LIBRARY Mlchlgan State University PLACE ll REI’URN BOX to man this checkout 1mm your record. TO AVOID FINES Mum on or Moro dd. duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE MSU In An mum Adlai/EN Opponunny Initiation Wyn-9.1 A STUDY OF THE PACKAGE DYNAMICS IN THE UNITED STATES POSTAL SERVICES SMALL PARCEL DELIVERY ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE UNITED STATES BY Hesham S. EI-Khateeb A THESIS Submitted to . Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Packaging 1993 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE PACKAGE DYNAMICS IN THE UNITED STATES POSTAL SERVICE SMALL PARCEL DELIVERY ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE UNITED STATES BY Hesham S. El-Khateeb This study investigated the different types of dynamic impacts that a small parcel package may be exposed to while in the United States Postal Service (USPS) Express Mail Service (EMS) distribution environment. Five Drop Height Recorders were packaged and sent through USPS Express Mail Service to five different destinations around the United States: Memphis (TN), Monterey (CA), Portland (OR), Atlanta (GA) and Rochester (NY). A total of 25 round-trips was monitored. The various dynamic events recorded were separated as vertical free fall drops, lateral tosses, and kicks (lateral impacts). A total of 1187 events was recorded. From which, 43.7% were classified as free fall drops, 31.9% as kicks and 24.4% as tosses. An average of 24 events per one-way trip that consists of ten drops, eight kicks and six tosses were also calculated. The results of this study showed that the highest drop height recorded was 72.5 inches, the largest toss distance was 44.1 inches, and the highest impact level recorded was 289.0 in.lsec. It was also found that 95% of the drops were less than 32 inches, 95% of the tosses were less than 21 inches, and 95% of the kicks were less than 188.0 in.lsec. In the name of.ALLAH the most merciful and the most beneficent DEDICATION In memory of my mother ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I gratefully acknowledge the patient guidance, the friendship and the invaluable help of my major advisor, Dr. S. Paul Singh, throughout this work. I would like to extend my appreciation to the members of my committee, Dr. Gary G. Burgess, and Dr. Galen Brown for their assistance and time. A special thanks to Ralph E. Walker at the United States Postal Service, Engineering-Research and Development, for providing all the information needed. Thanks to Stan Priskitt, Dallas Instruments Inc, for the technical help with the recorders. Thanks to Larry F. Rutledge at Federal Express, Dan Nicely at Lansmont Corporation, Mark R. James at Tektronix, Dennis J. Amato at UPS, and John R. Antle at Eastman Kodak Company for their participation and cooperation. Also, thanks to the Consortium of Distribution Packaging for funding this study. My sincere gratitude to Dr. Robert Lamoreaux, for his help and friendship that I value greatly. Finally, I am deeply grateful to my wife for her patience, understanding and support and to my two little boys Youssef and Ismaeel for being so nice. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ...................................... vii KEY TO SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................... viii 1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................... 1 2.0 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ............ g .................. 9 2.1 DROP HEIGHT RECORDER ....................... 13 2.2 ZERO-G DROP HEIGHT CALCULATIONS ............. 18 2.3 EQUIVALENT DROP HEIGHT CALCULATIONS ......... 19 2.4 INSTRUMENT CONFIGURATION AND CALIBRATION . . . . 20 3.0 DATA AND RESULTS ................................ 26 4.0 CONCLUSION ...................................... 36 5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ 38 5.1 PROPOSED ASTM D-4169 DISTRIBUTION CYCLE ....... 38 APPENDIX A .......................................... 41 LIST OF REFERENCES .................................. 86 vi TABLE 1 TABLE 2 TABLE 3 TABLE 4 TABLE 5 TABLE 6 TABLE 7 TABLE A1 TABLE A2 TABLE A3 TABLE A4 TABLE A5 LIST OF TABLES LABORATORY DROPS ......................... LABORATORY TOSSES ........................ LABORATORY KICKS .......................... SUMMARY OF ALL ROUNDTRIPS ................. SUMMARY OF ALL DROPS ...................... SUMMARY OF ALL TOSSES .......... A . . . . . ....... SUMMARY OF ALL KICKS ....................... ORIG. DATA OF ALL 5 ROUNDTRIPSTO MEMPHIS, TN ORIG. DATA OF ALL 5 ROUNDTRIPS TO MONTEREY, CA ORIG. DATA OF ALL 5 ROUNDTRIPS TO PORTLAND, OR ORIG. DATA OF ALL 5 ROUNDTRIPS TO ATLANTA, GA ORIG. DATA OF ALL 5 ROUNDTRIPS TO ROCHESTER, NY vii 23 24 25 28 30 31 32 41 51 62 72 81 FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6 ’ FIGURE 7 LIST OF FIGURES GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION OF ALL DESTINATIONS . . . . FLOW PATH OF A PACKAGE IN A ROUNDTRIP ...... BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE BASIC CONCEPT OF DATA PROCESSING IN THE DHR-1 ............. CUMULATIVE PERCENT vs. DROP HEIGHT ......... CUMULATIVE PERCENT vs. TOSS DISTANCE ........ CUMULATIVE PERCENT vs. IMPACT LEVEL ......... PERCENTAGE OF ALL IMPACT TYPES PRESENTED viii 10 12 15 33 34 35 37 KEY To SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS AMF Air Mail Facility CPU Central Processing Unit DHR Drop Height Recorder EMS Express Mail Service 9 Acceleration due to gravity (386.4 in.lsec2 or 9.81 m/sec2 G Impact Acceleration (in.lsec’) = peak acceleration recorded I acceleration due to gravity h Drop Height, Equivalent, ( inches ) Kb Kbyte lbs. Pounds, weight PDS Power Density Spectrum RAM Random Access Memory RSC Regular Slotted Container USPS United States Postal Service 2 Drop Height, zero-G, ( inches ) 1.0 INTRODUCTION A major objective in the design of a package is to provide protection to the product from the various dynamic inputs that occur in the physical distribution environment. Various forms of transportation and handling methods result in shock and vibration forces. The packaging engineer needs to design optimum amount of cushioning to protect the product from these expected dynamic inputs. It is therefore critical to determine both the actual levels and the frequency of occurrence of the various dynamic events that occur in the various packaging shipping modes. The general purpose of this research was to measure the dynamic impacts that packages encounter in the Express Mail Service (EMS) of the United States Postal Service Small Parcel Environment within the United States territories. The USPS Express Mail Service is a very large operation that delivers packages in the United States and most of other countries around the world. This is achieved with more than 40,000 Express Mail post offices and 26,000 Express Mail boxes nationwide. They also deliver parcels to most major Cities in more than 130 countries around the world. Express Mail Service operates year-round (365 days a year). 2 Measurement of the distribution environment is needed if package test specifications are to match the real world process of getting the product to the end-user. Several studies had examined different distribution environments. The countless package and distribution channel combinations make detailed studies expensive and time consuming. ln handling small packages, all kinds of activities are involved. Handling includes mechanical or manual lifting, setting-down, stacking, carrying, conveying, throwing, and hitting of the package. In these activities the physical hazard of impact is experienced in addition to other types of hazards to varying degrees. Other hazards involved in truck shipments arise from road and rail conditions, over which the carrier has no control. Rough roads and streets obviously cause shocks in transit, and even expansion joints in concrete highways can start vibration forces that may cause damage to products. Increasing the travel distance of a package, give a rise to the potential for shock and vibration hazards. Coordinated ground- air movements add new hazards, resulting from pressure and temperature factors (UPS, 1975). The study and analysis of various distribution environment should result in very valuable information. Such information can be very helpful in designing new packages, redesigning prior ones, and lab simulation of a real distribution process. Information regarding the dynamics encountered in the USPS Express Mail Service (EMS) small parcel environment is not readily available. This study should provide a broader insight into that environment. 3 At the Swedish Packaging Institute, a field study was conducted by Thomas Trost (1988). It was conducted on board a Boeing 747 combi (freight and passenger) aircraft on the route Stockholm via Oslo to New York and returns to Stockholm. Shocks and vibrations, acting on the cargo, during air transportation were measured and analyzed. The study encompassed all phases of the flight, including taxiing, climbing, cruising during both calm and turbulent conditions, descent and approach, landing including touchdown and taxiing to the apron. The aim of Trost's study was to examine the air transport mode, including ground operations, and create a basis for the development of methods to be used in simulating the effects of vibration hazards on products and packaging systems. Some of Trost's conclusions were: 1- The stress levels are more severe in ground handling and transportation on their way between terminal and aircraft than during the aircraft ground contact at which the time of exposure is considerably shorter. So ground handling at air terminals should naturally be considered when comparing the different means of transportation. 2- Season is not important with regard to expected mechanical stresses, but topography is. Turbulence is more likely to occur on some routes, such as in areas with high mountains. 3- Normally, there are considerably lower acceleration levels than for other means of transport in the frequency range of importance as far as product movement is concerned (e.g., up to 30-50 Hz). Besides, the maximum stresses occur less 4 frequently during transport and for short periods of time (e.g., at landing including touchdown for 30 sec). 4- The ground handling and ground transport phases of an air transport often are the severest, as far as stress levels are concerned. The second highest stress levels occur during takeoff and landing. Less severe, from the point of view of stress, are phases when the aircraft is airborne. In a study conducted by Antle (1991) in the School of Packaging, Michigan State University, the purpose was to compare the levels of lateral and longitudinal vibration to vertical levels measured in the same truck trailer traveling over the average USA highway. Four truck-trailer shipments, two with light loads and two with heavy loads, were instrumented with accelerometers and recording equipment. The results showed that below 20 Hz, lateral and longitudinal vibration levels were generally much lower than vertical levels, but at frequencies above 20 Hz, all three were similar. The more heavily loaded trucks showed higher lateral and longitudinal levels of vibration than the lightly loaded ones ( Singh 8. Antle 1992 ). In another study by Pierce (1992) at the School of Packaging, the purpose was to determine the vertical vibration levels measured in three separate truck- trailer suspension systems; conventional leaf-spring, conventional air-ride and damaged air-ride. Three road types were studied; inner city, rural and interstate expressway. Two different weights were used, 5,000 lbs. and 18,000 lbs. A total of six different truck shipments was monitored. The main conclusion reached was 0 5 that the air-ride suspension (when maintained ) caused lower power density (PD) levels in the load on all road surfaces studied. A damaged air-ride suspension or the leaf-spring suspension caused very similar response frequencies, although the damaged air-ride caused higher acceleration levels at lower frequencies ( Singh & Pierce, 1992 ). Also, In a study conducted by Marcondes (1992) at the School of Packaging, the questions of acceleration levels and frequencies in commercial truck shipments were addressed. Data were collected on various truck shipments in the United States over various interstate expressways. Comparisons were shown for effect of suspension, weight of shipment, and road quality. Data were presented in the form of Power Density Spectrums (PDS). The results of his studies were requested by the ASTM D-4728 Task Group on Random Vibration Testing of Shipping Containers, to be recommended for package testing. Vibration during truck shipments has been a critical factor in lost produce ( due to bruising and cutting which accelerates biochemical degradation ). A total of four trailers with leaf-spring suspension, one with air ride suspension, and one panel van were monitored for a total of over 16,000 miles by means of piezoelectric accelerometers attached to the floor of the trailers. Marcondes concluded that leaf-spring trailers have higher peak acceleration levels (between 3 and 4 Hz) than Air ride trailers ( about 2 Hz ). Fully loaded leaf-spring trailers have lower acceleration levels than partially loaded trailers by weight. The acceleration levels significantly increased with an increase in air-ride suspension trailer load. This is 6 opposite of that observed in leaf-spring trailers. The air-ride suspension trailer becomes stiffer as the weight of the trailer increases. Panel vans showed significant vibration levels at higher frequencies, but were never as severe as the truck. The most severe vibration levels recorded in all cases were vertical and occurred at the rear of the trailers ( Singh & Marcondes, 1992). One study conducted by Ostrem and Godshall (1979) examined shipping environment hazards for different modes of transportation. This study reviewed all the available information regarding the common carrier environment. One of the hazards of handling discussed is the free fall drop. Free fall drop height is defined as the vertical distance from the ground or impact surface that the package falls ( either intentionally or accidentally ) under the influence of gravity alone. A review of previous studies showed a trend that drops from low drop heights occurred more frequently than drops from higher drop heights. Also as the package becomes larger, either in weight or size, the expected drop height decreases. As might be expected, the more cumbersome a package becomes the less likely it is to be raised to a great height, either by man or machine, and therefore the less likely it is to be dropped from a great height ( Brandenburg and Lee, 1985 ). In another study by the School of Packaging at Michigan State University, the effect of drops, tosses, and kicks encountered in the United Parcel Service (UPS) small parcel environment in the United States was investigated. The effect of the weight and volume of packages shipped from Lansing (MI) to Monterey (CA) 7 in a roundtrip was also studied by using the Drop Height Recorder manufactured by Dallas lnsthments Inc. (Voss, 1991). It was concluded that size of package had no significant effect on the drop height and lighter weight packages with a smaller size experienced higher drop heights than heavier packages with larger sizes. 1.1 Objectives My study examined the various types of impacts encountered in the USPS Express Mail Service small parcel environment. The impacts resulted mainly from free fall drops, lateral tosses, and kicks ( lateral impacts ). They were verified and separated from the processed data based on lab simulation tests. Specifically, the objectives of this study were: 1. Measure, define, segregate, and Clarify the dynamic impacts that packages encounter in the USPS Express Mail Service small parcel environment in the United States. 2. Predict expected drop heights, toss distances, and kick (lateral impact ) levels that a package may encounter in the USPS Express Mail by investigating the measured data. 3. Suggest values for packages so that they can be expected to match or exceed the EMS small parcel environment. 8 Propose a testing protocol to the ASTM Committee 0-10 on packaging, which can be used as a pre-shipping laboratory performance test sequence for the small parcels to predict its ability to withstand the USPS over night and express mail distribution environment MXJERIMJITAL DESIGN This study evaluated the small parcel environment for the United States Postal Services Express Mail Service ( EMS ) delivery system for domestic shipments. Five Drop Height Recorders ( DHR ) were used for the study. Each was packed inside a corrugated container. Each container was 9 x 9 x 9 inches, Regular Slotted Container( RSC ), Double Wall, and BIC flute. The Drop Height Recorder ( DHR ) inside each parcel was to record the different dynamic events that a package experiences during shipping. The corrugated containers were 9 x 9 x 9 inches, Regular Slotted Containers ( RSC ), Double Wall, and BIC flute. The Drop Height Recorders were enclosed in a static shielding bag to protect them against electro static discharges that may develop during transportation and handling. Polyurethane foam sheets ( 8 in.2 x1 in. thick) were used to cushion the Drop Height Recorders inside the corrugated containers. Corrugated boxes and cushioning material used in this study were supplied by Dallas Instruments Inc. All containers were "H" sealed top and bottom. A Clear plastic pressure sensitive general purpose box sealing tape ( 3M, 2 inches thick ) was used to seal the boxes. The boxes were sealed using a 3M adjustable automated case sealer. 10 225553 .2 .6 8:83 ofafioomw ”F 9:9... cozmcnuéo 0 & m2< I AF 4 Us 595 4 W5.§&2 .3828”. r , 2?. 11 The Drop Height Recorders were oriented in the same way for every shipment. The recorders were placed in the geometric center of the boxes. The weight of each box with the Drop height recorder inside was approximately 11 pounds. To increase the reliability of the collected data multiple repetitions to each destination were done. Each recorder was shipped five times to each destination, where it was received by a designated individual in each destination, who then return ship the DHR back to East Lansing. The DHR and its package were not to be opened or altered in any way by the designated individual or any one else at the receiving ( Out-bound ) destination. This resulted in a total of 25 roundtrips or 50 one-way trips. The containers were delivered to the Lansing main Post Office by car, then they were put in a small cart and taken inside to the reception desk. Boxes were not marked to avoid any special handling during its trip. Each parcel was received at the destination and then return shipped to East Lansing using the EMS. The five different destinations used were, Atlanta ( GA ), Memphis ( TN ), Monterey ( CA), Portland ( OR ), and Rochester ( NY). In a single round trip, units may stay in transition for approximately three to five working days. The data retrieved from each recorder after they were returned reflects a one round-trip shipment (two one -way trip ). The present delivery system used by USPS starts at the local post office, where all Express Mail is sorted out and carried by postal vehicles ( Panel Vans ) to the regional Air Mail Facility ( AMF ), which handles airmail. The United 12 USPS Local Office Lansing, MI 'Panel Vans" Air Mail Facility T Detroit, MI 7 l 'Oontalners' 7 Airline Handling Facility 1 Baggage Cans" Designated Aircraft I 1 'Aircraft" Destination Airport “Baggage Carts' Airport Post Office Facility 'Panel Vans“ ® Local Post Office 1 ‘i 1 “Panel Vans" I Customer I Figure 2: Flow Path of a Package in an Out-boundtn'p 13 States is divided into ten regions. Each region is serviced by more than one AMF. The Great Lakes area has three AMFs located in Detroit, Chicago, and Indianapolis. For this study, the DHR packages were sent to the Detroit Metro Airport AMF. Large AMFs use their own sorting systems to sort Express Mail. Packages are sorted by destination and then put into sacks or ( if a large package) handled as individual large boxes. Containers are then used to carry mail to individual airlines where they are sorted into airline containers ( LD-3 for wide body aircraft and to baggage carts for other types of aircraft ). At the destination airport, packages are unloaded from the plane into baggage carts, carried to the airport post office facility, where they are sorted out by Zip Codes, and then loaded into panel vans to be distributed to the local post offices. After a final sorting process at the local post office, packages are delivered to the customers on panel vans. Each recorder had to be recharged for a minimum of 24 hours and configured before sending it on a new trip. Information recorded was immediately downloaded to a computer using the Drop Height Recorder analysis software. The cushions and boxes were replaced after every two, trips or if they were damaged, to maintain consistent results. 2.1 DROP HEIGHT RECORDER For this study, 5 Drop Height Recorders ( model DHR-1C ) manufactured by Dallas Instruments were used for monitoring the distribution environment. The Drop Height Recorder is a small, light weight unit that has the ability to sense, 14 measure, and record all types of impacts that are of any importance to the packaging professionals. The unit measures approximately 6.6 x 6.6 x 6.6 inches and weighs about 9.5 pounds. The DHR has a built in tri-axial acmlerometer, a power source, and a memory device that stores shock pulses which describe the acceleration-time history of the various dynamic inputs. The unit contains a tri-axial accelerometer mounted in its geometric center. This accelerometer detects the various dynamic events the Drop Height Recorder experiences during shipping. The data recorded by these accelerometers is stored in the Random Access Memory ( RAM ) for further analysis and report generating using a software package on a personal computer. The Drop Height Recorder is constantly monitoring its shipping environment. When a dynamic event occurs, the acceleration levels experienced by the three accelerometers are sent through a low gain amplifier. The signals are then sent to the three tri-axial channels, which are parts of the multi-channel digitizer. There they are compared to the threshold trigger level settings. If any of the three signals exceeds the preset thresholds, the signals are stored as impact/time history in the 32 Kb memory. The Central Processing Unit ( CPU ) then directs the acquired data from the 32 Kb RAM along with the auxiliary data (time, date, temperature, battery voltage, etc.) to be stored in the 512 Kb RAM allocated for long term storage. If the trigger level did not exceed the threshold level then that information is not retained. The acceleration data for all three channels is 15 Triaxial Accelerometer with built-in Pie-Amplifiers (Measures Ambient Accelerations) . . I Hi—gain Amplifier System I 3 Low-gain Amplifier System |‘ .I (Records zero-G Signals) l I , I Sunming Amplifier. First 3 Channels of The (Zero-G Signals are Matt-Channel Digitizer 7 Rectified and Simmed) 1 Single. Fourth Channel Signal 1 1 Digitized Zero-G Channel 1 “mm-‘8' . 8K byteoigial Delay (DIQItIZEd Low-Gain Signals (2K DYIB per MD are Compared to Trigger Level) If any Signal Exceeds - the Trigger Level CPU (Central Processing Unit) 1 Signals of The Four Delayed Channels 32 K byte RAM (Temporary Storage) 1 Acquired Data + Auxiliary Data 512 K byte RAM (Long Term Storage) 1 CPU (Resets the System to enable it to acquire another record) . Figure 3: Block Diagram of the Basic Concept of Data Processing in the DHR-1 16 processed to determine the drop height and impact level for each event. The DHR-1C software is used for the analysis of the collected data. Reports of the collected events data can be generated using this software. The information which can be included in a report are: event number, event date, event time, event battery voltage, event temperature, event pulse width, peak acceleration, normalized acceleration, velocity change, zero-G Channel drop height, equivalent drop height, equivalent drop height for each axis, and the ratio between zero-G drop height and equivalent drop height. The drop height recorder configuration can be set with different parameters. These programmable variables include the drop height trigger level, number of pre and post-trigger samples, period between each sample ( sampling rate ), the memory retention mode, and the data collection mode. There are several choices of memory retention modes available in the DHR- 1C. The first is "signal" or "full/stop" mode. Here the unit will stop recording events once the memory has been filled to capacity. The second choice is the "wrap" mode. In the "wrap" mode once the memory is filled the incoming data replaces the oldest or first recorded data. This results in saving the most recent events being captured. The third and final memory retention mode is the "max" mode. In the "max" mode once the memory is filled the unit will only record an event if the event is of a greater magnitude than the lowest of all recorded events. This will give a record of the peak or maximum values that occur in a particular environment. 8 17 The drop height recorder has several different ways in which it can collect data. The first is “snap" mode. In this mode the unit remains in a state of inactivity until a preset time arrives. At this time the unit wakes up and becomes active. The unit will record the first event it is exposed to regardless of the signal magnitude. It then returns to its previous state of inactivity, and again becomes active after the preset time elapses. The second mode of data collection is the "trig” mode. Here the unit remains inactive until a preset time and then it becomes active. During this active time the unit will record any event which exceeds the preset trigger level. After an event is recorded the unit returns to its inactive state. The third mode of data acquisition is the "normal" mode. In this mode an event is recorded each time the preset trigger level is surpassed. The fourth and final mode is called "both", It mixes the "normal" and "snap" modes. In this mode the unit becomes active for a preset period of time and records all events that exceed the trigger level. Within the configuration menu a pre and post-trigger period is also established, so the DHR unit is constantly monitoring the environment. Once the unit is exposed to a dynamic event which exceeds the preset trigger level, the events occurring during a specified window of time are recorded and stored for later analysis. The duration of this window is determined by the length of the pre and post-trigger times. The size of this window also limits the total number of events the unit is capable of storing based on the total RAM. The length of time the Drop Height Recorder will continue to function and record events is limited by 18 the duration of the battery life. Each unit has two battery packs, each with a 4.9 amperes, D cell, Nickel Cadmium battery. The manufacturer of the unit states that the maximum event recording duration is about 14 days. This optimum duration occurs for a temperature of 20° Celsius. Exposure to temperature above or below this temperature can cause the battery life to be shortened in direct proportion to the magnitude of difference from the ideal temperature. The DHR measures the acceleration-time history during various dynamic events. The software analysis program then computes the drop height based on two methods. These are described below. 2.2 - ZERO-G DROP HEIGHT CALCULATION: Since the time from the initiation of free fall conditions to the moment of impact is recorded, the free fall distance that the DHR has fallen can be calculated from the time of free fall ( which is recorded on the zero-G channel ) using the following equation: gt2 (2-1) i 3' (D _, .“2 N II Vertical Drop distance ( zero-G method) Acceleration due to Gravity (386.4 in.lseC2 or 9.81 mIsec’) t = Free fall time, sec (0 II 19 2.3 - EQUIVALENT DROP HEIGHT CALCULATION: The equivalent drop height is calculated using the acceleration-time history from all three channels for each event. The velocity Change for an impact can be calculated by determining the area under the acceleration-time curve for a given channel. Once the velocity change has been determined for each channel the equivalent drop height for that Channel is calculated by using the following equafion: AV 2 2-2 hi ._ _2_1__ ( 1 ) ( ) g 1 + e where: l'ii = Equivalent drop height for channel ( i ) AV| = Velocity change for channel i, (in.lsec) e = Coefficient of restitution, assumed to be 0.5 g = Acceleration due to gravity (in.lsec’) i = Channel The equivalent drop heights are calculated for each of the three axes. The total drop height is then calculated by vector addition of the individual axes equivalent drop heights as described by the following equation: hTotal = 2.1 hi (2-3) where: i = Axis of orientation 20 2.4 - INSTRUMENT CONFIGURATION AND CALIBRATION It is important to understand the functionality and calibration of the DHR unit. At the onset of the experiment each of the five drop height recorders to be utilized were dropped from fixed heights of 18 and 30 inches using a free fall drop tester. This data was recorded and examined to verify that the equipment was accurately recording the event. Within each DHR a trigger level had to be set. The objective was to set a high enough trigger level ( that would keep the unit from continuously being triggered resulting in filling the memory in the “full/stop" mode ) and yet be sensitive enough to measure a majority of the impacts. It was determined that the trigger level should be set to 30% to 50% of the lower level of measurement. Based on previous experience, a trigger level of 10% (approximately 10 G's) was used. The configuration menu of the drop height allows certain variables to be selected. The data retention or memory was set in the "max" mode. The data collection variable used was the "normal" mode. The pre and post trigger times were 750 and 1000 milliseconds, respectively. The sampling rate was set at 1000 samples per second. It was necessary to understand how the DHR units functioned when subjected to the various impacts described earlier as free fall drops, tosses and kicks. A free fall drop consists of the package falling purely under gravity in the vertical downward direction. This would result from the packages slipping from the operators hand, dropping off from a conveyor due to jamming caused by other 21 packages in the front, packages falling from the top of a stack during shipping, etc. The second type of impact described as a "toss" usually is very common as packages are manually sorted. Operators will usually ”toss" or throw packages in various sorting bins or stacks. In this case, the object has an initial velocity and kinetic energy gained from the "push" from the operator hands to initiate the throw or the "toss". So, Newton's law for falling objects under gravity illustrated in equation (2-1) above can not be applied on such type of falls. Thus, equation (2-2) above was used to calculate the equivalent drop height. Finally, "kicks" are referred to when a package experiences a lateral impact as a result of impact from automatic sorting equipment, or from sliding into other stationary packages. It is measured by the amount of velocity Change ( inch/sec. ) which is represented by the total area under the acceleration/time curve. The area under the shock waveform is directly proportional to the velocity Change experienced by the object being measured. It is important to understand how these three categories are sensed by the DHR unit. During a free-fall drop, the unit's zero-G channel shows great accuracy as compared to the equivalent drop height channels. This is mainly due to the fact that large errors may develop within the equivalent drop height calculation because of a Changing "e" value due to the drops on various edges, corners or faces and the variation in impact surface. For the categorization of different impacts it was important to measure the "unit ratio". This is defined as the ratio between the drop height measured using 22 the zero-G channel and the calculated equivalent drop height. U12 1- tRat i o = Drop Height by zero-G Channel = z (2-4) Equi val en t Drop H91 911 I: h For free fall drops this ratio generally lies between 0.50 and 2.0. For tosses, object travels in an inclined plane from the horizontal. Therefore, the DHR unit will stay weightless for longer time than that for the free fall drops, which results in a very large t2 values. The actual drop height predicted by the zero-G becomes very large and inaccurate. However the equivalent drop height is much lower, and as a result the unit ratio becomes larger. Lab simulated five and ten feet tosses showed an average unit ratio values of approximately 2.0. Similarly, in the case of a "kick" the "equivalent acceleration" channel computes a drop height based on the velocity change of impact, however the zero G shows almost no drop. It is clear that this would result in a much lower unit ratio. Unit ratios less than 0.50 were interpreted to be due to kicks. Therefore, the data was analyzed and the following parameters were used to interpret the various data. If Unit Ratio < 0.50, the impact is a kick If 0.5 5 Unit Ratio 3 2.0, the impact is a free fall drop. If Unit Ratio > 2.0, the impact is a toss. 23 MW Actual Drop Drop ii Zero-G eh. Equivalent Unit Ratio Orientation Height Drop Height Drop Height 2 I h 18 Inches 1 18.1 17.7 1.02 Bottom 2 17.8 17.8 1.00 Bottom 3 18.0 16.9 1.07 Bottom 4 18.1 10.4 1.74 Bottom 5 18.2 19.3 0.94 Bottom 6 16.8 19.5 0.86 Edge 7 17.8 21.0 0.85 Edge 8 17.3 19.8 0.87 Edge 9 17.5 23.1 0.76 Edge 10 17.4 21.3 0.82 Edge 11 18.3 20.8 0.88 Comer 12 18.5 20.3 0.91 Comer 13 17.8 19.6 0.91 Comer 14 17.8 18.7 0.95 Corner 15 17.8 20.9 0.85 Corner Avg.= 0.96 30 inches 1 29.4 29.5 1.00 Bottom 2 29.5 29.0 1.02 Bottom 3 29.8 31.9 0.93 Bottom 4 29.4 33.2 0.89 Bottom 5 29.4 29.4 1 .00 Bottom 6 28.5 31.3 0.91 Edge 7 28.2 33.2 0.85 Edge 8 29.1 30.1 0.97 Edge 9 29.8 34.9 0.85 Edge 10 28.3 32.3 0.88 Edge 11 28.8 33.4 0.86 Corner 12 29.1 31.7 0.92 Corner 13 28.6 32.7 0.87 Comer 14 29.5 31.9 0.92 Corner 15 30.0 34.7 0.86 Corner Avg.= 0.92 24 WW Toss it Distance (It) Zero-G Drop Equivalent Drop Unit Ratio Height (inches) Height (inches) h,/ h, 1 5 64.0 47.8 1.34 2 5 61.6 39.8 1.55 3 5 63.1 47.0 1.34 4 5 27.3 44.8 0.61 5 5 63.4 30.4 2.09 6 5 68.1 33.2 2.05 7 5 55.9 37.2 1.50 8 5 53.2 37.8 1.41 9 5 54.4 32.3 1.68 10 5 60.5 39.0 1.55 11 10 82.8 4.4 18.82 12 10 86.4 45.9 1.88 13 10 67.6 52.8 1.28 14 10 94.6 47.8 1.98 15 10 - 80.5 44.1 1.83 Average = 2.73 25 Tab : Laborato Ki ks Kick # Zero—G Drop Height Equivalent Drop Unit Ratio (inches) Height (inches) 2 I h 1 0.3 13.9 0.02 2 0.6 11.5 0.05 3 0.5 13.8 0.04 4 0.7 11.6 0.06 5 0.4 9.2 0.04 6 1 .2 9.3 0.13 7 1.9 18.7 0.10 8 3.5 14.1 0.25 9 31 .2 1 1.6 2.69 10 0.2 16.6 0.01 11 19.3 16.5 1.17 12 9.2 7.6 1.21 13 5.6 26.4 0.21 14 0.4 17.3 0.02 15 0.7 15.9 0.04 Average = 0.40 3.0 DATA AND RESULTS A total of 1187 events were recorded for all 25 roundtrips. This resulted in an average of 48 events per roundtrip ( 24 events per one way trip ). The total events consisted of 519 free fall drops, 289 lateral tosses, and 379 kicks. This resulted in an average of 10 drops, 6 tosses, and 8 kicks or approximately 24 events per one way trip. A summary of all the types of events recorded for each roundtrip is presented in Table 4. The results Show that 43.7% of all impacts recorded were drops followed by 31.9% of kicks and 24.4% of tosses in these shipments, Figure 7. The individual drop heights, toss distances, and impact levels were analyzed to determine the minimum, maximum, and average for each destination, Tables 5, 6, and 7. The overall average drop height was 10.5 inches, the overall average toss distance was 7.5 inches, and the overall average impact ( kick ) level was 106.6 in/sec. The maximum individual drop heights experienced by the DHR system through the different destinations were: 72.5 inches for Memphis ( TN ); 47.9 inches for Monterey ( CA ); 54.4 inches for Portland ( OR ); 51.4 inches for Atlanta 27 ( GA ); and 46.5 inches for Rochester ( NY ). The largest overall drop height experienced was the 72.5 inches for the Memphis ( TN ) destination. The maximum individual toss distances experienced by the DHR system were: 24.7 inches for Memphis ( TN ); 44.1 inches for Monterey ( CA ); 33.0 inches for Portland ( OR ); 23.5 inches for Atlanta ( GA ); and 29.9 inches for Rochester ( NY ). The largest overall toss distance experienced was the 44.1 inches for the Monterey ( CA ) destination. The maximum individual kick (impact) levels experienced by the DHR system through the different destinations were: 257.0 inlsec for Memphis ( TN ); 289.0 inlsec for Monterey ( CA ), 268.0 inlsec for Portland ( OR ), 244 inlsec for Atlanta ( GA ), and 276.0 inlsec for Rochester ( NY ). The largest overall impact level experienced was 289.0 inlsec for the Monterey ( CA ) destination. The cumulative percent occurrence vs event type results were also generated for each of the three main types of dynamic impacts ( drop, toss, and kick ) the DHR system was exposed to. It was found that 95% of the free fall drops occurred at less than 32 inches and 90% occurred at less than 24 inches, Figure 4. It was also found that 95% of the kicks occurred at less than 188 inlsec and 90% occurred at less than 170 inlsec, Figure 5. For tosses, it was found that 95% occurred at less than 21 inches and 90% occurred at less than 17 inches, Figure 6. law 4; §gmmarx of All Rggndtrifi 28 Destination Round- Total Number Number Number Trip # Events of of of Drops Tosses Kicks Memphis, TN 1 49 20 16 13 2 43 25 7 1 1 3 49 19 14 16 4 49 17 17 15 5 41 15 12 14 Total 231 96 66 69 Monterey, CA 1 57 22 12 23 2 84 41 13 30 3 61 26 19 16 4 63 25 17 21 5 66 27 1 5 24 Total 331 141 76 114 Portland, OR 1 47 20 14 13 2 41 10 15 16 3 54 18 17 19 4 48 17 12 19 5 49 23 14 12 Total 239 88 72 79 Atlanta, GA 1 25 13 3 9 2 42 20 4 18 3 52 30 1 0 12 4 51 23 12 16 5 45 24 7 14 Total 215 110 36 69 29 Table 4 (cont'd). Rochester, NY 1 26 10 7 9 2 31 17 10 4 3 40 20 6 14 4 36 19 7 10 5 38 18 9 1 1 Total 171 84 39 48 Overall Number of Events 1187 519 289 379 Number of events per one way trip 10 6 8 30 WM Trip No. of Drop Height (inches) Max. per Min. per Destination 8 Drops Max. Min. Avg. Deet. Deet. Memphis, TN 1 20 27.3 1.6 8.3 72.5 0.8 2 25 58.6 0.8 11.7 3 19 72.5 0.8 10.8 4 16 38.9 1.4 1 1.5 5 15 34.9 1.6 10.5 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 46.4 1.2 10.6 Monterey, CA 1 22 33.2 1.8 9.1 47.9 0.5 2 40 47.9 0.6 7.8 3 26 30.1 0.9 11.0 4 24 39.3 1.8 9.7 5 26 26.6 0.5 9.1 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 35.4 1.1 9.3 Portland, OR 1 20 47.3 0.4 11.8 54.4 0.4 2 10 54.4 0.8 14.3 3 17 40.5 0.9 12.4 4 17 39.2 3.1 1 1.1 5 23 22.3 2.2 9.0 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 40.7 1.5 11.7 Atlanta, GA 1 13 33.0 1.1 12.7 51.4 0.3 2 20 44.5 0.7 14.6 3 30 38.2 0.5 1 1.3 4 23 41.4 1.7 1 1.6 5 24 51.4 0.3 9.5 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 41.7 0.9 11.9 Rochester, NY 1 10 25.4 2.3 12.9 46.5 0.8 2 17 46.5 1.4 8.4 3 19 27.6 1.2 7.1 4 19 34.9 2.2 1 1.2 5 18 38.0 0.8 8.6 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 34.5 1.6 9.6 Iamg 6; §ummag of All IOS§§ 31 Destination Trip No. of Toss Distance (inches) Max. Min. ‘ 10““ Max. Min. Avg. 0;;— 99;! Memphis, TN 1 16 24.7 1.7 8.4 24.7 0.4 2 7 16.7 1.1 6.1 3 14 19.1 0.9 5.9 4 18 21.3 0.5 8.2 5 12 24.5 0.4 8.0 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 21.3 0.9 7.3 Monterey, CA 1 12 16.4 0.9 6.7 44.1 0.2 2 14 21.3 1.6 6.1 3 19 44.1 0.2 8.0 4 18 28.2 0.2 8.9 5 16 23.9 1.3 8.3 Max., Min., 8 Avaer Destination. 26.8 0.8 7.6 Portland, OR 1 14 33.0 1.1 7.5 33.0 0.7 2 15 1 1.4 1 .4 5.3 3 18 15.9 0.9 6.7 4 12 21.4 1.0 6.0 5 14 15.4 0.7 7.0 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 19.4 1.0 6.5 Atlanta, GA 1 23.5 3.6 13.8 23.5 1.2 2 8.5 6.6 7.4 3 10 20.5 1.2 7.4 4 12 17.7 1.6 7.4 5 7 16.2 1.5 6.0 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 17.3 2.9 8.4 Rochester, NY 1 7 29.7 2.3 11.3 29.9 1.4 2 10 16.1 1.4 7.3 3 29.9 2.3 8.9 4 5.2 2.1 3.0 5 9 21.7 1.9 7.1 Max., Min., 8 Avijger Destination. 20.5 2.0 7.5 32 abl : u ma of All Kicks Trip No. of Impact Level (in.lsec) Max. per Min. per mung“. s Kicks Dest. Dest. Max. Min. Avg. Memphis, TN 1 13 242.0 54.0 117.0 257.0 41.0 2 11 182.0 43.0 100.7 3 16 257.0 41 .0 97.6 4 15 135.0 60.0 102.1 5 14 174.0 57.0 97.8 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 198.0 51.0 103.0 Monterey, CA 1 23 286.0 44.0 101.5 289.0 31.0 2 30 207.0 46.0 112.9 3 16 159.0 46.0 98.1 4 21 262.0 50.0 121.7 5 24 188.0 31.0 90.1 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 221.0 43.4 104.9 Portland, OR 1 13 268.0 41.0 108.5 268.0 40.0 2 16 193.0 57.0 124.0 3 19 204.0 60.0 110.4 4 19 191.0 40.0 91.1 5 12 132.0 51.0 86.3 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 197.6 49.8 104.1 Atlanta, GA 1 9 184.0 75.0 123.6 244.0 37.0 2 18 244.0 59.0 115.0 3 12 193.0 37.0 108.4 4 16 229.0 39.0 114.7 5 14 210.0 44.0 113.0 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 212.0 50.8 114.9 Rochester, NY 1 9 154.0 35.0 87.0 276.0 35.0 2 4 120.0 37.0 88.8 3 14 276.0 51.0 123.9 4 10 218.0 56.0 116.2 5 11 195.0 39.0 113.5 Max., Min., 8 Avg. per Destination. 192.6 43.6 105.9 Cumulative % 100 90 .- 80 70- 60- 50- 40- 30 20- 10- 0 33 CUMULATIVE PERCENT OF DROP HEIGHTS All Destinations 0 4 812162024283236404448525660646872 Drop Height (inches) Figure 4: Cumulative Percent vs Drop Height CUMULATIVE PERCENT OF TOSS DISTANCES All Destinations Cumulative % o l l l 1 .L L 0369121518212427303336394245 Toss Equivalent Drop Height finches) Figure 5: Cumulative Percent vs Toss Distances Cumulative % 100 70. 60- 50- 40 30- 20 10 0 35 CUMULATIVE PERCENT OF IMPACT LEVELS All Destinations 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 Impact Level (in.lsec) Figure 6: Cumulative Percent vs Impact Level 4.0 CONCLUSIONS The study concluded the following: 1. Free fall drops represents the largest share of dynamic events In the ( USPS ) EMS small parcel environment with a percentage of 43.7% of all events recorded, followed by 31.9% kicks, and 24.4% tosses. 95% of all drops occurred below 32 inches high and the overall maximum drop height measured was 72.5 inches. 95% of all tosses occurred below 21 inches and the overall maximum toss distance measured was 44.1 inches. 95% of all kicks occurred below 188 in.lsec and the overall maximum kick ( impact ) level was 289.0 in.lsec 36 37 REPRESENTATION OF EACH IMPACT TYPE AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF EVENTS Kicks (31.9%) Drops (43.7%) Tosses (24.4%) Figure 7: Percentage of All Impact Types Presented 5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 PROPOSED ASTM D-4169 DISTRIBUTION CYCLE The following is a laboratory performance test procedure. It is intended to provide a pre-shipping uniform basis of evaluating the ability of a small parcel shipping unit, up to 15 lbs., to withstand the dynamic hazards, such as drops, tosses and impacts encountered within the USPS Express Mail. The procedure will be recommended to the ASTM Committee D-10 on packaging for review and approval. Seguence 1 2 3 4 5 Distrib_ution Small parcelgu‘p to 15 lbs. - USPS over night and express mail gycle # environment. Test type Climate Manual Vehicle Loose-load Lateral Hazard Handling Stacking Vibration impact Element 1 A D F to be defined w .6. Test type Manual mm Element A 38 39 Examination of the data gathered from all the trips made resulted in the following findings: half the drops were flat drops and the other half was divided almost equally between edge and corner drops. The same finding was also concluded for tosses. Also, 90% of the lateral impacts was found to be divided in almost equal shares between flat and side impacts and only 10% was found to be corner impacts. Finally, studying the same information, a normal distribution process was found to have been taken place. So, an assurance level of l was intended to cover 99.7% of variates ( events ) which represents the mean and 3 standard deviations in each direction ( p :l: 3 o ). An assurance level of II will cover 95% of variates ( events ) which represents the mean and 2 standard deviations in each direction ( p :I: 2 o ). An assurance level of III was designed to cover 75% of variates ( events ) instead of the 67% represented by the mean and 1 standard deviation in each direction ( u :l: 1 o ). For Element A, the following test methods and levels should be used: As per Test method D 775 A total of 10 drops will be conducted, 6 flat drops, once on each face in a random order from the specified height. Two edge drops and 2 corner drops from the same specified height on random edges and corners will also be made to complete the series. 40 AssgrpnceJLLevel Drop Height, inches l 45 ll 30 Ill 15 The second series of drops will represent tossing the shipping unit or throwing it into pins. A total of six drops will be conducted from the specified height. Three drops on randomly selected faces, 2 drops on randomly selected edges and 1 drop on randomly selected corner. Assurance Level Drop Height. inches l 30 ll 21 Ill 9 The hazard element encountered in the lateral impacts is sideways shocks due to kicks from diverting arms during automatic sorting operation or a stationary package being hit by a another moving package at the end of a conveyor belt. A total of eight impacts will be conducted according to the specified velocity Change level. Four impacts on randomly selected faces, 3 on randomly selected edges and 1 on randomly selected corner. If it becomes non practical or difficult to obtain the corner kick for any reason, it can be replaced with an edge kick. Asspr_ance Level Velocity Change Level, inch/sec l 240 II 190 III 140 APPENDICES 1119.! Velocity Change II! 133 123 61 83 65 110 89 93 242 190 194 68 177 123 135 163 79 78 63 92 58 149 76 78 108 97 51 161 81 75 78 41 APPENDIX A III EI-Q" IDI [IIEB II' III Ii III ZERO G DR. HT Z phannel 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.9 1.1 1.8 13.6 10.2 12.1 1.6 11.7 6.5 9.7 15.7 4.4 4.3 2.8 6.6 2.8 18.3 4.9 5.8 11.2 9.3 2.6 27.3 6.9 6.0 7.6 EQUIV. DR. HT 0.0031109! 12.4 10.7 5.0 2.6 4.9 2.1 3.0 8.5 5.5 6.0 41.3 25.3 26.5 3.2 22.0 10.6 12.8 18.6 4.4 4.3 2.8 5.9 2.4 15.6 4.1 4.3 8.2 6.6 1.8 16.3 4.6 4.0 4.2 Unit Ratio an 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.20 0.30 0.33 0.40 0.46 0.50 0.53 0.61 0.76 0.84 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.12 1.17 1.17 1.20 1.35 1.37 1.41 1.44 1.49 1.50 1.50 1.81 Velocity Change 64 79 155 50 99 1 55 144 51 187 69 76 121 1 19 128 49 67 42 W ZERO (3 DR. HT Z channel 6.1 9.7 38.4 4.2 17.7 43.7 39.3 5.1 71.6 10.9 14.0 39.1 59.2 72.8 36.5 72.8 EQUIV. DR. HT 0 channel 2.9 4.4 16.8 1.8 6.9 16.9 14.6 1.8 24.7 3.4 4.3 10.2 9.9 11.5 1.7 3.2 Unit Ratio 2.0.! 2.10 2.20 2.29 2.33 2.57 2.59 2.69 2.83 2.90 3.21 3.26 3.83 5.98 6.33 21.47 22.75 L091 Velocity Change 9! 156 67 79 69 127 43 61 182 59 140 103 150 131 138 148 184 99 101 33 110 124 100 119 110 46 94 71 44 37 50 158 113 159 224 165 58 88 43 ZERO G DR. HT 2.99.9002! 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.2 7.8 0.9 6.0 3.5 6.6 6.0 10.7 13.5 23.7 6.9 7.2 0.8 8.6 10.8 7.1 9.9 8.5 1.5 6.3 3.7 1.5 1.1 2.1 21.1 11.1 25.7 58.6 32.0 4.3 11.6 EQUIV. DR. HT 0.909.002! 17.5 3.2 4.4 5.6 11.3 1.3 2.6 23.3 2.4 13.6 7.5 15.9 12.1 13.5 15.4 23.7 6.9 7.2 0.8 8.6 10.8 7.1 9.9 8.5 1.5 6.2 3.6 1.4 1.0 1.8 17.5 9.0 17.9 35.4 19.2 2.4 5.4 Unit Ratio 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.47 0.54 0.66 0.79 0.88 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .02 1 .03 1 .07 1 .10 1.17 1.21 1 .23 1 .44 1.66 1 .67 1 .79 2.1 5 Velocity Change 154 122 51 71 40 71 ZERO G DR. HT Z 80" 45.6 38.7 7.5 14.7 12.0 40.7 EQUIV. DR. HT hm 16.7 10.5 1.8 3.5 1.1 3.5 Unit Ratio 2.11! 2.73 3.69 4.17 4.20 10.91 11 .63 Velocity Change 69 120 1 29 52 1 08 95 1 04 72 95 102 46 134 41 257 164 46 120 130 123 49 34 58 149 77 1 14 126 85 280 127 84 53 109 76 72 73 165 45 ZERO G DR. HT 2.903009! 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.8 1.4 0.3 2.9 0.4 21.3 10.0 0.8 6.6 8.8 8.0 1.7 0.8 2.4 15.6 4.2 9.9 12.5 6.0 72.5 15.3 6.8 2.8 13.9 7.3 8.4 8.8 46.7 EQUIV. DR. HT 0.1313009! 3.4 10.1 4.9 11.8 1.9 6.2 6.4 7.6 3.6 2.1 6.4 7.4 1.5 12.7 1.2 46.6 19.0 1.5 10.2 11.9 10.6 1.7 0.8 2.4 15.6 4.2 9.2 11.2 5.1 55.4 11.3 5.0 2.0 8.3 4.0 3.6 3.7 19.1 Unit Ratio zza 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.10 0.13 0.19 0.20 0.23 0.33 0.46 0.53 0.53 0.67 0.74 0.75 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1.00 1 .00 1 .08 1 .12 1.18 1 .31 1 .35 1 .36 1 .40 1.67 1 .83 2.33 2.38 2.45 Velocity Change 149 51 53 130 43 85 112 61 ' 61 36 46 ZERO G DR. HT 2.9190091 41.7 4.8 6.2 40.3 5.2 26.4 51.6 22.4 46.9 60.7 30.0 EQUIV. DR. HT 0.2010091 15.7 1 .8 2.0 11.8 1.3 5.1 8.9 2.6 2.9 2.6 0.9 Unit Ratio Zflt 2.66 2.67 3.10 3.42 4.00 5.18 5.80 8.62 16.17 23.35 33.33 Ii‘lpfi Velocity Change $1! 135 114 112 97 135 119 88 93 as so 103 71 133 74 109 115 123 195 142 141 52 63 98 120 106 83 204 45 182 183 95 65 171 59 59 95 59 47 ZERO G DR. HT LEM 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.5 1.8 0.9 4.1 4.9 5.4 15.7 10.4 13.5 4.7 2.8 6.6 10.1 7.9 4.7 28.7 1.4 23.2 38.9 11.2 6.0 41.7 5.6 5.6 15.0 8.3 EQUIV. DR. HT 0.9080091 12.9 9.1 8.8 6.5 12.6 10.0 5.5 6.1 5.4 2.6 7.5 3.6 12.4 3.8 8.3 9.8 10.6 26.9 13.9 14.0 4.7 2.8 6.6 10.1 7.9 4.7 28.7 1.4 23.2 23.1 6.4 3.0 20.7 2.5 2.4 6.3 3.4 Unit Ratio Zfll 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.14 0.15 0.24 0.49 0.50 0.51 0.58 0.75 0.96 1 .00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 .00 1.00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .68 1 .75 2.00 2.01 2.24 2.33 2.38 2.44 Velocity Change 1 59 63 1 75 1 70 1 14 50 1 03 60 72 1 07 27 48 ZERO G DR. HT 2.9091119! 46.0 12.8 56.9 72.3 25.4 53.2 10.8 62.3 39.1 34.2 84.6 6.6 EQUIV. DR. HT t! anne 17.9 4.8 21.3 20.0 5.2 9.1 1.7 7.5 4.4 3.6 8.1 0.5 Unit Ratio an 2.57 2.67 2.67 3.62 4.88 5.85 6.35 8.31 8.89 9.50 10.44 13.20 1091 Veloclty Change II! 103 174 131 146 1 04 124 76 72 70 57 1 10 72 70 60 1 37 149 93 61 77 47 96 76 1 81 144 82 1 15 76 78 1 58 1 87 122 82 49 1 37 54 48 1 52 49 ZERO G DR. HT 2% 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 1.5 0.7 1.1 0.9 8.9 12.1 5.6 2.6 4.2 1.6 6.4 4.1 23.8 18.2 6.4 13.7 6.4 8.1 34.9 49.4 27.1 12.4 4.9 38.9 6.5 5.1 62.9 EQUIV. DR. HT [2.9030191 7.5 21.2 12.0 15.1 7.6 10.8 4.1 3.7 3.5 2.3 8.6 3.6 3.4 2.6 13.3 15.6 6.0 2.6 4.2 1.6 6.4 4.1 23.0 14.7 4.8 9.2 4.1 4.3 17.6 24.5 10.5 4.8 1.7 13.2 2.1 1.6 16.2 Unit Ratio an 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.17 0.19 0.32 0.35 0.67 0.78 0.93 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.24 1.33 1.49 1.56 1.88 1.98 2.02 2.58 2.58 2.88 2.95 3.10 3.19 3.88 102! Velocity Change $1! 153 23 43 50 law.) ZERO G DR. HT Z channel 64.3 23.8 6.9 49.2 EQUIV. DR. HT I! mannel 16.5 3.1 0.4 1.3 Unit Ratio 1a: 3.90 7.68 17.25 37.85 51 Ill EZ-Q'i IDIE IIEB II' IIII E! Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio m 9111mm 2 i che tr_L__1inches an 1 159 0.3 17.8 0.02 149 0.4 15.5 0.03 98 0.3 6.8 0.04 53 0.1 2.0 0.05 91 0.3 5.8 0.05 72 0.2 3.7 0.05 166 1.2 19.4 0.06 54 0.2 2.0 0.10 142 1.5 14.1 0.11 289 6.8 58.8 0.12 48 0.2 1.6 0.13 82 0.6 4.7 0.13 109 1.1 8.4 0.13 121 1.5 10.4 0.14 46 0.3 1.5 0.20 52 0.4 1.9 0.21 132 3.0 12.2 0.25 51 0.5 1.9 0.26 65 1 .0 3.0 0.33 106 3.1 7.9 0.39 102 3.1 7.4 0.42 44 0.6 1.4 0.43 104 3.3 7.5 0.44 122 5.2 10.5 0.50 236 21.9 39.4 0.56 147 8.5 15.1 0.56 144 8.5 14.5 0.59 196 20.8 27.1 0.77 61 2.2 2.6 0.85 104 6.5 7.6 0.86 97 6.0 6.7 0.90 117 8.8 9.7 0.91 184 22.8 23.8 0.96 56 2.2 2.2 1.00 69 3.4 3.4 1.00 55 2.1 2.1 1.00 95 6.4 6.4 1.00 52 W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio I091 sliLlnLSLCI 21.109093.) 0.1109029.) Zfll 102 7.3 7.3 1.00 50 1.8 1.8 1 .00 64 2.9 2.9 1.00 76 4.1 4.1 1.00 129 11 .6 11.6 1.00 93 7.8 6.1 1.28 177 33.2 22.0 1.51 77 6.5 4.2 1.55 146 35.7 15.1 2.36 135 34.5 12.8 2.70 81 12.4 4.6 2.70 91 15.9 5.8 2.74 149 45.2 15.6 2.90 65 9.7 3.0 3.23 146 55.7 15.0 3.71 102 36.5 7.3 5.00 153 93.5 16.4 5.70 100 58.8 7.0 8.40 36 8.3 0.9 9.22 44 43.9 1.4 31.36 53 W111 Veloclty ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1110.! 91110139..) Z_(_n.__e.s.)i ch 11.002095.) ZZI! 179 0.3 22.7 0.01 133 0.2 12.5 0.02 143 0.3 14.4 0.02 141 0.3 14.1 0.02 154 0.4 16.8 0.02 102 0.2 7.3 0.03 156 0.6 17.2 0.03 83 0.2 4.8 0.04 96 0.3 6.5 0.05 78 0.2 4.3 0.05 94 0.3 6.2 0.05 81 0.3 4.6 0.07 79 0.3 4.4 0.07 64 0.2 2.9 0.07 133 0.9 12.4 0.07 192 2.1 26.0 0.08 56 0.2 2.2 0.09 133 1.3 12.5 0.10 74 0.5 3.9 0.13 110 1.2 8.6 0.14 93 0.9 6.0 0.15 189 4.6 25.1 0.18 48 0.3 1.6 0.19 113 1.8 9.0 0.20 46 0.3 1.5 0.20 207 6.3 30.1 0.21 69 0.7 3.3 0.21 111 2.2 8.7 0.25 50 0.6 1.8 0.33 179 10.2 22.6 0.45 49 0.9 1.7 0.53 127 6.4 11.4 0.56 79 2.6 4.4 0.59 68 1 .9 3.2 0.59 121 6.3 10.4 0.61 169 13.1 20.0 0.66 136 9.1 13.1 0.69 54 BMW Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 102! M01599) 2m" 6 011m.) 1L0 2 114 6.5 9.2 0.71 66 2.2 3.0 0.73 100 5.3 7.1 0.75 92 4.5 5.9 0.76 114 7.3 9.2 0.79 232 31.0 38.0 0.82 128 9.4 11.5 0.82 93 5.2 6.1 0.85 70 2.9 3.4 0.85 178 20.1 22.3 0.90 95 5.9 6.4 0.92 80 4.3 4.5 0.96 62 2.7 2.7 1.00 89 5.6 5.6 1.00 52 1.9 1.9 1.00 182 23.2 23.2 1.00 64 2.9 2.9 1.00 71 3.5 3.5 1.00 102 7.3 7.3 1.00 71 3.5 3.5 1.00 62 2.7 2.7 1.00 58 2.4 2.4 1.00 65 3.0 3.0 1.00 61 2.6 2.6 1.00 134 12.7 12.7 1.00 30 0.6 0.6 1.00 78 4.3 4.3 1.00 139 14.4 13.6 1.06 72 4.6 3.6 1.28 109 11.0 8.4 1.31 220 47.9 34.1 1.40 80 7.3 4.5 1.62 65 5.2 2.9 1.79 65 6.0 3.0 2.00 61 6.1 2.6 2.35 101 17.1 7.1 2.41 63 7.0 2.8 2.50 55 Wand.) Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio Inlet 911101929.) 7.1.L__§_I'nche hunches) an 159 45.2 17.9 2.53 174 55.4 21.3 2.60 T 63 8.0 2.8 2.86 52 5.8 1.9 3.05 88 1 1 .3 3.3 3.42 83 16.8 4.8 3.50 93 29.2 6.0 4.87 72 20.8 3.7 5.62 64 23.0 2.9 7.93 i 48 41 .2 1 .6 25.75 56 W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 10°21 011.111.5291 2.009891) Missiles.) ZZII 106 0.2 7.9 0.03 159 0.5 17.9 0.03 138 0.4 13.4 0.03 132 0.6 12.2 0.05 75 0.3 4.0 0.08 87 0.4 5.3 0.08 64 0.3 2.9 0.10 46 0.2 1.5 0.13 69 0.5 3.3 0.15 134 2.0 12.6 0.16 57 0.4 2.3 0.17 95 1.1 6.3 0.17 82 0.9 4.8 0.19 141 5.3 14.0 0.38 89 2.3 5.5 0.42 96 3.2 6.5 0.49 82 2.9 4.7 0.62 88 4.3 5.5 0.78 132 9.8 12.3 0.80 155 16.8 16.8 1.00 52 1.9 1.9 1 .00 90 5.7 5.7 1.00 148 15.4 15.4 1.00 68 3.2 3.2 1.00 36 0.9 0.9 1.00 202 28.7 28.7 1.00 167 19.6 19.6 1.00 69 3.4 3.4 1.00 155 17.0 17.0 1.00 115 9.8 9.3 1.05 68 3.5 3.3 1.06 129 13.2 11.7 1.13 85 5.8 5.0 1.16 87 6.7 5.4 1.24 97 8.4 6.7 1.25 98 9.8 6.8 1.44 98 10.2 6.7 1.52 57 IEDIE £2 _ I “m.“ Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio mp1 0! ( in.lsec ) Z ( inches ) p ( inches ) 1L0 3 154 26.3 16.7 1.57 79 7.0 4.4 1.59 71 5.8 3.6 1.61 126 19.3 11.1 1.74 151 30.1 16.1 1.87 94 12.5 6.2 2.02 71 7.7 3.6 2.14 82 10.4 4.8 2.17 250 102.0 44.1 2.31 92 13.8 5.9 2.34 153 41.6 ‘ 17.5 2.38 74 9.5 3.8 2.50 73 10.3 3.7 2.78 155 50.0 16.9 2.96 144 58.0 14.5 4.00 85 32.0 5.1 6.27 102 51.6 7.3 7.07 114 86.1 9.2 9.36 67 36.9 3.1 11.90 62 35.2 2.7 13.04 55 33.6 2.1 16.00 24 11.7 0.4 . 29.25 44 52.2 1.4 37.29 16 56.3 0.2 281.50 58 W Velocity ZERO G EOUlv. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1119.! muses.) 2.009929.) 91.109095) M1 160 0.2 16.0 0.01 130 0.5 11.9 0.04 79 0.2 4.4 0.05 109 0.6 8.3 0.10 160 2.2 22.7 0.10 50 0.2 1.6 0.11 198 4.7 27.7 0.17 116 1.9 9.8 0.19 107 2.1 6.1 0.26 166 5.3 19.3 0.27 74 1.1 3.9 0.28 98 2.0 6.8 0.29 56 0.7 2.2 0.32 225 11.5 35.5 0.32 78 1.5 4.2 0.36 133 4.8 12.4 0.39 262 19.3 48.4 0.40 106 3.3 8.0 0.41 61 2.0 4.6 0.43 63 1.3 2.6 0.46 62 2.2 4.7 0.47 113 4.6 9.0 0.51 69 3.5 5.6 0.63 62 1.6 2.7 0.67 93 4.6 6.1 0.75 166 23.6 24.4 0.98 65 3.0 3.0 1.00 63 2.8 2.8 1.00 102 7.3 7.3 1.00 116 9.7 9.7 1.00 90 5.7 5.7 1.00 134 12.7 12.7 1.00 92 6.0 6.0 1.00 77 4.2 4.2 1.00 54 2.0 2.0 1.00 113 9.1 9.1 1.00 86 5.2 5.2 1.00 59 W11 Velocity ZERO G EOUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 109.! W 111091195.) 111109095) 2111 138 13.6 13.5 1.01 235 39.3 36.6 1.01 80 4.9 4.5 1.09 106 8.8 7.9 1.11 115 11.6 9.2 1.26 168 25.0 19.8 1.28 45 1.9 1.4 1.36 57 4.1 2.3 1.76 141 28.0 14.0 2.00 200 56.7 26.2 2.01 177 44.6 22.1 2.03 154 35.2 16.8 2.10 107 16.3 8.0 2.29 111 20.3 8.6 2.36 67 9.1 3.1 2.94 155 56.7 17.0 3.34 62 16.6 4.8 3.46 100 26.1 7.1 3.68 53 8.3 2.0 4.15 77 21.5 4.2 5.12 137 70.6 13.2 5.35 91 36.9 5.8 6.71 67 52.6 5.3 9.96 61 52.8 2.6 20.31 53 63.4 2.0 31.70 15 106.8 0.2 534.00 60 W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 100.! MM) 2 ( inches ) p ( inches ) ZLLI 5 157 0.2 17.5 0.01 188 0.3 24.9 0.01 139 0.2 13.6 0.01 103 0.2 7.5 0.03 84 0.2 4.9 0.04 139 0.7 13.7 0.05 77 0.3 4.2 0.07 67 0.3 3.2 0.09 145 1.8 14.9 0.12 89 0.7 5.6 0.13 73 0.5 3.8 0.13 68 0.5 3.2 0.16 37 0.2 1.0 0.20 35 0.2 0.9 0.22 43 0.3 1.3 0.23 34 0.2 0.8 0.25 78 1.1 4.2 0.26 118 2.8 9.9 0.28 31 0.2 0.7 0.29 38 0.3 1.0 0.30 172 6.9 20.9 0.33 56 0.9 2.2 0.41 138 5.7 13.5 0.42 53 0.9 2.0 0.45 101 3.8 7.2 0.53 34 0.5 0.8 0.63 186 16.3 24.3 0.67 56 1.5 2.2 0.68 131 8.4 12.1 0.69 73 2.7 3.7 0.73 46 1 .1 1 .5 0.73 154 12.7 16.7 0.76 127 10.6 11.3 0.94 123 10.2 10.7 0.95 39 1 .1 1.1 1.00 187 24.6 24.6 1.00 45 1.4 1.4 1.00 61 19W.) Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 199.! utilities.) am e 911029211 2M 5 74 3.9 3.9 1.00 32 0.7 0.7 1.00 103 7.5 7.5 1.00 87 5.4 5.4 1.00 109 8.4 8.4 1.00 151 15.9 15.9 1.00 29 0.6 0.6 1.00 75 4.4 3.9 1.13 173 26.6 21.1 1.26 152 22.4 16.3 1.37 102 12.2 7.4 1.65 94 10.7 6.3 1.70 80 8.3 4.5 1.84 132 24.6 12.3 2.00 81 9.5 4.6 2.07 110 19.0 8.6 2.21 184 63.4 23.9 2.65 66 8.4 3.1 2.71 56 6.0 2.2 2.73 163 52.0 18.8 2.77 63 8.3 2.8 2.96 175 69.9 21.7 3.22 60 8.5 2.5 3.40 73 14.4 3.8 3.79 43 5.1 1.3 3.92 149 64.0 15.7 4.08 86 27.6 5.2 5.31 100 37.7 7.0 5.39 64 16.9 2.9 5.83 62 Ill ”41.. IDII IIEB II' IEII IQB Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio mpg 51! ( In.IseC ) z ( inches ) LI ( inches ) 2112 1 268 0.2 50.5 0.00 117 0.2 9.7 0.02 108 0.2 , 8.1 0.02 83 0.2 4.8 0.04 73 0.2 3.8 0.05 163 2.0 18.8 0.11 41 0.2 1.2 0.17 77 0.8 4.1 0.20 69 0.8 3.4 0.24 96 1.8 6.4 0.28 45 - 0.4 1.4 0.29 186 9.9 24.4 0.41 84 2.3 5.0 0.46 103 4.1 7.5 0.55 75 3.5 4.0 0.88 262 47.3 48.3 0.98 74 3.9 3.9 1.00 50 1.8 1.8 1.00 169 20.1 20.1 1.00 99 6.9 6.9 1.00 58 2.3 2.3 1.00 76 4.1 4.1 1.00 99 6.9 6.9 1.00 177 22.2 22.2 1.00 140 14.0 13.7 1.02 126 12.5 11.1 1.13 22 0.4 0.3 1.33 195 36.5 26.8 1.36 93 8.3 6.0 1.38 130 18.0 11.9 1.51 94 10.1 6.3 1.60 89 9.6 5.6 1.71 46 2.7 1.5 1.80 52 3.9 1.9 2.05 77 8.8 4.2 2.10 49 3.8 1.7 2.24 217 85.9 33.0 2.60 63 W Velocity ZERO G Change DR. HT 100! M10509.) 11100005.) 1 137 38.7 190 80.3 85 16.9 49 6.2 73 14.3 82 36.7 77 41.7 40 15.6 43 28.6 72 98.4 EQUIV. DR. HT 13.2 25.5 5.1 1.7 3.8 4.7 4.2 1.1 1.3 3.6 Unit Ratio an 2.93 3.15 3.31 3.65 3.76 7.81 9.93 14.18 22.00 27.33 W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 109.8 M01599) Much 0t___)lnches 11.0 2 193 0.1 26.2 0.00 100 0.1 7.0 0.01 154 0.3 16.6 0.02 110 0.3 8.5 0.04 57 0.1 2.3 0.04 152 0.8 16.3 0.05 151 1.1 16.0 0.07 115 0.9 9.3 0.10 113 1.0 9.0 0.11 106 1.0 7.9 0.13 120 2.0 10.1 0.20 78 0.9 4.3 0.21 132 3.6 12.2 0.30 126 4.3 11.1 0.39 88 2.1 5.4 0.39 192 11.3 25.8 0.44 152 8.8 16.2 0.54 90 5.7 5.7 1.00 136 13.0 13.0 1.00 34 0.8 0.8 1.00 128 11.6 11.6 1.00 93 6.7 6.1 1.10 236 54.4 39.3 1.38 89 8.0 5.6 1.43 127 18.0 11.3 1.59 115 16.0 9.3 1.72 84 10.0 4.9 2.04 107 20.3 8.1 2.51 113 22.8 9.0 2.53 99 18.1 6.9 2.62 82 12.6 4.7 2.68 66 8.3 3.0 2.77 127 33.6 11.4 2.95 80 23.4 4.5 5.20 44 9.9 1.4 7.07 55 15.1 2.1 7.19 93 45.2 6.1 7.41 1119.! W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT 91001500.) 21100005.) 01109099.) 103 71.1 7.5 74 62.0 3.9 55 40.3 2.1 71 72.8 3.5 65 Unit Ratio an 9.48 15.90 19.19 20.80 66 W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1001 M01599.) 2110911991 01100095.) 210 204 0.1 29.3 0.00 181 0.2 23.0 0.01 126 0.2 11.3 0.02 121 0.2 10.3 0.02 92 0.2 6.0 0.03 92 0.2 5.9 0.03 127 0.5 11.3 0.04 93 0.3 6.1 0.05 81 0.3 4.6 0.07 135 1.0 12.8 0.08 60 0.2 2.5 0.08 115 1.1 9.3 0.12 117 1.6 9.7 0.16 125 2.3 11.0 0.21 63 0.6 2.8 0.21 83 1.4 4.9 0.29 61 0.9 2.6 0.35 124 4.2 10.9 0.39 98 2.6 6.7 0.39 126 5.6 11.3 0.50 47 0.9 1.6 0.56 96 4.0 6.5 0.62 72 3.5 3.6 0.97 87 5.2 5.3 0.98 61 2.6 2.6 1.00 130 12.0 12.0 1.00 152 16.3 16.3 1.00 131 12.2 12.1 1.01 97 7.1 6.7 1.06 156 21.3 17.0 1.25 213 40.3 32.0 1.26 198 40.5 27.6 1.47 96 9.8 6.4 1.53 137 23.6 13.2 1.79 65 5.6 2.9 1.93 60 4.9 2.5 1.96 74 7.6 3.8 2.00 67 10006101120019.) Velocity ZERO G Change DR. HT 109.! 011.0009.) 211090001 3 93 12.7 147 37.9 150 40.8 72 9.6 120 27.6 65 8.8 1 1 1 27.4 57 8.8 126 43.4 63 1 1 .0 118 45.2 107 41.4 113 67.0 52 41 .7 73 105.7 39 33.6 37 103.4 EQUIV. DR. HT 011091951 6.1 15.3 15.9 3.7 10.2 3.0 8.6 2.3 11.2 2.8 9.9 8.1 9.0 1.9 3.7 1.1 0.9 Unit Ratio 2.11! 2.08 2.48 2.57 2.59 2.71 2.93 3.19 3.83 3.88 3.93 4.57 5.11 7.44 21.95 28.57 30.55 114.89 68 W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1008 111.011.0091 11109099) 01109009.) 2.10 134 0.1 12.6 0.01 90 0.1 5.7 0.02 66 0.1 3.1 0.03 83 0.2 4.8 0.04 116 0.4 9.4 0.04 75 0.2 3.9 0.05 72 0.2 3.7 0.05 40 0.1 1.1 0.09 53 0.2 2.0 0.10 104 0.9 7.7 0.12 58 0.3 2.4 0.13 161 2.3 18.3 0.13 53 0.4 2.0 0.20 46 0.3 1.5 0.20 132 2.8 12.3 0.23 123 3.1 10.6 0.29 191 8.7 25.6 0.34 55 0.8 2.1 0.38 79 1.7 4.4 0.39 117 5.6 9.7 0.58 123 7.1 10.6 0.67 145 11.6 14.8 0.78 176 17.8 21.8 0.82 66 3.1 3.1 1.00 91 5.9 5.9 1.00 74 3.8 3.8 1.00 89 5.6 5.6 1.00 112 8.8 8.8 1.00 144 14.6 14.6 1.00 94 6.2 6.2 1.00 236 39.2 39.2 1.00 75 4.0 4.0 1.00 154 20.4 16.8 1.21 96 7 8 6.4 1 22 132 16.1 12.3 1.31 98 11.3 6.8 1.66 113 18.2 9.0 2.02 69 10096301990110.) Velocity ZERO G Change DR. HT 1001 M10183.) 11109000) 4 62 6.7 84 12.5 121 27.0 81 12.1 174 64.7 74 11.8 37 3.1 73 12.3 56 7.7 61 19.4 84 84.1 EQUIV. DR. HT 2.7 4.9 10.3 4.6 21.4 3.9 1.0 3.7 2.2 2.7 5.0 Unit Ratio 110 2.48 2.55 2.62 2.63 3.02 3.03 3.10 3.32 3.50 7.19 16.82 70 W Velocity ZERO G EOUIv. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1091 g! ( inlsec) Z ( Inches) p (inches) 11.1! 5 75 0.2 3.9 0.05 74 0.4 3.6 0.11 132 1.3 12.3 0.11 72 0.4 3.6 0.11 67 0.6 5.4 0.11 117 1.1 9.6 0.11 131 1.5 12.1 0.12 66 0.7 5.4 0.13 54 0.3 2.0 0.15 97 1.1 6.7 0.16 51 0.5 1.6 0.26 57 1.1 2.3 0.48 120 5.0 10.1 0.50 93 3.2 6.1 0.52 160 9.5 18.0 0.53 125 6.1 10.9 0.56 135 9.0 12.8 ' 0.70 192 22.3 25.9 0.86 122 9.6 10.4 0.92 117 9.6 9.6 1.00 107 6.1 6.1 1.00 105 7.6 7.8 1.00 74 3.8 3.8 1.00 56 2.2 2.2 1.00 107 6.0 8.0 1.00 135 12.8 12.8 1.00 93 6.1 6.1 1.00 106 7.9 7.9 1.00 62 4.6 4.8 1.00 168 21.8 19.8 1.10 66 6.2 5.4 1.15 56 3.0 2.4 1.25 102 9.4 7.4 1.27 69 7.9 5.6 1.41 144 22.3 14.5 1.54 76 8.3 4.0 2.06 86 10.8 5.2 2.08 71 1600630001101.) Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 111;! gy ( in.lgc ) z ( inches ) 0151112329..) id! 5 61 5.4 2.6 2.08 148 32.0 15.4 2.08 1 1 1 21.1 8.7 2.43 143 35.4 14.3 2.48 93 16.9 6.1 2.77 145 47.9 14.8 3.24 55 7.5 2.1 3.57 87 19.6 5.3 3.70 124 99.2 10.8 9.19 99 69.7 7.0 9.96 40 46.3 1.1 42.09 32 60.1 0.7 85.86 72 Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1110.! 911101909.) 211.900.)“ 5 01109005.) 210 1 114 0.3 9.1 0.03 114 0.5 9.2 0.05 135 1.0 12.8 0.08 95 0.7 6.4 0.11 83 0.9 4.8 0.19 184 4.6 23.9 0.19 134 3.3 12.7 0.26 178 8.0 22.2 0.36 75 1.7 3.9 0.44 83 2.6 4.8 0.54 85 3.0 5.0 0.60 155 15.0 16.8 0.89 55 2.0 2.1 0.95 216 33.0 33.0 1.00 85 5.1 5.1 1.00 87 5.3 5.3 1.00 197 27.2 27.2 1.00 143 14.6 14.4 1.01 33 1.1 0.8 1.38 102 10.5 7.3 1.44 138 22.7 13.5 1.68 136 23.4 13.0 1.80 142 37.5 14.2 2.64 183 66.3 23.5 2.82 72 78.6 3.6 21.83 73 W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 3111! gV ( in.lsec ) Z ( inches ) h ( inches ) id! 2 231 0.3 37.4 0.01 127 0.2 11.4 0.02 152 0.3 16.2 0.02 145 0.3 14.7 0.02 74 0.1 3.8 0.03 77 0.2 4.2 0.05 86 0.3 5.2 0.06 81 0.3 4.6 0.07 93 0.4 6.1 0.07 76 0.3 4.0 0.08 59 0.2 2.5 0.08 107 0.7 8.1 0.09 244 3.8 42.0 0.09 79 0.5 4.4 0.11 63 0.4 2.8 0.14 99 2.1 6.9 0.30 125 3.5 11.0 0.32 152 5.5 16.2 0.34 111 4.8 8.6 0.56 51 1.2 1.9 0.63 111 5.9 8.7 0.68 242 41.0 41.3 0.99 67 3.2 3.2 1.00 101 7.1 7.1 1.00 62 2.7 2.7 1.00 192 26.0 26.0 1.00 124 10.8 10.8 1.00 88 5.5 5.5 1.00 1 14 9.1 9.1 1.00 31 0.7 0.7 1.00 128 13.2 11.5 1.15 90 6.7 5.7 1.18 67 4.2 3.2 1.31 63 3.8 2.8 1.36 202 42.3 28.8 1.47 157 27.7 17.4 1.59 188 44.5 24.8 1.79 74 W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio mpg gy ( in.lsec ) Z ( inches ) h ( inches ) MI 2 153 31.5 16.5 1.91 102 20.1 7.3 2.75 110 24.2 8.5 2.85 97 28.8 6.6 4.36 102 52.4 7.3 7.18 75 1000mm.) Veloclty ZERO G Change DR. HT 1001 01110119.) 211001001 3 172 0.2 117 0.1 107 0.2 97 0.2 86 0.4 51 0.2 132 3.1 77 1.4 193 9.7 37 0.4 148 6.2 84 2.1 36 0.5 104 4.9 174 14.2 88 3.8 188 18.8 99 5.5 72 3.6 75 3.9 161 18.2 88 5.4 43 1.6 66 3.0 183 23.5 82 4.7 233 38.2 65 2.9 128 11.9 66 3.6 177 25.7 158 20.9 115 11.3 163 23.0 112 11.4 124 14.6 110 11.6 EQUIV. DR. HT 20.8 9.6 8.1 6.6 5.2 1.8 12.3 4.2 26.3 1.0 15.3 5.0 0.9 7.6 21.3 5.5 24.8 6.9 3.6 3.9 18.2 5.4 1.6 3.0 23.5 4.7 38.2 2.9 11.5 3.1 22.1 17.5 9.3 18.7 8.8 10.8 8.5 Unit Ratio 210 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.11 0.25 0.33 0.37 0.40 0.41 0.42 0.56 0.64 0.67 0.69 0.76 0.80 1.00 1 .00 1 .00 1.00 1.00 1 .00 1 .00 1.00 1 .00 1 .00 1 .03 1 .16 1.16 1 .19 1.22 1 .23 1.30 1 .35 1 .36 76 10006101900120.) Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1001 011101110) 2.1109000) 0.1100105.) 210 92 9.1 6.0 1.52 93 9.6 6.1 1.57 141 22.2 13.9 1.60 57 3.6 2.2 1.64 67 8.9 5.4 1.65 75 8.5 4.0 2.13 128 26.0 11.5 2.26 62 11.9 4.8 2.48 171 67.0 20.5 3.27 53 7.0 2.0 3.50 151 56.4 16.0 3.65 64 30.0 4.9 6.12 76 27.4 4.0 6.65 67 62.0 5.3 15.47 41 82.5 1 .2 68.75 77 mm “_mn.“ Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 109.1 011101909.) 211090091 0M1 2.111 229 0.4 36.6 ‘ 0.01 153 0.3 16.4 0.02 108 0.2 8.2 0.02 100 0.2 7.0 0.03 122 0.4 10.5 0.04 169 0.9 20.0 0.05 170 1.9 20.4 0.09 70 0.4 3.5 0.11 120 1.4 10.2 0.14 58 0.4 2.4 0.17 74 0.7 3.9 0.16 76 0.8 4.1 0.20 39 0.3 1.1 0.27 127 3.5 11.3 0.31 66 1.7 5.2 0.33 134 5.4 12.6 0.43 62 1.7 2.7 0.63 196 17.8 27.2 0.65 62 3.5 4.7 0.74 141 12.4 13.9 0.89 108 7.6 6.3 0.92 196 25.3 27.5 0.92 59 2.4 2.4 1.00 56 2.4 2.4 1.00 112 8.8 6.6 1.00 128 11.5 11.5 1.00 230 37.2 37.2 1.00 52 1.9 1.9 1.00 159 17.7 17.7 1.00 64 5.0 4.9 1.02 115 11.1 9.3 1.19 144 20.1 14.6 1.38 56 3.1 2.2 1.41 50 2.5 1.7 1.47 85 8.3 5.1 1.63 90 9.3 5.6 1.66 106 13.3 7.9 1.68 78 10008001900110.) Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. I-IT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1001 M1599.) 2.1109000) 0.1109000.) 210 53 3.5 1.9 1.84 172 41.4 20.8 1.99 92 ' 12.0 5.9 2.03 159 39.4 17.7 2.23 136 28.8 12.9 2.23 54 5.6 2.1 2.67 140 37.4 13.8 2.71 67 14.8 3.2 4.63 133 82.0 12.4 6.61 78 28.6 4.3 6.65 77 38.6 4.2 9.19 107 79.8 8.0 9.98 60 54.0 2.5 21.60 48 37.0 1.6 23.13 79 W11) Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1:19.! Moises.) 21109091) wings.) an 115 0.2 9.3 0.02 79 0.1 4.4 0.02 110 0.2 8.5 0.02 153 1.0 16.5 0.06 64 0.2 2.9 0.07 118 0.8 9.9 0.08 210 3.1 31.0 0.10 172 2.6 20.7 0.13 91 1.1 5.8 0.19 76 0.8 4.1 0.20 81 1.1 4.6 0.24 44 0.4 1.4 0.29 188 7.8 25.0 0.31 81 1.6 4.6 0.35 211 16.7 31.4 0.53 103 4.5 7.5 0.60 36 0.6 0.9 0.67 115 6.5 9.2 0.71 41 0.9 1.2 0.75 126 8.5 11.1 0.77 139 10.7 13.8 0.79 71 3.3 3.5 0.94 85 4.9 5.0 0.98 54 2.0 2.0 1.00 64 2.9 2.9 1.00 57 2.3 2.3 1.00 43 1 .3 1.3 1.00 162 18.4 18.4 1.00 107 8.0 8.0 1.00 49 1 .7 1.7 1.00 110 8.5 8.5 1.00 21 0.3 0.3 1.00 89 5.8 5.6 1.04 239 51 .4 40.2 1.28 140 19.8 13.8 1.43 159 27.7 17.7 1.56 106 13.3 7.9 1.68 Velocity Change 11112011101699.) 152 113 80 53 92 46 80 ZERO G DR. HT 7.8 34.5 19.3 10.1 5.9 7.3 23.8 49.8 EQUIV. DR. HT 0.1102091.) 4.2 18.2 9.0 4.5 2.5 2.0 8.0 1.5 Unit Ratio Zfli 1 .88 2.13 2.14 2.24 2.38 3.85 3.93 33.07 81 Ill 5542.. IDIE IIEB |I° IBI I III: Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 11m .11__)d inlsec 1.11%) MM) 1m 1 141 0.4 13.8 0.03 100 1.4 6.9 0.20 35 0.2 0.9 0.22 62 0.6 2.7 0.22 154 4.5 16.4 0.27 44 0.5 1.4 0.36 106 3.2 7.8 0.41 50 0.7 1.7 0.41 91 2.4 5.8 0.41 73 2.3 3.7 0.62 122 6.7 10.3 0.65 87 4.6 5.3 0.87 59 2.4 . 2.4 1.00 70 3.4 3.4 1.00 173 25.4 20.7 1 .23 127 15.8 11.2 1.41 79 6.1 4.3 1 .42 1 1 1 13.7 8.5 1.61 76 6.5 4.0 1 .63 207 59.9 29.7 2.02 102 20.3 7.2 2.82 77 11 .6 4.1 2.83 141 39.6 13.8 2.87 58 8.3 2.3 3.61 151 63.4 15.8 4.01 92 31.0 5.9 5.25 82 IEDIE £5 _ ( EQUI'IJ Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1091 wimp.) Miriam mm Zflt 2 120 0.4 9.9 0.04 81 0.3 4.5 0.07 37 0.2 1.0 0.20 117 4.5 9.4 0.48 73 2.0 3.6 0.56 75 2.3 3.9 0.59 58 1.4 2.3 0.61 94 5.3 6.2 0.85 73 3.2 3.7 0.86 122 9.3 10.3 0.90 66 2.8 3.0 0.93 56 2.2 2.2 1.00 55 2.1 2.1 1.00 51 1.8 1.8 1.00 90 5.6 5.6 1.00 155 20.6 16.5 1.25 110 12.2 8.3 1.47 67 5.1 3.1 1.65 198 46.5 27.3 1.70 109 14.4 8.2 1.76 72 6.6 3.6 1.83 152 32.9 16.1 2.04 137 32.3 12.9 2.50 45 4.5 1.4 3.21 123 41.2 10.5 3.92 86 22.0 5.1 4.31 123 65.4 10.5 6.23 69 25.9 3.3 7.85 102 97.3 7.1 13.70 76 63.4 4.0 15.85 49 29.2 1.7 17.18 83 13W Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT U41 Ratio M dV ( injgc ) Z ( inc_he§ ) h ( inches ) 1m 3 276 0.4 52.8 .01 175 0.2 21.3 3.01 165 0.4 18.7 0.02 123 0.4 10.4 0.04 103 0.3 7.3 0.04 64 0.2 2.8 0.07 103 0.6 7.4 0.08 92 0.5 5.9 0.08 138 1.2 13.2 0.09 93 0.8 6.0 0.13 112 1.4 8.6 0.16 67 0.6 3.1 0.19 51 0.5 1.8 0.28 173 7.1 20.8 0.34 75 2.2 3.9 0.56 54 1.2 2.0 0.60 118 6.0 9.6 0.63 57 1.9 2.3 0.83 46 1.5 1.5 1.00 64 2.8 2.8 1.00 73 3.7 3.7 1.00 129 11.6 11.6 1.00 62 2.8 2.7 1.04 78 4.8 4.2 1.14 79 5.0 4.3 1.16 45 1.7 1.4 1.21 43 1.6 1.3 1.23 80 5.6 4.4 1.27 160 24.6 17.7 1.39 165 27.6 18.9 1.46 42 1.9 1.2 1.58 120 17.7 10.0 1.77 96 12.1 6.4 1.89 62 5.2 2.6 2.00 57 5.1 2.3 2.22 208 83.8 29.9 2.80 70 12.2 3.4 3.59 84 40.0 4.8 8.33 81 39.6 4.6 8.61 109 101.2 8.2 12.34 84 Waist.) Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 11121 g! ( in.lsec ) z ( inches 1 D ( inches 1 211; 4 139 0.3 13.3 0.02 135 0.4 12.7 0.03 112 0.4 8.8 0.05 88 0.4 5.3 0.08 218 2.6 32.8 0.08 56 0.2 2.2 0.09 87 0.7 5.2 0.13 97 1.1 6.5 0.17 161 5.8 18.0 0.32 69 1.6 3.3 0.48 73 2.3 3.7 0.62 157 12.2 17.0 0.72 101 5.2 7.0 0.74 256 34.9 45.2 0.77 107 6.5 7.9 0.82 174 18.5 20.9 0.89 77 4.1 4.1 1.00 126 10.9 10.9 1.00 56 2.2 2.2 1.00 129 11.6 11.6 1.00 94 6.1 6.1 1.00 71 3.5 3.5 1.00 76 4.0 4.0 1.00 86 5.1 5.1 1.00 204 28.7 28.7 1.00 99 7.4 6.8 1.09 83 6.7 4.7 1.43 123 16.0 10.5 1.52 156 26.4 16.8 1.57 65 6.5 2.9 2.24 68 7.3 3.2 2.28 64 7.0 2.8 2.50 59 6.7 2.4 2.79 9.9 2.2 4.50 55 12.6 2.1 6.00 87 75.1 5.2 14.44 85 Iibli 95- ( EDEN] Velocity ZERO G EQUIV. Change DR. HT DR. HT Unit Ratio 1112]; g! ( igisec 1 z ( inches 1 11 1 inches 1 Zfll 5 150 0.1 15.7 0.01 195 0.2 26.4 0.01 142 0.2 14.0 0.01 171 0.3 20.3 0.01 95 0.3 6.2 0.05 104 0.6 7.4 0.08 90 0.7 5.6 0.13 64 0.4 2.9 0.14 67 0.5 3.1 0.16 39 0.2 1.1 0.18 132 4.4 12.0 0.37 53 1.4 2.0 0.70 125 10.8 10.8 1.00 33 0.8 0.8 1.00 61 2.5 2.5 1.00 48 1.6 1.6 1.00 59 2.4 2.4 1.00 93 5.9 5.9 1.00 62 2.7 2.7 1.00 42 1.2 1.2 1.00 39 1.0 1.0 1.00 73 4.1 3.7 1.11 190 38.0 24.9 1.53 106 12.4 7.8 1.59 48 2.7 1.6 1.69 73 6.3 3.7 1.70 175 37.4 21.1 1.77 96 11.9 6.4 1.86 91 10.9 5.8 1.88 95 12.6 6.2 2.03 177 46.3 21.7 2.13 69 7.2 3.3 2.18 82 17.6 4.7 3.74 102 29.4 7.2 4.08 120 45.8 9.9 4.63 94 31 .2 6.2 5.03 67 36.5 3.1 11.77 52 27.0 1.9 14.21 LIST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES 1993 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, The American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, v 15.09, 1993. Brandenburg, R.K. and Lee, J.J. "Fundamentals of Packaging Dynamics." MTS Systems Corporation. Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1990. Dallas Instruments. "Operation and Maintenance Manual for Model DHR-1C Drop Height Recorder." Dallas Instruments Inc., Texas, 1990. Hanlon, J.F. "Handbook of Packaging Engineering." 2nd. ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York, New York, 1992. Ostrem, FE. and Godshall, W.D. "An Assessment of the Common Carrier Shipping Environment." Forest Products Laboratory, US. Department of Agriculture I University of Wisconsin. Madison, VWsconsin, 1979. Pierce, C.D., Singh, PS. and Burgess, 6.6. "A Comparison of Leaf-spring with Air-cushion Trailer Suspension in the Transport Environment." Packaging Technology and Science, Vol. 5, pp. 11-15, 1992. Singh, P.S., Antle, JR, and Burgess, 6.6. "Comparison Between Lateral, and Vertical Vibration Levels in Commercial Truck Shipments." Packaging Technology and Science, Vol 5, pp. 71-75, 1992. Singh, PS. and Marcondes, J. "Vibration Levels in Commercial Truck Shipments as a Function of Suspension and Payload." Journal of testing and Evaluation, JTEVA, Vol. 20, No. 6, November 1992, pp. 466-469. 86 .....-.-., "711111111111111111“