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THESIS

.I :7/

MICHIGAN STATEU

I II IIII III II III III IIIIIIIIIIII

3 129 0114216224

II

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

FEMALE AND MALE SUCCESS IN A
CHEMISTRY CLASSROOM

presented by

Ellsen Lee Diamond

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

MASTER degree in SCIENCE

 

 

Major pr essor

Date—SeptemhnMS

0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

 

 

 

 

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

 

 

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TO AVOID FINES roturn on or botoro dot. duo.

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MSU is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity inotttmion
mans-9.1

 

FEMALE AND MALE SUCCESS IN A
CHEMISTRY CLASSROOM

By

Ellsen Lee Diamond

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Division of Science Education
College of Natural Science

1995

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Appreciation must be expressed for the assistance and
encouragement provided by Dr. Clarence H. Suelter who's dedication
to teaching science and science teachers is tireless. To Dr. Michael
J. Kenney, his guidances and insight through this project was

invaluable.

Gratitude also goes to my colleagues, Herbert Knowlton and Steven
Speaks who provided information and support that only Master
Teachers can. Most of all I am grateful to my husband, John, who has
shown love and confidence throughout the course work and writing

of this thesis.

DEDICATION

in Memory of
Dora Jean Reed Greenwood
Mother and Scientist

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

 

USI' OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ vii

CHAPTER
I. Purpose ......................................................... __________ 1
ll. Community Background .................................................................... 4
IV. Class Composite ................................................................................. 8
V. Comparison of the Male and Female Teacher ......................... 9
VI. Data Collection ................................................................................. 1 6
VII. Chi Square Test ................................................................................ 29
VIII. Z - Test ................................................................................. _ 49
IX. Comparison of Grades .................................................................... 52
X. Conclusion -- -- - -- ...... 54
XI. Effects of this Study ..................................................................... 58
Xll. Future Studies .................................................................................. 60

vi

 

APPENDIX
A. Chemistry Syllabus ......................................................................... 62
B. Advanced Chemistry Syllabus .................................................... 64
C. Advanced Chemistry Student Survey ...................................... 66
D. Letter of Permission ...................................................................... 68
REFERENCES - - - .......... - 69

GENERAL REFERENCES -- _ - - 71

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

TABLES

TABLE 1: General employment groups, number of employees and
percentage of the total ....................... _ _ - -- ______ 4

 

TABLE 2: Comments from students who had the female teacher for
Chemistry and the male teacher for Advanced Chemistry ....... 12

TABLE 3: Comments from students who had the male teacher for
Chemistry and the female teacher for Advanced Chemistry ..13

TABLE 4: Categories, number of students and percentage of the
total students for the graduates of 1992-93 ................................. 15

TABLE 5: Grade scale comparison of the female and male
teacher - 17

 

TABLE 6: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the female teacher during 1991-92 ...19

TABLE 7: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the female teacher during 1992-93 ...20

TABLE 8: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the female teacher during 1993-94 ...21

TABLE 9: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the male teacher during 1991-92 ........ 23

TABLE 10: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the male teacher during 1992-93 ........ 24

vii

viii
TABLE 11: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and

class period taught by the male teacher during 1993-94 ....... 25
TABLE 12: A summary, organized by gender of teacher, gender of

student and grade for three years ....................................................... 27
TABLE 13: Chi Square Table for 1991 -92 .................................................... 34
TABLE 14: Chi Square Table for 1992-93 .................................................... 35
TABLE 15: Chi Square Table for 1993-94 .................................................... 36
TABLE 16: Chi Square Test 1991-92 ............................................................. 38
TABLE 17: Chi Square Test 1992-93 .............................................................. 39
TABLE 18: Chi Square Test 1993-94 .............................................................. 40
TABLE 19: Chi Square Test 1991-94 .............................................................. 42

TABLE 20: Chi Square Test for the female students' grades from
the female and male teacher 1991-94 ............................................ 46

TABLE 21: Chi Square Test for the male students' grades from
the female and male teacher 1991-94 ............................................ 47

TABLE 22: Z-Test - Grade Point Averages of all female and male
students from 1991 to 1994 ................................................................ 50

TABLE 23: Comparison of percentages of female and male
students per academic grade for 1991-94 .................................... 53

PURPOSE

While I was being interviewed for a position as a high school
chemistry teacher the interviewer stated, "You are a minority:

You are a woman in science. This statement surprised me, and
I began to question if there were less females in science and if

so, why.

In 1988, a survey conducted by the National Science Foundation
(NSF) showed that only 18% of the employed chemists in the

United States were female. This has increased from 11% in

1978. 1 However, in the past three years, an average of 57.5%
of the students who have enrolled in chemistry at the high
school studied have been females. It seems odd that so few
females succeed in pursuing a career of chemistry when,

initially, over half of the students are female.

Many factors may cause the "leak in the pipeline." Some may be
directly related to the inherent physical differences between

men and women, such as, the different ways in which the sexes

1

process information. Society may also be a factor through
discrimination and stereotyping in educational institutions and
in the work place. In addition, women have typically migrated
from the "pure sciences," such as chemical research, to an
"applied science," such as nursing. These applied sciences are
not considered to be chemistry careers. Family values
involving marriage and children may also play a part. However,
each of these, while significant, will not be the focus of this

project.

Instead, the focus and scope of this project revolves around

the following two questions:

First, do female high school chemistry students show a higher
level of achievement when taught by a female chemistry
instructor than when taught by a male chemistry instructor?
If the answer to this question is yes, then the leak may be
caused by the gender of the teacher. If the answer is no, it
may indicate that the gender of the teacher is not the cause of

the "leak." This will be analyzed by use of students grades

because it provides the most objective measurement of

student success available.

Second, do males achieve higher grades than females? If the
answer is yes, it may be the cause for the higher proportion of
males in chemistry careers. Success and high achievement

generally breed additional interest.

To address these two questions, data was gathered from two
groups of high school students: One group taught by a male and

the other taught by a female.

COMMUNITY BACKGROUND

The sample group for this survey was drawn from a small

community in Michigan. The entire county has a population of

30,605 2 with a median age of 35.3 years. The total labor

force consists of 15,063 people and has a three year average
unemployment rate of 12.1%. 3 Average per capita income is

$14,691.00. 4

Table 1: The general employment groups, number of employees
and the percentage of the total.

 

 

 

W Emulszm Zr;
Agriculture/Forestry/Fishing 97 0.6
Construction 805 5.3
Farm 510 3.4
Federal Government 30 0.9
Financial/ Insurance/ Real Estate 774 5.1
Manufacturing 2,463 16.4
Military/Civilian 72 0.5
Mining 26 0.2
Retail Trade 2,646 17.5
Services 3,495 23.2
State/ Local Government 2,590 17.2
Transportation/Utilities 783 5.2
flboiesalflade 67—2 1.5.
Total 1 5,063 100.0

 

The county provides one public school system in which

students are transported daily over an area of 620 square

miles. 5

During the school years of 1991-92, 1992-93, and 1993-94 an
average of 5,742 students were enrolled in kindergarten
through twelfth grade in the public school system. (Four
parochial schools within the area have not been used in these
summaries.) Ten elementary schools served an average of
3,026 pupils from kindergarten through sixth grade. One junior
high school, containing grades seven and eight, averaged 947

pupils. The high school that contained grades, nine, ten, eleven

and twelve, averaged 1756 pupils. 6

CURRICULUM

The science curriculum at the high school studied required all
students to successfully complete two full years of science.
Ninth grade students were required to enroll in a year long
class of physical science. Tenth grade students chose from
four, year-long classes: Environmental Science 10, Basic
Biology, Earth and Space Science, or Biology; or two semester
courses, Introduction to Agriscience, Introduction to Forestry,
or Plant and Animal Science. If they chose to continue in
science, in the eleventh grade they took any of the previously
offered required courses or chose from year-long Chemistry,
Physics, or Advanced Biology; or a semester of Advanced
Production Agriscience or Advanced Forestry. Advanced
Chemistry or Agriscience Business Management were also
available choices along with all previously mentioned courses

for seniors.

Two years of chemistry were offered at the high school
surveyed. The first year was simply called "Chemistry". The

6

students were introduced to topics such as nomenclature,
stoichiometry, chemical reactions, gas laws and structure.
Approximately eighteen laboratory activities were performed
during each year (See Appendix A for the syllabus and
laboratory activities). A grade of C or better in Algebra was

the only prerequisite for this class.

The second year class, "Advanced Chemistry", introduced
topics such as electrochemistry, thermochemistry,
equilibrium, neutralization reactions, buffers and organic
chemistry. Appendix B lists the materials and the laboratory
activities for Advanced Chemistry. To qualify for Advanced
Chemistry, the students must have achieved a "C" or better in
Chemistry and have demonstrated the ability to use higher
level thinking skills. The latter of these two requirements

was based on the input of their Chemistry teacher.

CLASS COMPOSITE

The classes of Chemistry ranged from a high of twenty-six
students per fifty-five minute period to a low of fourteen. A
three year average was calculated to be twenty-one students
per period. There were on average 57.5% female and 42.5%

male students in these classes.

It is important to note that the students did not have a choice
of which teacher they had for the chemistry classes.
Scheduling was done by computer to avoid conflicts in staff,
student and classroom scheduling. Students had a 59.1%
chance of having a female teacher and a 40.1% chance of a male
teacher. (0f the twenty-two chemistry classes taught
between 1991 and 1994, the female taught thirteen and the

male taught nine.)

COMPARISON OF THE MALE AND FEMALE TEACHER

The male teacher, being fifty years old, has taught in the same
school system for the past twenty-five years, beginning his
career in the 1968-1969 school year. He holds a Bachelor of
Science Degree from Central Michigan University where he
received a teaching certificate in the areas of math and
chemistry and a Master of Science Degree in Secondary
Administration. He taught math at the junior high school for
eleven years before he accepted the opportunity to teach
chemistry at the high school. He has been teaching chemistry

for fourteen years.

The female teacher, twenty-eight years old, has taught
chemistry for five years, four of those years have been at the
school system used in this study. She received a Bachelors of
Science Degree from Michigan State University (MSU) with a
focus in biology and chemistry. Her teaching certification was

from Ferris State University. She is currently fulfilling the

10

requirements for a Master of Science Degree in Physical

Science at MSU.

During the years studied--1991-92, 1992-93, and 1993-94--
the male teacher taught fifteen year long chemistry classes
total: three Chemistry classes and two Advanced Chemistry
classes per year. The female teacher taught fourteen year long
chemistry classes consisting of five Chemistry classes in
1991-92, four Chemistry classes in 1992-93 and four
Chemistry and one Advanced Chemistry class in the final year

of the study.

Both teachers used the same textbook and performed the same
laboratory activities. The units were taught to the two groups
of students in the same order and the amount of time spent
during each unit of study varied only a day or two per unit. The
nature and personality of each teacher was different due to

age and teaching experience.

To help evaluate the similarities and differences between the

II

instructors, twenty-three Advanced Chemistry students were
asked to complete a survey during their seventh month of
Advanced Chemistry. (Appendix C). Before completing the
survey, a letter of explanation and introduction was sent to
the parents of each student under the age of eighteen. Those
students eighteen or older were given a copy of the same

introduction letter to share with their parents. (Appendix D).

Out of the twenty-three who completed the survey, ten of
them had both instructors, one for Chemistry, and the other for

Advanced Chemistry.

The following comments came from six students who had the
female teacher during their first year of Chemistry and the

male teacher during Advanced Chemistry.

12

Table 2: Comments from students who had the female teacher
for Chemistry and the male teacher for Advanced Chemistry.

 

Student Female teacher/Chemistry Male teacher/Advanced Chemistry

 

1 Fast paced with lots of More scheduled and serious
concepts. The mood was
kept light and somewhat

 

interesting.

2 I found it easier to Too fast, not everyone Ieams
comprehend things I was and understands well or at the
taught my first year. I same pace.

liked this teachers
teaching style better.

 

 

 

 

 

3 Informative Technical
Fun and energetic, a Straight forward, lots of
different style of teaching equations and problems.
that I understood.

5 Good, tried to help students, Lectures are kind of boring
made it interesting but they help and I learn from

them.
6 Too Fast He takes time with you.

 

 

The following comments came from four students who had the
male teacher during their first year of chemistry and were

enrolled in Advanced Chemistry with the female teacher.

13

Table 3: Comments from students who had the male teacher
for Chemistry and the female teacher for Advanced Chemistry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Student Male teacher/Chemistry Female teacher/Advanced Chemistry

7 Organized and helpful. Organized and helpful.

8 Disciplined and rigid, yet More relaxed but still effective.
fun.

9 Laid back, went at a pace Moved faster, I could still keep up.
that everyone could keep (She) cared if everyone was learning
up with. (He) really and gave us some choice in what we
cared if you learned the wanted to do.
information.

10 Slow and very well Very Fast
explained

 

 

By reviewing the comments made by a number of students,

I hold the impression that the male teacher was rather
methodical and technical, whereas the female teacher was
more sporadic and application orientated. This became
apparent by a few specific comments from the students.
Student #8 described the male teacher as "rigid" and the
female teacher as "more relaxed". Other students used terms
like "serious", "scheduled", "straight forward" to describe the

male and terms like "informative", "energetic" and "effective"

14

to describe the female. Student #3 captured the essence of
the two teachers by simply stating the female was

"informative" and the male was "technical".

Surveys from students who had the male teacher for both
Chemistry and Advanced Chemistry described his teaching
style as "very structured" and "disciplined". Students who had
the female teacher for both Chemistry and Advanced Chemistry
described her style as "fast paced", "entertaining" and
"informative". The descriptions of the two teachers styles do
not appear to change between students who have had both

teachers to those who have had same teacher for two years.

In December of 1994, a survey performed by the local school
district analyzed how the 1993-94 graduates of the high

school enhanced their secondary education. (146 of these

students would have had chemistry in 1992-93). 7 Results are

as follows:

15

Table 4: The categories, number of students and percentage of
the total students for the graduates of 1992-93 are listed.

 

62139936.: Students _%
Military 6 1.8
Trade school 1 0.3
College 137 40.2
College & job 77 22.8
Job 69 20.3
Unemployed 1 3 3.8
Foreign exchange 6 1.8
Moved from area 6 1.8
No answer/disconnected 16 4.7
Non graduates 17 5.0
Deceased _1 _Q.3
Graduates 340 1 00.0

 

 

 

Of the 340 graduates, 214 of them, 62.9%, continue to post

secondary education. This correlates closely to the national

average of 63%. 8 The material listed above was not broken
into gender or field of study when it was collected, therefore,
a comparison of females versus males continuing from high

school to college can not be made.

DATA COLLECTION

There are many benefits of comparing two teachers from the
same school. The student composite, background and teaching
conditions are similar. Differences do exist, including
personal teaching style and the learning environment, which

are both established by the individual teacher.

The data collected for this study was tallied from official
grades assigned by the instructors. It was originally
categorized according to grade, gender of student, class
period, year, and instructor. This proved to be insufficient
because the two instructors used different grade scales. The
following table (Table 5) shows the difference in the two

instructors grading scales:

16

17

Table 5: Grade scale comparison of the female and male
teacher.

 

 

Female Teeeher Male Teeeher
Grade percent percent
A 93 -100 94 - 100
A- 90 - 92 90 - 93
8+ 87 - 89 87 - 89
B 83 - 86 84 - 86
B- 80 - 82 80 - 83
C+ 77 - 79 77 - 79
C 73 - 76 73 - 76
C- 70 - 72 70 - 72
0+ 67 - 69 65 - 69
D 63 - 66 60 - 64
D- 60 - 62 55 - 59
E 0 - 59 0 - 54

 

 

A comparison of the two scales shows that the female
teachers scale is a "straight" grading scale where the male
teacher's scale tends to be more generous to students who are
doing poorly (D+ and below) in the class. To establish accurate
data for comparison the grade categories used in all the
following tables were recalculated using the percentage
assigned by the male instructor then transferred to the female

teachers grading scale.

18

Only second semester grades were used because these
represented students who had completed one full year of
chemistry. There were six "special cases" where students
were eliminated from the sample group. Four students were
foreign exchange students and two students were enrolled in

the second semester of Chemistry only.

The following tables show the number of students taught by
the female teacher during the three school years studied. The
tables separate the male and female students during each
class period (2nd hour, 3rd hour...) according to grades. Again,

the grading scale of the female teacher was used.

19

Table 6: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the female teacher during 1991-92.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FEMALE STUDENTS

Grades 2nd Hr 3rd Hr 4th Hr 5th Hr 6th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 0 1 0 2 1 4 4.00
A- 1 0 0 1 0 2 2.00
8+ 1 1 0 0 1 3 3.00
B 3 3 2 1 2 11 11.00
8- 1 1 1 0 1 4 4.00
C+ 0 0 0 2 3 S 5.00
C 1 3 2 1 4 11 11.00
C- 0 4 2 1 0 7 7.00
0+ 2 0 0 1 0 3 3.00
D 1 1 2 1 0 5 5.00
D— 0 1 0 0 0 1 1.00
E 1 0 0 0 0 1 1.00

Total 1 1 1 S 9 10 1 2 57 57

MALE STUDENTS

Grades 2nd Hr 3rd Hr 4th Hr 5th Hr 6th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 0 0 3 0 1 4 4.00
A- 0 0 0 2 0 2 2.00
8+ 0 1 0 1 0 2 2.00
8 2 2 0 2 1 7 7.00
8- 3 0 1 0 0 4 4.00
C+ 0 0 1 1 2 4 4.00
C 0 1 1 0 1 3 3.00
C- 2 1 0 1 1 5 5.00
0+ 1 1 0 0 0 2 2.00
D 0 0 2 0 0 2 2.00
D- 1 1 1 1 0 4 4.00
E 0 1 0 3 0 4 4.00

Total 9 8 9 11 6 43 43

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[TOTAL STUDENTS 1M

20

Table 7: Number of students, seperated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the female teacher during 1992-93.

FEMALE STUDENTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grades 2nd Hr 3rd Hr 4th Hr 5th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 1 2 0 1 4 4.82
A- 1 1 0 0 2 2.41
8+ 1 0 1 4 6 7.23
8 1 1 0 1 3 3.61
8— 3 0 0 1 4 4.82
01- 2 1 2 1 6 7.23
C 0 2 0 3 5 6.02
C- 0 4 0 2 6 7.23
0+ 2 0 1 1 4 4.82
D 2 1 1 2 6 7.23
D- 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
E 0 0 0 0 0 0.00

Total 1 3 1 2 5 1 6 46 55
MALE STUDENTS

Grades 2nd Hr 3rd Hr 4th Hr 5th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 2 1 0 2 5 6.02
A- 1 1 0 0 2 2.41
8+ 2 2 2 0 6 7.23
8 3 0 0 1 4 4.82
B— 1 1 1 0 3 3.61
0+ 1 2 0 2 5 6.02
C 1 0 2 1 4 4.82
C- 0 0 1 0 1 1.20
D+ 0 0 1 0 1 1.20
D 0 1 0 1 2 2.41
D- 0 0 1 1 2 2.41
E 0 1 1 0 2 2.41

Total 11 9 9 8 37 4S

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[TOTAL STUDENTS 83]

 

21

Table 8: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the female teacher during 1993-94.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FEMALE STUDENTS

Grade 3rd Hr 4th Hr 5th Hr 6th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 0 2 0 0 2 2.74
A- 0 3 1 0 4 5.48
8+ 2 0 0 2 4 5.48
B 0 3 0 1 4 5.48
B- 2 4 2 1 9 12.33
0+ 0 0 3 0 3 4.11
C 1 2 0 1 4 5.48
C- 1 1 0 1 3 4.11
D+ 2 0 3 0 S 6.85
D 1 0 0 1 2 2.74
D- 1 0 0 0 1 1.37
E 1 0 0 0 1 1.37

Total 11 15 9 7 42 58

MALE STUDENTS

Grade 3rd Hr 4th Hr 5th Hr 6th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 0 0 0 1 1 1.37
A- 0 0 0 3 3 4.11
8+ 1 0 0 2 3 4.11
8 0 0 0 1 1 1.37
8- 3 1 1 0 5 6.85
C+ 1 1 0 1 3 4.11
C 3 1 3 0 7 9.59
C- 0 1 0 1 2 2.74
Dr 1 0 0 0 1 1.37
D 2 1 0 0 3 4.11
D- 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
E 0 0 2 0 2 2.74

Total 11 5 6 9 31 42

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[TOTAL STUDENTS 73]

 

22

The following three tables show the number of students taught
by the male teacher during the years of the study. These
tables separate the female and male students according to
class period and grade. The grade listed was determined using
the percentages recorded in the gradebook and the scale used

by the female teacher.

23

Table 9: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the male teacher during 1991-92.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FEMALE STUDENTS

Grade 1st Hr 2nd Hr 4th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 3 0 1 4 6.35
A- 1 1 0 2 3.17
8+ 2 1 2 S 7.94
8 0 1 3 4 6.35
8- 0 0 1 1 1.59 -
C+ 2 1 3 6 9.52
C 1 1 0 2 3.17
C- 0 1 0 1 1.59
Dr- 1 2 1 4 6.35
D 2 1 0 3 4.76
D- 0 1 0 1 1.59
E 0 1 0 1 1.59

Total 12 1 1 1 1 34 53.97

MALE STUDENTS

Grade 1st Hr 2nd Hr 4th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 1 3 1 5 7.94
A- 2 0 1 3 4.76
8+ 1 1 2 4 6.35
B 1 1 0 2 3.17
8- 1 1 0 2 3.17
C+ 1 2 1 4 6.35
C 1 1 0 2 3.17
C- 0 0 0 0 0.00
0+ 1 0 1 2 3.17
D 0 1 1 2 3.17
D- 1 1 1 3 4.76
E 0 0 0 0 0.00

Total 10 1 1 8 29 46.03

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[TOTAL STUDENTS 63]

 

24

Table 10: Number of students, separated by gender, grades
and class period taught by the male teacher during 1992-93.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FEMALE STUDENTS

Grade lst Hr 3rd Hr 6th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 2 2 0 4 6.35
A— 1 1 1 3 4.76
8+ 0 0 1 1 1.59
8 2 3 2 7 1 1.1 1
B- 1 4 3 8 12.70
C+ 1 2 4 7 11.11
C 2 2 1 5 7.94
C- 2 2 1 5 7.94
D+ 0 2 0 2 3.17
D 0 1 0 1 1.59
D- 0 0 0 0 0.00
E 0 1 0 1 1.59

Total 1 1 20 13 44 69.84

MALE STUDENTS

Grade lst Hr 3rd Hr 6th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 0 2 1 3 4.76
A- 1 0 0 1 1.59
8+ 0 0 1 1 1.59
8 2 0 0 2 3.17
8- 0 0 1 1 1.59
C+ 0 1 2 3 4.76
C 1 0 1 2 3.17
C- 0 1 0 1 1.59
D+ 0 0 0 0 0.00
D 0 1 1 0 0.00
D— 2 0 1 3 4.76
E 0 1 1 2 3.17

Total 6 6 9 19 30.16

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[TOTAL STUDENTS 63]

 

25

Table 11: Number of students, separated by gender, grades and
class period taught by the male teacher during 1993-94.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FEMALE STUDENTS

Grade lst Hr 3rd Hr 6th Hr Total 96 of TOTAL
A 3 2 1 6 8.57
A- 0 3 3 6 8.57
8+ 1 0 0 1 1.43
8 1 3 1 5 7.14
B- 1 2 2 5 7.1 4
C+ 1 1 1 3 4.29
C 1 0 1 2 2.86
C- 1 1 0 2 2.86
D+ 1 1 0 2 2.86
D 1 1 0 2 2.86
D— 1 0 0 1 1.43
E 0 0 2 2 2.86

Total 12 14 1 1 37 52.86

MALE STUDENTS

Grade 1st Hr 3rd Hr 6th Hr Total 96 Of TOTAL
A 0 3 4 7 10.00
A- 1 2 0 3 4.29
8+ 4 0 2 6 8.57
8 2 2 1 5 7.1 4
8- 0 1 1 2 2.86
C+ 0 2 1 3 4.29
C 1 1 0 2 2.86
C— 0 0 0 0 0.00
D+ 1 0 1 2 2.86
D 1 0 0 1 1.43
D- 2 0 0 2 2.86
E 0 0 0 0 0.00

Total 12 11 10 33 47.14

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[TOTAL STUDENTS 70]

26

The following summary shows the number Of female students
(FS) and male students (MS) for both the female teacher (FT)
and male teacher (MT) during the year. The female teacher had
145 female students and 111 male students. The male teacher
had 115 female and 81 male students. A summation Of the
three years shows that 260 females and 192 males elected
chemistry from a total of 452 students during the three year

peflod.

Class data was analyzed to determine if female students
achieve higher grades in Chemistry by having a female teacher.
A Chi Square Test was done on the three years, Of data

collected for this study.

27

Table 12: A summary, organized by gender of teacher, gender
Of student and grade for three years.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 991 -9 2
GRADE FT/FS FT/ MS MT/FS MT/ MS TOTAL
A 4 4 4 5 17
A- 2 2 2 3 9
8+ 3 2 S 4 14
B 1 1 7 4 2 24
B- 4 4 1 2 1 1
01- 5 4 6 4 19
C 1 1 3 2 2 18
C- 7 5 1 O 13
0+ 3 2 4 2 1 1
D S 2 3 2 12
D- 1 4 1 3 9
E 1 4 1 O 6
TOTAL 57 43 34 29 1 63
1 99 2 -9 3
GRADE FT/FS FT/ MS MT/FS MT/ MS TOTAL
A 4 S 4 3 16
A- 2 2 3 1 8
8+ 6 6 1 1 14
B 3 4 7 2 16
B- 4 3 8 1 1 6
C+ 6 5 7 3 21
C 5 4 5 2 1 6
C— 6 1 5 1 1 3
0+ 4 1 2 O 7
D 6 2 1 O 9
D- O 2 O 3 S
E O 2 1 2 5
TOTAL 46 37 44 19 146

 

 

 

 

 

28

Table 1 2: Cont'd

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 9 9 3 -9 4
GRADE FT/FS FT/MS MT / FS MT/ MS TOTAL
A Z 1 6 7 1 6
A- 4 3 6 3 1 6
8+ 4 3 1 6 1 4
8 4 1 S 5 1 5
B- 9 S 5 2 21
0+ 3 3 3 3 1 2
C 4 7 2 2 1 5
C- 3 2 2 O 7
0+ 5 1 2 2 1 O
D 2 3 2 1 8
D- 1 O 1 Z 4
E 1 2 2 O 5
TOTAL 42 31 37 33 1 43
TOTALS

 

FT/FS FT/MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL

 

145 111 115 81 452

 

 

 

 

 

FT & MT/FS FT 81 MT/MS TOTAL

 

 

 

260 192 452

 

 

CHI SQUARE TEST

The Chi Square Test is a hypothesis test concerning the
distribution Of a population. Observed distribution frequencies
of a specific population are compared to expected distribution
frequencies of a general population. If the Observed and
expected frequencies are equal (95% or better in this case),
the null hypothesis is not rejected. If the Observed and
expected are not equal (less than 9596 in this case) the null

hypothesis is rejected.

A null hypothesis is a hypothesis (or focus question) which is
written as a negative statement. For example, one of the focus
questions which was introduced in the purpose asks: "Do
female chemistry students show a higher level of achievement
when taught by a female chemistry instructor than when
taught by a male chemistry instructor?" Once rewritten into
the format of a null hypothesis it would read: "Female

chemistry students do not Show a higher level of achievement

29

30

when taught by a female chemistry instructor than when

taught by a male chemistry instructor."

The observed frequencies calculated and reported in Tables 13,
14 and 15 are the actual number Of female chemistry students
taught by the female teacher, male students taught by the
female teacher, female students taught by the male teacher,
and male chemistry students taught by the male teacher and

the grades these students earned during a three year period.

A bivariate table was established with grades representing

one characteristic and the gender of teacher and gender of the

student representing the other characteristic. 9

The expected frequencies are the values that would be
expected from a random sample Of high school chemistry
students. These random values or frequencies are calculated
by considering the number of students who fall into a specific
group, for example: female students taught by a female

teacher, and the grade achieved (A, 8, C...) compared to the

31

total number of students. More specifically, by dividing the
product of the row and column totals from the Table of
Observed Values (O.V.) by the total number Of students:
Expected Value = (QM Celumn Totel*O.V. Row Total)
Total Number Of Students
Once the Expected Values are calculated, they are compared to

the Observed Values. TO perform the Chi Square analysis, Chi

Square is calculated using the following equation:

Chi Square = N V l - V l 2
Expected Value

The sum of the Chi Square cells is called the Calculated Chi
Square Value. The Calculated Chi Square Value is compared to
a Critical Value. The critical value is determined by the

degrees of freedom, and the confidence level.

The degrees of freedom (d.f.) is dependent on the size of the

bivariate table. It is calculated by determining the product of

32

the number of rows less one and the number of columns less

one:

d.f. = (Rows-1)(Columns-1)

The confidence level is chosen by the experimenter. It
represents the parameters Of accuracy desired. In this case, a
95% confidence level was chosen. In other words, 9596 of the
observed population must fit within the expected population
distribution in order to show that "Female chemistry students
do not Show a higher level of achievement when taught by a
female chemistry instructor than when taught by a male

chemistry instructor."

The Critical Value is a cut Off point. If the Calculated Chi
Square Value is above the Critical Value more than 596 Of the
data does not fit within the established parameters. If the
Calculated Chi Square Value is below the critical value than
less than 596 of that data does not fit with in the previously

mentioned parameters.

33

Once the degree of freedom is calculated and the confidence
level is chosen, the critical value may be found on a Chi Square

Table in most elementary statistics textbooks.

Tables 13, 14 and 15 show the Observed Values and Expected

Values for 1991-92, 1992-93 and 1993-94 respectively.

34
Table 13: Chi Square Table for 1991-92

 

 

 

 

Observed Values (0.V.)

GRADE FT/FS FT/MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 4 4 4 5 1 7
A- 2 2 2 3 9
8+ 3 2 5 4 1 4
B 1 1 7 4 2 24
8— 4 4 2 2 1 2
C+ 5 4 6 4 1 9
C 1 1 3 2 2 1 8
C— 7 S 1 0 1 3
0+ 3 2 4 2 1 1
D 5 2 3 2 1 2
D- 1 4 1 3 9
E 1 4 1 0 6

TOTAL 57 43 35 29 1 64

 

 

 

 

Expected Values = (O.V. Clm Total * O.V. Row Total)
Total Number of Students

 

 

MT/FS

 

 

 

GRADE FT/FS FT/ MS MT / MS TOTAL
A 5.91 4.46 3.63 3.01 17
A- 3.13 2.36 1.92 1.59 9
8+ 4.87 3.67 2.99 2.48 14
B 8.34 6.29 5.12 4.24 24
8- 4.17 3.15 2.56 2.12 12
C+ 6.60 4.98 4.05 3.36 19
C 6.26 4.72 3.84 3.18 18
C- 4.52 3.41 2.77 2.30 13
0+ 3.82 2.88 2.35 1.95 11
D 4.17 3.15 2.56 2.12 12
D- 3.13 2.36 1.92 1.59 9
E 2.09 1.57 1.28 1.06 6

TOTAL 57 43 35 29 164

 

 

 

 

35
Table 14: Chi Square Table for 1992-93

 

 

 

Observed Values (0.V.)

GRADE FT/FS FT / MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 4 5 4 3 1 6
A- 2 1 3 1 7
8+ 6 6 1 1 1 4
8 3 4 7 2 1 6
8- 4 3 8 1 1 6
C+ 6 5 7 3 21
C 5 4 5 2 1 6
C- 6 1 5 1 1 3
0+ 4 1 2 0 7
D 6 2 1 2 1 1
D- O 2 0 1 3
E O 2 1 4 7

TOTAL 46 36 44 21 1 47

 

 

 

 

 

Expected Values = (0V. Clm Total * O.V.Row Total)
Total Number of Students

 

 

 

 

 

GRADE FT/FS FT/ MS MT/FS MT/ MS TOTAL
A 5.01 3.92 4.79 2.29 16
A- 2.19 1.71 2.10 1.00 7
8+ 4.38 3.43 4.19 2.00 14
B 5.01 3.92 4.79 2.29 16
8- 5.01 3.92 4.79 2.29 16
C+ 6.57 5.14 6.29 3.00 21
C 5.01 3.92 4.79 2.29 16
C- 4.07 3.18 3.89 1.86 13
0+ 2.19 1.71 2.10 1.00 7
D 3.44 2.69 3.29 1.57 1 1
D- 0.94 0.73 0.90 0.43 3
E 2.19 1.71 2.10 1.00 7

TOTAL 46 36 44 21 147

 

 

 

 

36
Table 15: Chi Square Table for 1993-94

 

 

 

Observed Values (0.V.)

GRADE FT /FS FT /MS MT /FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 2 1 6 7 1 6
A- 4 3 6 3 1 6
8+ 4 3 1 6 1 4
8 4 1 5 5 1 S
8- 9 S S 2 21
C+ 3 3 3 3 1 2
C 4 7 2 2 1 S
C- 3 2 2 0 7
D+ 5 1 2 2 10
D 2 3 2 1 8
D- 1 0 1 2 4
E 1 2 2 0 5

TOTAL 42 31 37 33 1 43

 

 

 

 

 

Expected Values == (O.V. Clm Total * O.V. Row Total)
Total Number of Students

 

 

 

 

GRADE FT/FS FT/ MS MT / FS MT/ MS TOTAL
A 4.70 3.47 4.14 3.69 16
A- 4.70 3.47 4.14 3.69 16
8+ 4.11 3.03 3.62 3.23 14
B 4.41 3.25 3.88 3.46 15
8- 6.17 4.55 5.43 4.85 21
C+ 3.52 2.60 3.10 2.77 12
C 4.41 3.25 3.88 3.46 15
C- 2.06 1.52 1.81 1.62 7
0+ 2.94 2.17 2.59 2.31 10
D 2.35 1.73 2.07 1.85 8
D- 1.17 0.87 1.03 0.92 4
E 1.47 1.08 1.29 1.15 5

TOTAL 42 31 37 33 143

 

 

 

 

 

37

All A's, B's, C's, D's, and E's were consolidated for each school
year in order to perform the Chi Square Test. These cells were
combined in order to create a data set that fit the statistical
requirements of the Chi Square Test. Specifically, no more

than twenty percent of the cells may have a value of less than

five. 9

38

Table 16: Chi Square Test 1991-92

Observed Value (0.V.)

 

 

 

 

GRADE FT / FS FT/ MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 6 6 6 8 26
B 1 8 1 3 10 8 49
C 23 1 2 9 6 50
D 9 8 8 7 32
E 1 4 1 0 6
TOTAL 57 43 34 29 163

 

 

 

 

Expected Values = (O.V. Clm Total * O.V. Row Total)
Total Number of Students

GRADE FT/FS FT/MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 9.09 6.86 5.42 4.63 26
B 17.13 12.93 10.22 8.72 49
C 17.48 13.19 10.43 8.90 50
D 11.19 8.44 6.67 5.69 32
E 2.10 1.58 1.25 1.07 6
TOTAL 57 43 34 29 163

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

39
Table 17: Chi Square Test 1992-93

 

 

 

Observed Value (O.V.)

GRADE Fl' / F S FT/MS MT/FS MT/ MS TOTAL

A 6 7 7 4 24

B 1 3 1 3 1 6 4 46

C 1 7 1O 1 7 6 50

D 1 O 5 3 3 21

E O 2 1 2 5
TOTAL 46 37 44 1 9 1 46

 

 

 

 

 

Expected Values = (O.V. Clm Total * O.V. Row Total)
Total Number of Students

 

 

GRADE FT/FS FT/MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL

 

A 7.56 6.08 7.23 3.12 24
B 14.49 1 1.66 13.86 5.99 46
C 15.75 12.67 15.07 6.51 50
D 6.62 5.32 6.33 2.73 21
E 1.58 1.27 1.51 0.65 5

 

 

 

 

TOTAL 46 37 44 19 146

 

 

40

Table 18: Chi Square Test 1993-94

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observed Value (O.V.)

GRADE FT / FS FT/ MS MT/FS MT/ MS TOTAL

A 6 4 1 2 1O 32

B 1 7 9 1 1 1 3 50

C 10 1 2 7 S 34

D 8 4 5 5 22

E 1 2 2 O 5
TOTAL 42 31 37 33 1 43

 

Expected Values = (O.V. Clm Total * O.V. Row Total)
Total Number of Students

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRADE FT/FS FT / MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 9.40 6.94 8.28 7.38 32
B 14.69 10.84 12.94 1 1.54 50
C 9.99 7.37 8.80 7.85 34
D 6.46 4.77 5.69 5.08 22
E 1.47 1.08 1.29 1.15 5
TOTAL 42 31 37 33 143

 

 

 

41

Once consolidated, it was noted that the 1992-93 year and
1993-94 year still had more than twenty percent of the cells
with a value of less than five. Therefore, all three years of
data were compiled and a Chi Square Test was done on this

table.

 

 

42

Table 19: Chi Square Test 1991-94

Observed Value (O.V.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRADE FT/FS FT / MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 18 17 25 22 82
B 48 35 37 25 145
C 50 34 33 17 134
D 27 17 16 15 75
E 2 8 4 2 16
TOTAL 145 111 115 81 452

 

Expected Values = (O.V. Clm Total * O.V. Row Total)
Total Number of Students

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRADE FT/ F 5 FT / MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 26.31 20.14 20.86 14.69 82
B 46.52 35.61 36.89 25.98 145
C 42.99 32.91 34.09 24.01 134
D 24.06 18.42 19.08 13.44 75
E 5.13 3.93 4.07 2.87 16
TOTAL 145 111 115 81 452
Chi Square = (Observed-Expected)2
Expected
GRADE FT/FS FT/MS MT/FS MT/MS TOTAL
A 2.62 0.49 0.82 3.63 7.56
B 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.10
C 1.14 0.04 0.04 2.05 3.26
D 0.36 0.11 0.50 0.18 1.15
E 1.91 4.22 0.00 0.26 6.39
TOTAL 6.09 4.86 1.35 6.16 18.46

 

 

 

Calculated Chi Square Value = 18.46
Critical Value = 21.66

 

 

 

43

The Calculated Chi Square Value was 18.46 for 1991-94. The
Critical Value was determined to be 21.03 for 12 degrees of

freedom.

If the Calculated Chi Square Values would have been greater
than the Critical Value of 21.03, the null hypothesis would be
rejected, showing that the female chemistry teacher does
have a greater effect on female students. However, the
Calculated Chi Square Value is less than the Critical Value so
the null hypothesis is not rejected. Therefore, grades and
gender of the teacher and student are independent of each
other at this particular school for these two teachers during

the school years between 1991 and 1994.

One has the tendency or desire to focus on the outstanding
cells, for example: Table 19 the Observed Values - cell 1 and
the Expected Values - cell 1. It was observed that 18 female
students taught by the female teacher received A's where
26.31 were expected to. Although this appears to show a

significant difference, it is critical to remember each cell

44

represents one data point. The Chi Square Test is not designed
to analyze individual cells, but to look at the significance of
whole data sets by focusing on the sum of the individual Chi

Square cells.

To confirm this, two other Chi Square Tests were performed.
The previous table (Table 19) compares four characteristics:
Female teacher and female students, female teacher and male
students, male teacher and female students and the male
teacher and male students. The next two tests separate the
students into female and male categories, then compare the

achievement with the female teacher and male teacher.

Table 20 focuses on the female students with the female
teacher and female students with the male teacher. The null
hypothesis: "Female students in the female chemistry teachers
classes will not achieve higher grades than female students in
the male chemistry teachers classes." The null hypothesis for

Table 21 is: "Male students in the male teachers class will not

4s

achieve higher grades than male students in the female

teachers chemistry class."

46

Table 20: Chi Square Test for the female students grades

Observed Value (O.V.)

 

 

 

 

GRADE FEMALE TEACHER MALE TEACHER TOTAL
A 1 8 25 43
B 48 37 85
C 50 33 83
D 27 1 6 43
E 2 4 6
TOTAL 145 1 1 5 260

 

 

 

 

Expected Values = (O.V. Clm Total * O.V. Row Total)
Total Number of Students

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRADE FEMALE TEACHER MALE TEACHER TOTAL
A 23.98 19.02 43
B 47.40 37.60 85
C 46.29 36.71 83
D 23.98 19.02 43
E 3.35 2.65 6
TOTAL 145 1 1 S 260
Chi Square = (Observed-Exgtedg
Expected
GRADE FEMALE TEACHER MALE TEACHER TOTAL
A 1.49 1.88 3.37
B 0.01 0.01 0.02
C 0.30 0.37 0.67
D 0.38 0.48 0.86
E 0.54 0.69 1.23
TOTAL 2.72 3.43 6.15

 

 

 

Calculated Chi Square Value = 6.15
Critical Value = 9.49

 

47

Table 21: Chi Square Test for the male students grades from
the female and male teacher 1991-94.

Observed Value (O.V.)

 

 

 

GRADE FEMALE TEACHER MALE TEACHER TOTAL
A 1 7 22 39
B 35 25 60
C 34 1 7 51
D 17 1 5 32
E 8 2 1 0
TOTAL 1 1 1 81 192

 

 

 

 

 

Expected Values = (O.V. Clm Total * O.V. Row Total)
Total Number of Students

 

 

 

 

GRADE FEMALE TEACHER MALE TEACHER TOTAL
A 22.55 16.45 39
B 34.69 25.31 60
C 29.48 21.52 51
D 18.50 13.50 32
E 5.78 4.22 10
TOTAL 1 1 1 81 192

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chi Square = (Observed-Expectefidg
ed

 

 

 

Expect
GRADE FEMALE TEACHER MALE TEACHER TOTAL
A 1.36 1.87 3.23
B 0.00 0.00 0.00
C 0.69 0.95 1.64
D 0.1 2 0.1 7 0.29
E 0.85 0.05 0.90
TOTAL 3.02 3.04 6.06

 

 

 

 

 

Calculated Chi Square Value = 6.06
Critical Value = 9.49

48

The Calculated Chi Square Values are 6.15 for the female
students with the female and male teacher, and 6.06 for the
male students with each teacher. The are both less than the
Critical value of 9.49, which was dependent on the degree of
freedom and the confidence level. This demonstrates that the
gender of the teacher and grade of the female students is
independent and that the gender of the teacher and grades

achieved by the male students are independent.

The above tests demonstrated that the grades achieved by both
female and male students is independent of the gender of the
teacher. The second area of concern that will be addressed in
this paper is: "Is there a difference between male and female
students with respect to grades in the chemistry class?
Specifically, do males receive higher chemistry grades than

females?"

Z-TEST

The Z-Test is used to perform a large-sample hypothesis test

for population means. 9 The Z-Test, more simply stated, is
used to calculate average values of a large population.
Whereas, the Chi Square Test is used to test goodness of fit or
distribution. The Z-Test in this study was used to compare the
grade point averages that the female and male students earned
in their chemistry class. Letter grades of A through E were
converted to points ranging from a value of O to 4. This is
necessary, as the Z-Test calculates means or numeric

averages, therefore, could not utilize letter grades.

49

50

Table 22: Z-Test - Grade point averages of all female and male
students from 1991 to 1994.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRADE G. PT. FEMALE MALE TOTAL
A 4 24 25 49
A- 3.7 19 13 32
8+ 3.3 20 22 42
8 3 34 21 55
8- 2.7 32 17 49
0+ 2.3 30 22 52
C 2 29 20 49
C- 1.7 24 9 33
D+ 1.3 20 8 28
D 1 19 12 31
D- O.7 4 1 1 15
E O 6 12 18

TOTAL 261 192 453

EEMALE

X=2.438

SD=O.942

n=261

MALE

X=2.425

SD=1.1OO

n=192

Z = Xf — Xm

11 @112 (50 m )2
+ ——
n f n m
Z=0.0168

Critical Value = +/- 1.96

51

The mean grade for female students was 2.438 and male

students was 2.425, which were both in the B-/C+ range. It is
interesting to note that the average grades were very close,

having a difference of 0.013.

The Z-Test demonstrated that the difference between these
values is not significant. The Calculated 2 Value was 0.0168,
which falls between the critical values of +1.96 and -1.96
which demonstrates a 95% confidence level on a two tailed
curve. If the calculated 2 value was outside these

parameters, then a significant difference in the grade point

averages of males and females would have been concluded.

 

COMPARISON OF GRADES

The following table shows the percentage of male students and
females students and the grades they received. It is interesting to
note the number of males who have demonstrated excellence by
earning an "A" (93%) is higher than females earning the same
grade; 1 1.9% male students received "A's" and 7.6% female

students received "A's". If the grade category is expanded to look

at the percentage of female and male students to achieve "8+"
(87%) or higher, then the percentages are 24.8 and 31.6
respectively. The differences in these percentages are

significant.

52

53

Table 23: Comparison of percentage of female and male students per
academic grade for 1991-94.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRADE GPA # FEMALE 96 FEMALE # MALE 96 MALE
A 4.0 20 7.63 23 1 1.92
A- 3.7 25 9.54 16 8.29
8+ 3.3 20 7.63 22 11.40
B 3.0 29 1 1.07 20 10.36
B- 2.7 36 13.74 18 9.33
0+ 2.3 30 11.45 22 11.40
C 2.0 29 11.07 19 9.84
C- 1.7 24 9.16 9 4.66
04- 1.3 25 9.54 14 7.25
D 1.0 16 6.11 12 6.22
D- 0.7 4 1.53 9 4.66
E 0.0 4 1.53 9 4.66

TOTAL 262 1 00 1 93 1 00

Consolidation of Grades
PERCENT # FEMALE 96 FEMALE # MALE 96 MALE
87 - 100 65 24.81 61 31.61
80 - 86 65 24.81 38 19.69
70 - 79 83 31.68 50 25.91
60-69 45 17.18 35 18.13
0 - 59 4 1.53 9 4.66
TOTAL 262 100 193 100

 

 

 

 

CONCLUSIONS

Two conclusions can be drawn from this study. First, there
are no apparent differences in the achievement level of female
students with either a female chemistry teacher or male
chemistry teacher at this high school as demonstrated in Table

19.

It has been suggested that female students will achieve a

higher rate of success with female science teachers rather

than male teachers. 11 My data show that female students
have demonstrated the same level of achievement, as measured
by the grade earned in the class, with either a female or male

chemistry instructor.

One reason for the comparable performance may be the way in
which chemistry is taught by both instructors at this high
school. A large quantity of time is devoted to cooperative hands-
on learning and laboratory activities. These types of activities

are believed to be confidence builders for women. A lack of

confidence tends to hinder women in math and science. 11
54

55

Second, the data collected show that the number of female
students who receive high grades (87% and above) in chemistry
at the high school used in this study is significantly less than
the number of males who demonstrate the same level of

achievement. See Table 23.

The grade point averages, over three years, for all female and
male students in chemistry, were 2.44 and 2.43 respectively
(Table 22). Even though the average grades were similar the
break down of the number of students in each grade category
was not equal. 24.8% of the female students received a grade
of 87% or higher, and 31.6% of the male students achieved
grades of 87% or better (Table 23). If the percentages from
this one three year period studied are representative of a
trend, it may explain why so few women remain in chemistry

through college, graduate studies and their careers.

One reason that more males achieve high grades may be the
student's age. They enroll in chemistry during the eleventh and

twelfth grade. By this time they have been influenced by many

56

other teachers. Some elementary and junior high school
teachers inadvertently discourage females at an early age.
Studies from the mid 1980's have shown that math and science
teachers make more eye contact with boys and pay more
attention to them than girls. When female students give the
wrong answer they often get sympathy while male students
are challenged to find the correct answer. Girls are praised

for their neatness and timeliness in completing experiments;

boys are recognized for the scientific content of their work. 11

The "Leak in the Pipeline" mentioned earlier may be due to the
fact that females are not as successful at achieving high
grades as their male counterparts in high school chemistry.
This may discourage them to pursue post secondary studies and
ultimately careers in a pure science field like chemistry. The
lack of success is not due to the gender of the teacher but may
be due to other factors like, unconscious discouragement by

teachers earlier in their careers, discrimination and

57

stereotyping in educational institutions and in the work place,

and family values involving marriage and children.

AFFECTS OF THIS STUDY

Probably the most important thing which will come from this
study is the way in which my work with students and other
staff members will be affected. Although I don't know how
this will ultimately unfold, I intend to proceed with the

following changes:

I believe that students must be introduced to chemistry at a
younger age. They should have the opportunity to experience
this topic as early as first grade. Project 2061, Benchmarks
for Science Literacy, suggests that chemistry tapics such as

the description of matter could be introduced as early as

kindergarten. 10 This may be difficult for teachers at these
levels, due to their insufficient knowledge of the topic and the
lack of resources and materials available to them. I plan to
spend additional time with grade school and junior high school
teachers aiding in the development of units suitable to all

students at specific grade levels.

58

59

This project has also made me more aware of the female
chemistry student. They may require different styles of
teaching to help them understand the fundamental concepts of
chemistry. It is my intent to define what areas and styles of
teaching work the best for both male and female students.
Through surveys, both formal and informal, I will attempt to
gain an understanding of student's interests and needs to

better equip themselves to pursue a chemistry-related career.

FUTURE STUDIES

There are a few issues that I find interesting, that remain yet
unanswered. For example, are younger students affected by the
gender of the teacher? If younger students are affected by the
gender of the teacher we, as educators, administrators and
parents, should consider analyzing how the gender does affect
them and what actions to take to promote learning in the

school environment.

Do male students achieve higher grades in science at all grade
levels, or is there a certain grade level where female students
scores are higher than males? If this is the case, when does
the change occur? What factors promote a larger percentage

of males to be successful in chemistry than females?

00 females process information differently than males? If
they indeed are different, what factors influence these
differences? If this question is answered, the way math and
science is taught may be forever changed.

60

61

What number of potentially good female scientists are drawn
away from this track by female dominated careers such as
nursing? The statistics gathered which discuss women in
science do not take in to account the number of females which
are nurses and other careers which require an extensive
amount of science. It would be interesting to be able to draw a
comparison of the grades achieved by people in programs such

as nursing to programs like chemistry.

I believe many of these areas are currently being studied, and
am looking forward to reviewing data and suggesting changes

in our own school district as a result of these studies.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Chemistry Syllabus

Topics

Metric Conversions

Significant Figures

Exponentional Notation

Dimentional Analysis
Sand, Salt and Iron Laboratory Activity
Melting Point of a Pure Substance

Atomic Structure
Density Laboratory Activity

Nomenclature
Periodic Table

Mole Theory
Molarity
Mole Theory Experiment
Iron Filing Mole Laboratory Activity
Percent Water in Epsom Salt Laboratory Activity

Chemical Reactions
The Decomposition of a common Substance
(Epsom Salt) Laboratory Activity

Stoichiometry
Formation of a Precipitate Laboratory
Activity

Ionic and Net Ionic Equations
Acid Strength Laboratory Activity

Redox Reactions
Christmas Laboratory Activity

62

3 Weeks

1 Week

3 Weeks

4 Weeks

3 Weeks

3 Weeks

3 Weeks

4 Weeks

63

Gas Laws
Extrapolation of Absolute Zero Through
an Application of Boyles Law Experiment
A Quantitative Investigation of the Reaction
of Magnesium with HCl

Calorimetery Laboratory

Atomic Theory
Quantum Mechanics
Trends in the Periodic Table
Active Metals Laboratory Activity

Chemical Bonds
Ionic Reactions Laboratory Activity
Cation and Anion Laboratory Activity

Devel0ping a Scheme for Qualitative Analysis
Laboratory Activity
Unknown Compounds Laboratory Activity

5 Weeks

1 Week

4 Weeks

4 Weeks

3 Weeks

APPENDIX B
A van d Chemist Il

19919.:
Dimentional analysis
Metric Conversion

Limiting Reagent
Conservation of Matter Laboratory Activity
Continuous Variation Laboratory Activity

Molarity
Normality
Gram Equilavalent
Gram Equilavalent Laboratory Activity
Atomic Mass of an Unknown Metal Laboratory
Activity

Electrochemistry
Electrochemical Cells Laboratory Activity
Faraday Laboratory Activity

Percent Composition
Nomenclature Review
Emperical Formula

Chemical Kinetics
Chemical Kinetics Laboratory Activity

Rate Law
Equilibrium

Lechatier Laboratory Activity
Beer's Law Laboratory Activity

64

3 Weeks

3 Weeks

4 Weeks

1 Week

2 Week

1 Week

4 Weeks

65

Acid and Base Reactions
Neutrilization Laboratory Activity
Quantitative Titration Laboratory
Indicator Laboratory Activity
pH of a Strong Acid Laboratory Activity
pH of a Weak Acid Laboratory Activity

Buffers
Buffer Laboratory Activity
Neutrilization of a Weak Acid Laboratory

Review
Unknown Laboratory Activity
Hydrolysis Laboratory Activity

Organic Chemistry
Alcohol/Ester Laboratory Activity

6 Weeks

4 Weeks

2 Weeks

8 Weeks

APPENDIX C

A i r
Are you Male or Female?
How old are you?

Was your Science 9 (Physical Science) teacher Male or Female?

What do you remember most about your science 9 teacher or
class?

Did you take Biology?

How would you describe the style of studying required to be
successful in Biology?

Why did you choose to go on in science?
What was your last math class?

Was your math teacher male or female?
What was your favorite math class?
Why?

Was your Chemistry teacher male or female?

66

67

How would you characterize your Chemistry instructors teaching
style?

Is your Advanced Chemistry teacher male or female?

How would you characterize their teaching style?

What do you intend on doing after high school?

What is your ultimate career goal?

APPENDIX D

September 1 , 1 994

Dear Parents,

Over the past several years I have been working on courses to
fulfill the requirements of a Masters of Science degree through
Michigan State University. Over the next nine months I will be
completing my thesis project where I will be examining different
ways to teach chemistry.

Through this process I will be using your childrens' course work,
grades and comments to formulate conclusions about the success
of these teaching styles.

Numerical data from class work and home work will be collected,
and comments from interviews and weekly surveys will be used.

Your child's name will not be used in the project and will remain

confidenfiaL

Michigan State University's policy requires me to get your
acknowledgement of this process. If you have any questions please
feel free to call me or my major professor. I may be reached at
XXXXX High School (356-6161 ext. 311) or at home (354-4677). My
major professor, Michael J. Kenney, Ph.D., may be reached at
Michigan State University

(517 / 355-9715 ext. 223)

Sincerely,

Ellsen L. Diamond
Chemistry Instructor

68

REFERENCES

REFERENCES

. Amato, I. Profile of a Field: Chemistry, Women Have Extra
Hoops to Jump Through. $33353 1992, (255), 1372-
1373.

. United States Census Bureau, Census 1990.

. Target 2000, PO Box 65, XXXXX, Ml 49XXX, Profile of
XXXXX County, Michigan. January 1993.

. Michigan Department of Commerce, Industrial Development

Division, Office of Technology Transfer (IDD/OTT) of The
University of Michigan. January 1993.

. Buck, Pat, personal communication, March, 1995.

. First Count, (Fourth Friday Count), XXXXX Public Schools,
Central Office, Gordon Road, XXXXX, Ml 49XXX. September
23, 1995.

. Memo - Post Graduate Survey - Class of 1993-94,
12/2/1994.

. Thc Wcrld Almanac and Back cf Facts 1994, St. Martin's
Press. 1993. pg 195.

69

7O

9. Weiss, Neil A. and Matthew J. Hassett. lntrcdactcry
Sjati_s_t_ic_s_, 3d ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1991.

10. Bcnchmark fcr Scicnca Litcracy, Prcicct 2061, American

Association for the Advancement of Science, Oxford
University Press. New York, Oxford, 1993.

11. Alpher, J. The Pipeline ls Leaking Women All the Way
Along. Sciepce, 1993, (260), 409-411.

GENERAL REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES

Banziger, G. Women-in-the-Sciences Program at Marietta
College-Focusing on Math to Keep Women in Science.
J_Q‘_[§_. 1994, Mar/Apr, 279-281.

Barinaga, M. Feminists Find Gender Everywhere In Science.
5316399.. 1993, (260), 392-393.

Barinaga, M. Is There a 'Female Style in Science? Sciatica,
1993, (260), 384-391.

Barinaga, M. The Pipeline is Leaking. Scjcncc, 1992, (255),
1366-1367.

Bowen, C. Think-Aloun Methods in Chemistry Education,
Understanding Student Thinking. J91; 1994, (71). 184-
190.

Gibbons, A. Does the Old-Boy Network Keep Women From
Leaping Over This Crucial Career Hurdle? Scicflcc, 1992,
(255), 1386-1388.

Gibbons, A. Women have Trouble Finding Senior Scientists to
Guide Them Toward Career Success. $51911ch 1992,
(255), 1368.

Gutbezahl, J. How Negative Expectancies and Attitudes
Undermine Females' Math Confidence and Performance: A
Review of the Literature. 1995.
<jennyg@OlTUNIZ.OIT.UMASS.EDU>

71

72

Koritz, H. Women in Science: Changing the Climate. ,LClS,
1992, Mar/Apr. 260.

Mason, C. Bronson Examines Why Kids Drop Out, 5% Ncws,
March 23, 1995. A-1.

Nakheleh, M. Chemical Education Research in the Laboratory
Environment. How Can Reesearch Uncover What Students
Are Learning? JCE, 1994, (71), 201-205.

Nurrenbern, Susan C. and William R. Robinson. Quantitative
Research in Chemical Education. J_C_E_, 1994, (71), 181-
183.

Phelps, A. Qualitative Methodologies in Chemical Education
Research, Challenging Comfortable Paradigms. ,LCE,
1994, (71), 191-194.

Pribyl, J. Using surveys and Questionnaires. ,LCE, 1994, (71),
195-196.

Selvin, P. Heroism Is Still the Norm. _S_cj_encc, 1992, (255),
1382-1383.

Siebert, E. Women in Science? MS, 1992, Mar/Apr. 269-272.

Tobias, S. Thcy'rc th Dumb, Thcy'rc Qificrcnt, Stalking thc
W. Research Corporation, Tucson, Arizona
1990.

Tobias, 5. Women in Science - Women and Science. JCS];
1992, Mar/Apr, 276-278.

Travis, J. Making Room for Women in the Culture of Science.
Scjcncc, 1993, (260), 412-415.

I 'R‘f'wn ' -,1|.1 10.

Highe rQ rdc: Thinking Acrcss III: Disciplincs. Office of
Research, U. S. Department of Education. 1994.

73
Science Key Issues, Extended for Application to Science

Curriculum. Framcwccks Ehasc Il Scicncc. (1.1). Undated.

Study: More Hands-On Lab Work Would Help Girls bridge Science
Gap. XXXXX News, April 20, 1995.

38th Michigan Mathematics Prize Competition, Award Winner
Statistics. XXXXX High School, Councling Department,
XXXXX, MI 49XXX.

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