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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A STUDY OF EARLY ADOLESCENTS' TIME SPENT IN
CLUBS OR ORGANIZATIONS OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL

presented by

Cathy J. Newkirk

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Master's degree in Family and Child Ecology

 

 

   

Major professor

Date 1995

 

0-7639 MS U is an Afﬁrmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

 

 

 

LIERARY
Michigan State
University

 

 

 

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TO AVOID F INES mum on or baton data duo.

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MSU I. An Afﬂnndlvo Action/Ema! Opportunity Institution
mmr

A STUDY OF EARLY ADOLESCENTS' TIME SPENT IN
CLUBS OR ORGANIZATIONS OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL

By

Cathy J. Newkirk

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Family and Child Ecology

1995

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF EARLY ADOLESCENTS' TIME SPENT
IN CLUBS OR ORGANIZATIONS OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL

By

Cathy J. Newkirk

The Search Institute's Proﬁles of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors
Questionnaire was administered to 16,375 7th, 9th, and 11th graders in 36 Michigan
communities during 1993 and early 1994. This study's sample included a total of 8,446
12- to 14-year-olds.

Two research questions were examined from this data set: 1. How much time do
12- to 14-year-olds report spending in clubs or organizations outside of school? 2. Does
the amount of time adolescents report spending in clubs or organizations outside of
school differ by age, gender, ethnicity, antisocial behavior, socioeconomic status, family
support, or geographic location? Data analyses included frequency analysis and cross
tabulations.

Overall, 60% of the early adolescents did not participate in clubs or organizations
outside of school. Signiﬁcant but small differences were found at the p < .001 Chi
Square level for all variables except age. In terms of meaningful differences, the

strongest relationships were found with socioeconomic status and family support.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis would not have been completed had it not been for the time, assistance
and genuine effort of several individuals. My sincere appreciation is extended to my
advisor Dr. Joanne Keith, for her patience and faith. I admire her wisdom and
discernment; she is a caring and conscientious educator and an estimable researcher for
whom I have the utmost respect. I was especially fortunate to have as my committee Dr.
Norma Bobbitt and Dr. June Youatt. Their expertise and judgement served me well, and I
greatly appreciate their willingness to share their time and insights to help me through this
process.

A special thank you to Dr. Dan Perkins who, through necessity, helped me to
"unleam" everything I had been taught about creative writing for the past 25 years. He
consequently taught me much about the objective and scientiﬁc style. Dr. Perkins
demonstrated a remarkable degree of patience as he read and commented on each chapter
of this thesis. I also owe him a debt of gratitude for sharing his data and research with me,
and for serving as my statistician. He has a talent for statistics that I appreciate, but will
never match.

I would like to acknowledge a special friend and colleague, Marie Ruemenapp, for
her encouragement and support over the years. It was because of Marie that I began this

Master's program, and without her conﬁdence, motivation and urging, I may not have

iii

ﬁnished. She has my gratitude and assurance that I will stand by her in the same way.

My husband Karl deserves a special mention, as he is a remarkable and unique
human being. At no time during the entire ﬁve years it took me to complete this Master's
program did he complain about the time or expense of the undertaking. Karl is the
epitome of patience, a trait that I admire and greatly appreciate. His support has been
constant and implicit, and it has enabled me to accomplish this demanding but worthwhile
goal.

Finally, I must mention my friends and colleagues in MSU Extension. They
supported me and listened on countless occasions as I voiced my concerns about and
questioned my ability to complete this process. They gave advice when I asked, and
provided a listening car. A special thank you to Dr. Cynthia Mark, whom I consider my
professional mentor. She knew when I needed encouragement and was always ready to
cheer me on. At the same time she asked very pertinent and pointed questions that kept

me thinking and striving.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES ................................... vii
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION

Introduction .................................. 1

Theoretical Framework ............................ 2

Research Questions and Hypotheses ...................... 7

Limitations .................................. 9

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................ 11

Adolescent Development ........................... 11

Parental Characteristics Associated with Adolescent Development ....... 13

Peer Relationships Associated with Adolescent Development ......... 14

Out-of-School Time in Relationship with Adolescent Development ...... 16

Participation in Clubs or Organizations Outside of School ........... 18

Community-Based, Clubs and Organizations Outside of School ........ 19

Two Models of Time Spent in Clubs or Organization Outside of School. . . .23
Participation in Clubs or Organizations Outside of School

and Speciﬁc Organismic, Behavioral, and Contextual Variables ..... 25

III. METHOD .................................... 36

Participants ................................. 36

Measures ................................... 36

Microsystems Organismic Variables ..................... 37

Microsystems Behavioral Variables ..................... 38

Contextual Variables ............................. 40

Procedures .................................. 44

IV . RESULTS ..................................... 47

Results Related to Microsystems Organismic Variables ........... A . 47

Results Related to Microsystems Behavioral Variables ............ 51

Results Related to Contextual Variables .................... 54

V. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .................... 62
Future Directions for Research ......................... 66
Implications for Programming ......................... 68
Implications for Policy ............................. 70
APPENDIX A. Attitudes and Behaviors Questionnaire ................. 73

APPENDD( B. Overview of Item and Scale Formulations by Organismic
and Behavioral Variables ............................. 81

APPENDIX C. Overview of Item and Scale Formulations by Contextual Variables . . 82
APPENDIX D. University Consent ............................ 83

LIST OF REFERENCES ................................. 84

vi

Table

10.

11.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Community Based Proﬁle of Michigan Youth Sample .............. 39
Community Based Proﬁle of Michigan Youth Sample

Percentages Involved in Clubs or Organizations Outside

of School and Anti-Social Behavior ................... 41
Community Based Proﬁle of Michigan Youth Sample

Percentages Based on Mother's Education and Family Support ..... 43
Community Based Proﬁle of Michigan Youth Sample

Percentages Based on Geographic Location ............... 45
Percentage of Adolescents Spending Time in Clubs or Organizations

Outside of School by Age ........................ 49
Percentage of Adolescents Spending Time in Clubs or Organizations

Outside of School by Gender ...................... 50
Percentage of Adolescents Spending Time in Clubs or Organizations

Outside of School by Ethnicity ...................... 52
Percentage of Adolescents Spending Time in Clubs or Organizations

Outside of School by Anti-Social Behavior ............... 55
Percentage of Adolescents Spending Time in Clubs or Organizations

Outside of School by Mother's Education ................ 57
Percentage of Adolescents Spending Time in Clubs or Organizations

Outside of School by Family Support .................. 60
Percentage of Adolescents Spending Time in Clubs or Organizations

Outside of School by Geographic Location ............... 61

vii

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

There is increasing concern today about young adolescents and their behaviors.
Many youth-serving organizations have programs and activities designed to help young
adolescents make positive use of their out-of-school hours, identiﬁed by the Carnegie
Council on Adolescent Development (1992) as the largest single block of time in the
young adolescent's day. Are early adolescents participating in these programs in any
appreciable numbers? Few studies have focused on the amount of time young
adolescents spend in clubs or organizations outside of school. Fewer still have attempted
to determine whether participation in these activities has an effect on the early
adolescents' anti-social behavior. Given this lack of research, two broad categories of
theoretical and empirical literature will be examined: 1) a brief overview of the literature
related to the relevant theories of adolescent development; 2) adolescent participation in
clubs or organizations outside of school, including time spent in such activities and rate
of participation. Organismic and contextual factors which have been found to impact
relationships with adolescent development and which may impact early adolescents'
involvement in clubs and organizations outside of school are included. These variables
include: age, gender, ethnicity, anti-social behavior, socioeconomic status, family

support, and geographic location.

. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Early adolescents are affected by the environments in which they live, and they, in
turn, affect those environments (Lerner, 1986). In other words, they do not live in
vacuums; they interact with individuals in their immediate environments that inﬂuence
them, and whom they, in‘tum, inﬂuence. Additionally, they are affected by, and they
indirectly affect, environments with which they do not have direct contact.
Bronfenbrenner's (1979) human ecological theory explains the relationships early
adolescents have with their immediate and indirect environments.

Bronfenbrenner (1979) explains that as individuals develop, the way in which
they perceive and interact with their environments changes. Their development is
inﬂuenced by the interactions they have with their environments. Thus, early adolescents
are viewed as developing entities that not only interact with, but actually restructure their
surroundings through these interactions (Lerner, 1986).

Within this theory, an individual's perception of his or her environment has a vital
inﬂuence on his or her behavior and development. Thus, in order to study human
development, it is essential to study the context in which development occurs.
Furthermore, any attempt to enhance an early adolescent's development must take into
account the ongoing interactions that early adolescent has with his or her environment
and the unique qualities orcharacteristics the early adolescent possesses (Garbarino,
1982; Lerner & Foch, 1987).

Bronfenbrenner (1979) refers to his theory as the ecology of human development,

3

and deﬁnes it as "the scientiﬁc study of the progressive, mutual accommodation between
an active, growing human being and the changing properties of the immediate settings in
which a developing person lives. This process is affected by relations between these
settings, and by the larger contexts in which the settings are embedded" (Bronfenbrenner,
1979). The individual and the environment interact over time through a process of
reciprocity; always changing, each depending on the other (Garbarino, 1982).

Bronfenbrenner (1979) refers to the "ecological environment" when describing his
model. The ecological environment is explained as an arrangement of concentric
structures, each contained within the next. These structures are referred to as the micro-,
meso-, exo-, and macrosystems. At the innermost level is the immediate setting
containing the developing individual.

This innermost level is referred to as the microsystem. In this setting the
individual experiences day-to-day life (Garbarino, 1982). The microsystem includes
people and settings with which the individual comes into direct contact. For early
adolescents, examples include home and family; school and teachers; neighborhoods and
peers. It is important to note that not only are individuals and contexts of value, but
interpersonal relations the early adolescent experiences within those contexts, as well
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Examples of this include: how well does the early adolescent
get along with his or her parents, is he or she easily inﬂuenced by peers, does he or she
have a trusted adult, other than a parent, to whom he or she can turn? Also critical are
relationships the individual experiences that go beyond one-to-one interactions. This is

particularly true for the early adolescent, whose interest in the world outside his or her

4
family is expanding (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Hendry, Shucksmith, Love, & Glendinning,
1993; Lerner & Galambos, 1984; Tobin-Richards, Boxer, McNull Kavrell, & Peterson,
1984). At this age, young people are not only open to new experiences and different
views, but the introduction of new opportunities contributes to their growth.

Bronfenbrenner identiﬁes a "level" in his human ecological model which actually
spans other levels of the model. It is termed the mesosystem. The mesosystem refers to
the interrelations between two or more environments of which the early adolescent is a
part. Mesosystems occur not only within settings, but between settings (Bronfenbrenner,
1979). Within this study, an example may be a young adolescent who is a member of a
4-H club and whose parents attend the monthly 4-H meetings, or volunteer to chaperon
the club's ﬁeld trip. The parents in this case are "crossing over" from the early
adolescent's home environment to his or her 4-H club environment. The youth's
microsystems are thereby linked.

Garbarino (1982) argues that the value of the mesosystems is measured by the
number and quality of connections the developing adolescent experiences. Parents who
have met their child's 4-H leader but do not attend the 4-H meetings, or who only visit
4-H club meetings occasionally, are not forging a very strong link between their child's
home and 4-H experiences. Parents who become involved in the 4-H club by attending
regularly, or volunteering to teach or chaperon are making a greater contribution, and
may be enhancing their early adolescent's development. Parents who support their early
adolescents' school involvement and organizational or club involvement are helping to

create an even stronger mesosystem.

5

Other adults can help strengthen those connections, as well. Teachers who
recognize the value of their students' 4-H involvement, 4-H leaders who help their club
members with school concerns, religious leaders or social workers who counsel early
adolescents and support their family and school relationships all contribute to a strong
mesosystem. Children who are involved in responsible, task-oriented, activities outside
the home which involve them in relationships with adults other than their parents will
beneﬁt by enhanced development. It is vital for early adolescents to develop ﬁiendships
with peers and relationships with teachers, 4-H or scout leaders, adults in the religious
community, and others in order to experience ultimate developmental potential
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

The next level beyond the microsystem is called the exosystem. Bronfenbrenner
describes (1979) this as one or more settings that do not involve the developing person as
an active participant, but in which events occur that affect what happens in that setting. A
commonly used example of this is the parents' place of work. Early adolescents are
profoundly affected by this particular environment - one in which they may never directly
connect - in many possible ways. For example, parental income affects the
socioeconomic status of the entire family and determines whether the family lives in
poverty or in an income bracket which can sufﬁciently support the family and allow for
the "extras" that young adolescents often desire. Besides income, there are other factors
related to parental employment that directly affect the family and the adolescents within
it. Many early adolescents are home alone during the after school hours because of their

parents' work schedules. Some parents may have ﬂexible work hours that they can use to

6

care for family concerns; some may not. The lack of ﬂexibility may cause stress for the
parents and other family members. Likewise, stresses at work may have an effect on
parents' relationships with spouses and children at home.

The next level of Bronfenbrenner's human ecological model is the macrosystem.
This can be described as the tenets and organization of a society. This includes belief
systems, ideologies, and government. Garbarino calls them "...'blueprints' for the ecology
of human development. These blueprints reﬂect a people's shared assumptions about
'how things should be done'" (1982, p. 24). Policies regarding public education and
out-of-school programs have a direct effect on early adolescents and their families.
Governmental policies that support child care and youth development, state-level
ﬁnancial support for after-school programs, and transportation subsidies are examples of
macrosystem backing that may beneﬁt children and families (Lipsitz, 1986).

Early adolescents are inﬂuenced by, and they in turn inﬂuence, their immediate
environments, as well as those with whom they may not come in direct contact.
Garbarino (1982) states that while the familyis the most important part of a child's
microsystem, "...the overall impact of the environment emerges ﬁom the dynamic balance
among all inﬂuences over time" (p. 25). Young adolescents cannot be studied effectively
without examining all aspects of their lives - their microsystems, exosystems, and
mesosystems - within the macrosystem which inﬂuences all our lives.

Given the scope of the present study and lack of research on this speciﬁc issue,
early adolescents will be examined in their most immediate setting: the microsystem.

Early adolescents themselves are microsystems, and as such have their own distinct

7

characteristics. In addition, they interact directly with other microsystems. Microsystem
variables will be studied on three levels: organismic, behavioral, and contextual.
Organismic variables include characteristics of early adolescents such as age, gender, and
ethnicity. Behavioral variables related to this study are the early adolescents'
participation in clubs or organizations outside of school and their participation in anti-
social behavior. Within the early adolescents' ecosystem are contextual systems with
which they come in direct contact. Two such systems will be examined in this study:
family and community. The family variables in this study are categorized as descriptive
and behavioral. Mother's education is a descriptive variable that will be used as a proxy
to socioeconomic status. The behavioral variable in this instance is family support. The
descriptive variable available in this study to describe community is geographic location,

or whether the early adolescents live in rural, suburban, or urban communities.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
This study will incorporate an ecological perspective to examine early adolescent

involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school in relationship to the speciﬁc
organismic, community, and family characteristics that are available. Two research
questions will be examined:

1. How much time do 12- to 14-year-olds report spending in clubs or organizations
outside of school?

2. Does the amount of time early adolescents report spending in clubs or

organizations outside of school differ by age, gender, ethnicity, anti-social behavior,

8

socioeconomic status, family support or geographic location?

Based upon adolescent development theory and previous research, the following

hypotheses are proposed:

H1:

H2:

H3:

H4:

H5:

H6:

H7:

Younger adolescents have a signiﬁcantly higher level of involvement in
clubs or organizations outside of school than older adolescents.

Females have a signiﬁcantly higher level of involvement in clubs or
organizations outside of school than males.

White early adolescents have a signiﬁcantly higher level of involvement in
clubs or organizations outside of school than early adolescents of other
ethnic or racial backgrounds.

There is a negative relationship between involvement in clubs or
organizations outside of school and involvement in anti-social behavior by
early adolescents.

Early adolescents whose families have higher socioeconomic status have a
signiﬁcantly higher level of involvement in clubs or organizations outside
of school than early adolescents whose families have lower socioeconomic
status.

Early adolescents with supportive families have a signiﬁcantly higher
level of involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school than early
adolescents with less supportive families.

There is no difference in level of involvement in clubs or organizations

outside of school among rural, urban, or suburban early adolescents.

9

LIMITATIONS

The present study has provided an initial base of empirical data that begins to
address the issue of participation in clubs or organizations outside of school among early
adolescents. However, the study did have some limitations, which are discussed below.
Only one aspect of out-of-school time was examined in this study, namely, whether early
adolescents were involved in organized activities sponsored by community-based, youth-
serving organizations. The youth who are not participating in these types of activities
may be participating in other activites; however, this particular study only examined one
speciﬁc use of out-of-school time.

It was not possible to determine, given the nature of the survey used in this study,
the type and quality of activities these early adolescents were involved with on a weekly
basis, and the perceived beneﬁt of such involvement. The examination of additional
variables related to the quality of the out-of-school experience for the early adolescents
might have proved meaningful. A more thorough examination of this speciﬁc issue,
beyond time spent, may provide additional information about why those who reported no
participation in clubs or organizations outside of school did so. For example, through the
present study it was not possible to determine whether the youth had signiﬁcant
interactions with positive adult role models, and what types of interactions they might
have been. It would have been helpful to know exactly what types of activities the youth
participated in, and whether certain activities were associated with a decrease in anti-
social behavior.

Additional questions may have determined what types of activities the youth

10

preferred, and whether factors such as cost and access would have made a difference in
their participation. Parental support for early adolescent involvement in clubs or
organizations outside of school is crucial. Direct questions regarding the parents' support
of such involvement would have been useful. Ideally, involving parents themselves in
such a study would help to paint a more accurate picture of why early adolescents
participate or fail to participate in clubs or organizations outside of school.

Using mother's education as a measure of socioeconomic status may be a fairly
reliable indicator (Entwisle & Astone, 1994). However, according to Hauser (1994), it is
an incomplete indicator. Instead, researchers should examine additional factors, such as
parental (or householder) educational attainment, occupational status, family
composition, and household income in order to reach a more accurate determination of
socioeconomic status (Hauser, 1994). Again, due to the limited number of questions that
pertained to socioeconomic status on the current survey, as well as the lack of information
from parents or guardians themselves, socioeconomic status was determined using the

best means possible.

Chapter II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Went

Adolescence is a critical period in the life span, but one which has not always
received a great deal of attention (Lerner & Galambos, 1984). Adolescence is also a time
when individuals undergo changes and development that will impact them for the rest of
their lives (Hendry, et al., 1993). There are three reasons why attention to this age group
has been increasing. First, researchers are ﬁnding that the early years of life are not
necessarily the most important ones (Brim and Kagan, 1980, cited in Offer and Schonert-
Reichl, 1992). Scientists have an interest in studying life transitions, and adolescence is
one such time when individuals undergo multiple changes - physically, cognitively, and
socially. "...No time of life comprises more physical, intellectual, social, emotional, and
moral development into so brief a span" (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development,
1992, p. 9). Second, the youth movements of the 19605 and 19705 caused researchers to
take a closer look at this age group (Petersen, 1988, cited in Offer & Schonert-Reiehl,
1992). Third, due to rapid changes in the social environment, adolescents today are faced
with stressors that put them at greater risk for severe outcomes (such as increasing rates
of drug use, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases) than in previous generations '1
(Dryfoos, 1990; Lerner & Galambos, 1984; Offer & Schonert-Reichl, 1992; Schorr,

1988).

11

12

The view of adolescence as a generally stressful and stormy period is a stereotype
not supported by research (Lerner & Galambos, 1984; Offer & Schonert-Reichl, 1992),
however, it is nonetheless a crucial stage of life. Hendry et a1. (1993) suggest that entry
into this new period may challenge adolescents' self-image "...as they attempt new tasks
in which they can succeed or fail, as they alter their values and the areas which are
important for overall self-esteem and as they conﬁont new signiﬁcant others against
whom they rate themselves and about whose judgements they care" (p. 17). In order to
keep self-esteem intact, young people develop ways to cope with situations they may ﬁnd
threatening or uncomfortable. Adolescents with low sense of self-worth may become
loners or have low expectations of themselves or, at the other extreme, set unrealistic
goals for themselves (Covington & Beery, 1977, cited in Hendry, et al., 1993).

Adolescents must be studied in the total environments in which they exist. These
contexts include homes, schools, neighborhoods, communities, and beyond
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Lerner & Galambos, 1984; Tobin-Richards, et al., 1984). Just as
adolescents are inﬂuenced by parents, peers, teachers, and the larger society, the reverse
is also true. Adolescents inﬂuence the ways in which others react to them. With society
expecting new behaviors and adolescents attempting to adjust to internal and external
changes, it may be difficult for them to cope (Lerner & Galambos, 1984). Researchers
claim this difficulty in coping stems from adolescents feeling they are not in control of .
events, and this may in turn complicate relationships the adolescents have with friends
and family. Consequently, stress factors may increase (Hendry, 1983, cited in Hendry et

al., 1993; Cobb, 1992).

13

While societal stressors may have changed over the years, adolescents have
always faced certain developmental challenges. These normal burdens of adolescent
development (Hendry, etal., 1993; Cobb, 1992) include changes that begin to occur in
early adolescence: puberty, changing sex roles, developing more autonomous
relationships with parents, and more mature relationships with peers. Late adolescents
face the need to integrate their sexuality into their relationships, prepare for adult work
roles, identify and embrace values to guide their behavior, and achieve a sense of identity
(Cobb, 1992).

21"!“ 1215.". a o ' 1. A16...“ '! D-v- Hn'r

Parental inﬂuence and expectations play a role in the lives of adolescents (Cobb,
1992). Most adolescents internalize parents' attitudes and values. (Bandura, 1964, cited
in Lerner & Galambos, 1984; Offer & Schonert-Reichl, 1992). This is part of the process
adolescents experience as they separate ﬁom their parents and take on more responsibility
for their own lives.

Families with certain characteristics experience less conﬂict as their children enter
adolescence. Parental support and open communication tend to lessen the adolescent's
reliance upon the peer group (Hendry et al., 1993). Research by Noller & Callan (1991,
cited in Hendry et al., 1993) shows that teens who experienced stronger communication
with and support from parents were less likely to become sexually involved at a young
age, and had decreased likelihood of substance abuse. Teens who are more involved in
decision making and who are not subject to arbitrary parental rules are more likely to

experience less conﬂict-prone relationships with parents (Guemey & Arthur, 1984).

14

Parenting style has an effect on the parent-adolescent relationship. Parents who
are overly permissive or authoritarian are least effective when teens become involved
with conﬂicting values or deviant behavior (Cobb, 1992). Parents walk a ﬁne line
between maintaining some control over their teenagers' lives and allowing them some
freedom to develop their own autonomy. Some conﬂict is expected between parents and
teens as teens bid for greater autonomy; parents themselves can either facilitate or hinder
the growth of autonomy (Offer & Schonert-Reichl, 1992; Pardeck & Pardeck, 1990).

Research shows that adolescents and their parents actually experience continuing,
close relationships. The conﬂicts that do occur do not damage the relationships, or
prevent the parents and teens from remaining close. This research has found that
adolescents who are the most autonomous are also most likely to say their parents are an
important inﬂuence in their lives, and that they continue to seek their advice (Douvan &
Adelson, 1966; Kandel & Lesser, 1969; Offer, 1969; Offer, Ostrov & Howard, 1981;
cited in Cobb, 1992).

Furthermore, research by Offer, Ostrov, & Howard (1981, cited in Cobb, 1992)
found "little evidence of emotional turmoil in the adolescents they studied, or of conﬂict
in their relationships with parents" (p. 186). Indeed, these researchers found strong
indications that adolescents have positive feelings toward their families.
EBI'Y? .11!“ El

Relationships with age mates, or peers, are crucial to the adolescent. According to
Havighurst (1953), developing more mature relationships with peers of both sexes is a

developmental task of adolescence. Peers serve as a means by which adolescents try out

15

and learn new ways of interacting with others, ways that are more mature and
responsible. Adolescents seek the approval of peers as they experiment with new forms
of behavior (Cobb, 1992; Stattin & Magnusson, 1990).

Peer groups may also set standards for behaviors and may inﬂuence behavior in
cases where parental inﬂuence is weak (Guemey & Arthur, 1984; Hendry et al., 1993;
Stattin & Magnusson, 1990). In addition, peers provide a base of security outside the
family for adolescents and they enable young people to communicate with others as equal
partners (Hendry et al., 1993).

There is no question among researchers that the peer group is one of the most
important socializing forces in the lives of adolescents. Through peers, adolescents learn
many social skills that they would not learn from parents or teachers (Cobb, 1992;
Guemey & Arthur, 1984; Hendry et al., 1993; Stattin & Magnusson, 1990). Peer
relationships during this phase of life "...are the foundation upon which the social skills
necessary for a successful adulthood are developed" (Guemey & Arthur, 1984, p. 92).

There are additional reasons why peers can be a powerful inﬂuence over the lives
of adolescents. The peer group can provide a sense of belonging, as well as popularity
and status - at a time when parents and other authorities are being questioned (Guemey &
Arthur, 1984; Muuss, 1990). Conformity to the peer group provides the adolescent with
support during a time when he or she most needs to feel accepted (Cobb, 1992).
Adolescents who relate to the values and norms of the peer group are better able to
evaluate the perspectives of others while developing their own attitudes and values

(Hendry et al., 1993). Researchers have identiﬁed areas in which adolescents most

l6

strongly inﬂuence each other: dress and appearance, choice of leisure-time activities,
language (Hendry et al., 1993; Norem-Hebeisen & Hedin, 1983), and involvement in
problem behavior, such as the use of alcohol and drugs (Dryfoos, 1990; Norem-Hebeisen
& Hedin, 1983; Perkins, 1995; Stattin & Magnusson, 1990).

Some researchers have found that psychological maladjustment among
adolescents can be traced to a lack of signiﬁcant peer attachment (lanes & Hesselbrock,
1978, cited in Guemey & Arthur, 1984). Others have found that teens who engage in
antisocial behavior are rejected by the peer group of which they have been a part
(Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey, 1989). One study of 700 junior high and high school
students found little pressure from ﬁiends for participation in anti-social behavior, and
much actual discouragement by them (Clasin & Brown, 1985). However, most research
suggests that peers not only serve as models for problem behavior, they can also provide
approval for such (Cobb, 1992; Dryfoos, 1990; Lerner, 1995; Norem-Hebeisen & Hedin,
1983; Perkins, 1995; Stattin & Magnusson, 1990). Adolescents who are easily inﬂuenced
by peers are more likely to exhibit anti-social behavior than those who have strong
relationships with their parents (Guemey & Arthur, 1984).

_ _ . . . . v

There is a great deal of concern today about how early adolescents choose to
spend their time outside school. Researchers are ﬁnding that in terms of adolescents'
futures, what happens to them in the out-of-school hours is as important, at least, as what
happens to them in school (Medrich, Roizen, Rubin, & Buckley, 1982). Time spent in

positive leisure pursuits, whether they be unstructured or organized, can contribute to

17

adolescents' individual character (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992;
Crider, 1985) as well as skill development (Carnegie Council on Adolescent
Development, 1992; Crider, 1985; Willits & Willits, 1986). Furthermore, the
out-of-school hours can provide a means for adolescents to develop long-range personal
and social goals (Crider, 1985; Schine, 1989; Willits & Willits, 1986) in addition to the
opportunity to explore a variety of peer, family, and community roles, and ultimately the
establishment of a personal identity (Willits & Willits, 1986).

Hamburg (1992) maintains, "American youth have a great deal of unscheduled,
unstructured, and unsupervised time...After school, young adolescents need for healthy
development a variety of stimulating, constructive experiences that can continue to
prepare them for passage to competent, mature adulthood" (p. 16-17). These experiences
are found not only in schools and homes, but in neighborhoods and communities.

Young adolescents who are faced with hours of unstructured time spent with
peers, but not with adult guidance or supervision, may choose to engage in anti-social,
destructive, or health-compromising behaviors (Carnegie Council on Adolescent
Development; 1992; Dryfoos, 1990; Lipsitz, 1986; Marsland, 1982). "It is during this
period that young adolescents begin to make their initial decisions about such potentially
dangerous behaviors as alcohol and other drug use, sexual activity, and gang
involvement. They face risks far more serious than did their predecessors, and they face
them earlier in life" (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992, p. 9).
Unsupervised young adolescents stand a greater chance of engaging in substance abuse

and they are also more likely to be subject to negative peer pressure. Additionally,

l8

unsupervised after-school hours are the most common time for adolescent sexual
intercourse (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992; Marsland, 1982).
EH"CHD"C'1ESII

As a response to the increasing amount of discretionary time faced by early
adolescents, youth organizations formed during the ﬁrst half of the twentieth century.
These organizations, such as Scouts, 4-H, Camp Fire Girls and Boys, "were organized to
take advantage of the new leisure time of youths who were not working...They (had) the
capacity to make dependable connections with many lonely and isolated young people"
(Nightingale & Wolverton, 1993, p. 484). Their general purpose was to provide youth
with positive, skill-building, activities; alternatives to leisure hours that provided either
nothing to do or afforded opportunities for negative behavior.

LaBelle (1981) reports that "in combination, the Boy and Girl Scouts, YMCA and
YWCA, Boys' and Girls' Clubs, Salvation Army, Camp Fire, and 4-H registered
approximately 17 million, or more than a third of the eligible 46 million school-aged
children and youths in this country" (p. 324). The Carnegie Council on Adolescent
Development (1992) claims a much larger number of youth participating in
agency-sponsored activities. The Council reports "between 60 and 80 percent of young
adolescents participate in at least one activity sponsored by public or nonproﬁt agencies"
(p. 32). LaBelle's report utilized numbers that the organizations provided concerning
their membership. The Carnegie report (1992) included teens whose participation may '
have been quite brief, spending very limited amounts of time on such activities.

In a 1993 survey 3,294 eighth and eleventh graders in twelve central Pennsylvania

19

communities were asked about extracurricular school activities and community
organization membership. Over half (57%) of the youth belonged to two or more school
activities and 21% belonged to none. Conversely, 52% of the youth surveyed belonged to
no community organizations, and 21% belonged to two or more (Willits & Willits, 1986).
Similar ﬁndings were reported in a nationwide study of 24,500 eighth graders done in
1988 by the Department of Education. This study found that nine percent of the eighth
graders were taking part in 4-H, 14% in Scouts, and 11% in Boys or Girls Clubs. "When
duplicate participation was subtracted, over three-fourths of all eighth graders were not
taking part in any of the three programs" (Steele, Miller, & Rai, 1993, p. 2).
School-related activities appear to attract a greater number of adolescents than those
sponsored by youth-serving organizations.

Steele et al. emphasize the importance of the length of time young people spend in
an activity or program, and the intensity of that involvement. They suggest those 4-H'ers
who invest more and are more intensively involved in the program, which includes taking
part for more years, are likely to gain more than those who take part in a token way for a
few weeks. The problem may not be the youths' unwillingness to participate long term,

but that they have no choice but to participate in short-term, sporadic programs, as that

may be all that is available to them (Steele et al., 1993).

 

Many who study young adolescents and their use of out-of-school time believe
youth-serving organizations play a vital role in the lives of these young people and their

families (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992; Dryfoos, 1990; Kleinfeld

20

& Shinkwin, 1983; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1993; Norem-Hebeisen & Hedin, 1983;
Price, Cioci, Penner, & Trautlein, 1993; Steele et al., 1993). Most argue that collaboration
among community groups is crucial to providing young people with the services and
programs they need (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992; Dryfoos,
1990; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1993; Price et al., 1993; Roth & Hendrickson, 1991;
Schine, 1989). "Communities which want to respond to children in a manner more likely
to succeed will be those who consider collaborative efforts, including as many
dimensions of the community as feasible..." (Keith, Perkins, Zhou, Clifford, Gilmore, &
Townsend, 1993, p. 12).

Most communities recognize the need for school-age child care, and have
instituted programs to address that need. However, few of these programs are designed to
include early adolescents (Schine, 1989). Some children report they enjoy their time
alone, because it is the only time of day when they were on their own (Burtrnan, 1984,
cited in Lipsitz, 1986). However, "...about one-third wished they had more activities after
school, especially with ﬁiends in clubs or athletics" (p. 17). In their study of early
adolescents, Medrich et al., (1982) found that 41 percent of the 11- and 12-year-olds said
they often felt bored and at a loss for things to do after school and on weekends. Many
adolescents felt that they had little to do that they felt was worthwhile. This lack of
programs may increase their likelihood of participating in health-compromising
behaviors, for example, poor school achievement and drop out, pregnancy, substance
abuse (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992; Price et al., 1993) and

negative peer pressure (Marx, 1989 and Steinberg, 1986, cited in Carnegie Council on

21

Adolescent Development, 1992).

Schools alone are not able to completely meet the needs of young adolescents
during the 6th to 9th grade. Young people at this age are facing rapid changes, and their
needs are much more complicated than those of elementary school youths (Benson,
Williams, & Johnson, 1987; Hamburg, 1992). School and community organization
partnerships, in concert with family and peer support, is described as a supportive
network. Communities and neighborhoods with strong networks in place to support
adolescents and their families have lower rates of anti-social behavior among the youth
(Garbarino, 1980 and Miller & Ohlin, 1985, cited in Benard, 1991). Adolescents have a
variety of needs, consequently, comprehensive strategies are required rather than isolated
efforts (Pittman, 1991).

Youth-serving community-based clubs and organizations provide access to
speciﬁc skills and activities that may not be available in schools. One study found that
few eighth graders were enrolled in school courses that addressed life skills (Steele et al.,
1993). In the process of teaching skills, community-based clubs and organizations also
provide youth with contact from adults in their communities, opportunities for
community service, and occasions to adopt leadership roles. The involvement of adults
outside the adolescents' families has been found to have a signiﬁcant impact on
adolescent development (Benard, 1991; Dryfoos, 1990).

The acquisition of skills, delinquency prevention, employment, and academic
achievement are also found to be positive outcomes of community-based clubs and

organizations young adolescents (Lipsitz, 1986). Moreover, Kleinfeld and Schinkwin

22

(1983) identiﬁed speciﬁc skills as examples of the practical advantages these programs
have: ﬁrst aid, gardening, photography, tailoring, cooking, and automobile repair.

In order for young people to take advantage of opportunities in non-formal
education, parents must value those opportunities (Kleinfeld & Shinkwin, 1983; LaBelle,
1981). When young adolescents spend time with parents in activities the youth enjoy,
their involvement in delinquent activities is reduced. This may be because attachment to
parents increases, values are reinforced, strain is reduced, and there are positive
alternatives to delinquency offered (Agnew & Peterson, 1989).

Signiﬁcant adults other than the adolescent's parents are crucial, especially in
situations when parents are unwilling or unable to become involved in the out-of-school
experiences of their adolescent children. The strength of many youth-serving clubs and
organizations is their ability to provide young people with support and alternative
guidance in the form of dedicated volunteers (Ginzberg, Berliner, & Ostow, 1988).
Volunteers were found to help young people develop better attitudes toward school, and
improve their behavior in school (Steele et al., 1993).

In addition, communities with active youth serving clubs and organizations are
healthier. They include individuals who care enough about the well-being of young
people to volunteer their time and talents without thought of reward or reimbursement
(Blyth, 1993; Kleinfeld & Shinkwin, 1983). Peers can be a positive inﬂuence on early
adolescents, as demonstrated through clubs and organizations outside of school (Carnegie
Council on Adolescent Development, 1992, Dryfoos, 1990, Littell & Wynn, 1989;

Norem-Hebeisen & Hedin, 1983). Programs which encourage peer interaction "...can

23

function as a link between the world of peers and the world of adults by providing peers
with real-world tasks and responsibilities and adult guidance in accomplishing them"
(Norem-Hebeisen & Hedin, 1983, p. 45).

,.0 110950.13'4'14 -- o 0 91.1.: or- 0- Q‘ 0. 1H,

Willits and Willits (1986) undertook a study to determine whether the amount of
time adolescents spent on leisure pursuits affected the amount of time they spent in other
activities, such as jobs, family time, chores, etc. They proposed two models: "the less,
the more model," and "the more, the more model." The less, the more model is based on
the notion that "time and energy occur in ﬁxed amounts which are spent. The 'less' there
are alternative commitments which make demands upon an individual, the 'more' he/ she
will seek out and engage in additional leisure pursuits" (p. 190-191). This model
suggests that adolescents can be encouraged to participate in speciﬁc leisure activities by
limiting other commitments.

The more, the more model sees time and energy as "dynamic concepts that allow
for an accommodation to the pressures of interest and/or motivation. Often, those persons
with extensive alternative commitments may be the ones most likely to take on volunteer
activities or take advantage of added recreational opportunities" (p. 191 ).

Utilizing data from a study of 3,294 eighth and eleventh grade students, Willits
and Willits (1986) found much greater support for the theory of "the more, the more" than
for "the less, the more" theory. They found that, rather than restricting involvement,
other commitments actually seem to enhance participation in leisure pursuits. Thus,

through involvement, adolescents may be more informed about opportunities, they may

24

increase social contacts, expand interest areas, or they may become more skilled in using
time efﬁciently. Therefore, the more a person does, the more he or she seems to want to
do (Willits & Willits, 1986).

In addition, Willits and Willits (1986) found that greater involvement in work
(within limits) and other leisure activities (except television) was generally related to
greater involvement in school and community clubs and organizations. Moreover, youth
motivation was associated with greater involvement in both school activities and
community clubs and organizations. Thus, the more school organizations a young person
belonged to, the more community groups he or she joined, and the more there were work
responsibilities both at home and away ﬁom home, the greater the individual's
participation in formal organizations. Beyond a certain point, however, an increase in
hours spent on work was related to decreasing participation in organized leisure activities
(Willits & Willits, 1986). Indeed, a balance of time spent in work or organized activities
is necessary in order for other aspects of adolescent life, such as school performance, to
thrive.

"The more, the more" theory is corroborated by Steele et al. (1993), who utilized
the Office of Education NELS:88 Study of 24,000 eighth graders in 1988. Steele and her
colleagues examined youth who joined 4-H in elementary school and were still in the
program during the eighth grade, those who joined 4-H in the eighth grade, those who
had been 4-H members but were not in the program at the time of the study, and those
who had never been 4-H members. Steele et a1. (1993) found that 44% of the youth who

stayed in 4-H and 62% of those who joined during the eighth grade took part in four or

i 25
more out-of-school activities. This contrasts with 15% of the youth who left 4-H and
16% of those who had never been in the program. Twenty-four percent of those who had
never been in 4-H and 22% of those who left 4-H were not taking part in any clubs or
organizations outside of school.

Ninety-four percent of the youth who joined 4-H at a young age and stayed in the
program also participated in school extracurricular activities. This compares with 88% of
the youth who never joined 4-H; 91% of those who were 4-H members at one time, but
left the program; and 92% of those who joined while in the eighth grade. Youth are
rarely involved in only one out-of-school activity. The authors found that about ﬁfty
percent of the eighth graders who took part in one of the three programs (4-H, Scouts,
Camp Fire Girls and Boys) also took part in at least one non-school team sports program,
about half took part in a religious group, about a third also took part in summer programs

such as recreational programs and the Y, and 13% indicated that 4-H was their only

non-school program (Steele et al., 1993).

 

Most researchers have discovered that youth participation in clubs or
organizations outside of school declines as children move from elementary to middle
school, or reach early adolescence (Heath & McLaughlin 1991; LaBelle, 1981; Konopka,
1976, cited in Littell & Wynn, 1989; Rubin & Medrich, 1979). This may be, in part,
because as children get older, they assume more control over their time outside school.

Hendry et al. (1993) reported that participation in adult-led, organized activities

decreased through the teenage years, with a signiﬁcant drop between age 11-12 and

26

13-14. Speciﬁcally, 65% of the boys and 74% of the girls were involved in clubs or
organizations outside of school at ages 11-12, compared with 43% of the boys and 40%
of the girls ages 13-14. A 1987 study of students in a school district in California
reported similar ﬁndings. In that suburban community, the majority of after school
programming was designed for elementary school students, through the sixth grade.
These programs virtually disappeared at the seventh grade level (Rubin & Medrich,
1979)

In contrast, Littell and Wynn (1989) found that there was a slight increase in
participation in clubs or organizations outside of school for 11- to 14-year-olds among the
inner-city youth they studied. The pattern of involvement for the different age groups in
the suburban community was less clear, although their participation in clubs or organized
activities declined slightly at age 13 and increased slightly at age 14. Overall, however,
there was a decline in participation in clubs or organizations outside of school associated
with age.

,1". .h .H .1 ,. . . -._,,’ .1.” O-,'-.- . _ H. {in _H_

Few of the studies reviewed addressed the similarities and differences among
males and females with regard to participation in clubs or organizations outside of school.
However, Marsland (1982) reported that females were generally much less satisﬁed than
males with the variety of programs provided by the community for young people.

Littell and Wynn (1989) looked at two communities in the Chicago area, one in
the inner-city and one an affluent suburb. They found that boys in the lower

socioeconomic community were involved in a greater number of organized and informal

27
activities than were girls. However, when they examined the suburban community, they
found that girls reported more of both types of activities than did boys.

In their report of a 1987 study of over 10,000 young people in Scotland, Hendry et
al. (1993) found that from age 9 to age 12 more girls than boys participated in clubs (80%
of girls and 69% of boys at ages 9-10; 74% of girls and 65% of boys at ages 11-12).
However, beginning at ages 13-14, more boys participated in clubs, and this trend
continued through the teenage years (43% of boys and 40% of girls at ages 13-14; 37% of
boys and 29% of girls at ages 15-16; 21% of boys and 18% of girls at ages 17-18).

This study also found that males were more likely to be involved in sports and
other organized activities while girls were more likely to participate in more socializing
activities - attending movies and discos and visiting with friends. These researchers
concluded that the social element of being with others was more important to the females,
while males participated in organized activities because they were more strongly
inﬂuenced by their parents.

Benson et al. (1987) report that, in terms of church youth programs, females were
more active than males, particularly in the 7th to 9th grade level. Rubin and Medrich
(1979) found that levels of participation were higher for boys than girls in lessons and
after-school programs (83.7% as compared with 74.9%) in a sample of 764 11- and 12-
year-old Oakland, California students.

,4. .h .H . . . . .1.” O..'c.- . . H. t” A“. .
Many researchers make reference to minority involvement in their discussions of

place of residence, or socioeconomic status (e.g., "low income and minority youth," or

28

"urban minorities") but few studies focus speciﬁcally on the level of involvement of
minority early adolescents. Thus, there is a lack of research in the area of early
adolescents' participation in clubs or organizations outside of school and ethnicity.

Many programs which support adolescent development have been designed and
implemented primarily with Caucasian youth. Whether these programs are appropriate
for minority youth is unclear (Price et al., 1993). Programs which have been developed
with white adolescents in mind may be adapted for use with minority audiences.
However, culturally relevant programs must be developed by those who "understand the
social meanings of ethnicity and the identity development of minority adolescen " (Price
et al., 1993, p. 515). Marsland (1982) argues that leadership in the development of these
programs must come from the community in which the program will take place, or it will

not be accepted by the minority youth who are the potential participants.

.. .._ J. '. ,. . e) o.. _.__'.. e ,‘r- . A .u ._.. ; . ‘- . .-._._ i.
Those who develop and implement activities outside of school for early
adolescents must take care in their design. Lipsitz (1986) contends that too few studies
have been conducted which evaluate the effectiveness of out-of-school activities in
curbing anti-social behavior. This lack of research makes it impossible to identify
common features of programs that appear to be successful. She maintains, "the literature
is replete with articles by authors who 'feel’ that increases in antisocial and personally
destructive behavior 'may' be attributed 'in part' to lack of adult supervision and 'claim' or
'suggest' that organized programs will decrease this behavior" (p. 45). The present study

begins to address the relationship between participation in clubs or organizations outside

29

of school and anti-social behavior.

The majority of the literature that exists suggests that there is a negative
relationship between early adolescents' involvement in clubs or organizations outside of
school and their involvement in anti-social behavior (Agnew & Peterson, 1989; Carnegie
Council on Adolescent Development, 1992; Lipsitz, 1986; Schinke, Cole, & Orlandi,
1991). However, there is very little research completed on this issue, and the literature is
limited to theories.

Agnew and Peterson (1989) allege that the most common argument for claiming a
relationship between involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school and
delinquency is not convincing. The argument states that adolescents who are involved in
time-consuming activities will have little time to be involved in anti-social behavior.
Anti-social behavior, in fact, takes very little time. Indeed, even the most anti-social
adolescents very likely do not spend more than a few hours a year engaged in actual anti-
social behaviors, and few young people are so involved in out-of-school activities that
they cannot ﬁnd the time for anti-social behavior, if they so desire (Hirschi, 1969, cited in
Agnew & Peterson, 1989).

Schafer (1969, cited in Agnew & Peterson, 1989) suggests that adolescents who
are involved in clubs or organizations outside of school may be less likely to engage in
anti-social behavior because such behavior may threaten their involvement in these
activities. He goes on to say that some activities may reduce anti-social behavior because
they expose adolescents to positive role models and increases their attachment to these

models.

30

Rational choice theory (Cornish and Clarke, 1986, cited in Agnew & Peterson,
1989) states that individuals weigh the costs and beneﬁts of leisure-time options when
deciding how to spend their time. They will tend to choose those activities that have the
greatest beneﬁts and lowest costs. If individuals value activities that inhibit or are neutral
with respect to anti-social behavior, they will be more likely to choose constructive,
beneﬁcial activities over anti-social behaviors. They are less likely to be involved in
negative behaviors because they have less desire for them, not necessarily because they
have less time.
,'-.I. '.._ ,o. 7. A. o O -._u,_.-. o. I for ._ .u .“u o o- on" f .1“

Hamburg (1992), LaBelle (1981), Medrich et al. (1993) and Steele et al. (1993) all
emphasize the role socioeconomic status plays in the out-of-school hours of adolescents.
LaBelle states, "...other than for television in this country, it appears that the
upper-middle class and upper-class youngsters - mostly white - reap the beneﬁts of many
of these activities, and their experiences tend to be governed by their sex and their
ethno-religious heritage" (p. 327). He points out that upper-middle- and upper-class
parental values play a role in youths' involvement in non-forrnal education. This may be
in part due to the fact that these parents, more so than the poor, have the resources to
access out-of-school opportunities for their children.

Research has shown that children ﬁom upper-income families not only participate
in a greater number of clubs or organizations outside of school, they also have the
advantage of a greater variety of activities ﬁom which to choose (LaBelle, 1981; Littell &

Wynn, 1989; Medrich et al., 1982; Rubin & Medrich, 1979). Rubin and Medrich (1979)

31

argue that "for the poor and urban underclass, the ideological emphasis is on 'social
control'; for the wealthy and middle class it is 'opportunity enhancemen "' (p. 23).
Programs which fall under the "social control" category are designed to curb delinquency
or violent behavior by introducing the youth to middle class values. "Opportunity
enhancemen ", on the other hand, "...assumes that children are growing up 'properly' and
that after-school activities are for the purpose of enrichment" (Rubin & Medrich, 1979, p.
23).

Eighth graders ﬁ'om families in the lower socioeconomic groups are more likely
to report that they are home alone for more than three hours, while those in upper income
groups are least likely to be unsupervised for that amount of time (Carnegie Council on

Adolescent Development, 1992).

Steele et al.'s (1993) study of youth participation in YMCA, YWCA, Scouts, 4-H,
and Boys and Girls Clubs involvement also found that participation increased as
socioeconomic status of youth increased. Wilma Tisch, in her preface to AW
MW (1992) reported that "...vvithout
exception, the young people in greatest need had the least access to support services...we
found that young people in more advantaged circumstances had greater access to current
programs and services" (p. 21). Not only do youth from upper-income homes have
greater access to programs, but, according to a University of Michigan study of Boy
Scouts, children from upper-status homes were exposed to a wider range of out-of-school
activities (University of Michigan Survey Research Center, 1956).

Several explanations have been given for the difference in participation among

32

lower- and upper-income youth. One concern is that lower-income families do not have
the same access to programs that middle- and upper-income families enjoy (Carnegie
Council on Adolescent Development, 1992). Some programs charge fees which may be
prohibitive to lower-income families (Lipsitz, 1986; Rubin & Medrich, 1979), and
programs may simply not be available in some urban or rural areas (Carnegie Council on
Adolescent Development, 1992; Pittman, 1991).

Rubin and Medrich (1979) argue that higher income parents have distinct
advantages when it comes to their children's involvement in organized, out-of-school
activities. They may become more involved in the activities themselves; they have the
advantage of transportation, resources with which to pay fees and more information
available to them.

Hollingshead (cited in Medrich et al., 1982) found that children ﬁom lower-
income homes actually preferred informal to structured and unorganized to organized
activities when compared to those ﬁ'om higher-income families. Littell and Wynn
(1989), however, did not come to the same conclusion. They found that roughly the same
percentage (ten percent) of children ﬁ'om lower-income and upper-income communities
participated in informal activities. Thus, more research is needed before any conclusions
can be drawn in this area.

.dlﬂm _. . Olaf...” .ﬁl.-. H. d, 1" Jun

In order for adolescents to participate in clubs or organizations outside of school, '

parents must value the activities (LaBelle, 1981). Many studies have found that parents

do, indeed, ﬁnd the programs beneﬁcial and encourage their children to participate

33

(Coalition Concerned with Adolescent Pregnancy, 1987; Kleinfeld & Shinkwin, 1983;
Littell & Wynn, 1989; Rubin & Medrich, 1979). Parents cite numerous reasons why they
want their children involved in such activities. Some believe their children are in need of
supervision and direction and that these programs can provide such guidance, as well as a
possible solution to boredom (Coalition Concerned with Adolescent Pregnancy, 1987).
Others use such organizations as scouting and 4-H to teach their children speciﬁc skills
that they themselves either cannot do, or do not have the time to do. Additional beneﬁts
cited by parents include learning the importance of community service, developing
leadership skills, and learning how to plan activities (Kleinfeld & Shinkwin, 1983; Littell
& Wynn, 1989). In addition, the parents surveyed by Kleinfeld and Shinkwin believed
that youth group participation would reinforce the traditional values of the family, and
that their children's involvement in these activities brought the family together. Finally,
Littell and Wynn (1989) found that parents felt organized activities provided
opportunities for adolescents to spend time with others and to do so in environments that
kept them from getting into trouble.

Early adolescents who experience family support may be more likely to be
involved in clubs or organizations outside of school. For example, researchers have
found that a caring, supportive family is a vital component of the adolescent‘s life, and
relationships among family members play an important role in the behavioral outcomes
of young people (F eldman, Stiffrnan & Jung, 1987, cited in Benard, 1991).

Research by Steele et al. (1993) found that parents whose children were involved

in 4-H were only slightly more likely to be involved in school-related activities

34

themselves, or to serve as volunteer leaders within the 4-H program. Thus, parents who
themselves are involved are more likely to encourage involvement of their adolescents in
clubs or organizations outside of school. Steele et al. conclude that 4-H personnel fail to
recognize the potential 4-H has for improving relationships between parents and their
children, and consequently do not encourage parents to become involved.

.1.“ -.‘_ H - _. . . ,4; u O..rc.- . - H. a” we...” -0 .. H

Littell and Wynn (1989) found, in their comparison of an inner-city and a
suburban community in the Chicago area, that there were approximately nine youth-
serving organizations per 1,000 middle-school-age youth in the inner-city area, while the
suburban area had 24 organizations per 1,000 middle-school-age youth. Not only were
there a greater number of organizations in the suburban community, there were also a
‘ larger number and greater variety of activities offered. Overall, the authors identiﬁed 71
different activities per week per 1,000 youth in the suburban area, compared with 23 in
the inner-city area.

Additionally, the children themselves actually participated in more organized
activities in the suburb than did the youth in the inner-city. The authors suggest that these
patterns mirror differences in the availability of resources in the two communities. Thus,
the higher level of organizational activity among young people in the suburban
community may be related to the greater availability of these types of activities in the
suburbs (Littell & Wynn, 1989).

The problem of availability is a concern in rural communities, as well (Hamburg,

1992; Heath & McLaughlin, 1991). There are simply too few organizations or activities

35

available to these youth. In some communities, lack of transportation may keep youth
from participating in the activities that are offered, particularly in rural areas. Several
studies have found that parents report that lack of transportation is one of the most serious
barriers to after-school programs for young adolescents (Lipsitz, 1986).
W

There has been a great deal of theory and scientiﬁc proposition about the
importance clubs or organizations outside of school in the development of youth.
However, very little empirical testing of the theories and propositions has been
conducted. This study will begin to address the lack of empirical investigation regarding
early adolescent involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school. The next

chapter will present the methods used in this study.

Chapter III

METHOD
E . .

A subset of the respondents from the Wan
Wﬁeith & Perkins, 1995) was examined in this study. The Search Institute's
Proﬁles of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors Questionnaire (ABQ) was administered
to 16,375 7th, 9th, and 11th graders in approximately 36 Michigan communities during
the Spring and Fall of 1993 and Winter of 1994. The ABQ is a 152-item inventory
developed by the Search Institute (Benson, 1990; Blyth, 1993) (see Appendix A). A total
of 8,446 12-, 13- and 14-year-olds were used as the sample for this study.

Measmcs

Student responses to the ABQ were used as an initial data base. Thirty-six of the
152-items from the ABQ were used to create scales for the assessment of individual,
family, and community variables. The research questions were studied using the
following analysis:

1. How much time do 12-, 13-, and 14-year olds report spending in clubs or
organizations outside of school weekly? Frequency analysis was used to determine
amount of time for each age group.

2. Does the amount of time early adolescents report spending in clubs or
organizations outside of school vary by such variables as age, gender, ethnicity, anti-

social behavior, socioeconomic status, family support, or geographic location?

36

37

Frequency analysis and cross tabulations were used to address this question.

Microsystem organismic variables are those attributes that are associated with the
early adolescent's biological status, for example, age, gender, and ethnicity. These are the
three microsystem characteristics that were examined in this study.

Age

In this study, age was scored as a continuous variable (See Appendix B). Twenty-
two percent of the respondents were 12, 38.1% were 13, and 39.9% were 14 (See Table
1).

Gender

Gender is treated as a dichotomous variable (See Appendix B). In this sample,
there were more females than males; females comprised 54.6% and males 45.4% of the
sample. Some early adolescents did not respond (.4 %), and this was treated as missing
data (See Table 1).

E l . .

Ethnicity was measured as a ﬁve-level categorical variable (See Appendix B).
The majority of the sample was comprised of White adolescents (63%). Ethnic
minorities comprised 36.9% of the sample. Aﬁican-Americans were the largest minority
group in the sample, making up 28.8% of the total. Native Americans (4.3%), Asian or
Paciﬁc Islander (.8%) and Hispanic early adolescents (3.0%) made up a smaller

percentage of the sample (See Table l).

38

 

Insert Table 1 Here

 

I I. E l . I V . l l
Microsystem behavioral variables are those attributes pertinent to the early
adolescent's personality, cognitive, or motoric (action) ﬁmctioning (Perkins, 1995). Two

microsystem behavioral characteristics were examined in this study: involvement in
clubs or organizations outside of school and involvement in anti-social behavior.

I] 'QHC"D'IESII

Clubs or organization outside of school are deﬁned as extracurricular activities
sponsored by neighborhood, community, and/or youth-serving organizations, not
associated with schools (See Appendix B). Club or organization involvement outside of
school was measured from one item of the ABQ: "During an average week, how many
hours do you spend in clubs or organizations outside of school?" The following ﬁve-
point scale was used: "0," "1-2," "3-5," "6-10," and "11 or more." For this study, the
scale was collapsed into three categories: "0 hours per week," "1-2 hours per week," and
"3 or more hours per week" (See Table 2).

Adolescents' anti-social behavior was indexed by seven items from the ABQ. The
items concerned behaviors such as ﬁghting, stealing, vandalism, and trouble with the
police, which occurred during the last 12 months (See Appendix B). For this study, there

were ﬁve item responses possible. They were transformed into three possible scores:

39

Table l

C 'E 113 til Ell'l' ISIS l

 

 

State of

Michigan

 

Sample Size Percent of
TntaLSample

Total 8,446 100
Gender

Male 3,797 45.4

Female 4,573 54.6
Race/Ethnicity

Asian/Paciﬁc Islander 66 .8

African American 2,383 28.8

White 5,208 63.0

Hispanic or Latino 248 3.0

Native American 359 4.3
Age

12 1,846 22.0

13 3,202 38.1

14 3,355 39.9

810,0001

51.0

49.0

1.0
17.0
77.0

3.0

1.0

33.02
33.02

34.0

 

‘State of Michigan data includes 12- to 17-year-olds. Percentages are based on total state

youth population.

2Ages 12 and 13 are combined in the 1990 United States Census. The percentage of 12-

and 13-year-olds was divided in half.

4o

"1" = 0 Times, "2" = 1 Time, "10" = 2 or More Times. The seven items were added such
that an overall score of seven or less meant they did not participate in any of the above-
mentioned anti-social behaviors. An overall index of more than seven but less than 15
meant that they had participated in at least one of the above mentioned anti-social
behaviors at least once. An overall index score of 15 or greater meant the individual had
participated in at least one anti-social behavior two or more times. An overall index was
transformed such that "I" meant they placed in the ﬁrst category (i.e., no participation),
"2" meant they placed in the second category (i.e., low level participation), and "3" meant
they scored high for anti-social behavior (i.e. they participated in one or more behaviors
two or more times). The Cronbach Alpha for anti-social behavior scale was .80 (See

Table 2).

 

Insert Table 2 Here

 

92W

Two contextual variable were related to the family: mother's education and
family support. Mother's education was a descriptor variable used as an indicator of
socioeconomic status, as no questions in this survey addressed parental income. Entwisle
and Astone (1994) provide evidence for measures of parental education as useful indices

of socioeconomic status.

41

 

 

Valid
Sample Percent of
Siam. 1W
Total 8,446 100%
Organized, Out-of-School Activities
0 Hours Per Week 5,071 60.3
1 - 2 Hours Per Week 1,972 23.5
3 or More Hours Per Week 1,360 16.2
Anti-Social Behavior
None: 0 Incidences in Past Year 2,639 32.5
Low: 1 - 7 Incidences in Past Year, One
Time Each 1,780 21.9

High: Two or More Incidences in Past Year

In One or More Behaviors

3,712 45.7

 

42
MctherlsEdueaticn
Respondents were asked, "What is the highest level of schooling your mother
completed?" The seven-item scale is included in Appendix C. For this study, the scale
was collapsed into four categories: "1" = "Some high school or less," "2" = "Completed
high school," "3" = "Some college," "4" = "Completed college and/or graduate or

N

professional school after college. Eleven percent of the adolescents reported they don't
know what level of education their mothers completed, and one percent did not answer
(See Table 3).

W

Early adolescents' reports of- family support were derived from a ﬁve-item "scale"
on the ABQ (See Appendix C). The mean of the responses of the items was calculated to
create an overall index of family support. This index was transformed into a dichotomous
variable such that scores of "4" or greater were given "1" and scores of "3" or less were

given "0". Thus, a one indicated family support while zero signiﬁed less family support.

In this study, the Cronbach Alpha for family support was .86 (See Table 3).

 

Insert Table 3 Here

 

11"1I'llBll: .

One contextual variable was examined that served as a community descriptor:

geographic location.

43

 

 

Table 3
um”... :qu'. -. “"1... .H. .f...a'- -.,._,o- :._-...U._,-
E 1 . 1 E '1 5
Valid
Sample Percent of
Size. thal Sample
Total 8,446 100%
Mother's Education
Some High School 738 10.0
Completed High School 2,814 38.1
Some College 1,561 21.1
Completed College/Some
Graduate or Professional School 2,269 30.7
Family Support
More Supportive 5,048 60.1

Less Supportive 3,351 39.9

 

44

E l . I .

Geographic location was deﬁned by school location, and divided into three
categories, as deﬁned by the United States Census (Keith & Perkins, 1995). The three
categories were urban, suburban, and rural (See Table 4; See Appendix C). Urban was
deﬁned as a place in a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) which is incorporated. The
suburban category was deﬁned by using the census category of "urban fringe" and
unincorporated places in an MSA. The rural geographic location was deﬁned as places

that have less than 2,500 population, and not included in the MSA (See Table 4).

 

Insert Table 4 Here

 

PROCEDURES

Data collection involved group testing in each of the participating schools.
Teachers administered the questionnaire by following a speciﬁc script and a 26-page
instruction manual ﬁom the Search Institute. To avoid contamination, all of the
participants, within their respective schools, were administered the questionnaire at one
speciﬁc time during the school day. All of the participants completed the questionnaires
within their respective classrooms (Perkins, 1995).

This ABQ was administered to participants with the assurance of anonymity.
This study met the requirement of the University's internal review board (see Appendix

D). Written consent from parents was obtained on the discretion of the school. In those

45

 

 

 

Table 4
0.1.345: Uri-.0 o,_¢,._,no"' '.,,°‘ = ‘_0. ‘O'Jlilt.
anatinn
Valid
Sample Percent of State of
Sim quLSampje Michigan
Total 8,446 100% 810,000
Geographic Location
Rural 4,363 51.9 37.0
Suburban 931 1 l .1 8.0
Urban 3,109 37.0 54.0

 

46

schools (N=5) where parental consent was sought a letter of consent was used. Verbal
consent was received from each of the students, and they were informed about the precise
nature of the study. Students were told their responses were completely anonymous, that
their participation was completely voluntary, and that they could withdraw from the study
at any time without penalty. In addition, students were told that after all the
questionnaires were completed their teachers would seal the envelopes which contained
the questionnaires in front of the students; this procedure was intended to provide some

concrete assurance of anonymity (Perkins, 1995).

Chapter IV

RESULTS

1. How much time do 12-, 13-, and l4-year-olds report spending in clubs or
organizations outside of school?

The majority of the youth (60.3%) reported that they did not spend any time in
clubs or organizations outside of school on a weekly basis. At the one to two hours per
week level, 23.5% participated, and 16.1% reported spending three or more hours per
week in clubs or organizations outside of school.

2. Does the amount of time 12-, 13-, and 14-year-olds report spending in clubs or
organizations outside of school differ by age?

It was hypothesized that younger adolescents would have a signiﬁcantly higher
level of involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school than older adolescents.
No signiﬁcant differences in involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school were
found between the three age groups. Each age group reported about the same level of
non-involvement on a weekly basis: 58.9% of the 12-year-olds, 60.6% of the 13-year-
olds, and 60.9% of the 14-year-olds reported spending no time in these activities. The
rate of non-involvement for twelve-year-olds was slightly below the rate for the total
sample (60.3%). Of the 12-year-olds, 25.3% spent one to two hours per week in clubs or
organizations outside of school. This compares with 23.2% of the 13-year-olds and

22.7% of the 14-year-olds. The rate for the total sample was 23.5%.

47

48

The rates of participation at the three hours or more per week level were also
similar for the three groups: 15.8% for 12-year-olds, 16.2% for 13-year—olds, and 16.4%

for those age 14. For the total sample, the rate was 16.2% (See Table 5).

 

Insert Table 5 Here

 

3. Does the amount of time early adolescents report spending in clubs or
organizations outside of school differ by gender?

It was hypothesized that females would participate in clubs or organizations
outside of school at a signiﬁcantly higher level than males. Signiﬁcant, but not
meaningful, differences were found in participation in clubs or organizations outside of
school based on gender; 62.2% of the males and 58.8% of the females reported no
involvement in such activities on a weekly basis (p < .0001; See Table 6). Of the males,
21.3% reported spending one to two hours per week; 25.3% of the females participated at
this level. At the three hours or more per week level, 16.5% of the males and 15.9% of

the females reported.

 

Insert Table 6 Here

 

4. Does the amount of time early adolescents report spending in clubs or

organizations outside of school differ by ethnicity?

49

 

 

 

 

Table 5

,' r ' u an ‘l--|',l'l‘ 1.7. 0 o 0-9 u, 0. o o .n

123L153:

Hours/Week in

Clubs/Orgs. Out % of % of % of % of

of School 12-year-olds 13-year-olds 14-year-olds Total

0 58.9 60.6 60.9 60.3

1 - 2 25.3 23.2 22.7 23.5

3 or More 15.8 16.2 16.4 v 16.2

100% 100% 100% 100%

(1,846) (3,202) (3,355) (8,403)

12 = 4.58

p<.1

50

Table 6

'r,.-."o tro‘ '.r. ..-_r'-..".-. -9 r 0 92-1.4.1 010‘. in 0

Gender

 

Hours/Week in

Clubs/Orgs. Out

 

 

 

of School % Male % Female % of Total
0 62.2 58.8 60.3
1 - 2 21.3 25.3 23.5
3 or More 16.5 15.9 16.2
100% 100% 100%
(3,797) (4,573) (8,370)
x2 = 18.62

p < .0001

51

It was hypothesized that White early adolescents would be involved in clubs or
organizations outside of school at a signiﬁcantly higher level than early adolescents of
other ethnic or racial backgrounds. There was a signiﬁcant difference in the Chi Square
Test among racial and ethnic groups (p < .001; See Table 7). Most of the respondents
reported zero involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school at similar rates
(about 60%), however, Native American youth reported the lowest level of non-
involvement and Hispanics the highest (56.8% and 72.2%, respectively).

Native Americans, African Americans and Whites all reported similar levels of
participation at one to two hours per week, 24.2%, 21.5%, and 24.6%, respectively.
Asians (19.7%) and Hispanics (16.1%) reported rates of participation at this level that
were below that of the total sample (23.4%).

Asians, however, reported spending more time in these activities at the highest
level of participation (three hours and more) than any other group (21.1%). Native
Americans and African Americans reported similar involvement at this level, 18.9% and
18.4%, respectively. All three of these groups reported participating at a higher rate than
the total sample (16.2%). Fewer Whites and Hispanics spent three or more hours per

week in these activities than any of the groups (15.1% and 11.7%, respectively).

 

Insert Table 7 Here

 

5. Does the amount of time early adolescents report spending in clubs or

organizations outside of school differ by involvement in anti-social behavior?

52

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3cm. 833 ..\° 359MB .x. 505:3. 395$ 505$ Begum mo
.8 a sex? Sea 332 s so .maoES
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4.....- . .2. . .i o 2 .. .3. .- ...c .. .1. . .24 .5254. .

N. 2an

53

It was hypothesized that there would be a negative relationship between
involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school and involvement in anti-social
behavior by early adolescents. Signiﬁcant differences were found in the Chi Square Test
among the various categories of anti-social behavior (p < .0001; See Table 8). However,
the relationship between involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school and anti-
social behavior was weak.

Of the early adolescents who responded to the series of questions about their
involvement in anti-social behavior, 32.5% reported that they have not participated in
such behavior during the past year, 21.9% said they have participated in anti-social
behavior once, and 45.6% said they have participated in anti-social behavior two or more
times.

Of those who were not involved in anti-social behavior during the past year,
59.4% also reported not being involved in clubs or organizations outside of school on a
weekly basis. Those who were involved in anti-social behavior once or two or more
times during the past year reported similar levels of non-involvement in clubs or
organizations outside of school (60.9% and 60.7%, respectively).

The rate of involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school for the total
sample at the one to two hours per week level was 23.5%. Of those who were not
involved in anti-social behavior during the past year, 25.3% reported being involved in
clubs or organizations outside of school at this level. Of those who were involved in anti-
social behavior once during the past year, 26.1% reported being involved in clubs or

organizations outside of school for one to two hours per week. Of those who were

54

involved in anti-social behavior two or more times during the past year, 20.9% were
involved in clubs or organizations outside of school for one to two hours per week.

About 16% of the total sample reported being involved in clubs or organizations
outside of school for three or more hours per week. Of the adolescents who were not
involved in anti-social behavior during the last year, 15.2% reported being involved in
clubs or organizations outside of school at this level. Of those who were involved in anti-
social behavior once during the past year, 13.0% said they were involved in clubs or
organizations outside of school three or more hours per week. Of the adolescents who
reported taking part in anti-social behavior two or more times during the past year, 18.4%
reported being involved in clubs or organizations outside of school for three or more

hours per week.

 

Insert Table 8 Here

 

6. Does the amount of time early adolescents report spending in clubs or
organizations outside of school differ by socioeconomic status?

It was hypothesized that early adolescents whose families have higher
socioeconomic status would have a signiﬁcantly higher level of involvement in clubs or
organizations outside of school than early adolescents whose families have lower
socioeconomic status. There was signiﬁcance at the Pearson Chi Square Test level of

.0001 (See Table 9). As hypothesized, there was a negative association between

55

58. v a

 

 

 

 

48.3. n «x
28.8 839 QR: 28.3
:52 see :52 .32:

NS 3: on as so: a m
3N mom EN EN N - a
m8 is 0.8 «an o
33 as: 202 a N s 88:. a s 85:. o a 320m .6
ac s so .maoapao
E ﬁnk/ESSA

..>.. ..r. .. :4 . ...

 

m 2an

56

non-involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school and mother's education. Of
the early adolescents whose mothers did not complete high school, 71.1% reported no
involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school. This was higher than the rate
for the total sample (59.4%). Of those whose mothers completed high school, 62.7%
reported no involvement; 57.2% of those whose mothers had some college education
reported no involvement, and 53.0% of the early adolescents whose mothers completed
college reported no involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school.

Youth participation in clubs or organizations outside of school at the one to two
hours per week level was positively associated with mother's education. Of the early
adolescents who reported participating at this level, 16.8% had mothers who did not
complete high school, 22.2% had mothers who completed high school, 26.3% had
mothers with some college, and to 26.5% had mothers who completed college.

There was also a positive association between early adolescents who said they
spent three or more hours weekly in clubs or organizations outside of school and mother's
education. Of those whose mothers did not complete high school, 12.1% reported
participating at this level. Fifteen percent of those whose mothers completed high school
reported spending three or more hours in these activities; 16.5% of those whose mothers
had some college and 20.4% of those whose mothers completed college reported

spending three or more hours per week in clubs, or organizations outside of school.

 

Insert Table 9 Here

 

57

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$3.5 38.8 2%.: $53 9.3
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52 4.8 2: q: as so: a m
0.8 EN EN SN ”.2 N - _
3% Cam . NS 5% _.K o
.95 «main ewe—EL Ecaumdwi qt-— Hnaqﬁm Eeﬁmqa
.8 s easaeoos oaom x. 8.0388 s E: 28m s :5 $5an
5 xoo><mu=om
.. a. E.) . .. . .. .o :.:..o . . I ... . Ia . ... .

a 2an

58

7. Does the amount of time early adolescents report spending in clubs or
organizations outside of school differ by family support?

It was hypothesized that early adolescents with more family support would have a
signiﬁcantly higher level of involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school than
early adolescents with less family support. There was a signiﬁcant difference found at
the Chi Square Test level of p < .0001 (See Table 10). Of the early adolescents who
responded to the items indicating perceived family support, 60.1% said they had more
supportive families, and 39.9% felt their families were less supportive.

A higher percentage of those early adolescents whose families were less
supportive reported spending no time on a weekly basis in clubs or organizations outside
of school (65.1%). Those early adolescents who felt they came from more supportive
families reported no involvement in such activities at a lower rate (57.2%).

Those whose families were less supportive consistently reported rates of
involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school below those of the total sample.
Those who reported their families were more supportive consistently reported rates of
involvement in such activities above those of the total sample. For example, 20.4% of
those whose families were less supportive and 25.5% of those whose families were more
supportive said they spent one to two hours per week in these activities. The rate at this
level for the total sample was 23.5%.

Of the early adolescents whose families were less supportive, 14.6% were

involved in clubs or organizations outside of school at the three hours or more level.

59

About 17% of those whose families were more supportive were involved at this level.

The rate for the total sample was 16.2%.

 

Insert Table 10 Here

 

8. Does the amount of time early adolescents report spending in clubs or
organizations outside of school differ by geographic location?

It was hypothesized that there would be no difference in level of involvement in
clubs or organizations outside of school among rural, urban, or suburban early
adolescents. There were signiﬁcant, but not meaningful, differences found based on
geographic location (p < .0001; see Table 11). The rates of non-involvement between
rural, suburban, and urban early adolescents were 59.8%, 60.9%, and 61%, respectively.
However, suburban and urban youths were more likely to be involved at the one-to-two-
hour-per-week level (24.9% and 25%, respectively, compared with 22.1% for rural youth)
and rural early adolescents tended to be more involved than the other two groups at the

three-hours-or-more level (18.2% as opposed to 14.2% for suburban and 14% for urban).

 

Insert Table 11 Here

 

60

 

 

 

 

Table 10

L11”.-. a”- ..‘,1_‘....h..' .- . 01-."-.u0_.' U. .

EamilLSJmmn

Hours/Week in

Clubs/Orgs. Out % Less % More % of

of School Supportive Supportive Total

0 65.1 57.2 60.4

1 - 2 20.4 25.5 23.5

3 or More 14.6 17.3 16.2
100% 100% 100%
(3,351) (5,048) (8,399)

x’ = 52.72

p < .0001

61

 

 

 

 

Table 11

,_ W1.-. ;..- _.‘,‘_1.....A. _- . 01-...o",,-..u .‘ ..-. g H. .

Wen

Hours/Week in

Clubs/Orgs. Out % of

of School % Rural % Suburban % Urban Total

0 59.8 60.9 61.0 60.3

1 - 2 22.1 24.9 25.0 23.5

3 or More 18.2 14.2 14.0 16.2
100% 100% 100% 100%

(4,363) (931) (3,109) (8,403)
x3 = 29.76

p < .0001

Chapter V

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This study examined the amount of time 12-, 13-, and l4-year-olds reported
spending in clubs or organizations outside of school and whether the amount of time
differed by age, gender, ethnicity, anti-social behavior, socioeconomic status, family
support, or geographic location.

It was hypothesized that females would have signiﬁcantly higher levels of
involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school than males, younger adolescents
would have a signiﬁcantly higher level of involvement than older adolescents, and
Whites would have a signiﬁcantly higher level of involvement than early adolescents of
other ethnic or racial backgrounds. It was also hypothesized that there would be a
negative relationship between involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school
and involvement in anti-social behavior. Additionally, it was hypothesized that early
adolescents from higher socioeconomic backgrounds would have a signiﬁcantly higher
level of involvement in clubs or organizations outside of school than early adolescents
with lower socioeconomic backgrounds, and that early adolescents with more family
support would have signiﬁcantly higher levels of involvement than early adolescents with
less family support. Finally, it was hypothesized that there would be no difference in
involvement between early adolescents ﬁ'om rural, suburban, or urban geographic

locations.

62

63

This study found that the majority of early adolescents in this age group do not
participate in clubs or organizations outside of school. In general, two-thirds of those
surveyed claimed they spent no time on a weekly basis in such activities. Some
differences were found in the areas of age, gender, ethnicity, and geographic location.
However, except in the case of Hispanic early adolescents' involvement in clubs or
organizations outside of school, which differed from that of Whites by 12%, the
differences in levels of participation were less than 3%.

Meaningful differences were found based on socioeconomic status and family
support. That is to say, as socioeconomic status rose, so did participation in clubs or
organizations outside of school. Additionally, those early adolescents who came from
more supportive families participated in clubs or organizations outside of school at higher
levels than those early adolescents whose families were less supportive.

While there were signiﬁcant differences found in this study, the majority were not
substantively meaningful. In this study, differences may be signiﬁcant due to the
unusually large sample size rather than because of meaningﬁrl variations between the
youth. Also, other activities such as music and athletics were not included. Thus, future
research should include more direct hypothesis testing with regard to these variables.

Why aren't certain youth involved in such activities? It is not possible to answer
this question, given the information we have from this particular survey. It is possible to
present certain potential explanations, based on what is known about this topic from prior

research. These explanations will be presented in relationship to the seven variables that

64

served as the basis for this study: age, gender, ethnicity, anti-social behavior,
socioeconomic status, family support, and geographic location.

Age, gender, and ethnicity are microsystem organismic characteristics that interact
with the other variables in this study. Age, gender, or ethnicity alone do not explain an
early adolescent's participation (or lack of participation) in clubs or organizations outside
of school. However, by examining family and community characteristics in combination
with microsystem organismic variables, cumulatively as in multiple regression, we may
begin to better understand the settings in which these early adolescents live, and the
characteristics of these settings which may or may not foster their involvement in clubs or
organizations outside of school. Future research could also focus on additional
contextual and behavioral variables besides those studied here.

Mother's education was positively related to participation in clubs or
organizations outside of school by the early adolescents in this study. It was used as a
determinant of socioeconomic status. Thus, the assumption may be made that youth
whose families are in higher socioeconomic levels will tend to participate in clubs or
organizations outside of school at a higher rate than those who have lower socioeconomic
backgrounds. This was found to be true in previous studies (Littell & Wynn, 1989;
Medrich et al., 1993; Rubin & Medrich, 1979; Steele et al., 1993; University of Michigan
Survey Research Center, 1956). Several explanations have been presented for this
occurrence, including access available to higher socioeconomic families, their ability to
pay fees which may be charged, their access to transportation, and the possibility that

these parents may be more aware of the activities and more likely to initiate involvement.

65

It may mean more adults in these communities have the resources of time and money to
support these actvities.

Differences in participation among early adolescents who live in various
geographic locations may be in part due to a lack of transportation. More youth may
choose to be involved if programs are brought to them, rather than if they are expected to
get to the programs.

The types and number of programs available may also be in part determined by
geographic location. Littell and Wynn (1989) found that the suburban area in their study
offered a greater number and variety of activities than did the urban commrmity. In some
cases, youth may not participate because they simply are not interested in what is offered,
or not all youth can be accommodated because of a shortage of programs. Littell and
Wynn (1989) found a higher rate of participation among suburban youth than urban
youth, and they concluded that this may be related to the greater availability of these
activities in the suburbs or available adults to provide opportunities. The same
conclusion may be drawn from this study as a possible eXplanation for the differences
that were found in participation.

The discovery that anti-social behavior increases when youth are involved in
clubs or organizations outside of school at the three-hours-per-week-and-more level is
counter-intuitive. On the surface, it seems as though involvement in clubs or
organizations outside of school may not lessen the possibility of an early adolescent
becoming involved in anti-social behavior, and in fact, may increase the chance of that

happening. It is possible, however, that the types of activities the early adolescents are

66

participating in are not providing the quality or intensity of experience that is necessary to
offset anti-social tendencies in these youth. If the activities they are participating in are
not building skills, values, character, or opportunities for prosocial behavior, then they are
not providing adequate alternatives for anti-social behavior in a certain segment of the
early adolescents.

The single focus of generalized club or organizational involvement outside of
school may have been too narrow to make a strong enough impact. Research needs to

examine these activities in combination with other activities such as athletics and music.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH

Future research should attempt to identify why early adolescents are not
participating in clubs or organizations outside of school, and whether they might be
involved in other types of extracurricular activities, such as school clubs, sports, or
activities sponsored by religious institutions. Additionally, for those who are
participating in clubs or organizations outside of school, the types and quality of activities
should be distinguished. Community-based, youth-serving organizations will not be
successful in their attempts to reach youth and offer meaningﬁrl opportunities if they are
not able to determine the reasons behind the youths' lack of participation and the apparent
lack of difference such participation makes in terms of anti-social behavior for certain
early adolescents.

Those who wish to learn more about the percentage of youth who are participating

in clubs or organizations outside of school and whether such participation differs in terms

67

of age, gender, ethnicity, anti-social behavior, socioeconomic status, family support, or
geographic location may consider not only surveying a sample of early adolescents, but

also interviewing some or all of the sample. It would also be beneﬁcial to involve parents
in a survey, and in interviews. The survey instrument should be carefully developed so as
to identify those activities the youth are participating in, and the quality and intensity of
the involvement, as well as the barriers that keep certain early adolescents from
participating. A carefully constructed survey and interview process may succeed in
determining whether there truly is a relationship between involvement in certain clubs or
organizations outside of school, the amount of time spent in such activities, and
involvement in anti-social behavior.

The present study did not examine early adolescents' participation in
extracurricular activities associated with school. Future studies may consider whether
youth are involved in such activities, as well as whether or not they are involved in out-
of-school activities sponsored by community-based, youth-serving clubs or organizations.

Several questions may be addressed, including: are there differences in rates of

participation? Does involvement in school-related extracurricular activities differ based

on the variables examined in this study? Do youth who are involved in both types of
activities differ from youth who are involved in one or the other, or neither? A closer
examination of early adolescents' out-of-school time may provide a richer basis from

which determine the types of activities that are truly beneﬁcial to their development.

In order to address the limitation regarding the use of mother's education as a

means of estimating socioeconomic status, future studies may examine father's education

68

as well as mother's education. By studying both, researchers may have a better picture of
the socioeconomic status of the youth they investigate. Another important variable that
others may want to look at is family structure. How many of the early adolescents are
living in single parent homes and how many are in dual parent homes? Does the amount
of time they spend in clubs or organizations outside of school differ based on family
structure? Finally, another meaningful question might be, of the early adolescents
surveyed, which of them are not involved in anything? Are there students who do not
participate in school-related extracurricular activities, those sponsored by religious
institutions, or community-based, youth-serving organizations? If there are youth who
fall into this category, they may be the ones about whom schools, religious institutions

and community-based, youth-serving organizations should truly be concerned.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PROGRAMMING

When developing programs for early adolescents, those who work in community-
based, youth-serving organizations must keep the following points in mind: ﬁrst, the
needs and desires of the youths must be considered. Involve the youth themselves in the
planning, if at all possible. Parental involvement is also vital, and often necessary in
order for youth to participate on a consistent basis.

Access to the activities is extremely important. It does no good to have a great
program if the youth don't know about it, can't afford to participate, or don't have a means
of getting to the activity. Additionally, previous researchers (Carnegie Council on

Adolescent Development, 1992; Dryfoos, 1990; Lipsitz, 1986; Marsland, 1992) are

69

adamant about the need for organized, out-of-school activities for 12- to 14-year-olds,
and, as Rubin and Medrich (1979) have pointed out, the number of activities available
decreases substantially after elementary school. Those who are designing programs and
attempting to reach early adolescents may want to consider whether the youths have
numerous other activities from which to choose, or very few.

While this study was not able to determine the type and quality of experience the
youth encountered in their club or organizational involvement outside of school, Steele et
al. (1993) did conclude that the length of time the youth were involved made a difference
in the quality of the experience. They argued that short-term, sporadic involvement might
not result in positive outcomes for the early adolescents. Again, this is another
consideration for youth development professionals as they design programs for and with
early adolescents.

Collaboration among youth-serving agencies is crucial. These organizations may
also collaborate with parents, religious institutions and schools. Previous research
indicates that each of these entities is important in the lives of young people in and of
themselves. When they join forces, their ability to make a difference in those youths'
lives is even stronger (Keith & Perkins, 1995). Programmers may ask themselves, to
what extent is their program congruent with the academic goals of the youth. Schools
may be more likely to collaborate if they see a focus for youth in common with their own.

A comprehensive youth development strategy is necessary in order for youth to
succeed. Those who do best do so because of a combination of factors. They beneﬁt

from such assets as supportive families, positive schools, safe and enriching communities

70

and involvement in religious institutions. Benson (1990) points out that "each of these
assets contributes to a reduction in at-risk behavior. Having two of the four assets is
better than having one; having three is better than two, and having all four is better than
three. What this suggests, then, is that families, schools, youth-serving clubs and

organizations, and religious institutions each have a role to play" (p. 72).

IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY

The fact that 60% of the youth surveyed do not take part in any clubs or
organizations outside of school is disturbing, given the beneﬁts such involvement often
generates (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992; Dryfoos, 1990;
Kleinfeld & Shinkwin, 1983; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1993; Norem-Hebeisen & Hedin,
1983; Price et al., 1993; Steele et al., 1993). By not being involved in formal activities
sponsored by community-based, youth-serving organizations, early adolescents are
missing opportunities for the unique leadership-development, skill-building, adult-child
interactions that these organizations can offer.

Most argue that collaboration among community groups is crucial to providing
young people with the services and programs they need (Carnegie Council on Adolescent
Development, 1992; Dryfoos; 1990; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1993; Price et al., 1993;
Roth & Hendrickson, 1991; Schine, 1989), as schools alone cannot be expected to
completely meet the needs of young adolescents. Indeed, if community organizations,
religious institutions, schools and families join forces, they can provide a far greater

support system for positive youth development than if they work independently (Keith &

71

Perkins, 1995). In order to support positive development among early adolescents, and
prevent them from involvement in problem behaviors, attention must be paid to their out-
of-school hours, and collaborative programs developed to address their particular needs.

Policies regarding public education and out-of-school programs have a direct
effect on early adolescents and their families. Schine (1989) calls for reform in the public
school system, which she claims is not currently successful in preparing young
adolescents for the complex futures that they face.

Lipsitz (1986) argues for the need for workable policies regarding what she calls
the "3:00 to 6:00 pm. issue" - those hours when young adolescents are often leﬁ on their
own. Lipsitz suggests the following public policy options to support young adolescents
during the out-of-school hours: comprehensive programs for child care and youth
development, state-level ﬁnancial support for after-school programs, and a transportation
subsidy to facilitate getting young adolescents to out-of-school programs.
Recommendations for public policy changes in this area must come from many sources
and target diverse audiences (Lipsitz, 1986).

Pittman (1991) calls for the following reforms in the existing system of services
for youth: less fragmentation; less problem-focused; more adequate in numbers, duration,
or outreach to those most in need. She argues that there is "an inadequate vision of youth
needs and youth potential" (p. 2), and no progress will be made in addressing the
challenges youths face until programs begin to emphasize "positive development
strategies as much as...problem prevention and intervention strategies" (p. 2). Youth-

serving organizations do not receive adequate public support because the programs they

72

offer are not seen as being necessary. Policymakers are hearing little argument in favor
of improving non-academic programs for young adolescents (Pittman, 1991).
Communities that care about youth and believe that they have the potential to
mature into positive, self-sufficient and productive citizens will take steps to ensure the
development and safety of those youth during the out-of-school hours. In some cases the
support may be ﬁnancial; in many cases it may be a matter of sharing time, effort and
talents. Volunteering in community-based, youth-serving programs is one way caring
adults can help. Working to strengthen community policies that affect youth
development may be another. Additionally, community-based, youth-serving
organizations need to pay careful attention to the families they serve. They must consider
the needs of those families, and work to provide programs that will do more than ﬁll time.
Programs must be designed to teach skills and abilities and strengthen youths' internal
resources so that they can learn to avoid problem behavior during their out-of-school

hours.

APPENDICES

73

Appendix A

 

SEARCH INSTITUTE PROFILES OF STUDENT LIFE

Attitudes and Behaviors

 

anyone else enswered. Your a? many students'
enswe rogerﬂyt'hré welsh to connect your e with your neme.
Thisleno emits etorschoolgr ejustbetngeeke ~teIIeboutyour-eelf.

your expo encee. end mtfﬁhOPli
BEYY‘OW

   

IMPORTANT MARKING DIRECTIONS

0 Use Neck leed pencil only (No. 21.

0 Do NOT use Ink or bellpoint pens.

0 Make heevy block marks the: fill the circle.

0 Erase cleenIy any answer you wish to chenge.

0 Donotmelreenystreymerlrsonthequeeﬂonnetre.

EXAMPLES

Proper Merl: Improper Moth
0.00 @000

' 10.9. Seercn Institute. 122 West Frenlrltn Avenue. Minneepolie. MN 55404

1. Howold are you?

0 ll orvounoer 016
O 12 O 17
013 O 18
0 la 019aolder
O is
2. Whatisyour grade in school?
05m 0 9th
Oolh 010m
07m 011th
08th 012th
3. What Is your sex?
0Mala
0Famala

4. How do you describe yourself?
0 American Indian
0 Asian or Pacific Islander
0 Black or African American
0 Hispanic
0 White

5. How many years do you think you will go to school?-
Choose the statement that fits you best. °
Olwouldlikefoquitschoolassoonasl‘can
O I plan to finish high school but don't think ru go My.
0I‘dlika logo to somakind of trade schoolorvocafional
school after high school.

0i'dlika togotocollaga after high school.

0 I‘d like to go to college and then go on after college to
graduate or professional school.

6.0oyoulivaallormostofthatimaina 1"! 39
family with two parents? ...... . ....... . .......... 0 0
7. Do you live all or most of the time in a single-
parent family?. ....... ........... . ....... . ...... 0.0

8. Are your parents divorced or separated?
Yes
0 No

0 I‘m not sure

9. Are you adopted?
Yes
0 No

0 I‘m not sure

10. If yes. at what age were you adopted?
'OAmO-I OAo-B-IO
0Aga2-5 Oils-riotous:

 

74

A few of the following questions ask about your parents.
In this survey, ‘parants' (and ‘father' or 'mother'l refers
to the adults who are now most responsible for raising
you. They could be foster parents. step-parents. or
guardians. If you live in a single parent family. answer for
that adult.

1 1. What is the highest level of schooling your father convicted?
0 Completed grade school or less
0 Some high school
0 Completed high school
0 Some college
0 Completed college
0 Graduate or professional school after college
0 Don‘t know. or does not apply

12. Whatisthahighastlavalofachoolingyourmotharm
.0 Completed grade school or less
0 Somatigh school
0 Completed high achool
:0 Some college
0 CompUM cbllega
0 Graduate arprofessional school after college
0 Donibknow. or does not apply

‘13. Did your mother have a paid job (half-time or more)
duridg sh) tune you were groWing up?
.0 No
0 Yestsornapfdletimewhanlwasgrowingup
0 Yes. ms: of the time
Q Yes. all of the time

14. During a typical week. on how many evenings do you
go out for fun and recreation?

0None 0Three
00M 0Fourorf'lve
0Two OSixorsaven

15. Where does your family now live?
0 On a farm
0 In the country. nor on a farm
0 On an American Indian reservation
0 In a small town (under 2.500 in population)
0 In a town of 2.500 to 9.999
0 In a small city (10.000 to 49.999)
0 In a medium size city (50.000 to 250.000)
0 In a large city (over 250.000)

How important is each of the toilowing to you in your life?
Merit one answer for each.

18. Having lots ol money ...... 0 ............ 0 ...... 0
17. Hebing other people ...... O ...... O ...... O ...... O
13. Having lots oi Inn and

good times ................. O ...... O ...... O ...... O
19. Helping to reduce

hunger and poverty in

the world ................... O ...... O ...... O ...... O
20. Being popular or

well-liked ................... O ...... O ...... O ...... O
21. Hebing to make the

world a better place -‘

tolive ....................... O ...... O ...... O ...... 0

ABOUT SCHOOL

22. Inanaverageweek.abouthowmanyhoursdoyou

spenddolnghomework?

OOhours Oo-thours
Ol-Zhours 011hoursormore
O3-5hours

23. Compared with others your age. how well do you do
in school?

ONIuchaboveaverage OBelowW
OAboveaverage OMuchbelowaverage
DAM

24. What kinds oi grades do you earn in school?

OMostlyA OMostlyC
0AbouthallAandhaIl8 OAbouthaltCandhalfD
0Mostly8 OMostIyD
OAbouthallBandhaIiC 0Mostlybelow0

For eachof the ioliowing. choose one answer.
I-lowoitandoesoneoiyourparents...?

ZS-chvouwilhywrschool mmgmm

work ............................... O...O...O...O...O
23. Talk toyouabout what

youaradoinginschool .......... O...O...O...O...O
27. Askyouabouthomework ....... O.....0.0......00
23. Gotomeetingsorevents

ammo .................... O...O...O...O...O

 

75

How much do you agree or disagree with the following?
Choose one answer tor each.

29. A schooiltry hard I """' "" H

ca‘n todomyb?“ worl‘:s ....... 3.55wﬁaéz.%
30. llike school ........................ O...O...O...O...O
31. Mytaachersreally care

sboutme .......................... O...0...O...O...O
32. ltbothersmewhenldon‘t

dosomethingweli ................ O...O...O...O...O
33. Idon'tcarehowldo

inschool ........................... O...O...O...O...O
34. Mytaachersdon'tpaymud'l

attentiontome ................... O...O...O...O...O
35. lgetalctolencouragement

atmyschool ...................... O...O...O...O...O

36. During the last four weeks. how many days oi school
have you missed because you skipped or 'cut'?

Olidaysormore

37. During the last four weeks. how often have yougone
to school and skippedaclass whenyouwere not
supposedto?

ONotatalI
Olor2times
03-5times
06-10times
011-20times
0Morethan20times

38. On the average duringthe school year.how many hours
per weekdoyouworltlnapaid job?
Ohlone
05hoursorless
06- thours
011-15hours
OIG-ZOhours
021-25hours
026-30hours
0Morethsn30hours

ABOUT ME

How much do you agree or disagree with each of these?

Choose one answer for each.

Owen
Asa

”.Wfamilylife'lhappy ........... O...

40.lhaveanumberofgood

qualities ........................... 0 . . .

41.lemgoodatmalting

friends ............................. O...

42. Onthewhoie.llike

44.1heraiealotoflovein

myfamily ......................... 0...

45.Attimes.lthinklamno

goodatall ......................... 0...

43.lgatalongweliwithmy

parents ............................ 0...

47.AlIinall.lamgladl

amme ............................. 0...

“.lhavelotsofgood

9999999995
9999999995:
9999999993
oooooo‘oo‘og;

perenu ............................ 0...0...0...0...0
49 Iamalonelyperson .............. 0...0...0...0...0
so lcareaboutpeople's

feelings ............................ O...O...O...O...O
51. lfeelldonothavemuch

tobeproudol .................... O...O...O...O...O
52. llbreakoneofmyparents'

nlles.lusuallyget

punished ........................... 0...0...0.....00
53. Myparentsgivemehelp and

mponwhsnlhosdlr ........... O...O...O...O...O
54. ltieagainstmyvaluesto

havesex whilelama

teenager ........................... 0...0...0...0...0
55. My parents are easy to

talkwith ........................... O...O...O...O...O

 

76

so. lamgoodat making '12.?” gmbw'
decisions .......................... 0...........000.0
57. lfeel thatnoonereally
cares about me ................... 0...0...0...0...0
so. Istandup lormybeliefs ......... O...O...O...O...O
59. Myparents often tellme
theyloveme ...................... 0...0...0...0...0
During the last 12 months. how many times have you . . . ?
lee
34 Mare
60. Gonenintotmuble m m M: limes Ilm
atschool .......................... 0...0.. ...0 ..0. .0
61. Stolensomethingfrom
astore ............................. O...O...O...O ..O
32. Beeninvolvedina
projecttohelpmake
lrfebetterforother
people ............................. 0............0000
63. Gotteninto trouble
withthepolice .................... O...O...O...O...O
64. Hitorbeatupsomeone .......... 0............0000
65. Cheatedona testat
school ............................. O...O...O...O...O
66. Damaged propertyiust
forlun (such as breaking
windows. scratching
acar. putting painton
walls. etc.) ......................... O...O...O...O...O
67. Given moneyor time to
acharityororganization
that helps people ................. 0............0000
68. Spent timehelpingpeople
whoare poor.htlngry.
sick.orunabletocare
for themselves .................... 0...0...0...0...0

Onan W. how many hours do you
spend...?

mﬁﬁg'ﬁ
69.WatchingTV ...................... 0.. ...O .O. ...O .O
70.Ustaningtotheradio.
recordsortapes .................. 0.. .0.. ...0 ...0 .0
71.Athomewithoutanadult
therewithyou .................... 0.. .O.. ...O ...O .O

72. How many really close friends your age do you have?

ONO". OThree
00M 0Fourorf'lve
OTWO OSixormore

Duringanaverageweelt.howmanyhoursdoyou...?

73. Spend in bend. choir.

mamm‘ o ‘.z 3.'. ”a:

apracticingvoiceor all: than an: Han mu:

aninstrument ..................... 0.....0..O. .0.. .0
74.5pendplayingsponson

aschoolteam ..................... 0...0 0 0 ..0
75.5pendinclubsor

organizationsatschool

(odwerthanspom) ................ 0...0...0...0...0
78.5pendincbbsor

organizationsoutside

ofschool .......................... O...O...O...O...O
77. Attendsewicesgroups. I

orprogrsmsatachtxch

«synagogue ..................... 0...0...0...0...0

lnthissectionwewanttoasltyouaboutalc'oholand
otherdrugs.l’leeeeenswerashonestly'asyou'can.
Remember. youarenotaelnedtoputyournameonthis
form. sonoonewlllaverbeahletosallwhatyou
answered.

ﬂow many times. if any. have you had alcohol to

 

drink...?
ammonium
9 1:3 1:! Id mama:
7s. lnyourlifggjmg ...... O...O...O...O...O...O...O
79.0mm“
mm ...... O...O...O...O...O...O...O
80.0.uingthe
...O...O...O...O...O...O

77

81. Think back over the LAST TWO WEEKS. How many
times have you had five or more drinks in a row? (A
'drinlt' is a glass of wine. a bottle or can of beer. a
shot glass of liquor. or a mixed drink.)

ONone 03m5times
OOnca 06w9times
OTwice 010amonatimes

82. If you came home from a party and your parents found
outthatyouhadbeendrinlting.howupsetdoyouthinlt

theywouldbe?

0Notatallupset Chryupset
0Alittleupset 0Extremelyupsat
OSomewhattpset

Howmany times.ifany.haveyousmolted cigarettes...?

W
9 1:3 1:! I31 19mm: 99:
83. hyourerm ...... 0...0...0...0...0...0...0
mm ...... O...O...O...O...O...O...O
85. Duringthe
m ......... O...O...O...O...O...O...O

88. Duringthelasttwoweelts. abouthowmanycigarettes
haveyousmolted?
0None OAboutlpackperday
0Lsssmanlcigaretteperday0Aboutl‘hpadtsperdsy
01lo5cigarettesperday 02pacltsormoreperday
OAbout‘lapacltperday

How many times. If any. have you used marﬁuana (grass.
pot) or hashish (hash. hash oil). . . 7

9 1:: u 1:: mama:
87.!nyourlifg3img ...... O...O...O...O...O...O...O
88.0uringthe

agnmggth; ...... 0000000
89.0utingthe
mm ......... O...O...O...O...O...O...O

How many times. if any. have you used cocaine (crack.
colts. snow. rock). . . 7

mm
90. lnyourlifegimg ...... 0000000
81.0uringthe
agngmmghg ...... O...O...O...O...O...O...O
92.80.16:th
Mm ......... O...O...O...O...O...O...O

During the last 12 months. how many times have you . . . 7

ii:

93. Been to a party where other m m Tws' 3 I'm:

kids yourageweredrinking ..... O...O... ...O...O
94. Orivenacar alteryouhad

beendrinking ..................... O...O...O...O...O
95. Riddeninscar whose driver

hadbeandrinlting ................ O...O...O...O...O

90. How many times in the last month have you had a good
conversation with one of your parents that lasted 10
minutes or more?

ONO". O$times
00W. O4ormoretimes
O‘Mice

97. How many times in the last month have you had a good
conversation with an adult (not a parent) that lasted 10
minutes or more?

0 N00. 0 3 times
0 Once O 4 or more times
0 Twice

98. If you had an important question about your life. how
many adults do you know (not counting your parents)
to whom you would feel comfortable going for help?

ONO". Oatea
Oi OSorrnore
Oz

99. How often have you felt sad or depressed during the

lsstmonth?

OAllthetime OOnceinawhile
OMostofthe time ONot at all
OSomeofthetime

100. In the last year. how often. if at all. have you thought
about killing yourself?

0 Never 0 3 to 5 times
0 Once O 6 or more times
0 Twice

101. Have you ever tried to kill yourself?
0 No
0 Yes. once
0 Yes. twice
0 Yes. more than two times

 

78

102. How often do you wear a seat bolt when you drive or
ride in a car or truck?
0 All the timo
0 Most of the timo
O Some of the time

0 Once in a whils
0 Not at all

103. Have you ever had sexual intercourse ('gone all the way.’
'made love')?
0 No—) 5le TO oussnou 107
0 Once
O Twice
O 3 times
0 4 or more times

104. When you have sex. how often do you and/or your
partner use a birth control method such as birth control

pills. a condom (rubber). foam. diaphragm. or IUD?

ONO”! Often
05016001 OAlways
OSornetimes

105. The first time you had sex. did you and/or your partner
use birth control?
0 Yes
0 No

106. Have you ever been pregnant. or made someone pregnant?
0 Yes
0 No

How many times. if any. in the last 12 mgnths have you. . . 7

um r f

107-UMMO 9 1:2 H t! ”222392:

tobaccoorsnuff....O...O...O...O...O...O...O
108. Usedheroin (smack.

horse.skaglor

Other narcotics like

opiumormorphine.O...O...O...O...O...O...O
109. Usedadrug called

alawan ............... O...O.. WOOOO
110. Usedadrug

knownascrack ..... 0000000
111. UsedPCPor

AngelDust .......... O...O...O...O...O...O...O
112.UsedLSD(‘ecid‘)...O...O...O...O...O...O...O

How many times. if any. in mur lifgtimg have you . . . ?

W
113. Usodadrugknown g u u 9;: 13:11:93,: :9:
ascraclt ............. 0.. ...O ...O .O...O...O...O
114. UsodPCPor
AngelDust .......... 0.. ...O ...O .O...O...O...O
115. UsedLsoracad ".O.. ...O 0.. .O...O...O...O

110. How often do you vomit (throw up) on purpose after

eating?
OW OOnceaweek
OOnceamonthorless O2ormoretimesaweek

02-3timesamonth

117. Have you ever been physically abused by an adult (that
ls.whero anadult causodyoutohaveascar.black
and blue marks. welts. bleeding. or a broken bone)?

ONever O4-10timos
OOnce OMorothan10timos
O2-3timos

118. Have you ever been sexually abused by someone (that
is. someone in your family or someone else did sexual
things to you that you did not want or forced you to

touch them sexually)?

0 Never 0 4 . 10 times

0 Once 0 More than 10 times
0 2 . 3 times

During the last 12 months. how many times have you . . . ?

113. Takenpartinafight
whereagroupofyour s-e
friendswereagsinst mmmnm
anothergroup .................... O...O 0.. ....O

oEi:

120. Hurtsomeonebadly

enoughtoneed

bendagesoradoctor ........... O...O...O...O...O
121. Usodaknifooragun

orsomeotherthing

llikeadubltoget

somethingfromaperson ....... O...O...O...O...O

122. i would be willing to eat less meat and more grains and
vegetables if it would help provide food for starving

poop“.

OOisagreo
OMostlydisagreo
ONeitheragreenordisagree
OMostlvmo

Om

 

79

’Dio nest questions are about AMPHETAMINES. which
doctors can prescribe to help people lose weight or to
give people more energy. Drugstores are not supposed to
sell them without a prescription from a doctor.

Amphetamines are sometimes called uppers. ups. speed.
bonnies. deities. pop pills. diet pills. They include the
following drugs: Bonaodrino. Dexedrine. Mothedrlne.
Ritalin. Preludin. Dexamyl. Methamphetamine.

IN YOUR ANSWERS ABOUT AMPHETAMINES. DO NOT
INCLUDE ANY NONPRESCRIPTION OR OVER-THE~
COUNTER DRUGS. .

On how many occasions. if any. have you taken
amphetamines on your own-that is. without a
doctortellingyoutotakethem...?

We.”
9 1;: u 9:: mama so:
123. hmm ...... O...O ..O...O...O...O...O
124.0uringtho ' I
W ...... O...O...O...O...O...O...O
125.0uringtho
1mm ......... O...O ..O...O...O...O...O

For each of the following. mark only one answer. .

M lot
”£12! mm;

126. lworryalotabout

myfuture .......................... O.......O..O..0.0
127. lamgoodat

planning ahead ................... C....0.0......OO

128. Ten years from now. I think

lenbewrvhsppy .............. O...O...O...O...O

Whonlamanadultlthinlt
lwiii be successful in what-
evorworklchoosetodo ........ O...O...O...O...O

1 29.

How interested are you in each of the following?

. M lot
130. Getting better at making and .31... mg mg
keeping friends ...................... O O O

eeeeeeeeeeee

131. Learning how to read better ........ O ...... O ...... O

132. Doing things to help other
people ................................ O ...... O ...... O

133. Learning values that will help
guide me throughout my life ....... O ...... O ...... O

How interested are you in each of the following?

134. Learning how to deal with
pressure to use alcohol or

138. Getting better at making

my owndecisions ................... O ...... O ...... O
137. Having a better relationship

withmyparents ..................... O ...... O ...... O
138. Deciding whatlshoulddo

withmylifo .......................... O ...... O ...... O

138. if you had an important concern about drugs. alcohol.
sex. or some other serious issue. would you talk to

your parentls) about it?
0 Yes 0 Probably not
0 Probably O No

0 I'm not sure

140. How much of the time do your parents ask you where
you are going or with whom you will be?

OPracticallynover OMostofthotime
OSeldom OAllofthetime
OSomeofthetime

Among the people you consider to be your closest friends.
howmanywouldyou say...?

141. Drinkalcoholonceawoek m [:3 m m 55
ormore ............................ OWOOOO
142. l-hveuseddrugssuchss
marijuanaorcocaine ............. O........O0.0...O
143. Dowsllinschool ................. O...O...O...O...O
144. Gotinto trouble atschool ........ O...O...O...O...O
14s. Helpothorpooplo ................. O...O...O...O...O

 

80

146. Have you felt you were under any strain. stress. or
pressure during the past month?
0 Yes. almost more than I could take
0 Yes. quite a bit of pressure
0 Yes. some/more than usual
0 Yes. a little/about usual
0 Not at all

147. How often have you felt anxious. worried. or upset
during the past month? '
C) All of the time
0 Most of the time
0 Some of the time
0 A little of the time
0 None of the time

148. Whonwastholasttimoyouwonttoseoadoctorfor
acheckup?
OlMthintholast12months
OAboutl-Zyearsago
'OAbout3-4yearsago
OSormorryearsego
Ol'veneverbeento'idoctorlorscheckup

149. Do you think your mother or father has a serious
problem with alcohol 66 drugs?
0 No
'0 Maybe: I‘m not sure
0 Yes

150. How often do you attend religious services at a church
or synagogue?
0 Never
0 Barely
0 Once or twice a month
0 About once a week or more

151. How important is religion in your life?
0 Not important
0 Somewhat important
0 known!
0 Very important

152. On the average over a school year. how many hours
Mdoyouspenddoingvolunteerworktoheip
other people (such as helping out at a hospital. day
care center or nursery. food shelf. youth program.
community service agency. oth?

0 None.

0 1~2 hours

0 3-5 hours

0 6.9 hours

0 10 hours or more

ﬁbula-USA. “mucous-b.1074”

81

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OFFICE OF
RESEARCH
AND
GRADUATE
STUDIES

University Cnmmlttea on
Research Involving
Human Suhiects
(UCﬂtﬂS)

Michigm State University
225 Ministration Building
East Lansing. Midnigan
48824-1046

sums-2m

Fm SITmB-ltlt

Wham

83

Appendix D

MICHIGAN STATE

 

UNIVERSITY

September 30. l993

TO: Dr. Joanne Keith
203 Human Ecology

RE: IRB 3: 92-379
TITLE: COMMUNITY BASED YOUTH NEEDS ASSESSMENT - COMMUNITY

BASED PROFILE OF MICHIGAN YOUTH

REVISION REQUESTED: N/A
CATEGORY: loC
APPROVAL DATE: September 24. 1993

The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects' (UCRll-IS) review of this project
is complete. I am pleased to advise that the rights and weifare of me human subjects appear to be
adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate. Therefore. the
UCRIHS approved this project including any revision listed above.

Renewal:

Revisions:

Problems!
Changes:

UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. beginning with the approval
date shown above. Investigators planning to continue a project beyond one year
must use the enclosed form to seek updated certiﬁcation. There is a maximum of
four such expedited renewals possible. Investigators wishing to continue a project
beyond that time need to submit it again for complete review.

UCRll-IS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects. prior
to initiation of the change. If this is done at the time of renewal. please use the
enclosed form. To revise an approved protocol at any other time during the year.
send your written request to the UCRIHS Chair. requesting revised approval and
referencing the project's IRB ﬂ and title. Include in your request a description of
the change and any revised instruments. consent forms or advertisements that are
applicable. the year. please outline the proposed revisions in a letter to the
Committee.

Should either of the following arise during the course of the work. investigators
must notify UCRIHS promptly: (1) problems (unexpected side effects. complaints.
etc) involving hum subjects or (2) changes in the research enVironment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human subjects than existed when the
protocol was previously reviewed and approved.

If we can be of any future help. please do not hesitate to contact us at (517) 355-2180 or FAX (517)

336-1171.

Sincerely.

  

UCRII-IS Chair

DEW:pjrn

- i”

avid E. Wright. Ph.D.

LIST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES

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Benson, P. (1990). The troubled journey: A portrait of 6th-12th grade youth.
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Benson, P., Williams, D., & Johnson, A. (1987). The quicksilver years - the hopes a_n_d_
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Blythe, D. (1993). Healthy communities. healthy youth: How communities contribute to
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Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nafture
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Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1992). A matter of time: Risk and
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Clasen, D.R. & Brown, BB. (1985). The multidimensionality of peer pressure in
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Coalition Concerned with Adolescent Pregnancy. (1987). After school activities: A
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Cobb, N. (1992). Adolescence: Continuigz, change. and diversig. Mountain View, CA:
Mayﬁeld Publishing Company.

Crider, D.; Willits, F .; & Funk, R. (1985). Leisure-time activities of rural young people:
Youth reports and adult perceptions (Bulletin 858). University Park, PA: The
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Dryfoos, J. (1990). Adolescents gt rislg: Prevalence and prevention. New York: Oxford
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84

85

Entwisle, D. & Astone, N. (1994). Some practical guidelines for measuring youths'
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Hendry, L., Shucksmith, J ., Love, J ., & Glendinning, A. (1993). Young people's leisure
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Keith, J. & Perkins, D. (1995). 13.000 adolescents speak: A proﬁle of Michigan youth.
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86

Kleinfeld, J. & Shinkwin, A. (1983). Lessons out-of-school: Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts and
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Lerner, R.M., & Foch, T.T. (1987). Biological-psychosocial interactions in early
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Marsland, D. (1982). It's my life: Young people and leisure. Leisure Studies 1, 305-
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