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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

Connection and Separation:
An Exploration of the Beliefs
of College Counselors

presented by

Lisa Mary Stephen

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph. D. degree in Counseling Psychology

 

 

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CONNECTION AND SEPARATION: AN EXPLORATION OF THE BELIEFS OF COLLEGE
COUNSELORS

By
lisa Mary Stephen

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Special Education

1995

ABSTRACT

CONNECTION AND SEPARATION: AN EXPLORATION OF THE BELIEFS OF COLLEGE
COUNSELORS

By
Lisa Mary Stephen

Using an analogue methodology, this study investigated college counselors'
beliefs about the importance of separation and connection for clients at
termination when considering vignettes of male or female clients who presented
with concerns about a conflict with their parent(s). Single vignettes were
randomly assigned and mailed to college counselors and interns in counseling
centers with pre-doctoral internship programs approved by the American
Psychological Association. The instrument used was a modified version of the
Relationship Self Inventory (Pearson, Reinhart, Strommen, Donelson, Barnes,
Blank, Cebollero, Cornwell, & Kamptner, 1991). A 2 X 2 ANOVA via regression
was conducted to determine the effects of the sex of the client in the vignette and
the sex of the counselor for each dependent variable (connection and separation).
There were no significant findings for the main effects hypotheses. Vignettes of
female clients were not rated higher on connection when compared with vignettes
of male clients. Female counselors did not score higher on connection than male
counselors. Vignettes of male clients were not rated higher on separation when
compared with vignettes of female clients. Male counselors did not score higher
on separation than female counselors. Post hoc analyses yielded statistically
significant findings. Counselors rated vignettes of female clients significantly
higher on separation than vignettes of male clients. Female counselors were less

likely to return vignettes of female clients than vignettes of male clients.

Copyright by
LISA MARY STEPHEN
1 99 S

This dissertation is dedicated to my husband and best friend, Gregg Mousley.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my thanks to the people who have been such an integral part of
this project. I am especially grateful to Dr. Linda Forrest for asking challenging
questions while expressing confidence in my ability to be successful. I would also like
to thank my committee members: Dr. John Powell, Dr. Ellen Strommen, and Dr.
Douglas Campbell for their dedication and thoughtful input. I feel very fortunate to
have worked with such a gifted group of people.

I extend my gratitude to Dr. Robbie Steward for mentoring me over the years.
The honesty and commitment to ethics that she brings to her work is truly unique.
She has served as an exemplary role model.

On a personal level, I would like to thank my family for providing the rich and
complex relationships that stimulated this research. I am also grateful to John
O'Brien for helping me to think through the many blocks I encountered.

Finally, Iwish to express my sincere appreciation to my husband Gregg Mousley.
I would not have persevered if it weren't for his love, support, and patience. I never

thought someone could be so invested in helping me to reach my goals.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1
Context: The Absence of the Female Voice in Psychological Theory ................... 1
Power, language and Theory ............................................................... 1
Communication Styles ........................................................................ 2
Summary ........................................................................................ 4
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................ 5
Purpose of the Study .............................................................................. 7
Relevance of the Study ............................................................................ 7
Overview of the Study ............................................................................ 8
CHAPTER 11: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................... 10
Historical Context: The Focus on Separation in Western Psychology ................. 1 0
Theoretical Overview ........................................................................ 1 0
Traditional Gender Roles and Autonomy as the Healthy
Norm-Empirical Evidence ............................................................... 1 1
Sex Bias and Diagnosis- Empirical Evidence ........................................... 1 4
Summary ....................................................................................... 1 6
The Importance of Connection ................................................................. 1 7
The Adaptive Quality of Connection ..................................................... 1 7

Separation and Connection as Distinct but Interrelated
Constructs- A Theoretical Perspective .............................................. 1 8

vi

The Importance of Separation and Connection in Adolescent

Development- Empirical Evidence .................................................... 20
Separate and Connected Self Orientations- Empirical Evidence ................... 2 1
Summary ....................................................................................... 2 2

Summary of Literature Review ................................................................. 2 3
Research Questions ............................................................................... 2 3
CHAPTER III: DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ................................................. 24
Sample ............................................................................................... 24
Sample Selection .............................................................................. 2 4
Independent and Dependent Variables and Hypotheses ................................ 2 5
Variables .............................. 25
Hypothesis .................................................................................... 26
Instrument ......................................................................................... 2 7
Relationship Self Inventory ................................................................ 2 7
Limitations of the Relationship Self Inventory ........................................ 30
Developing the Vignettes for this Study ................................................ 3 0
Final Vignettes ................................................................................ 3 2
Modifications to the Relationship Self Inventory ..................................... 3 2
Design of the Final Instrument for this Study ......................................... 3 3
Procedures for Collecting Data ................................................................. 3 4
Summary ............................................................................................ 3 5
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS ............................................................................ 3 6
Descriptive Analyses of the Data .............................................................. 36
Dependent Variables ........................................................................ 3 6
Independent Variables ...................................................................... 3 6

vii

Exploratory Variables ........................................................................ 3 6

Demographic Variables ..................................................................... 3 7
Description of the Sample ...................................................................... 3 8
Main Effects Analyses ............................................................................ 4 1
Post Hoc Analyses ................................................................................. 43

Question I and Rationale .................................................................. .43

Question 11 and Rationale ................................................................. .43

Question 111 and Rationale ................................................................. 44

Question IVa, IVb, IVc, Nd and Rationale ............................................... 44

Question V and Rationale .................................................................. .44

Question VIa and Vlb and Rationale ..................................................... 4S
Surmnary ............................................................................................ 46
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION ........................................................................ 47
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................. 47
The Unique Characteristics of the Sample .................................................. 47

Factors Unique to Feminists ................................................................ 47

Factors Unique to Training Sites .......................................................... 48
Discussion of the Findings ...................................................................... 48

Main Effects Analysis ........................................................................ 49

Post Hoc Analysis ............................................................................. 50

Difference in Mean Scores of the Separate and
Connected Self Scores .............................................................. 5 O
The Effect of the Sex of the Client in the Vignette
on the Separate and Connected Self Scales .................................... S 0
Significant Differences in the Return of Vignettes ............................... S 3
Limitations of the Study ......................................................................... 5 4
Instruments .................................................................................... S4

viii

Hypotheses ..................................................................................... S4

Analogue Design ............................................................................. S 5
Variables Not Included ...................................................................... S S
Generalizability ............................................................................... S 5
Implications for Practice ........................................................................ S 6
Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................... 5 8
Summary ............................................................................................ S 9
APPENDICES ........................................................................................ 63
Appendix A - Letter to the Center Director ................................................. 63
Appendix B - Relationship Self Inventory .................................................. 64
Appendix C - Select Correlations Between RSI Scales
and Other Relevant Instruments ............................................ 68
Appendix D - Information About Study Presented
to Students in Order to Recruit .............................................. 69
Appendix E - Consent and Pilot Instrument for Students ............................... 70
Appendix F - Original and Revised Vignettes - Parents Overly Involved ............ 7 3
Appendix G - Original and Revised Vignettes — Parents
Encouraging Premature Separation ......................................... 7 4
Appendix H - Deleted Vignette ................................................................ 7 5
Appendix I - Final Vignettes ................................................................... 76
Appendix J - Relationship Self Inventory - Modified .................................... 7 8
Appendix K - Cover Letter to Participants .................................................. 83
Appendix L - Reminder ......................................................................... 85
LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................... 86

ix

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Title
Levels of Demographic Variables

Percentage of Subjects Responding
to Each Condition

Percentage of Respondents in Each
Demographic Characteristic

Number of Responses Missing on
Exploratory and Demographic Variables

2X2 ANOVA Via Regression

t Test for Differences of Means for SS and CS

Page
38

39

39

4o
42

45

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

This study investigated college counselors' beliefs about the importance of
separation and connection for clients at termination when considering vignettes of
male or female clients presenting with concerns about a conflict with their parent(s).
Single vignettes were randomly assigned and mailed to college counselors and interns
in counseling centers with pre-doctoral internship programs approved by the
American Psychological Association (APA). The instrument used was a modified
version of the Relationship Self Inventory (RSI) (Pearson et al., 1991). The effects of
the sex of - the client in the vignette and the sex of the counselor were analyzed.

Chapter I outlines the context of the problem. Next, the statement of the problem
and the purpose of the study are explained. Following that, the relevance of the study
is summarized. Finally, an overview of the study is provided.

Context: The Absence of the Female Voice in Psychological Theory

Corresponding with the traditional logical positivist belief that objectivity is an
attainable goal, is the notion that psychologists are able to develop theory without
being influenced by their life experiences. Social constructivists (Bruner, 1990;
Sampson, 1987) and feminists (Franz & White, 1985; Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1990)
challenge this perspective. They suggest that our life experiences critically affect how
we view the world.

This section considers the implications of power, language and communication
styles to set the tone for a deeper analysis of the bias within psychology toward an
emphasis on the healthiness of separation and autonomy during development.
Power Lan ua e and Theo

Schaffer (1980) stated, " Every society has created barriers between the sexes by
distinguish separate behavior roles for men and for women." (p.1) Authors (Miller,

1984; Walby, 1990) argued that the United States is a patriarchal society. Walby

1

2
(1990) articulated the definition of patriarchy and stated it is "a system of social

structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women." (p.20)
According to Berg (1994), one example of the differential access to power is the
limited number of women represented in CongreSs. The author stated that in 1994
more women than ever were elected to Congress, yet they constituted only 10% of the
total membership. The author explained, "women will be stronger in a society where
they are included in legislature than in one where they are not." (p.102)

It is within a male dominated culture that the English language system has been
developed. Soltis (1981) suggested, "it is always possible to construct any number of
different theories in any given human language." (p.101) This statement assumes
that there are words available to adequately reflect a variety of experiences.

Feminist authors (Daly, 1978; Poynton, 1989; The Milan Bookstore Collective,
1990) emphasized that there is a strong gender bias in the English language because
the language has been developed and primarily defined by males who, as a group,
hold more power and status in our society. Consequently, women communicate
through a system in which they are often unable to find words that accurately
represent their lives (Brown & Gilligan, 1992; Daly, 1978; Poynton, 1989).
Furthermore, the English language is partially based on a system of opposites or
dichotomies (Daly, 1978; Keller, 1986; Poynton, 1989; Tannen, 1990). The division
of language into polarities or dualities frequently reflects a contrast between what is
seen to be female and male with the latter being considered the norm (Poynton, 1989;
Tannen, 1990). In my opinion, because the English language has been developed
primarily by males, the female perspective of psychological theory has not been
articulated as well as the male perspective.

Communication Sales
According to Tannen (1990), males tend to express themselves in an

authoritarian style, whereas women tend to focus their attention on facilitating

3
egalitarian patterns of communication. The author stated that women usually talk in

ways that emphasize the exchange of stories and the focus is on engaging
relationships. In contrast, most men prefer to communicate in a style that
emphasizes the negotiation and maintenance of independence and superiority
within a social hierarchy. The focus for these males is often on exhibiting their
knowledge, skills, and ability. She also proposed that the stereotypical masculine
style is consistent with most formal, public speaking situations.

Tannen (1990) suggested that generally males and females speak different
"genderlects" (p. 40) and stated,

the point is not that women do not value freedom or that men do not

value their connections with others. It is rather that the desire for

freedom and independence becomes more of an issue for many men in

relationships, whereas interdependence and connection become more of

an issue for many women. The difference is one of focus and degree. (p. 40)
Furthermore, according to lips (1981) and Tannen (1990) men tend to interrupt
women more often than women interrupt men in an attempt to dominate the
conversation. This contributes to the predominance of male views during discourse.

One might assume then that mixed gender communication would reflect a
combination of both the male and female styles. Lips (1981) stated that men's higher
status than women allows them to control conversation. Tannen (1990) stated,

when men and women get together in groups, they are likely to talk in

ways more familiar and comfortable to men. And both women's and

men's ways of talking are typically judged by the standards of men's

styles, which are regarded as the norm. Most distressing in a society

where equality is the agreed upon goal, and where more and more

women are entering high-status positions, women in authority find

themselves in a double bind. If they speak in ways expected of leaders,

4
they are seen as inadequate women. The road to authority is tough for

women, and once they get there it's a bed of thorns." (p. 244)

The author concluded that regardless of the sex of the participants, the
stereotypical male conversational style dominates most discussions. One might
question why women don't adapt to a male communication style and assert
themselves. Tannen (1990) stated that when women do communicate in a typical
male style (i.e. speaking louder, longer, more assertively) they tend to be disparaged,‘
disliked, and labeled unfeminine and aggressive.

If women advocate for change in communication patterns, they will need to
engage in group conflict. Once again, Tannen (1990) proposed that there are gender
differences in styles. The author stated that consistent with their communication
styles, most women will focus on maintaining connections and most men will focus on
gaining status or winning the argument.

m

Tannen (1990) explained that women are suppressed in a variety of ways during
discussions. Women are first inhibited by the lack of words that adequately reflect
their life experiences. Secondly, because women's communication style is typically
not utilized during mixed group discussions they are not heard when they
communicate in a style typical of women, yet they are criticized when they conform to
the dominant standard typically associated with men. The aforementioned evidence
indicates that the combination of the lack of words and dominant male
communication style inhibits the expression of ideas by women regardless of whether
or not they are similar to men‘s ideas.

In my opinion, because psychological theory is created using a language system
defined mostly by men who hold more power in society than women, any ideas are
generally more reflective of the experience of men. Furthermore, because men

typically dominate conversations, their ideas are heard more often than their women

S
peers. Although language, communication style, and power are not the only variables

that affect the expression of ideas, I believe they contribute to the fact that women's
experiences have not been adequately represented within the field of psychology.
Statement of the Problem

The following section includes the statement of the problem. Theoretical and
empirical findings are briefly reviewed as they relate to the problem.

As previously stated, most traditional psychological theory was primarily written
by males and the ideas presented within these theories are more consistent with the
experiences of men than women (Chesler, 1971; Franz & White, 1985; Gilligan 1982;
Keller, 1986; Miller, 1984). Hare-Mustin (1983) suggested, "the pervasive
unhappiness of many women became a subject for psychotherapy, yet clinical
theories of development have been inadequate in terms of women's experience." (p.
593) When traditional theories are used to determine standards of health and
desirable therapeutic outcomes, the focus is on separation and independence and the
importance of connection is not considered (Gilligan, 1982; Miller, 1984).

According to Miller (1984), because successful separation is believed to result in
independence and autonomy, these constructs are considered the most desirable
characteristics of human functioning. The relevance of interdependence and
relationships is devalued. Gilligan (1982) and Miller (1984) suggested that in
general women place a higher value on relationships than independence and men
place a higher value on independence than on relationships. Given that a relational
focus has not been adequately described by traditional theory, women's behavior is
often labeled as deviant or pathological (Chesler, 1971; Gilligan, 1982; Kaplan, 1983;
Miller, 1984). Twohey (1992) stated, "Measuring women against male standards
promotes a way of defining women by what they are not, rather than what they are

and constitutes a bias in the practice of psychotherapy." (p. 69)

6
Broverman, Broverman, Clarkson, Rosencrantz, & Vogel (1970) found evidence

that stereotypical male functioning, with a focus on autonomy and independence,
was considered by therapists to be the healthy norm for all adult behavior. The
authors found that therapists' conceptualizations of the healthy man did not
significantly differ from their conceptualizations of the healthy adult. In contrast,
therapist's conceptualizations of healthy women were significantly different from
those of the healthy adult.

Grotevant and Cooper (1986) suggested that adolescent development is
facilitated as the parent-adolescent relationship is renegotiated by all parties
involved. They view this renegotiation process as facilitating the move from a
relationship of unilateral parental authority toward a system of mutuality and
exchange. During this time, a child may begin to separate as he or she also attempts
to maintain a healthy connection. According to the authors, the parent-child
relationship is a consistent bond that continues throughout the life span and is
renegotiated at different times.

For most first-year college students who move away from their parental homes,
separation and connection issues with parents are highlighted (Frank, Pirsch, &
Wright, 1990; Hoffman & Weiss, 1987; Moore & Hotch, 1980; Moore & Hotch, 1982;
Moore & Hotch, 1983). Moore (1987) stated that separation from home "represents
a context in which many attachment and autonomy-related issues become salient" (p.
299). Although college students frequently present with concern about their
relationships with their parents (Baum & lamb, 1983; Miller & Rice, 1993; Schuh,
Shipton, & Edman, 1986), I found no studies assessing college counselors beliefs or

attitudes about treatment planning and service delivery in response to this need.

7
Purpose of the Study

The following paragraph summarizes the purpose of this research.

The purpose of this study was to determine if college counselors viewed
separation as more important for men than women and connection as more important
for women than men at the end of treatment when responding to client vignettes
representing first-year college students who sought help because of conflict with their
parent(s). The effects of the sex of counselor were also investigated.

Relevance of the Study

In this section, the relevance of this study and its applicability to the college
population are noted. lrnplications for practice and research are considered.

In my opinion, the overarching goal of any therapy is to help individuals resolve
their presenting problems in an attempt to maximize their potential. Data suggest
that college students attribute characteristics to men and women in a way that reflects
gender stereotypes with males being viewed as autonomous and females being
viewed as passive (Delisi & Soundranayagam, 1990; Lii & Wong, 1982). If college
men strive to maintain traditional gender roles, they may sacrifice healthy
connections as they strive for independence. If college women see little need for
autonomy, their ability to obtain a healthy level of individuation within relationships
may be hindered. The absence of studies assessing college counselor's attitudes
about separation and connection during this important developmental stage is
problematic. If college counselors apply the traditional Eriksonian (1963) perspective
to their work, they would view separation and individuation as necessary for first
year college students and neglect the importance of maintaining healthy intimacy
with parents. According to Miller (1984), if women perceive that they need to choose
between autonomy and connection they will most often choose the latter.
Consequently, if counselors focus on separation without exploring the importance of

connection and intervene accordingly, they may be facilitating a process by which

8
women lose rather than gain a healthy level of autonomy. Furthermore, given that

both connection and autonomy are found to be important to the psychological health
of college students (Blustein, Walbridge, Friedlander, & Palladino, 1991; Cooper,
Grotevant, & Condon, 1983; Frank, Avery, & Iaman, 1988; Frank, Pirsch & Wright,
1990; Moore & Hotch, 1980), if college counselors do not focus to some extent on
connection, they may actually hinder rather than help facilitate the development of
their clients.

In addition to practice applications, this study should serve as a stimulant for
future theoretical and empirical work investigating the importance of both separation
and connection when working with the college population. The most relevant
potential contribution is the possibility that the data will reveal underlying biases
and hidden assumptions that could affect treatment planning and service delivery. If
this occurs within training sites, graduate students may be taught to intervene in a
biased fashion.

Overview of the Study

The overview of the study is provided below. A brief synopsis of each chapter's
contents is provided.

Using analogue methodology, this study investigated college counselors' beliefs
about the importance of separation and connection at termination when considering
vignettes of male or female clients who presented with concerns about a conflict with
their parent(s). The effects of the sex of the client and sex of the counselor were
examined. Post hoc analyses were also completed. .

In Chapter II, the literature is presented. A review of theoretical ideas about
separation and connection is summarized. The empirical evidence of therapists'
focus on autonomy as the indicator of healthy development is discussed. The
importance of connection is explored. A theoretical framework integrating

connection and separation is reviewed. The research evidencing the importance of

9
both connection and autonomy to development is outlined. Finally, the research

questions that prompted this study are discussed.

Chapter III summarizes the methodology of this study. The sample is described
and selection procedures are noted. The independent and dependent variables are
reviewed and the hypotheses are presented. The instrument is described and data
collection is explained.

In Chapter IV, the results are reported. The variables and hypotheses are
described. The results of the main effects and post hoc analyses are reported.

The findings are discussed in Chapter V. The purpose of the study and unique
characteristics of the sample are reviewed. The findings of the main effects and post
hoc analyses are discussed. The limitations of the study are cited. The implications

for practice and research are summarized.

CHAPTER H
REVIEW OF THE IITERATURE

In this chapter, research relevant to separation and connection is
summarized. The review begins with a summary of the traditional theoretical
focus on the importance of separation in psychological development. The bias in
treatment toward a focus on autonomy is summarized. Next, the importance of
connection is discussed. A theoretical framework integrating connection and
separation is reviewed. Following that, research that proposes that both
connection and separation contribute to psychological health of adolescents is
discussed. Finally, the literature is summarized and the research questions of this
project are presented.

Historical Context: The Focus on Separation in Western Psychology

In this section the traditional focus on separation and autonomy as the goals
of healthy development is reviewed. First the popular theoretical base is briefly
summarized. The bias toward autonomy as evidenced by therapist's beliefs about
psychological health and the mental health diagnostic system is discussed.
Theoretical Overview

Despite the importance of connection in early development, traditional
theories of development have focused on the process of individuation and
separation with the ultimate goal of achieving autonomy (Cooper, Grotevant &
Condon, 1983; Chesler, 1971; Franz & White, 1985; Gilligan, 1982; Kaplan, 1983;
Markus & Oyserman, 1989; Miller, 1984). According to Grotevant and Cooper
(1986), the most popular of these theorists include Freud, Erikson, Mahler, and
Blos. Although the standards of mental health are defined by these popular
conceptualizations of human development, they do not adequately reflect the

typical female experience (Chesler,1971; Gilligan,1982; Miller, 1984).

10

11

According to traditional theory, through the process of separation, the child's
boundaries become distinct from the parent(s)‘ and this facilitates the
development of the child's sense of self. The goal is to become independent, self
reliant, and autonomous. From this perspective, separation is viewed as a
necessary precondition for adequate identity development. Within this
paradigm, connection and attachment are viewed as regressive or pathological
(Chesler, 1971; Kaplan, 1983; Pearson et. al., 1991).

One of the most popular developmental theories was developed by Erikson
(1963). Erikson proposed a series of stages of development for the maturing ego
and overall identity. His theory explained that the ego becomes increasingly
individuated through development.

Erikson's model assumes that for males, identity is established before an
individual becomes involved in intimate relationships. This view has been widely
accepted and used as the norm for development. Gilligan (1982), in contrast,
suggested that women simultaneously engage in resolving identity and intimacy
tasks. Specifically, she proposed that women actually claim their identity through
and within intimate relationships.

According to Franz and White (1985), although Erikson acknowledged that
individuation occurs while maintaining connection to others, he did not expand
upon the nature and role of attachment. The authors proposed an extension of
his theory to include a dimension of connection which could be viewed as a
unique construct that is related to separation. This extension will be discussed
later in this chapter.

Traditional Gender Roles and Autonom as the Heal Norm- Em ' 'cal Evidence

Chesler (1971) contended that the mental health system is a microcosm of the
larger culture. She suggested that the attitudes and behaviors of therapists'

reflect those of society.

12

The American Psychological Association Task Force on Sex Bias and Sex-Role
Stereotyping in Psychotherapeutic Practice (1975) found four areas of perceived
sex bias and sex-role stereotyping: the fostering of traditional sex roles; sexist use
of psychoanalytic concepts; responding to women as sex objects; and bias in
expectations and devaluing of women. An example of the fourth category is, " The
therapist or colleague denies the adaptive and self-actualizing potential or
assertiveness for female clients and fosters concepts of women as passive and
dependent" (p. 1172).

As previously mentioned, Broverman et. al. (1970) found evidence that
therapists considered stereotypical male functioning to be the healthy norm for
adult behavior. The researchers provided clinicians with a questionnaire that
listed characteristics refleCtive of traditional gender stereotypes. Subjects were
asked to attribute the characteristics to the following groups: healthy men,
healthy women, and healthy adults. Therapists' conceptualizations of the healthy
man did not differ significantly from their conceptualizations of the healthy adult.
Stereotypical masculine qualities were attributed to both the healthy man and the
healthy adult (i.e. independent and dominant). In contrast, the
conceptualizations of the healthy woman were significantly different from those of
the healthy adult. Healthy women were viewed as possessing gender role
congruent attributes such as gentleness and an awareness of the feelings of
others. The results indicated that women would be viewed as unhealthy adults if
they possessed traditionally feminine qualities. If they possessed traditional
masculine qualities, however, they would be viewed as unhealthy women.

Sherman (1980) reviewed ten studies that measured therapist's attitudes
toward women with attitudinal surveys and determined that overall, the results of

these studies were consistent with Broverman et. al. (1970).

13

She emphasized the importance of considering the limitations of the research
when considering the results. She noted that the majority of studies reviewed
utilized analogue methodology and had low response rates. Furthermore, the
materials and methodologies often did not provide enough details to facilitate a
critical analysis and/ or replication. The author concluded that regardless of the
methodological short comings, bias continued to exist. In summary, Sherman
(1980) concluded,

data provide evidence that therapists' sex-role values are operative during

therapy and counseling. Data indicate there is sex-role stereotyping in

mental health standards and that sex-role-discrepant behaviors are

judged more maladjusted. Clinical judgments of women do not appear

to be more severe than those accorded to their male counterparts. This

does not mean that there is no sex-role stereotyping, since part of sex-

role stereotyping has been a lower standard of mental health for

females. (p. 60)

Teri (1982) investigated the clinical judgment of therapists and found that
clients described as stereotypically feminine were rated more negatively than
those described as stereotypically masculine. The author concluded, " the
predominant influence on clinical judgments was sex-role style." (p. 646)

O'Malley and Richardson (1985) replicated the Broverman et al. (1970) study
and found that counselors continued to view men and women in stereotypical
ways. In contrast with Broverman et. al. (1970), the authors found that both
traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics were attributed to the
healthy adult.

Some authors question the accuracy of the Broverman et. al. (1970) results.
For example, Widiger and Settle ( 1987) criticized Broverman et. al. (1970) and
stated that an imbalance ratio of male-valued to female—valued items " forced the

14

subjects to display sex bias." (p.463) Some studies failed to replicate the
findings of Broverman et. al. (1970). Oyster-Nelson and Cohen (1981) attempted
to replicate Broverman et. al. (1970) by studying a sample of psychologists and
found no evidence of sex bias.

Sesan (1988) surveyed female clients to determine if they experienced sex
bias in treatment and concluded,

the majority of women sampled experienced a sex-fair therapy process,

although for some women elements of bias were noted. Qualitative

analysis of item frequencies suggests bias in the areas of the

therapist's fostering traditional sex roles and bias in expectations and

devaluation of women. (p.1 12)
She called for further examination of the types of sex bias that clients experience.

With respect to sex differences between therapists, Aslin (1977) surveyed the
attitudes of community mental health center psychotherapists and feminist
therapists using the same questionnaire employed by Broverman, et. al. (1970).
Subjects were asked to rate mentally healthy adults, females, mothers, and wives.
The findings indicated a significant difference between the attitudes of male and
female therapists. Male therapists perceived mentally healthy adults as
possessing more typical masculine attributes when compared with their
perceptions of mentally healthy females, wives, and mothers. In contrast, female
and feminist therapist's perceptions about mental health did not differ for adults,
females, wives, or mothers.
Sex Bias d Dia nosis- Em iric Evidence

Kaplan (1983) proposed that the bias toward autonomy and traditional
gender roles is evidenced by the fact that more women than men are treated for
mental illness in America. She stated that when masculine-biased assumptions

about what behaviors are healthy, women's behavior is often viewed as unhealthy

15

or pathological. She suggested that many characteristics considered to be
typically female attributes are represented in diagnostic criteria (i.e. Dependent
Personality Disorder). She argued that no one diagnostic code includes typical
male functioning or characteristics. The author concluded that women can be
diagnosed solely for behaving in a stereotypically feminine manner. In contrast,
males can not receive a diagnosis based upon their traditional autonomous role.
She also stated that because separation is generally considered to be the healthy -
norm, the pathological aspects of separation are not represented.

Kass, Spitzer and Williams (1983) analyzed the sex ratio in the DSM III and
disagreed with Kaplan (1983). The author stated that although more women are
diagnosed as Histrionic or Dependent than men, more men are diagnosed as
Antisocial. The author explained that overall, there is no sex difference in the
prevalence of personality disorder diagnoses. Regardless of the studies on the
prevalence of diagnoses being attributed to men or women, studies that present
clinicians with identical client vignettes with the exception of varying the sex have
demonstrated clear and consistent evidence of sex bias in diagnosis (Becker &
lamb, 1994; Ford 8: Widiger, 1989; Hamilton, Rothbart, and Dawes, 1986).

Hamilton et. al. (1986) surveyed sixty-five clinical psychologists by providing
18 written case histories drawn from 10 different DSM-Ill diagnoses. They found
that " females were rated significantly more histrionic than males exhibiting
identical histrionic symptoms. There was no comparable sex bias to diagnose
males showing antisocial pathology as more antisocial than females" (p. 269).
They also found that the sex of the clinician was not a significant predictor of sex
bias. The authors noted that the criteria included in the histrionic category are
reflective of female stereotypical personality whereas Antisocial Personality

Disorder is based on clear behavioral markers.

16

Ford and Widiger (1989) conducted a similar study and found a clear
tendency for therapists to diagnose women with predominantly antisocial
characteristics as Histrionic Personality Disorder and not as Antisocial Personality
Disorder. There was also a tendency not to diagnose men with Histrionic
Personality Disorder. The authors also found that men were more often diagnosed
with Antisocial Personality Disorder than women.

Becker and lamb (1994) conducted a mail survey of social workers,
psychiatrists and psychologists who were presented with cases fitting the criteria
for Borderline Personality Disorder or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. The sex of
the client also varied. The authors found that vignettes of female clients were
more likely to be diagnosed as having Borderline Personality Disorder more often
than vignettes of male clients with identical symptoms thereby evidencing sex
bias. Sex bias in the diagnosis of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder for the sex of the
client in the vignette was not evidenced.

SUI—mm

As previously stated, some research on clinical judgment found evidence of sex
bias (Broverman et. al. 1970; Sherman, 1980) but others did not (Oyster-Nelson &
Cohen, 1981). Oyster-Nelson and Cohen (1981) concluded that the failure to
replicate Broverman et. al. (1970) may indicate a change in therapist's attitudes.
The authors suggested that because the hallmark study was so widely read it could
have sparked a change in attitudes. The results of a variety of studies
demonstrate, however, the continuation of sex bias in diagnosis (Ford & Widiger,
1989; Hamilton et al., 1986; Kass et al., 1983). Although some attitudes may be
changing, mental health professionals responding to client vignettes appear to

base some of their judgments of psychological health on the sex of the client.

17

The Importance of Connection

This section reviews the adaptive qualities of connection. Following that, a
theoretical perspective integrating both separation and connection is
summarized. Next, the literature supporting the value of both separation and
connection in adolescent development is reviewed. Finally, the empirical
literature supporting Gilligan's (1982) notion that females typically value
connection more than autonomy and males typically value autonomy more than
connection is discussed.

The Adaptive M'g Qf Connection

Gilligan ( 1982), Kaplan (1983), and Miller (1984) argued that although
connection and attachment are not new constructs within the field of psychology,
the importance of relationships has not been emphasized. Much of the attention
to connection has been negatively focused with studies investigating fusion and
enmeshment most often published. The authors suggested that although fusion
and enmeshment may be of concern, they are regressive extremes of a
fundamentally healthy process.

Kenny (1987) studied the nature of attachment in a sample of first year
college students. She found that students' descriptions of their relationships with
parents were positive and reflected healthy attachment. For the female students,
close parental relationships were positively correlated with self-reports of
assertiveness.

Surrey (199 1) noted that college women attending Wellesley College
expressed the desire "to change and deepen their current connections with their
mothers" (p.10). They felt that knowing more about their mothers would lead to

an increased understanding of both themselves and their mothers.

18

Separation and Connection as Distinct but Interrelated Constructs- A Theoretical
Perspective

Given the limited applicability of traditional theory to female development,
new ideas are necessary to accurately account for and describe the typical female
experience (Gilligan, 1982; Miller, 1984). Miller (1984) underscored the
importance of relationships in female development. She described the early
mother-child relationship as a period of interrelatedness that yields a deep and
meaningful bond between the mother and child. She suggested that although the
mother responds to the infant's needs, the child simultaneously responds to the
presence of the mother. This process facilitates the child's internal
representation of herself as a "being in relationship" (p.3).

Miller (1984) suggested that as the result of socialization during childhood,
males are expected to physically disconnect and separate from both parents. With
regard to the father-son relationship, boys are supposed to identify, not connect,
with their fathers. Conversely, girls are encouraged to connect and relate with
their mothers. She stated that the connection does not impede the development
of a sense of self, rather connection defines and enhances it. She proposed that
the female's sense of self is organized around and within her connection to others.

As previously stated, Franz and White, (1985) stated that both separation and
connection should be examined simultaneously. They suggested Erikson's (1963)
theory be expanded and stated that

the field might be better served by the model of a double helix in which two

separate but interconnected strands of psychological individuation and

attachment ascend in a spiral representing the life cycle. Each stage
represents an intrapsychic developmental change in both individuation and
attachment; experiences in any one realm will have ramifications on the

other. likewise twisted strands making up a r0pe, tension in one strand will

19

pull on another. (p.247)

Gilligan (1982) challenged Kohlberg's (1976) widely accepted view of moral
development. Kohlberg's theory focused on the importance of justice, objectivity,
and principled thinking. Gilligan (1982) stated that, according to Kohlberg's
theory, because women emphasized relationships when solving moral dilemmas,
they were repeatedly found to be less sophisticated than men. Women's focus on
connection was evidenced when Gilligan (1982) asked men and women to
describe themselves, construct a real life moral dilemma, and present the
resolution of this dilemma. Through this work, Gilligan identified two different
"voices". The typical male voice emphasized independence, individuality, justice,
and rights, whereas the typical female voice focused on relationships, connection,
and care.

Gilligan's (1982) work on moral reasoning served as the catalyst for her
identification of two conceptions of self. The stereotypical male orientation is
defined through separation from others with an emphasis on autonomy and
independence. The stereotypical female orientation is defined through
connection and relationships with others.

Pearson et. al. (1991) developed the Relationship Self Inventory based on the
work of Miller (1984) and Gilligan (1982) in an attempt to quantitatively define
the orientation focusing on connection and the orientation focusing on
separation. The authors stated

The term "relationship self" refers to the mode of being-in—relation-to-

others which is central to a healthy person's self organization. Persons

for whom interdependency, connection with others, egalitarian

interchange, and concern for individuals (including themselves) in their

own context are central have a connected self; persons for whom

independence, separation, hierarchical organization of interchange, and

20

justice are central have a separate self. (p.1)

The Immrtance of Semration and Connection in Adolescent Development-
Empirical Evidence

Kandel and Lesser (1969) studied the relationship between autonomy and
attachment in a cross cultural sample of adolescents residing in the United States
and Denmark. They found that adolescents who expressed feelings of autonomy
also expressed close relationships with parents.

Levitz-Jones and Orlofsky (1985) rated the intimacy capacity and separation
and individuation of a sample of college women and found that women who
experienced a high degree of intimacy were more likely to effectively separate and
individuate. In contrast, subjects who merged with others or did not develop
adequate levels of intimacy had difficulty separating and individuating.

Blustein, Walbridge, Friedlander, and Palladino (1991) examined the
relationship of psychological separation and attachment to career decision-making
and commitment to a career. The sample included college students and the
researchers found that commitment to career choice occurred "most readily for
those persons who experience both independence from and attachment to their
parents." (p.48)

Frank et. al. (1988) interviewed a group of college students and found that
only 2096 of participants under the age of 24 indicated an ability to cope without
the help of one or both parents.

Frank et. al. (1990) studied a group of undergraduate students of intact
families and found that both relatedness and autonomy were related to indices of
psychological health.

With regard to leaving home, connection and separation, Cooper et. al. (1983)
studied a sample of high school seniors and stated,

Our findings suggest that the leaving process is facilitated by individuated

21

family relationships, characterized by separateness, which gives the

adolescent permission to develop his or her own point of view, in the context

of connectedness, which provides a secure base from which the adolescent can

explore worlds outside the family. (p. 56)

Similar to Cooper et. al. (1983), Moore and Hotch (1980) found that emotional
separation (i.e. not feeling close to family members) and dissociation were
associated with difficulty in leaving home. Emotional separation was viewed
unfavorably among college students. These results were replicated by Moore and
Hotch (1983). Similarly, Moore (1987) found that emotional detachment was the
least important component of separation according to the college students who
served as subjects.

Separete and Connected Self Orientations- Empirical Evidence

Drawing on Gilligan (1982), Lyons (1983) developed a coding system to
investigate differences in self definition orientations (" separate/ objective self"
and "connected self“) and care vs. justice modes of moral reasoning. She
interviewed 20 people randomly from 8 to over 60 years old and found that a
higher percentage of males than females used separate/ objective orientations and
justice modes of moral reasoning. In contrast, the majority of females indicated a
connected self orientation and employed the care mode to moral reasoning.

Stiller and Forrest (1990) improved upon Lyons (1983) methodology. The
authors studied college students and increased the sample size, randomly selected
participants and conducted a sex-blind analysis of the data. The researchers used
a MANOVA which they proposed was a more rigorous statistical analysis than the
Chi-Square employed by Lyons (1983). When assessing the two different
emphases of moral reasoning. The authors stated,

The percentages showed that 7596 of men used the separate/ obj ective mode

more frequently than they used the connected mode, and only 6.3% of the

22

men used the connected mode more frequently than they used the

separate/ objective mode. The results also indicated that 44.4% of the women

used the separate/ objective mode more frequently than they used the
connected mode and 40% of the women used the connected mode more

frequently than they used the separate/objecrive mode (p. 59).

The results suggested that although men almost exclusively prefer the
separate/ objective mode, women may feel free to choose either separation or
connection when solving moral dilemmas.

Dowhrenwend (A. Dowhrenwend, personal conversation, April 13, 1995)
studied Connected and Separate Self scores of law students on the RSI. She found
that females had significantly higher connected self scores than males and males
had significantly higher separate self scores than females. When retested three
years later, the predominate orientations remained the same. The separate self
scores for males, however, increased significantly and their connected self scores
decreased significantly.

Manor-Bullock (1992) assessed the emphasis that college students placed on
"connectedness" as measured by projective drawings. The results suggested that
women placed more emphasis on connection than men.
§m_n_ma_ry

The above cited studies provide evidence that typically females have
connected self orientations whereas typically males have separate self
orientations. The findings of Stiller and Forrest (1990) suggest that females may
be comfortable with both modes. The evidence suggests that a gender difference
exists with regard to how central relationships and autonomy are to one's identity.

Summary of literature Review

A brief summary of the literature informing this study is reviewed in this

section. The main points of this chapter are highlighted. Based on the work of

23

Erikson (1963), traditional western psychology focuses on the importance of
separation and autonomy. Early 1970's research suggests, however, that
therapists do not feel that females should possess these attributes (Broverman et.
al., 1970). Franz and White (1985) suggested a modification of Erikson's (1963)
theory to include both separation and connection. Gilligan (1982) and Miller
(1984) suggested that, due to socialization, connection is more central to the
identity of most women and separation is most central for most men and research
confirms these relationships (Lyons, 1983; Manor-Bullock, 1992; Stiller & Forrest,
1990). Evidence indicates that both separation and attachment are related to the
psychological health of college students (Blustein et. al., 1991; Frank et. al., 1990).
Research Questions

The general research questions underlying the development of the
hypotheses are as follows:

1. Evidence suggests that women may place a higher value on connections in
relationships than men (Gilligan, 1982; Lyons, 1983, Manor-Bullock, 1992) and
men may place more emphasis on autonomy than women (Gilligan, 1982; Lyons,
1983; Stiller & Forrest, 1990). Evidence also suggests that mental health
professionals demonstrate sex bias in clinical judgments and diagnoses
(Broverman et. al., 1970 ; Hamilton et al., 1986; Teri, 1982). Given the
aforementioned findings, do counselors' beliefs about healthy levels of connection
and separation within the parent-child relationship differ depending on the sex
of the client?

2. Given evidence of sex differences among counselors' perceptions of healthy
attributes of males and females (Aslin, 1977; Becker & lamb, 1994), do male and
female counselors respond differently to male and female clients presenting with

separation and connection issues within the parent-child relationship?

CHAPTER III
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the methods and design of this study. The chapter begins
with a summary of the sample and selection process. The variables and hypotheses
are then reviewed. The instrumentation and procedures for data collection are
discussed.

Sample

This section briefly introduces the sample. The selection procedures are
outlined.

The sample consisted of college counselors and interns who provide counseling
services to college students and are employed in college counseling centers with APA
approved pre-doctoral internship training programs.

Sample Selection

According to the Keplac and Reynes (1993), there were 65 counseling center
internship sites fully approved by the APA. I sent a letter to the director of each
center (with the exception of Michigan State University, where the instrument was
piloted) briefly explaining the study. I informed directors that they would be
receiving a call within the next week. Please refer to Appendix A for a sample letter.
When I placed the call I asked if the center would participate and requested a list of
names of the counselors and interns working at the site. I tried to reach each director
by phone on at least three occasions. If I was unable to reach a director within one
week, a follow up letter or e-mail was sent and another phone call was placed. I spoke
with S9 directors or his or her designee on at least one occasion. Six directors did not
respond to the initial letter, phone calls, and/ or follow up letter. Of the S9 directors
or designated contact person that I spoke with, 38 consented for their site to be
included. Sixteen denied participation because their staff was too busy with center

requirements and/ or other research in progress. Five directors or designated contact

24

25

persons said they would speak with their staff and inform me of the decision but did
not follow through. Of the sites that participated, some directors or contact persons
provided the list of names during a phone call whereas others asked that I call back
after they discussed the request with their staff.

I intended to randomly select subjects but due to the limited number of
potential participants, all were included. Case vignettes and surveys were randomly
assigned to subjects and mailed directly to them.

According to Cohen (1977), a total sample size of 200 subjects (100 male, 100
female) was most desirable. The determination of the sample size was based on the
fact that in data gathering for the RSI (the instrument to be used in this study),
Pearson et. a1. (1991) found an effect size of approximately 4096, consequently, a
sample of 200 would be necessary to maintain 80% power and to obtain a similar
effect size. According to Dillman's (1978) Total Design Method for mail surveys, the
lowest response rate I could have anticipated was 70%.

Independent and Dependent Variables and Hypotheses

The independent and dependent variables are described in this section.
Operational definitions are provided. The hypotheses are presented.

Variables

The dependent variables measured on a modified version (the modifications will
be described later in the chapter) of the RSI (RSI-M) were:

a. Separate Self Score (SS)
b. Connected Self Score (CS)

I operationalized the terms separation and connection by obtaining scores on the
Separate Self and Connected Self Scales RSI-M. As previously stated, according to
Pearson et. al. (1991)

The term "relationship self" refers to the mode of being-in-relation-to—

26

others which is central to a healthy person's self organization. Persons
for whom interdependency, connection with others, egalitarian
interchange, and concern for individuals (including themselves) in their
own context are central have a connected self; persons for whom
independence, separation, hierarchical organization of interchange, and
justice are central have a separate self. (p.1)
The independent variables in the study were as follows:

a. Sex of client in the vignette

b. Sex of the counselor
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1. Main Effect for SS-Sex of the Client in the Vignette and Sex of the

Counselor

a. Vignettes with male clients will have higher SS scores on the RSI-M than
vignettes with female clients.

b. Males counselors will have higher SS scores on the RSI-M than female

counselors.

Hymthesis 2. Main Effgt for CS-Sex of the Client in the Vignette and Sex of the

Counselor
a. Vignettes with female clients will have higher CS scores on the RSI-M than
vignettes with male clients.
b. Female counselors will have higher CS scores on the RSI-M than male
counselors.

Based on the conceptual development of the study, no interaction effects were

anticipated.

 

 

 

27

Instrument

The instrument used in this study is explained below. Since the final instrument
was modified from an existing survey, first the original scale is described. The
limitations of the original instrument are considered. The development and
characteristics of the final instrument for use in this study are explained.
Relationship Self Inventog

Drawing from the work of Gilligan (1982) and Miller (1984), Pearson et. al.
(1991) developed a self-report paper and pencil questionnaire, the RSI, to measure
connected self and separate self orientations. The authors determined that the
instrument was both reliable and valid. The RSI asks that respondents rate
themselves on 60 items on a 5 point likert scale ranging from not like me at all (1) to
very much like me (5). Items consisted of self descriptive statements, some of which
reflected moral values. Scores for each scale are tabulated by adding the values of
the items loading on a given scale and dividing by the number of items on the scale
thereby producing a mean score. If a respondent scores a 1, this reflects a lack of the
orientation measured. A score of 5 would indicate that the subject strongly possessed
the orientation measured. The instructions on the RSI were adapted for use in this
study. The modifications will be described later in this chapter. Please refer to
Appendix B for a copy of the original form of the R51.
In the first stage of developing the RSI, Pearson et. al. (1991) administered a pool of
50 items to a sample of S 26 adult women attending an enrichment program at a large
midwestern university. As the result of a confirmatory factor analysis, four scales
emerged. The first was a general measure of the CS. The other three scales reflected
different forms of the CS. The variations of the CS scale were not used in this study
and thus not discussed in this section. The researchers completed a second study to

incorporate a SS into the RSI. Another goal was to examine the criterion validity of

28

the scales by correlating them to other measures of adjustment and personality. Also,
during the second phase of the project, the item pool was expanded and the sample
included both males and females. Furthermore, younger subjects completed the
survey to broaden the age range.

In developing the final version of the RSI, the researchers considered the impact
of social desirability on responses. They concluded that social desirability was a part
of the constructs being measured and they consequently did not eliminate statements
with ratings that were likely to have low variability due to social desirability. Rather,
items with low variability that described the scales measured and increased
reliability were included. The internal reliability for each scale, when measured
separately for men and women by Cronbach's alpha, was (r> or =.6S) which is
adequate (Strommen et. al., 1987).

The pattern of intercorrelations of the scales paralleled the developers
A expectations. The CS scale and SS scale had small negative correlation (r=-.23 for
women and r=-.33 for men )(Strommen, et. al., 1987).

According to Adams (1992), construct validity was assessed by correlating the
scales on the RSI with two sex role inventories, the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BEM) and
Personality Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). The authors anticipated that the
femininity scales would correlate with the CS scale because a CS orientation is more
typical of females than males. The correlations for the femininity scale of the BEM
and the CS scale of the RSI was r=.51. On the PAQ the correlation between the
femininity scale and the RSI CS scale was r=.52. The SS scale had a low correlation
with the masculinity scales, however (for the BEM r=.25 and for the PAQ r=.17) .
According to Adams (1992), "The low level correlations may be explained by the fact
that the two sex role inventories measure people's stereotypes about the attributes of

males, whereas the RSI measures developmental characteristics more typical of males

29

than females." (p. 93) The author also noted that the masculinity scales of the sex
role inventories uses key stereotypes related to agentic concepts and the SS does not
use such items.

Pearson et. al. (1991) correlated the CS and SS scales with the scales of variety of
instruments and established that the constructs on the RSI measured distinct but
related constructs. Please refer to Appendix C for a summary.

According to Pearson et. al. (1991), the norming of the instrument was developed
with a sample of 465 women and 139 men. On the CS scale the average score for
women was 4.1 with a standard deviation of .S 1. The scores for the males were
slightly lower than for females, but not significantly so, with a mean of 3.9 and
standard deviation of .49. The average score for women on the SS scale was 2.5 with
a standard deviation of .S 1. The males had a slightly higher average score of 2.7
when compared with the females and a standard deviation of .58. Once again, the
difference was not significant.

The RSI instrument was chosen because it is the only standardized, quantitative,
statistically sound instrument that adequately assesses the connected and separate
selves. Gilligan (1982), Pearson et al. (1991), and Franz and White (1985)
emphasized the importance of conceptualizing separation and connection as two
distinct dimensions rather than the traditional unidirnensional continuum that
dichotornizes separation and attachment. The fact that an individual can be highly
connected with others and at the same time be highly separated would be impossible
to ascertain using a unidirnensional construct. The RSI allows for the assessment of
separation and connection as two distinct constructs. Furthermore, the RSI can be
completed quickly. As a standardized instrument, the RSI avoids the variance
between raters associated with qualitative analysis of the concepts of separation and

connection.

3O

mum; of the Relationship Self Inventory

In my opinion, Gilligan (1982) assumes that CS and SS orientations remain
relatively stable throughout the life span unless one undergoes a significant
socialization experience to alter his or her primary orientation. Given this, test—
retest reliability is important, however, Pearson, et. al. (1991) did not calculate test-
retest reliability.

The instrument does not include norms for college counselors. Consequently, the
utility of the instrument with this population may be compromised.

Pearson et. al. (1991) did not provide information about the racial/ ethnic
composition of the sample. This instrument may have limits to its use with racial and
ethnic minorities.

Developing the Vigpettes for this Study

Based on clinical experience and in consultation with colleagues, I developed
three vignettes that I believed to represent a continuum of presenting problems.
Multiple vignettes were used to ensure that at least one situation highlighted a client
who felt his or her parents were overly involved in his or her life and a second client
who felt his or her parents were prematurely encouraging separation. The third
vignette presented a client who was relatively satisfied with the relationship with his
or her parents.

I interviewed college students who moved away from home and were 18 years old
or older to develop realistic vignettes. With the instructor's approval I attended 7
undergraduate classes to recruit students. The students were diverse with a variety
of majors represented (i.e. packaging, business, psychology, and nursing). In an
attempt to recruit, I explained my study (Please see Appendix D). Five students

committed to attend the group discussion and three attended.

31

When meeting with the students, each received a copy of the informed consent
letter, explanation of the study, and pilot vignettes (Please refer to Appendix E for
consent and pilot instrument given to students.) when they entered the room. They
were invited to read the vignettes prior to signing the consent form. After signing
the consent forms, students were asked to read the first vignette. I then turned on
the audio tape and reminded them that they could request that it be turned off at any
time. After they read the vignette, I asked if they thought it represented a real life
situation. I used an open ended interview format that allowed subjects to discuss
information they felt was relevant. The same procedure was followed after the
students read the second and third vignettes.

I intended to hold a drawing at the end of the interview with the students and
planned to randomly select two participants to win $10.00 each. The three
participants decided instead to split the prize money so that each participant
received reimbursement. Should a participant want to seek counseling, referrals to
local professionals were distributed.

Overall, the group agreed with the ideas represented by the vignettes
representing a client who felt his or her parents were overly involved in his or her life
and the vignette representing a client who felt that his or her parents were
encouraging premature separation. They reached consensus about how to further
revise the vignettes so that they represented real life situations. Please refer to
Appendix F for the original and revised vignette summarizing a client who felt his or
her parents were overly involved in his or her life. Please refer to Appendix G for the
original and revised vignette summarizing a client who felt his or her parents were
prematurely encouraging separation.

The third vignette that demonstrated a client who felt his or her parents were

appropriately encouraging separation and connection was also presented to the

32

discussion group. Please refer to Appendix H for a copy of this vignette. The third
vignette was dropped because the group did not think a student would seek
counseling unless he or she was experiencing conflict with his or her parents.

After modifying the vignettes to include information obtained through
interviewing the students, the instrument was reviewed by a college counselor at
Michigan State University and by several colleagues who have provided psychological
services to the college population. During these interviews, I sought general input
and modified accordingly. The modifications were slight (i.e. grammatical structure)
and did not significantly alter the form of the vignettes as developed from the
discussion group.

Final Vigpettes

Two presenting problems were included in the study. In one situation the
vignette described a male or female first-year college student who felt that his or her
parent(s) were overly involved in his or her life. In the other situation, the vignette
described a student who as concerned that his or her parents were prematurely
encouraging separation. In total, there were four forms of vignettes: a male who felt
his parents were overly involved (Form A), a female who felt her parents were overly
involved (Form B) a male who felt his parents were prematurely encouraging
separation (Form C), and a female who felt her parents were prematurely encouraging
separation (Form D). Please refer to Appendix I for a copy of each vignette. All
information on the vignettes was identical with the exception of the name (male or
female) and presenting problem (parents overly involved or parents prematurely
encouraging separation).
Mpm eations to the Relationship Self Inventog

The RSI was adapted for use in this study by modifying the instructions and

including demographic questions such as the sex of the therapist and most recent

33

degree acquired. No items on the scale were altered. The RSI-M asked the counselor
to assume a successful outcome was reached and to indicate how he or she would want
the client to respond at termination. The original instructions of the RSI are as
follows:

Read each statement below and decide how much it describes you. Using the

following rating scale, select the most appropriate response and blacken the

corresponding circle on youranswer sheet.

The revised instructions of the RSI-M used in this study are stated below. As
previously stated, the name Joe or Mary would appear depending on the form
received.

At termination, assuming a successful outcome with Joe/ Mary, how would you

want Joe/ Mary to respond to the following statements? Pretend you are

Joe/ Mary and answer this questionnaire by selecting the response you would

like him/her to choose and blacken the corresponding oval on your answer

sheet.
As previously stated, the RSI includes subscales which were not be used in this study
but to maintain consistency with the instrument, the entire instrument was
administered.

Given that a modification was used, a developer of the instrument was asked to
review the revised directions and she believed the modification was appropriate for
use with this study. Please refer to Appendix J for a copy of the RSI-M.

Desigp ef the Final Instrument for this Study

Dillrnan (1978) developed The Total Design Method for Surveys which provided
clear procedural guidelines for mail surveys. The response rates of 48 studies
employing this method were analyzed. Almost all the studies included were
conducted in university and college settings. When the method was followed, the

34

average response rate was 74%. The high response rate was attributed to a precisely
designed instrument and strict follow up procedures. In this study, the Total Design
Method was followed as closely as possible in an attempt to increase the likelihood
subjects would follow through.

Dillrnan (1978) found that surveys exceeding 12 pages in length received fewer
responses. Consequently, the final instrument had 3 pages. The cover letter
explained the purpose of the study, provided directions, and gave my name, address,
and phone number. Please refer to Appendix K for a copy of the cover letter. The
demographic questions were placed on the last two pages in an attempt to increase
the response rate. The back page also included a thank you and an invitation for
further comments. The paper was high quality white bond.

Procedures for Collecting Data

The steps of data collection are explained in this section.

After receiving the list of potential subjects, they were grouped according to the
counseling center where they worked and each subject was randomly assigned one of
the four vignettes followed by the RSI-M. Participants received a self addressed
stamped envelope and were asked to return the surveys to me by a due date. Some
directors asked that I mail the instrument within a certain time frame which would
compliment the center's current schedule. (i.e. If they were completing other
research and the director did not want to add another potential commitment until the
first project was finished.) In total, 3 mailings were sent. In each case the survey was
mailed directly to each subject, who was asked to return the instrument no later than
three weeks after I mailed it.

Consistent with the Total Design Method (Dillman, 1978), self addressed stamped
postcards with a subject number were included with each survey. Subjects were

asked to mail the postcards at the time they mailed their survey. This allowed for

3S

keeping records of those who responded and those who did not. These postcards
were also used to choose two winners of a raffle for a cash prize of $25.00 each. As
suggested by Dillman (1978), after one week notes were mailed to each subject
thanking those who responded and courteously reminding the others to return their
questionnaires. Please refer to Appendix L for a copy of the reminder.
Summary

In conclusion, the research conducted was an analogue study of college
counselor's and intern‘s beliefs about separation and connection when presented
with case vignettes of clients experiencing conflict with their parent( 5). All subjects
were employed at APA approved pre-doctoral internship training sites and each

received a single vignette followed by the RSI-M.

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS

In this chapter, the results of the analyses of the data are reported. First, the
variables are explained. Second, the sample is described. Third, the results of
the main effects and post hoc analyses are reported. The chapter is closed with a
summary.

Descriptive Analyses of the Data

In this section the characteristics of the variables are described.
Degndent Variables

There were two dependent variables, Separate Self Score (SS) and Connected
Self Score (CS). Each variable was measured on a continuous scale. Scores for SS
ranged from 1.44 to 3.67 with a mean of 2.54 and standard deviation of .38.
Scores for CS ranged from 2.83 to 4.92 with a mean of 3.92 and a standard
deviation of .39. An examination of histograms showed that both dependent
variables were normally distributed and there were no significant outliers.
Inde ent Variables

The independent variables included the sex of the counselor and the sex of
the client in the vignette. Seventy five male counselors and 1 14 female counselors
responded. One hundred and fifty nine vignettes with a male client and 150
vignettes with a female client were randomly assigned and mailed to potential
subjects. Ninety seven vignettes with a male client and 78 vignettes with a female
client were returned.
E_xploratog vem’ bles

The first exploratory variable was the client's presenting problem with two
levels: parents overly involved or parents prematurely pressuring for autonomy.
Thirty three of the 189 subjects either did not return the entire instrument (i.e.

did no return the presenting problem but returned the survey) or returned their

36

3 7
answer sheets without the instrument. Consequently, data for the presenting

problem were available for 156 of the 189 respondents. Seventy eight responses
to each condition were received. The second exploratory variable was whether or
not the subject considered him or herself to be a feminist with two levels: yes or
no. One hundred and forty two (75 96) of the 189 respondents indicated that they
were a feminist and 47 (25%) indicated that they were not a feminist. Forty four
percent of male subjects indicated they were not feminist and 56% indicated they
were feminist. With regard to female subjects, 12% stated they were not feminist
and 88% stated that they were feminist.

Demographic variables

The demographic variables were: children, professional position,
geographical location based on time zone, theoretical perspective used in
conceptualization, age, most recent degree earned, race, and total years work
experience at a college counseling center. Please refer to Table 1 on page 38 for
the levels of each variable.

Age and total years working in a college counseling center were continuous
variables. Children, professional position, and geographical location were
categorical variables presented in a forced choice format. Subjects were asked to
respond to open ended questions about their theoretical perspective, most recent
degree earned, and race. I grouped these variables for coding purposes. The
categories for theoretical perspective were created by using Okun's (1990)
delineation based on historical schools of theoretical development. Subjects who
indicated theoretical perspectives in two or more categories were considered
eclectic/ integrative/ pluralistic. The categories for degree earned were
determined by examining all the degrees indicated and grouping them according

to similarity of training. Race was grouped according to commonalty. The

3 8
demographic characteristics will be discussed later in the chapter when the

sample is described.

Table 1

Levels of Demographic Variables

 

 

 

Variables Level
Children yes no
Position full time part time intern other
Location eastern central mountain pacific
Theoretical dynamic systems existential/ behavioral/ eclectic/
perspective humanistic cognitive integrative/
pluralistic
Age continuous
Degree BA/ BS MA/ MEd/ MSW EdD PhD/ PsyD
MS
Race White African Hispanic Asian other
American
Years continuous
Description of the Sample

In this section the characteristics of the sample are described. The number of

responses used in the analysis is reported.

A single, randomly assigned vignette and survey was mailed to 33 1 (133 male

and 198 female) potential subjects. Please refer to Table 2 on page 39 for a

summary of how many subjects received each condition. One hundred and eighty

nine surveys were returned yielding a 57% return rate. As previously stated, the

final sample included 75 male counselors and 1 14 female counselors. Male

counselors demonstrated a 56.4% response rate and females demonstrated a

3 9
57.6% response rate. The age of the respondents ranged from 25-64 years old

with a mean of 39.6. The total number of years working in a college counseling
center ranged from .5 to 34 with a mean of 8. Please refer to Table 3 for the

sample characteristics on the remaining demographic variables.

Table 2

Percentage of Subjects Responding
to Each Condition

 

Sex of Client

 

 

 

 

 

Sex of
Therapist F M Gender Omitted
M 66 54 1.6
F 43 66 6.5
Table 3
Percentage of Respondents in Eec_h_
Demographic Characteristic

Child. Position Location Theoretical Race Degree
Y = 47 Full time = 60 eastern = 44 psychodyn. = 45 white = 89 BA/ BS = 7

N = 53 Part time = 5 central = 35 systems = 2 Afr. Am. = 4 MA/MEd = 34

Intern = 34 mm. = 12 exist/humun.= 11 Hisp. = 2 MSW = 2
Other = 1 pacific = 9 beh./cogn. = 10 Asian = 4 EdD = 3
eclectic = 34 other = 1 PhD/PsyD = 55

n=189 n=178 n=178 n= 163 n= 170 n= 170

40
As previously stated, some subjects did not return the entire instrument as

instructed. One hundred and seventy five subjects completed all data necessary
for the main effects analyses and consequently all 175 subjects were included.
Fourteen subjects were omitted from the main analyses because the sex of the
client in the vignette that they received could not be determined.

Some subjects skipped questions, therefore, some data for the exploratory and
demographic variables were missing. During the Post Hoc analysis all available
data were used. Please refer to Table 4 for a summary of the missing data for the

exploratory and demographic variables.

 

 

Table 4
Number of Res nses Missin on lo 0 hi V ' bles
Variable Number of Responses
Missing

Exploratory

presenting problem 33

feminist 0
Demographic

children 0

position 1 1

location 1 l

theoretical 26

age 1 9

race 19

years at center 19

degree 19

 

4 1
Main Effects Analyses

In this section, the hypotheses are reviewed, the analyses are described, and
the results are explained.

The apriori hypotheses were as follows:

Hyppthesis 1. Main Effect for SS-Sex of the Client in the Vignette and Sex of

the Counselor

a. Vignettes with male clients will have higher SS scores on the RSI—M than
vignettes with female clients.

b. Males counselors will have higher SS scores on the RSI-M than female
counselors.

Hyppthesis 2. Main Effect for CS-Sex of the Client in the Vignette and Sex of

the Counselor

a. Vignettes with female clients will have higher CS scores on the RSI-M than
vignettes with male clients.

b. Female counselors will have higher CS scores on the RSI-M than male
counselors.

Biskin (1980) stated that if a study has more than one unrelated dependent
variable, AN OVA is the appropriate analysis. A MANOVA is used when the
dependent variables are correlated. Based on the intercorrelational evidence
provided by Pearson et. al. (1991), CS and SS are unrelated. Similarly, the CS and
SS scores on the RSI-M were not significantly correlated when examined by plot
and correlation coefficient (Minitab, Release 6.2, 1990). In this study, one 2 X 2
ANOVA via regression was completed for the SS score and one 2 X 2 ANOVA via
regression was completed for the CS score. A 2 X 2 ANOVA via regression was
used instead of a traditional 2 X 2 ANOVA because Minitab (Release 6.2, 1990) is
not able to calculate an ANOVA with an unbalanced design. Furthermore, the
coding of categorical data is best facilitated in an ANOVA. The results of the
analyses are identical to those of the AN OVA except t tests are reported in the

source table and the effect of the categorical data can be determined simply by

42
examining the source table with the AN OVA. I chose an alpha level of .05 apriori

and all analyses were examined for significance at a .05 level.
An ANOVA is based on the following assumptions:

1. Independence of responses.

2. Normal distribution of errors.

3. Homogeneity of the variance.
Independence was met because the observations were not paired or associated in
any way (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). The errors of both models were examined by
histograms and both were normally distributed. The homogeneity of variance for
each model was examined by plotting the residuals against the fits of the model.
In both cases homogeneity of variance was found. Given that the above
assumptions were met, the results of the 2 X 2 AN OVAs via regression were
considered appropriate analyses for the main effects hypotheses. All hypotheses

were rejected at the .05 level. Please refer to Table 5 for a statistical summary.

Table 5

2X2 AN OVA Via Regression

 

Dependent Variable F p

 

SS 1.97 .120
(B 1.28 .282

 

43
The results indicated the following:

1. Vignettes with male clients did not have higher SS scores on the RSI-M
than vignettes with female clients.

2. Males counselors did not have higher SS scores on the RSI-M than female
counselors.

3. Vignettes with female clients did not have higher CS scores on the RSI-M
than vignettes with male clients.

4. Female counselors did not have higher CS scores on the RSI-M than male
counselors.

Post Hoc Analyses

In this section the post hoc analyses are explained. Each question is stated
and the results are reported.
mestion I end Rationele

Is there a model for explaining the variance on SS? This questioned was

posed because when a One-way AN OVA was conducted to examine the

relationship between the predictors and dependent variables, the sex of the
vignette was significant. Also, although the design was random, it was
possible that the demographic variables may have had an unanticipated
effect on the dependent variable. The exploratory variables were also
examined.

A Stepwise Multiple Regression (Minitab Release 6.2, 1990) was used and
the result indicated that a One-way AN OVA on the sex of the client in the vignette
was statistically significant (F=5.12, p=.025). Counselors rated vignettes with
female clients higher on the 55 than male clients. No other variables emerged as
significant.

Qpestion II and Rationale

Is there a model for explaining the variance on the CS? This analysis was
conducted because, although the design was random, it was possible that the
demographic variables may have had an unanticipated effect on the
dependent variable. The exploratory variables were also examined.

A Stepwise Multiple Regression was used (Minitab Release 6.2, 1990) and no

variables emerged as significant for explaining the variance on the CS.

44
Question 111 and Rationale

Is there a difference between the means of the CS and 55 scores? This
analysis was conducted because the question was generated during the
development of the study after the apriori hypotheses were formed. The

literature did not clearly support the development of this question as a
hypothesis.

A two tailed t-test was performed (Minitab Release 6.2, 1990) to determine if
there was a significant difference between the means of the SS and CS. Overall
the mean of the CS was significantly higher than the mean of the SS scale
(t=31.28, p=0.000).

Qeestion IVa, M, We, and Nd and Rationale

a. Is there a significant difference between the means of the SS and CS scores
of male counselors?

b. Is there a significant difference between the means of the SS and CS scores
of female counselors?

c. Is there a significant difference between the means of the SS and CS scores
of vignettes with a male client?

(1. Is there a significant difference between the means of the SS and CS scores
of the vignettes with a female client?

Given the finding in Question 111, these questions were developed to further
analyze the data.

In all the above cited conditions the CS mean was significantly higher than the
SS mean as measured by a series of two tailed t tests (Minitab Release 6.2, 1990).

Please refer to Table 6 on page 45 for a statistical summary.

Manx
Were female counselors more likely to respond than male counselors or vice
versa? This question was developed because when I tallied responses I
noticed a differential response pattern.
As previously stated, the response rate of male counselors was approximately
56.4% and the response rate of female counselors was approximately 57.6%.

Male and female counselors were ahnost equally as likely to respond.

45
TABLE 6

t Test for Differences of Mearns for SS end CS

 

 

T P
Question
1 male counselors 22.65* 0.000
ll female counselors 22.38* 0.000
Ill vignette with a male 21.96* 0.000
W vignette with a female 20.26* 0.000

 

* CS mean significantly higher than SS mean

Question VIa and Vlb and Rationale
a. Were male counselors more likely to return vignettes with a female client
than vignettes with a male client or vice versa when compared with female
counselors?
b. Were female counselors more likely to return vignettes with a female client
than vignettes with a male client or vice versa when compared with male
counselors?

This question was developed to further examine the differential response
pattern found when examining the data.

A Chi square test (Minitab Release 6.2, 1990) assessing the relationship
between the sex of the counselor and the sex of the client in the vignette was
significant (Chi square 2.839>Chi square critical .00393). To determine which
variables were related, a Chi Square Goodness of Fit test was calculated by hand.
Female counselors were more likely to return vignettes with a male client than
vignettes with a female client (Chi square = 4.74>Chi square critical =3.84).
There was no significant difference in the return rate based on the sex of the
client in the vignette for male counselors (Chi square = .123< Chi square critical

3.84).

46
Summary

In this section the characteristics of the sample are briefly reviewed. The

results of the apriori and post hoc analyses are reported.

As previously stated, the final sample included 75 male counselors and 1 14

female counselors. The age of the respondents ranged from 25-64 years old with

a mean of 39.6. The total number of years working in a college counseling center

ranged from .5 to 34 with a mean of 8. Please refer to Table 4 on page 40 for the

sample characteristics on the remaining demographic variables.

All of the apriori hypotheses were not significant, leading to the following

conclusions:

Vignettes with male clients did not have higher SS scores on the RSI-M
than vignettes with female clients.

Males counselors did not have higher SS scores on the RSI-M than female
counselors.

. Vignettes with female clients did not have higher CS scores on the RSI-M

than vignettes with male clients.

Female counselors did not have higher CS scores on the RSI-M than male
counselors.

Post Hoc Analyses yielded the following statistically significant findings:

1.

For the overall sample, the mean of the CS was higher than the mean of the
SS. Male counselors had higher CS than SS means. Female counselors had
higher CS than SS means. Vignettes with male clients had higher CS than
SS means. Vignettes with female clients had higher CS than SS means.

. Vignettes with female clients had higher SS scores than vignettes with

male clients.

. Female counselors were more likely to return vignettes with a male client

than a female client.

CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the purpose of the study and unique characteristics of the
sample are briefly reviewed. The practical meaning of the results are discussed.
Next, the limitations of the study are considered. Implications for practice and
suggestions for future research are then highlighted. Finally, the chapter is
summarized.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to determine if college counselors viewed
separation as more important for males at termination than females and
connection as more important for females at termination than males when
considering cases (presented through vignettes) of first-year college students who
sought help because of conflict with their parent(s). The effect of the sex of
counselor was also investigated. A variety of post hoc analyses were conducted.

The Unique Characteristics of the Sample

The sample evidenced unique characteristics that probably impacted the
results. First, a unique and unexpected finding was that the vast majority of
subjects (75%) identified themselves as feminists. Second, the subjects worked in
APA approved pre.doctoral internship training sites.
Faetors Unigue to Feminists

The prevalence of feminist identification in other samples has been far less
compared with the sample in this study, For example, Wallis (1989) stated that in
a random survey of 1,000 women, only 33% identified themselves as feminists.
In a sample of family therapists drawn from training institutions and private
practice settings, Chaney and Piercy (1988) found that only 45% identified

themselves as feminists.

47

48
The literature assessing the differences between feminists and non feminists

sheds light on characteristics the majority of this sample probably possessed. In
studies of feminist college students, subjects attributed characteristics of both
traditional male and female gender roles to feminists (Berryman-Fink &
Verderber, 1985; Cowan, Mestlin, & Masek, 1992). Furthermore, when compared
with non feminists, evidence suggests that feminists tend to believe that males
and females can benefit from possessing traditional aspects of both male and
female gender roles (Mezyldo & Betz, 1980; Rapin & Cooper, 1980). In light of
this evidence, subjects in this sample likely possessed both traditionally masculine
and feminine traits. Similarly, they probably believed that clients benefit from
integrating traditionally masculine and feminine traits.
Factors Unique to Training Sites

As previously stated, the subjects worked in counseling centers that had APA
approved pre-doctoral internship training sites. These training sites are
probably rich with discussion of ethics, theoretical constructs, and factors related
to quality of service. Consequently, subjects were probably familiar with the
landmark Broverman, et. al. (1970) study that uncovered therapists' emphasis on
autonomy as the healthy norm of development. Training sites are also likely to
remain apprised of current theoretical developments. Perhaps the non feminists
in the study were more likely to be affected by the theoretical work of feminists
such as Gilligan (1982) and Miller (1984)than non feminists in the other
populations.

Discussion of the Findings
In this section, the meaning of the results is discussed. First, the main effects

analyses are discussed. Second, the post hoc analyses are discussed.

49
Main Effects Analysis

The non significant findings on the research hypotheses suggests that the
sample did not feel that male and female clients who presented with conflict with
their parents would benefit from maintaining traditional attitudes toward
separation and connection. This corresponds with studies of therapists that
found a decrease in traditional gender bias (O'Malley & Richardson, 1985; Sesan,
1988) when compared with the results of Broverman, et. al. (1970). The
counselors in this sample may also have been familiar with literature that suggests
androgynous behavior is correlated with psychological health (Burchardt, 1982;
Hinrichensen, 1981; Kravetz, 1981) and perhaps this encouraged them to
challenge the appropriateness of gender role congruent behavior.

Studies of gender bias that informed this inquiry did not include a sample of
college counselors (Aslin, 1977; Broverman et. al., 1970; O'Malley & Richardson,
1985; Sherman, 1980; Teri, 1982). Perhaps the gender bias found in the
aforementioned studies of therapists never existed for college counselors.
Regardless of whether or not gender bias has existed among college counselors, it
is possible that the predominance of feminist views and/ or the impact of the
training environment influences counselors' beliefs about gender roles and
separation and connection.

Another possibility is that the predominantly feminist counselors in this
sample possessed androgynous sex roles rather than traditional sex roles. It is
likely that androgynous people tend to encompass attitudes representative of both
gender roles. If so, they would also probably value connection and separation for
both sexes.

The absence of a significant difference for the sex of the counselor in this
study contradicts Aslin (1977) but confirms the results of Hamilton et. al. (1986).
The male and female subjects in this study had similar beliefs about the

S 0
importance of connection and separation. Perhaps the fact that most subjects

were feminists accounts for the similarity in attitudes.
Post Hoc Aglyses

Difference in Mean Scores of the Separate and Connected Self Scales

In this study the Connected Self scale mean was higher when compared with
the Separate Self scale mean. In previous studies using the Relationship Self
Inventory, the Connected Self scale mean score has been consistently higher than
the Separate Self scale mean score. The developers of the instrument believe this
is an "artifact" (E. Strommen, personal conversation, May 8, 1995) of the scale.
The developers of the Relationship Self Inventory (Pearson et. a1, 1991) were all
female and may have been more comfortable describing statements reflecting
connection than separation which could have contributed to a difference in the
sensitivity of each scale.

If the difference between the Connected Self scale and Separate Self scale
mean represented a true difference in beliefs, this would suggest the opposite of
the Broverman et. al. (1970) results and subjects in this sample would place a
higher value on connection than separation and autonomy. With regard to the
overall importance of connection, feminists may place more value on connection
than separation given the focus on connection by feminist writers such as Gilligan
and Miller. Also, the thinking of the college counselors may parallel the thinking
of the college students they service. Frank et. al. (1990) found that male and
female college students scored significantly higher on indices of relatedness than
indices of separation and autonomy.

The Effgt of the Sex of the Client in the Vigpette on the Separate Ed Conneeted
Self Scales
Individual analyses of how the sex of the client in the vignette affected the

dependent variables provides support for the notion that the counselors believed

5 1
that clients could benefit from incorporating aspects of both separation and

connection into their relationships with their parents. As previously stated, there
was a significant difference between vignettes of male and female clients on the
index of separation with the vignettes of female clients having significantly higher
Separate Self scores.

One possibility for this difference can be attributed once again, to the
predominately feminist attitudes of the sample. As previously stated, studies of
feminist and non feminist subjects indicate that feminists believe that people can
benefit from stepping outside of traditional gender roles and incorporating
stereotypes attributed to the other sex (Mezyldo & Betz, 1980; Rapin & Cooper,
1980). As the feminist movement has grown, an increasing number of females
have left their childhood homes to attend college. Traditionally, most females
lived with their parents until they found a partner and established residency.
Given feminist attitudes and the increasing number of females physically
separating from their parents, college counselors may now feel comfortable
helping females to become more autonomous. Stiller and Forrest (1990) found
that some women college students were comfortable with the Separate Self
orientation when solving moral dilemmas whereas other women used the
Connected Self mode. Perhaps these women were aware of the importance of both
separation and connection.

Another possible interpretation is that subjects were aware of the literature
that demonstrates a correlation between stereotypically male sex role behavior
and psychological health (Basoff, 1982; Markstrom—Adams, 1989; Orlofsky, 1987;
Pyke, 1985). As a result, they may be encouraging female clients to incorporate
more traditionally defined masculine characteristics, such as a focus on

separation, into their relationships.

, S 2
Although there was no statistically significant difference between vignettes of

male and female clients on the Connected Self scale, there was a trend for
counselors to rate the vignettes of male clients higher than the vignettes of female
clients. This trend should be viewed cautiously because it might relate to chance.
This result may be, however, an indicator that college counselors believe that male
clients presenting with conflict with their parents would psychologically benefit
from further connection with their parents.

DeVoe (1990) stated that "modern feminism" (p.33) is in its third decade.
Over the last thirty years, people have been repeatedly challenged to examine the
confines of the traditional female gender role. In my opinion, within the last few
years, the men's movement has been receiving more attention within the
psychological literature. For example, in January 1995, the loumal of Counseling
Psyc_holegy published a special section entitled, "Masculine Gender Role Conflict."
The examination of gender role conflict for males has been emerging over the last
10 years. Males may have more difficulty integrating traditionally feminine
characteristics because the female gender role has historically been devalued in
our society (O'Neil, 1981). As the traditional masculine gender role continues to
be challenged and the value of connection becomes more accepted, the trend
evidenced in this study might become statistically significant.

It is also plausible that both of the aforementioned findings represent bias
when one considers that the presenting problem did not appear to significantly
influence the participants' responses. For example, this calls into question how
counselors might respond when a female client clearly asks for help maintaining
connection with her parents and shows little interest in separating. One study
suggests that the counselor's preference might override the client's request
(Spengler, Blustein, & Strohmer (1990). The implications for the possible bias

will be discussed in a later section.

S 3
Sign_ifieant Differences in the Return of Vignettes

Female counselors were significantly more likely to return vignettes with male
clients than vignettes with female clients. Having been informed that I was
studying separation and connection, subjects were aware of the topic of the study.
At least two plausible arguments can account for why a significant number of
female counselors did not return female vignettes at the same rate they returned
vignettes with male clients. First, Tavris (1973) found that men and women who
supported the women's movement viewed sex differences as purely cultural rather
than genetic. Subjects who did not return the vignettes may have been non
feminists who believed in the traditional gender roles. Given the liberal and
challenging climate of a training site where most of the counselors were feminist,
non feminists may have been hesitant to acknowledge traditional beliefs.

Equally plausible is that females who did not return vignettes of female clients
were, in fact, feminists. As previously stated, college counselors are probably
aware of the work of Gilligan (1982) and Miller (1984). Some leading feminist
psychologists (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1988; Mednick, 1989; Westcott, 1990)
have raised serious concerns about embracing the theoretical constructs
developed by Gilligan (1982)and Miller (1984). Mednick (1989) and Hare-Mustin
and Marecek (1988) stated that Gilligan's (1982) theory is grounded on the
premise that sex differences exist between males and females. Hare-Mustin and
Marecek (1988) argued that the focus on sex difference is detrimental for women
because it reinforces the idea that women have a predisposed, possibly genetic,
focus on connection and are therefore not prepared to be autonomous and
independent. Female counselors who disagreed with Gilligan (1982) and/ or
Miller (1984) may have been hesitant to complete a study if they perceived it

emphasized sex differences.

54
In summary, the possible reasons for the differential response rate remains

unclear. The impact on the results is also in question.
Limitations of the Study

The limitations of this research are reviewed so that the reader can draw
informed conclusions about the findings. The following areas are discussed: the
instrument, hypotheses, analogue design, variables not included, and
generalizability.
Instruments

The modified version of the Relationship Self Inventory (Pearson et. al., 1991)
may not have adequately assessed counselors opinions about Separate and
Connected Self orientations for the cases presented. As previously stated, the
original instrument demonstrated adequate reliability and validity. Although the
scale items were not altered, the instructions were rewritten and subjects were
asked to answer as if they were a client who had successfully terminated from
treatment. It is possible that the subjects were unable to complete this task and
the results may not adequately reflect their opinions about the clients described
in the vignettes. For example, subjects may have answered for themselves rather
than the client.
Hymtheses

In any study there is the risk that subjects will guess the hypotheses and
answer in an attempt to prove or disprove them. If subjects recognized that
vignettes varied by sex of the client and presenting problem (i.e. by comparing
their survey with a colleague's survey) and/ or knew that Broverman et. al. (1970)
employed similar methodology, the likelihood that subjects could guess the
hypotheses of this study would increase. Perhaps subjects guessed the hypotheses
and attempted to answer in socially desirable fashion. The findings of Lopez,

Smith, Wolkenstein, and Charlin (1993) contradict this argument . The authors

5 5
studied a sample of clinicians who completed an analogue study of gender bias on

clinical judgment. They found that only 10 out of 100 guessed the hypotheses.
Analogue Design

Another limitation of this study was its analogue design. Sherman (1980)
criticized the use of analogues cautioning that case vignettes do not truly
represent real - life situations. Although I agree there are clear limitations to
analogues, clinicians often communicate through written summaries and draw
hypotheses and treatment plans based on written information. The presentation
of a vignette would hardly seem foreign to college counselors who frequently read
brief case summaries that are similar to the vignettes used in this study. When
the instrument was piloted, both College students and therapists with college
counseling experience believed that the vignettes paralleled realistic and common
presenting problems.

Mes Not Intcluded

There were a variety of variables not included that could have affected the
results. For example, the family history and/ or personal experience of the
counselor were not examined. Also the cultural (vs. racial) background, religion,
and gender role (vs. sex) of the client in the vignette and the counselor were not
operationalized. Finally, the race of the client in the vignette was not specified.
Gengalizabilip;

All studies have limits of generalizability of the results. The findings in this
study should reflect the attitudes and beliefs of college counselors and interns who
work in counseling centers that have training sites approved by the American
Psychological Association. As previously noted, many female counselors did not
return vignettes with female client and the impact of how these surveys would

have influenced the results is not clear.

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5 6
Implications for Practice

In this section, the implications for college counselors working with students
who present with concerns about conflict with parents are discussed. Treatment
interventions are suggested.

Since separation and connection are both conducive to development
(Blustein et. al., 1991; Frank, et. al., 1990) and clients typically have one aspect
more central to their identify (Lyons, 1983; Manor-Bullock, 1992; Stiller & Forrest,
1990), counselors should recognize that their clients may have difficulty
integrating aspects of both orientations. Miller (1984) and Surrey (1991) stated
that if females perceive that they need to choose between separation and
connection, they will most often choose the relationship. This suggests that if
counselors do not clearly support connection, female clients might hesitate to work
toward autonomy.

More females than males seek treatment (Collier, 1982), so one can assume
that a male college student experiencing conflict with his parents may be less
likely to seek help than a female college student. Males may have difficulty
integrating stereotypical feminine attributes into their personalities because the
feminine role is devalued in society (O'Neil, 1981). If, due to the overall value
placed on connection, college counselors attempt to increase the connected
orientation of male clients without intervening to help them to maintain
autonomy, these clients may not pursue treatment.

The Relationship Self Inventory (Pearson et. al., 1991) could be used to
measure the Connected and Separate Self orientation of clients prior to treatment
to help the counselor assess how predominant one aspect may be. As a post test
measure, it could be employed to determine if the client changed his or her

emphasis.

5 7
Counselors may need to provide psychoeducational interventions within

sessions that inform clients of the importance of both separation and connection.
Clients will then understand the challenge to incorporate less comfortable
characteristics into their repertoire. One way to facilitate the exploration of the
importance of separation and connection is through reflection on gender roles.
Sheinberg and Penn (1991) suggested that therapists implement the use of
"gender questions" (p.36) and stated,

Gender questions are a form for processing basic gender assumptions. We

find that questions which encourage men and women to define their gender

norms often stimulate them toward more fluid and less rigid definitions of

gender and 'acceptable' gender behavior. (p.36)

As previously stated, the presenting problem did not appear to significantly
influence subjects' responses. This suggests that the counselors did not consider
the presenting problem when indicating what they thought would be healthy for
the client. Research confirms that counselors beliefs about what is appropriate
can overshadow their client's request. For example, Spengler, Blustein, and
Strohmer (1990) investigated the treatment decisions of counseling psychologists
when considering clients presenting with personal and vocational concerns and
found that the type of presenting problem the counselor preferred influenced his
or her interventions. The authors concluded that when therapists' preferences
overshadow the presenting problem, treatment is compromised. To guard against
such bias, counselors can actively develop a treatment plan with clients and be
sure the goals are defined by the client. This could help counselors ensure that
they are working toward the client's goals rather than pursuing their own

agendas.

5 8
Recommendations for Future Research

A variety of research inquiries into the beliefs of college counselors about the
importance of separation and connection could be beneficial. Suggestions for
further studies will be made in this section.

Although both separation and connection are related to the psychological
health of college students (Blustein, et. al., 1991; Frank et. al., 1990), individual
needs of clients probably vary. As previously discussed, the presenting problem
did not appear to influence counselor judgments in this study. I suggest that the
function of the presenting problem consistently be incorporated into all relevant
practice-related research to ensure that the client's definition of the problem and
goals are taken into account when treatment planning.

Given the unique characteristics of the subjects and their work environment,
replications of this study in different settings would be interesting. Of particular
interest would be a replication with college counselors in counseling centers that
are not training sites and/ or had fewer feminist therapists. A comparison of
results would help to clarify the impact of the prevalence of feminist attitudes and
work environment. A measure of androgyny could also be included to determine
if the attitudes of counselors who score high on this measure differ from those
who do not.

The next step to this study would be to audio tape live sessions of college
counselors servicing clients who present with issues related to separation and
connection. A scale could be developed to allow independent, expert raters to
tally the number of counselor statements targeted at facilitating either separation
or connection. The client's and counselor's view of the presenting problem and
goals for treatment could be assessed at the beginning of treatment to determine
if they are similar or dissimilar. At termination, clients could be interviewed to

assess their satisfaction with treatment and their perspective could be compared

S 9
with the counselors assessment of treatment success. The Relationship Self

Inventory (Pearson, et. al., 1991) could be used as a pre and post test measure.
The counselor‘s relationship orientation could also be assessed with the
Relationship Self Inventory (Pearson et. al., 1991) to determine if it was related to
his or her intervention style.

Summary

The purpose of this study was to determine if college counselors viewed
separation as more important for males than females at termination and
connection as more important for females than males at termination when
considering cases (presented through vignettes) of first-year college students who
sought help because of conflict with their parent(s). The effect of the sex of
counselor was also investigated.

The main effects hypotheses were not significant. An unexpected statistically
significant finding was that vignettes with female clients were rated higher on
separation than vignettes with male clients. There was a trend, though not
statistically significant, for vignettes with male clients to be rated higher on
connection than vignettes with female clients. A variety of explanations might
accormt for these results. It is probable that because the majority of college
counselors (75%) identified themselves as feminist, they were more likely to
believe that people benefit from challenging traditional gender roles and
incorporating characteristics of both the traditional male and female gender roles
(Mezyldo 8: Betz, 1980: Rapin & Cooper, 1980). It is also possible that
respondents were familiar with studies on that evidence a correlation between
androgyny and mental health (Burchardt, 1982; Hinrichensen 1981; Kravetz,
1981). The fact that vignettes with female clients were rated higher on separation
than vignettes with male clients may also be attributed to the possibility that

respondents were aware that traditional masculine characteristics are correlated

60
with psychological health (Basoff, 1982; Markstrom-Adams, 1989; Orlofsky, 1987;

Pyke, 1985). The trend that vignettes with male clients were rated higher on
connection than vignettes of female clients may relate to chance or may reflect
changing attitudes about the importance of traditionally feminine qualities for
men.

The presenting problem did not significantly impact the results and this
suggests that college counselors did not consider the client's perspective when
making their judgments about a healthy outcome of treatment. This confirms the
finding by Spengler et. al. (1990) that college counselor's preferences may
override the client's request.

Another unexpected finding was that the mean of the Connected Self scale
was higher than the mean of the Separate Self scale. This finding was probably an
"artifact" (E. Strommen, personal conversation, May 8, 1995)) but could be a
reflection of feminists placing more value on connection. than separation. Further
research would be needed to clarify the meaning of this finding.

Finally, a differential response pattern emerged as the data were examined.
Female counselors were significantly less likely to return vignettes with female
clients than vignettes with male clients. It is possible that the respondents who
did not return vignettes with female clients were non feminists who would support
the traditional gender roles and not encourage females to separate. It is also
possible that the subjects were feminists who perceived that the study examined
sex differences and, similar to Mednick (1989) and Hare-Mustin and Marecek
(1988), these respondents believed that supporting this line of inquiry reinforces
the notion that sex differences are biological rather than culturally defined.

There were a variety of limitations to this study. First, the modification of the
instrument calls into question whether or not the subjects could pretend they were

the client. Second, the subjects may have guessed the hypotheses and answered

6 1
in what they believed was a desirable fashion. Evidence suggests this was not

likely. Lopez et. al. (1993) conducted a study of clinicians who completed an
analogue study of gender and found that only 10 out of 100 successfully predicted
the hypotheses. Third, there were variables that were not included and could
have impacted the results. Finally, the generalizability is limited to college
counselors who work in APA approved pre-doctoral training sites.

With regard to implications for practice, the Relationship Self Inventory
(Pearson et. al., 1991) could be used to measure the orientation of the client prior
to treatment and as a post test measure to determine if change occurred.
Counselors may need to provide psychoeducational interventions within sessions
to help clients understand the importance of both separation and connection and
move beyond their own relationship identity. The exploration of gender roles
could be facilitated within sessions. Active collaboration with the client could
guard against counselors pursuing their own agendas without considering the
client's view of the presenting problem.

To further investigate college counselors' beliefs about the importance of
connection and separation, researchers could audio tape live sessions and expert
raters could tally the number of interventions targeted toward increasing
separation or connection. The impact of the client's view of the presenting
problem, the impact of the relationship orientation of the counselor, and the
counselor and client's view of the successfulness of treatment could be examined.

In conclusion, evidence suggests that feminists' and non feminists' treatment
interventions tend to differ. When compared with non feminist therapists,
feminist therapists tend to facilitate the exploration of gender incongruent sex
roles and discuss how socialization contributes to the limiting stereotypes for both

males and females (Chaney 8: Piercy, 1988). Given that the majority of this sample

62
was feminist, it is probable that they encourage their clients to explore gender

roles and consequently, the aspects of both connection and separation.

The results of this study offer hope that college counselors working in pre-
doctoral training sites approved by the American Psychological Association do not
reinforce the maintenance of traditional gender roles rather encourage clients to
incorporate healthy characteristics of both male and female stereotypes. The
impact of this challenge to the status quo has far reaching implications because
training sites are responsible for shaping the clinical practice of future clinicians.
In my opinion, when people are required to develop gender role congruent
characteristics and behaviors, the potential of both men and women is
suppressed. It is my hope that this study reflects a change in attitudes that will
directly benefit the clients we serve.

APPENDICES

APPENDDI A

LETTER TO CENTER DIRECTOR

APPENDD( A

LETTER TO CENTER DIRECTOR

Home address
Home phone
Date

Dear

’

I am a doctoral student in Counseling Psychology at Michigan State University
currently completing my dissertation. I am gathering information about college
counselor's perceptions when providing counseling to college students who are
experiencing conflicts with their parents. This is a study looking at the way
counselors conceptualize the importance of connection and separation. I am
requesting participation from fully APA approved training sites. I am hoping that
you will allow me to place the names of the counselors working at your site on the
list of potential subjects. I will randomly select from this list. It should take each
counselor 30 minutes to an hour to complete the instrument.

 

Iwill call you on to further discuss the study and, if you agree to
participate, obtain a list of your staff. Please feel free to contact me with any

questions, concerns, or comments at . You may call collect if needed. I will
try to answer your questions at that time, however, I will not be able to share my
hypotheses with you until after when all of the data has been collected.

Also, if you would like to receive the results of the study, please fill out the
enclosed index card. I will mail the findings to you.

Sincerely,

Lisa M. Stephen

63

APPENDIX B

RELATIONSHIP SELF INVENTORY

APPENDD( B

RELATIONSHIP SELF INVENTORY

Instructions: Read each statement below and decide how much it describes you.
Using the following rating scale, select the most appropriate response and blacken
the corresponding circle on your answer sheet.

not at all very much
like me like me
1 2 3 4 5

1 . I often try to act on the belief that self-interest is one of the worst problems
facing society.

2 . A close friend is someone who will help you whenever you need help and
knows that you will help if they need it.

3 . I cannot choose to help someone else if it will hinder my self development.
4 . I want to be responsible for myself.

5 . In making decisions, I can neglect my own values in order to keep a
relationship.

6 . I find it hard to sympathize with people whose misfortunes I believe are due
mainly to their own shortcomings.

7 . I try to curb my anger for fear of hurting others.
8 . Being unselfish with others is more important than making myself happy.

9 . Loving is like a contract: If its provisions aren't met, you wouldn't love the
person any more.

1 0. In my everyday life I am guided by the notion of "an eye for an eye and a
tooth for a tooth".

1 1 . I want to learn to stand on my own two feet.

1 2 . I believe that one of the most important things that parents can teach their
children is how to cooperate and live in harmony with others.

1 3 . I try not to think about the feelings of others when there is a principle at
stake.

1 4 . I don't often do much for others unless they can do some good for me later
on.

1 S . Activities of care that I perform expand both me and others.

64

65

not at all very much
like me like me

16.

17.
18.
19.

20.
21.

22.
23.
24.
25.

26.

27.
28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.
34.

2 3 4 5
If what I want to do upsets other people, I try to think again to see ifI really
want to do it.
I do not want others to be responsible for me.
I am guided by the principle of treating others as I want to be treated.

I believe that I have to look out for myself and mine, and let others shift for
themselves.

Being unselfish with others is a way I make myself happy.

When a friend traps me with demands and negotiation has not worked, I
am likely to end the friendship.

I feel empty if I'm not closely involved with someone else.
Sometimes I have to accept hurting someone else.
In order to continue a relationship it has to let both of us grow.

I feel that my development has been shaped more by the person I care
about than by what I do and accomplish.

People who don't work hard to accomplish respectable goals can't expect me
to help when they're in trouble.

Relationships are a central part of my identity.

I often keep quiet rather than hurt someone's feelings, even if it means
giving a false impression.

If someone offers to do something for me, I should accept the offer even if I
really want something else.

The worst thing that could happen in a friendship would be to have my
friend reject me.

If I am really sure that what I want to do is right, I do it even if it upsets
others.

Before I can be sure I really care for someone I have to know my true
feelings.

What it all boils down to is that the only person I can rely on is myself.

Even though I am sensitive to others' feelings, I makes decisions based
upon what I feel is best for me.

66

not at all very much
like me like me
2 3 4 5

35.

36.
37.
38.
39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.
46.
47.

48.

49.
SO.
51.
52.

53.

Even though it's difficult, I have learned to say no to others when I need to
take care of myself.

I like to see myself as interconnected with a network of friends
Those about whom I care deeply are part of who I am.
I accept my obligations and expect others to do the same.

I believe that I must care for myself because others are not responsible for
me.

The people whom I admire are those who seem to be in close personal
relationships.

It is necessary for me to take responsibility for the effect my actions have
on others.

True responsibility involves making sure my needs are cared for as well as
the needs of others.

The feelings of others are not relevant when deciding what is right.

If someone asks me for a favor I have a responsibility to think about
whether or not I want to do the favor.

I make decisions based upon what I believe is best for me and mine.
Once I've worked out my position on an issue I stick to it.

I believe that in order to survive I must concentrate more on taking care of
myself than on taking care of others.

The best way to help someone is to do what they ask even if you don't really
want to do it.

Doing things for others makes me happy.
All you really need to do to help someone is to love them.
I deserve the love of others as much as they deserve my love.

You've got to look out for yourself or the demands of circumstances and
other people will eat you up.

I cannot afford to give attention to the opinions of others when I am certain
I am correct.

67

not at all very much
like me like me
1 2 3 4 5

5 4 . If someone does something for me, I reciprocate by doing something for
them.

5 5 . Caring about other people is important to me.

5 6 . If other people are going to sacrifice something they want for my sake I
want them to understand what they are doing. i

5 7 . When I make a decision it's important to use my own values to make the
right choice.

5 8 . I try to approach relationships with the same organization and efficiency as
I approach my work.

5 9 . If I am to help another person it is important to me to understand my own
motives.

60. I like to acquire many acquaintances and friends.

APPENDD( C

SELECT CORRELATIONS BETWEEN RSI SCALES AND OTHER RELEVANT INSTRUMENTS

APPENDIX C

SELECT CORRELATIONS BETWEEN RSI SCALES AND OTHER RELEVANT INSTRUMENTS

. Nurturance and CS r=.17 p=.01 (Adjective Checklist)
. Autonomy and SS (Adjective Checklist)
* women r= .24, p=.01; men r=.20 p=.05
. Communion and CS (Reinhart's Communion Scale)
“women r=.17, p=.01; men r=.30, p=.01
. Agency and SS (Reinhart's Agency Scale)
*no significant relationship
5. Sociability and CS (EASI-l 1 1 Temperament Survey)
*men and women r=.36, p=.01
6. Bem Sex Role Inventory and the RSI - approximately r=.50.

kWNi—t

The authors concluded that for the aforementioned correlations that are

significant it can be concluded that the RSI measures related but distinct
constructs.

68

APPENDDI D

INFORMATION ABOUT STUDY PRESENTED TO STUDENTS IN ORDER TO RECRUIT

APPENDDI D

INFORMATION ABOUT STUDY PRESENTED TO STUDENTS IN ORDER TO RECRUIT

Hello, my name is Iisa Stephen and I am a doctoral student in Counseling
Psychology. 1 am working on my dissertation and would like your input. I plan to
study college counselor's attitudes toward the importance of helping clients to
separate and/ or remain connected to their parents. According to traditional
psychological theory, young adults begin to sever ties with their parents. Newer
theories suggest that healthy, intimate relationships with parents are important to
development. Although many young adults struggle with their relationships with
their parents, I have not found a research study assessing what college students
feel are important issues. Through a discussion with interested parties, I hope to
learn about the real problems many young adults face when they move out of their
homes for the first time to attend college. I will provide you with three short
stories about a student who is dealing with concerns about his or her relationship
with his or her parent(s). After reading them we will discuss your reaction to how
accurate they seem to be. I need your input in order to develop realistic stories.
The final stories will be given to college counselors and I will ask that they
complete a survey assessing how important they think connection and separation
are. Your participation does not effect your grade in this class in any way. You
can not earn extra credit for participating. The discussion should last between
one and two hours.

If you would like to participate, please fill out one of these index cards and
indicate your first name, telephone number, and convenient times to reach you.
It is important that you only identify yourself by your first name so that I can
protect your confidentiality. If you indicate your last name, I will not be able to
include you in the discussion group. I also need you to fill out a schedule
indicating the time you would not be available to meet. I will take these and
schedule a time and day that is convenient for most people. I will call you
approximately one week in advance to inform you of the time and location of the
discussion group. If you are unable to attend the group but are interested in
participating, we can set up a time to meet individually.

Your consent to paru'cipate in this discussion group will be completely voluntary.
You can ask questions at any time. You will be free to leave at any time. Also, you
would not need to answer any questions that make you feel uncomfortable.

Your anonymity is assured as I will not be recording the full names of any
individuals. I will, however, take notes on the themes of our discussion. Also, I
will audio tape this discussion. I will listen to the tape immediately after we finish
the group and take notes on your suggestions. After that, I will immediately
destroy the tape. If at any point you become uncomfortable with the taping, you
can tell me and I will erase it.

At the end of the discussion, I will ask you to write your initials on an index card

and I will randomly choose the name of two participants. These people will win
$10.00 each. Thank you for your time and I hope you will participate.

69

APPENDDI E

CONSENT AND PILOT INSTRUMENT FOR STUDENTS

APPENDDI E

CONSENT AND PILOT INSTRUMENT FOR STUDENTS

Welcome to the discussion group! I am a doctoral student in Counseling
Psychology and am working on my dissertation. I plan to study college counselor's
attitudes toward the importance of helping clients to separate and/ or remain
connected to their parents. According to traditional psychological theory, young
adults begin to sever ties with their parents. Newer theories suggest that healthy,
intimate relationships with parents are important to development. Although
many young adults struggle with their relationships with their parents, I have not
found a research study assessing what students feel are important issues.
Through the discussion, I hope to learn about the real problems many young
adults face when they move out of their homes for the first time. I need your
input in order to develop realistic stories about students who have conflict with
their parents. The stories will be given to college counselors and I will ask that
they complete a survey assessing how important they think connection and
separation are.

Your consent to participate in this discussion group is completely voluntary. I
anticipate that we will talk for one or two hours. You are free to leave at any time.
Also, you do not need to answer any questions that make you feel uncomfortable.
Please feel free to ask any questions at any point during our discussion.

Your anonymity is assured as I will not be recording the full names of any
individuals. I will, however, take notes on the themes of our discussion. Also, I
will audio tape this discussion. I will listen to the tape immediately after we finish
the group and take notes on your suggestions. After that, I will immediately
destroy the tape. If at any point you become uncomfortable with the taping,
please let me know and I will erase it.

If you would like a copy of my dissertation results, please fill out an index card
indicating your first name and permanent mailing address and leave it in the box
when you leave.

If you find yourself wanting to talk more about your relationship with your
parents you might consider seeing a counselor. I am handing out a list of referrals
for you which include the MSU counseling center and community resources. The
counseling center provides confidential, free, personal and career counseling for
students. If they feel that your needs could be better met from another agency,
they will provide and facilitate a referral for you.

With your consent, you indicate your voluntary participation in this discussion
group by signing below. If you have additional questions not addressed during
our discussion, please call me at the number indicated on your referral list.
Thank you in advance for your input. I appreciate your participation.

 

 

Signature of Agreement Date

70

71

Please read the first vignette and think about how much you feel it represents a
real situation in which clients might find themselves. Please jot down any notes or
ideas on the paper provided (this will not be collected but is for your own
reference during the discussion). We will discuss the vignettes one at a time.

VIGNE'TTE A

This vignette is supposed to capture an experience where the student's
parents are being overly involved in his/her life.

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved to the dorm a
month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a conflict with
his/ her parents. He/ she feels that they are overly involved in his/ her life. He/ she
specifically complains about the following things.

1. His/ her parents try to persuade him/ her to choose majors they approve
of by sending him/her information about available jobs in marketing and
banking. When Joe/ Mary brings up other options, his/ her parents highlight the
negative aspects and state that they disapprove. He/ she feels that he/ she is in a
bind because he/ she wants to please his/ her parents by choosing the "right"
major.

2. Joe/ Mary's parents set a curfew for him/ her and he/ she is required to
call them each night to prove that he/ she is in on time.

3. Joe/Mary's parents are demanding that he/ she visit frequently and
spend school vacations at home. When he/ she does go home, he/ she is required
to complete the same chores as he/ she did in high school. He/ she is also required
to follow the same curfew.

VIGNETI‘E B

This vignette is supposed to represent a situation where the student's parents
are supportive, yet somewhat overly involved in his/her life.

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved to the dorm a
month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a conflict with
his/ her parents. During the conversation you learn the following information.

1. Joe/ Mary's parents are supportive of his/ her career exploration within
most areas but he/ she would like to be an artist and they voice concern that
he/ she won't make enough money. He/ she feels that they are worried about
his/ her welfare.

2. Joe/ Mary's parents are happy that he/ she is socializing and making
friends. They do not agree, however, that he/ she should go out on school nights.
They encourage him/ her to limit his/ her social activities to the weekends only.
They frequently ask about his/ her week night activities and he/ she feels that
they are "checking up" on him/ her.

3. Joe/ Mary would like to spend spring break in Florida and has saved the
money for the trip. His/ her parents explained that while they want him/ her to
remain at school during the academic year, they want him/ her to come home for
the vacations.

VIGNETTEC

This vignette is supposed to represent a situation where the parents are
wanting to disconnect with their child.

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved to the dorm
a month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a conflict with
his/ her parents. He/ she complains about the following things.

72

1. Joe/ Mary frequently asks for input about his/ her major and career.
His/ her parents respond by explaining that he/ she is an adult and needs to learn
to make his/ her own decisions.

2. Joe/ Mary is upset because his/ her parents do not call him/ her. He/ she
feels that they are not interested in his/ her academic or social endeavors. He/ she
recently told them that he/ she came home at 4:00 a.m. on a weeknight and
he/ she was disappointed that they did not express concern.

3. Joe/ Mary expressed an interest in moving home for the summer and
his/ her parents stated that they thought he/ she needed to live alone or with
others his/ her age in order to be independent. They sold his/ her bedroom
furniture and converted the room to a study. When he/ she returns to visit,
he/ she must sleep on the couch. He/ she feels that his/ her parents are too quick
to break ties with him/her.

APPENDIX F

ORIGINAL AND REVISED VIGNEITES— PARENTS OVERLY INVOLVED

APPENDD( F

ORIGINAL AND REVISED VIGNETTES- PARENTS OVERLY INVOLVED
ORIGINAL VIGNEITE-PAREN'I‘S OVERLY INVOLVED

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved to the dorm a
month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a conflict with
his/ her parents. He/ she feels that they are overly involved in his/ her life.

He/ she specifically complains about the following things.

1. His/ her parents try to persuade him/ her to choose majors they approve
of by sending him/ her information about available jobs in marketing and
banking. When Joe/ Mary brings up other options, his/ her parents highlight the
negative aspects and state that they disapprove. He/ she feels that he/ she is in a
bind because he/ she wants to please his/ her parents by choosing the "right"
major.

2. Joe/Mary's parents set a curfew for him/ her and he/ she is required to
call them each night to prove that he/ she is in on time.

3. Joe/ Mary's parents are demanding that he/ she visit frequently and
spend school vacations at home. When he/ she does go home, he/ she is required
to complete the same chores as he/ she did in high school. He/ she is also required
to follow the same curfew.

REVISED VIGNE'ITE- PARENTS OVERLY INVOLVED

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved into the

residence hall a month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a
conflict with his/ her parents. He/ she feels that they are overly involved in

his/ her life. He/ she specifically complains about the following things:

1. Joe/Mary's parents try to persuade him/ her to choose majors they
approve of by sending him/ her information about available jobs in marketing and
banking. When Joe/ Mary brings up other options, his/ her parents highlight the
negative aspects and state that they disapprove. Joe/ Mary feels that he/ she is in
a bind because he/ she wants to please his/ her parents by choosing the "right"
major and at the same time, he/ she wants to be true to him/ herself.

2. Joe/Mary's parents suggest that he/ she be back in his/ her room by
10:00 pm. so that he/ she is sure to have enough time to study and sleep. They
stress the importance of getting good grades and remind him/her that he/ she is
at college to study. They periodically call Joe/ Mary to check up on what time
he/ she comes in.

3. Joe/Mary's parents are putting a lot of pressure on him/ her to visit
frequently and they want him/her to spend school vacations at home. When
he/ she does go home, he/ she is treated as if he/ she is still in high school and is
required to follow the same rules.

73

APPENDIX G

ORIGINAL AND REVISED VIGNE'ITES- PARENTS ENCOURAGING PREMATURE
SEPARATION

APPENDIX G

ORIGINAL AND REVISED VIGNETTIB- PARENTS ENCOURAGING PREMATURE
SEPARATION

ORIGINAL VIGNE'I'T E - PARENTS ENCOURAGING PREMATURE SEPARATION

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved to the dorm
a month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a conflict with
his/ her parents. He/ she complains about the following things.

1. Joe/ Mary frequently asks for input about his/ her major and career.
His/ her parents respond by explaining that he/ she is an adult and needs to learn
to make his/ her own decision.

2. Joe/ Mary is upset because his/ her parents do not call him/ her.

He/ she feels that they are not interested in his/ her academic or social endeavors.
He/ she recently told them that he/ she came home at 4:00 a.m. on a weeknight
and he/ she was disappointed that they did not express concern.

3. Joe/ Mary expressed an interest in moving home for the summer and
his/ her parents stated that they thought he/ she needed to live alone or with
others his/ her age in order to be independent. They sold his/ her bedroom
furniture and converted the room to a study. When he/ she returns to visit,
he/ she must sleep on the couch. He/ she feels that his/ her parents are too quick
to break ties with him/ her.

REVISED VIGNE'I'I'E- PARENTS ENCOURAGING PREMATURE SEPARATION

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved into the

residence hall a month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a
conflict with his/ her parents. Joe/ Mary feels that his/her parents are pressuring
him/her to develop more autonomy by encouraging him/ her to start his/ her own
life. He/ she specifically complains about the following things:

1. Joe/ Mary frequently asks for input about his/ her major. His/ her
parents have explained that he/ she needs to learn to make his/ her own decisions.
They told Joe/ Mary that if they provide input, he/ she will lean on them instead of
learning how to make his/ her own choices.

2. Joe/ Mary is upset because his/ her parents do not call him/her. He/ she
feels that they are not concerned about him/her. Joe/ Mary recently told them
that he/ she came home at 4:00 a.m. on a weeknight and he/ she was disappointed
that they did not suggest that he/ she get in earlier so that he/ she has enough
time to study and sleep. Joe/ Mary feels his/ her parents are not really interested
in his/her academic endeavors.

3. Joe/ Mary expressed an interest in moving home for the summer and
his/ her parents stated that they thought he/ she needed to live alone or with
peers. They sold his/ her bedroom furniture and converted his/ her room to a
study. When he/ she returns to visit, he/ she must sleep on the couch.

74

APPENDD( H

DELETED VIGNETI'E

APPENDIX H

DEIEI'EDVIGNEITE

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved to the dorm a
month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a conflict with
his/ her parents. During the conversation you learn the following information.

1. Joe/Mary's parents are supportive of his/ her career exploration within
most areas but he/ she would like to be an artist and they voice concern that
he/ she won't make enough money. He/ she feels that they are worried about
his/ her welfare.

2. Joe/ Mary's parents are happy that he/ she is socializing and making
friends. They do not agree, however, that he/ she should go out on school nights.
They encourage him/ her to limit his/ her social activities to the weekends only.
They frequently ask about his/ her week night activities and he/ she feels that they
are "checking up" on him/ her.

3. Joe/ Mary would like to spend spring break in Florida and has saved the
money for the trip. His/ her parents explained that while they want him/ her to
remain at school during the academic year, they want him/ her to come home for
the vacations.

7S

APPENDD( I

FINAL VIGNEI'I‘ES

APPENDIX I

FINALVIGNEI'I'ES

PARENTS OVERLY INVOLVED

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved into the

residence hall a month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a
conflict with his/ her parents. He/ she feels that they are overly involved in

his/ her life. He/ she specifically complains about the following things:

1. Joe/Mary's parents try to persuade him/ her to choose majors they
approve of by sending him/ her information about available jobs in marketing and
banking. When Joe/ Mary brings up other options, his/ her parents highlight the
negative aspects and state that they disapprove. Joe/ Mary feels that he/ she is in
a bind because he/ she wants to please his/ her parents by choosing the "right"
major and at the same time, he/ she wants to be true to him/ herself.

2. Joe/Mary's parents suggest that he/ she be back in his/ her room by
10:00 pm. so that he/ she is sure to have enough time to study and sleep. They
stress the importance of getting good grades and remind him/ her that he/ she is
at college to study. They periodically call Joe/ Mary to check up on what time
he/ she comes in. '

3. Joe/Mary‘s parents are putting a lot of pressure on him/ her to visit
frequently and they want him/ her to spend school vacations at home. When
he/ she does go home, he/ she is treated as if he/ she is still in high school and is
required to follow the same rules.

PARENTS ENCOURAGING PREMATURE SEPARATION

Joe/ Mary is an 18 year old first year college student who moved into the
residence hall a month ago. He/ she is seeking your input about how to deal with a
conflict with his/ her parents. Joe/ Mary feels that his/ her parents are pressuring
him/ her to develop more autonomy by encouraging him/ her to start his/ her own
life. He/ she specifically complains about the following things:

1. Joe/ Mary frequently asks for input about his/ her major. His/ her
parents have explained that he/ she needs to learn to make his/ her own decisions.
They told Joe/ Mary that if they provide input, he/ she will lean on them instead of
learning how to make his/her own choices.

2. Joe/ Mary is upset because his/ her parents do not call her. He/ she feels
that they are not concerned about her. Joe/ Mary recently told them that he/ she
came home at 4:00 a.m. on a weeknight and he/ she was disappointed that they
did not suggest that he/ she get in earlier so that he/ she has enough time to study
and sleep. Joe/ Mary feels his/ her parents are not really interested in his/ her
academic endeavors.

76

77

3. Joe/ Mary expressed an interest in moving home for the summer and
his/ her parents stated that they thought he/ she needed to live alone or with
peers. They sold his/ her bedroom furniture and converted his/her room to a
study. When he/ she returns to visit, he/ she must sleep on the couch.

APPENDDI j

RELATIONSHIP SELF INVENTORY - MODIFIED

APPENDD( J

RELATIONSHIP SELF INVENTORY - MODIFIED

Instructions: At termination, assuming a successful outcome with Joe/ Mary, how
would you want Joe/ Mary to respond to the following statements? Pretend you are
Joe/ Mary and answer this questionnaire by selecting the response you would like
him/her to choose and blacken the corresponding oval on your answer sheet.

not at all very much
like me like me
1 2 3 4 S

1 . I often try to act on the belief that self-interest is one of the worst problems
facing society.

2. A close friend is someone who will help you whenever you need help and
knows that you will help if they need it.

3. I cannot choose to help someone else if it will hinder my self development.
4 . I want to be responsible for myself.

5 . In making decisions, I can neglect my own values in order to keep a
relationship.

6 . I find it hard to sympathize with people whose misfortunes I believe are due
mame to their own shortcomings.

7 . I try to curb my anger for fear of hurting others.
8 . Being unselfish with others is more important than making myself happy.

9 . Loving is like a contract: If its provisions aren't met, you wouldn't love the
person any more.

1 0. In my everyday life I am guided by the notion of "an eye for an eye and a
tooth for a tooth". _

1 1 . I want to learn to stand on my own two feet.

1 2 . I believe that one of the most important things that parents can teach their
children is how to cooperate and live in harmony with others.

1 3 . I try not to think about the feelings of others when there is a principle at
stake.

1 4 . I don't often do much for others unless they can do some good for me later
on.

1 S . Activities of care that I perform expand both me and others.

78

79

not at all very much
like me like me
1 2 3 4 S

1 6. If what I want to do upsets other people, I try to think again to see if I really
want to do it.

1 7. I do not want others to be responsible for me.
1 8 . I am guided by the principle of treating others as I want to be treated.

I 9. I believe that I have to look out for myself and mine, and let others shift for
themselves.

20. Being unselfish with others is a way I make myself happy.

2 1 . When a friend traps me with demands and negotiation has not worked, I
am likely to end the friendship.

22. I feel empty if I'm not closely involved with someone else.
2 3 . Sometimes I have to accept hurting someone else.
2 4. In order to continue a relationship it has to let both of us grow.

2 S . I feel that my development has been shaped more by the person I care
about than by what I do and accomplish.

2 6. People who don't work hard to accomplish respectable goals can't expect me
to help when they're in trouble.

2 7. Relationships are a central part of my identity.

2 8 . I often keep quiet rather than hurt someone's feelings, even if it means
giving a false impression.

2 9 . If someone offers to do something for me, I should accept the offer even if I
really want something else.

3 0. The worst thing that could happen in a friendship would be to have my
friend reject me.

3 1. If I am really sure that what I want to do is right, I do it even if it upsets
others.

3 2 . Before I can be sure I really care for someone I have to know my true
feelings.

3 3. What it all boils down to is that the only person I can rely on is myself.

3 4. Even though I am sensitive to others' feelings, I makes decisions based
upon what I feel is best for me.

80

not at all very much
like me like me
1 2 3 4 5

3 5 . Even though it's difficult, I have learned to say no to others when I need to
take care of myself.

3 6. I like to see myself as interconnected with a network of friends.
3 7 . Those about whom I care deeply are part of who I am.
3 8 . I accept my obligations and expect others to do the same.

3 9 . I believe that I must care for myself because others are not responsible for
me.

40. The people whom I admire are those who seem to be in close personal
relationships.

4 1 . It is necessary for me to take responsibility for the effect my actions have
on others.

42. True responsibility involves making sure my needs are cared for as well as
the needs of others.

43. The feelings of others are not relevant when deciding what is right.

44. If someone asks me for a favor I have a responsibility to think about
whether or not I want to do the favor.

45 . I make decisions based upon what I believe is best for me and mine.
46. Once I've worked out my position on an issue I stick to it.

47 . I believe that in order to survive I must concentrate more on taking care of
myself than on taking care of others.

4 8 . The best way to help someone is to do what they ask even if you don't really
want to do it.

49. Doing things for others makes me happy.
5 0 . All you really need to do to help someone is to love them.
5 1 . I deserve the love of others as much as they deserve my love.

5 2 . You've got to look out for yourself or the demands of circumstances and
other people will eat you up.

5 3 . I cannot afford to give attention to the opinions of others when I am certain
I am correct.

81

not at all very much
like me like me
1 2 3 4 S

S 4. If someone does something for me, I reciprocate by doing something for
them.

5 5 . Caring about other people is important to me.

5 6 . If other people are going to sacrifice something they want for my sake I
want them to understand what they are doing.

5 7 . When I make a decision it's important to use my own values to make the
right choice.

5 8 . I try to approach relationships with the same organization and efficiency as
I approach my work.

5 9 . If I am to help another person it is important to me to understand my own
motives.

60. I like to acquire many acquaintances and friends.

***************************‘k'k*****************************************‘k‘k

Please answer these demographic questions by blackening the corresponding oval
on your answer sheet. Please be sure the number on the answer sheet
corresponds with the number on this questionnaire.

6 1 . Please indicate your sex.

1 2
male female

6 2 . Do you consider yourself a feminist?
yes no

6 3 . Do you have children of your own?
yes 1210

64 . Please indicate your current professional position.
full tim: past time 3intern :ther
staff staff

65 . Please indicate the time zone your center is located in.
1 2 3 4
east central mountain pacific

82

************************************************************************

Please answer the following questions.

 

66 . Please indicate the last degree you completed.

67. What theoretical perspective do you most often adhere to when
conceptualizing cases?

 

68. What is your age?

 

 

69. What is your race?

7 0. How many years total have you worked in a college counseling center?

 

************************************************************************

I would also like to include relevant qualitative data in my study. Please write any
commen ts and/or reactions below.

APPENDIX K

COVER LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS

APPENDIX K
COVER LETTER

Home address
Home phone
Date of mailing

Dear Participant,

I am interested in gathering information about your perceptions of the
importance of connection and separation when providing counseling to
college students who are experiencing conflicts with their parents. I am
completing this study to fulfill my dissertation requirement for my doctorate
in Counseling Psychology at Michigan State University. I believe the results of
this study will be helpful to college counseling staff members who work with
traditional aged college students. I hope you will participate.

Enclosed please find a short vignette and survey. It should take you 20—30
minutes to complete the instrument. After collecting data, I will be able to
answer your questions about my hypotheses, methodology, and design.
Please feel free to contact me with any questions, concerns, or comments
after . You may also contact the chairperson of my dissertation
committee, Dr. linda Forrest at

I have included a self addressed, stamped postcard with a subject number.
Please mail the postcard separately but at the same time that you return your
anonymous survey. The postcards will be the only documentation of subject
number which I will use to keep track of those who respond. If you would like
to receive the results of the study, please write a note on the back of the
postcard. If you will not be at the center during the 1994-1995 academic
year, please indicate a permanent mailing address on the postcard. I will mail
the findings to you. Also, I will randomly pick two of the postcards at the end
of the study and these subjects will receive a cash award of $25.00 each. You
have approximately a 1 in 100 chance of winning.

I would like to emphasize that your participation in this project is voluntary
and anonymous. If you decide at any point that you would not like to
continue, please return the incomplete materials. If you do not choose to
participate, I would appreciate it if you would return your postcard and write
"OMIT" across it. This will allow me to keep accurate records. Regardless of
whether or not you participate, please return BOTH the instrument afnd the

answer sheet in the self addressed stamm envelop_e provided. Please return

your survey on or before

83

84

I would like to sincerely thank you for your consideration. I know that it is a
busy time of year for everyone. Please turn to the next page for further
explanation and instructions.

Sincerely,

Lisa M. Stephen, M.A.

APPENDIX L

REMINDER

APPENDD( L

REMINDER

Memo to: Potential research subjects
From: Iisa M. Stephen, M.A. Michigan State University

Date:

As you may recall, I recently mailed you a short vignette about a college student
and asked you to complete a short survey on separation and connection. If you
have already returned the survey, thank you for your time and consideration. I
truly appreciate your interest. If you have not returned the survey, please either
do so at your earliest convenience or notify me that you are not interested in
participating by writing " omit" on your postcard and returning both the
incomplete survey and postcard. I am looking forward to receiving more
responses and I am eager to begin my analysis. I believe the results will be very
helpful to college counselors working with traditional aged college students. If you
did not receive the survey or have misplaced it, please call me and I will send a
replacement out immediately so that you can participate. Thank you once again.

85

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