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This is to certify that the
dissertation entitled

THE RELATIONSHIP 'OF GLOBAL SELF-WORTH,

PERCEIVED PHYSICAL‘COMPETENCE AND PERCEIVED

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AMONG MIDDLE SCHOOL

FEMALES IN A RURAL MIDWESTERN SETTING
presentedby

DIANA LEE HAYES

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M. S. degeeinMBjJNG—

a421,! , «(1/

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Date March 31. 1995

MS U is an Affirmative Action/Sq ua! Opportunity Institution 0- I 2771

 

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MSU Is An Mimatm Action/Equal Opportunity Intuition
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______——————

______—

THE RELATIONSHIP OF GLOBAL SELF-WORTH. PERCEIVED PHYSICAL
COMPETENCE AND PERCEIVED PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AMONG MIDDLE
SCHOOL FEMALES IN A RURAL MIDWESTERN SETTING
BY

Diana Lee Hayes

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

College of Nursing

1 995

ABSTRACT
THE RELATIONSHIP OF GLOBAL SELF-WORTH. PERCEIVED PHYSICAL
COMPETENCE AND PERCEIVED PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AMONG MIDDLE
SCHOOL FEMALES IN A RURAL MIDWESTERN SETTING
By

Diana Lee Hayes

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relatlonshlp
of global self-worth. perceived physical competence. and perceived
physical appearance among middle school females in a rural setting.

A total of 65 female subjects from grades six. seven. and eight
completed a global self-worth. perceived physical competence. and
perceived physical appearance instrument. The results of this study
are reported In three parts (a) descriptive profile of the subjects. (b)
significance between group differences. and (c) relationships between
global self-worth. perceived physical competence. and perceived physical
appearance for both athletic and nonathletic subjects.

Results indicated that global self-worth is positively related to
perceived physical competence and perceived physical appearance.
There was no significant difference of scores for global self-worth.
perceived physical competence or perceived physical appearance among

athletic and nonathletic female middle school students.

Copyright by
DIANA LEE HAYES

1995

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to four people. To my parents for their
constant encouragement and help during the good times associated with
this preject. The values and goals which these special parents helped
me internalize have In the past. and will continue in the future. to be
the foundations upon which my professional and personal decisions and
behaviors are made.

Also to my friend Julie. an ever supporting and compassionate
counselor and giver of confidence. And foremost, to my daughter
Jessica. the constant provider of needed distraction. hugs. and kisses

during the bad times of this project.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research would not have been completed without the valuable
assistance of many people. i wish to extend my gratitude to the
students who agreed to participate in this study and to the middle
school principal and physical education educators for their time and
cooperation.

I am very grateful to Linda Spence. the chairperson of my thesis
committee. for guiding me through the research process and for her
continuous encouragement. I would also like to thank Deborah Feltz for
her ongoing support and the time devoted to reviewing many drafts of
this thesis.

Finally. I wish to extend my sincerest appreciation to Patty Peek.
I wish to thank her for the positive reinforcement. constructive criticism
as well as her guidance and time in helping me shape Into something of

which I am truly proud.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES.

LIST OF FIGURES .

iNTRODUCTION.

PROBLEM STATEMENT .

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.
Conceptual Definition of the Variables.
Adolescent Development of Global Self-Worth .

Perceived Physical Competence .
Perceived Physical Appearance .

Global Self-worth. Perceived Physical Competence. and

Perceived Physical Appearance .

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .
METHODS .

Sample. . .

Field Procedures.

Data Collection Procedures and Recording.
Protection of Human Rights. .
Operational Definitions of the Variables.
instrumentation . .
Scoring and Data Summarizing Procedures .
Research Design .

Data Processing and Statistical Analysis.

RESULTS .
Demographics.
Global Self-Worth. Perceived Physical Competence

and Perceived Physical Appearance .
Interpretation of Findings.

vi

Page

. viii

io

naaahoha

. 23
. 24
. 25
. 26
. 28
. 28
. 28

. 29
. 29

. 31
. 37

DISCUSSION.

Limitations .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Implications for Advanced Nursing Practice and

Primary Care.

Recommendations for Further Research.

Summary .
APPENDICES.

APPENDIX A:
APPENDIX 8:
APPENDIX C:
APPENDIX D:
APPENDIX E:
APPENDIX F:

APPENDIX G:
APPENDIX H:

REFERENCES.

Monologue for obtaining informed consent
from subjects.

Instructions for Self— -Perceptlon Profile
for Adolescents (Harter. 1986) .
Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents
(Harter. 1986) .

UCRIHS Approval Letter . .
Approval Letter from School District .
ApprovaL Letter from Middle School
informed Consent Form

Scoring Tool for Self- -Perception Profile
for Adolescents (Harter. 1986)

vii

Page
. 38
. 38
. 39
. 45
. 46

. 47

. 47
. 48
. 49
. 55
. 56
. 57
. GD

. 65

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Frequency and Percentage of Educational Distribution
and Athletic Participation of Subjects (N-65).

Mean Age and Mean Grade of Subjects (N-65) . . . . . . .

Frequency and percentage of Age Range Distribution
and Athletic Participation of Subjects (N-65). .

Description. Mean. and Standard Deviation of GSW.
PPC. and PPA . .

Separate Variance Between Athletic and Non-athletic Female
Middle School Students .

Correlations of GSW. PPC. and PPA.

Correlations of GSW. PPC. PPA. and Athletic Participation.

VIII

Page

.29

.31

.31

.32

.34
.34

.35

LIST OF FIGURES

Page
Figure

1 Health Promotion Model (Pender. 1987. p.58). . . . . . . . . . .17

2 Schematic Representation of Pender's (1987)
Health Promotion Model with Study Variables. . . . . . . . . . .18

 

‘1

INTRODUCTION

The growth in female adolescent sports participation has
corresponded with an increased Interest in competitive sports by health
practitioners. physical educators and social scientists. There Is general
agreement that participation In organized sports has an implied benefit
for the psychosocial development of the participants. but there Is
widescale dlssenslon as to whether these claims are actually met (Lirgg.
1992). Proponents of competitive youth sports programs argue that
physical activity enhances growth and development (Rarlck. 1973).
physiological functions. and psychosocial maturation (Astrand. 1978;
Larson. et al.. 1976). One area of social development which has received
relatively little attention. but which seems particularly pertinent to
female adolescent psychosocial and developmental adjustment. is that of
perceived physical competence (Butcher. 1989; Cate 8. Sugawara. 1986:
Corbin. 1984; Lenney. 1977).

A feeling of self-worth is integral to optimal functioning in daily life.
Data that provide a better understanding of the global self-worth of
middle school females will be useful to those persons concerned with
their health (Connell. 1989). If differences exist in global self-worth
among (noniathletes. this would indicate a need for program evaluation
and revision for this age group (Larson. Spreltzer. 8: Snyder. et

al..1976). Adolescent clients with low global-self worth may have

2
significant implications for health care practitioners with commitments to

successful outcomes In the primary care setting.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Perceived physical competence is considered to be an important
determinant of global self-worth. Perceived physical skill has an
important influence on psychosocial development as well as the
participation and motivation of adolescents In sports. Female adolescent
athletes have been largely excluded from research and relatively little is
known regarding the relationship between global self-worth. perceived
physical competence. and perceived physical appearance. The purpose
of this study is to answer the question: ”What is the relationship of
global self-worth. perceived physical competence. and perceived physical

appearance in athletic and nonathletic female middle school students?

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Conceptual Definitions of the Variables
Global self-worth (GSW). When used in this study. GSW refers to the
evaluations which the female middle school student makes and maintains
with regard to herself (and her place among her family and peers) and
Indicates the extent to which she sees herself as competent. vital.
successful. and worthy (Connell. 1980; Coopersmlth. 1967). GSW lmplles
self-evaluation of several domains. including such attributes as cognitive
competence. physical skills. popularity. physical appearance. personality
traits. and affective reactions of adequacy of worth (Whitley. 1983).
GSW refers to how pleased adolescents are with themselves. how they

are leading their lives. and the kind of person they are (Harter. 1986).

3

Perceived physical competence (PPC). PPC refers to the confidence and
belief of being functionally able to successfully master a motor task with
the requisite ability. capability. and skill required to complete the task.
Essentially. PPC Is a sport specific confidence (poor. good. excellent) to
engage in an activity (Harter. 1992a). Therefore. measures of physical
competence often focus on the probability of being able to successfully
complete an athletic task (Aguilar 8. Petrakis. 1989).
Perceived physical appearance (PPA). PPA refers to the self-evaluation
which the female middle school student makes and maintains with regard
to her confidence in how her body looks to herself and peers (Harter.
1986).
Athletic students. Athletic students are those students who participate
In one or more competitive sports with organized practices and
schedules of competition during middle school: soccer. volleyball. track.
basketball. skiing. and skating (Butcher. 1989).
Nonathletlc students. Students who do not participate in any
competitive sports with organized practices and schedules of competition
are considered nonathletic students.
Middle school students. Middle school students are those students who
attend sixth through eighth grades in the same school (Harter. 1993).
Adolescent Development of Global Self-Worth

Research in Individual differences in GSW has a long. prolific
history in the social sciences over the past two decades (Jessor. 1993).
Empirical studies now number in the thousands and the number
continues to swell at a remarkable pace (Campbell. 1996; Downer. 1991;

Holloway. et al.. 1988). Perhaps the most important reason that GSW is a

4
popular topic for research is that GSW has been shown to have a
pervasive impact on human behavior (Campbell. 1990). Research has
illustrated. for example. that individual differences in GSW affect
behavior in such diverse areas as achievement. conformity. physical
attraction. causal attribution. competition. and helping (Campbell. 1991;
Swann. Griffin. Predmore. 8: Gaines. 1987; Wylie. 1979).

It is during adolescence that the blosoclal and psychological
transition from childhood to adulthood occurs. Typically. boys reach
puberty after they have made the shift to middle school. so they can
cope with one change at a time. Girls deal simultaneously with the
transformation of puberty and the adjustment to a new. more difficult
school. This transformation can be seen as a major contributor to the
shattering of their GSW (Petersen. Sarigiani. 8: Kennedy. 1991).

Adolescent development proceeds through a complex process that
involves the mutual Influences of the adolescent’s characteristics. social
roles. family experiences. peer interactions. cultural environment. and
the contingencies that impact life (Bandura. 1977; Bonaguro 8: Bonaguro.
1987; Downey. 1991). Since 1904 when Hall regarded adolescence as a
period of "storm and stress." The teen years have been regarded as a
time of crisis and psychological upheaval precipitated by physiological
maturational changes that are marked by the questioning of the self
(Block 8: Robins. 1993). Adolescence involves a stressful developmental
transition in life which includes active exploration of alternative and
important decisions (Offer. 1977). shifts In social expectations. rapid
maturational changes. conflicting role demands. and increasingly complex

relationships with the opposite sex (Block 8. Robins. 1983).

5

Social learning theorist. Bandura (1977). describes adolescent
development as a product of social influences. Adolescent behavior is
molded by rewards and punishments resulting from specific adaptations
experienced In conjunction with specific social climates (Offer. Howard. 8:
Atkinson. 1988). Having a consistent and adaptive self-worth allows
adolescents to achieve self-control when confronted with problems.
Adolescents also learn from imitating others who serve as models for
them such as peers and adults. Eventually. adolescents achieve a view
of self that incorporates the rewards. punishments. and modeled
behaviors that they have learned (Bandura. 1977). Ideally. the view of
self that adolescents have is consistent and adaptive allowing teenagers
to achieve substantial self-control (Offer. et al.. 1988). Thus. when
confronted with a problem. adolescents can see themselves as
participants and effectively consider ways to cope with the problem
rather than be reactive to It (Block 8: Robins. 1993).

Adolescents experiment with behaviors and lifestyle patterns as
part of the process of developing independence and autonomy.
establishing Individuality. and acquiring skills to function in an adult
world (Botvin. 1983). Sources for adolescent experiments are the
biological. cognitive. and developmental aspects of human maturity
(Offer. 1977). Biological development offers relatively clear
characteristics that distinguish childhood from adolescence. Erikson
(1968) stressed that the differential anatomical and reproductive
characteristics of the male and female adolescents' bodies foster
contrasts in self esteem. In turn. dynamic interactional theory (Lerner

8: Spanler. 1989) note that on the basis of individual physical and

6
behavioral characteristics. adolescents may elicit differential reactions
from socializing with others. These reactions provide feedback that
influences further development (Botvin. et al.. 1992).

Bandura's (1977) theory lends Itself particularly well to
understanding the critical role of peers in adolescent development. One
of the most important tasks of adolescence is gaining ”psychological
distance” from one's family of origin and forming interpersonal bonds
with peers. Adolescents reach out to and are heavily focused upon
others In their age group. As a result. much of the formation of their
GSW occurs In their peer group (Barhnstedt 8 Felson. 1983).

As adolescent girls struggle to reconcile different aspect of their
personalities. they look to parents. teachers. classmates. and friends for
reactions (Sadker 8 Sadker. 1994). Girls use these reactions as
yardsticks to measure themselves and by high school. the mirror used
by peers is the one girls look into most to learn who they are and what
they have become (Wolf. 1991). Adolescents Imitate and learn from one
another. Imitation. at the same time. does not prevent the development
of solitary Individual beliefs and views (Offer. et al.. 1977).

Eventually. normal adolescents achieve a balance between the
perspectives. beliefs. and attitudes of friends and family (Peterson.
1988). Uncertainties about autonomy and independence along with the
shift in Influence from family to peers may lead to inner distress
(Bonaguro 8: Bonaguro. 1987). Adolescents at this time are struggling to
move from the dependency of childhood to an evolving Independent
mature adult and many feel powerless in establishing one's adult

Identity (Cam p bell. 1992i).

7

Adolescents think they will not measure up to the demands of
society. parents. and peers. They often feel isolated. estranged. and
misunderstood in an adult world that they view as unconcerned and
apathetic and it has been suggested that ”adolescence Is a time of
upheaval in the GSW” (Downey. 1991). Evidence shows that despite
strong peer influence. the normative adolescent has not forgotten what
was learned in the context of the family and the influence of peers Is
received in the context of unique values that an adolescent has acquired
from their family of origin (Downey. 1991; Offer, 1969). The person who
enters adolescence Is basically the same as the one who exits it (Offer 8.
Offer. 1975).

Gender differences In age-related changes in GSW have been
reported by Sadker 8. Sadker (1994) who found that from the sixth
grade to the tenth grade. GSW increases for boys and decreases for
girls. Block 8: Robins' 1993 longitudinal study found that males tended
to have higher GSW scores than females at every age and the disparity
Increased over time. These findings are consistent with cross-sectional
research showing that there are more girls than boys with low GSW In
early adolescence. and that this difference grows larger by late
adolescence.

Low GSW and negative body image set the stage for depression in
adolescent girls. In a study of Oregon high school students. girls were
twice as likely as boys to exhibit depressive symptoms (Petersen.et al.
1991). Factors related to youth suicide cited by experts Include:
depression. low GSW. difficulty in controlling impulses. inadequate coping

skills. Inability to communicate. lack of hope for the future. desire for

8
instant gratification and unrealistic perceptions of death (Garrison. 1989;
Mason. 1992; Smith 8 Crawford. 1986). Youth tend to impose high
standards on themselves or feel a need to impress family members and
school peers by excelling physically. academically. or socially (Worsnap.
1991).

Although little is known about suicidal behaviors in the adolescent
nonpsychiatric community (Garrison. 1989). suicide now ranks as the
third leading cause of death among people ages 15-24 trailing only
accidents and homicides. Adolescent suicide has tripled since the 1950’s
(Mason. 1992). Girls attempt suicide about three times as often as boys
(Downey. 1991; Garrison. 1989; Worsnap. 1991) yet boys have a suicide
completion rate three times higher than girls (Downey. 1991).

According to Downey (1991). adolescents who have a high GSW and
feel good about themselves probably will not be the individuals who
commit suicide. McAlister (1983) suggests that health behaviors are
related to general social-psychological factors of GSW. family
relationships. and peer relationships. In the study by Bonguro and
Bonguro (1987) the variables examined were GSW. home-esteem and
adolescent symptomotalogy of stress. The findings suggest that the
enhancement of GSW may be a promising strategy to foster health
behavior during early adolescence.

Perceived Physical Competence

Since the resurgence of attention on physical fitness during the last
decade. there has been an Increasing number of studies examining the
relationship between exercise and GSW (Holloway. Beuter. 8 Duda. 1988).

Yet little research has been conducted to examine the PPC of female

9
athletes in middle school settings. Few studies have dealt with middle
school adolescents as subjects (Corbin. 1984; Feltz 8 Brown. 1984;
Lenney. 1977). Even fewer studies have dealt with PPC in early
adolescent female athletes (Corbin. Landers. 8 Feltz. 1983). Since
increasing numbers of middle school age girls are participating in
organized sports in the past decade. it would be useful to have
information regarding perceived competence in early adolescent female
athletes (Holloway et al.. 1988). If adolescent girls are shown to have
PPC that is low. interventions to increase PPC would be indicated for
programs dealing with them.

Studies show that female adolescents often lack confidence in their
physical abilities (Feltz 8 Petlichkoff. 1983). However. those who
participated In organized sports were significantly higher in PPC than
were those that dropped out of sports (Feltz 8 Petlichkoff. 1983).
Furthermore. there are studies that support that psychological well-
being ls related to social participation in sports (Snyder 8 Kilvin. 1975;
Sonstroem. 1982. 1984).

Perhaps youth Interest In athletics helps maintain self confidence at
a time when females are becoming more socially. physically and
cognitively mature. and more doubtful about their future. Self
confidence means that a person who cares about performing well (has
the motivation) and has the ability to perform well will believe that she
can do well in a particular role (Connell. 1989). It Is possible that the
connection with significant others and the potential for accomplishment
in the athletic setting balances the effect of moving from the 7th to the

8th grade (Corbin. et al.. 1983).

10

Female adolescents often feel that "they can't do it" and. In fact.
they make lower predictions for success in future athletic and
educational performances than males even when they have abilities
similar to those of their male counterparts (Poole 8 Evans. 1988).
Compared to most boys. girls are smaller. weaker. slower. and not as
good in sports (Sadker 8 Sadker. 1994). Studies Indicate that
differences in predictions for future performances between males and
females indeed are a result of a lack of confidence (Gould 8 Horn. 1984).
The dropout rate in youth sports may be increasing. While there
certainly seems to be a significant interest among youths to compete In
organized sport programs. there is also considerable evidence to suggest
that the attrition rate Is correspondingly increasing (Fry. McClemonts. 8
Sefort. 1981; Gould 8 Horn. 1984).

Attempts to participate. excel. and remain In sport activities should
increase the adolescent's perceived self-competence (Harter 8 Connell.
1984; Minton. 1979). Harter (1978) found that school-age children often
link their sense of physical competence to their ability to develop
expertise in a sport or physical activity. as well as their perception of
personal physical attractiveness (Harter. 1979). Harter (1979) speculates
that adolescents' reasons for their competence appraisal may vary with
age. One function of perceived competence is to sustain or Improve
their motivation to "master the environment.” Furthermore. Harter
(1979) maintains that children's perceived self-competences should
Increase their desire to participate In additional mastery attempts and to

remain in activities.

 

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11

The transition from elementary to middle school may be the most
damaging period In a girl's young life (Sadker 8 Sadker. 1994).
Some theorists consider the Individual's level of GSW to be susceptible
to change mainly through significant life experiences but otherwise to
be a relatively established and consistent trait formed by the end of the
adolescent years (Epstein. 1982; Fitts. 1965; Paviak 8 Framer. 1985).
GSW Is manifested through functioning in various social domains and
participation In physical activity is one such area (Offer et al.. 1988). A
fairly reliable theme Indicates that regular exercise Increases one's
self-concept through both psychological and physical benefits (Folklns 8
Sime. 1981; Snyder 8 Spreltzer. 1974). Although. there is weak evidence
to support the contention that global changes in character are an
obvious result of physical activity. some isolated traits such as self-
concept seem to be more sensitive to the effects of exercise than others
(Folklns 8 Sime. 1981). The bulk of the research In this area has
revealed notable and advantageous changes in an individual's self-
concept as a result of regular physical activity. The assumption of such
a model Is that participation In athletics can provide adequate stimuli to
support the development of a positive self-concept (Kay. Felkor. 8
Varoz. 1972; Tucker. 1985). it Is possible that these changes are
associated with the perception of competence rather than actual changes
in the level of physical fitness (Heaps. 1978; Leonardson. 1977;
Leonardson 8 Garguilo. 1978).

In 1999 the American Association of University Women conducted a
nationwide survey in 12 locations to learn how 3.000 boys and girls from

age 9 to 15 viewed themselves. their present lives and their future

12

lives. When the results were analyzed. one finding stood out from the
rest: A GSW gap separated boys and girls as they entered adolescence
and as these boys and girls matured. the gap became wider (Brutsaert.
1996). It Is important that adolescents develop positive self-concepts
which will allow them to enjoy good physical and mental health and a
life of successful mastery of undertakings (Harter. 1978).
Perceived Physical Appearance

There are limited studies addressing PPA and GSW In middle
school females with even fewer studies addressing PPA and PPC. There
Is a limited generalizabllity In a series of studies testing ideas
associated with these theoretical positions (Doherty 8 Harris. 1985;
Button 8 Whltehouse. 1981; Lerner 8 Brackney. 1978; Welnreich) that GSW
is related to bodily changes occurring during adolescence. The above
studies provide Information about late adolescents or college students
but do not address early adolescence. They also do not provide
Information about the question of whether there is a positive association
between perceived appearance and GSW during late adolescence or
middle school adolescents.

Button (1990) studied the vulnerability which might predispose female
adolescents to the development of an eating disorder. low GSW. and/or
Identified self-Image deficits that play a role in both anorexia nervosa
and bulimia. Button (1996) studied girls In the 11-12 year old age
group under the hypothesis that girls with low GSW at age 11-12 years
will be more likely to develop an eating disorder in later adolescence

that reflects their perceived appearance. Although there were

13
indications that girls with particularly low GSW are much more likely to
express a stronger degree of fatness concern. this study did not
address the universality of the relationships between perceived
appearance and GSW.

In a comparison study. between American and Japanese adolescents.
Japanese adolescents were found to have lower GSW (more so for females
than males) and less favorable views of their bodies' attractiveness
(Lerner. lwawki. Takashl. 8 Sorell. 1999). Lerner. et al (1999) found
that GSW Is positively related to self-ratings of physical attractiveness
and that the relationship between perceived attractiveness and GSW is
greater for males than for females.

Findings in the Harter and Jackson (1993) study of 299 subjects from
a middle school revealed large differences on the physical appearance
subscale of the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (1986). The
students citing dissatisfaction with appearance as the most likely cause
of their feeling that low self-worth lead to depression felt worse about
their appearance than those not citing appearance as the most likely
cause. Females in this study were more likely to report dissatisfaction
with their appearance. as compared to males. whereas the opposite
pattern would be obtained in regard to scholastic and physical
competence in which males were expected to report greater concern. No
gender or grade differences were found in the percentages endorsing
global self-worth and perceived physical appearance. The finding that
84.4% of the females reported physical appearance as a specific cause of
their lowered self-worth leading to depression. In comparison to only

4996 of the males (Harter 8 Jackson. 1993) support other studies that

14
physical appearance is a primary concern particularly among adolescent
females (Allgood-Merton. Lewinsohn. 8 Hops. 199D; Nolen-Hoeksema. 1987).
The adolescent self is largely defined by parents and a few other

key persons. Including family members. peers. and teachers. There must
be reexamination and reintegration of the self-concept so that It Is
consistent with the Increased capacity for rationality. beliefs. and values
(Downey. 1991). This process requires the adolescent to integrate
emerging cognitive and behavioral abilities and new values and purposes
(Schell 8: Hall. 1979).
Global Self-Worth. Perceived Physical Competence. and Perceived Physical
Appearance

Studies that have examined the relationships of body-Image and
participation in sports have found that athletic adolescent females report
higher scores of body-image and acceptance of self than nonathletes
(Butcher. 1989; Snyder 8 Spreltzer. 1978). Covey and Feltz (1991)
utilized the Offer Self-Image Questionnaire (Offer. et al.. 1982) to
examine the relationship between the self-image. perceived
attractiveness. physical ability. and gender role identity of 149
sophomore. junior. and senior female high school students who were
physically active. physically Inactive. decreasing physical activity or
increasing their physical activity. Results of the Covey and Feltz (1991)
study Indicate stronger PPC among athletic adolescents females than
nonathletic adolescent females along with healthier psychological
functioning.

Further research addressing the relationship between PPA and

physical competence addresses eating disorders. Some researchers have

15
speculated that the media's emphasis on athletic competence and
leanness may promote Identification with low or extremely low body
weight and may even result in the development of eating disorders
(Puglise. Lifshitz. Grad. et al.. 1983). The efforts of female athletes to
be more attractive to their coaches by being thin. and their fears that
they may not make the team if desired body weight Is not accomplished.
are of serious concern to health care professionals (Borgen 8 Corbin.
1987). It has been suggested that sports may contribute to the
development of eating disorders since the incidence of anorexia nervosa
and bulimia is so high among athletes (Zucker. Avener. 8 Bayder. 1985).
Since anorexia nervosa and bulimia are most prevalent among girls who
are oriented toward high achievement (Smith. 1989). it is no wonder that
these conditions might be more prevalent among female adolescents who
are accustomed to high achievement in sports. compared to groups of
nonathletic female adolescents.

In summary. there is ample literature addressing the development and
influences of adolescent GSW which may also be discussed as self-worth.
self-esteem. and self competence. Available educational and
psychological literature was limited to suburban and urban settings and
included male students and/or different age groups. There is scant
nursing literature addressing the relationships of GSW. PPC. and PPA.
There are Inadequate longitudinal approaches to the issues of Influences
of GSW. Available literature is limited in the examination of the
relationship of PPC and PPA among middle school female adolescents.
Several studies of middle school students demonstrate that girls are far

more concerned with their appearance than boys and tend to measure

16
their overall self—worth according to their body image. The literature
definitely supports the relationship of physical exercise and GSW but is
limited in the examination of the relationship of PPC and PPA among

middle school adolescents.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Pender's (1987) Health Promotion Model (HPM) focuses on the
enhancement of health. well-being, and individual self health promotion
activities. Motivation for health promoting behavior Is a result of a
"desire for growth. expression of human potential. and quality of life“
(Pender. 1987. p. 57). The first category In the HPM (Pender. 1987). as
illustrated in Figure 1. provides a grouping among the concepts that
define health promoting behavior. According to Pender (1987. p.60)
acquisition and continuation of health promoting behaviors are attributed
to the cognitive-perceptual factors that are identified as:
Importance of health.
perceived control of health.
perceived self-efficacy,
definition of health.
perceived health status.

perceived benefits of health promoting behavior. and
perceived barriers to health promoting behavior“

seesaw?

The second category in the HPM Is the modifying factors
(demographic and biologic characteristics. situational and behavioral
factors. and interpersonal Influence). The modifying factors are the
biological and demographic elements that have been found to be relevant
to exercise adherence. Behavioral and situational factors are the biases
that influence health promoting behavior through experiential learning.

These are enhanced with available health promotion alternatives. pre-

17

Figure 1. Health Promotion Model (Pender. 1987. p. 58).

COGNITIVE-PERCEPTUAL
FACTORS

MODIFYING FACTORS PARTICIPATION IN
HEALTH-PROMOTIN

 

 

Umportance of health 1—

 

 

Perceived control of
heaflh

 

 

[Perceived self-efficacy 11

 

 

[Definition of health F

 

 

[Perceived health ]_
status

 

 

P'ercelved benteiits to
ealth-gromo ng
he avior

 

 

Perceived barriers to
health romoting
be avior

 

 

I BEHAVIOR
[ Demographic ]

 

characteristics

 

 

[Biologic characteristics]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

r \
[Interpersonal influences] Likelihood of

engaging in

hea

gromoting
Fitnationaliactors ] ehaviors )

\
[Behavioral factors J

Cuesto
[ action I

 

 

 

18
existing skills. and knowledge. Interpersonal influences are those
factors that are the result of ”expectations of significant others. family
patterns of health care. and interaction with health professionals"
(Pender. 1987. p. 67).

In the HPM It is hypothesized that the probability of seeking
activities to promote well-being depends on the activation of positive
intrinsic or extrinsic health behavior. According to Pender (1987).
personal potential for health promoting behavior Is a result of personal
cognition of the potential for increasing well—being through health
promotion endeavors.

Figure 2 illustrates the variables in this study and their connections
to health promoting behaviors. The intent of this research Is to focus
on the relationship between GSW. PPC. and PPA. These variables are
identified in the model as the cognitive-perceptual factor of perceived
self-efficacy and ”are Identified within the model as the primary
motivational mechanisms for acquisition and maintenance of health
promoting behaviors (Pender. 1991. p. 60). According to Pender.
perceived self-efficacy is a specific concept that refers to the
convictions individuals have that they can successfully achieve behavior
necessary to produce a desired outcome such as health promotion
behavior. The development of positive GSW may be related to
participation In sports (Kay. Felkor. 8 Varoz. 1972; Tucker. 1985). and
the relationship among PPA and GSW (Lerner. et al. 1990).

Use of the HPM provides the opportunity for the exploration of the
nature of Interrelationships among the modifying factors. The modifying

factors are (1) demographic characteristics. (2) biologic characteristics.

19

Figure 2. Schematic Representation of Pender's (1987) Model with Study
Variables.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COGNI‘I’NE-PERCEF’I’UAL MODIFYING FACTORS PARTICIPATION IN
FACTORS H Salim-133% M OTING
1
Demo raphic
choral: et't'i8tics
-rura se It
IS {Engaged \ Eiddd'ets Chg“ l11.: flag‘l’t‘lgpggfiino ang;ng
. e ca u en 3
| b l III-yworth -female 9 behaviors
3e1c3=$e°d physical -participation in sports
mmpgggtpchysical /\
-perce Behavioral factor 2
kappearance J [ participation In 1
sports
W Cues to action \
-heaith care rovider
lgtlule'r‘I-ges Iglncrease
ea romo n
behavior 9

-personal awareness of
potential for health-
promoting-behavior

\

 

 

 

and (3) behavioral factors of (non)athletic participation. These factors
are proposed as the Influencing patterns of health promoting behavior
through cognitive-perceptual mechanisms that directly affect attainment
of health promoting behavior (Pender. 1991).

A demographic characteristic within this study Is the education of
the subjects. All of the subjects attend a public middle school In a
rural setting. The second demographic characteristic Is the female sex
of the subjects. Interpersonal influences that impact health behavior
are peers and family members. The adolescent self is predominantly
defined by parents. family. and peers. Behavioral factors are the third

modifying component. Participation in sports provides experience for

2O
health promoting behaviors through the use of cognitive and
psychomotor skills necessary to participate In sports programs. Other
cognitive-perceptual and modifying factors such as Importance and
definition of health. health status. control of health. perceived barriers.
and benefits of health promoting behaviors are not within the range of
this study.

Primary care is a basic level of health care usually rendered by
nurse practitioners. general practitioners. family practitioners.
internists. obstetricians and gynecologists. pediatricians. and physician
assistants as well as other health care providers with specialized
training and skills. Primary health care includes the services of the
professionals that clients receive upon first contact with the health
system. l.e.. prevention. promotion and maintenance. diagnosis and
treatment. management of acute and chronic problems and maintenance.

Advanced nurse practitioners have the opportunity to promote health
promotion and maintenance with the adolescent female client in primary
care settings. Rapid development and increasing social expectations
make early adolescence a period of high vulnerability (Sadker 8 Sadker.
1994). Many adolescents tend to view their social environment as too
competitive thus finding themselves hesitant to request support.
particularly from health care professionals (Petosa. 1984). Over reliance
on peers and impulsive approaches for decision making may circumvent
responsible health related behaviors.

Emerging trends in adolescent primary care in the past decade are
expanding the traditional and knowledge-based addressment of social.

psychological. and environmental factors associated with positive health-

21
related actions (Green 8 Johnson. 1983; Kolbe. 1985; Petosa. 1986; Poole 8
Morrison. 1983). There Is emphasis on existing skills which Improve
personal effectiveness so that adolescents will be better able to act on
their health promotion and maintenance decisions (Pender. 1989; Petosa.
1986). There has been a trend focusing on personal and social factors
that enhance general personal competence in adolescent health promotion
(Petosa. 1984).

Health care providers in a primary care setting influence health
promoting behavior by (1) assisting with identification of health
promotion behavior changes. (2) providing instruction and assistance for
self-change strategies. (3) reducing barriers and reinforcing efforts of
change. (4) supporting and reinforcing efforts of clients to make
changes. and (5) assisting the client In assessment of the impact of
health behavior changes (Pender. 1991).

The likelihood of health promotion action also depends on activating
cues from the environment (Pender. 1991). Activity in sports may
increase the likelihood of health promotion behavior through regular
pattern of exercise. interpersonal relationships among team members. and
"feeling good" as a result of continuous exercise. The cues for
behavior change and life-style modification represent the action phase of
health behavior (Pender. 1991).

In summary. health promotion for the adolescent In the primary
care setting is the organized application of educational. social. and
environmental resources enabling adolescents to adopt and maintain
behaviors that reduce the risk of disease and enhance wellness without

circumventing the individual choices for health practices. The concept

22
of health promotion places emphasis on skills which enhance personal
competence and effectiveness so that individuals will be better able to
act on their health decisions (Laffrey. 1985). This definition encourages
health professionals to look beyond prevention and examine opportunities

for positive health enhancement.

METHODS

Sample

All female students who participated in physical education class
during the fall semester of 1994 at a rural midwestern middle school
were recruited to comprise the sample. All subjects were Caucasian and
from various socioeconomic backgrounds. Subjects who agreed to
participate In the study were assigned to one of two groups; 1)
athletic or 2) nonathletic based on self reported (non)participation in
one or more Interschool teams offered to middle school female students.
Field Procedures

Data collection was a one time questionnaire administration process.
Subjects were recruited during attendance In physical education classes.
The first contact with subjects was to introduce the Investigator. the
study. and the consent form. To allow adequate time for obtaining
student and parental consent. the middle school principal recommended
the study be introduced on a Monday and administered on the following
Thursday. Each class was presented with identical monologue after a

greeting and Introduction by the investigator (Appendix A).

23

At the time of questionnaire administration. information and
instructions was given to the subjects using a script to maintain
consistency (Appendix B).

Data Collection Procedures and RecordlrLg

All participating subjects were asked to complete a brief demographic
sheet and the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents titled "What I Am
Like" (Appendix C) (Harter. 1986). A questionnaire was given to each
subject who had submitted a completed consent. Subjects were
reminded that they may discontinue participation at any time without
penalty.

Subjects were asked to (a) write their birthdate in the space
provided at the top right hand corner of the first page of the survey
tool. (b) circle the grade they currently attend at the top right hand
section. (0) circle those activities that they are now participating or
have participated while attending middle school. and (d) circle "yes" or
"no" if they did or did not plan to continue participating in competitive
sports.

Each questionnaire was numbered prior to administration in the space
identified as "group." The first number Indicated the class (l.e.. the
first class of the day had the number ”1" and the second number was
according to the number of tools used with each class. Thus a
questionnaire used could be identified as "119." which would indicate
the first class of the day and the tenth questionnaire In that class.
"215” would Indicate the second class of the day and the fifteenth

questionnaire in that class.

24
The sample question at the top of the questionnaire was written on a
large visual aid chart and the same instruction was read to each class

as Illustrated in Appendix C. The sample question was as follows:

Really true Sort of 8011 of Really true
for me true for me true for me
Some teenagers like Other teenagers
[ ] [ ] to go to movies in BUT would rather [ ] [ ]
their spare time go to sports
events

Protection of Human Rights

Subject participation In this study was voluntary and subjects were
free to withdraw at anytime. Informed. written consent was obtained
from a parent or guardian and the adolescent. The researcher gave a
verbal explanation as well as was present while the adolescent read the
consent form. Confidentiality of subjects was maintained In that no
names were attached to the individual data collection sheets and only
the researcher had access to the data. Anonymity was maintained In
that Individual names and Individual personal characteristics were not
be pubHshed.

The consent procedure consisted of. first. obtaining the consent of
the Michigan State University Committee on Research Involving Human
Subjects (Appendix D). Secondly. consent of the school district where
subjects reside was obtained (Appendix E). Thirdly. permission was
obtained from the middle school principal (Appendix F). And last.

written consent (Appendix G) of each subject and subject's parents was

25
written consent (Appendix G) of each subject and subject's parents was
obtained following an explanation of the purpose and the methods of
the study.
Operational Definitions of the Variables
Global self-worth. Items 9. 18. 27. 36. and 45 on the SPPA comprised
the subscale for general self-worth (Harter. 1986). In a study by
Harter (1986). the means for this subscale were 3.38 (sixth grade
females). 2.98 (seventh grade females). and 2.99 (eight grade females).
For the purpose of this study. those subject with general self-worth
subscale scores _>_ 2.98 were considered as having a positive or high
GSW.
Perceived physical competence. Items 3. 12. 21. 30. and 39 on the SPPA
consist of the subscale for perceived physical competence (Harter. 1986).
The means for perceived physical competence in a study by Harter
(1986) Identified the means for middle school females as 2.81 (sixth
grade). 2.90 (seventh grade). and 3.01 (eight grade). For the purpose
of this study. scores _>_2.81 identified those subjects with positive PPC.
Perceived physical appearance. Items 4. 13. 22. 31. and 40 on the SPPA
are the subscale for PPA. Scores in 1986 (Harter) identified means for
female subjects as 2.94 (sixth graders). 2.46 (seventh graders). and 2.63
(eighth graders). For the purpose of this study a score 3 2.46 was
considered as positive for physical appearance.
Athletic students. Students who identified themselves on the survey
tool as a participant of one or more team competitive sports (I.e. soccer.

volleyball. track. basketball) were considered as athletic.

26
Nonathletlc students. Those students who did not identify themselves as
participants of a team competitive sport on the survey tool were
considered as nonathletic.
Middle school students. The grade (6. 7. or 8) that students identify
themselves to be in on the SPPA were considered the grade that they
were currently attending.
instrumentation

Harter's (1986) Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA) was
administered. Many other tools could have been used. but the SPPA
(Appendix C) was selected because of its widespread usage. sufficient
research conducted to support reliability and validity. and the subscales
of PPC. PPA. and GSW.

The SPPA is the result of an upward extension of the Self-Perception
Profile for Children (Harter. 1985) which was designed as a self-concept
questionnaire that assesses different dimensions of GSW in school age
children. The language in the SPPA has been altered to be more
appropriate for adolescents. The SPPA has nine subscales associated

with skill domain. thus the structure of the adolescent version is as

follows:
1. Scholastic Competence
2. Social Acceptance
3. Athletic Competence
4. Physical Appearance
5. Job Competence
6. Romantic Appeal
7. Conduct/Morality
8. Close Friendship
9. Global Self-Worth (Harter. 1986. p.1)

27

Judgment about an individual's overall self-worth is not inferred
from the summation of responses to items found in the skill domains. but
is tapped by items that directly inquire about how much individuals like
themselves. Since adolescents do not feel equally competent in all
domains (Cate & Sugawara. 1986). responses to items allow for an
assessment of an individual's perceived competence in each of the
domains.

Reliability of the SPPA was established by Harter in 1986 in a study
among middle school students. The content of the physical appearance
subscale concerns one’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction with one's looks.
items are scored on a 4-point scale where a 4 represents the highest
level of adequacy and a 1 represents the lowest self-evaluation. items
in the subscale for self-worth were scored as 1. 2. 3. 4 where the 1s
reflect affirmation of depressed affect and the 4s reflect the
endorsement of the primacy of high self-worth. Items in the athletic
competence subscale were on a 4-point scale where a 4 represents the
highest level of athletic competence and a 1 represents the lowest
evaluation of athletic competence. Employing Cronbach's alpha. the

subscale reliabilities on the SPPA were as follows (Harter. 1986):

Global Perceived Perceived
Self- Physical Physical
Worth Competence Appearance
7th graders .77 .92 .86
8th graders .86 .92 .90
girls .86 .94 .88

boys . 83 . 89 . 86

28

Reliability of the SPPA was also established by Harter and Jackson
(1993) in a study of GSW and depressed affect among 299 middle school
students. The internal consistency reliabilities for the perceived
physical appearance subscale was .88 and .75 for the global self-worth
subscale.
Scoring and Data Summarizing Procedures

Scores were recorded according to the scoring key (Appendix H).
Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS). The 45-item scale allowed subjects to select responses that
reduce the tendency to answer in a socially desirable manner. items
were scored on a four-point scale ranging from 1 to 4. with 1 indicative
of lower perceived competence and 4 indicating higher perceived
competence. Subscaie items were then summed and divided by the
number of items in the subscales to obtain a subscale mean for each
subject.
Research Design

This study was a non-experimental descriptive approach selected to

examine the relationship of PPC. GSW. and PPA in athletic and
nonathletic female middle school students in a rural midwestern setting.
DLta Processifl and Statistical Analysis

A number of statistical procedures were used to analyze the data.
First. descriptive statistics were used to summarize the demographic
characteristics of the athletic and nonathletic groups. Demographic data
collected included birthdate. age. grade. determination of (non)athletic

status and (nonilntent to continue participation.

29

in order to compare subjects' scores from this study. means and
standard deviations were calculated for each variable. l—test for
unequal groups was used to examine the between groups variability on
GSW. PPC. and PPA in athletic and nonathletic middle school females.
Correlational analysis was computed to examine relationships among all
subjects for GSW. PPC. and PPA. Correlational analysis was used to
examine relationships of athletic subjects for GSW. PPC. PPA. Statistical
significance for all tests was set at p g .05.
The hypotheses tested were:

(1)Giobai self-worth is positively related to perceived physical

competence and perceived physical appearance.
(2) Athletic middle school females will score higher on global self—

worth. perceived physical competence. and perceived physical

appearance.

RESULTS

The results of this study are reported in three parts: (a)
descriptive profile of subjects. (b) significance between group
differences. and (0) relationship between GSW. PPC and PPA for both
groups.
Demographics

The sample consisted of 65 middle school females. 53 (81.295)
participated in competitive athletic sports and 12 (18.596) did not. Table

1 describes the subjects participating in the study by educational level.

30

Table 1
Frequency and Percentage of Educational Distribution

and Athletic Participation of Subjects (N-65)

 

 

Variable # of Subjects Percentage
6th Grade
Nonparticipation 7 10.8
Participation 14 21.5
Total 21 32.3
7th Grade
Nonparticipation 3 0.5
Participation 16 24.6
Total 19 25.1
8th Grade
Nonparticipation 2 0.3
Participation 23 35.4
Total 25 35.7
Total
Nonparticipation 12 18.5
Participation 53 81.5

Total 65 100.0

 

31

The mean age and mean grade of subjects is displayed in Table 2.
The mean age for the 12 subjects who did not compete in athletic sports
was 12.0 and the mean grade was 6.58 with a mode of 7. The mean age
for the 53 subjects who did participate in competitive sports was 12.43
and the mean grade was 7.17 with a mode of 8. The mean age for all
subjects was 12.4 and the mean grade was 7.06 with a mode of 8. There
were no significanct differences between the groups on age or grade.

The age range distribution of subjects is presented in Table 3. The
subjects’ ages ranged from 11-14 years with a sample mean of 12.57
years of age. Forty-one (6396) of the subjects were 12 and 13 years of
age.

globgi Self-Worth. Perceived Physical Competence. and Perceived Physical
Appearance

The means and standard deviations of the three major variables in

 

this study. GSW. PPC. and PPA. are presented in Table 4. Sixty-four
subjects responded to questions about GSW. The GSW mean for all
subjects was 3.03 (standard deviation of .81) was higher than the mean
of 2.98 in a previous study by Harter (1986) and the mean for
nonathletic subjects was lower at 2.98 (standard deviation of 1.23); yet
higher for the athletes at 3.06 (standard deviation of .75).

All 65 subjects responded to questions about PPC. The PPC mean for
nonathletic subjects was 2.26 (standard deviation of .92) and the PPC
mean for athletic subjects was 2.85 (standard deviation of .79). The
PPC mean for athletes was higher than the mean established by Harter
(1986) at 2.81 yet the mean for all the subjects was lower at 2.75.

The questions about PPA were complete for 62 subjects. The mean

for nonathletic subjects was 2.65 (standard deviation of .88) and the

32

Table 2

Mean Age and Mean Grade of Subjects (N-65)

 

 

 

Variable # Subjects Mean Age ‘Mean Grade

Nonparticipants 12 12.0 6.58

Participants 53 12.43 7.17

Total 65 12.4 7.06
Table 3

Freguency and Percentage of Age Range Distribution

and Athletic Participation of Subjects (N-65)

 

 

Age # of Subjects Percentage
11 years
Nonparticipation 4 6.2
Participation 7 10.8
Total 11 17.0
12 years
Nonparticipation 5 7.7
Participation 21 32.3
Total 26 40.0
13 years
Nonparticipation 2 3.1
Participation 20 30.8
Total 22 33.9
14 years
Nonparticipation 1 1.5
Participation 6 9.2
Total 7 10.7

Total 65 100.0

 

33

Table 4

Description. Mean, and Standard Deviations of GSW-

PPC. and PPA

 

 

Effect

Variable # Mean SD Size
GSW
Nonparticipation 11 2.89 1.23
Athl. participation 53 3.06 .75
Missing 1

Total 65 3.03 .81 .21
PPC
Nonparticipation 12 2.26 .92
Athl. participation 53 2.85 .79

Total 65 2.75 .84 .70
PPA
Nonparticipation 11 2.65 .88
Athl. participation 51 2.52 .70
Missing 3

Total 65 2.54 .73 .19

 

34
mean for athletic subjects was 2.52 (standard deviation of .70). Both
PPA athletic and nonathletic means were above the 2.46 mean in a
previous study by Harter (1986). The mean for PPA of all subjects was
2.54 with a standard deviation of .73.

l—test for unequal groups was used to examine the means between
groups related to GSW. PPC. and PPA. The results of the t—test are
presented in Table 5. There were no significant differences in GSW and
PPA between those subjects who participated in competitive sports and
those who did not. Although PPC approached significance (p.06). the
hypothesis is rejected.

Pearson's r correlation coefficient was computed to examine the
relationship among the three variables (see Table 6). GSW for all
subjects was found to have a significant positive relationship with PPC
(r-.76; 9305). Those subjects with high PPC were likely to have a
higher GSW. There was a moderately positive relationship between GSW
and PPA (r-.51; pg.05). Thus. the hypothesis that GSW is positively
related to PPC and PPA is supported. Of interest. it was found that
there is also a positive relationship among all subjects between PPA and
PPC (r-.50; pg.05)

Table 7 presents the Kendall's tau-b correlation coefficient computed
to examine the relationship of athletic participation with the three
variables. There were modest positive relationships between GSW and
PPC (r-.44) and between GSW and PPA (r-.59). Although weak positive

relationships were found between athletic participation and PPC (r-.22)

35
and between athletic participation and GSW (r-.13) they were not
significanct. PPA and athletic participation were found to have an

insignificant negative relationship (r--.06).

Table 5

Summary of T-test. Separate Variance Between Athletic and
Non-athletic Female Middle School Students

 

 

Variable t value D.F. 2-tail sig.
GSW -1.02 35.13 .32
PPC -2.05 14.79 .06
PPA .67 17.95 .51

 

p §_.05

36

Table 6

Pearson’s r Correlation Coefficient of GSW. PPC. and PPA

 

 

 

Correlations: Global Perceived Perceived
Self- Physical Physical
Worth Competence Appearance

GSW 1.00 .76** .51**

PPC .76** 1.00 .50**

PPA .51** .50** 1.00

N of cases 62 l-tailed Signif: * - .01 ** - .001

Table 7

Kenadll's tau-b Correlation Coefficient of GSW. PPC. PPA
and Athletic Participation

 

 

Correlations : GSW PPC PPA ATHLETIC
GSW 1.00 .44 .59 .13
PPC .44 1.00 .41 .22
PPA .59 .41 1.00 -.06
ATHLETIC .13 .22 -.06 1.00

N of cases 62 1-tailed Signif: * - .01 ** - .001

 

37
interpretation of Flndlng_s_

interesting conclusions can be drawn from the interpretation of the
findings of this study with respect to the HPM and the literature. The
HPM. as it is described by Pender (1987) provides an excellent
conceptual framework for the variables in this study. The hypothesized
relationships among the cognitive-perceptual factors (GSW. PPC. and
PPA) were supported in this research. The finding that GSW among all
subjects is positively related to PPC and PPA is consistent with findings
of earlier studies (Butcher. 1989; Covey 8: Feltz. 1991; Snyder 8:
Spreltzer. 1978). The significant correlation between GSW and PPC may
be a result of the number of subjects (53. 81.2%) who participated in
competitive athletic sports and of the remaining 12 who did not
participate in sports. 9 participated in other organized activities.

The positive relationship between athletic participation with GSW and
PPC are consistent with the view in previous earlier studies that for
female student participation in competitive sports has a positive effect
on GSW (Button. 1990; Doherty 8 Harris. 1985; Lerner.1990).

The literature frequently supported the relationship of PPC or PPA
and GSW. The correlational findings in this study were consistent with
previous literature that participation in competitive sports had a
positive relationship with GSW. This study suggests that participation
in competitive sports may be associated with PPC and GSW during middle
school at a time which. as suggested in current literature. is when GSW
in females typically decreases (Feltz 8: Petlichkoff. 1983; Harter 8:

Con neii. 1984).

38

l—tests presented thought provoking findings. There were no
significant differences in GSW or PPA based on athletic participation.
Of the 12 subjects who did not participate in athletics. 9 engaged in
other activities on a regular basis. This finding may suggest that other
factors. such as participation in noncompetitive sports and other
organized on-going activities may have an equivalent impact on
perceived self competence though further research is needed.
Participation in physical education classes during middle school may also

explain the PPC among the subjects.

DISCUSSION

Limitations

This research was not without limitations. First. a non-probability
convenience sample was used and therefore. the results of this data may
not be generalized to all female middle school students. The rural
setting of this study limits the generalizabllity to school females from
other settings and the study's focus on females limits the
generalizabllity to male middle school students. Other variables in the
subjects' environment such as interpersonal relationships at home.
parental. sibling and peer relationships. socioeconomic levels. differences
between students in classes and factors which may effect the
development or change of GSW were not controlled in this study. All
students recruited did not participate in the study thus limiting the
sample size and biasing the sample to only those students interested in

particlpati ng.

39

Second. there were some limitations with the sixth grade participants.
Sixth graders had been in middle school for eight weeks at the time of
the study and some competitive sports had not yet been offered. The
sixth graders needed more time to complete the tool than the seventh
and eight graders who finished the tool in less than twenty minutes.
Results of two of the sixth grade subjects had to be omitted because
there was more than one response to each question. Furthermore.
although only three subscales of the tool were used in this study. there
were references to dating and employment in questions on other
subscales which would be inappropriate for this age group.

Lastly. although there were no outliers of the nonathletic sample. the
sample size of 12 was considerably less than the sample of athletic
students (53); and of those 12. 9 participated in other ongoing activities.
Nonetheless. this particular study was not designed to determine how an
individual develops GSW or how GSW is influenced but was designed to
investigate the affect of athletic participation on GSW. PPC. PPA.
implications for Advanced NursinLPractice and Primary Care

This study presents several implications for nurses in advanced
practice in primary care settings who are providing health care for
adolescent females. The advanced practice nurse (APN) may enhance
female adolescent health through application of Pender's (1987) HPM.
which provides a framework for health promotion by increasing the
direction of wellness and psychosocial development of an individual or
group. The APN involved in female adolescent health promotion must be

attentive to the unique developmental characteristics of the female

40
adolescent and through the use of Pender's (1987) model. guide the
adolescent toward positive modifying factors to promote health.

To ensure successful implementation. a distinct understanding of the
role responsibilities and role function by the APN is imperative within
the female adolescent rural population. The expert practitioner role
provides the base for the integration of various roles. Successful
implementation of the APN roles directly impact the health of the female
adolescent in rural settings.

As an assessor. the APN can incorporate psychosocial assessment
through support and education in the school system. As the primary
health care provider. the APN can provide sports physicals which would
include physical assessment for appropriateness of involved sports.
injury prevention. and psychosocial assessment by asking the female
adolescent to answer such questions as "I am often please with my
athletic performance". "i feel i am as attractive as my friends”. and ”i
like the kind of person i am". Providing positive reinforcement for
health seeking behavior and encouraging participation in sports or other
activities along with the review of common developmental stressors at
the time of the physical can often be quite assuring to female
adolescents.

Health care providers and educators can benefit from community
assessments by the APN to increase knowledge about the relationship of
GSW. PPC and PPA. Community assessment and involvement in the
promotion of miliages that may provide extracurricular activities for
female adolescents are imperative. The APN can assess the community

for existing knowledge and resources that address the significance of

41
the development of global self-worth and the enhancement that
extracurricular activities can provide adolescents.

Given limited community resources in a rural setting. the APN must
become increasingly important in the assessment of health education in
the school system (Estes & Hart. 1993). Examination of female student
participation in (non)competitive sports and other activities can be used
as a part of a needs assessment for health education in the school.
identification of female students that do not participate in
extracurricular activities can be targeted as students of high legitimate
concern among health care providers. parents. and educators.

As assessors of healthcare in the rural primary care setting. it is
valuable for nurses in advanced practice to be aware of the personal
health care concerns of their female adolescent clients. Understanding
types and levels of concern. and lack of concern in clients as well as
the population in general can allow the APN to put client's concerns into
perspective relative to their peers. The APN can assist educators in
recognition of development of GSW and encourage teachers to assess and
promote their female students to participate in sports and other on-
going activities.

For female adolescents who have medical conditions that limit their
activity. individualized attention to choice of sport related to level of
performance should be given. Regardless of skill or ability. all female
students who participate in sports face some small. but real risk. This
may be the physical risk of an injury or the psychological risk of a
disappointing performance. The benefits of athletic activity leading to

increased PPC far outweigh the risks when several precautions are

42
taken. The primary goal of health professionals. coaches. educators. and
parents should be to minimize risks by offering a variety of activities
and providing appropriate participation screening. safe equipment.
injury prevention counseling. and guidance for healthy competition.

The second APN role is educator. Through the use of learning
theories and selected learning methods. the APN can teach and assist
educators and parents to provide immediate feedback to female
adolescents concerning performances. reward of mastery attempts. be
positive role models. and to act in ways that communicate approval of
involvements in activities (Corbin. 1984). Representatives from local
referral resources. parents. and educators can present a panel
discussion of activities offered in the community and school system. This
may serve to enhance use of the available community resources that
promote regular participation in competitive sports or other activities.
Teaching the use of praise and encouragement of positive self-talk can
also assist teachers and parents with health maintenance/illness
prevention strategies when identifying and meeting the health
educational needs of female adolescents.

The APN can develop mini-education series addressing the needs for
sports and extracurricular activities in the promotion of health to female
adolescents during school classes as a guest speaker. after school. or at
community social affairs. Similar programs could be developed for
parent teacher organizations. church groups. and even such community
social setting as bazaars and county fairs.

Although there are gaps in the current literature regarding the role

of female athletic participation in health promotion during adolescence.

43

basing care in Pender's (1987) HPM and drawing from normal
developmental expectations provides direction for the APN in rural
primary care settings to guide female adolescents toward improved
health promotion. Health compromising behaviors can be an expected
part of cognitive development. nevertheless. the APN can promote female
adolescent health by empowering the adolescence in the incorporation of
health promotion goals in the activities of daily living. sports
participation. and extracurricular activities. Evidence indicates that
given adequate motivation and appropriate competence. GSW will be a
major reason for an adolescent female’s choice to become involved in
physical activities. There may be many adolescent females who would
like to become involved in physical activities but have insufficient
confidence in their abilities to perform effectively (Feltz 8: Doyle. 1981).

Encouraging participation in community health fairs and volunteer
groups such as read-to-tots. hospice. and volunteer teen programs are
avenues to capture an adolescent audience during the education process.
The first goal is to empower the female adolescent with increased skill.
increased knowledge. and participation in physical sports. and if not
sports. other activities with participation on a regular basis. Educating
the community through parent teacher organizations. school board
meeting attendance. and local church groups of the significance of the
enhancement. promotion. coordination and maintenance of existing athletic
and extra-curricular programs within the schools. rather than the
creation of new programs and activities should be the priority of health

and ed ucation authorities.

44

Third. the APN is a collaborator. The foundation of the advocacy
role is establishing a relationship with the adolescent that promotes
trust. mutuality. and empowerment. This also can be initiated during a
school physical provided by the APN. Once health promotion goals are
established. the adolescent female should trust that the APN will provide
available information and resources. in a study by Hodgson. Feldman.
Corber. and Quinn (1985). 84.7% of the 730 adolescent subjects reported
visiting a primary care facility during the prior twelve months.
Therefor. advanced practice nurses in primary care. particularly in
rural settings. have access to the majority of adolescents. APN and
educators should be kept informed of the types of social and medical
services available in the community and encourage female adolescents to
use these services as much as possible for referral and informational
purposes.

it is essential for the APN to maximize collaboration with the available
resources in a rural community such as the chamber of commerce.
community mental health. churches. and schools to plan for decisions
made regarding sports and other activities available to female
adolescents. Because of the long distances from homes to schools in
rural settings. collaboration with school authorities and local resources
is needed to pursue transportation alternatives that would allow
students to participate in after school activities and have transportation
home after school buses have already left.

The APN can collaborate with community mental health to have classes
offered in the middle school addressing psychosocial needs and the

development of self-worth. Classes such as grooming. make-up. posture.

45

and appearance can be offered to increase perceived physical
appearance.

in summary. the use of individual roles of the APN. are not all
inclusive. but illustrate how the APN in primary care in a rural setting.
through. assessing. educating. advocating. and collaborating may make a
significant difference in the development of GSW of adolescent females.
Recommendations for Further Research

Future research is essential in the following domains: 1)
characteristics of female middle school students with low global self-
worth; 2) introduction of specific protocols for adolescent females that
promote GSW; 3) adding the concept of PPC to the HPM to better
explain individual self health promotion activities; 4) examination of
assessment practices before and after physical education and/or
competitive sports programs more systematically to determine the
effectiveness of such programs; 5) further research examining the role
of athletic participation of a longitudinal nature; and 6) further studies
in other rural settings

Further development and evaluation of the HPM appear warranted.
Studies with populations representing various states of health and
illness as well as various socioeconomic backgrounds and setting should
be undertaken to further establish norms. Research is needed to
determine relationships of various domains of developmental attributes
and ongoing activities that affect GSW. PPC and PPA among adolescents
and to determine if these relationships vary among different ages. sex.

ethnic groups. and rural communities.

46

Efforts could also be directed toward research on ongoing activities
that affect GSW. Research suggestions focusing on primary care
interventions addressing participation in sports and identifying other
activities that augment global self-worth should be encouraged.
Summary

This study supports the general agreement that participation in
organized sports has an implied benefit to the psychosocial development
of female middle school students. it means that providing experiences
that augment global self-worth (such as athletics or other regular
activities) and that result in increased perceived physical competence

and personal appearance will increase global self-worth.

APPENDICES

47

APPENDIX A

Monologue for obtaining informed consent from subjects

"i am a registered nurse and attending graduate school at Michigan
State University. As a part of my studies. i want to understand how
adolescent girls feel about themselves. how they feel about their
physical abilities. and how they feel about their physical appearance.
This knowledge will help me to provide better care to teenagers when
I am finished with school.

You are not required to participate in this study. This study is only
for those students that want to participate. This questionnaire will
take about twenty minutes to complete and will be given on
Thursday. November 4. 1994.

Your names will not be used. Your names will not be placed on the
survey. There will be no way that i will know which questionnaire
each of you complete. There will be a number at the top of each
questionnaire so that i can record my findings. Results of each
questionnaire will not be shared with anyone. As you complete the
questionnaire. i will ask you not to talk among yourselves. This will
help keep your answers confidential.

I will be the only person to give you this questionnaire. Your
teachers will not have access to the individual questionnaire.

Before you can complete the questionnaire. i will need both you and
one of your parents or a guardian to complete this consent form.

You will not be required to participate in this study if you turn in a
signed consent form and change your mind and decide not to
participate.

Please take this form home today. have it signed. and return it
tomorrow to your physical education teacher if you want to
participate in this survey. Thank you for your help."

APPENDIX B

instructions for Self-Perception Profile
for Adolescents. (Harter. 1986)

48
APPENDIX B

instructions for Self-Perception Profile for Adolescence
(Harter. 1986)

instructions for tool administration:

”Thank you for consenting to participate in this survey. i want to
once again assure you that your responses on this survey will be
kept confidential and not shared with your teachers or classmates.
Please do not talk or share your answers with your classmates. Also.
remember that there are no right or wrong answers to this survey.”

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE SUBJECTS (Harter, 1986, p.12).

I have some sentences here and, as you can see from the top of your sheet where it says
”What I am like," I am interested in what each ofyou is like, what kind ofperson you are
like. This is a survey, not a test. There are no right or wrong answers. Since kids are very
different from one another, each of you may be putting down something different.

First let me explain how these questions work. There is a sample at the top of your survey
and on this board (examiner indicates enlm'ged copy of question). I‘ll read outloud and you
follow along with me. (Examiner reads sample question). This question talks about two
kinds of kids, and I want to know which teenagers are most like you.

(1) So, what I want you to decide first is whether you are more like the teenagers on
the left side who would rather go to the movies or whether you are more like the
teenagersontherightsidewhowouldrathergotoa sports event Don'tmarkanything
yet, but first decide which kind of teenagers is most like you, and go to that side of the
sentence.

(2) Now, the second thing I want you to think about, now that you have decided
which kind of teenagers are most like you, is to decide whether that is one sort of true
for you, or really true for you. If it's only sort of true, then put an X in the box under
sortoftrue; ifit'sreallytrueforyou, thenputanXinthatbox, underreallytrue.

(3) For each sentence you check me box. Sometimes it will be on one side of the
page, another time it will be on the other side of the page, but you can only check one
box for each sentence. You don ’1 check both sides, just the one side most like you.

(4) OK, that one was just for practice. Now we have some more sentences which I
am going to read out loud. For each one, just check one box, the one that goes with
what is true for you, what you are most like.

APPENDIX C

Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents. (Harter. 1986)

49

WHAT I AM LIKE

Birthdate
Month Day Year

Circle the grade you are now in 6 7 8

CIRCLE the activities that you participate in now or have participated in
while in middle school:

art gymnastics competition
band skating (racing team)
basketball skiing (racing team)
bowling soccer

cheerieading swimming (racing team)
cross country track

choir volleyball

dance clubs:

 

figure skating competition

if you did participate in any of these activities. do you plan to
continue? circle: yes no

50

What i Am Like

 

often disappointed With
thGiliselves

pretty Pleased with
themselves,

lly Son Really
True *0! , of ‘ True
torMef-gf True Sample Sentence True ‘3i_'ifO_f‘M8‘fiffgf
ai } { } Some teenagers like to BUT Other teenagers would { } { }
go to movies in their rather go to sports
spare time events.
1.{ } { } Some teenagers feel BUT Other teenagers aren't { } { }
that they are just as so sure and wonder if
smart as others their they are as smart.
age
2.{ } { } Some teenagers findit BUT For other teenagers { } { }
hard to make friends it's pretty easy.
3.{ } { } Some teenagers do BUT Other teenagers don't { } { }
very well at all kinds of feel that they are very
sports good when it comes to
sports.
4.{ } { } Some teenagers are BUT Other teenagers are { } { }
not happy with the way happy with the way
they look they look
5.{ } { } Some teenagers feel BUT Other teenagers feel { } { }
that they are ready to that they are not quite
do well at a part-time ready to handle a part-
job time job
6.{ } { } Some teenagers feel BUT Other teenagers worry { } { }
that if they are that when they like
romantically interested someone romantically,
in someone, that that person won‘t like
person will like them them back
back
7.{ } { } Some teenagers BUT Other teenagers often { } { }
usually do the right don’t do what they
thing know is right.
8.{ j { } Some teenagers are BUT Other teenagers findit { } { }
able to make really hard to make really
close friends close friends.
9.{ } { } Some teenagers are BUT Other teenagers are { } { }

11.{ }

12.{ }

13.{ }

14.{ }

15.{ }

1st }

17.{ }

18.I l

19.{ }

of.» i
7 .lorLiiMe E

I i

I i

I l

I l

I }

I i

I i

I i

I i

I i

51

What I Am Like

Some teenagers are
pretty slow in finishing
their school work

Some teenagers have
a lot of friends

Some teenagers think
they could do well at
just about any new
athletic activity

Some teenagers wish
their body was different

Some teenagers feel
that they don't have
enough skills to do well
at a job

Some teenagers are
not dating the people
they are really attracted
to

Some teenagers often
feel guilty about certain
things they do

Some teenagers can
be trusted to keep
secrets that their
friends tell them

Some teenagers don't
like the way they are
leading their life

Some teenagers do
very well at their
ciasswork

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

Other teenagers can
do their school work
more quickly.

Other teenagers don't
have very many
friends.

Other teenagers are
afraid they might not
do well at a new
athletic activity.

Other teenagers like
their body the way it
is.

Other teenagers feel
that they do have
enough skills to do a
job well.

Other teenagers are
dating those people
they are attracted to.

Other teenagers hardly
ever feel guilty about
what they do.

Other teenagers have
a hard time keeping
secrets that their
friends tell them.

Other teenagers do
like the way they are
leading their life.

Other teenagers don't
do very well at their
ciasswork.

True V
torMe ‘ ‘ 7 ‘

I i

I i

I i

I i

I i

I i

I i

I i

I i

I i

I i

I }

We “

21.{ }

22.I i

23.{ }

24.{ }

25.{ }

2st }

27.{ }

2st }

29.{ }

s.

V Two
'9' ”.9

.201 } .,

I l

I }

I }

I I

I }

I l

I i

I l

52

What I Am Like

Some teenagers are
very hard to like

Some teenagers feel
that they are better
than others their age at
sports

Some teenagers wish
their physical
appearance was
different

Some teenagers are
proud of the work they
do on jobs they get
paid for

Some teenagers feel
that people their age
will be romantically
attracted to them

Some teenagers are
usually pleased with
the way they act

Some teenagers don't
really have a close
friend to share things
with

Some teenagers are

happy with themselves
most of the time

Some teenagers have
trouble figuring out the
answers in school

Some teenagers are
popular with others
their age

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

Other teenagers are
really easy to like.

Other teenagers don't
feel they can play as
well.

Other teenagers like
their physical
appearance the way it
is.

For other teenagers,
getting paid is more
important than feeling

proud of what they do.

Other teenagers worry
about whether people
their age will be
attracted to them.

Other teenagers are
often ashamed of the
way they act.

Other teenagers do
have a close friend to
share things with.

Other teenagers are
often not happy with
themselves.

Other teenagers
almost always can

figure out the answers.

Other teenagers are
not very popular.

FTSOIT 1 .
tome
['0' "9

err-u: : x

I i

I l

I i

I i

I }

{.}..

I i

I i

I i

I i

I}
I}

I }

53

What i Am Like

neatly ' Sort son new:
Irma: nor or .. maa~ei:j:j;;sf
glory-lilo} True {True gfor;lil‘efié;éggg
.. ‘0' M9 ”"9 . ‘
30.{ } { } Some teenagers dont BUT Other teenagers are { } { }
do well at new outdoor good at new games
games right away.
3i.{ } { } Some teenagers think BUT Other teenagers think { } { }
that they are good that they are not very
looking good looking.
32.{ } { } Some teenagers feel BUT Other teenagers feel { } { }
like they could do that they are doing
better at work they do really well at work they
for pay do for pay.
33.{ } { } Some teenagers feel BUT Other teenagers { } { }
that they are fun and wonder about how fun
interesting on a date and interesting they
are on a date.
34.{ } { } Some teenagers do BUT Other teenagers hardly { } { }
things they know they ever do things they
shouldn't do know they shouldn‘t
do.
35.{ } { } Some teenagers findit BUT Other teenagers are { } { }
hard to make friends able to make close
they can really trust friends they can really
trust.
36.{ } { } Some teenagers like BUT Other teenagers often { } { }
the kind of person they wish they were
are someone else.
37.{ } { } Some teenagers feel BUT Other teenagers { } { }
that they are pretty question whether they
intelligent are intelligent.
38.{ } { } Some teenagers feel BUT Other teenagers { } { }
that they are socially wished that more
accepted people their age
accepted them.
39.{ } { } Some teenagers do not BUT Other teenagers feel { } { }
feel that they are very that they are very

athletic athletic.

5W9
”M9

4o.{ .6}
41.{ }
42.{ }

43.{ }

44-I i

45.{ }

True ' -
?:?'51iI9i.M9 '

I i

I i

54

What i Am Like

Some teenagers really
like their looks

Some teenagers feel
that it's really important
to do the best you can
on paying jobs

Some teenagers
usually don't get asked
out by pe0ple they
would like to date

Some teenagers
usually act the way
they know they are
supposed to

Some teenagers don't
have a friend that is
close enough to share
really personal thoughts
with

Some teenagers are
very happy being the
way they are

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

Other teenagers wish
they looked different.

Other teenagers feel
that getting the job
done is what really
counts.

Other teenagers do
get asked out by
people they really want
to date.

Other teenagers often
don't act the way they
are supposed to.

Other teenagers do
have a close friend
that they can share
personal thoughts and
feelings with.

Other teenagers wish
they were different.

“9? .,
WW. _

I i

I }

I }

I i

I }

i i

I}
I}
I}

I i

I i

APPENDIX D

UCRIHS Approval Letter

 

OFFICE or
RESEARCH
AND
GRADUATE
STUDIES

University Committee on
Runndflmmhhg
Human Subjects
(UCRIHS)

lmmngbuUmnnm
nsmmmmmmm&mmm
Ewtmmijwmmn
iuutuue

517/355-2180
FAX 517/43291l71

  

55

MICHIGAN STATE

UNIVERSITY

September 29. 1994

TO: Diana L. Ha es
703 East La e Street #1
Petoskey, MI 49770

RE: IRBI: 94-477

TITLE: THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELF ESTEEH, PERCEIVED
PHYSICAL COHPETENCE AND PERCEIVED PHYSICAL
APPEARANCE AMONG ATHLETIC AND NON-ATHLETIC,
FEMALE, MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS

REVISION REQUESTED: N/A

CATEGORY: -C

APPROVAL DATE: 09/29/94

The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects'(UCRIHS)

review of this projeCt is complete. I am pleased to advsse that the

rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately

protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate.
lhereéorg. the UCRIHS approved this project including any revision
late a ove.

RENEWAL: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. beginning with
the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to
continue a project be ond one year must use the green renewal
form (enclosed with t e original a proval letter or when a
project is renewed) to seek ugdate certification. There is a
maxrmum of four such expedite renewals ossible. Investigators
wishing to continue a project beyond the time need to submit it
again or complete revrew.

REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human
subjects. rior to initiation of t e change. If this ls done at
the time o renewal. please use the green renewal form. To
revrse an approved protocol at any other time during the year
send your written request to the CRIHS Chair. requesting revised
approval and referencing the project's IRB I and title. Include
in your request a description of the change and any revised
instruments. consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.

PROBLEMS/

CHANGES: Should either of the followin arise during the course of the
work, investigators must noti UCRIHS promptly: (1) problems
(unexpected side effects. comp aints. e c.) involvrng uman
subjects or (2) changes in the research environment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human subjects than
existed when the protocol was previously reviewed and approved.

If we can be of any future help. lease do not hesitate to contact us
at (517)355-2180 or FAX ($17)3 6- 171.

Sincerely.

  

 

avid E. Wr'
UCRIHS Chai
DEW:pjm

cc: Linda Spence

APPENDIX E

Approval Letter from School District

56

DUBLIC (SCHOOIfi) OF DETOc‘BKEY

1130 HOWARD STREET
PETOSKEY. MICHIGAN 49770
(616) 348-0150

FAX (616) 348-0165

 

 

August 10, 1994

To whom it may concern:

Please accept this letter as my endorsement for Ms. Diana
Hayes to conduct her study of the relationship of self-esteem,
perceived physical competence, and perceived physical appearance
among athletic and non-athletic female middle school students in
our district. In performing the study, she is authorized to work
with Mr. Carl Moser, the principal of Petoskey Middle School.

Yours very truly,

.z/“fD
_/
Franklin Ronan
Superintendent of Schools

FR/cp

Copy: Mr. Carl Moser
Petoskey Middle School Principal

Pew-y Petseuey Cease L‘ncoh Oriana m
WWW WW “New emsaw Elementarysaiool EWW Emmet
ttzni-toaavoSsest mount-sine mime-n etOSIateSuet sweat-name“. BTIWAW 1015mm
3.00150 JGO-OIOI 34601” was 38-013! 38-0125 3‘00!”

An Equal Opportunity Employer

APPENDIX F

Approval Letter from Middle School

57

PETOSKEY MIDDLE SCHOOL

 

801 Northmen Drive Carl R. Mose
Petoskey, Michigan 49770 Pnncxpal
(616) 348-0180

November I . 1 994

Dear Parent/Guardian,

From time to time we have requests from Universities or protessbml people working on
specific projects to conduct surveys. I am very cautious with these requests as well as the
survey form. I have received such a survey request irom Ms. Diana Hayes who is not only a
registered nurse. but a graduate student at Michigan State University.

I have reviewed the topics and the survey itself. As you know. I have fairly conservative
beliefs. I take the responsibility you give me for your child very seriously. In reading this
survey. I would have no objection to my own daughter participating it she were still in middle
school.

Please read the enclosed material and respond in accordance with the directions. It you
wish to see the questionaire. please ieel tree to come into the middle school office and I can show
you a copy. Naturally. Ms. Hayes would not want the survey to go home ahead at the survey date
as that could affect individual responses.

If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at school.

Respectfully.

w radii»...

Carl R. Maser
Principal

IIp

M
ll
“51!.
"DH,

Designated by the United States Dept. ol Education as a National Exemplary School.

58
APPENDIX G

COVER LETTER FOR INFORMED CONSENT

Dear middle school student and parent/guardian:

I am a registered nurse and attending graduate school at Michigan
State University. As a part of my studies. i want to understand how
adolescent girls feel about themselves. how they feel about their
physical abilities. and how they feel about their physical appearance.
This knowledge will help me to provide better care to teenagers when
I am finished with school.

Students are not required to participate In this study. This study Is
only for those students that want to participate. The questionnaire
will take about twenty minutes to complete and will be given on
Thursday. November 4. 1994.

Names will not be used. Names will not be placed on the
questionnaire. There will be no way that I will know which
questionnaire each student completes. There will be a number at the
top of each questionnaire so that i can record my findings. Results
of each questionnaire will not be shared with teachers or anyone
else. As students complete the questionnaire. i will ask them to not
talk among themselves. This will help keep answers confidential.

I will be the only person to give this questionnaire. Before the
questionnaire can be completed. I will need both you and

one of your parents or a guardian to complete this consent form.
Students will not be required to participate in this study if they
turn in a signed consent form and change their mind and decide not
to participate.

Please sign and return the attached consent form tomorrow to your
physical education teacher if you want to participate In this survey.

Thank you for your help."

Diana L. Hayes. R.N.. B.S.N.. M.S.U. Graduate Student

59

Informed Consent Form

Investigator: Diana L. Hayes. RN, BSN

I have freely consented to allow my child to participate in a study
conducted by Diana Hayes. graduate student In the College of Nursing at
Michigan State University.

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between PPC
and perceived appearance of female adolescents.

I understand that my child Is free to refuse to answer certain questions
or discontinue her participation at any time without penalty. I
understand that if she chooses to participate in this study. It will take
about 20 minutes or less to complete the questionnaire. I understand
that my child's identity will remain anonymous In any report of research
findings.

I agree to participate voluntarily in this research.

 

Student Signature Date

 

Parent/Guardian Signature Date

I. the undersigned. have defined and fully explained the study to the
above subject.

 

lnvestigator's Signature Date

APPENDIX H

Scoring Tool for Self-Perception Profile
for Adolsecents (Harter. 1986i

LiBeally

60

What I Am Like
Scoring Key

Some teenagers like to
go to movies in their
spare time

BUT

 

for MB ----- Tm .....
‘7... e. _ ..;.,if-Lt°r Me
a I I I I
1. { 4} { 3}
2- I 1 I {2}
3. { 4} { 3}
4. { 1 } { 2}
5. { 4} { 3 }
6. { 4} { 3 }
7. { 4} { 3}
8. { 4} { 3}
9. { 1 } { 2}

Some teenagers feel
that they are just as
smart as others their
age

Some teenagers find it
hard to make friends

Some teenagers do
very well at all kinds of

sports

Some teenagers are
not happy with the way
they look

Some teenagers feel
that they are ready to
do well at a part-time
job

Some teenagers feel
that iithey are
romantically interested
in someone, that

person will like them
back

Some teenagers
usually do the right

thing
Some teenagers are

able to make really
close friends

Some teenagers are
often disappointed with
themselves

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

Other teenagers would
rather go to sports
events.

Other teenagers aren‘t
so sure and wonder if
they are as smart.

For other teenagers
it‘s pretty easy.

Other teenagers don‘t
feel that they are very
good when It comes to

sports.
Other teenagers are

happy with the way
they look

Other teenagers feel
that they are not quite

ready to handle a part-

time job

Other teenagers worry
that when they like
someone romantically,
that person won't like
them back

Other teenagers often
don‘t do what they
know is right.

Other teenagers find it

hard to make really
close friends.

Other teenagers are
pretty pleased with
themselves.

"True
xitor Me

I }

{2}

I3}

{2}

{3}

I2}

{2}

{2}

I2}

{3}

I }

 

I1}

{4}

I1}

{4}

III

II}

{I}

{1}

{4}

41417‘?"

1041} '

11.{ 4}

12.{ 4}

13.{ 1 }

14.{ 1 }

15.{ 1 }

16.{ 1}

17.{ 4}

13.{ 1 }

19.{ 4}

44

{3}

I3}

{2}

I2}

{2}

I2}

{3}

I2}

{3}

61

What I Am Like

Some teenagers are
pretty slow in finishing
their school work

Some teenagers have
a lot of friends

Some teenagers think
they could do well at
just about any new
athletic activity

Some teenagers wish
their body was different

Some teenagers feel
that they dont have
enough skills to do well
at a job

Some teenagers are
not dating the people
they are really attracted
to

Some teenagers often
feel guilty about certain
things they do

Some teenagers can
be trusted to keep
secrets that their
friends tell them

Some teenagers don't
like the way they are
leading their life

Some teenagers do
very well at their
classwork

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

Other teenagers can
do their school work
more quickly.

Other teenagers don't
have very many
friends.

Other teenagers are
afraid they might not
do well at a new
athletic activity.

Other teenagers like
their body the way it
is.

Other teenagers feel
that they do have
enough skills to do a
job well.

Other teenagers are
dating those people
they are attracted to.

Other teenagers hardly
ever feel guilty about
what they do.

Other teenagers have
a hard time keeping
secrets that their
friends tell them.

Other teenagers do
like the way they are
leading their life.

Other teenagers don‘t
do very well at their
classwork

True 4
Z '0‘ M9 _.' 3 g. _

I 2 I

I2}

{3}

I3}
{3}

{3}

I2}

{3}

I2}

a. fly
"for:

{4}
{1}

{1}

I4}

{4}
I4}

{4}

I1}

I4}

{1}

‘zsv'rrue

20.41 }

21.} 4}

23.} 4}
24.} 4}

25.} 4}

26.} 1 }

27.} 4}
28.{ 1 }

29.} 4}

HWY 1‘

True

{2}

I2}

{3}

I3}

{3}

{2}

I3}

I2}

{3}

62

What I Am Like

Some teenagers are
very hard to like

Some teenagers feel
that they are better
than others their age at
sports

Some teenagers wish
their physical
appearance was
different

Some teenagers are
proud of the work they
do on jobs they get
paid for

Some teenagers feel
that people their age
will be romantically
attracted to them

Some teenagers are
usually pleased with
the way they act

Some teenagers don't
really have a close
friend to share things
with

Some teenagers are

happy with themselves
most of the time

Some teenagers have
trouble figuring out the
answers in school

Some teenagers are
popular with others
their age

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

Other teenagers are
really easy to like.

Other teenagers dont
feel they can play as
well.

Other teenagers like
their physical
appearance the way it
is.

For other teenagers,

getting paid is more
important than feeling

proud of what they do.

Other teenagers wony
about whether people
their age will be
attracted to them.

Other teenagers are
often ashamed of the
way they act.

Other teenagers do
have a close friend to
share things with.

Other teenagers are
often not happy with
themselves.

Other teenagers
almost always can

figure out the answers.

Other teenagers are
not very popular.

igt

I3}

I2}

I3}

{2}

I2}

{2}

{3}

I2}

{3}

I2}

— True
' ”"9 T

(4.} ..

I1}
{4}
{1}
I1}

I1}

{4}

I1}
{4}

I1}

True ot a;
30.} 1 } } 2}
31.} 4 } { 3 }
32.} 1 } } 2}
33.{ 4 } { 3 }
34.{ 1 I I 2 I
35.{ 1 I I 2 I
36.{ 4} } 3 }
37.{ 4} l 3 I
33.} 4} } 3}
39.} 1 } } 2}

63

What I Am Like

Some teenagers don't BUT
do well at new outdoor

games

Some teenagers think BUT

that they are good

looking

Some teenagers feel BUT

like they could do

better at work they do

for pay

Some teenagers feel BUT
that they are fun and
interesting on a date

Some teenagers do BUT
things they know they

shouldn't do

Some teenagers find it BUT
hard to make friends
they can really trust

Some teenagers like BUT
the kind of person they

are

Some teenagers feel BUT
that they are pretty

intelligent

Some teenagers feel BUT
that they are socially

accepted

Some teenagers do not BUT
feel that they are very

athletic

Other teenagers are
good at new games
right away.

Other teenagers think
that they are not very
good looking.

Other teenagers feel
that they are doing
really well at work they
do for pay.

Other teenagers
wonder about how fun
and interesting they
are on a date.

Other teenagers hardly
ever do things they
know they shouldn‘t

do.

Other teenagers are
able to make close
friends they can really

trust.

Other teenagers often
wish they were
someone else.

Other teenagers
question whether they
are intelligent.

Other teenagers
wished that more
people their age
accepted them.

Other teenagers feel
that they are very

athletic.

I3}

{2}

{3}

I2}

I2}

I3}

1414
”IMO 39

form

I4}

{1}

{4}

I1}

{4}

I4}

{1}

I1}

{1}

I4}

Hearty

True

form x ..

4o} 4 1'

41.} 4}

42.} 1 }

43.}4}

44.}1}

45.} 4}

{T7334
,0} ‘

I 3 i

I3}

{2}

I3}

{2}

I3}

64

What I Am Like

Some teenagers really
like their looks

Some teenagers feel
that it's really important
to do the best you can
on paying jobs

Some teenagers
usually don't get asked
out by people they
would like to date

Some teenagers
usually act the way
they know they are
supposed to

Some teenagers don‘t
have a friend that is
close enough to share
really personal thoughts
with

Some teenagers are
very happy being the
way they are

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

Other teenagers wish
they looked different.

Other teenagers feel
that getting the job
done is what really
counts.

Other teenagers do
get asked out by
people they really want
to date.

Other teenagers often
don't act the way they
are supposed to.

Other teenagers do
have a close friend
that they can share
personal thoughts and
feelings with.

Other teenagers wish
they were different.

. "True

HI

{2}
{3}
{2}

{3}

I2}

_. -;.»-:torM;e~/i
form * .:

iY

I1}

{1}
I4}
I1}

{4}

I1}

L | ST 0F REFERENCES

65

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