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CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AND CONSTRAINTS THAT
INFLUENCE BLACK TEACHERS IN SOUTH AFRICA
WHEN IMPLEMENTING THE CURRICULUM:

A CASE OF GEOGRAPHY TEACHERS

by

Noelette N. Nduna-Watson

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

1994

ABSTRACT
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AND CONSTRAINTS
THAT INFLUENCE BLACK SECONDARY TEACHERS

IN SOUTH AFRICA WHEN IMPLEMENTING THE CURRICULUM:
A CASE OF GEOGRAPHY TEACHERS

by

NOELETTE N. NDUNA-WATSON

The policy of Apartheid has created problems of inequality in
all spheres of life for non-White people in South Africa,
particularly Blacks. These stark inequalities are especially felt
and seen in the educational system of the different races.

The primary purpose of this study was to examine how Black geography
teachers perceive their workplace constraints and how these
constraints manifest themselves in the workplace. The study
highlights the importance of geography in the curriculum as a
high-stakes, hybrid subject.

The data for this study were collected through the use of a
questionnaire, fieldnotes, interviews, as well as South African
newspaper articles reflecting local political events and concerns
about schooling. The patterns that emerged from the data were
categorized into nine themes. The themes included: lack of teacher
collaboration; rivalry between the social sciences and natural

sciences; teacher stress; presence of student power; lack of

NOELETTE N. NDUNA-WATSON

resources; the need for a viable teacher center; lack of

administrative support; and lack of teacher reflection.

Some of the major findings were the following.

1.

The majority of geography teachers in this study had never
attended a single inservice course.
Most geography teachers were overworked by having to teach
more than one subject in overcrowded classrooms

with few resources or supplies.

Geography teachers worked in isolation from their

colleagues.

The situation in South Africa is very complex; there are no

easy answers. However, teachers could play a more prominent role as

change agents to transform teaching and learning in their classrooms

by acquiring appropriate knowledge for the subject they teach. Some

of the recommendations include:

1.

identification of good geography teachers to help as
facilitators and mentor teachers at teacher centers;
involvement of teachers in curriculum decision
making and the implementation process;

redefining the roles of inspectors and subject
advisors; and

restructuring teacher education programs.

Copyright

1994

Noelette N. Nduna-Watson

DEDICATION

To my father and mother
for their guidance and patience.

You taught me to believe in myself.

You are my pillars of strength.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

There are several people I would like to recognize who were
responsible for the accomplishment of this dissertation. Their
tireless support and encouragement sustained me throughout my
research.

I would like to extend my appreciation and thanks to my
advisor, Dr. Wanda May. Dr. May was caring, understanding, and
supportive of my efforts to achieve this study. Wanda challenged my
thinking, she was always available, and never gave up on me. Wanda
spent hours on end on my work. Finally, Wanda was like a family
member and a dear friend who I will always cherish.

My guidance committee consisted of wonderful people who I will
mention and thank individually.

Susan Melnick for her support, encouragement, and advice. Susan
always made me know she was there for me. Susan always nudged me do
better.

Doug Campbell for his patience, thoroughness, and
thoughtfulness. Doug always found time to talk in the midst of his

busy schedule.

ii

Richard Gardner for his support and guidance. Even though
Richard retired before I completed my research, he was unselfish and
willing to share his time with me.

Special thanks and appreciation to my wonderful and loving
husband Saku, for his support, patience and advice. He tirelessly
shared my frustrations and read and reread all the drafts, at times
giving up his precious sleep and time off from his studies. My
dearest children, Vuyo and Tenie, for their understanding and
patience, who at times needed me the most, and I was not available.

I would like to thank my sisters and brother, Nokuzola,
Thokozile, Nomathemba, and Vusumuzi for their prayers, encouragement
and continued support. My uncle, Richard Motau, for his advice.
Finally I would like to thank typists Tena Harrington, Lisa
Ingraham, and Barbara Reeves who helped me with their computer

skills.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .

LIST OF FIGURES

m

I

II

INTRODUCTION

Statement of Problem

Rationale of Study . .
Teacher Problems and Challenges .
Theoretical Framework . .
Significance of the Study .
Limitations of the Study
Organization of Study .

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOUTH AFRICA .

Population . . .
The Concept of Separate or
Multicultural Development
The Evolution of African Education
and Its Problems .
Education from 1652 to 1910 . .
Education of Africans from 1910 to 1953 .
History of Black Teachers .
Interpretations and "Stepping Back”
Politics and Education . .
Organizational Structure of Schools
Economics and Education
Teacher Quality
Pupil- -Teacher Ratio

Students' Relationship with Teachers .

Lack of Teacher Voice
Geography as a Subject .

iv

vii

viii

18

19

24

29
29
32
37
43
44
46
46
54
57
58
60
62

III

IV

DESIGN OF STUDY .

Theoretical Framework .

Data Collection .

Site Selection and Selection of Subjects
Gaining Access

Setting: The Township and Schools
Questionnaire . . . . . . . .

THE FINDINGS: REVELATIONS AND HIDDEN TRUTHS

Findings from Questionnaire Data
Teacher Qualifications . .
What Levels Did Geography Teachers Teach .
How Many Years of Experience Did These
Teachers Have? . . .
How Many Times Had These Teachers
Attended a Geography
Inservice in a Year? . .
What Other Subjects Besides Geography Have
the Geography Teachers Taught? .
Are Geography Teachers Currently Teaching
Other Subjects? . . .
At What Levels Are Teachers Teaching
These Other Subjects?
Is Inservice Education Important to
Geography Teachers?
Should All Geography Teachers Be Forced
to Attend Inservice? .
Should Only Selected Geography Teachers
Attend Inservice? . .
Would Geography Inservice Enhance the
Professional Growth of Teachers? .
Should Geography Teachers Participate in
Planning Inservice Programs? .
Has Geography Changed a Lot in the Past
Few Years? . . .
How Often Should Geography Teachers Attend
Inservice l, 2, 3, or 4 Times
a Year?

Who Should Teach Geography at the Inservice? .

What Should Be the Minimum Academic Quali-
fications of Teachers Teaching Geo—
graphy in Standards 8, 9, and 10?
Findings from the Interviews . . . . . .

65
65
67
68
69
73
77
85
85
86
87

87

87

88

88

89

91

91

92

92

92

93

93
93

94
97

Teacher Isolation: Breaking the Silence

Rivalry Between Social Sciences

and Natural Sciences .
Development of Stress
Lack of Resources
The Teacher Center . .
Problems with Geography as a Subject .
Lack Support from Administration .

The Presence of Student Resistance and Power .

Lack of Reflection .
Summary of the Findings .
V IMPLICATIONS AND "LOOKING AHEAD"

Brief Review of the Study . .
Summary of the Major Findings .

Findings from Section 1 of the Questionnaire .

Findings from Interviews .
Recommendations . . . .

Geography Teachers .

Policy Makers

International Community
Conclusion

APPENDIX .

BIBLIOGRAPHY .

vi

97

105
111
113
115
117
119
121
125
126

133

133
134
135
136
139
140
143
151
161

165

170

Tabla

LIST OF TABLES

1. Comparison of Matriculation Pass Rates

among Whites and Blacks

Comparison of Women and Men Employees in
Bantu Education

vii

4O

LIST OF FIGURES

Kim

1. ,Map of South Africa showing the four provinces
and 10 homelands .

2. Enrollment differences at primary and secondary

levels between Africans and Whites .

3. Organizational structure of the Department of
Education and Training .

viii

Page

21

36

47

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This is a study about Black South African geography teachers in
secondary schools. The study explores the contextual factors and
constraints that influence teachers when implementing the
curriculum. To understand constraints encountered by Black teachers
in secondary schools, first the context in which they work must be
understood. These constraints are embedded in the historical and
ideological foundations of South Africa. South Africa is a country
plagued by a policy of "Apartheid,” a system that separates and
categorizes races into African, White, Indian, and Coloured. Marcum
(1982) notes, ”Apartheid policy was a formula for political and
social ‘separateness' to ensure the maintenance, protection and
consolidation of the white race as the bearer of Christian
civilization in South Africa (p. 153).

Africans or Blacks are the indigenous inhabitants of the
country; Whites are descendants of the European settlers who arrived
in South Africa from 1652 onwards; Indians are descendants of Asians
who came to South Africa as indentured labor to work in the
sugarcane fields of Natal from 1860; and Coloureds are people of

mixed origin. (More will be said about these groups in the next

chapter). These different races live in separate residential areas
in South Africa.

The White residential areas are known as suburbs, while Blacks
live in townships. Differences can be observed in the
infrastructure found in these separate residential areas. For
example, White residential areas have adequate electricity, while
Black residential areas do not. Well-tarred roads and street lights
are also found in White residential areas, whereas most Black
townships have dusty gravel roads. From these differences, South
Africa is defined as a country with two facets: a first world which
has a number of third-world characteristics. In short, there exist
inequalities which have given Whites more privileges than other
races, with the Blacks being the most underprivileged of all groups.

The policy of ”Apartheid" has created problems of inequality in
all spheres of life for non-white people of South Africa. These
stark inequalities are especially felt and seen in the educational-
systems of the different races. Black schools operate under a
centralized system with heavy bureaucratic controls and the absence
of an effective advisory body of Black experts. Teachers and
principals are found at the bottom of the hierarchical structure
with no power whatsoever to influence decision making. Principals
and teachers in the Republic of South Africa have very little say in
the development of curricula. This is partly due to the strong
centralized, closed dispensation in the Republic of South Africa
(RSA) with the consequent removal of curriculum decision making from

the local level (Human Sciences Research Council, 1981, p. 42).

This study changed from its initial focus (the geography
teachers' perceptions of inservice) to the contextual constraints
encountered by teachers in their workplace as they tried
implementing the curriculum. During the time of this study, South
Africa was experiencing political upheaval. People from all corners
of the country were clamoring for political rights, and teachers
were also occupied with making demands for better schools and new
school structures. The climate was amiable for teachers to demand
change. When geography teachers were interviewed in this study,
their primary concerns were constraints within the context in which
they worked. Insufficient and inadequate inservice provided
teachers by the Department of Education contributed to their
dilemma, but this was only a symptom of a much larger problem.

This is a qualitative study focusing primarily on Black
secondary geography teachers. The problems faced by these teachers
in their "daily grind" typify problems that the majority of teachers
encounter in their workplace. For example, Marcum (1982) notes the
following:

These constraints are real for teachers. Black

teachers' workplace is restrictive in many ways. The

teachers' integrity and self-respect are at stake when

it comes to teaching ”sensitive” subjects like history,

geography, literature. Should he [gig] reinterpret

texts in such a way as to correct a racial bias that

demeans the black man [gig] even if it should mean that

students will fail in the public examination for

replaying his interpretation? Teachers at all levels

are faced with this dilemma. (p. 113)

As agents of the state, schools confirm and conform to strict rules

and regulations imposed upon them. Geography teachers in this study

talked about the nature of their work and workplace constraints.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study was to explore contextual factors and
constraints that influence Black teachers when implementing the
curriculum, in particular, the geography curriculum. The overarching
question concerned how the constraints within the South African
context influenced teachers' work. The study reports teachers’
perceptions of their workplace constraints and how these constraints
are related to the larger sociopolitical context of South Africa.

The reason for selecting geography teachers as a subject-area
case is due to the importance of geography as a subject in secondary
schools in South Africa. Secondary schools in South Africa
categorize subjects into humanities and sciences. Geography is a
hybrid subject and can be classified as both a natural science and a
human science subject. For students to matriculate from high school
(pass twelfth grade), they are required to pass, for example,
biology and history. But should a student fail one or both subjects
but pass geography, then geography can be used to replace both
subjects, or either one of the subjects. In this sense, geography
is a ”high-stakes” subject for many Black students and their life
opportunities following secondary school.

Academic quality cannot occur under repressive and
unstimulating conditions. Academic freedom is important and
necessary for teachers to pursue quality teaching and creativity in
their classrooms. As practitioners, teachers' experience of their
constraints may be different from how non-teachers view constraints

on teacher quality or academic quality. Non-practitioner views

might not represent those of teachers because their experience is
removed from the daily life of classrooms. Most views of
non-practitioners are negative towards teachers. For example, Simon
(1986) in his study of reasons for high failure rates among Blacks,
notes ”teachers being drunk during school hours, and staff not
committed to teaching" (p. 541). These remarks are derogatory and
blame the victims. To suggest that Black teachers are not committed
to teaching without considering their workplace conditions is
insulting. It is therefore imperative for teachers to talk about
their work and experiences, and to give their perspectives. Some of
the challenges that Black geography teachers face might be
confronted or solved if constraints perceived by teachers within the
context of their work are identified and acted upon.
My research was driven by two overarching questions:

1. How do teachers perceive their workplace constraints when

implementing the curriculum?
2. How do these constraints manifest themselves in the

workplace?

Rationale for the Study

In South Africa, teachers' voices have been suppressed in the
past, depriving them of the opportunity to express their concerns.
Black teachers in particular are subjected to silence because they
are viewed as civil servants. Teachers are not supposed to involve
themselves in politics, and the organizational structure deprives

teachers of their voice. Black teachers are not part of any

decision-making structure, and they have not been socialized or
encouraged to participate in discussions pertaining to their own
work with their superiors or colleagues. Directives are mandated
top-down from the Department of Education without any teacher input.
Teachers have been stifled by these directives, which can destroy
their creativity or capacity to conceptualize the curriculum
themselves.

Teachers' main concern then becomes the completion of the
syllabus in preparation for the end-of-the-year examination. Black
teachers are confronted with constantly convincing their
constituencies of their competence, as their quality is questioned
from all quarters. Certainly, the questions and fears raised by
'parents regarding the quality of Black teachers cannot be dismissed,
since the school curriculum is tied directly to examination
structures that categorize and sort students into life opportunities
beyond K-12 education.

The Department of Education and Training prescribes curriculum
for teachers, deskilling them. Apple (1981) stresses that when
prepackaged curriculum is used, it results in deskilling teachers.
Since teachers are far removed from the conception of the
curriculum, they become mere technicians of a teacher-proof
curriculum. Working in this manner long enough can result in
'teachers being unable to conceptualize and design curricula, even
when given an opportunity to do so.

In the interim, teachers' experiences seem to be of little

concern or importance to the Department of Education. Questioning

authority might be misinterpreted as insubordination on the part of
the teacher. The Apartheid system has curtailed the academic
freedom of teachers, thus disabling them to think on their own. Not
only are elementary and secondary schools affected by this lack of
academic freedom, colleges and universities also are affected. For
example, Marcum (1982) notes that ”even the most autonomous
universities suffer from political constraints that seriously mar
academic quality" (p. 54).

Most teachers endure frustration as they experience difficulty
implementing a prescribed, test-driven curriculum. Teachers suffer
in silence. These frustrations manifest themselves at the end of
the year when matriculation results are reported. Results in the
past were published in the newspapers indicating both the school
names and the students' names. Today, student numbers instead of
names and are used. The communities can pinpoint which schools
performed well and which schools performed poorly. The reputation
of schools is measured by the number of matriculants they produce.

The current organizational structure lacks a meaningful system
of support for teachers. For example, in 1980, only 1,484 Black
teachers out of a total of 70,145 were involved in inservice
education (Human Science Research Council, 1981). This means the
majority of teachers who may need the most help are locked out and
left behind to sink or swim in the classroom. Marcum (1982) further
indicates that "poorly trained, insecure secondary teachers are
fated to survival teaching . . . he [gig] seeks security in the

textbook and traditional didactic teaching methods" (p. 19). When

teachers are completely silenced, the constraints that hinder their
work cannot be made visible nor addressed. Rather, teachers can be

blamed for failures that may be beyond their control.

ob a e e

The quality of Black teachers is being questioned by parents,
students, and communities all over South Africa. The matriculation
results are very important to Black students, parents, and teachers
alike. These results determine the future of most students, whether
they proceed to college or become an unfortunate statistic, being
unemployed or unemployable due to a lack of necessary skills. The
failure rate among Black students is alarming! For example, in 1987,
the pass rate for Whites was 97!, Indians 93%, Coloureds 691, and
Blacks 562. (See Table 1.) In 1991, the erosion was even worse.
The Whites obtained 97% and Blacks 362. In 1992, the percentage of
Black students who passed increased slightly, however
insignificantly. The large gap between pass rates for Whites and
Blacks is obvious. The trust that parents and students have for

teachers is gradually waning because of these failure rates.

Table l

 

1991 971 36.42

1992 981 421

The Human Sciences Research Council (1981) attributes the poor

quality of Black teachers to the following factors:

1.

Teacher training colleges do not have the status of
autonomous institutions within the framework of higher
education and are often regarded as a mere continuation of
secondary education. Colleges are, to varying extents,
subject to departmental control in administrative and
academic matters. (p. 68)

In certain respects, professional and academic standards
are under suspicion. Standards also vary considerably,
and this can be ascribed to differing entrance
requirements and the quality of instruction. (p. 68)

The training facilities provided by different departments
differ considerably. (p. 68)

The critical shortage of professionally qualified teachers
is one of the most serious problems confronting education
in South Africa. The most pressing shortage of teachers
in regard to both quality and quantity exists in schools
for Blacks and Coloureds. The result is, most Black
teachers have minimum subject-matter content preparation.
(1)- 60)

Black teacher schools have minimum teaching facilities and
resources which teachers desperately need. (p. 68)
Requirements in respect of academic and professional
training as well as the actual teaching experience of

teacher educators responsible for the professional

10

training of teaching students, should be determined and
defined. (pp. 182-3)

Furthermore, the Human Sciences Research Council (1981, p. 180)
recommended that in all teacher training, the persons who are
responsible for the professional training of teaching students
should have the necessary educational qualifications. Second, the
desirability of instituting an internship under the guidance of an
accredited tutor-teacher should be integral part of teacher
training, and a probationary period for beginning teachers before
full certification, merits careful study. This means there is a
lack of experienced qualified mentors to guide neophyte teachers
during their probation years.

There have been efforts to improve the quality of Black
teachers. Subject advisors recently were introduced to work with
teachers, and they are regarded as experts in their subjects. Also,
teacher centers have been built in some regions. Another effort to
improve the quality of teachers has been to encourage teachers to
up-grade themselves through continuing education. "Upgrading
programs will contribute towards eliminating the present gap between
salaries of under-qualified teachers and those of teachers who meet
the minimum qualification requirements" (Human Sciences Research
Council, 1981, p. 66). Continuing education through correspondence
courses for teachers might not be the best method of improving their
practice.

In every educational context, there are constraints that

influence the implementation of the curriculum. These constraints

11

affect what goes on in the school and classroom. Schubert (1986)
notes, "curriculum cannot be created in a vacuum. Instead, much of
what curriculum becomes is forged by political, economic, and value
contexts that surround and interpenetrate it" (p. 9). This is true
of South Africa. The unfair and unjust policies of the state are
felt and played out in the schools when teachers attempt to

implement the curriculum.

Theoretical Framework

An interpretive and critical theoretical orientation guided
this study. According to Bredo and Feinberg (1982), interpretive
theory emphasizes participants' constitutive rules rather than
regulative rules. "The emphasis is on the rules or conventions that
one must know to make sense of things, to understand what is going
on, rather than merely on the rules that one must know to behave
with propriety" (p. 122).

Interpretive theory looks at the whole context in which
teachers work when enacting the curriculum. The nature of knowledge
is viewed as fluid and evolving, relative to particular persons and
contexts, and is socially constructed or contextually bound. Soltis
(1977) notes that "knowledge cannot be separated from knowers.

Human beings construct different systems, and all knowledge is
embedded in the fabric of social life" (p. 98).

In interpretive theory, teachers are viewed as active creators

and mediators of the curriculum; they transmit knowledge and are

active participants in socializing students to cultural norms.

12

Reciprocity and dialogue among people in a setting constitute
meaning. Interactivity among the subjects is important in a context
in which dialogue takes place. Comstock (1982) indicates ”dialogue
is integral to every research program which treats subjects as
active agents instead of objectifying them and reifying their social
conditions” (p. 371).

From an interpretive viewpoint, there are multiple truths, and
these truths become shared understandings among subjects in a
particular context. Each context is different. For interpretive
researchers, human beings are complex. Universal laws and
principles cannot be derived nor applied to all situations. Every
situation presents itself differently. Hence, every situation and
those human subjects within the context are viewed as dynamic and
unique.

However, education or schools have situations or
characteristics in common, no matter the particular context. Apple
(1979) states the following:

There is a unique combination of elite and popular

culture in schools. . . . Thinking of schools as

mechanisms of cultural distribution is important since

. a critical element in enhancing the ideological
dominance of certain classes is the control of the

knowledge preserving and producing institutions of a

particular society. Thus, the ”reality” that schools

and other cultural institutions select, preserve and

distribute may need to be particularized, in Mannheim's

words, so that it can be seen as a particular ”social

construction” which may not serve the interests of

every individual and group in society. (pp. 26-27)

Critical theory provides a framework for studying ideology,

equality, control, and power, and it focuses on those who are

powerless. Anyon (1981) states that critical theory should be seen

13

as "leading to transformative social strategies. The ideological
values are questioned, class relationships are of importance, and
structures of social power are important to critical scientists” (p.
36). Critical theorists attempt to study how social conditions
deter persons from moving up the social ladder. The Apartheid
ideology can be viewed as a system to be used by Whites to dominate
Blacks who therefore are oppressed. Education in South Africa is
used to keep the different races apart and unequal through the
fifteen education departments and resources differentially allocated
by system. The critical orientation used in this study exposes the
dominant class and privileges it enjoys. Such a critique shows how
oppressed Blacks are controlled through the prescribed curriculum
which teachers must implement in their classrooms and other
structural constraints.

Bredo and Feinberg (1982) note that knowledge can be viewed as
trilogical:

Critical theory takes into account not only the object

known, but also the relationship between the framework

of the knower and known, and the framework supported by

dominant authorities or elites. In critical theory, the

theory of knowledge and theory of society merge.

Emancipatory knowledge is considered "higher” than

other forms of knowledge because it is embracing. (p.

43)
A critical researcher is interested in the ideology and hegemony
that dominate particular groups in a society and persons' values.
Knowledge is viewed as cultural capital. Critical theorists view
knowledge as power, particularly of the sort which dominating groups

may use to force their values on the oppressed and to maintain their

privileged position.

14

The hierarchical structure of society ensures that certain
individuals or groups will exercise control over others. Social and
political distortion exists because of the type of knowledge that is
accessible to all students or society. The school curriculum, for
example, can create and recreate the dominant ideology through
covert and overt teaching. Certain practices are chosen for
emphasis, while others are ignored or diminished. In the
curriculum, values of the dominant culture are emphasized,
highlighted, and those of the oppressed are ignored and devalued.

As social institutions of the state, schools are seen as reproducing
these inequitable social structures. Even textbooks can privilege

and reflect a dominant culture's values.

S i a ce 0 he d

This is a pioneer study involving Black teachers talking about
their work and voicing their perceptions of their contextual
constraints. In the past, South African Black teachers would not be
caught dead speaking about their work, let alone those constraints
that hinder implementation of the curriculum. In the past, teachers
were expected to remain neutral and not to criticize the department.
Unfortunately, education is not a neutral enterprise: it serves the
political system of the country which then privileges one group and
denies equal rights or access to knowledge to other groups.

The contributions of this study could be major in the lives of

Black South African teachers for the following reasons:

15

1. Teachers not included in this study, but who may read
summary reports of this study, might realize the
importance of speaking about their work and engaging in
collaborative work with their colleagues.

2. This study might help explain to teachers why the quality
of Black teachers has not improved since the inception of
formal education in South Africa. This is an important
link that teachers need to know to better understand their
workplace and their professional role as teachers, past,
present, and future.

3. The study could help the Department of Education become
more aware of the problems that Black teachers encounter
in their work. The Department could reconsider defensible
ways to improve the quality of Black teachers and the
education of Black students.

4. With respect to this study's contributions to the
international education community, the reader will
understand that teachers, wherever they are, are faced
with constraints within their particular contexts that may
inhibit them from successfully creating and implementing
curricula. This lack of success may further victimize the
academic success and life opportunities of particular
groups of students.

The strength of this research is that I shifted the focus of my

study responsively during data collection. That is, I began with a

fairly naive question about inservice opportunities and what

16

teachers learned or needed from inservice but moved responsively to
questions focusing on teachers' perceptions of their workplace.
These expressed concerns became vivid when interviewing teachers and
pointed to issues larger than inservice training or the teaching of

geography, per se.

tat n o the tud

The time period for data collection in this study was brief,
given the financial constraints in traveling to South Africa. There
was no time available to conduct more elaborate, follow-up
interviews with teachers or to conduct classroom observations of the
implemented or enacted curriculum. As a Black South African
teacher, there is the potential for researcher bias given my own
experiences as a teacher who is intimately familiar with this
context. However, studying abroad has provided me some distance, a
broader perspective, and deeper understanding of educational

problems in South Africa.

ti o e u
In Chapter I, I have attempted to develop a brief rationale for
the study including the research focus or questions, teachers'
problems and challenges, a brief reference to the conceptual
framework, and have discussed the significance and limitations of

this study.

17

In Chapter II, I will review the historical background of South
Africa and its population, and the evolution of African education
and its problems.

Chapter III addresses the methodology and procedures used in
collecting and analyzing data for this study.

Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data and the findings
from the questionnaire and interview data. Further findings from
the questionnaire and interviews will be compared.

In Chapter V, the findings are interpreted in the larger
context of schooling, politics, and economics. Implications of the

study and recommendations for future research are discussed.

CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 0N SOUTH AFRICA

The educational constraints encountered by Africans are woven
within their daily life experiences. These constraints make it
difficult for Africans to smoothly proceed with their lives. There
are personal and social stumbling blocks or obstacles to equality.
To understand the people and education system of South Africa, one
has to look at the state policies affecting Africans and how these
policies evolved since the Whites encountered the Africans in 1652.
Some of the laws which could be regarded as pillars of social
constraint on Africans are as follows:

Ihg_Hg;11g_ngg_Ag§_gfi_1211 stipulated that urban Africans were
not allowed to own land in White industrial areas where they lived
and worked because of their sojourner status (Brewer, 1986;
Christie, 1985; Schrire, 1982; Sparks, 1990).

Aggrghgig Systeg 1938 is a policy of segregation and political
and economic discrimination against non-White groups in the Republic
of South Africa.

e e s c 19 prohibited non-Whites from living in
”White” cities or owning any kind of businesses there (Brewer, 1986;

Christie, 1985; Schrire, 1982; Sparks, 1990).

18

19

The thtu Authorities get of 1951 abolished the Native

Representative Council, which had been the only legitimate
organization in South Africa representing all Blacks in the country.
Simultaneously, this made provision for the establishment of
decentralized institutions of local government (Behr, 1971; Brewer,
1986; Christie, 1985; Schrire, 1982; Sparks, 1990).

The Bahgu Edugatioh Act of 1953 aimed at ensuring that Black
education should have its roots in the reserves (Behr, 1971;
Christie; Marcum, 1982; Sparks, 1990).

The Jgh Reservggign hgt 1956 protected job competition by
reserving categories of work for Whites and preventing Whites from
having to work in direct relationship with Blacks. This insured no
White worker would be in a position subordinate to a Black worker
(Brewer, 1986; Christie, 1985; Schrire, 1982; Sparks, 1990).

The above laws were abolished as recently as 1990 and 1991, but
their effects still linger, and these laws have not been replaced by
any new ones. These laws have marginalized the lives of all Blacks,

those who live in the homelands as well as in urban areas.

Populgtign

As defined by the government, there are four major groups of
people in South Africa: Africans, Whites, Coloureds, and Indians.
At present, the population of South Africa is approximately 40
million. Africans or Blacks are the indigenous people of South

Africa and they comprise 30 million or 75% of the population.

20

Different names have been used over the years to denote Africans,
for example Kaffir and Bantu.

Africans comprise nine ethnic groups: Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi,
Ndebele, Tswana, Pedi, Southern Sotho, Venda, and Shangaan. Under
the policy of Apartheid at the national level, the-policy of
“separate" or ”multinationalism" created ten so-called ”homelands,”
sometimes referred to as "Bantustans" for the Africans, which are
located within the provinces. In Apartheid, the "homelands" were to
provide a territorial basis for the emergence of free and
independent Black states, leaving the remainder of South Africa as a
republic with a White population minority (Smith, 1987, p. 116).

The creation of ”homelands" has been criticized by Blacks in
particular and continues to be seen as a plot to isolate Blacks.

The size, location, lack of resources, and general poverty of
the ”homelands," along with the geographical fragmentation
characteristic of most of them, hardly provide a basis for viable
“nations.” Homelands form a horse-shoe pattern extending from
southern Cape Province to the northern Transvaal, parts of the
Orange Free State, and the northeast of Natal. See Eigh1g_l, a map
of South Africa. Africans only occupy 13% of the land in South
Africa. The designation of the ”homelands" and their geographical
disposition, therefore, are frequently interpreted as the expression
of a policy to divide and rule on the part of
Whites, with the process of ”Balkanisation” or splitting up of Black
areas as a whole, as well as into individual ”homelands" (Smith,

1987; Schrire, 1982).

21

 

 

 
   
  

 

      

 

 

 

 

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..... . /'
5733:9223 K 2 l C k -
m w '5 m ‘INDEPENDENT' ,3”
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mum Lobowo m Vanda I!
ummuo .'i~.
é . -. as
E Owaqw. ! I "3335-: .Ptetoria
-0- W‘W ! .Johannesbmg i
--- Provincial ma : Issfl‘xm
. . ! . . .. - ~‘
| r -.
."h i OminoSuu ‘4
a ' a“
L~ J ,l' fig 1)}. '
“in“; I ' ‘7'; ' .
Bloe’mtontein' 1". Lesotho ‘2 a f. .-'.
bum K R. 3 -:..t- " "
\ x.
\VJAA‘}\. ~ ‘ \3'33‘} "‘
ATLANTIC \\\\\
OCEAN \\ \\ INDIAN OCEAN j
7:3? East London
“9° 70"“ Port Elizabeth 0 100 200 300 m J
l 1 1 g
_____.——'
Figure 1. Map of South Africa showing the four provinces and 10

homelands .

22

Each ethnic group in South Africa has its own homeland, namely:

Bophuthatswana-Tswana

Ciskei-Xhosa

Gazankulu-Shangaan

KaNgwane-Swazi

KwaNdebele-Ndebele

KwaZulu-Zulu

Lebowa-Pedi

Qwaqwa-South Sotho

Transkei-Xhosa

Venda-Venda
Figure 1 shows the four provinces of South Africa, namely:
Transvaal; Orange Free State; Natal; Cape Province; including
homelands or so-called "independent states" (Murray, 1987).
Four of the homelands are "independent states," namely,
Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei, and Venda. About 12 million or so
Africans live permanently in the urban areas, which are not part of
the homelands, including those working on White farms. The rest are
scattered in the various homelands.

The homelands have a relatively high population density, about

122 persons per square mile compared to the White population density
in South Africa's common areas, which is about 20 per square mile
(Schrire, 1982, p. 117). Whites comprise 5 million of the
population, yet occupy 872 of the land. The first White settlers
arrived in South Africa in 1652, being of Dutch decent from Holland.

The second group of settlers were the French Huguenots in 1688 who

23

fled France because of religious persecution (Behr, 1980; Murray,
1987; Smith, 1987). Other settlers from Germany and elsewhere in
Europe came to the Cape before the British ruled the Cape. The
Dutch East India Company ruled the Cape from 1652 to 1794. The
Dutch pioneers believed implicitly in salvation through religion,
and the doctrines of the Dutch Reformed Church were laid down by the
Synod of Dordrecht in 1618-1619. Thus a strong Calvinistic trend
became powerfully embedded in the very warp and woof of South
African life (Behr 1980, p. l). The British ruled the Cape twice,
first for a short while from 1795 to 1802, and then again from 1805
to 1910 when South Africa became independent. Dutch colonists
imported slaves from other parts of Africa and the East to the Cape
for cheap labor. Slaves became part of the population in the Cape.
Indians arrived in South Africa in 1860 as indentured laborers
to work on the sugar plantations under an arrangement sponsored by
the British Government. When their contract expired after five
years, most Indians preferred living in South Africa rather than
going back to India. subsequently, more Indians came to South
Africa, increasing the Indian population. The South African and
Indian governments tried again in 1927 to repatriate Indians to
India, promising them free passage. However, very few took the
offer (Behr, 1980; Hoagland, 1972; Murray, 1987; Smith, 1987).
Indians were reluctant to return to India because of the job
opportunities available in South Africa (Hoagland, 1972). Most

Indians now reside in the provinces of Natal and Transvaal.

24

The Coloureds are of mixed racial origin, most of them living
in the Cape Province. Included in the Coloured community are the
Cape Malays, whose forebears came from Java and the surrounding

regions, and the Griquas (Behr, 1980; Murray, 1987; Smith, 1987).

e o c t o S e o l c u a Deve o e t

To understand constraints barring Blacks from equality, one
must understand the concept of "Separate or Multinational
Development." This concept enforces laws that indicate all racial
groups must be developed separately. The beginning of such
development originated in the 17th century when Whites encountered
Blacks during the years of the Dutch East India rule in the Cape
Colony. The arrival of the White settlers in 1652 was the beginning
of conflict between Whites and Blacks. The problems stemmed from
the acquisition of land by both groups. Today, the core of this
problem concerns relationships between ethnic groups in various
fields of human interaction: domestic, economic, educational,
political, religious, and social (Behr, 1980, p. 150).

From the Dutch East India Company to the British Government,
all sorts of frontier laws were proclaimed to keep the different
races separate; for example: erecting a chain of fortresses along
the Fish river to the sea; entering into a system of treaties with
African chiefs; and establishing buffer zones, or "no man's land"
(Behr 1980, p. 151).

By the end of the 19th century, most of the country was

controlled and dominated by White rule. The Native Land Act of

25

1913 established the principle that certain portions of the land
were reserved for exclusive occupation by Africans (Behr 1980, p.
152). The effect of this meant that no African could acquire land
outside of the reserves. Blacks in urban areas live in townships
which are quite a distance from urban centers, far from Africans'
places of employment. It is costly to travel to work for the
majority of Blacks who are poorly paid, yet they have to bear the
cost of this transportation. Because the homelands are far from
urban centers, parents are forced to leave their families behind to
work in mines or as domestics on a contract basis. There also are
poor infrastructures, overcrowding, and poverty experienced every
day where Blacks reside.

The laws concerning the plight of Africans and their separate
development were enforced and realized by Dr. H. F. Verwoerd, known
as the architect of Apartheid in his capacity as Minister of Native
Affairs from 1950-1958 and as Prime Minister from 1958-1966.
Africans were denied political rights, while the Indians and
Coloureds enjoyed limited political rights. Instead, Verwoerd
wanted African political rights to be based on the traditional
authority of their own ethnic groups and not linked to those of
Whites (Behr, 1980; p. 151). The Bantu Authorities Act of 1951
established a hierarchy of authority in the Bantu areas
(reserves/Homelands). In 1955, the Tomlison Commission published a
report which stipulated the following:

1. There was no effective middle course between complete

integration, i.e. economic, political, and social on the

one hand, and complete racial segregation on the other.

26

2. Whites could never voluntarily abdicate their power and
accept government by a Black (Non-White) majority. (Behr
1980, p. 154)

Today, different races attend separate schools and reside in
separate locations due to the Group Areas Act of 1950. The Group
.Areas Act declared areas occupied by Africans in White areas as
"Black spots," resulting in displacement or forced removal of the
people. Some of the Africans had lived in these areas all their
lives, generation after generation, only to be removed and displaced
into some homeland where they were strangers. When families were
resettled, it meant staring all over again.

In most cases, the resettlements are far from the cities and
provide few basic needs for people, for example: no running water,
no electricity, no schools, no streets, no shops, no decent homes,
no toilets; and the use of corrugated iron and card boxes to build
shanty homes. Africans were regarded as "temporary" residents in
the urban areas or White South Africa. The homelands are solely
dependent on South Africa for their existence. Looking at the
homelands and their development, the constraints imposed on the
Africans living within the homelands are realized. Sparks (1990)
notes the following:

The system of migrant labor colors the whole life in

South African "homelands." You notice when you go into

the resettlement camps that there are few men around.

They have nearly all gone away, leaving behind the old,

the disabled, the women, and the children. Their

departure casts a pall: the camps are quiet, heavy with

apathy. Just a few low voices, little activity, and no

laughter at all. Even the children are quiet, their
vitality sapped by malnutrition. (p. 203)

27

An important characteristic of the South African economy has
for many years been its duality. A relatively advanced industrial
economy employing the labor of White and Black exists alongside a
traditional subsistence sector. The interaction between these two
sectors has taken the form of labor movements from the subsistence
sector to the market sector. Capital and skills have remained
relatively immobile. The homelands lack, and will continue to lack,
a fundamental autonomy based upon a separate political economy.
Thus, homelands continue to be backwaters dominated by the poverty
of their population (Schrire, 1982, pp. 119-120).

Brewer (1986) states that for the purpose of political
stability, the homelands have been structured to be economically,
politically, territorially, and strategically dependent on the
central government. The homelands are subject to a vicious circle
which hampers their development (p. 342). The biggest constraint
the homelands face is, how can a group be self-governing when the
group is forced to be so dependent on another group?

The South African economy generates great wealth, but it is
distributed unequally between Whites and Africans. Murray (1987)
notes, ”Whites control the economy and structured the system so that
they maintain a privileged position while unskilled positions are
reserved for Black workers. Most sectors of the economy remain
dependent on cheap, unskilled Black labor"

(p. 45). These rather unpromising areas (homelands) became the key

elements in the government's policy of ”positive apartheid”;

28

"separate development"; "multinational development" or "plural
democracy," as the policy has been termed (Schrire, 1982, p. 113).

The relationship of the homelands with White South Africa is
that of CORE-Periphery, and the differences between the core and the
periphery are glaring. Black labor is the key to understanding a
particular form of domination of the periphery by the core, where
uneven development has strong racial overtones (Schrire, 1982, p.
113; Smith, 1987, p. 116). The economy of South Africa is found in
the core, while the periphery is made up of areas displaying a
gradation of intensity of economic activity and prosperity, from the
inner periphery around the core areas, through a wider intermediate
periphery, to the outer periphery of largely agricultural areas
(Smith, 1987, p. 116).

In reality, the Bantustans, who take up less than 131 of the
land, are not viable economically and serve primarily as labor
reservoirs for the White-dominated economy. They have fewer mineral
resources and a limited industrial base; thus, most Africans are
compelled to be migrant workers in the White areas. Excluded from
ownership of land, Blacks are unable to acquire wealth or control of
resources. Without resources, Blacks are unable to accumulate
wealth, and being unskilled and in excess supply, they have no
market power. Subsistence agriculture is practiced, and much of the
land has been severely eroded because of overstocking and
overgrazing (Brewer, 1986; Murray, 1987). The damage on the

environment and human resources is great in the homelands.

29

The conditions of the Blacks in the homelands are parallel to
the conditions of the Blacks in the urban areas. Blacks in both
instances are deprived of equal political and economic rights and of
equal educational opportunity and access. The education for Blacks
in both the homelands and urban areas is, therefore, geared towards

supplying a cheap work force to the White South African economy.

e v0 0 f ica d cat 0 ts

The inequalities and constraints that plagued Black schools at
their inception still linger today. These conditions were supported
and reinforced over the decades, and today are seen as major
problems in Black schools. Before the arrival of Whites in 1652,
Blacks enjoyed informal education. All children were taught and
learned through their experiences and by observing and imitating
their parents. Oral history was and still is a great part of
education for Africans. Children learned poetry, stories, songs,

their history, and important historical events from their parents.

Educatign from 1652 to 1910

When White settlers arrived in the Cape in 1652, the Dutch East
Indian Company did not intend to make the Cape a permanent station.
-Consequently, the Dutch East Indian Company did not pay much
attention to education. Schools during this period were mainly
established for religious purposes. The first schools were

integrated, but not all children attended school. Missionaries

30

established the first school for Africans in 1799 in King
Williamstown.

The first British occupation of the Cape was short-lived from
1795 to 1802. Britain was at war with France and feared the French
would occupy the Cape. The Dutch were forced to capitulate in April
1795. But, the Napoleonic wars were costly for both Britain and
France, which forced both countries to sign a peace which restored
the Cape to the Batavian Republic in 1803 (Troup, 1972).

The occupation of the Cape by the British for the second time
in 1805 as a permanent colony meant whatever happened in the Cape
was similar to what was happening in Britain. The British
anglicized the Cape through education, religion, and language. Thus,
they spread their cultural values and traditions through
colonization, and the educational system was established with this
colonization. The education provided developed along social-class
lines. Education was not compulsory, and poor families could not
afford to send their children to school. Urban and rural schools
were different, and inequalities between them were evident. Town
schools had more resources (teachers and materials) than did rural
schools.

In 1832, in all British colonies, slaves were emancipated. The
emancipation of slaves was a major reason for the British to provide
education for people of color in the Cape. It was in 1839 that a
Department of Education was established, with James Rose-Innes as
the first Superintendent-General. In 1841, state aid was provided

to mission schools until the 19505.

31

When Sir George Grey became governor of the Cape in 1854,
education was used to control Africans more than to assimilate them.
Christie (1985) indicate assumptions that the British government had
upon which to base African education:

If we leave the natives beyond our borders ignorant

barbarians, they will remain a race of troublesome

marauders. We should try to make them a part of

ourselves, with a common faith and common interests,

useful servants, consumers of our goods, contributors

to our revenue. Therefore, I propose that we make

unremitting efforts to raise the natives in

Christianity and civilization, by establishing among

them missions connected with industrial schools. The

native races beyond our boundary, influenced by our

missions, instructed in our schools, benefiting by our

trade, would not make wars on our frontiers. (p. 37)

Missionaries provided mostly elementary education, emphasizing
industrial occupations, with few providing secondary education or
teacher-training schools. Very few Africans attended school
frequently. Different governors and superintendents of education
commented on the poor status of African education on numerous
occasions. For example, Sir Langham Dale, Superintendent-General of
Education at the time in the Cape, was of the opinion that the
education offered to Africans, was unfavorable, because it weakened
and effaced their tribal bonds. Dr. Thomas Muir who succeeded Dale
as Superintendent-General of Education in 1892 also stated in his
reports that there were insufficient teachers; the attendance of the
pupils was irregular, many of the pupils began their studies at too
advanced an age, and it was not uncommon to find teenagers in the
lowest classes; little or no attention was given to the teaching of

vernacular, and far too much time was devoted to the teaching of

English as a subject (quoted in Behr, 1980, p. 160).

32

ca 0 s r m 9 0 to ese t

From 1910, education in the four provinces was controlled by
different councils, thus education differed from province to
province, and Africans were not treated in the same way by the
governments of the different colonies. A new curriculum was
introduced in the Transvaal in 1915. The curriculum stressed moral
education, religious education, obedience, punctuality, tidiness,
orderliness, independence, self-restraint, temperance, and chastity.
Social training aimed at acquainting the African with laws of the
country and industrial training adapted to the White environment
(Behr, 1980, p. 162). The subjects offered were geared to
controlling Africans and making them submissive to authority, for
example, religious education and manual work. Three inspectors for
African schools were appointed in 1920.

In 1922, new laws were passed concerning the funding of African
education. Government expenditure was ”pegged” or fixed. Any
expansion would have to be financed out of taxation paid by
Africans themselves (Christie, 1985, p. 50). In effect, this meant
there was a continual shortage of money for African schooling and
little way to alleviate the problem, given Blacks' economic
situation. The result was that parents who had no money could not
afford to send their children to school.

In the Orange Free State, an inspector of schools was appointed
in 1924. In his first report, he complained of the ”chaotic”
conditions in African education. Before the outbreak of World War

11, conditions in the African schools had not changed much. The

33

majority of the schools still were state-aided mission schools under
the control of missionary managers. Supervision in African schools
was done by White inspectors, assisted by African Supervisors at the
time. The majority of African teachers were not qualified to teach;
about 301~were without professional training, even by 1930 (Behr,
1980, p. 164).

The majority of schools were overcrowded with pupils, and yet
the majority of school-age children were not attending school. The
classrooms were few and small. The Report of the Interdepartmental
Committee on Native Education in 1935 (UG No. 29-1936), as noted by
Behr (1980), stated the following:

The committee witnessed the most appalling instances of

overcrowding in some of the urban areas. In one urban

school there were nearly four-hundred pupils huddled

together, most of them sitting on the floor of a badly

lighted and badly ventilated wood and iron room which

could under normal circumstances have accommodated not

more than 50 or 60 pupils with desks. There was

scarcely room for a blackboard, or a teacher's table-

' let alone other educational equipment such as maps.

Four teachers were simultaneously trying to instruct

the classes crowded together in this way. (p. 165)

Christie (1985) sums up the trends that had occurred in African
education by 1945:

1. We see a pattern of education differentiated along racial

lines of color and also along lines of social class.

2. For Whites, there was a system of free and compulsory

education. This system grew and developed. It included
more and more children, at higher levels of education, so

that today almost all White children have completed some

secondary schooling, and many go to technical or higher

34

education. At the same time, the system of private
schools remains for privileged people.

3. For Africans, education remained in the hands of

missionaries. There were continual shortages of money.
While a few Africans achieved high levels of education,
most received virtually no schooling. (p. 50)

The changes brought about in schools by the Nationalist Party
in 1948 with the introduction of Apartheid were no different from
what occurred with the previous government or British rule. The
Apartheid laws only reinforced the segregation laws prevailing at
the time. Substandard conditions still prevailed in African
schools, which among others were:

meager school equipment;

poor accommodation;

faulty school organization; and
inefficient teaching methods.

The Bantu Education Act of 1953 spelled the end of Mission
schools and inaugurated segregated schools on the basis of cultural
differences, entrenching educational inequality and social class
distinctions (Behr, 1980; Christie, 1985). When Bantu Education was
introduced, Dr. Verwoerd (quoted in Sparks, 1991) was quick to
endorse the act by stating the following:

Racial tension cannot improve if the wrong type of

education is given to Natives. They cannot improve if

the result of Native education is the creation of

frustrated people who, as a result of the education

they received, have expectations in life which

circumstances in South Africa do not allow to be

fulfilled immediately, when it creates people trained
for professions not open to them, when there are people

35

who have received a form of cultural training which

strengthens their desire for the white collar

occupations to such an extent there are more such

people than the openings available. (p. 196)

Bantu Education was designed to be inferior because it did not
offer Blacks the same opportunities offered to Whites. For example,
in 1953 the government spent $180 on each White child in school
compared with $25 on each Black child. This sent shock waves among
Africans as they saw further erosion and destruction in their
education system. Bantu Education specified which forms of labor
were suitable for Blacks, and their station in life was important
for Whites. Sparks (1990) stated the following:

In protest the best black teachers quit rather than

participate in an education system designed . . . to

condition young members of the black race for an

inferior station in life, and this contributed to the

further decline of black education. (p. 197)

Although during the years of Bantu Education when school
enrollment increased among the Africans, there was a high drop-out
rate. The majority of African school-goers did not stay beyond
lower primary school (four years). For example, until the 19708,
about 702 of Africans were in the first four years of schooling,
which meant they had very little education. Less than 11 of
Africans were in "metric" or secondary school (Christie, 1985, p.
56). The drop-out rate could be attributed to the lack of
compulsory education for Blacks. Black parents also had to sustain
the cost of education, including books, school uniforms, and
transportation in contrast to Whites whose schooling was compulsory

and free. (See enrolment graphs in Figure 2 from Christie, 1985.)

The educational pyramids can be interpreted as follows:

36

The pyramid for Africans has a broad base, and a narrow
top, it indicates the majority of the people are at the
bottom of the education system. Very few people get to
the top. The pyramid for Whites hardly changes shape at
all. This shows that people are evenly distributed
through the education system. (p. 107)

 

Africans Whites

,, .

    
   
 

     

~
I.
q

’r a...
.-‘i "

,a“
: F9, 4
.'

  
 

Figure 2. Enrolment differences at primary and
secondary levels between Africans and
Whites.

Although the number of youth attending schools increased in the
19805, patterns of inequality still exist. Poor matriculation
results, high pupil-teacher ratios, and a lack of resources due to
inadequate funding are among the major problems of Black education
today. An important feature of education in this period has been a
growing resistance of Black students to Apartheid education. The
important constraints on education in South Africa for Blacks have
been racial segregation and social inequality. The quality of
African education has been questioned and threatened since its

inception

37

sto l ck e c

The history of Black teachers was difficult to obtain,
therefore, information presented here regarding their history is
sketchy. The history of African teachers is characterized by poor
teacher qualifications and lack of adequate financial support.
Pillay (1990, p. 37) state, "It is a truism to state that an
education system is only as good as the teachers it employs.”
Further, Pillay (1990) cite the 1981 Human Sciences Research Council
(de Lange Commission) investigation to support this warning:

. without a corps of well-trained and talented

teachers any endeavor aimed at a system of education by

means of which the potential of the country's

inhabitants is to be realized, economic growth

promoted, the quality of life of the inhabitants

improved and education of equal quality provided for

everyone, cannot be successful. (p. 37)

All teacher training schools for Africans were established by
missionaries prior to 1954. The Scots missionaries were the first
to start a teacher training department at Lovedale, near Alice in
the Eastern Cape in 1841. By 1866, besides lack of funds, there was
still a lack of capable teachers (Fells, 1938, p. 113). Besides
Lovedale, other teacher training institutions were established, for
example, Zonnebloem in Cape Town; and Healdtown in Grahamstown.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, there were more than 10
teacher training institutions, and of these, Lovedale produced only
about 40 teachers a year, and the other institutions, produced a
dozen or so teachers between them. These teachers had passed

standard 4 and had learned a little more arithmetic, English, and

geography than their students. This gave teachers the elementary

38

teacher's ”Third Class Certificate." By 1907, 920 students were
training as teachers. By 1935, there were 14 African teacher
training schools (Pells, 1938, p. 135). There has always been a
need for good, and qualified teachers, even as far back as the
nineteenth century, as noted by Pells (1938):

During the nineteenth century, Native school could not

give acceptable secular instruction until better

teachers were available. If there were not sufficient

funds to pay fair salaries and thus attract good

teachers, the cheaper method of paying the training

expenses of promising but needy Native pupils had to be

used. (p. 132)

In 1922, a new lower primary teacher's course was introduced.
The next year a few pupil teachers were preparing for the Higher
Primary Certificate as well. Between 1940 and 1954, there was an
increase in the enrolment of teachers in the teacher training
schools from 10,00 to 17,000.

With the introduction of Bantu Education in 1953, the
Department took over all teacher training schools except those run
by the Catholics and Seventh Day Adventists, and closed certain
institutions, Catholic and non-Catholic, that were in "White” areas.
Since then, it has reorganized those under its control and has
opened new ones (Horrell, 1964, p. 95).

The demand for teachers in African schools increased and so did
the number of teacher training schools. In mid-1958 here were 39
training institutions for African teachers. Since then, two new
university colleges have commenced providing post-matriculation

teachers' courses (Horrell, 1964, p. 95). Fort Hare University did

so previously.

39

The quality of African teachers was always debated, even in
Parliament, but seemingly, very little was done to improve teaching.
In the Assembly on 20 May 1963, the Minister said he agreed that
African teachers were not sufficiently well trained; but it had been
necessary, as an emergency measure, to produce large numbers
quickly. It will, naturally, be some years before the general level
of the educational qualifications of teachers is raised as a result
of this decision (Horrell, 1964, pp. 94-95).

With the general increase in the number of teachers, there was
a tremendous increase among female teachers in the workforce. For
example, according to information given by the Minister of Bantu
Education in the Assembly on 12 March 1963, the numbers of teachers
actually employed by his Department from 1959 to 1961 were as

follows (Horrell, 1964, p. 90).

Table 2
w e o e 1 Ba u u 0
Date was ties Mal
1959 13,264 12,824 26,088
1960 13,975 12,950 26,925
1961 15,002 13,101 28,103*

* (488 white)

 

Education in South Africa during this time was controlled by

Bantu Education Department. All teacher training institutions were

40

taken-over by the same department. Teaching became more attractive
to females especially teaching primary grades. The entrance
qualifications into teacher training schools were lowered to
accommodate this influx of women into teaching. As stated by
Horrell (1968) ”Considerable savings were effected on teachers'
salaries by using women teachers, as far as possible, in primary
schools, by employing larger numbers of women with low
qualifications” (p. 144). Women teachers seem to be seen as cheap
labor compared to men, as the government saved a lot of money from
this endeavor.

Teachers had very little freedom regarding their work and
lives. In a sense, teachers were seen as ”state property.”
Teachers were under tight scrutiny from the Department. For
example, regulations for teachers published in 1955 stated that,

. if the department considers a teacher in a State

school to be inefficient, or suspects misconduct, it

will call on a teacher to admit or deny this. Among

the definitions of misconduct are making unfavorable

remarks to the press about the policy of the Government

or about any Bantu authority, school board, or

committee (Horrell, 1968, pp. 96-97).

With the increase in the student population, demand was high
for more teachers. Diverse teacher training institutions were
established to cope with this demand. From 1967, the training of
primary teachers was centralized at a number of institutions. More
advanced teacher's courses were available at the University. At the
end of 1967, 64 students passed the Secondary Teachers' Diploma, 6

the University Education Diploma (Non-Graduate), and 24 the Graduate

University Education Diploma. It is a matter of concern that so few

41

students are taking the advanced courses (Horrell, 1968, p. 155).
Unfortunately, teacher training institutions could not provide
qualified teachers for all schools. The result was, there were
situations where persons without any teacher training background
were offered teaching positions. ”Accordingly, it is perturbing to
note that the number of employed teachers with no professional
qualifications and an academic background ranging from Standard VI
to matriculation has been increasing from 1,979 in 1961 to 4,826 in
1966. On the other hand, the number of teachers with degrees
dropped from 36.3 percent in 1961 to 25.5 percent in 1966” (Horrell,
1968, p. 155).

In 1968, the Junior Secondary Teachers' Diploma course was
introduced. The course was of two years' duration, and the minimum
admission requirement was a Senior Certificate. The course was
designed to equip students for teaching the lower forms of the
secondary school (Behr, 1971, p. 413). Despite an increase in the
number of teachers in the decade 1960-69 from 27,767 to 43,638,
there was an acute shortage of teachers.

The situation of teacher training has not improved. Although
the number of teacher education colleges has increased, the programs
are still highly fragmented. For example, there are teacher
colleges in the homelands which are controlled by their own
Education Departments. Whereas, the colleges in the urban
areas/white areas are controlled by the Department of Education and
training. Upon completion of their teacher training, teachers from

either department or region can teach anywhere in the country

42

irrespective of their training. In reality, most of the African
schools in South Africa are supplied teachers by colleges in the
homelands.

The scary part is that we are approaching the let century and
the qualifications of African teachers are still a worry, very
little improvement has occurred since the 1960s. For example, "all
white teachers are matriculated and 97 percent of them also have a
professional teaching qualification. Of this latter group 34.3
percent also had a university degree. Of the White teachers with no
professional qualification 32.2 percent had a university degree.
Only 7 percent of African teachers had university degrees (Pillay,
1990, pp. 39-40).

To heighten awareness of African teachers' qualifications, we
can compare the qualifications of teacher educators in teacher
training colleges by race, which gives a clear indication of the
qualifications of these ”teachers of future teachers" or lecturers.
This sheds light on the disparities between teacher corps of
different races which will continue to grow unless the teachers
training colleges are unified and entrance requirements are the same
throughout the whole country. The NECC report (1992) state:

. the majority of lecturer in the white and Indian
colleges are in categories E and F, while the majority

of lecturers in the DET and Coloured colleges fall into

categories D and E. It is significant also that 691 of

lecturers in the DET colleges are white, and that the

majority of these lecturers are in categories D and E,

one category lower than their colleagues in white
colleges. (p. 30)

43

nte retatio and "Ste in Back"

This section explores and illuminates the relationship of
schools to the wider society, or how schools are influenced by both
political and economic forces. Teachers' constraints are directly
linked to this macrocosmic social world. By "stepping back" and
looking at the larger social and political system, the constraints
on Black teachers can be better understood. Most of the time, Black
teachers have little control over their environment. Therefore, it
is impossible to discuss the quality and qualifications of Black
teachers and ignore constraints and factors that influence their
teaching. Such factors and constraints are categorized as follows:

politics and education,
organizational structure,
economics and education,
pupil-teacher ratio,

student resistance and power,
lack of teacher voice, and

geography as a subject.

We}:

The State policy on Black schooling was based on the proposals
set out by the Eiselen Commission (1949-1951) on "Native Education."
The commission made numerous recommendations, most of which were
implemented in terms of the Bantu Education Act of 1953. The

commission was requested to formulate

44

. the principles and aims of education for Natives

as an independent race, in which their past and

present, their inherent racial qualities, their

distinctive characteristics and aptitude, and their

needs under the ever changing social conditions are

taken into consideration (Report of Native Education

Commission 1949-1951, Annexure A:l81;) cited in Samuel

(1990, p. 17).

As a result, the Apartheid system created 15 different
education departments, and Black education was placed under state
control. Unequal education systems deprive some people of the most
important, basic, and primary needs: equal access, opportunity,
rights, or an equal education. White students enjoyed the most
privileges, while Indians and Coloured enjoyed some privileges, and
Black students were the most disadvantaged. Christie (1985) quotes
H.F. Verwoerd as saying: "When I have control over Native education,
I will reform it so that natives will be taught from childhood that
equality with Europeans is not for them” (p. 12). Verwoerd, was
Minister of Native Affairs at the time when Bantu Education was
introduced.

Bantu Education ensured that Blacks received an inferior
education which was only adequate for them to perform manual labor.
Christie and Collins (1984) noted that ”all Black teachers were
being trained in government training colleges and all syllabuses
were to be those emanating from the ideas of racial inferiority” (p.
60). The differences in facilities found in the different colleges
are glaring. White colleges enjoy the best resources, followed by
Indians and Coloureds. Black colleges have the least resources.

For example, White teachers are exposed to overhead projectors,

microteaching, spacious classrooms, field trips, and so forth.

45

Black teachers are prepared differently, starting with the
requirements for entrance to a teacher college. For example, Black
secondary teachers require a minimum of standard 10 (equivalent to
grade 12) to be admitted to a teacher college, while White secondary
teachers require B.A. as a minimum for admission to a teacher
education program.

Black teacher candidates are deprived thorough supervision
during their field experience because of their large numbers. It is
during field experience that candidates who are not well-grounded in
their subject-matter could be easily identified. But lack of close
supervision makes it difficult to detect teacher candidates who are
weak in their subjects areas majors. The absence of mentors for

novice teachers also makes it difficult for novice Black teachers.

a t ture o S hool

The organizational structure of the Department of Education and
Training is highly hierarchical (refer back to Figure 3).
Schools have a top-heavy bureaucracy and are centrally controlled.
Leadership is authoritarian. Teachers are at the bottom of the
hierarchical structure and have little say in their own affairs.
Administration is heavily centralized; regional provisions are made,
but there are virtually no local decision-making powers, and
regional directors seem to be in name only (Department of Education,

Natal University, 1981).

46

The Department leaves little to chance. Teachers use
prepackaged materials from the Department of Education, which
results in teachers becoming technicians. Prescribed, prepackaged
materials give teachers no room to exercise their thinking skills

and further deskill them.

W

Throughout the 19505 and 19605, Black education was funded by a
fixed treasury contribution of R13 million plus 80 percent of Black
taxes. However, Black wages were so low that 80 percent of Black
taxes represented a paltry amount. Until 1970, the state operated
on the premise that the expansion of Black schooling was dependent
upon an increased contribution by the Bantu in the form of taxation
(Samuel, 1990, p. 19).

Education and economics are interwoven in the ways that schools
prepare students for different occupations. There is a correlation
between schools and the labor market. Schools track students, while
the labor market provides job queues for the laborers. People with
the most skills are found higher up in the queue. In South Africa
from the outset, when schools were established for Blacks, it was
clear that Blacks would be disadvantaged. Opinions were raised by
different political figures regarding how they viewed the purpose of
education. Here is an example from J.N. le Roux, 1945 National
Party politician, ”We should not give the Natives any academic
education, If we do, who is going to do the manual labor in the

community?" (quoted in Christie, 1985, p. 12)

47

Director-General

Deputy Director General

l

3 Chief Directors

l

 

9 Regional directors *4- l/
J, Deputy Director

Inspector of Schools Assistant Director

(Circuit Inspectors) Chief lispector of Education
‘l . Chief Eihcation Planner

Inspectors of Schools

1

Principals

l

Departmental Heads

l

Teachers

1

Pupils

Figure 3. Organizational structure of the Department of

Education and Training.

48

Schools in capitalist or colonized countries serve the
prevailing economic order and reproduce social inequalities.
Education or schooling affects the kinds of jobs and earnings
accessible to various of people (Bowles & Gintis, 1976; Giroux,
1983; Willis, 1977). Social reproduction is not based on students'
abilities but on their socioeconomic and class backgrounds. Schools
legitimize the selection of students with tests, evaluation,
tracking, and the kinds of knowledge they offer students. The
quality of Black teachers has been affected by this process. As
prospective teachers, Black teachers receive an inferior education
in the first place, which is then passed on to their students. This
sustains the process of social reproduction and inequality.

Teachers are also involved in social reproduction because they
prepare students for different positions in the labor market.
Bernstein (1986) notes that "we should look at the way schools
select subjects, and the way they examine them. These things tell us
about the distribution of power in society” (p. 85). This explains
why in South African Black schools in particular, only certain
subjects are taught, and the choices are few; and why Black and
White schools have different aims regarding a particular subject.
Christie (1985) shows an example of the different aims found in the
standard 2 environment syllabus of the White (Cape Education
Department) and Black schools. Two of the aims listed in the CED

syllabus geography are shown below.

49

1. To lead the pupils to a closer acquaintance with
-- his own country and people
-- other lands and peoples of the world, and
-- the natural phenomena of the earth in so far as he is
able to understand them.
2. To develop in the pupil a concept of common humanity by
-- leading him to take interest in national problems of
his own country
-- encouraging a sympathetic attitude towards other
races and their problems, and
-- creating a clearer understanding of the
interdependence of the peoples of the world. (p.
147)
The Department of Education and Training for Blacks gives a
different set of aims in its environmental studies syllabus:

The person should realize that he is a member of a

particular community and that he is bound by various

ties to particular groups of people in that community,

as they are presented, for example, by his home, his

school, church, residential area, and his tribe. These

groups serve him directly and indirectly and he in turn

owes them loyalty and co-operation. At a later stage,

larger loyalties can be developed. (p. 147)

From these aims, one can see the different expectations that
each department hopes to achieve for its students. With White
students, teachers are to probe more, students are expected and
encouraged to think critically and abstractly, and to have a broader
view of the world. Black students are not challenged to think

beyond their local environment and are infantilized as incapable of

doing so.

50

Geography is a good example of what gets included in the
curriculum and how differently it may be presented to different
groups of students. The level of geography taught in Black
secondary schools is different from the level of geography taught in
White schools. The concepts developed by Graves (1979) regarding
the different stages/phases in teaching geography in secondary
schools were adopted by the Department of Education. Graves (1979)
used Piaget's stages of mental development to determine the phase of
geography to be taught to students. The maturity level of students
determines the stage of geography they learn. Graves (1979)
suggested the following three stages:

This division into three stages of the secondary school

curriculum has certain advantages from the point of

view of content selection. The first stage (11+ to

14+) corresponds largely with a period when pupils are

still mainly in the stage of ‘concrete operations.’

The second stage (14+ to 16+) corresponds to the

period when hypothetico- -deductive modes of thought

begin to develop for the students, though many will

still find a theoretical proposition difficult to

understand. . . . The third stage (16+ to 18+ 19+) is

one when mental development enables students to handle

more abstract situations and where the self motivation

of intellectual pursuits may be much stronger. (pp.

58-59)

This quote could well justify the manual labor type of
education for Blacks. The Department of Education and Training has
adopted the second-phase geography in Black secondary schools while
in White secondary schools the third-phase of Graves' typology was
adopted. The students in both systems are of the same age, but with

the adoption of the second phase in Black schools, this may suggest

or imply Black students are not capable of understanding abstract

51

concepts demanded for White students. Ballantyne (1987) explains
that
. the racial inequalities existing in South African
education and the deprived nature of the ”Coloured,"

”Asian," and ”Black" education departments and schools

ensure that second-phase geography dominates due to

lack of teaching resources, large pupil numbers, and

unqualified and under-trained teachers. (p. 113)

This quote exposes the inequalities and poor teaching resources in
Black schools. The quality of Black teachers and overcrowded
conditions are cited as posing a problem for teachers. When
students are taught second-phase geography, students' thinking
skills are not challenged; they are only encouraged to recall and
memorize facts.

The distribution of funds for education among the four racial
groups, namely Africans, Whites, Indians, and Coloureds is unequal.
Magubane, cited in Berreman (1980), explores the gross inequalities
in the distribution of funds among the four racial groups:

In South Africa the pyramid of wealth and power exists

as a fact of daily experience. Whites who constitute

less than 201 of the population, consume more than 60%

of the nation's income, have legal occupancy of 871 of

the land, and hold most of the skilled and semiskilled

jobs. Inequality of revenue and wealth is not only an

economic fact; it also implies inequality of life

chances. (p. 258)

According to Tygesen (1991): "In the 1991/92 fiscal year,
there will be no increase in real spending in education, but
spending on Black education will rise 10 percent, while that for
White education will fall by 10 percent” (p. 15). These figures can

be deceiving. A 101 increase in spending for Black education is

minuscule, considering that for decades Blacks have received the

52

least funding for education despite being the majority population in
South Africa. The backlog on Black expenditures is great, and
serious attention should be given to this issue because no school
can function without adequate funds. The government is using a
”band-aid" method to solve low expenditure for Black education
instead of healing the gaping wound.

The absence of resources in Black schools is very glaring and
serious. Only chalk and dust are plentiful in Black schools. The
irony of the matter is that teachers who are least qualified to
teach have no instructional tools; whereas, those who are better
qualified are provided with multiple resources. For example, there
are reports that the government spent the following amounts on
students from the various population groups: For Whites R2508,00,
Indians R1904,20, Coloureds R102l,l4, and Blacks R476,95.

The amount of money spent on education affects the availability
of resources. Most Black schools have no libraries. Those schools
that have them usually have a lot of empty shelves and old books.-
Some schools have science laboratories, but these are equipped with
antiquated materials. Some have new equipment, but these materials
are stored; there is no electricity or running water in the lab, and
teachers are not familiar with the equipment. Most schools cannot
afford to buy current maps, globes, stereoscopes, barometers, etc.
Very few schools can afford to undertake educational field trips.
Teachers are forced to talk about concepts abstractly or to use

diagrams on the chalkboard. Phones are a luxury in Black schools.

53

Equipment like TVs, computers, Xerox machines, or overhead
projectors are not found in the majority of Black schools.

The department does provide some textbooks, but in some cases,
because of high enrollment, students must share books. Teachers are
forced to write notes on the board. Writing on the board is
time-consuming; precious teaching time is lost in this process. The
availability of textbooks for all students is of primary importance.
Textbooks are important for both teachers and students. Students
should have textbooks to study for class work and homework.
According to Wren (1991), the Minister of Education and Development
Aid in South Africa reported some teachers never completed the
course material on which their students were tested, and he cited
the shortage of textbooks and facilities as reasons for the low pass
rate, (p. 1). Black teachers do not have access to a variety of
teaching resources which would make teaching easier and exciting.
But, of all the resources needed, textbooks are the primary need for
both teachers and students.

The availability of textbooks for students is unquestionably an
important factor. Research has shown that in instances where
students have textbooks of their own, students achieve better
results and acquire more knowledge. Textbooks are a valuable
resource for students, especially that in African schools, teachers
rely on them to teach the prescribed curriculum. Teachers cannot
afford to write notes on the board, they are time-consuming.
Textbooks facilitate teaching. Black schools today are still

battling the shortage of textbooks.

54

W113:

Since the institution of Bantu Education in 1953, there was a
marked deterioration in the qualification level of teachers. Blacks
were encouraged to become teachers with minimum qualifications. For
years, Black teachers have had far less training than White
teachers.

The curriculum in South Africa is such that Black teachers
teach to the test. The technical approach to curriculum that must
be adopted by teachers rests on the following assumptions cited by
Bullough and Goldstein (1984):

1. Standardization of human experience is necessary for
education to take place; students should learn the same
things in the same sequence.

2. Goals are essentially matters of opinion.

3. The process of translating goals into classroom actions is
a technical, value-free process.

4. Conflict is disruptive and is to be avoided.

5. All important learnings can be behaviorally demonstrated
and objectively tested (quantified).

6. To achieve efficiency, control over behavior of teachers
and students must be increased. (p. 24)

In addition, Loucks and Lieberman (1983) indicate "the
technological view of curriculum focuses on innovation itself and
pays scant attention to the process of change, the politics, or
people” (p. 127). Implementing curriculum requires that teachers

master their subject matter. The amount of knowledge teachers

55

possess is important since knowledge is equated with power.
According to Giroux and McLaren (1986): ”Within the dominant‘
curriculum, knowledge is often removed from the issue of power and
is generally treated in a technical manner; that is, it is seen in
instrumental terms as something to be mastered" (pp. 173-174).

Teachers are treated with respect when they are seen to possess
the required knowledge for the subjects they teach. Shulman (1986)
notes that teaching is essentially, a learned profession:

A teacher is a member of a scholarly community. He or

she must understand the structures of subject matter,

the principles of conceptual organization, and the

principles of inquiry that help answer two kinds of

question in each field; what are the important ideas

added and deficient ones dropped by those who produce

knowledge in this area? (p. 321)

What this means is that teachers are required to have a broad
knowledge base, constantly renewing and reskilling themselves in
their disciplines. Furthermore, Shulman (1986) suggests the
following categories of teachers' knowledge:

-- content knowledge;

-- general pedagogical knowledge, with special reference to
those broad principles and strategies of classroom
management and organization that appear to transcend
subject-matter;

-- curriculum knowledge, with particular grasp of the
materials and programs that serve as ”tools of the trade”
for teachers;

-- pedagogical content knowledge, that special amalgamation

of content and pedagogy that is uniquely the province of

56

teachers, their own special form of professional
understanding;

-- knowledge of learners and their characteristics;

-- knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from the
working group or classroom, the governance and financing

of school districts, to the character of communities and
cultures;
-- knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values, and
their philosophical and historical grounds. (p. 320)
In their study of novice teachers, Wilson, Shulman, and Richert
(1987) provide a description of how one teacher reflected on what it
means to know biology for teaching- He said the following:

When you learn [biology] for teaching you have to know
it a lot better I think. . . . When you learn to teach,
you have to be able to handle 150 different approaches
to it because you have to be able to handle every
different student's approach. . . . They are going to
ask you questions from different areas and you're going
to have to be able to approach it from their mind-set.
So when you learn it as a teacher, you have to learn it
in terms of how you're going to teach it and how it's
going to affect the students and how they are going to
be able to understand it. . . . Teachers may need to
generate alternative approaches to the subject matter,
analogies, illustrations, metaphors, examples-that take
into consideration differences in student abilities,
prior knowledge, and learning styles. (p. 104)

Teachers relying on the technical approach to teach, will not
serve the needs of diverse students with different styles of
learning. Teachers are expected to draw their expertise from a wide
variety of sources. Hence, The Holmes Group (1990) suggests that

prospective teachers have a wide base of liberal arts courses in

57

preparation for their teaching and in-depth preparation within those
subjects they will teach. Maeroff (1988) indicates the following:
Without a firmer knowledge base and a better sense of
where to turn for information they need, teachers will
not have as much control over their professional lives

as they might. . . . Teachers over and over again speak
of themselves as intellectually starved. (p. 4)

Pupil-gegcher gatig

The number of students in a classroom can contribute to the
degree of success a teacher will have in implementing the
curriculum. The interaction between the teacher and students is
crucial. Students from time to time need individual attention. In
1987, the pupil-teacher ratio for Whites in South Africa was 16:1;
Indians, 21:2; Coloureds, 25:1; and Blacks, 41:1. However, these
ratios are just averages for Black classrooms; most classrooms are
overcrowded because there is a backlog in building Black schools.
Most teachers hardly know the ability of their students because it
is nearly impossible to interact with them individually. At
present, the Department has imposed a freeze in hiring despite a
shortage of Black teachers and overcrowding which results in higher
teacher-pupil ratios and makes teaching and learning all the more
difficult.

This accommodation problem is accentuated by the state's policy
of locating Black high schools in the ”homeland” reserves. For
example, in 1975, there were 604 secondary schools in the homelands

and only 170 in the urban areas of South Africa (Samuel, 1990, p.

58

19). The government was trying to push its' policy of relocating

Black people to the homelands.

tude ' elatio s i with eache s

In South African Black schools, student voices have been
suppressed, depriving them of the opportunity to express themselves.
The adage ”children should be seen but not heard" is true among most
Africans. Black schools are characterized by authoritarianism,
rigidity, and lack of creativity. Students are controlled through
rote learning and memorization. Students educated under Apartheid
are obedient to orders. Students are very passive in class, and
they conform to a traditional way of teaching which is
teacher-centered. Black students are not socialized or encouraged
to participate in discussions pertaining to their work. Directives
are mandated top-down, and students are stifled by these directives.

The full potential of students has not been tapped in terms of
their contributing positively to their learning. This
authoritarian, strict discipline is exemplified in the leadership of
most South Africans. Leaders don't expect to be questioned by their
constituencies, or for their constituencies to differ with them.
Some leaders take criticism personally.

The 1976 student riot was the beginning of a new era on the
education scene. Black students successfully challenged the
Department; Bantu Education as a policy failed. Students were able
to relate problems in schools to problems experienced in the wider

society. 'With time, students were influenced by the Black labor

59

unions and a "Black conscious" ideology. Since 1976, life in Black
schools was changed forever. Black students reject the quality of
education offered by the Department of Education and Training.
Schools alienate students, and this alienation manifests itself in
hostility, outrage, and anger.

Students have staged numerous boycotts and have stayed away
from school. Student grievances have included age-limit regulations
and restrictions and lack of democratic representation. These
grievances are legitimate, but in the interim, thousands of students
were lost to the streets. Today, thousands of Black youngsters are
without any basic education and are unemployable. Students have
become victims of their own political action.

Several studies have shown that in societies where there are
privileges and lower classes of people, inequalities in the
education system prevails. Oakes (1985), in a study of middle and
poor class schools, found that where there are poor and minority
students, they are characterized by being placed in lower track
classes, more alienation, distance, and authority than high track
classes. Willis (1977) found similar behavior among students who
belonged to the working class.

Due to lack of compulsory education for Blacks, the majority of
Black students start school at age seven or higher, while White
students start school at age six. In most Black secondary schools,
students are much more mature than their counterparts in White
schools. Today's secondary students understand South African

politics better because of exposure to various media. Their ability

60

to see injustices and inequalities prevalent in society is great.
Fullan (1982) explains the following:
When adults think of students, they think of them as
the potential beneficiaries of change. They think of
achievement results, skills, attitudes and jobs. They
rarely think of students as participants in a process
of change and organizational life. (p. 155)

Unfortunately, those students who cannot continue with schooling

become statistics with no employable skills.

ngh 9f Iggghg; Voice

The presence of political constraints mars Black teachers'
professionalism and academic quality. Marcum (1982) notes that
”teachers are themselves victims of a system. For every such
teacher there are students who spy on him or her” (p. 113). This
means teachers could not bring in a different interpretation of what
the syllabus espoused, in particular, during history and geography
lessons. In MacKinnon (1960), Justices Black and Douglas in the
United States Supreme Court discussed what can happen when teachers
are watched too closely:

There can be no real academic freedom in that

environment . . . there can be no exercise of the free

intellect. Supiness and dogmatism take the place of

enquiry. A "party line" lays hold. It is the "party

line” of the orthodox view, of the conventional

thought, of the accepted approach. . . . The teacher is

no longer stimulant to adventurous thinking; she

becomes instead a pipeline for safe and sound

information. A deadening dogma takes the place of free

enquiry. Instruction tends to become sterile; pursuit

of knowledge is discouraged. (p. 87)

Black teachers were unable to freely express their discontent and

finally they vented their frustrations by boycotting classes. Those

61

actions were referred to as "teacher chalkdown." In the past two

years, Black teachers staged ”teacher chalkdown” to draw attention
to their problems. This "chalkdown" was initiated in February 15,
1990. The Shag, a newspaper, reported the following protest:

A crowd of more than 5000 defiant teachers halted

traffic as they marched peacefully through the streets

of Johannesburg yesterday to the regional office of the

Department of Education and Training in Braamfontein.

List of grievances included: that they earn a living

wage; all dismissed teachers be immediately reinstated

and transferals only take place at teachers' request;

more teachers be employed to ease the burden on

overworked teachers; and that teachers work fewer hours

per week. (p. 1)

Teacher ”chalkdown” occurred in two phases. During the first
phase, teachers took to the streets, marching and singing. During
the second phase, teachers went to school but refused to teach.
Students who attended classes were not taught, and this created a
problem. The second phase lasted for a long time. Teachers hoped
by staging ”chalkdown," people would pay attention to their
problems. At least, teachers thought, their frustrations and stress
for the moment were laid to rest.

Some teachers regarded ”chalkdown” as a victory for them, but
it spelled doom for students. For weeks and months, students were
not taught. When teachers finally decided to return to teach, they
were unable to complete the prescribed curriculum and prepare their
students for the examinations. Some aspects were haphazardly done,
and the results were dismal. Teachers' resistance proved fatal
because they abandoned their duties as educators. Teachers failed

the students they were entrusted to help. Both parents and students

regarded teacher ”chalkdown” as irresponsible. When teachers are

62

deprived a voice, at times they express themselves in ways that are
detrimental to their own work. Unfortunately, teachers' voices are
lacking in major decision-making processes. Teachers' capabilities
and influence are ignored resulting in frustration and a feeling of
worthlessness. MacKinnon (1960) supports the manner in which
teachers are treated by most education departments by stating the
following:

The assumption by state official of leadership in

education has stunted the growth of the teaching

profession just as perpetual babying by an over zealous

parent stunts the growth of a child's personality.

Obedience to direction, acceptance of conformity, and

reliance on political strategy in the school system

take the place of the cooperation. (p. 106)
The lack of teachers' voice can contribute to teacher stress.
Fullan (1982) states that

. teacher stress and burnout have become common
terms in the professional and public media. Burnout
involves a change in attitude and behavior in response

to a demanding, frustrating, unrewarding work
experience. (p. 111)

Wigs

Geography as a subject is highly scientific and demands that
teachers be knowledgeable about this subject. The content, spirit,
and methods of geography have undergone a dramatic transformation.
Ball (1971) states, ”beginning as a basically inert subject, it has
emerged a dynamic, viable science reaching out toward new
techniques, new ideas, and new horizons” (p. 28).
To fully understand the complexity of the subject, Banks (1977)

offers the following analysis:

63

Geography spans the full range of the social sciences.
Physical geography, when regarded as earth science,
certainly borders on, perhaps even belongs to the
natural sciences. Historically geography, on the other
hand, so closely resembles the work and method of the
historian as to border on the humanities at the other
end of the continuum. Regional and cultural geography
are perhaps midway the scale, while modern spatial
geography with its strong emphasis on economic
activities and mathematical models ranges much closer
to the natural science end of the continuum. (p. 302)

This quote indicates how geography is a hybrid subject and very
complex.

The challenges geography offers students are great. Teachers
who have not majored or had a university course in geography might
find it difficult to teach certain sections of geography because of
its complexity. Pigozzi (1990) notes the following:

Pre-service teachers are usually exposed to too little

geography, and most often, to material which only

strengthens the place-name image of the discipline.

. For many years to come we must also provide

motivation and opportunity for inservice teachers to
develop an accurate view and useful background in

geography. (p. 3)
Some teachers might have majored in geography, but due to the
changing nature of the subject, might not be familiar with the
introduction of current concepts in geography. Most geography
teachers lack in-depth knowledge of the subject because most of them
had little exposure of the subject post-high school. If preservice
education is responsible for exposing prospective teachers to
subject matter, at the moment it is not doing 50.
Morris (1968) indicates the following:

The education that we receive, supposedly designed to

prepare us for effective teaching of social studies,

was one that dealt principally with the past. Somehow
there was an almost mystical assumption that we could

64

take the ideas of the past, put them into the frame of

the present, and have them make sense to the children

who live in the future. In spite of these

difficulties, we surely have the potential for

upgrading the teaching of geography. (p. 47)

Keeping abreast of the latest information regarding geography
is important for geography teachers. Pigozzi (1990) explains: "For
many years to come, we must also provide motivation and opportunity
for teachers to develop an accurate view and useful background in
geography" (p. 3).

This chapter has captured the essence of Black education as it
evolved through various historical and political phases in South
Africa. There are no fundamental changes in the conditions and
quality of education offered to Blacks presently, and the
qualifications of teachers leaves much to be desired. Instead,
problems in Black education have been compounded by all the laws
that promoted Apartheid, while proposed solutions to these problems
seemed untenable.

The next chapter addresses the methodology and procedures used

to collect and analyze the data for this study.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF STUDY

The purpose of this study was to explore the contextual factors
and constraints that Black teachers say influence them when
implementing the curriculum, in particular, geography teachers. The
primary questions driving this research were:

1. How do geography teachers perceive their workplace

constraints when implementing the curriculum?

2. How do these constraints manifest themselves in the

workplace?

W
An interpretive and critical framework guided data collection

and analysis. The research questions required methods and data
treatment drawn from the interpretive social sciences. Thus, the
design of this study is interpretive in terms of its questions, data
collection, and analysis, and it is critical in terms of how the
data were interpreted. An interpretive approach was appropriate
because it allows the researcher to focus on how people interact and
perceive their context and work. To understand the constraints

perceived by geography teachers, interviewing teachers and

65

66

collecting data in the same environment where teachers worked were
important. Understanding that no two contexts are exactly alike, an
interpretive approach best suited studying the South African
situation. Teachers were also comfortable talking about their own
experiences in a familiar setting.

A critical framework allowed me to examine the ideology and
hegemony underlying or driving the constraints that teachers in this
study reported to me. This framework helped me to take interpretive
data and situate the analysis and interpretation critically. It
helped me explain how the dominant class could use education to
allocate people to designated hierarchical positions in the
workplace. Bowles and Gintis (1976) state that not only does
education allocate individuals to a relatively fixed set of
positions in society. It also allocates positions determined by
economic and political forces. ”But the process of education
itself, the formal and hidden curriculum, socializes people to
accept as legitimate the limited roles they ultimately fill in
society" (p. 32).

Black teachers have very little control and power over their
work. An interpretive and critical study best suited this research,
given the kinds of data to be collected where teachers were to
explain and talk about their perceptions of constraints in their
workplace. The curriculum that teachers were to implement is
socially constructed by those in power. The knowledge that teachers
possess and that is constituted or co-created in classrooms with

students is also socially constructed. Forty eight Black geography

67

teachers responded to the questionnaire and eighteen teachers
volunteered as subjects for the interview for this qualitative

study.

mm

The primary data sources used in this study were a
questionnaire, structured interviews, and fieldnotes. I chose to
use a questionnaire to collect demographic data from a purposeful
sample of Black geography teachers. The questionnaire explored,
among other things, who geography teachers were in terms of their
academic and professional qualifications and experience; whether or
not those teachers had attended inservice education; if so, how many
times they had attended; and how teachers perceived inservice
education in general.

Fieldnotes were used when teachers requested the tape recorder
be switched off during interviews and in cases where I felt a tape
recorder would be obtrusive, disruptive, or suspect, for example,
when I visited the Department of Education. When I spoke to
teachers about my research and my intention to use the tape
recorder, some teachers who wanted to participate in the interview
objected to its use. Even during the interviews, some teachers
preferred some parts of our conversations not be taped, and
fieldnotes played a major role in this aspect of data collection.

I also used fieldnotes when I reflected on my day and wrote
impressions and comments follow the interviews. Fieldnotes also

were used to capture nonverbal communication and behaviors observed

68

during interviewing, which a questionnaire or tape recorder would
not capture very well. Teachers had the opportunity to express how
they perceived those constraints that hampered them from
successfully implementing the geography curriculum.

Before leaving the United States, the initial interview
questions and questionnaire were piloted with the African Education
Research Group at Michigan State University, which consists of
education students from Burundi, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda,
South Africa, and Zimbabwe. This group judged the questions to be
appropriate for geography teachers in South Africa, with little

modification.

te e ect o a e ec o u c
The research was conducted in seven schools that taught
geography standards 8, 9, and 10 (equivalent to grades 10, 11, 12)
in the province of Transvaal. Schools for Blacks residing in the
"White areas” are divided into seven regions, each with a regional
director who is responsible to the Department of Education and
Training. The regions are further divided into circuits.
The following are pseudonyms of the seven schools and the
number of geography teachers who participated in the research:
Bongani Secondary School--6 teachers
Jabulani Secondary School--4 teachers
Maname Secondary School--7 teachers
Pulane Secondary School--7 teachers

Sekhu Secondary School--6 teachers

69

Tsekiso Secondary School--9 teachers

Zimakwe Secondary school--7 teachers
These schools are located in a very large township near the largest
industrial area in the Transvaal, one of the provinces in South
Africa. The predominant language spoken in this region is Sotho
with clusters of Zulu and Xhosa-speaking groups. All teachers in

this study were Black.

G in n ccess

When I tried to gain access into schools, I experienced similar
constraints experienced by teachers at the Department of Education
and Training. The constraints were partly due to heavy bureaucracy.
It seemed most officials at the department knew very little of what
was going on outside their immediate offices. The Department of
Education and Training is located in Pretoria and controls all Black
schools in White areas. Although the Department of Education and
Training serves Blacks, the majority of senior officials are White,
even secretaries. Before leaving for South Africa as early as March
.1990, I wrote a letter to the regional director where I intended to
conduct research. I received a reply from the regional director
that my application had been directed to Pretoria. Mr. Kloof
received my application in Pretoria and acknowledged its receipt.

On July 10th, the first week of my arrival in South Africa, I
scheduled a visit to the Department of Education in Pretoria. Upon
arrival at the Department, I approached the information desk for

direction to Mr. Kloof's office. I was directed to his office.

70

Apparently, Mr. Kloof, an official at the Department, was not
knowledgeable about educational research procedures. After Mr.
Kloof received my application, he was unable to identify the person
who should approve my research. Mr. Kloof stated: "I was surprised
when I received the letter from the regional director, asking me to
give you permission to conduct research in his region. He has the
power to give consent. 1 don't know what to do. I am just a clerk
here” [field-notes: 08.10.90].

I was perplexed at Mr. Kloof's response, as four months had
elapsed since receiving the letter. No efforts were made whatsoever
with regard to procedures for conducting research nor in identifying
the person responsible for approving research. Mr. Kloof arranged a
quick appointment with Mr. Skeer, another official, by phone. The
appointment was confirmed immediately. Upon arrival at Mr. Skeer's
office, it became frustrating to realize that Mr. Skeer was the
wrong authority on educational research. Consequently, Mr. Skeer,
realizing my frustration, politely and enthusiastically contacted
several people by phone until someone identified Mrs. Smith as the
person responsible for research. Mr. Skeer arranged another
appointment for me. I spent almost the whole day at the Department,
with one official after another talking on the phone trying to find
the right person responsible for research. (I think the officials
were embarrassed by what was going on and realized how I was
inconvenienced.)

Meeting with Mrs. Smith was fruitful. Indeed, she was

responsible for research. I told Mrs. Smith about my ordeal at the

71

Department, and she looked embarrassed and dismayed at her
colleagues' not knowing much about the research component of the
department. Mrs. Smith gave me a form to complete, which basically
asked questions concerning my research. Mrs. Smith was mostly
interested in my research questions. I gave Mrs. Smith a copy of my
draft proposal. I made Mrs. Smith aware that the research questions
might be modified somewhat during data collection.

Mrs. Smith was satisfied with the questions and did not
anticipate problems with the Department granting permission. Mrs.
Smith indicated that my application would not go through all the
required channels since such a delay was caused by the Department's
officials, not by me. Mrs. Smith promised that by Wednesday, July
17th, 1990, I would receive a letter granting permission to conduct
my research. [fieldnotes 07.23.90].

At this point of interacting with the educational bureaucracy
of my own country, I could not help but think about my exposure to
the organizational structure of schools in the United States when I
took a fieldwork research course. Gaining access at the high school
where I conducted my research was not difficult. A letter was
written to the superintendent, and I met with the principal and
counselors beforehand to make sure I met certain requirements.
Everything was acknowledged and approved within a week. My
experience with the South African education officials compared with
those in an American school made me realize that Black schools in
South Africa have little control over visitors, in particular those

who would conduct or participate in educational research.

72

At every school I visited, 1 met first with either the
principal or the deputy principal. I introduced myself to the
administrators, briefly explaining the purpose of my visit: to
conduct research at their schools with the help of geography
teachers. Although I did not have written permission from the
Department, the administrators were made aware that the Department
knew of my intention to conduct research. I shared with the
administrators the letter from the University Committee on Research
involving Human Subjects of Human Subjects, which obliged me to
demonstrate how I would protect the rights of my subjects. I
promised not to disturb teachers during their teaching time. This
introductory procedure was followed in all seven schools.

During my initial visit with teachers, administrators called
the teachers either through the intercom, or a student was sent to
call the teachers to the principal's office. There was very little
teaching going on in most schools during this time. Some students
were seen roaming the school yard or just sitting in class
unattended. I was introduced to the teachers by the administrators,
in brief, and teachers were told about my research intentions. I
followed the same procedures at all schools. We were given an empty
room where I could explain further to teachers what I was doing and
hoping to accomplish with the research.

Some teachers asked how they could trust me. Although they
wanted to work with me, they did not feel free and safe. One female
teacher I call Liz asked: ”How can we tell you are not sent by the

Department. These days you never know what people are up to”

73

[fieldnotes 08.17.90]. Immediately, I read the letter from the
University Committee for Human Rights Subject. I assured her and
other teachers that their anonymity would be protected. All
information would be confidential and only pseudonyms or numbers
would be used, meaning, they would remain anonymous. Because of the
uneasiness I sensed, I mentioned that a tape recorder would be used
during the interviews. Some teachers made it known immediately they
were not interested in interviews. Although I had explained to
teachers their rights, these teachers were not totally convinced.
However, I was happy that some teachers volunteered to be

interviewed.

W

The majority of the homes were four-room homes, at times
referred to as ”match-box" houses. There are sections of the
township with decent sized homes. The main streets had asphalt,
while side streets were covered with dusty gravel. Clouds of dust
could be seen with every passing vehicle from a distance. The
absence of traffic lights made drivers drive defensively, especially
at intersections. For transportation, people used cars, taxis,
buses, and the train. The majority of homes were without
electricity, and people used candles and kerosine lamps for light.
The mornings and late afternoons were terrible. Smoke from coal
stoves and braziers that people used as a means of heating and
cooking hung over the township. Houses could hardly be seen clearly

before 9:00 a.m. as the smog formed a blanket over them.

74

The time in which I visited South Africa (July, August,
September, 1990) was a very volatile period of political unrest, and
conditions were fluid, with sporadic violence here and there. The
general living conditions in the townships were basically in a state
of confusion. For example, grocery shops owned by Blacks were
without supplies, while some were gutted by fire.

To determine what to expect on a given day, one relied on the
behavior of residents. For example, a day of civil disobedience
meant students carried no books to school; workers would not drive
to work; buses and taxis would come to a standstill; and people
would be standing in the streets, looking around, in anticipation
for where the initial civil explosion might begin. In the meantime,
police in vans and soldiers in armored trucks patrolled the
townships, and helicopters hovered overhead.

It was unsafe to travel in the evening and at night in some
trouble spots. Cars would be stoned, and if the driver were even
more unfortunate, the car would be taken. For one to drive around
the township, one had to know which areas were safe as well as which
intersections of streets to avoid. The entire time I was in South
Africa, townships were very tense.

Schools had just reopened for the second semester. The school
year in South Africa starts in January and ends early December. The
first semester ends in June, and usually students write half-year
examinations before going for their winter vacation for a month.

When I visited some schools, students were still writing their

half-year examinations.

75

School buildings differed in structure; some were single-story
buildings, while others had double stories. At some schools, part
of the fence surrounding the school was missing, doors were removed
from their hinges, and window panes broken. Some schools had their
motto written in bold letters on the side of the building, probably
to motivate students. The outside surroundings of most schools were
bare without flowers, while the grass at some schools was growing
wild. Inside some schools, floors were swept but unpolished: at
others, floors were dirty. I was told that students refused to
clean their classrooms. In South African Black schools, students
clean their own classrooms; in White schools, there are janitors.

Most schools started at 7:45 a.m. As I drove to the various
schools in the mornings, some students walked to school and some
boarded taxis. Very few students used buses because people were
boycotting the local bus company for charging high fares. Black
students are not transported to school by special transport like
White students are. It's every student for himself or herself.
Students are forced to walk long distances to school, and by the
time they reach school, they are tired.

Since it was winter, students wore heavy sweaters and blazers
depicting their school colors. This brought back memories of my
school days. My home was a 15 to 20-minute walk from the junior
secondary school I attended. I remember I used to time myself so
close that some days I would be late for school. I still remember
days when I ran down the road only to find the school gate closed.

School prefects would take all the latecomers' names. On some days

76

we would be punished; at other times, we would receive only
warnings. I still remembered my school colors, black and gold, and
my school motto: Nil Nisi Optimum, meaning, "Only the best is good
enough.” My principal was very strict. He wanted all students to
live up to this motto.

When I arrived at most schools, students milled outside
classrooms, at times disrupting classes with their whistles and
laughter. Other students stood behind classrooms, basking in the
sun. In other schools, things were somewhat ”normal" with most
students in their classrooms. While visiting one school on a Monday
morning at 9:00 a.m., a group of boys came in the school yard in two
vans. Students outside who saw the vans started whistling.
Students inside the classrooms became very uneasy, looked outside,
and soon the school day was over. Students picked up their books
and left for home. Teachers stood watching, as they could not stop
their students from leaving the school. Later on, it was rumored
that the boys who came in the vans were looking for a rival group
they fought over the weekend [fieldnotes: 08-20-90]. Such
disturbances were common during this unsettling period. At times,
the sight of police vans and soldiers would unsettle and incite
students.

Black schools in South Africa feel the wrath of winter months
as there is no heat. As a result, at most schools I visited,
teachers not in class either were found sitting outside on the
veranda trying to warm themselves in the sun or were in the staff

room huddled in a corner, sitting around one small heater. The

77

classrooms were no better; students were frozen cold. Broken
windows in some cases compounded the situation, and students'
shivered all day long. I wondered how students could concentrate on
learning and how teachers could successfully implement the

curriculum under these circumstances.

ghegtionngirg

I intended to give questionnaires to 60 geography teachers and
then randomly select 15 teachers for interviews, hoping that
teachers with different qualifications and categories could be
represented in this smaller sample. In South Africa, teachers are
divided into different categories depending on their professional
and academic qualifications. To better understand the
qualifications of Black teachers, see Table 3 which shows a
comparison of qualifications of South African teachers to teachers
in the United States. Notice the differences in the qualifications
of Black and White South African teachers. For White teachers, the
minimum qualification is a B.A., whereas, for Black teachers
”matric" is the minimum qualification. Most teachers in the United
States have a Masters degree and a few with a B.A., which is the
minimum qualification before they could be certified. This table
highlights the disparities in the entrance requirements into teacher
training institutions by the various departments in South Africa.

The idea was to get some sense of who the geography teachers
were at Black secondary schools. Thereafter, teachers belonging to

the different categories would be interviewed. I would then get a

78

sense of which ”level" of teachers encountered the most or least

constraints in implementing the curriculum.

Table3
'UIPS. ,‘°! '7, Ti 1' ‘ .1-13, -t '15 ! .° 1 i 3 {1' Q'- ! d
W

Black White

WWWW

Metric + HPTC X

Matric + JSTC X

Matric + STD X

B. Fed. X

BA + HPTC X

BA + JSTC X

BA + STD X

BA + UED X X

BA + HED X X

BA (Hons) X X X
MA + X X X
KEY: HPTC - Higher Primary Teachers' Certificate (non-degree)

JSTC - Junior Secondary Teachers' Certificate (non-degree)
STD - Secondary Teachers' Diploma (non-degree)

UED - University Education Diploma (obtained after degree)
HED - Higher Education Diploma (obtained after degree)

Hons - a specialized degree obtained after a degree)

 

 

79

When I met with geography teachers, the situation was not as I
envisioned. So I changed my strategy. Realistically, some teachers
felt uncomfortable with the idea of being interviewed and
tape-recorded. They did not feel free to talk but were willing to
complete the questionnaire. Fifty-two geography teachers were given
questionnaires, and 48 responded. The response rate was high
because I personally gave teachers the questionnaires and patiently
waited while they completed them. (See appendix for sample
questionnaire.) During all of my first visits to the schools,
before leaving the school I made follow-up arrangements with those
teachers willing to be interviewed. After filling in the
questionnaires, teachers were given interview questions to read.
They could decide after reading the questions if they felt
comfortable being interviewed at a later date. I decided to let
teachers read the interview questions because during my initial
meeting with most of the teachers, when I mentioned interviews or
tape recording, some teachers voiced their concern about being
tape-recorded, and some were not sure if they wanted to be
interviewed. Answering the questionnaire was fine for most of the
teachers. After reading the interview questions, 18 teachers
volunteered for the follow-up interview.

When analyzing the questionnaire results, I divided these into
male and female responses; matriculation and degree; and veteran or
novice teachers. There were 30 male respondents (65%) and 18 female
(37%) respondents teaching geography. More women volunteered for

interviews than men. There were 10 men and 8 women who were

80

interviewed. I attributed this high response of females to the fact
that female teachers might have felt comfortable speaking with
another female. Since it was impossible to involve an equal number
of teachers from different categories, teachers were grouped into at
least two categories, veteran and novice teachers. The novice
teachers were those who were still on probation, teachers with less

than four years of teaching experience.

m

I deliberately used interviewing in my study because Black
teachers have not had an opportunity to participate or talk openly
and freely about their work constraints for fear of being
intimidated or reprimanded by the Department. Other people who are
not teachers have written and criticized teachers, for example, for
the high failure rate among Black matriculation students. But
teachers' voices have been missing in all these utterings. The
interview gave teachers an opportunity to talk at length about
their work, in particular, about the constraints that influenced
them when implementing the geography curriculum.

Bogdan and Biklen (1982) describe interviewing as a way to
”gather descriptive data in the subjects' own words so that the
researcher can develop insight on how subjects interpret some piece
of the world" (p. 135). Tuckman (1988) indicates that interviews
are used by researchers to convert into data the information
directly given by a person (subject). Further, by providing access

to what is ”inside a person's head," it is possible to explore

81

. what a person knows (knowledge or information),

what a person likes and dislikes (values and

preferences), and what a person thinks (attitudes).

Interviews are a way of getting data about people by

asking them rather than observing and sampling their

behavior. (p. 213)

Geography teachers had a lot to talk about in terms of how they
implemented the curriculum. Talking with teachers was a good way to
discover what teachers thought about their experiences with their
students, their peers, and the context and constraints in which they
operated.

I interviewed teachers using semi-structured questions to
collect data. I deliberately chose not to observe teachers, as I
was more concerned and interested in teachers talking about the
constraints influencing them when implementing the curriculum than
their actual teaching. If I wanted to observe teachers, there was
no way I could have achieved this since student attendance was so
erratic, and many of the teachers were not even teaching. (Although
students seldom attended school for the whole day, teachers were
required to be at school until the end of the school day.)

The teachers who volunteered to be interviewed were very much
concerned about their work and they desired improvement in their
working conditions. As one teacher said, "We are happy that you are
conducting this research. Maybe the department and administrators
might know our concerns from reading your work” [fieldnotesz
08.25.90]. Again, because of the distrust created by the Apartheid
system and the fact that teachers were not used to strangers or

fellow teachers interviewing them about their working conditions,

using volunteers seemed both justified and appropriate in this

82

study. Some teachers may have felt comfortable being interviewed
and tape-recorded because they identified with me as a fellow
teacher, as ”one of them” in terms of being a Black South African.

The interviews were conducted at the respective schools when
teachers were free, or after school. During the time or period when
the research was conducted, due to the political unrest, most
schools started at 8:00 a.m. and by 10:00 a.m., students virtually
had dismissed school. Teachers, on the other hand, could not leave
the school building until it was the designated time for them to
leave for home. Therefore, I used this time to interview geography
teachers. Most interviews averaged 45 minutes in length.

Teachers responded to the following guiding questions:

How successful are you in implementing the geography
curriculum? (Give reasons for your answer.)

What type of constraints inhibit you from implementing
the curriculum successfully? (Give reasons for your
answer.)

Are there support mechanisms provided by the Department
of Education and Training to geography teachers? (Give
reasons for your answer.)

How do you reflect on and evaluate your teaching?

Has inservice education helped you to implement the
geography curriculum? (Give reasons for your answer.)

Which sections in geography are problematic to teach
but are neglected in inservice? (Give reasons for your
answer.)

Have your examination results improved from the input
received at the inservice? (Give reasons for your
answer.)

How well prepared are you to teach geography? (Give
reasons for your answer.)

83

Are subject advisors and inspectors giving you the

necessary support you need? (Give reasons for your

answer.)

There were questions that emerged during the first few
interviews that were not part of my original interview questions.
The concern shown by teachers regarding constraints forced me to
include the following questions when I interviewed the rest of the
teachers:

How do teacher centers serve teachers?

How are students influencing the implementation of the
curriculum? (Give reasons for your answer.)

How does the competition between natural sciences and
social sciences influence implementation of geography
in your classroom? (Give reasons for your answer.)

How can you tell if or when teachers are "burnt-out”?
(Give reasons for your answer.)

After the data were collected, I looked for emerging themes and
patterns. There were constraints that were repeated by several
respondents regarding certain questions, and these responses were
clustered or grouped together. The groupings resulted in nine
categories or themes. Quotes are used in chapter 4 to indicate how
teachers thought and spoke about these constraints they said
hindered their work.

As mentioned earlier, my research focus shifted after I met
with geography teachers. Initially, my focus was on how geography
teachers perceived inservice education to help them implement the
curriculum. Since the majority of the teachers interviewed had not
attended inservice, although they showed a desire for inservice,

teachers were more concerned with the matriculation examination

84

results and their failure to successfully implement the curriculum.
Thus, the focus of the interview questions shifted to teachers'
perceptions of constraints. The questionnaire questions were not
changed because these mainly elicited demographic information.

Upon my return to the United States after conducting the study,
five Black South African education students were interviewed using
the revised questions. These students were former teachers and
administrators in South Africa. These teachers' responses were
similar to the responses of teachers who were interviewed in South
Africa.‘ Their direct quotes were not used in this study, although
their responses were similar.

In summary, this chapter has dealt with the data sources I
selected and used, and how I collected and analyzed the information
gathered through questionnaires, interviews, and fieldnotes. The
realization that some geography teachers shared their work
experiences and concerns for the first time in their teaching
experience with me made this study all the more exciting and
meaningful.

In the next chapter, I will discuss the findings from the
questionnaires and interviews. The findings from these two data

sets also will be compared and contrasted.

CHAPTER IV

THE FINDINGS: REVELATIONS AND HIDDEN TRUTHS

This chapter deals with the findings from the questionnaire and
interview data. The analysis of data will reveal how Black
geography teachers viewed the constraints that influence teachers
when implementing the curriculum. Teachers' voices were heard for
the first time, speaking in depth about their work and concerns.

Geography teachers are constantly confronted by constraints
when they implement the curriculum. The two main questions my
research focused on were: "How do teachers perceive their workplace
constraints when implementing the curriculum?” and "How do these
constraints manifest themselves in the workplace?” The
questionnaire and interviews helped me to explore these two
questions in considerable depth. The data analyzed will be
presented under the following subheadings: findings from the
questionnaire data; findings from the interviews; and a comparative

summary of the findings.
1 s h t 0 re

The analysis of the questionnaire data is based on the 48

teachers who responded to the questionnaire. The questionnaire data

85

86

were analyzed as follows. The responses to each question were
grouped into three. Those who ”strongly agreed" and ”agreed” were
grouped together, those who "strongly disagreed" and "disagreed”
were grouped together, and those who were "uncertain" formed another
mid-range or "undecided” group. Responses were converted into

frequencies and percentages.

Iggghe; ghalifications

Of the 48 teachers, 13% had a degree, a B.A. plus Higher
Primary Teacher Certificate, (University Education Diploma), (Higher
Education Diploma--Hons). A large 87% had matric plus a Higher
Primary Teacher Certificate, Junior Secondary Teacher Certificate,
or Secondary Teacher Diploma.

These data suggest that the majority of Black geography
teachers were not sufficiently qualified to teach their subject
because the teachers' knowledge of the subject would have been
almost equivalent to their students, or they were just a notch
higher than their students in terms of subject-matter preparation

and knowledge.

v Te
Most Black geography teachers did not teach both standards 9
and 10. Two-thirds of the teachers taught only one standard. For
example;
781 did teach two courses, or if they did, the 2 courses

were not in sequence.

87

only 22% taught both standards 9 and 10, in sequence.

The data here suggest there is very little continuity for
teachers preparing students from standard 9 to standard 10. The
standard 9 curriculum lays the foundation for the standard 10
curriculum. If different teachers teach standard 9 and 10, serious
problems arise. If the teacher teaching standard 9 is not good
enough or fails to complete the syllabus, the teacher continuing
with the students in standard 10 would inherit all the problems that
students had in standard 9. These problems would manifest themselves

when students wrote their national examinations in standard 10.

hgw flgny ngrg oi Expegighgg Did Ihege Ieaghgzg flgve?

Of the geography teachers surveyed,
-- 22% had taught for 10 or more years;
-- 111 had taught for 7-9 years;
-- 22% had taught for 3-6 years; and
-- 44% had taught for less than 3 years.
The data suggest that nearly half of the geography teachers were

still neophytes in the teaching profession.

w es Had e c ttend d
a rvice ear?

The data indicated that:
-- 61% of the teachers had never attended inservice;
-- 111 had attended inservice twice;

-- 62 had attended inservice three times; and

88

-- 22% had attended inservice four times since they had begun

teaching.

These findings point out that 61% percent of the teachers who
had never attended inservice also were those teachers who had been
teaching for only 1-3 years. The teachers who have taught for 10 or
more years were the ones who had attended inservice four or more
times.

This suggests that the teachers who may need the most help are
not getting much support or assistance through inservice. An
alternative explanation for the relation of teaching experience to
amount of inservice is simply that the longer one teaches, the more
in-service opportunities one will have. Overall, it does not seem

like any of the teachers were getting much inservice at all.

0 r b cts es d 5 e0
v t G o a Teachers ?

Most geography teachers had taught other subjects before
teaching geography. For example, they had taught English,
Afrikaans, Vernacular (Zulu, Sotho, Xhosa), Biology, History,
Biblical Studies, Math, and Guidance. Teaching a variety of
subjects makes a geography teacher a ”Jack or Jill of all trades,
and master of none." The data suggest that most geography teachers

were not specialists in their subject.

WWW?

These geography teachers continued to teach other subjects

besides geography. For example, they taught English, Vernacular

89

(Zulu, Sotho, Xhosa), Afrikaans, Biblical Studies, and Guidance.
One effect of the findings on teacher quality is that teachers need

more time for preparation when they teach vastly different subjects.

W?

The majority of geography teachers also taught higher standards
of the other subjects they taught. For example, 402 taught
Vernacular (Zulu, Sotho, Xhosa) in standard 10, and 202 of the
teachers taught Vernacular (Zulu, Sotho, Xhosa) in standard 9. This
indicates that the same teachers were loaded heavily with
responsibilities for preparing students for their matriculation
examination. They were not only preparing geography students but
also students in other subject areas.

The significance of these findings suggests that Black
geography teachers are not adequately prepared nor qualified to
teach the subjects they teach, particularly geography. The data
suggest that teachers' content knowledge is limited. The only
difference between teachers and students in their subject-matter
knowledge is that teachers have passed matric, and their students
are in the process of writing their matriculation examination.
Geography is a dynamic subject and for teachers to master the
content, mentoring or help is needed, particularly for novice
teachers. The data suggest that most geography teachers are not
specialists in their subject. It seems any teacher can be asked to
teach geography, since most geography teachers surveyed had taught a

variety of subjects before teaching geography.

90

The majority of Black geography teachers did not teach both
standards 9 and 10. The curriculum in standard 10 is a continuation
of standard 9 curriculum. This suggests a lack of continuity. If
teachers taught both standards 9 and 10, the transition would be
much easier for both students and teachers. Most veteran teachers
taught standard 10, and the novices taught standards 8 and 9. The
danger with this type of staffing is that the teachers who must lay
the foundation in geography are the least qualified and experienced
in teaching the subject. This means that the fundamentals students
obtain for two years before writing their final examinations might
jeopardize their chances of obtaining a good grade when they
matriculate.

Few geography teachers attended inservice. The majority (61%)
of teachers who have taught only between 1-3 years have never
attended inservice education. Novices who need the most help and
support have been neglected in being provided opportunities for
professional development. Inservice should be encouraged,
regardless of the number of years a teacher has taught. Geography
is an evolving, dynamic, and challenging subject, therefore, it
requires periodic inservice and updating for teachers.

The data suggest that teachers are overloaded with work.
Teaching more than one subject means that teachers have very little
time to prepare their lessons and grade students' work, let alone
reflect on their own practice. Overcrowding may compound this
problem. Teachers need adequate planning and reflection time in

order to strategize their teaching. Lack of planning time and

91

reflection can jeopardize teachers' chances of improving their
practice.

The demographic data alone in the questionnaire yielded
pertinent information with respect to the potential constraints with
which Black geography teachers work. These are constraints over
which the teachers have little control, and they are certainly apt
to be felt by teachers as constraints in one form or another.

The questionnaire posed several specific questions about

inservice opportunities. Following are the responses of teachers.

e ducat 0 Im ta t t Geo Tea
The responses to this question indicated that the majority of
geography teachers agree that inservice education is very important
for teachers and that teachers should be encouraged to participate.
SA A ? D SD

341 562 52 51 --

te e
Teachers' responses indicate an ambivalence concerning
inservice. The percentage of teachers who were uncertain about
inservice is higher than those who agree and disagree.
SA A ? D SD
6% 22% 39% 281 5%
282 33%
Perhaps teachers responded negatively or ambivalently to the loaded

term ”forced” in the question.

92

S e ed G o a e t d rv c
Over half of the geography teachers disapproved of a selected
group of teachers getting to attend inservice, when the rest would
not have this opportunity.
SA A ? D SD

6% 28% 11% 22% 332

SB ce ance

ghe Erofgsgigngi Ggowth of Ieachergz

More than two-thirds of the geography teachers felt that
geography inservice would help them grow professionally. Becoming
more knowledgeable in their subject matter would provide the skills
necessary for teachers to master their subject.

SA A ? D SD

391 332 221 62 --

W
in Eighhihg Insegxice Programs:

About three-fourths of the geography teachers thought teachers
should participate in planning inservice programs and making
important decisions regarding their subject.

SA A ? D SD

172 562 221 51 -

93

ed e a ew
Most geography teachers indicated there had been dramatic

changes in the subject over recent years.

SA A ? D SD
502 221 22 -- 6
w 8 ou o r a h
n erv e 4 es e

Over half of the teachers responded that they would like to

attend inservice at least three or four times a year.

1 2 3 4
17% 281 11% 442
o r e

Slightly less than half of the geography teachers responding

preferred to be taught by university professors.

Geography University Teacher Other
teachers professor educator
281 44% 22% 6%

Slightly less than half of the geography teachers responding
preferred to be taught by university professors. Maybe, university
professors are seen to be possessing more knowledge because of the
high status given to universities. Also, one fourth of the
respondents thought other geography teachers would make good

inservice instructors .

94

a o d e the Minim cademi
c i s of eac er e c n
Standards 8 9 d 0?

More than half of the teachers indicated that geography
teachers should possess qualifications above matric, and 502
preferred a degree.

Matric Matric+ B.A. B.A.+ B.A. (Hons)
--- 50% 162 17% 17%
Half of the respondents think only a matric is fine. These teachers
might be influenced by the Department accepting it as a minimum for
teaching at a high school.

The data signify the importance of inservice education to
geography teachers and suggest that teachers realize the importance
of inservice and would like to actively participate in planning
inservice, teaching, and making important decisions regarding
inservice. Geography teachers should attend inservice whenever
there is a need. Further, teachers should not be forced to attend
inservice, but it should be provided on a continued basis.
Therefore, if possible, inservice should be individualized and
personalized. Sustained inservice opportunities would help teachers
deal with specific curriculum problems as these arise. Some of the
problems teachers encounter with geography might be alleviated
through inservice. When only a few teachers attend inservice, the
purpose and benefits of inservice are diminished. Geography
teachers aspire to grow both professionally and personally in their

subject.

95

Geography teachers strongly agreed that geography as a subject
has changed a lot over the past few years. New concepts have been
introduced into the subject. For those teachers who have not kept
pace with the changes in the discipline, they need to be upgraded
and informed through in-service education. Only half of the
teachers, agreed that the minimum qualification to teach standards
8, 9, and 10 (grades 10, 11, & 12 respectively) should be higher
than matric, preferably a degree. Teachers with a B.A. preferred a
degree as minimum qualification to teach geography; whereas,
teachers with matric-plus preferred matric as a minimum because the
Department accepted it as a minimum too. It seemed teachers with
differing qualifications used their own qualifications as standards
for minimum qualifications. 0n the whole, teachers agreed that more
preparation and adequate qualifications were required to teach
geography.

One disturbing factor when the data were analyzed was the
constant number of teachers who seemed not to be sure about the
place or value of inservice in schools. Twenty-two percent is too
big a number to ignore. For this number of teachers to be uncertain
raises a number of issues or questions about the value of inservice.
For example; how would inservice change a teacher's thinking when
confronted with a prescribed curriculum? How worthwhile is
inservice? Are geography teachers aware of certain discrepancies in
inservice that administrators ignore? Does inservice meet the needs

of teachers? Has inservice benefited teachers who have attended in

96

the past? These questions need to be explored before organizing any
meaningful inservice program for geography teachers.

One explanation that I might give concerning why a large
percentage of teachers responded "undecided” is that inservice has
been mystified by administrators. Only select teachers in the past
have attended inservice, and how these teachers were selected to
attend was questionable. Teachers who have never been exposed to
the support mechanism of inservice training have no way of realizing
its benefits; therefore, they may exhibit an attitude of
indifference. Considering the fact that 612 of the geography
teachers had never attended inservice, this is serious. The
"uncertain” or "undecided" response might be explained by lack of
information or knowledge concerning what occurs at an inservice
center.

There are questions that received the strongest responses on
either end of the continuum. First, I will present those responses
indicating strong agreement and what these may mean.

With respect to their opinions about how much the subject of
geography has changed, nearly three fourths of the teachers realized
how dynamic and challenging geography is as a subject.

Geography teachers also felt strongly that inservice opportunities
might address their need to grow professionally.

The strongest response from teachers related to the question,
”Should only select groups of geography teachers attend inservice?"
Teachers clearly demonstrated disapproval of only selected teachers

benefiting from inservice. This response suggests that while

97

inservice may be important, it must be prOperly organized and
offered in fair equitable ways to all teachers who desire
opportunities for professional growth.

It is interesting that teachers responded differently to the
question regarding "professional growth“ and ”personal growth.” One
explanation might be that teachers attached professional growth to
their work accomplishments. Producing good matriculation results
with the majority of students graduating from high school is an
indication of success from a teachers' point of view in South
Africa. But, geography teachers might associate personal growth
with the acquisition of material things. Most Black teachers in
South Africa, because of the housing loans provided by the
Department of Education and Training, can afford decent homes.
Teachers' personal desires might have been temporarily satisfied.
Teachers in a sense have gained control over their lives and are
looked upon in their communities as having "made it" personally or

materially.

i n ews
When teachers were interviewed, they spoke about several
constraints that impinged upon their work. Their responses were
clustered into nine themes or categories. The following subheadings

reflect the salient themes that emerged from the data.

98

e ° a he Si

Although there was optimism for genuine political change during
the time I conducted my research, there were mixed feelings among
teachers, feelings of promise and caution regarding talks concerning
political change. Among the geography teachers, there were teachers
who welcomed my presence and were willing to openly talk, while
others were cautious. The suspicions Black teachers and people in
the community have about ”informers” are still there. The Apartheid
system has instilled mistrust among people. Lack of political
freedom implies a lack of academic freedom of expression, for
example. Teachers are afraid of each other in terms of openly
expressing their ideas for fear they may be misinterpreted as being
"radical.”

The Apartheid system has discouraged dialogue, and people have
kept their ideas to themselves. The two examples that follow typify
examples of this fear. The teacher who was optimistic about change
said the following:

I feel free to talk with you about my work. You are not

a threat to me because you are not doing this work for

the Department. You are doing good work. Let the

Department know we have problems, too. [fieldnotes:

07.17.90]

Another teacher in the same school had the following thoughts:

I wish I could help you with your research, but I don't

want to be quoted. I will complete the questionnaire

requesting demographic data, but I will not take part

in the taped interview. [fieldnotesz 07.17.90]

When I approached and talked to geography teachers about my

intention to interview them for my research, some teachers were open

in expressing their fears, suspicions, and concerns about their

99

work. Teachers who consented to be interviewed felt that sharing
and talking about constraints that hinder them from successfully
implementing the curriculum would be the beginning of breaking their
silence and isolation. Their trust in me to expose their problems
and frustrations, and their belief in change for better things,
prompted them to share their thoughts and feelings.

It has not been easy for these teachers to talk openly about
their work to other teachers, as they were afraid of undermining
their self-esteem and self-image and feeling all the more vulnerable
or incompetent. When teachers were asked if they were willing to
share information with other teachers, one responded as follows: "I
am a shy person and afraid to be seen as stupid. I know of geography
teachers who are very boastful. If such teachers are asked
questions, the whole school will know" [fieldnotes: 07.27.90].
Another teacher said the following:

If you need help, it depends which section of geography

you have problems with to ask for help. Some geography

teachers think there are sections all teachers need to

understand like climatology. For me, this is the most

difficult. Do you think I can ask for help? No, no. I

wish I could. [fieldnotes, 08.08.90]

Most geography teachers regarded themselves as professionals.
The thought of asking for help from other teachers might have been
be misinterpreted by others as a sign of incompetence. To preserve
their dignity and self-image, they suffered in silence. Fear of
losing their self-respect and confidence encouraged these teachers

to withdraw from their colleagues. They never talked openly about

the problems encountered in their work.

100

Some of the problems stemmed from the teachers' inadequate
preservice preparation. Some teachers confessed they were forced to
teach geography, even though they did not know much about it,
because of administrative pressure. There were two teachers who
were not comfortable teaching geography at all. One of them
commented as follows:

I used to teach Sotho and Biblical studies before I

came to this school. Unfortunately, they do not offer

Biblical studies, and there are established teachers

for Sotho. I could not be given the subject. The only

subject they could give me was geography. Well, I did

geography in standard 10, although it's not the same

when you are a student and when you have to teach it.

I have problems teaching the subject, but I dare not

complain about it, otherwise, I'll lose my post.

[fieldnotes: 08.12.90]

The comment expressed by this teacher clearly suggests the
discontent some teachers have regarding teaching geography. Such
teachers unfortunately cannot express themselves openly to
administrators about their lack of knowledge of the subject required
of them to teach, especially when seeking a teaching position.
Indicating you cannot teach geography to your supposed employer
would mean being denied a job.

There are sections in geography that teachers are not
comfortable teaching but about which never had the courage to seek
help from other teachers. The result was that these sections were
neglected or done haphazardly. Teachers, therefore, imposed their
own self-isolation in trying to learn more about these difficult
areas. Teachers complained about the comprehensiveness of the

geography syllabus in standard 10. The syllabus is divided into

units, and every week they have to complete a section as stated in

101

the workbook. Very little time is left for revision or reteaching
these sections. One teacher complained: "The speed at which we have
to work to complete the geography syllabus is just too much because
the syllabus is too long.” Another teacher expressed this
constraint in the following manner:

It is frustrating at times. You think, I have done all

I could, and the problem is, look at the geography

curriculum. It is so congested. We try to give students

a lot of information within a very short time, and that

creates a problem because students cannot take up all

information at once. We have to complete a section

within a specified time, forgetting that in my teaching

I have to look at the level of my students. They

determine the speed at which I teach. [fieldnotes:

07.25.90]

Teachers complained about the constant criticism they had to
endure at the end of the school year from parents, students, and
community leaders due to students' poor performance on the tests.
Geography teachers realized that not being able to express their
feelings and views concerning their work ultimately affected
everybody in the school system. But they could not get appropriate
help because of their self-imposed silence.

The Apartheid education system had not encouraged teachers to
express themselves freely and how they feel about the subjects they
teach. For example, one teacher said the following:

Teachers seldom express how they think and feel about

the education system, in particular the subjects they

teach. Teachers' workbooks are organized in such a

manner that trying to rearrange them would require an

explanation. When inspectors visit a school they know

exactly what teachers should be teaching in particular

subjects. Teachers avoid hassles; they just follow the
units as they are. [fieldnotes: 08.13.90]

102

There is research that has pointed out the isolation of
teachers as being part of the culture of schools (Jackson, 1968;
Lortie, 1975). In South Africa, it is also the ideology of the
dominant society that forces Black teachers to remain silent and to
isolate themselves. This has deprived teachers of academic freedom
and socialized them not to engage in professional dialogue. The
prescribed curriculum and teaching to the test force teachers to
isolate themselves and not speak about their constraints or
inadequacies. The surveillance of inspectors contributes to this
silencing and deskilling of teachers.

Teaching is an occupation that is constantly in the public
view. Teachers are civil servants, employees who are supposed to be
capable of reconstructing society. Society relies on teachers to
educate their young. How easily, then, can a teacher publicly admit
that she or he has a problem with the subject he or she is teaching?
What will happen to his or her reputation as an educator? I am
raising these questions because the respect that teachers used to
enjoy in our communities is gradually eroding. Teachers are blamed
for the failure and poor performance of students in school.

The majority of the geography teachers interviewed expressed a
desire to work with other teachers in their region. Bringing great
minds together to share knowledge about geography and the latest
pedagogical strategies would be beneficial to teachers. One teacher
noted that "it would be nice for me to know what other geography
teachers are doing” [fieldnotes: 08.13.90]. Almost all of the

teachers interviewed felt inadequate when teaching one or two

103

geography sections, and some had difficulties completing the
syllabus. Meeting other teachers might help them develop better
strategies in approaching or covering the syllabus. A teacher said
that for six years she has taught geography but had never discussed
her work with another geography teacher. She said, ”Meeting other
teachers, if we are serious, will not be difficult. All schools are
within reach. A central place could be found and used for our
meetings."

Teachers realized they had their strengths and weaknesses. By
collaborating, they could help each other. Collaboration would not
only be among geography teachers, but teachers would benefit from
interdisciplinary collaboration. .One teacher felt "since geography
students are required to write essays, English teachers could help
with hints on writing strategies" [fieldnotesz 08.20.90]. In the
long run, the beneficiaries of this type of collaboration would be
teachers as well students. Teachers would appreciate other teachers
assisting them with their work. Teachers realized they had
something to offer each other. The desire to work together and to
share information was expressed by a number of the teachers
interviewed. This realization prompted one teacher to note:
"Teachers can help each other because we know each others' needs.”
[fieldnotes: 07.27.90] Another teacher echoed almost the same
feelings, this time using her experience attending inservice as a
unifying force for teachers. She said, "Not all geography teachers
attend inservice training. Those who attended inservice should

share information with those who have not attended. Subject

104

meetings should be utilized for this purpose" [fieldnotesz
08.03.90].

The majority of geography teachers were keen to share their
experiences with other teachers. The isolation experienced working
alone without assistance from colleagues was clearly expressed.
However, several geography teachers were ready and eager to reach
out to other geography teachers (and all teachers) where they could
get help or assist others.

The isolation of novice teachers was also real. Novice
geography teachers felt they were left to "sink or swim” when they
started teaching. There were no orientation meetings with other
geography teachers on how to tackle the syllabus. Neophytes felt
alone, isolated, and helpless. A teacher said: "It can be very
frustrating trying to cope with the new job requirements and
syllabus without help from experienced teachers in the field."

On the other hand, some experienced teachers regarded novice
teachers as a threat, especially when they seemed to have been given
preferential treatment by principals. One teacher indicated the
following:

Principals have a tendency to put us old teachers on

the side-burner when new teachers join the staff, after

we have worked hard throughout our teaching careers.

Principals tend to think new teachers are more

knowledgeable than us. I dispute that. Experience

counts. [fieldnotesz 09.06.90]

Resentment due to lack of communication leads to
misunderstanding among teachers and further contributes to the

isolation of neophyte teachers, preventing them from getting needed

help from experienced teachers. One neophyte noted the following:

105

We need respect and understanding from other teachers.
Being alone, trying to figure out how to approach and
explain a concept you don't understand yourself to the
students, can be devastating. Teachers with experience'
in the subject might be of help. [fieldnotes: 08.27.90]
Most neophytes were unable to approach experienced teachers with
their problems. These data indicate a lack of communication among

novice and veteran teachers, which has led to ill feelings and

misunderstandings.

W

In South Africa, high school students are required to take six
subjects to obtain matriculation exemption (equivalent to a high
school diploma). Students have to pass four subjects, two of which
should be a natural science and social science. Should a student
pass geography and fail biology or history, the student still could
obtain a passing grade, provided other requirements for
matriculation were satisfied.

Teacher isolation has created a misunderstanding among teachers
regarding the importance of all subjects in the curriculum, in
particular, social sciences versus natural sciences. The geography
teachers complained that teachers who teach natural sciences seem to
think they are the only ones who are entitled to attract intelligent
or gifted students. Science teachers imply that their scientific
course work is more demanding; therefore, they tend to direct less
motivated or able students into geography and other subjects. This
makes geography classes bigger and nearly impossible for teachers to

handle.. Teachers who teach the natural sciences demand smaller

106

classes, and they seem to get their wishes. Geography teachers
complain of big classes, which makes it impossible for them to give
individual attention to those students having difficulty in the
subject.

The tragedy of this misunderstanding among teachers about the
value of other subjects has resulted in some students being unfairly
forced to drop physics, chemistry, or math in standard 10 because
they had not obtained an acceptable grade from their teachers.
Students were encouraged instead to switch disciplines without
realizing that students would have no geography background from
standard 8 and 9. One teacher complained:

In 1988, I had a problem with students who took math

and physics in standard 8 and 9. When they were in

standard 10, they were advised to take geography.

These students had a hard time trying to learn concepts

they were not familiar with, while it was easier for

those students who had a background in standard 9

geography. I tried to give these students as much

background information as I could, but it was just

impossible for them to catch up. These students worked

very hard, but at the end of the year they, too, were

statistics. [fieldnotesz 07.22.90]

The majority of geography teachers expressed this kind of
frustration, which they called a "dumping strategy.” Students who
failed science and math at the final stage of their secondary
education (12 grade) were transferred to geography without any prior
background in geography.

Geography teachers also complained about science teachers
encouraging students who performed well in standard 9 geography to

pursue science instead of geography in standard 10. Science

teachers were said to feel they deserved better students who needed

107

minimum assistance. Geography teachers believed something had to be
done soon to stop this type of thinking.

Another problem brought about disciplinary isolation and
rivalry was that, teachers offering biology, agriculture, physics,
and math do not realize the relationship that their subjects have
with geography. Geography deals with broad concepts that overlap
into other disciplines. Utilization of various teacher expertise
(e.g., in math, physics, chemistry and history) might enhance and
contribute to new methods of teaching the various elements of all
subjects.

Most teachers are unaware of the importance of geography in the
curriculum, especially with regard to the matriculation exemption
requirements. If teachers were aware of the importance of geography
in the curriculum, they might help each other more instead of
competing for students, making it possible for more students to
matriculate than fail. Geography has an advantage of being a hybrid
course, classified both as a natural science and social science.

Another problem contributing to rivalry is the manner in which
social sciences and natural sciences are scheduled on the
time-table. The scheduling of subjects in the time-table forces
better students to opt for natural sciences and less able students
to choose social sciences. For example, when geography and history
are scheduled, they are usually scheduled back to back with physics
and math. This forces students to make a choice between either

social sciences or natural sciences, all of which contributes to

108

tracking students unfairly with differential academic and social
outcomes.

The meager resources available in Black schools seems to be
unevenly distributed between the various subjects. Natural sciences
seem to be favored over other subjects. A teacher complained: "We
don't have equipment. Funny, other departments like science have
their equipment. Why can't we have them in geography?" [fieldnotesz
07.24.90].

There is a myth that students who pursue natural sciences have
higher intelligence than students in social sciences. Geography is
also a science; it is just as difficult and complex, and requires
students with strong preparation in math and science. However, most
students who choose geography are students who have never received
proper preliminary instruction in math and science. Therefore,
these students end up performing poorly in geography. One teacher
explained: ”Students think when they choose geography instead of
physics or chemistry, it means they are not clever” [fieldnotesz
07.28.90]. '

Unfortunately, most students in Black schools have little
access to career guidance. Guidance teachers who should assist and
steer students into different careers seem to be of little help.
Guidance teachers in Black schools are regular teachers who have
been given guidance education to teach without prior preparation.
Students need guidance and help with the subjects they choose in

standard 10. One teacher noted the following:

Guidance teachers should play a role in advising
students that geography is a science; it links biology,

109

agriculture, math, and so forth. Later on, when

students pursue a degree, the knowledge of geography

will help them select an appropriate major for

themselves. [fieldnotesz 08.11.90]

It seems that students are also influenced by other teachers in
their choice of courses. These teachers seem to be less informed
about the value of different subjects in the curriculum. When
teachers evaluate student performance, they disregard individual
subjects and only look at the student's overall performance. This
type of evaluation can be misleading to the student because a
student's promise or potential can be overlooked or ignored. The
subject in which the student is strong might be overlooked. One
teacher complained:

It's true, students in standard 7 and standard 8 might

do well in geography, but when they reach standard 9,

students who performed well on the overall are

encouraged to take math, physics, and biology, and

those who performed badly, are encouraged to take

geography, history or agriculture, and biology.

Individual subjects are not considered. [fieldnotesz

09.02.90]

Teachers have to make concerted efforts to meet the needs of
students. The geography syllabus is very comprehensive, and the
amount of time allocated to the subject is not enough. It takes
highly-motivated, energetic teachers to use their own personal time
to complete the syllabus on time and to revise or modify this with
their students in preparation for the national examination.
Teachers expressed their willingness to put in extra time and
effort. For example,

In 1988, I had a problem with students who took math

and physics in standard 9 and failed it, but managed to

- proceed to standard 10. In standard 10 they were
encouraged to switch to geography. I was forced to

110

give them background information and at the same time

do standard 10 work with them. Fortunately, these

students were hard working. But this entailed hard

work. I had to work extra days. I had afternoon

classes, sometimes I met with my students on Saturdays.

It takes a special teacher to put extra hours on

students. [fieldnotesz 09.15.90]

The inflated and privileged attitudes of most natural science
teachers discourage many students from pursuing math and science.
In South Africa, this type of attitude is rampant. As one teacher
indicated: ”Science teachers frighten students that science classes
are difficult, but history and geography are easy. Otherwise,
students will not matriculate” [fieldnotes: 08.10.90].

Rivalry between natural and social sciences has prevented
students from acquiring the necessary foundation needed for
geography. Students are shifted from one subject area to another
without consideration of the basics the students need. One teacher
complained:

Students who have been taking other subjects in

standard 8 and 9 suddenly in standard 10 switch to,

geography. We have a huge problem, the supposedly

”cream" of our students all do math, science, and

biology. What I teach in standard 10 depends on the

background information the students obtained in the

previous classes. It's difficult because I have to

start with concepts dealt with in standard 9 before I

can proceed with standard 10 work. Time is a factor

here. [fieldnotesz 08.12.90]

The rivalry between social sciences and natural sciences is
real, and both teachers and students are caught up and victimized by
this rivalry. The biggest losers are the students. Schools are
failing too many students because of these arbitrary, structural

constraints that privilege some forms of knowledge over others and

track or sort students unfairly on a questionable basis.

 

111

ev en 0 5

Black teachers' working conditions have always been stressful.
The pressure from political unrest and expectations from students
and parents have compounded this stress. Teachers seem to be
unmotivated and disillusioned with the Department for not giving
them needed help. As a result, teachers were always calling in
sick, irritable, and late for school and class. Heavy drinking was
becoming a common problem among teachers, a serious sign of stress.
One teacher said the following:

The nature of stress differs from teacher to teacher.
With younger teachers, the nature of stress emanates
from their inability to rise to expectations. They
came to teach and found schools with a culture which
made certain expectations, for example, we all teach in
English. These teachers come from college not very
competent in the English language. For older teachers,
teaching nowadays has changed. They don't get the type
of student they would like to get in terms of
performance. Students don't perform well as they used
to be in terms of discipline. Some teachers become so
stressed they just ignore or retreat from the
situation. [fieldnotesz 08.23.90]

Another teacher explained:
Among younger teachers, there is absenteeism. Some of
them drink themselves to death. Some older teachers
come to school, but they produce the minimum, they
contribute very little. Although younger teachers and
older teachers have different types of problems, both
of their exhibited behavior is detrimental to the
teaching profession. [fieldnotesz 08.24.90]
Teachers' motivation level was down, and few were driven to
work hard. Teachers were discouraged by the irregular class
attendance of students. A teacher elaborated on this lack of

teacher motivation:

Some teachers are always late for school. This makes
them late for their classes. I know of teachers who

 

112

are always late for their classes. The principal
almost on a daily basis talks and reprimands them about
their tardiness. [fieldnotesz 09.07.90]

Another teacher, laughing, said the following:

It's a sad situation. Stressed teachers can easily be
identified and singled out. They will stay in the
staff room, pretend they have a free period when the
bell signals they should be in class. When the head of
department or principal walks in and asks them why they
are not in class, they argue they are waiting for their
teaching hour. The principal or head of department
will show them the time-table and request in future
they should copy the time-table correctly. Walking
from the staff room to their classes takes time. By
the time these teachers reach their respective classes,
they have wasted and lost a considerable number of
teaching time. [fieldnotes: 08.29.90]

Teachers felt pressured from students who ranked their subject
low because of difficulties they experienced learning the subject.
Geography teachers felt this stress because geography test results
were not as good as in other subjects. The competition between
social sciences and natural sciences contributed to teachers'
stress. It is difficult for geography teachers to watch their best
students switch to natural sciences. Also, demands made by students
on teachers create a lot of stress on teachers. Students at times
might demand ”they don't want to be taught by a particular teacher"
[fieldnotes: 09.07.90].

Stressed teachers might be less apt to experience personal and
professional growth, as one teacher explained:

Lack of support by principals and school inspectors

contribute to stress. When you are constantly

criticized for not doing a great job your confidence

level goes down. I know of teachers whose personal

files are filled with negative reports.
[fieldnotesz09:12,90]

113

The Department did not seem to realize or care much that teachers
were experiencing considerable stress in their work. The Department
had no referral services where teachers could seek professional

help.

W

Geography is one subject which cannot be taught without
teaching aids. Therefore, scientific concepts in geography which
are not familiar to students will not make sense if taught without
concrete material or aids. Without such, concepts must be explained
abstractly to students. At times, teachers said themselves that
they found it difficult to give clear explanations of the concepts.
The standard 10 syllabus points out, ”Physical models (such as
globe, tellurium and paper-mache/sand tray models) which provide
effective representations of the real world” (1987, p. 8) should be
provided.

One teacher remarked that all maps in her possession were
outdated. The teacher further explained: "Most African countries
have changed their names, boundaries of some countries have been
redefined. Therefore, we need to be provided with the latest maps"
[fieldnotesz 08.22.90]. Most teachers complained their school
budgets never provided for teaching aids, even though teachers
requested those materials. Another teacher said that ”principals
only give us promises of teaching aids; but instead, sports
equipment seems to get priority over curricular equipment”

[fieldnotes: 07.28.90]. Another teacher noted the following:

114

We try to improvise, using our funds, but we need a lot
of materials and money. There is a limit on what we
can spend our money on in teaching aids. Sometimes
teachers are not prepared to use their money or cannot
afford to buy materials. What are school funds for?
[fieldnotesz 08.26.90]

This same teacher complained that the Department was not fulfilling
its promise to provide adequate teaching aids to schools. There was
no follow-up on the part of the Department of Education and Training
when making such promises to teachers. This teacher exploded:

They sent a requisition form, which I filled. I
requested stereoscopes, a compass, aerial maps, and so
forth. But funny, other departments like science have
the equipment. Why can't we have them in geography?
We filled the requisition form, but there is no
response from the subject-advisor. Nothing is done to
make our teaching easier. [fieldnotesz 08.26.90]

 

Most geography teachers felt that science teachers were given
preference over other teachers when the school allocated its
resources. The assumption seemed to be that science was a hands-on
subject requiring teaching aids, unlike most other subjects,
including geography.

Lack of resources is complicated by lack of compulsory
education for Blacks, compared to White schools. Black schools rely
on students to pay school fees in order to obtain funds for
equipment. The Department of Education did not provide equipment
like stereoscopes, aerial photographs, topographical maps, global
maps, compasses, barometers, models of geomorphological features,
etc. to schools. This equipment costs a lot of money. A teacher
noted: ”The situation has been complicated by the political unrest
because students are demanding that no school fees be paid”

[fieldnotesz 09.10.90]. The majority of the schools had no source

115

of income to buy anything they needed, from printing paper to polish
for the floors. The lack of teaching aids for teachers was a
serious constraint. Successful implementation of the curriculum

could be enhanced by the availability of these resources.

e Te e C
Recently, a teacher center was built, which teachers felt was a
good idea, but they maintained that the purpose for which it was
built has not yet been realized. Unfortunately, centers are

under-utilized by teachers and subject advisors alike [fieldnotesz

 

08.28.90]. Teachers in this study indicated that the teacher center
should be used as a meeting place for teachers to share their work
and for pooling resources. Unfortunately, the center was just a
building with four walls without resources. It did not attract
teacher traffic as a place for learning, and there was nothing
exciting going on there.

One teacher remarked about a similar center in Soweto, the
FUNDA center, where teachers frequently attend inservice training
and meet to discuss their work: ”FUNDA center is a busy place.
Teachers seem to enjoy the center because of the resources available
there.” Teachers were hoping that subject advisors would use the
center as a place where resources could be centralized and utilized.
Then teachers would be in a position to check out the resources from
the center for their classroom teaching. One teacher shared the
following thoughts: 1

The center must store most resources. Geography as a
science needs a lot of teaching aids. Geography results

 

116

are poor. We teach concepts in the abstract. It is
impossible to find time to make teaching aids when you
teach for 33 periods (equivalent to teaching hours per
week) out of 40 periods. Those periods are too many
when you teach senior classes as well as other classes.
To make teaching aids is impossible. [fieldnotesz
09.14.90]

The same teacher continued:

Subject advisors have plenty of time to organize

teaching aids. They spend most of the time sitting in

their offices. They can also write to different

companies asking for funds to buy equipment or ask for

equipment rather than funds which will make their work

easier. [fieldnotesz 09.14.90]

Teacher centers were thought by geography teachers to be a safe
haven for teachers, a meeting place to share ideas and resources.
One teacher's view on the teacher center was as follows:

As far as I know, there aren't enough teaching aids at

the center. It is not serving its purpose to schools.

The center is not used for meetings to encourage

teachers to be around the center. The supervision of

the place is not up to standard. [fieldnotesz 08.24.90]
Teachers explained that the Department of Education could utilize
available funds by centralizing resources at the center if it could
provide adequate resources for all the schools. A teacher noted:
"The center is supposed to provide the resources. Teaching aids are
expensive. Sometimes teachers are prepared to use their own money
but cannot afford to buy these expensive materials for their
students" [fieldnotesz 09.12.90]. The same teacher had an idea of
how the Department could help the center:

Geography teachers should meet at the center and make

requisitions. Then the subject advisor should send

their requests for materials to the Department of

Education instead of teachers because subject advisors
have more power than teachers. [fieldnotesz 09.12.90]

 

117

Another teacher suggested the center should be used for
inservice purposes whereby teachers could get assistance throughout
the year, including their vacations. The majority of teachers
favored centers being located near to home, unlike attending
inservice training in Pretoria for a week. Another teacher had
doubts if the center was serving the purpose it was designed for.
She concluded:

I would not blame the person running the center.

Resources at her disposal are limited. If more money

could be pumped into the center, teachers would

frequent the place. It would have materials we need

for use. [fieldnotes: 09.11.90]

Another teacher noted the following:

Our teacher center still lacks quite a lot. Very

little activity occurs at the center. I remember going

there once to attend a meeting. Subject advisors

should be stationed at the center instead of having

offices in town where they cannot be readily reached by

teachers. [fieldnotesz 09.07.90]

Teachers also indicated that teacher centers would be a good place

for the subject advisors to use real students to model teaching

strategies or new methods.

w th a b ect
Almost all teachers interviewed admitted they had problems with
geography as a subject to teach. Some topics or sections were more
problematic than others. Some sections dealt with concepts which
were difficult to comprehend. A teacher explained:
There are aspects of geography I am not comfortable
teaching. For example, paper 1, it deals with aerial

photography and topographical maps. Also, climatology,
it has challenging concepts, too. Climatic conditions

 

118

change so rapidly these days. Being knowledgeable and

abreast with geography is important. [fieldnotesz

09.12.90]

It seems that most teachers had problems with map work. On average,
most complaints were directed toward this. Another teacher said,
”Paper 1 is least attended. Most times teachers hardly touched it.
Map work is difficult, not only for students but for teachers as
well. That's why it's neglected. We definitely need help”
[fieldnotes: 08.28.90]. Another teacher indicated the following:

The part dealing with aerial photography and

topographical maps needs attention. In most cases,

students who take geography are avoiding science and

math. To understand map-work, unfortunately, students

need to know how to calculate. [fieldnotes: 08.27.90]

Another teacher explained, ”Some topics are more difficult than
others, especially for a teacher who has not been exposed to science
and math. Some topics need attention and explanation, for instance
this new chapter on the ecosystem” [fieldnotes: 08.24.90]. The same
teacher had difficulties with "settlement" geography. It seemed
that individual geography teachers have had these problems for a
long time, but have never shared their problems. A question might

be asked: Why are so many geography teachers having difficulty with

the subject? Where is the source of the problem?

W

School inspectors and subject advisors are supposed to help
teachers with curricular problems. Teachers work hard to please
school inspectors and subject advisors but are dissatisfied with the

attitude that subject advisors and inspectors exhibit towards them.

 

119

The relationship between teachers and school inspectors or subject
advisors is not cordial. Teachers felt intimidated by school
administrators because of their negative tendency to criticize their
teaching skills. Inspectors and subject advisors seldom highlighted
teachers' best efforts but dwelt on the negative aspects of their
performance. Teachers viewed them as "fault finders." An example,
"We don't need them. They have not given us any positive advice so
far. They only come for fault finding. They don't help us obtain
teaching aids or improve our teaching. It seems only teachers can
help each other" [fieldnotes: 09.14.90].

Another teacher complained that inspectors and subject advisors
never motivated them. .She said, "I expected them to say, ‘Let me
show you what I used to do when I was a teacher'" [fieldnotes:
08.02.90]. Geography teachers would like subject advisors and
school inspectors to demonstrate or model ”good teaching." This
modeling might help teachers improve their teaching, that is, if
advisors and inspectors are "good” teachers themselves:

Subject advisors must model good teaching for us. I

told my subject advisor, sometimes I wish to give you a

class to see how you teach. He says, ‘okay, we'll

see.’ I don't know how he evaluates me. I have not

seem him teach anything. He always says, ‘next time,

next time,’ but it does not happen. I honestly don't

know how he evaluates. [fieldnotes: 08.26.90]

The frustration that teachers experienced with subject advisors was
echoed by another teacher when she said, ”The mistake made by our
subject advisors is they lecture us on the subject. It's easy for

them to do so, but if we could have students and a real classroom

situation, the lectures would be useful. Teacher would learn

 

 

120

strategies which work best in particular situations from the subject
advisors if they model their teaching for them [fieldnotes:
09.20.90]. Another teacher noted that subject advisors tend to
focus primarily on teachers in standard 10 while neglecting those in
standard 8 and 9, who are responsible for building the foundation
students need to eventually get promoted to standard 10 [fieldnotes:
09.10.90]. The teachers indicated that when this foundation is
weak, the building is bound to collapse.

Teachers thought inspectors, subject advisors, and principals

 

did not trust them. For example, one teacher indicated, ”Inspectors I
who visited our schools did not trust us. Instead of being
inspectors, most of them become suspectors. Instead of helping us
where we have shortcomings, they did not. They tended to condemn
us” [fieldnotes: 07.30.90].

Teachers aspired to work hard in order to earn recognition from
inspectors and subject advisors; but instead, they felt
unappreciated. The type of assistance teachers hoped to gain was
not forthcoming. Teachers only received negative feedback. The
negative reports that inspectors and subject advisors submitted
periodically were interpreted by teachers as being discouraging,
demoralizing, and unproductive. Another teacher made this
observation: "Subject advisors have offices in town, far from where
schools are located. Advisors make infrequent visits to school and
provide very little advice to teachers” [fieldnotes: 08.28.90].

Thus, a supportive, collegial context is nonexistent in the

 

121

hierarchical structure of school personnel and reflects a serious

constraint of improving the quality of teaching.

e se 0 tude t Res ta ce and owe

Students seemed to be the biggest constraint that geography
teachers experienced in unsuccessfully implementing the curriculum.
The presence of student power began with the 1976 Soweto Student
Riots which ushered in a new era in Black education. During the
1976 riots, students successfully forced the Department of Bantu
Education (as it was then known) to abandon Afrikaans as a medium of
instruction, one of the official languages spoken by the majority of
Whites in South Africa, which was seen as an oppressive language.
The victory of students in Soweto was seen as a victory for all
Black students in South Africa.

Student power grew even stronger during the 19805. This power
was felt by teachers during the time I conducted my research, and it
still persists. The following quotes from geography teachers
indicate the state of affairs in Black schools with regard to
student power and control:

Since 1983, when we had an unrest problem in South

Africa, the biggest problem teachers had was the

absence of students. It is very much demotivating for

teachers to prepare lessons, only to get to class to

find less of the class present. Students who came to

class were not ready for learning. When students

returned to class, they tended to terrorize teachers,

expecting teachers to do the impossible. They expect

teachers to make knowledge they were given at an

earlier time to be parcelled in an easy manner.
[fieldnotes: 07.18.90]

 

 

122

Teachers faced a demanding curriculum but seemed to care about
their students. Teachers noted the following:

Students seem to be short-sighted. They are out of

school for most of the time but expect to be promoted

to the next class at the end of the school year. This

"pass one, pass all” thing has really changed our

students' attitude toward school and learning.

[fieldnotes: 08.02.90]

A teacher is always a teacher. I try to prepare myself

as if students were attending school normally, but

students do as they please. Most days we sit in the

staff room and wait. [fieldnotes: 08.09.90]

Most teachers were bothered by their inability to help standard
10 students who were eager to attend school regularly but were
pressured by other students to stay away. A teacher indicated the
following:

I really feel sorry for standard 10 students. Most of

them are aware their future depends on passing the

national examinations. They cannot attend classes if

other students are staying away from school.

They do study on their own, but how much can a student
accomplish on their own? [fieldnotes: 07.22.90]

The presence of student power was felt all over South Africa,
as newspapers reported the effects of this power. There were calls
from all quarters urging students to return to school. Efforts of
this call were made by parents, civic organizations, and so forth.
For example, ”At a meeting by National Education Coordinating
Committee (NECC) at FUNDA Center, a school principal called on
pupils to apply themselves and said some children were not receiving
enough school because of school boycotts" (Ihg_§gg;, 1990, p. 1).

It seemed that although students were not attending classes,

they still had strong ties to their schools. Students still wanted

 

 

123

to protect the property that belonged to their schools. Perhaps
they were sending signals to their communities that they cared about
their schools but not about the quality of teaching that occurred
there.

The actions of students towards administrators seem to be
selective and calculated. It would be interesting to examine the
type of administrators that students would support. The Cigy Pgegs
(1992) reported the following:

The White principal of the Dimane Agricultural High
School in Venda has lost his post because he was
"colorblind.” H. K. Theron's sudden withdrawal from
the school has angered pupils who boycotted classes on
Tuesday, demanding his immediate reinstatement. (April

5.13. 3)

At least half of the schools in Soweto alone have been
thrown into turmoil this year and there has been hardly
any effective learning since January. . . . Pupils

normally come to school at 8 a.m. and left two hours
later. (City Press, April 19, p. 8)

It seemed the Department of Education at times disregarded the
actions of the students, hoping the situation would diffuse itself.
A good example of such action was reported in the §i§y_£;ggg (1992):

At Orlando High in Orlando East pupils went on a month-

long class boycott before the schools were closed early

this month to protest against the shortage of teachers.

The DET treated the matter so lightly that the boycott

went unnoticed. How are the pupils expected to learn

in classrooms that don't have furniture and books?

(April 19, p. 8)

Black schools, which in the past were known for their strict
authoritarian discipline, had lost their grip on students. Students
openly rebelled against such discipline, and at times corporal

punishment was used. This breakdown in discipline was discussed by

student leaders and student organizations. Hence this report:

in...

 

 

124

There was a serious break-down of discipline in

schools. Pupils left classes as early as 11 a.m. to

roam the streets, teachers said. Although COSAS and

Pan Africanist Students Organization leaders were

trying to maintain discipline, the situation got

completely out of hand in some schools. (City Ezgss,

1992, March 22, p. 4)

The crisis-riddled East Rand College of Education in

Kwa-Thema reopened this week after being closed for

about a month by DET. The college was shut-down after

students demanded the ”unpopular" rector, Dr. H.

Gericke, be replaced." (Qity nggg, 1992, March 22, p.

4)

When students resist and reject school culture, the results can
be self-destructive. In the long run, students are victimized by
their own action, and not just the unfair system of they are
fighting against. By boycotting classes, students lost valuable
learning time. The examination results since students took over
schools have not improved, and have only deteriorated. Willis's
(1977) study demonstrated how students in their counterculture
activities can reproduce social inequalities and seal their fate.
With Black students in South Africa, results of school boycotts cost
many their future. The necessary skills which they might have

developed at school were never acquired, resulting in many of them

becoming unemployed or unemployable when seeking jobs.

MM

An interesting development arose when teachers were asked to
respond to the question, "How do you evaluate and reflect on your
teaching?” Immediately, teachers seemed to think of evaluation and
reflection only in terms of their students and not themselves. It

seemed teachers did not even have the time to evaluate and reflect

 

125

on their teaching, due to the heavy class loads of students. Most
Black teachers interviewed, seemed to equate evaluation with
administrators as evidenced by this comment:

I normally give tests and if most of the students pass

it, I know I have reached my goal. Sometimes, I am able

to evaluate myself after the Head of Departments visits

my classroom and makes comments about my teaching.

[fieldnotes: 08.03.90]

Teachers' views of evaluation might be thought of as narrow when
analyzing this response. But this is not the case. Such a
conception of teacher "reflection” indicates, first, that teachers
teach to the test. Teachers realize their goal is to make sure
students pass tests. They emphasize memorization and rote learning.
Secondly, teachers have to satisfy their supervisors. Teachers view
themselves in ways they are viewed by their superiors. Heads of
Department have to validate them. "I feel I can't evaluate myself
because evaluation is done by Heads of Departments” [fieldnotes:
08.10.90].

It seemed that teachers thought very little about self-
evaluation. Already teachers had a teacher-proof curriculum and
were expected to teach as technicians. Did the Department of
Education and Training want teachers to evaluate themselves?
Teachers were not faced with situations where they had to problem
solve or think creatively or critically about their pedagogy.
Completion of the syllabus was top priority. Most teachers ran over

concepts without in-depth explanation. But, can teachers be blamed

for not taking the time to reflect under these conditions?

 

 

126

I don't have time to evaluate my teaching. My concern

is to complete the syllabus on time if possible. Even

at the inservice, they don't talk about evaluation, but

they are concerned with the content of the syllabus.

[fieldnotes: 08.22.90]

Teachers seemed to think about other problems students were
having in school and were ready to help. The teacher-proof
curriculum might be beyond their control, and they could only
reflect on actions which they had some control. For example, a
teacher noted: "There is no time for reflecting on my teaching
because I never thought it was important. If ever I reflect, I
reflect on problems I encounter with certain students” [fieldnotes:
08.11.90]. It is encouraging to know that some teachers care a good

deal about the performance of their students' learning, that is

another part of reflection which is crucial to teaching.

W

Black geography teachers in this study were able to articulate
the factors and constraints that influenced them most when
implementing the curriculum. Teachers perceived these constraints
negatively. Teachers ably related constraints in education to the
larger social and political structures of South Africa. The
constraints teachers experienced were both internal and external,
although at times difficult to differentiate the two. There is a
very fine line between external and internal constraints.

It is difficult to generalize these findings to all the regions
in South Africa, but the external constraints could apply to all;

regions. The Apartheid ideology affected all Blacks irrespective of

 

127

the region. For example, lack of resources is felt in all Black
schools; the financial resources are unequally distributed among the
races. But with regard to internal constraints, the context of the
regions are different. Depending on the school administrators,
subject advisors, and teachers, the situation might be different.
Hence, it is difficult to generalize all of these constraints.

There were some interesting relationships among the findings
from the questionnaire and interview responses. The ideology of the
dominant culture was experienced by Black schools through the

bureaucratic and alienating structures of the Department of

 

Education and Training. Respondents decided to ”break their
silence” and talked about those constraints which most influenced
them when implementing the curriculum. Teachers indicated there was
a new era in the politics of education emerging in South African
schools where teachers, despite the absence of academic freedom,
could empower themselves to transform the educational system.

As agents of the state, schools legitimate ideas of the state
when implementing the curriculum. The teacher-proof curriculum
encountered in Black schools undermined teacher creativity and
encouraged social reproduction and oppression, giving White students
considerable advantage over Black students. The indirect message
and impression about Black teachers is that they are incapable and
intellectually inferior. When matric results were published, very
few students examined how their actions may have contributed to the

poor results and simply blamed their teachers.

 

128

This study highlights how the Apartheid system perpetuates an
educational system doomed to fail. Problems of Black teachers
emanate from poor preservice preparation. Well-prepared,
knowledgeable teachers could bring the best out of students.
Findings in this study also support the Human Sciences Research
Council (1981) report that attributed the poor quality of teachers
to training colleges being a mere continuation of secondary
education. Black teacher colleges are not autonomous but are
directly controlled by the Department of Education and Training.
Teachers at training colleges experience similar constraints
experienced by those in secondary schools.

The organizational structure of the Department of Education and
Training determines the low position of Black teachers. Teachers
will always be found at the bottom of the hierarchical structure
along with students and without a voice. The top-down leadership
style dominates teachers with school inspectors and subject advisors
monitoring them. The findings in this study indicate that geography
teachers would like to participate in planning and organizing their
own workplace, curriculum programs, and making important decisions
regarding their subject and pedagogy. Teachers favored
participatory leadership instead of top-down management. Growth and
change could result if teachers were involved in professional
development programs with adequate resources and instructional
materials.

Lack of academic freedom in Black schools perpetuates suspicion

and silence. Teachers were encouraged to view themselves as

 

129

inadequate since they could neither generate knowledge nor
contribute anything towards their subject matter, what would be
taught, to whom, when, and how. When teachers were constantly
reminded to teach to the test, monitored, and evaluated, their
self-esteem and confidence deteriorated.

As teachers tried to respond to the unrewarding demands of the
Education Department, they experienced frustration. They were
discouraged and unmotivated. There was a sense of apathy. They
experienced negativism and were angry with students for disrupting
classes. They were angry about the whole political system for all
the ills it perpetuated in the education system with little change
or relief. They were disappointed by their own performance. Stress
affected the health and physical being of teachers as well. What
was missing was the support system from the Department to help
teachers better cope with this stress.

A lack of continuity in teaching or learning geography
prevented a smooth transition from one grade to another. Geography
teachers in the same school experienced the same problems but an
imaginary wall divided them. Many of these teachers realized that
it was time to remove the wall and begin to learn from one another
and tackle problems they experienced in common.

There was an indication that few geography teachers attended
inservice training. Although most geography teachers thought highly
of inservice, a proportionately high percentage was uncertain about
the value of inservice. In the future, the purpose and role of

inservice could be investigated. Most teachers have very little

 

 

130

information or knowledge of the purpose of inservice in schools and
little direct experience in meaningful inservice activities.

Teachers indicated the desire to grow professionally and
personally. Again, a proportionate percentage of teachers were
uncertain about inservice enhancing both their professional and
personal growth. Unfortunately, the questionnaire did not solicit
explanations from teachers. It would have been interesting to know
why some teachers were uncertain in their responses. Explanations
from teachers would have clarified how teachers differentiated
professional growth from personal growth. Teachers seemed to desire
change because many were bored, frustrated, and alienated by the
system in which they worked.

The research found geography teachers overloaded with work.
Besides teaching geography, teachers were teaching other subjects.
Most Black teachers needed help in geography. Teachers had no
planning time. Teaching more than one subject and overcrowded
classrooms compounded their problems. Students were neglected, and
teachers were unable to attend to individual students' needs.

Teachers realized that the power and needs of students cannot
be ignored. Even though students challenged the status quo, it also
was evident that student power had its negative effects in Black
schools. Today, because of student power, very little learning
occurs in schools. Students have become more and more militant
because schools have not provided them with the necessary education
and skills needed to compete with more privileged groups. But as

they resist and boycott in anger and despair, they are victimizing

 

 

131

themselves and their teachers. Students are not getting the
education they need to have to improve their status.

This study exposed the dilemma teachers felt concerning self-
reflection or evaluation. 15 it realistic to expect Black teachers
to reflect on their teaching under these prevailing negative
conditions? For what purpose, if they are bound by prescribed
syllabi and high-stakes tests?

‘ Scheduling of subjects in the time-table seemed to be a serious
constraint. Some of the problems contributing to rivalry between
subjects were attributed to the back-to-back scheduling of subjects.
Scheduling in the majority of Black schools is a problem due to a
shortage of classrooms and teachers. Another problem is that there
are very few subject choices for students. The problem of
scheduling should also be fully explored because it creates
additional constraints for teachers and also diminishes which
students have an opportunity to learn what, all of which affects
Black students' life chances.

This chapter highlighted the major constraints that geography
teachers perceived and encountered in their classrooms on a daily
basis. These constraints were ignored and are still being ignored
by the Department of Education and Training. For a system dominated
by an ideology of oppression and privilege, these constraints will
continue to manifest themselves, especially in Black schools.
Never in the past did teachers speak openly about such constraints;

they suffered in silence. For geography teachers to risk and

 

132

identify their constraints in this study was a major breakthrough,
demonstrating promise for change.
In the next chapter implications of this study and

recommendations will be discussed.

 

 

CHAPTER V

IMPLICATIONS AND "LOOKING AHEAD"

The section, will recommend different alternatives that Black
teachers could pursue to overcome some of the constraints that
influence their success in implementing the curriculum. But first,
the main findings of the study are summarized, and recommendations
are suggested based on these findings. The recommendations are
divided into three main sections: (1) a brief review of the study;

(2) a summary of the major findings; and (3) recommendations.

e Rev w f ud

The purpose of this study was to explore contextual factors
that influence Black geography teachers when implementing the
curriculum. The reason for selecting geography teachers as a case
study was based on the importance of geography as a ”high stakes"
subject in the curriculum for secondary schools in South Africa.
The matriculation results are used as a yardstick to measure student
success in high school and their life chances.

Geography is a hybrid subject, the mother of all sciences. For
example, knowledge of math is important when measuring distance.

Biology and agriculture are included when the ecosystem is

133

'i
‘ .-

 

134

discussed. Knowledge of agriculture and history become important
when different soils, settlements, and migration patterns are
taught. Knowledge of English is important for students to
comprehend what they are reading and to express themselves on paper
during class work and for exams.

Secondary schools in South Africa categorize subjects into
humanities and sciences. As a hybrid subject, geography can be
classified both as a natural science and a human science subject.
For students to matriculate from high school (pass grade 12),
students are required to pass, for example, biology and history.
But should a student fail one or both subjects, and pass geography,
then geography can be used to substitute for both subjects, or
either one. In this sense, geography is an important subject for
many Black students and their life opportunities following secondary
school because higher education or a number of careers could be
carved out of it, for example, in work related to urban planning,
economists, geologists, astrologers, meteorologists, sociologists,
etc.

The research was driven by two overarching questions: How do
geography teachers perceive their workplace constraints when
implementing the curriculum? How do these constraints manifest

themselves in their workplace?

Was
This study found that contextual constraints influence Black

teachers in their workplace in very negative ways.

 

135

Data from the questionnaire and interview questions were
analyzed separately. The questionnaire had two sections: the first
section dealt with demographic data; while the second mainly focused

on the importance of inservice education.

5 c - ue w :
1. There was no continuity between work done in standard 9
and 10 because teachers did not consult each other.
2. Geography teachers were not specialists in their subject.

Most Black teachers were teaching geography by default or

 

by arbitrary administrative assignment.

3. Most geography teachers had never attended a single
inservice course.

4. Geography teachers were overworked. Most of them were
teaching more than one subject in overcrowded classrooms
with few or no resources or supplies.

5. The geography syllabus was too long, making it difficult
for teachers to complete their work on a timely basis
before the exams, and making it difficult for teachers to
adapt the syllabus or content.

The findings from section 2 of the questionnaire were as follows:

1. Geography teachers recognized the importance of inservice
education. Teachers would like to participate in both the
planning and implementation processes of inservice courses

related to geography.

 

136

2. Geography teachers preferred attending inservice when
there was a need, and not by strict mandate by higher-ups.

3. Inservice training should be continuous with provision for
individualized modification to foster meaningful changes
in classroom teaching.

4. Geography teachers would prefer to specialize or update
themselves in their subject to regain self-respect,
confidence, and the trust they have lost as capable
teachers.

5. University professors were preferred instructors to teach
geography at an inservice center. At the same time,
teachers were accepting of their peers also mentoring or
teaching them in collaborative and collegial ways in a
teacher center.

6. The contributions of good geography teachers should be
recognized, and they should be encouraged to help other
teachers.

7. Geography as a subject has changed greatly over the years.
Geography teachers felt they could keep abreast of new
concepts through inservice education.

8. For teaching matriculation geography, the minimum degree

qualification for teachers should be a B.A.

 

o te ew
The interview findings were divided into nine categories, each

will be briefly summarized.

137
1. Ieaghe: isoiggigh; figeahing ghgiz gilghce. The Apartheid

system instilled mistrust among people. Teachers are afraid of each
other in terms of openly expressing their ideas for fear they may be
misinterpreted as being ”radical." Apartheid discouraged dialogue,
and some teachers have kept ideas to themselves. Teachers were
optimistic about change and wanted their ideas to be heard.

Teachers who consented to be interviewed felt sharing and talking
about their constraint would be the beginning of braking their

silence and isolation.

2. va betwee a e 5
Isolation created misunderstanding among teachers regarding the
importance of all subjects in the curriculum. The tragedy of this
misunderstanding among teachers about the value of other subjects

has resulted in some students becoming victims of this rivalry.

3. Dgyglgpmghg_gf_g§zggg. The pressure from political unrest

and expectations from students and parents have compounded this
stress. Teachers' motivation level was down and few were driven to
work hard. The Department did not seem to realize or care very much
that teachers were experiencing considerable stress in their work.
The Department had no referral services where teachers could seek

professional help.

 

 

138

4. L§§k_gf_rg§2319g§. Geography is one subject which cannot
be taught without teaching aids. Successful implementation of the

curriculum could be enhanced by the availability of these resources.

5. a e e te . Teachers felt there is a teachers center,
but they maintained the purpose for which it was built has not yet
been realized. Teacher center should be used as a meeting place for

teachers to share their work and for pooling resources.

6. MW. Almost all teachers

interviewed admitted having problems with geography as a subject to
teach. Some topics or sections were more problematic than others.
Teachers were seeking help and felt collegial collaboration was

necessary to solve this problem.

7. WW. Most teachers were

dissatisfied with the attitude that subject advisors and school
inspectors exhibit towards them. Teachers felt intimidated by
school administrators because of their negative tendency to
criticize their teaching skills. Inspectors and subject advisors
seldom highlighted teachers' best efforts but dwelt on the negative

aspects of their performance.

8. MW. The

presence of student power began with the 1976 Soweto Student Riots

which ushered a new era in Black Education. Student power grew even

 

139

stronger during the 19803. Black schools, which in the past were
known for their strict authoritarian discipline, had lost their grip
on students. Students disrupted classes and school at will.

9. c o t v t . It seemed that teachers
thought very little about self-evaluation, because the curriculum is
examination driven. Teachers had a teacher-proof curriculum and
were expected to teach as technicians. Completion of the syllabus

was top priority for teachers.

W

The situation in South Africa is very complex. There are no
easy answers to how teachers' constraints could be alleviated.
However, there are some alternatives that teachers could use to
change or minimize these constraints in their workplace. For
teachers to successfully implement the curriculum in future, past
and present contextual constraints cannot be ignored. The political,
economic, and social conditions that influence education will have
to be considered by teachers and critiqued. Apartheid fostered a
costly system with 15 departments of education. Although the
Apartheid system has been abolished, its effects will be felt for
some time. For, this is a system that has been entrenched for
decades in the various policies that affected people's daily lives.

The recommendations that follow addressed to three audiences,
namely geography teachers, policy makers, and from the international

community.

 

 

140

geography Teachers

The involvement of Black teachers as change agents in a new
South Africa is encouraged. Empowerment of teachers is important
for them to transform their teaching and to make learning for
students more meaningful and successful.

The desire to reach out and work with other teachers was
clearly articulated by the geography teachers in this study.
Although there are no easy answers, teachers should take the
initiative and be proactive. The first step is for teachers to
engage in collegial collaboration which must occur in an atmosphere
of trust. Teachers should find ways to communicate their knowledge,
share ideas, solve problems, share resources, and seek peer support.
When teachers engage in collaboration, good ideas can emerge as well
as mutual respect and trust.

Veteran teachers who are identified as demonstrating exemplary
teaching could be used as mentors. These teachers could be used to
mentor novice teachers in particularly as well as veteran teachers
who need additional help. Novice teachers have been left alone to
sink or swim. Mentors are needed to guide novice teachers,
especially during their probation years. Mentors could easily
detect teachers' strengths and deficiencies in the subject, and
assistance could be provided early in the teachers' career.

Teacher centers should play an important role in improving the
lives of teachers. A teacher center would be a safe place for
geography teachers to discuss problems related to teaching

geography. Teacher centers should be centrally located where

 

141

teachers can have easy access to these and utilize them. If centers
are built far from teachers' reach, they defeat their purpose.
Teacher centers should be seen as a resource place for teachers,
well equipped with things like, teaching aids, books, magazines,
research journals, film strips, and overhead projectors. It is not
enough to have these teaching aids available; it is equally
important to know how to use these in the classroom to maximum
effect. The teacher center would be a safe place to practice
hands-on activities which teachers otherwise might not experiment
with in their own classrooms. These activities would benefit
geography teachers a lot. According to Zemke & Zemke (1988, p. 61),
"Adults can learn well and a lot from dialogue with respected
peers.” Information regarding geography should be disseminated to
teachers in their schools from the center. When teachers interact
with each other, they can a support system for themselves which
might sustain them throughout their teaching career.

The teacher center should well staffed with teachers who are
creative, resourceful, knowledgeable, and well qualified. Such
teachers would attract teachers to flood and use the center to their
advantage. Enough space should be created at the center to make
room for students who could be used by teachers to model their
teaching (microteaching). If possible, teachers should organize
their own staff development. Geography teachers who have been
identified as good teachers could be used as facilitators. It is at
the teacher center that teachers who have concerns would identify

problematic sections in geography, and colleagues could work with

 

 

142

them to find solutions to those dilemmas. Teachers should
brainstorm ideas on how to share their meager resources and seek
alternative funds to buy basic materials and share their ideas for
improvising teaching aids. Teachers would have to take collective
responsibility for making long-term changes in how they might work
as professionals and relate to one another as peers.

The responsibility of winning students back to the classroom is
a joint responsibility of parents, teachers, community leaders, and
the Department of Education. But teachers bear the brunt of
enticing, motivating, and encouraging students to focus and think
seriously about school. Teachers will have to work hard to win
students back into the classroom. There cannot be school if
students intentionally absent themselves from school. Teachers will
have to change their teaching styles and attitudes towards their
students. Teachers must initiate positive dialogue with students.
Teachers must create an atmosphere where students' ideas and
experiences are respected and accepted. Students need to be engaged
in serious, challenging academic work. Alternative ways of
assessment should be introduced to discourage rote and memorization,
instead encourage teaching for understanding. Problem solving
involving critical thinking and creativity should be the center of
students' learning. Teachers should realize that learning involves
listening to students and promoting social interaction. Learning
occurs when students are listened to, respected, and are not
condemned. Students should be empowered and encouraged to seek out

knowledge by reading different materials, research, and not be

 

 

143

confined to one textbook. Students should be encouraged to
question, and sincere answers should be provided. The traditional
authoritarian way of working with students should change.

Dialogue should dominate classroom life. Students should be
treated as people whose views matter. Students should be seen as
active participants in their learning, and the curriculum should be
student-centered. Students should also understand that teachers are
human and they too make mistakes at times in their judgements. In
this way, both teachers and students might appreciate the challenges
and difficulties they both encounter in teaching and learning.
Schools should be seen as institutions of learning by students and
not hampering their intellectual growth. Although Black students
are highly politicized, they should be helped to understand the root
of their problems and how best to work more productively for social
change that will not further victimize them and their life chances.
Students need to understand the structure of the political, social,
and economic system and how these relate to schooling. Students
need good leadership to redirect their energies toward learning and

productive, creative social change.

mm

A single Education Department is strongly recommended to cut
costs, the waste of scarce resources and inequalities that exists in
the different departments. The heavy bureaucracy that presently
exists should be drastically reduced and restructured along more

participation or democratic lines. Duplication of services and

iii

 

144

redundancy would be eliminated, and money could be saved. This
money should be used to buy equipment for schools, and there should
be equitable distribution to schools. Since most of the modern
equipment used today in schools requires electricity, electricity
should be installed in those schools where none exists.

Far too long, Black teachers have been excluded from decision
making regarding their own work. Geography teachers should be
involved in the conception, deliberation, and implementation of the
geography curriculum. Teachers' expertise should be valued and
respected in decision making. When teachers are involving in
important decisions regarding the planning of the curriculum, they
tend to own the curriculum and feel more accountable for their
actions. Geography teachers could form curriculum committees and
work with curriculum planners or directors on revising the syllabus.
Teachers should feel they are part of the establishment which needs
and respects their intelligence and judgment.

The involvement of teachers in the selection of textbooks is
crucial. Teachers should be consulted before any textbook is
suggested for use in the schools. Teachers should scrutinize the
textbooks for bias and their criticism should be seriously
considered and valued. The same curriculum committee could be used
for this purpose. Teachers should be invited to suggest additional
materials to be used for geography and not rely on a single
textbook.

Inservice should be provided to all teachers on a continuous

basis as individual needs arise. Several inservice studies have

 

 

145

indicated that many inservices have failed teachers because
teachers' needs were ignored. Policymakers should make a needs
assessment to determine the needs of geography teachers and also the
type of inservice they would like to see. Inservice needs to be
more comprehensive in scope and intensity. In the past, inservice
seemed to be fragmented and often distant from the professional
lives of teachers and the settings in which they worked. The
Department should strive to have all teachers attend inservice and
not only a chosen few teachers.

There is a need for parents to be involved in important

 

educational decision-making processes, and not just in an advisory
capacity. Parental input in matters regarding curricula, choice of
textbooks, school legislation, and so on is crucial. Parents are
taxpayers; they need to be knowledgeable about policies affecting
their children's education and life chances. Parents should be able
to understand what is going-on in their children schools and should
be free to visit their children's schools. Parents should not be
strangers in their own community schools. Schools should form a
stronger bond or relationship with parents. When schools and

parents are allies, it becomes easier for schools to turn to parents

 

for support in times of crisis.

Schools should communicate with parents through monthly or
bi-weekly newsletters, indicating important information parents need
to know, with teachers and students contributing to the newsletter.
Teachers should communicate to parents the progress of their

students and their expectations on an on-going basis. Parents would

146

appreciate this information, unlike being informed at the end of the
year that your child has failed and has to repeat a class, without a
clue of what was going-on throughout the year.

The roles of school inspectors and subject advisors should be
redefined, otherwise teachers' negative attitudes towards them by
teachers will not change. When inspectors and subject advisors
negatively critique or evaluate teachers instead of assisting them
in their shortcomings, teachers' fears and irritability with this
_process can be understood. Evaluation of one's performance becomes
relevant and acceptable when it is done with someone who has
autonomy and authority over his/her work. It does not make sense to
evaluate teachers who must all follow strict instructions on how to
teach, what to teach, and, as a matter of fact, even on how to react
to certain materials. It is not fair to evaluate people who have no
power and expect this evaluation to be objective or fair. If school
inspectors and subject advisors are maintained, they should
collaborate actively and collegially with teachers in their efforts
to improve their pedagogy. Inspectors would understand those
problems that teachers have with the subject-matter. Inspectors and
subject advisors should refrain from criticizing teachers and work
together with them to find viable solutions to their problems. The
deskilling of teachers is an example of people in an occupation who
have no power and control over their work. This effect is doubly
negative when we consider teaching to be a profession, not
mechanical labor. Trust and open communication should first be

established to accomplish this goal.

 

 

147

Black students have been alienated by schools, and they should
be brought back. The Department needs to have an agenda that
addresses students' genuine problems. Black students in South
Africa seem to have a bright future, although at the moment the
prospects are dim. The reason for despair at the moment is that the
majority of Black high school graduates are unemployed and
unemployable; they have no employable skills. White talent has been
tapped to the maximum, and South Africa is faced with a problem of
an uneducated, oppressed underclass that will have few skills to
develop an industrialized country. The country needs engineers,
scientists, medical doctors, teachers, lawyers, managers, computer
scientists, and so forth. The future prospects for Blacks are
numerous, but the important key is quality education. South Africa
can no longer afford to import outside talent because this is
expensive. The country needs to develop and use its own human
resources.

It should be school policy to include secondary students in
meaningful decision-making processes. Student representatives
should sit in committees discussing curricula, textbook selection,
finance, discipline, and other important school matters that affect
students' lives. Involvement is important for students in order for
them to learn and to appreciate the importance of democratic
participation and the difficulties encountered in making important
decisions regarding education. When students are involved in

important decision-making committees, they may be more committed to

 

148

social changes that can occur in schools and be promoted by quality
education.

Universities should be encouraged to reach out and work with
nearby local primary and secondary schools. In the past, most
universities had no link with schools at any level. Yet
universities admit students from these schools and often complain
about the lack of proper preparation of these students for higher
education. Universities could contribute positively to change by
sharing their expertise and resources with public school teachers.
Both universities and schools would benefit from such collaboration.
But collaboration for the sake of collaboration will not work unless
both parties are willing to learn from each other; the agenda should
not be controlled solely by the university.

The role of present-day teacher colleges should be re-
evaluated. At the moment, the status of these colleges is
questionable; they function as extensions of secondary schools and
are not autonomous. Black teacher colleges should be upgraded to
university status, and degree courses should be offered to
prospective teachers. Geography teachers acknowledged that
geography as a subject has changed dramatically, with difficult
abstracts concepts being incorporated into the subject. Prospective
teachers need a broader knowledge base of geography, which teacher
colleges are not providing presently. It is surprising when looking
at the subjects selected by new, qualified, African secondary
diploma and certificate teachers between 1985-89 that geography was

not among the subjects they selected (NECC, 1992, p. 21).

 

 

149

To teach geography in secondary school, a degree should be a
requirement. Only teachers who have majored in geography or have
had university courses in geography should be allowed to teach
standards 9 and 10. For those teachers who are already in the field
and do not possess a degree, a special one-year, intensive geography
course should be offered after school on Saturdays, or during winter
and summer vacations so that teachers could specialize in their
major areas to bring them to par with those who have majored in
geography. This program would help teachers who are trying to
upgrade themselves through private correspondence. The
collaboration and collegial atmosphere that teachers need could be
provided by such a program.

Teacher preparation programs should encourage prospective
teacher candidates who hope to major geography to include natural
science and mathematics in their standard 10 program. For example,
the NECC report (1992, p. 20) indicates that from 1985-89 only 13.4%
and 8.0% respectively of newly qualified secondary teachers in the
DET had mathematics and physical science in their courses. One
serious consequence of this omission is that Africans are denied
access to high-level occupations where mathematics and science are
prerequisites.

Teachers should be informed about the high-stakes value of
geography in the curriculum. Most students would benefit from
taking geography as a subject in their matriculation. Revising the
way subjects are scheduled on the time-table would secure a place

for all the subjects, and students could have easier access to the

 

 

150

subjects they desire to take. The rivalry between social sciences
and natural sciences is real in our schools and it is threatening
the quality of our students’ education and life chances. Students
who might benefit from taking both natural sciences and social
sciences are denied that opportunity because of the way in which
subjects have been scheduled. Policymakers should investigate how
schools schedule different subjects and the flexibility of these
schedules for students' in terms of academic and social outcomes.
If schedules are not flexible, they jeopardize students chances of
pursuing subjects they like because of conflicting times. Schedules
should be designed to compliment individual courses, and students'
interest should be considered.

The Department needs to provide services for teachers to
address the problem of stress. Stress results in burn-out, and this
problem should not be underestimated. Workshops on stress
management should be organized. Retreats should be planned where
teachers express and address their frustrations. Professional
services also should be available for those teachers who need
counseling.

The Department should reevaluate assessment of students.
Teaching in the majority of schools is examination-driven,
encouraging teachers to use the "banking system", which makes
students to memorize concepts without actually understanding them.
Teachers might use "informal assessment tools such as anecdotal
records, checklists, portfolios, running records, and conference

reports” (Scharer & Detwiler, 1992, p. 191) as an alternative or in

 

 

 

151

addition to the manner in which students are currently assessed. No

single examination should destroy a student's life chances.

WW

There is much that South Africa can learn from the
international community and vice versa. The constraints encountered
by geography teachers are both unique and universal. Problems of
inadequate subject-matter knowledge or preparation, preservice,
inservice, professionalism, student power, and parental involvement,
plague schools everywhere, to some degree or another. Most
countries are working hard to find solutions to these problems;
unfortunately, there are no simple answers. The United States and
Zimbabwe will be used as examples that South Africa could learn
from, as these two countries try to restructure their education
system, in particular, their teacher education programs.

In the United States for example, a number of Blue Ribbon
reports, particularly in the 80s, have alluded to these problems. A
number of actions have been taken to try a restructure public
schools and education departments. In Zimbabwe after independence,
drastic measures were taken to improve teacher education and to
increase the number of teachers in the workforce since there was a
dire shortage prior independence. South Africa could learn from the
efforts of these countries as they struggle to change schools to
make them better places where all could learn and succeed in life

(teachers, parents, communities, students).

 

 

152

It is difficult for an occupation like teaching to compete
seriously with other professions whose technical language is clearly
defined. The Task Force on Teaching as a Profession (1986) suggests
that

. . every occupation regarded by the public as a true

profession has codified knowledge, the specific

expertise required by practitioners, and has required

that those who wish to practice that profession with

the sanction of its members demonstrate that they have
a command of the needed knowledge and the ability to

apply it. (p. 12)

It should be pointed out that it is not necessarily true that
teachers do not have technical knowledge. The problem is that,
teachers' knowledge is so small that it is insignificant. This
indicates that teacher education programs are inadequately preparing
teachers, the result they have a small knowledge base.

Teachers universally want to be regarded as professionals, like
doctors and lawyers. However, research has suggested that teachers
do not share common technical knowledge like these other
professions. Lortie (1975) noted that ”teachers have occupied a
subordinate role in matters of technical knowledge" (p. 240). Until
such time that a common knowledge base is required, teaching as a
profession will not be respected and taken seriously. Feiman-Nemser
and Floden (1986) explain that ”teachers have not been seen as
possessing a unique body of knowledge and expertise . . . the
prevailing view among researchers is that teachers have experience
while academics have knowledge" (p. 512). With respect to teacher
preparation, then, South Africa could learn from the recommendations

of the Holmes Group Report (1990):

 

153

The Holmes Group would like to see a bold and sweeping
transformation of undergraduate teaching so that all
secondary and elementary teachers emerge from college
with clear comprehension of their subject and a broad
grasp of the humanities. As we are critical of much
teacher education, so we are also concerned for the
passive and superficial quality of much undergraduate
learning. (p. 48)

A number of suggestions have been made in order to attract the
best and brightest into teaching and to entice teachers to stay in
the profession. For example, merit pay was suggested to remunerate
hard working teachers who have shown exemplary teaching, and a
four-year intensive liberal arts foundation for undergraduates. The

hope is that preservice teachers would acquire a sound and firm

 

grasp of their subject matter. Bacharach, Bauer, and Shedd (1986,
p. 241) suggest
. revising minimum standards for entering the

teaching profession and/or introducing some

consideration of "merit" into the system by which

teachers are compensated, the former to deal with the

problem of teacher incompetence and the latter to

provide a new set of monetary incentives for teachers

who were thought to be unmotivated. (p. 241)
Although there are some opponents of merit pay, to reward those
teachers who are hard working. This is an alternative worth
exploring for rewarding good teachers already in the system. In
South Africa today, good teachers are more attracted to industry

where decent salaries and perks are offered.

A good teacher corps is needed for upgrading the quality of

 

Black education. Licensure or board-certification of teachers, as
teaching makes a transition from an occupation to a profession,
would be an important innovation that the Department of Education

should consider, as suggested by the Task Force on teaching as a

154

Profession (1986). ”The availability of board-certified teachers is
likely to lead to intense competition among districts for their
services, since, for the first time, local boards and parents will
be able to identify reliable teachers who have met a high standard"
(p. 13).

Earlier, mention was made of universities being encouraged to
work more closely with local schools, in the education of teachers.
The Holmes Group (1990) maintains the primary goal of Professional
Development Schools will be to

. will be to contribute to intellectual solid

programs of teacher education that intertwine the

wisdom of theory and practice; that encourage shared

conceptions among university and school faculty; that

assist novices in evaluating, integrating, and using

knowledge from multiple sources; that convey the moral

basis of teaching; and that recruit and keep

imaginative and interesting teachers in the profession.

(p. 48)

University faculty in South Africa would benefit from working with
practicing teachers, as most of the university lecturers are far
removed from school settings. Although they work with preservice
teachers, they have no clue as to the kinds of schools these
students graduated from and the kinds of environment from which they
came. Professional Development Schools would provide a new
beginning for improving the quality of teaching in both African
schools and universities.

The idea of Professional Development Schools is very
attractive, but will these actually work is another matter.

Although I recommended that universities should work together with

schools, time should be invested in assessing the pitfalls and

 

155

success of this reform movement. South African universities could
learn from those Professional Development Schools already in place
in countries like the United States. Some studies have documented
positive changes. At the same time, there are potential pitfalls in
such collaboration. As this reform is labor-intensive and
expensive, and it requires both school and university personnel to
change their respective work cultures.

Hopefully, creating a new education system encourage teachers
to participate and engage in decision making, thus becoming social
change agents. Shor (1986) states, to be egalitarian change agents,

. teachers need to study community analysis and

models of community change. . . . Teachers will also

need to study school organization, school-based

curriculum design, the legislative environment for

education, and professional politics. . . . Future

teachers can benefit from studying histories of

organizing change in the classroom, in schools or

colleges, and in communities. (p. 406)

The purpose of inservice should be studied. Millions of
dollars or "rands" (South African currency) have been spent on
inservice, but little yielded. Why? Inservice only is meaningful
when teachers have a choice about participating or not
participating. For example, the lack of teacher voice in major
decisions seem to be a universal phenomenon. Ironically, inservice
education can be used itself as a good example to prove teachers'
lack of involvement in decision-making. Duke (1984) asks, ”why,
then is there so much dissatisfaction with inservice education? One

obvious reason is that veteran teachers are not extensively involved

in planning and implementing professional development activities”

(p. 82).

 

 

 

156

Quality education and social change might not occur if teachers
are not involved in research. Teachers have the potential to resist
"deskilling" and change their teaching practice. They after all,
control teaching and learning in their classroom. Zumwalt (1982)
notes the following:

When teachers are taking control of their professional
lives in ways that confound the traditional definition
of teacher and offer proof that education can reform
itself from within. Teacher research is a natural
agent of change: doing classroom research changes
teachers and the teaching profession from inside out,
from the bottom up, through changes in teachers
themselves. And therein lies the power. (p. 235)

It seems that teacher isolation represents the professional
culture of schools, irrespective of the schools being in a
centralized school system or deCentralized school system. Research
indicates that cultures of teaching are difficult to compare because
of the diversity of the teaching population. However as
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1990) explain

. in many school systems teachers have not been
encouraged to work together on voluntary, self-
initiated projects or to speak out with authority about
instructional, curricular, policy issues. When groups
of teachers have the opportunity to work together as
highly professionalized teacher researchers, they
become increasingly articulate about issues of equity,
hierarchy, and autonomy, and increasingly critical of
the technocratic model that dominates much of school
practice. . . . As teachers empower themselves by
adopting a more public and authoritative stance on
their own practice, they are more likely to create the
context for their own students to be empowered as
active learners. (p. 9)

Teachers universally yearn and want to work together, to share
ideas, resources, and skills. Collaboration can help teachers

regain their confidence provided trust and communication are the

 

157

foundation of building this collegial relationship. At the same
time, Little (1986) presents two different portraits of teacher's
professional lives with respect to collaboration:

Some studies offer vivid accounts of the classroom
payoffs that follow teachers' joint efforts. Teachers
who have worked together closely celebrate their
accomplishments by pointing to gains in their
achievement, behavior and attitude of students. Some
protest that extensive out-of-classroom time is
suspect. Others maintain that the press for cooperation
may lead individual teachers to succumb to peer
pressure, leading to compliant implementation of ideas
with little merit or robot-like activity that stifles
variety. (p. 493)

Student resistance to learning in classrooms seems to be

 

universal. The only difference is the degree of their power which
can disrupt schools and classes. Fullan (1982), Jackson (1968), and
Lortie (1975) all describe the daily realities of teaching, the
disruptions, and uncertainties facing individual teachers everyday.
The structure of schools seems to alienate students. Shor (1986)
notes that student alienation is school
. is the number-one learning problem that depresses

academic performance and elevates student resistance.

Student resistance to intellectual life is socially

produced by inequality and by authoritarian pedagogy in

school, worsening the literacy problem and the crisis

in teacher burnout. (p. 412)

How can schools channel students' energies and anger into
something more positive? It seems that people involved with
students are concerned that schools are not fulfilling students'
needs. But as Fullan (1982) notes,

. teachers who blend education and change, and
periodically discuss the meaning of activities with

students, and consider the relationship between old and
new, will be going a long way in accomplishing some of

 

158

the more complex cognitive and social educational

objectives contained in the policy statements and

curricula of most school districts. (p. 158)

Students and teachers seem to be always at odds with each other.
Their relationship seems to be strained by the authoritative demands
that are put on teachers and concomitantly put on students.
McDonald (1988) also acknowledges the tension between teachers and
students:

. there is an inevitable and morally legitimate

tension between teachers and students. I believe that

this struggle and its tensions are at the heart of what

I called the uncertainty of teaching, its messy

practicality, which theorists generally sidestep. (p.

48)

Unfortunately, this tension, as mentioned above, is side-
stepped. Some teachers behave as if tension does not exist. But
teachers find themselves in awkward positions where they cannot
teach in their classrooms because students will not allow them
teach. It is necessary and important for teachers to try and
understand who their students are, their social backgrounds, their
communities, and their friends. Teachers should know their students
as individuals, care about their needs, and be empathic to their
quest to know who they are and want to be, as they go through life's

challenges. Simply put, Giroux and McLaren (1986) agree about the

importance of voice:

. the concept of voice represents the unique
instances of self-expression through which students
affirm their class, cultural, racial, and gender
identities. . . . A critical pedagogy takes into
account the various ways in which the voices that
teachers use to communicate with students can either
silence or legitimate them. (p. 179)

 

 

159

Without students' cooperation, teachers will not succeed in
their daily classroom activities. Students easily sabotage
teachers' efforts if they feel their contributions and experiences
in class do not count. Students' empowerment is important in any
school reform. For example Shor (1986) states, "egalitarian federal
funding, public economic development to create jobs, and
student/teacher/parent ‘empowerment' as the foundations for
educational reform" (p. 413). Therefore, the presence of student
power cannot be ignored in schools but serious attention should be
given to how to productively redirect this power and interests
toward social change.

Lastly, due to the busy schedules and large classes, teachers
were eager to complete the syllabus in preparation for exams.
Teachers hardly had time to reflect or evaluate their teaching.
Some thought the performance of their students on examinations was a
reflection or evaluation of their work. The Carnegie Report (1986)
suggests that more time is needed for all professional teachers to
reflect, plan, and discuss teaching innovations and problems with
their colleagues. Providing this additional time requires
additional staff to support the professional teachers, technology
that relieves teachers of much routine instructional and
administrative work, a radical reorganization of work roles to make
the most efficient use of staff in a collegial environment, and a
new approach to the use of space. (p. 11)

The idea of teacher aids is attractive in particular because of

the serious shortage of teachers and overcrOwded classrooms in Black

 

 

160

schools. Teachers would find time in their classes to work with
small groups of students and pay individual attention to students,
which at the moment is difficult to do without paraprofessionals.
Teacher aids could be selected from a cadre of students who have
successfully completed high school but who are not qualified
teachers. These teacher aids should work as many hours as the
teachers. If a teacher aid, by chance, desires being a teacher in
the future, he/she should be encouraged to pursue teaching and
attend college for this purpose. Tuition waivers should be given,
as an incentives to encourage them to pursue teaching and because of
their experiences as aids.

After independence, the Zimbabwe Ministry of Education took
bold steps to transform their educational system, in particular the
training of teachers. The NECC report (1992) demonstrates how
Zimbabwe integrated National Teachers' Education Course (ZINTEC) was
launched in 1982:

The program was designed to provide teacher trainees

with opportunities to integrate theory and practice,

and to employ student teachers as agents of social and

political change and of development in general.

One of the major objectives of the innovation was to

provide schools with semi-qualified teachers without

actually building colleges in the face of a drastic

shortage of finances for training teachers the

conventional way. (p. 59)

Although these teachers were semi-qualified, they had the same
qualifications as those entering conventional teacher training
colleges. These teachers attended six months at a ZINTEC college

where they were taught methods of teaching, foundations of

education, and curriculum implementation strategies, and taught in

 

 

 

161

schools for three years during this time. They studied through
distance education and took courses during vacations (NECC report,
1992). (In South Africa some teachers study through distance
education, it would be interesting to compare their teaching to the
teachers who are part of the ZINTEC program.) During the latter
half of the fourth year, students returned to a ZINTEC center to
complete their examinations. By 1987, ZINTEC had supplied about 9%
of the primary education teaching force. The ZINTEC program was a
success, but there was still a shortage of teachers in Zimbabwe
(NECC report, 1992). Questions regarding the ”success" of the
ZINTEC program might be raised, because success might mean different
things to different constituencies.

Another innovation was introduced where untrained teachers
could upgrade themselves through inservice course. Selected
untrained teachers already in the field were enrolled in
conventional colleges for courses. The returned to teaching where
they continued for two years with an inservice distance education
program, supplemented with vacation courses (NECC report, 1992).

The lessons learned from these initiatives in reforming the
United States and Zimbabwe could help South Africa assess the
strengths and weaknesses of both these programs for its particular
context and problems. By no means are these the only programs that
could be looked at, but these are examples of what other countries
have attempted to do to improve the quality of their teacher corps

students learning.

 

 

 

162
Conclusion

This research has allowed me to think more about curriculum
issues and the role and contributions of teachers as change agents
in schools. Distancing myself from South Africa provided an
opportunity for me to be objective, to reflect on serious issues,
and to look at the bigger picture when addressing problems in
education and teaching. Conducting this research in South Africa,
after being away from the country for a while, gave me a view of
Black teachers that I never knew or fully appreciated, especially
with the political changes that were occurring at the time. For
those teachers who volunteered to be interviewed, the frankness and
compassion they shared and showed, contributed much to the success
of my study. These teachers have broken the isolation barrier, and
a new process has begun for them to seek out their colleagues for
support and social changes in the education system and society at
large.

The changing political situation provided Black teachers an
opportunity to articulate their contextual constraints with less
fear. Interviewing teachers gave me the opportunity to interact and
learn from them; to realize they are serious about change in their
teaching and learning; about changing their image as professionals,
and their desire to be change agents. They were worried by the
deteriorating relationship with their students, and they yearned to
participate in major decisions regarding their curriculum, textbook

selection, policy issues, and so forth.

 

 

163

Using qualitative research methods provided me with
flexibility. When the initial topic was conceived, I was less aware
of the dynamic changes that were occurring in South Africa and how
these changes were profoundly influencing and affecting teachers as
well as schools, as I was removed from the situation. When the
focus of my study changed to how teachers perceived their workplace
constraints, the potential strengths and contributions of this study
were realized. The silent voices that been suppressed suddenly
burst open and free, freeing themselves from the stifling
environment that constrained them, asserting themselves, and
creating a new environment from where they might once more learn to
fly using their creativity and intelligence. For geography
teachers, this was a new beginning, a new possibility in their
professional lives where they might take more control and accept the
challenges crossing their paths.

This study indicated the importance of giving teachers room to
voice their concerns and dangers of lack of a lack of academic
freedom. On the other hand, the study revealed the inner strength
and courage Black teachers possessed, despite having been silenced.
This study would help others understand the importance of listening
to teachers speak for themselves and not letting others put words
into their mouths or speak for them or against them.

Administrators and policy makers should learn from the
experiences of teachers, and take their concerns and contributions
seriously. Before teachers are evaluated, serious thought should be

given on their involvement in decision making regarding their work.

 

 

164

The curriculum should not be teacher-proof, teacher involvement in
the planning of curriculum should be a priority. Only then, can
evaluation of teachers be taken seriously when they are directly in
control of their work. Furthermore, the roles of inspectors and
subject advisors clearly defined to avoid overlapping of duties.

The potential contribution of students in improving schools
should not be overlooked nor underestimated. Serious attention
should be given to how they could be engaged in learning and learn
to support what the schools are trying to achieve for them in the
name of social equality and justice. Dialogue with students should
be encouraged, and teaching should be student-centered. The support
and role of parents should not be dismissed if quality education is
to be pursued vigorously and succeed in the future.

Learning from the international community is very timely as
South Africa enters an important political and educational
transition. But caution should be taken when considering or
adopting ideas from the international community. Although reforms
elsewhere might be great, the particular context will demand that
adjustments be made. The findings in this study have great
potential to contributing to change in South Africa, changes in
public schools, in teacher education, in teaching and teachers

relations, and in students' lives and future.

 

 

 

APPENDIX

 

APPENDIX

All geography teachers were asked to respond to both sections
of the questionnaire. Tuckman (1988) notes that "Questionnaires can
also be used to discover what experiences have taken place
(biography) and what is occurring at present" (p. 213).

The following questions are for all geography teachers: Circle the

correct answer .

Teacher qualification: Matric + HPTC
Matric + JSTC

Matric + STD

B.A. + HPTC
B.A. + UED
B.A. '+ HED

B.A. (Hons) + UED, HPTC, JSTC, STD

Standard presently teaching in geography: STD 8

STD 9

STD 10

165

 

166

Attended geography in-service how many times a year:

Number of years taught: 1-3
4-6
7-9

10+

Number of years taught geography: 1-3

4-6
7-9
10+
Other subjects taught: English
Afrikaans
Vernacular
Biology

Physical Science
History

Other:

4+

 

167

Standard other subjects taught: STD 8
STD 9

STD 10

Subjects presently teaching besides geography: English

Afrikaans
Vernacular
Biology
History

Physical Science

 

Other:

Standard of other subject/s presently teaching: STD 8
STD 9

STD 10

 

 

168

F0 Geo ra h Teachers

Choose only one response:
Key: SA--strongly agree
A--agree

?--uncertain

 

D--disagree
SD--strongly disagree 53
SA A ? D SD [“-
1. In-service education is important for
geography teachers. Efi‘

2. All geography teachers must be forced

to attend in-service.

3. Only selected geography teachers must

attend in-service.

 

4. Geography in-service will enhance

professional growth of teachers.

5. Geography in-service will enhance personal

growth of teachers.

6. Geography teachers should participate in

planning in-service programs.

169

7. Geography teachers should attend in-service

l, 2, 3, or 4 times a year. (Circle one.)

8. Who should instruct geography at the inservice?
Geography teacher
University professor
Teacher Educator
Other

(Choose one.)

9. What should be the minimum academic
qualification of teachers teaching geography
in standards 8,9 and 10?
Matric
Matric+
B.A.
B.A.+

B.A. (Hons)

10. Geography has changed a lot in the past

few years.

 

 

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