve and have decided which serve you want to hit, feel
your hand gripping the racket. Feel your hand wrapped
around the grip of the racket the way that makes it possible
to hit the serve you have decided upon. Feel the texture of ‘
the leather grip in the palm of your hand and along your
fingers. Notice how your fingers fit comfortably in place
along the ridges on the grip of the racket. Feel the
tension in the muscles of your hand, fingers, wrist, and
forearm as you are holding the racket in preparation for
your first serve.

Next take a glance at your opponent and notice where
they are positioned to receive your serve. Recognize if.
their position changes your choice of serve. Further
prepare for your first serve by taking into consideration
where they are positioned. Also, consider any weakness that
you have found in your opponent that may influence your
choice of serve.

Once you have correctly prepared, take a moment to
glance across the net to focus on where in the service box
you would like your first serve to bounce. Focus on that
specific area of the service box. Stare at that area and
think about what it takes for you to get the ball there on
your serve. Continue to look at that area of the service
box to which you want your serve to land. As you are
looking hear yourself talking in your head about the
important things to remember when trying to hit that target
in the service box.

After all factors are considered, begin to start you
service motion. Feel your racket arm and tossing arm rise to

105

106

begin the service motion. Start to bend your knees in order
to get the thrust into the court. Extend your body all the
way out to reach high and make contact with the ball after
your toss. Continue to reach upward toward the ball.
Contact the ball, and feel the muscles in your hand and
forearm tighten to absorb the impact. Hear the sound of the
strings of your racket as you hit the serve. Also hear the
sound of the ball at contact. Feel your feet in the air as
you lunge fluidly into the court as you follow through with

your service motion.

. Upon completion of one of your best first serves, feel
yourself begin to immediately prepare for your opponents
return. Become alerted to whether your opponent is pulled
out of position because of your serve, or whether he will be
able to return an offensive shot. Begin to anticipate if
your opponent is going to hit a forehand or backhand return.
Feel yourself alert and in a good ready position, awaiting
the return of your opponent.

After you get one of your best first serves into the
appropriate court, notice the positive feelings you have.
Experience the feelings of satisfaction, pleasure, and
relief that comes as a result of hitting the serve to the
desired target and getting one of your best first serves
into play. For that moment after your serve feel the good
mood you have. Let that good mood from your successful
first serve increase the confidence you have in your serve,
and also confidence in you overall ability to win the match.

APPENDIX F

Time Logs For Mental Imagery and Meditation Practice

NATURE SOUNDS AND MUSIC PRACTICE RECORD

Drew Scales- (517)347-4814

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 D§y77

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Date

Start

Lilli- _____ _____ __________ L___.-_.__r _____

End

Time

Degree of Calmness Achieved

ane at . l . 1 . l . 1 . 1 . 1 . l .
all
Slight 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Moderate 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Good 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Great 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Questions

Briefly answer the following questions after each day of practice

with the tape.

1. Describe the most memorable thoughts that you experienced while
listening to the tape.

2. Describe your mood while listening to the tape.

3. Explain the ease with which you were able to listen to the tape.

1(37

RELAXHTION’AND VISUKL IHHGERY PRACTICE RECORD

Name

Drew Scales #-(Sl7)347—4814

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7

DATE

Start

fiflL_______l____-_.______i___

End I

Time

Degree of Relaxation Achieved
NOt at 1 1 1 1 4 1 i 1 D 1 4 1
all
Slightly 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Mbderately 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
very 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Extremely 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Vividness of Visual Images

Not at l 1 1 1
all
Slightly 2 2 2 2
Moderately 3 3 3 3
Very 4 4 4 4
Extremely 5 5 5 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

108

(over)

109
" Day 4 Day 5 DaL6 DaL7 ‘-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DATE

Controllability of Visual Images
No Control 1 1 . 1 . 1
at all
Slightly Controlled 2 2 2 2
MOderately Controlled 3 3 3 3
Very Controlled 4 4 4 4
Extremely Controlled 5 5 5 5
Questions

Briefly answer the following questions after each day of practice

with the relaxation and mental imagery tape.

1. Describe your overall feelings about the relaxation and mental

imagery practice today.
2. How well were you able to follow the voice heard on the tape?

3. Describe your mood or any emotions that you were aware of during the

relaxation and mental imagery practice today.

4. (for days 4-7 only) Describe the clarity of the sounds you heard

mentioned during the mental imagery practice tape?

.. - . ,---

S. (for days 4-7 only) HOw well were you able to see your serving

movements as mentioned_on the tape?

6. (for days 4-7 only) Explain how well you were able to control your

emotions while serving during mental imagery.

QUESTIONS RESPONSE SHEET

DH!

Question #1—-

Question #2——

Question #3-—

 

339(31

QUestion #1-—

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DAY 3

Question

Question

Question

#1..

#2--

’3...-

 

DAY 4

Question

Question

Question

Question

#1--

12--

#3——

#4--

111

DAY 4 (continued)

Question

Question

DAY 5

Question

Question

Question

Question

Question

Question

#5--

#5--

#2--

find—.—

#6—-

'112

113

 

DAY 6

Question #1-—

Question #2—-

Question #3-—

Question #4--

Question #5-—

Question #6—-

114

 

DAY 7

Question #1--

Question #2-—

Question #3--

Question #4-

Question #5—-

Question #6--

APPENDIX G

CompuTennis Form

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APPENDIX H

Post-match Questionnaire

 

 

Post-match Questionnaire
Control Group

lnstrggtions

Please read each of the following questions carefully and
respond by writing in the space provided. Remember to answer each
question.

1. Did you use any imagery techniques "prior to" your match?
(1) Yes _ (2) No

la. If yes, describe a situation prior to the match when imagery was
used.

2. Did you use any imagery techniques during your match?
(I) Yes _(2) No

Za. If yes, describe a situation in the match when imagery was used.

3. Did you implement any other cognitive strategies (self-talk,
relaxation, pumping up, concentration, etc.) during your match?
(1) Yes (2) No

3a. If yes, explain what type of strategies you used.

116

117

4. Did you implement any cognitive strategies (self-talk, relaxation,
pumping up, concentration, etc.) prior to your serve?
(I) Yes __(2) No

4a. If yes, explain what strategies you used and how those

strategies influenced your serving performance.

5. Please rate your degree of relaxation during your match by
placing a circle around the number which best represents your

level of relaxation.

l-- Much less relaxed than usual

2-- Slightly less relaxed than usual
3-- Normal level of relaxation

4-- Slightly more relaxed than usual
5-- Much more relaxed than usual

6. Please rate your overall serving performance by placing a circle
around the number which best represents how well you served

during your match.

1-- Much worse than usual
2-- Slightly worse than usual
3-- Normal

4-- Slightly better than usual
5-- Much better than usual

Post-match Questionnaire
Treatment Group

Instructions

Please read each of the following questions carefully and respond
by writing in the space provided. Remember to answer each
question.

1. Did you use any imagery techniques "prior to" your match?
(1) Yes (2) No

 

la. If yes, describe the situation when imagery was used "prior to"

your match.

2. Did you use any imagery techniques during your match?
(1) Yes (2) No

Za. If yes, describe a situation in the match when imagery was used.

3. State in a word or phrase a few aspects of your game that you

imagined during the match.

4. How well were you able to control the images of your serve
during the match?

l-- Not well at all

2-- Fairly well controlled
3-- Moderately controlled
4-- Well controlled

5-- Very well controlled

118

 

7a.

8a.

119

Briefly explain any problems with the images you experienced
during your match and the training session (i.e., toss not coming

down, can't see the ball, no racket, etc.)

How has your introduction to imagery changed or influenced your

serve?

Do you perceive imagery as a helpful strategy for improving the
serving performance of a tennis player of your ability?
(I) Yes ___(2) No

If yes, why do you perceive imagery to be helpful?

Do you believe that imagery was effective for improving your

service performance during the match?

(1) Yes (2) No

If yes, briefly explain how you think imagery has helped your

serve.

120
9. Describe any cognitive strategies (self-talk, relaxation, pumping

up, concentration, etc.) other than imagery that you implemented

during your match.

10. Briefly describe the feelings you experienced while using

imagery before or during your match.

12. Please rate your degree of relaxation during your match by
placing a circle around the number which best represents your
level of relaxation.

1-- Much less relaxed than usual

2-- Slightly less relaxed than usual
3-- Normal level of relaxation

4-- Slightly more relaxed than usual
5-- Much more relaxed than usual

13. Please rate the degree to which the imagery session influenced
your serving performance, by placing a circle around the number
which is most appropriate.

1-- Very bad influence

2-- Somewhat bad influence
3-- No influence

4-- Good influence

5-- Very good influence

14. Please rate your overall serving performance by placing a circle
around the number which best represents how well you served
during your match.

1-- Much worse than usual
2-- Slightly worse than usual
3-- Normal

4-- Slightly better than usual
5-- Much better than usual

APPENDIX |

Serving Percentage Means With Standard Deviations Of
Treatment And Control Group Subjects

121

Appendix I
Serving Percentage Means With Standard Deviations Of
Treatment And Control Group Subjects

 

PRE-TEST POST-TAPE
1$T SERVE 2ND SERVE lsT SERVE 2ND SERVE
Treatment Mean .55 Mean .57 Mean .55 Mean .65
Group SD. .152 SD. .288 SD. .111 SD. .242
N 17 N 17 N 17 N 17
Control Mean .56 Mean .65 Mean .58 Mean .55
Group SD. .151 SD. .203 SD. .172 SD. .277
N 18 N 18 N 18 N 18

Serving Percentage Means And Standard Deviations For
Tennis Ability And Assignment Group

 

POST-TAPE
1$T SERVE 2ND SERVE
Mean .62 Mean .58
Tennis SD. .122 SD. .345
Ability N 16 N 16
Mean .54 Mean .64

ASSignme’“ SD. .111 SD. .242
Group
N 17 N 17

 

 

APPENDIX J

Post-tape Serving Percentage Means And Standard Deviations
For Race And Assignment Group

122

Appendix J
Post-Tape Serving Percentage Means And Standard Deviations For
Race And Assignment Group

 

lst Serve 2nd Serve

African American Mean .56 Mean .43
SD. .107 SD. .29
Caucasian Mean .67 Mean .71

SD. .115 SD. .347

lst Serve 2nd Serve

Treatment Mean .58 Mean .63
Group SD. .093 SD. .311
Control Mean .67 Mean .53

Group 80. .145 SD. .401

 

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