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TO AVOID FINES Mum on or baton .‘l‘HESIS . ‘ as mem Michigan state L University J This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A STUDY OF WOMEN PROFESSORS AND THE MULTIPLE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THEIR CAREER ASPIRATIONS TO ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS . presented by JEANNE KARR has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for % / degree ill/W "a flajor professor Megaw fie? / MSU is an Affirmatiw Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 A STUDY OF WOMEN PROFESSORS AND THE MULTIPLE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THEIR CAREER ASPIRATIONS TO ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS By Jeanne Karr A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum 1982 pari aspi fact 0f wk ABSTRACT A STUDY OF WOMEN PROFESSORS AND THE MULTIPLE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THEIR CAREER ASPIRATIONS TO ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS By Jeanne Karr The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the dis- parity between women in higher education administration and the career aspirations of women professors. Cultural considerations, educational factors, personal perspectives, psychological aspects, and the world of work were examined to determine their influence on women professors. Methodology In this descriptive study, a random sample of professors from the ranks of assistant, associate, and full were chosen from the main acampuses of the Big Ten Conference institutions. A structured ques- tionnaire developed by Burleigh-Savage was sent to the professors. Data analysis included cross-tabulations, frequency distributions, chi-square test of association, and the t-test of significance based on alpha, testing at the .05 level with various degrees of freedom. Perceived Factors Related to Administrative Aspirations of Men and Women Findings indicated that significant differences existed between the women and the men professors on the various factors. The following number of outcomes were significant: woul the assi male than leSs Otta Jeanne Karr 1. Five out of twelve--Cultural Considerations Eight out of ten--Educational Factors Five out of ten--Personal Perspectives Eight out of eleven--Psychological Aspects 01th Seven out of eleven--The World of Work Conclusions l. Approximately 25 percent of the men and women sampled would aspire to administrative positions. The higher the level of the position, the lower the percentage of aspirants. 2. There was a greater percentage of female professors at the assistant-professor level, whereas there was a greater percentage of male professors at the full-professor level. 3. Women's aspiration levels tended to be somewhat higher than men's. 4. Male professors tended to feel that women professors are less effective administrators. 5. Women seemed to lack the skill needed in seeking and obtaining opportunities to become administrators. 6. Women agreed that women administrators have less power to make decisions than men. 7. One-third of the women would rather not compete for an administrative position. 8. Most women agreed that men advance faster in administra- tion with less experience simply because they are men. 9. Most women felt that the "white-male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. Jeanne Karr l0. Most women would not be willing to "go for broke" in their quest for an administrative position. ll. Men professors tended to have more seniority than women professors. To my son, Jeffrey, and my mother and father, who have provided inspiration and have been a continuing source of motivation. ii [till ll . l' ll‘nl‘llllll‘l‘l ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been very fortunate during my graduate studies to have worked with a select group of highly esteemed professors. My thanks and gratitude to Dr. Van Johnson, Dr. Howard Hickey, and Dr. Alexander Kloster. Special thanks to Dr. Louis Romano, who greatly encouraged me in all aspects of my doctoral studies. iii .l.| I' la' All! I III ‘I |!ul| I |.I| ll TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ......................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ......................... xii Chapter I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................ 1 Introduction ..................... 1 Purpose of the Study ................. 3 Significance of the Study ............... 4 Assumptions and Delimitations ............. 7 Definition of Terms .................. 8 Research Questions .................. 9 Overview of the Thesis Organization .......... l0 11. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .............. ll Introduction ..................... ll Women in the Contemporary Work Force ......... l3 The Status of Women Employed in Higher Education . . . 24 Historical Perspectives on Women ........... 34 History of Women in Higher Education ......... 44 Social and Psychological Factors Perceived to Influence Women's Career Aspirations ........ 5] Some Characteristics of Successful Women in Leadership Positions ................ 74 A Similar Study .................... 78 Summary ........................ 80 III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY ................... 83 Introduction ..................... 83 Type of Study ..................... 83 Population and Sampling Methods ............ 84 Instrumentation .................... 90 Collection of the Data ................ 93 Treatment of the Data ................. 94 Testable Hypotheses .................. 95 Statistical Procedures ................ 96 Summary ........................ 97 iv lll.‘ lollilllllll'llII-‘lllll IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA ................... 98 Introduction .................... 98 Part I of the Questionnaire: Perceived Aspiration Levels of Men and Women Professors for an Administrative Position .............. 99 Part II of the Questionnaire: Descriptive Demographic Characteristics Data of Males and Females .................... 106 Summary of Demographic Data ............ 115 Part III of the Questionnaire: Perceived Multiple Factors That May Be Related to Administrative Aspirations of Men and Women ........... 116 Cultural Considerations .............. 116 Educational Factors ................ 125 Personal Perspectives ............... 135 Psychological Perspectives ............ 144 The World of Work ................. 154 Major Teaching Department ............. 166 Primary Academic (Professional) Responsibility . . 167 Summary ....................... 168 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....... 169 Summary ....................... 169 Population Sample ................. 171 Instrument Employed ................ 171 Findings ...................... 172 Part I of the Questionnaire: Perceived Aspiration Levels of Male and Female Professors for an Administrative Position in Higher Education . . . 172 Part II of the Questionnaire: Descriptive Demographic Characteristics of Male and Female Professors ................... 173 Part III of the Questionnaire: Perceived Multiple Factors That May Be Related to Administrative Aspirations of Men and Women .......... 175 Conclusions ..................... 182 Discussion ..................... 184 Comparison With the Burleigh-Savage Study ...... 189 Suggestions for Further Research .......... 192 APPENDIX ........................... 194 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... 204 .‘.'| l: It‘ll-I litl.'l'llllllll Table 2-1. 2-2. 2-3. 2-4. 2-5. 2-6. 3-2. 4-1. 4-2. 4-4. 4-5. 4-6. 4-8. 4-9. LIST OF TABLES Median Weekly Earnings of Wage and Salary Workers Employed Full Time in Occupations With Total Employment of 50,000 or More, by Sex, 1981 Annual Averages ..... Earned Degrees by Level and Sex of Student: United States, 1960-61 to 1978-79 ............... Average Pay and Distribution of Men and Women ....... Percentage Distributions by Race and Sex at Public White Coeducational Institutions in 1978-79 .......... Differences in Administrators' Pay for Men and Women How Executives See Women in Management .......... Number of Questionnaires Needed From Each Institution to Reach the Sampling Size ................. Surveyed Population Table ................. Chief Academic Officer .................. Dean of a Major College .................. Administrative Vice-President ............... College President ..................... Results of Tests for Significant Differences Between Male and Female Respondents on Level of Aspiration to Become an Administrator in Higher Education ....... Aspiration Levels of Males and Females for Administrative Positions ................ Summary of Aspirers Versus Nonaspirers for Adminis- trative Positions in Higher Education .......... What Is Your Age? ..................... What Is Your Sibling Placement in Your Family? ...... V1 Page 22 26 28 31 33 64 90 94 99 100 101 102 102 105 106 107 4-10. 4-11. 4-12. 4-13. 4-14. 4-15. 4-16. 4-17. 4-18. 4-19. 4-20. 4-21. 4-22. 4-23. 4-24. 4-25. 4-26. 4-27. 4-28. What Is Your Marital Status? ............... How Many Children Do You Have? .............. What Is Your Teaching Level? ............... What Is Your Racial Group? ................ What Level of Education Have You Completed? How Many Years Have You Been Teaching? .......... Identify the Educational Community in Which You Are Now Teaching ...................... Did You Actively Participate in Sports as a Youth? . . . . How Many Years Did Your Mother Work During Your Growing Years? Either Full or Part-Time? Have You Ever Worked for a Female Administrator? ..... Results of Tests for Significant Differences Between Men and Women Respondents on Various Demographic Data My Colleagues Would React Unfavorably If I Became an Administrator For Psychological and Social Reasons, Men Are More Effective Administrators Than Women Women Are Better Organizers Than Men ........... Women Are More Likely to Seek Proximity to Others Than to Work Independently In a Given Task, Women Are More Likely to Ask fOr Help or Rely on Others in Face of a Threat Than Are Men . . . In General, I Consider Women Not as Dependable as Men Because of Women's Biological and Personal Char- acteristics A Male Spouse Would Be Threatened by a Competent, Career-Oriented Wife .................. Women Generally Have a Lower Level of Achievement Motivation Than Men vii Page 108 109 110 110 111 112 113 114 114 115 116 117 118 119 119 120 122 4-29. 4-30. 4-31. 4-32. 4-33. 4-34. 4-35. 4-36. 4-37. 4-38. 4-39. 4-40. 4-41. 4-42. 4-43. 4-44. Men Know More Than Women About How to Seek and Obtain Opportunities to Become Administrators ......... Women Lack the Drive to Become Administrators ...... College Women Who Attempt to Compete With Men Usually Do 50 at the Expense of Their Popularity or Social Life . . ........................ Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Cultural Considerations . . Welcoming Women as Equals Into the Professional Management Levels May Tend to Downgrade the Teaching Profession ....................... Female Students Who Never Experience Women in Leadership Positions Are Not Likely to Develop Aspirations or Values That Move Beyond Traditional Stereotypes . . . . Women Administrators Have Less Power to Make Decisions Than Men . . ...................... I Feel More Comfortable Working for a Male Administrator Than a Female Administrator .............. In My College Career, Most College Courses Were Designed for Male Advancement and Emphasis ........... I Would Feel Uncomfortable in a Higher Education Administration Class of A11 Males ........... Educational Counseling Enabled Me to Plan for Advancement in My Career ................ There Have Been Female Administrators Who Have Encouraged Me to Seek an Administrative Position . . . . Most Administrators in My Schooling Process Were Male In Our Institution Both Men and Women Are Encouraged to Apply for Administrative Positions ......... Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Educational Factors . . . . A Woman Can Be a Successful Administrator and Happily Married at the Same Time ................ viii Page 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 -——"—’ # 4-45. 4-46. 4-47. 4-48. 4-49. 4-50. 4-51 . 4-52. 4-53. 4-54, 4-55. W5. l~57. Ha. 4.59. 4.5] A~AD. ' Bl 4-45. 4-46. 4-47. 4-48. 4-49. 4-50. 4-51. 4-52. 4-53. 4-54. 4-55. 4-56. 4—57. 4-58. 4-59. 4-60. 4-61. I Feel I Need to Know a Few Administrators Well in Order to Win Their Support for an Administrative Position ....................... I Have Too Many Family Responsibilities to Seek an Administrative Position ............... My Spouse Would Be Upset If We Had to Move Because I Was Selected as an Administrator ........... In My Home, I Was Encouraged to Get a College Degree . I Have Planned Specifically for Advancement in Higher Education Administration ............... What My Spouse Thinks About an Administrative Position Has an Influence on Me ................ I Would be Eager to Become an Administrator, Even If I Had to Move Somewhere Else .............. I Have Personally Received Encouragement From an Administrator in My Institution to Apply for an Administrative Position ............... I Have a Negative Image of University/College Administrators . . .................. Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Personal Perspectives . . . I Am Satisfied With My Present Employment and Would Not Seek an Administrative Position ......... I Feel Confident in Most Leadership Positions ..... I Would Be Willing to Further My Education or Training for an Administrative Position ............ Administrators in My Institution Would React Favorably If I Became an Administrator ............. I Have Been in My Present Position Too Long to Seek an Administrative Position Now ............. I Like Delegating Tasks and Working With People . . . . Being an Administrator Would Enhance My Self-Image . . . . ix Page 138 138 139 140 141 142 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 148 149 150 151 4—62. 4-63. 4-64. 4-65. 4-66. 4-67. 4-68. 4-69. Me. 471. 4~72. 4-73. “4. F75. 4‘76. 1.77. 4-62. 4-63. 4-64. 4-65. 4-66. 4-67. 4-68. 4-69. 4-70. 4-71. 4-72. 4-73. 4-74. 4-75. 4-76. 4-77. If I Applied for an Administrative Position, I Feel I Might Be a Top Contender ................ I Would Rather Not Compete for an Administrative Position ........................ Administrators Tend to Become “Out of Touch" With the Teaching Environment .................. Seeking an Administrative Position Involves Too Much "Politics" ....................... Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Psychological Perspectives. People Who Are at Administrative Levels Are Often Asked to Compromise Their Principles ............. My Present Position Provides Too Much Security for Me to Seek an Administrative Position ........... Men Advance Faster in Administration With Less Experience Simply Because They Are Men ......... The "White-Male Club" Promotes Men Over Women for Positions in Administration . . . . . ......... I See a Position in Higher Education Administration as Attainable by Me ............ . ....... Men Are More Often Chosen for an Administrative Position Than Women ....................... I Am Willing to "Go for Broke" in My Quest for a Position in Administration ............... I Consider That Working With College Students Is More Rewarding Than Administration ............. There Is Just Too Much Competition in Trying to Become an Administrator .................... Being a Successful Administrator Is Easier for Men Than for Women . .................... My University or College Colleagues Assisted Me in Seeking an Administrative Position ........... Page 152 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 163 164 n‘ . ..i '1‘.‘ 4-78. 4-79. 4-80. Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on World of Work ....... Major Teaching Departments ........ Perceived Primary Academic Responsibility xi Page 165 166 167 Q ‘~ ‘4- LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2-1. Annual Changes in Percentage of Women in the Labor Force, by Age, Actual, 1950 to 1976, and Projected, 1980 to 1990 ..................... 2-2. Women as a Percentage of Employed Workers in Selected Traditionally Male Occupations, Biennial, 1962-1976 2-3. Increase in Number of Female Administrators and Managers: 1960-1982 ................. 2-4. Earnings Profile of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers, by Sex and Age, 1981 ................. xii Page 15 17 19 21 A .A .— - A“ m A _ —-—— — y declarec emphasiz "OPEN in werld to: I" all 01 Edutatim and earl) el'ICEpt in In 1W‘Pa L participa'. CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction In December 1975, the United Nations General Assembly declared 1976-1985 to be the Decade for Women. Its purpose was to emphasize the critical importance and economic value of the place of Women in a modern society.1 This declaration was made because there is no country in the world today where women are presumed to have equal status with men in all of the major areas of life: family, health and reproduction, education, work, government, and cultural expression.2 In the 19605 and early 19705, women were less than one-third of the labor force, except in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Women also were clustered in low-paying occupations.3 Later, in 1977, a National Women's Conference was held in Houston to discuss the need for women to increase their level of participation in political life because achievement of equality in all areas was seen as inseparable from active political participation. 1W. Joyner, "Women, Development, and the Challenge," Journal of the National Association for Women Deans,_Administrators, an Counselors (Summer 1978): 157. 2M. Shaul, "The Status of Women in Local Governments Around the World," New Ways (Charles Kettering Foundation) (Spring 1981): 6. 31bid. The the: treatme'r confereJ courts J public cl ment ancl tUdES 0n ahead. ‘ Chair, 4 t0 SUCCes I l h°pe for . action Ca' t° ldentr 1Impede th EXert thei through Dr The theme of this conference was to end once and for all unequal treatment of women under the law. Much of the discussion at the conference centered on the enactment of legislation to empower the courts to impose civil and criminal penalties on businessmen and public officials who discriminate against women in personnel place- ment and promotion.1 Some of the popular literature has pointed out women's atti- tudes on this subject. Molloy wrote, "American women want to get ahead. They want to sit in the boardroom and in the president's chair. And they are heading in that direction."2 Michael Korda in Success stated, "An increasing number of women today are motivated to success and more and more of them are in fact succeeding."3 These writings and women's conferences may present a false hope for women who might center all of their attention in political- action campaigns, but unfortunately, there were no funds to be used to identify and correct feminine attitudes about themselves that impede their progress toward economic and social equality. Politi- cal clout is important, but it seems far more important for women to exert their rights by changing attitudes of themselves and others through professional development and demonstrated accomplishment. 1"What Next for U.S. Women," Time, December 5, 1977, p. 19. 2John T. Molloy, The Women's. Dress for Success Book (Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, 1977), p.TT9. 3 p. 167. Michael Korda, Success (New York: Random House, 1977), as the for ten "sex 01 f885101 Contint that th less th thit al‘ Working SdeI pt Serious writers in this field do not hold the same position as the popular writers such as Molloy and Korda. Prather stated that for centuries discrimination has perpetuated the "woman servant" and "sex object" image and has greatly affected women's desire for pro- fessional success.l Furthermore, Prather stated that women do not continue their careers because they are convinced in their own minds that they cannot succeed in both marriage and a career. The involvement of women in management is still substantially less than proportional with the total population. Stinson pointed out that although more than 35 million women in the United States are working, 40 percent are working in traditional women's jobs; only a small percentage is in management.2 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the disparity between women in higher education administration and the career aspirations of women professors. Further investigation focused on whether factors such as culture, educational climate, personal perspectives, psychological aspects, and the world of work may have an influence on women professors in their aspirations for a position in administration. lJan Prather, "Why Can't Women Be More Like Men: A Summary of the Sociopsychological Factors Hindering Women's Advancement in the [Profession," American Behavior Scientist 15 (November 1971): 173. 2Marilyn Stinson, "Women in the 70's: Have Opportunities gseally Changed?" Journal of Business Education 54 (November 1978): 5. ‘F A A-‘ ~ .~ A.“ .— I ”I... -—-— .— W .- typing , in admit provide factors Infoma: training c0mDEten bangs 5: females. mods] “DOr Although it may be assumed that discrimination and sex- typing of occupations are two apparent causes of having so few women in administrative positions, results of this study are intended to provide some additional information pertaining to less obvious factors that influence career aspirations of female academics. Information obtained should provide further insights relative to the training and development needs of those women capable of becoming competent administrators. Significance of the Study Past research has indicated rather strongly that all human beings strive for need satisfaction. Specifically, Maslow described a hierarchy of needs and made no distinction between males and females. Maslow's need-hierarchy theory is a basic, widely accepted model upon which many theories of motivation have been built. Maslow advanced the idea of a hierarchy of human needs as a predictor and descriptor of human motivation.1 His theory of motivation was predicated on two assumptions. First, needs depend on what one already has. Needs not satisfied can influence behavior, but satisfied needs will not act as motivators. Second, needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. When one need is satisfied, another emerges and demands satisfaction. The various needs are described in a framework referred to as the hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, there are five O‘ 1Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper and Row, 1954). general categories or levels of needs prevalent in any organization. These needs are (l) physiological or survival needs, (2) safety or security needs, (3) social or survival needs, (4) esteem or ego needs, and (5) self-actualization or self-fulfillment needs. Within the work setting, women as well as men must be provided opportunities for satisfaction of higher-level needs--esteem and self- actualization. An unsatisfied physiological need can produce as much tension and disturbance as an unsatisfied self-actualization need. With present-day advancements in our technical and industrial society, the role of women is changing to the degree that conditions will exist that allow women to focus on the satisfaction of their higher-level needs. Over past centuries, tradition, custom, conventional wisdom, and biological differences have created roles and role models differ- entiating between males and females, especially in our industrial and technical society. Child bearing and child rearing, being very important in agricultural and early industrial society because of the need and importance of manpower, tended further to circumscribe and narrow the female role. Eventually, what was originally economic, biological, and demographic necessity became norms in society and are still perpetuated and reinforced by individual and collective behavior. Although the female role has been severely circumscribed and limited, the drive for higher-order need satisfaction was not extin- guished. This is evidenced by limited but outstanding examples of l3erformance and achievement on the part of women. This is especially 4.1 I I apparer 0f sociI Part of writer astrono' first w; °fmm tions; 3 right tcl accompli impact on Gandhi. ment and to be abe I the "Eed tion of b, “Whine, held belie the SteI‘eo extingln'gh Th DreSent SOl SIHSIACtjC 1V9 rQCOCr apparent in art, literature, and the organization and implementation of social movements. Some examples of outstanding achievement on the part of women might include Harriet Beecher Stowe, a famous, profound writer well known as author of Uncle Tom's Cabin; Marie Mitchell, an astronomer and educator who discovered a comet in 1947, becoming the first woman to accomplish such a feat; Ethel Barrymore, famous actress of more than 50 years who starred in more than 40 Broadway produc- tions; and Susan B. Anthony, a militant lecturer who demanded the right to vote and led the struggle for universal suffrage. The accomplishments of Susan B. Anthony have probably made as profound an impact on modern society as have those of Bismarck, Marx, or Mahatma Gandhi. Even though there have been instances of outstanding achieve- ment and performance throughout history, they are generally considered to be aberrant and dismissed as phenomena. In developing nations, the importance of physical strength, the need for working long hours away from the home, and the substitu- tion of brain power for manpower have created an entirely different environment in the work place. In view of this and the generally held belief that "man" satisfies most of his needs through his work, the stereotypes distinguishing between male and female roles must be extinguished or at least sublimated. There is no cultural, social, or economic reason in our present society why females should be denied the opportunity for need ISatisfaction in the work place. This can only occur through objec- ‘tive recognition and understanding of social change and human needs. This w held o] ful, ar talent tions, that op their 1 AHd shc The are est 85 en; the OVE enabie In the higher ”731: - This will require change in attitudes, beliefs, and values currently held by both men and women. Operating on the premise that women can be married, success- ful, and career oriented, and that society needs a balance of human talent to maintain effective social, economic, and political institu- tions, it is of considerable significance to examine in detail factors that operate to limit female opportunities. Feminine acceptance of their limited role in society, as described in the following, can and should be reversed by proper education: The pattern that emerges is that women who strive to achieve are systematically discouraged from reaching for their high- est human potential. Growing numbers of women in education, as in other fields, are becoming increasingly aware that the employment options open to females are extremely limited and that if you happen to be born female, you have little control over your professional life. Assumptions and Delimitations The dissertation was based on two assumptions: 1. Women, in general, have the necessary attributes to enable them to assume the necessary responsibilities associated with an academic administrative position. 2. The sex of an individual should not be a qualification in the selection process for an educational administrative position. Limitations of the study were as follows: 1. The data collected were based only on institutions of higher education in the Big Ten Conference. y 1Charlene T. Dale, "Women Are Still Missing Persons in Admin- ‘istrative and Supervisory Jobs," Educational Leadershjp_l3 (November '1973): 123-27. sin HOW cul pSyu tat- and in! Caus are Catt 0rn~ SW We: find 2. The data of the study were affected by the degree of sincerity and frankness of response to the instrument administered. 3. The investigation was limited to five categories of women professors' higher educational administrative aspirations: cultural considerations, educational factors, personal perspectives, psychological aspects, and world of work. These factors were treated as opposed to legal or organizational determinants. 4. The descriptive nature of the study represented a limi- tation inasmuch as it only described what was perceived to be true and not what is true. 5. The findings of the relationship between factors cited in the previous statements were viewed as correlational and not causal. Definition of Terms The following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this study. Academic administrative,positions--Positions in higher edu- cation of an administrative nature that call for responsibility for organizing, planning, directing, and evaluating the organization as a subdivision. In this study, they would include: presidency, vice- presidency, deanship of a major academic unit, chief academic officer, and department chairperson. Faculty--The persons responsible for teaching and depart- mental research activities who hold faculty rank, including academic department heads . but infl tior aSpe fess: “OAEr Educ; “Ere anc ti q. Higher education--Undergraduate through graduate programs, but limited to institutions in the Big Ten conference. Multiple factors--Elements that may correctly or incorrectly influence career progression. They include: cultural considera- tions, educational factors, personal perspectives, psychological aspects, and the influence of the world of work. Womengprofessors--Those who hold an academic position in the Big Ten Conference in the rank of assistant professor, associate pro- fessor, and full professor. Research Questions To determine any differences that might exist among men and women professors concerning their aspiration levels for a higher educational administrative position, the following research questions were included: 1. Is there a difference between men and women respondents and their aspirations to an administrative position in higher educa- tion? 2. Is there a difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents? 3. Is there a difference in the personal perspectives between men and women respondents? 4. Is there a difference in the educational factors between then and women respondents? 5. Is there a difference in the psychological aspects between rnen and women respondents? 10 6. Is there a difference in the world-of-work perspectives between men and women respondents? 7. Is there a difference in the major teaching departments between men and women respondents? 8. Is there a difference in the perceived primary academic responsibility between men and women respondents? Procedures A survey instrument was used to obtain the necessary data to resolve the above research questions. The instruments were mailed to a random sample of men and women professors in the Big Ten Conference institutions. Overview of the Thesis Organization In this chapter the introduction provided the background for the study. The need for the study and certain assumptions were dis- cussed in detail. The limitations of the study were explained, and a statement of the problem was presented. Research questions and definitions of terms concluded the chapter. Chapter 11 contains a review of the literature that is relevant to the study. Chapter III explores the method of investigation. Chapter IV presents the analy- sis and discussion of the data with respect to the research questions. Chapter V presents a summary of conclusions, implications, and recom- mendations for future research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction Abraham Maslow, in speaking of human health and personality growth, presented basic assumptions about human nature. "We have, each of us, an essential inner nature, which is to some degree 'natural,‘ intrinsic, given, and in a certain sense, unchangeable, or at least, unchanging."1 This inner nature appears to be neutral or positively good. A secondary reaction or frustration to this intrin- sic nature may be what we call evil. Individuals grow healthy, fruitful, and happy if the inner nature is permitted to be a guide for life. "If this essential core of the person is denied or suppressed, he gets sick sometimes in obvious ways, sometimes in subtle ways, sometimes immediately, sometimes later."2 Since this inner nature is not strong and overpowering, but is weak and subtle, it can be easily overcome by cultural pressure, habit, and wrong attitudes toward it. "Even though denied, it persists underground forever pressing for actualization."3 1A. H. Maslow, "Personality Problems and Personality Growth," in The Self: Exploration in Personal Growth, ed. Clark E. Moustakas (New York: Harper 8 Row Publishers,71956), p. 232. 21bid., p. 233. 31bid. 11 12 Maslow further stated that if these assumptions are proven true, they promise a scientific ethic, a natural value system, a court of ultimate appeal for the determination of good and bad, of right and wrong. The more we learn about man's natural tendencies, the easier it will be to tell him how to be good, how to be happy, how to be fruitful, how to respect himself, how to love, how to ful— fill his highest potentialities. Since Maslow in his writings spoke of the need for being true to one's inner nature, of realizing one's potential, and of self- actualization of all individuals regardless of gender, the struggle of women for legal and social identity and for legal and social equality may well be based upon expression of that need. Because of the nature of our social organization and the strong emphasis on the work ethic, most human needs--security, surf vival, affiliation esteem, self-actualization, etc.--are, and can only be, secured in the work place and as a member of a work group. Excluding women from significant involvement and acceptance in work and the work place may preclude them from ever satisfying basic and essential needs. This chapter is devoted to reviewing literature pertinent to the research undertaken for purposes of this dissertation. Since the amount of literature available relevant to this topic seems unlimited, references were selected that appear best to represent fact and popu— lar sentiment in regard to particular topic areas. Research is cited 'that relates not only to the female administrator in higher education, 13 but to the professional woman in general. Barriers to the achievement and success of women in the United States appear universal. The fol- lowing topic areas are discussed: 1. Women in the Contemporary Work Force 2. The Status of Women Employed in Higher Education 3. Historical Perspectives on Women 4. History of Women in Higher Education 5. Social and Psychological Factors Perceived to Influence Women's Career Aspirations 6. Some Characteristics of Successful Women in Leadership Positions 7. A Similar Study Women in the Contemporary Work Force The full strength of active and disciplined and enlightened womanhood is only now becoming available for this world's use. It is an exciting time to be alive. It is a good time to be a woman, and a good time to be entrusted with the train— ing and nurturing of women. The course lies clear and open before us. Let us get on with the work! Nannerl Overhouser Keohane Presidential Inaugural Speech Wellesley College 1 September 18, 1981 The large-scale movement of women into the labor force is one of the most dramatic social and economic changes in recent decades. There are more women working now than ever before, more women in politics, more teaching, more learning."2 The number of women in 1Judy Foreman, "Wellesley's New President: The Right Woman for 'the Right Job," Change 14 (April 1982): 46. 2Jay Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" Time, July 12, 1982, I). 20. ce r1 Futo. Jeror 14 the labor force has risen from 31.6 million in 1970 to 46.9 million in 1981.1 “The official projections‘of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) show a continued rise to 1990, when the overall labor-force participation of women is expected to be about 51_p€r; cent."2 According to Gordon, these projections understate the prdbable rise in the percentage of women in the labor force. She reported, The sharply rising educational levels of women; the erosion of old prejudices against working wives, and the probability that most young women will reenter the labor force quite romptly after bearing children (if they do have any children suggest more pronounced future increases.3 Further, she expressed that experience in some European countries also suggests more precipitate increases--"notab1y Sweden, where 60 percent of all women aged 16 to 74 were in the labor force in 1976, compared with about 50 percent of American women in this age range.4 Figure 2-1 depicts more explicitly the rise of specific age groups in the labor force from 1950 to 1976 and projected, 1980 to 1990. Congresswoman Patricia Schroeder stated, "The primary reason women are entering the labor force in such unprecedented numbers is to maintain their family's standard of living.“5 Cochs noted, Statistics are the arithmetic of social revolution: from 1960 to 1980, one-earner households have declined from 49.6% to 22.4%, a staggering change. The percentage of married women 1 2Margaret S. Gordon, "Women and Work: Priorities for the Future," in Work in America: The Decade Ahead, ed. Clark Kerr and Jerome Rosow (New York: 0. Van Nostrand Co., 1979), p. 116. Ibid., p. 23. 31bid. 41bid. 5Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 22. 15 80 20 to 24 years 70 35 to 44 years 45 to 54 years _ __ __ “ fl’ -’ E so 40 30 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 50F 551064 years gm ________ — £30- 20“ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1955 1WD 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Figure 2-l.--Annual changes in percentage of women in the labor force, by age, actual, 1950 to 1976, and projected, 1980 to 1990. Data for teenagers and women aged 65 and older are not included. (From Margaret S. Gordon, “Women and Work: Priorities for the Future," in Work in America: The Decade Ahead, ed. Clark Kerr andiJerome Rosow (NewYork: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1979), p. 115.) he 0c: to OCCU and ' befor dflqah 16 in the work force during the same period has risen from 32% to 51%. The number of children with mothers who work (31.8 million) has become for the first time, larger than the number of children with mothers at home (26.3 million).l Women are moving into occupations that traditionally were held predominantly by men. In some cases, the numbers are striking. Occupations range from nonfarm laborers, bartenders, and bus drivers to accountants, lawyers, and physicians. Gordon stated, The wide spectrum of occupations involved suggests a complex set of forces--changing attitudes of employers (including per- haps a search for less costly sources of labor supply in a period of rapidly rising wage rates), the influence of the women's liberation movement, and the impact of affirmative action policies. The increased rate of enrollment of women in college and in advanced education is also an important factor, as much as effect and cause, probably, of improved employment opportunities.2 As an example of the increase of women in nontraditional occupations, Figure 2-2 shows the increasing percentage of women employed in the occupations of physicians, college and university teachers, lawyers and judges, managers, and accountants. Women are seeking education in greater numbers than ever before; the majority of college students now are female. Under Title IX admissions policies have broadened to include more women. Between 1972 and 1980 the number of women in medical school rose from 11% to 26%; in law school, from 10% to 34%; in veterinary schgol, from 12% to 39%; in awarded doc- torates, from 16% to 30%. 11bid.. pp. 22-23. 2Gordon, "Women and Work," p. 118. 3"What Is Title IX?" u.s. News and World Report, August 2, '1982, pp. 34a-34b. _ Insurance adjusters 3° 1' Accountants 60 2 a 20 - 40 15 MI 1 l 1 l 30 _ Lawyers and judges 10 2O 5 _ 0 J I l J 0 1 1 1 1 ‘5 P Physicians 40 F Bakers g 10 - e w " 5 NV g a 20 - o l l L J 10 >- 35 P Teachers. college and university w 0 1 1 1 1 30 l- g 25 i— 40 ,. Bus drivers n. 20 30 r E ’W 1 1 1 J 8 .. 15 0.; 20 25 _ Salaried managers 10 _ NV .5 m _\’§/ 0 L l J I if 15 e NV ‘0 artenders 1o 1 l 4 I 35 t- Postal clerks 10 .. Nontarm laborers 1o 1 1 1 1 o 1 1 1 1 1982 1966 1970 1974 1962 1966 1970 1974 F“igure 2-2.--Women as a percentage of employed workers in selected traditionally male occupations, biennial, 1962-1976. (From Margaret S. Gordon, "Women and Work: Priorities for the Future," in Work in America: The Decade Ahead, ed. Clark Kerr and Jerome Rosow (New York?7 DITVan Nostrand Co., 1979), p. 119.) tocl Med law cro; that Cour home 908' 0CC 78. rag 18 Cochs cited the fact that "a third of the graduating class at Harvard Medical is made up of women. . . . Now, if a firm wants the top of the 1aw class, it has to skim women along with men in the cream of the crop; 30.2% of 1981's graduates were women"I Steinem pointed out that "Now, the first woman in history is a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Ten years ago, the only woman was a blindfolded statue."2 "More than a third of all candidates for M.B.A. degrees are 3 O O 0 women." In ever-increasmg numbers, women are entering management pos i tions . Their numbers in the ranks of management have almost tripled since 1960, to more than 3 million. As more and more women make their mark in the business world, the stereotypes and i mpedimeflts that once followed female managers have begun to crumble. See Figure 2-3. All of this indicates great gains and rapid advances have occurred, but research indicates there is a very long way to go. Thus, if we paint with a broad brush, we find inmense improve- ments in the occupational status of women over the decades. But when we look more closely, the picture becomes less appeal- ing. Occupational segregation is still a conspicuous feature of the ecgnomic status of women, despite progress in certain respects . 1Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 23. 78 2Gloria Steinem, "The Stage Is Set,"_h1s._(July/August 1982): 3Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 20. 4Sheler, Hartley, Galligan, Witkin, and Davidson, "When Women gakg70ver as Bosses," U.S. News and World Report, March 22, 1982, 5Gordon, "Women and Work," p. 116. 19 3 021,000 (Feb.) ,320,000 1. Women Managers and Administrators J 1960 1970 1982 Figure 2-3.—-Increase in number of female administrators and managers: 1960-1982. (From Sheler, Hartley, Galligan, Witkin, and Davidson, "When Women Take Over as Bosses," U.S. News and World Report, March 22, 1982, p. 77. Note that the number of women managers grew 175% during this period, vs. 37% for men.) Cochs pointed out that 80 percent of all women who work hold down "pink-collar jobs" and get paid about "66¢ of a man's dollar." She also stressed that although there are large numbers of female M.B.A. graduates, "only 5% of the executives in the top 50 American . 1 companies are women." Kandel wrote, . . The hard truth is: women still earn less than men. Despite great strides made by working women over the past 1Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 20. Kand men: the - and part medl. $224 earn Salal A to: Magi: 20 decade, only 0.8 percent of full-time working women in this country earn $25,000 and over, compared with 12 percent of men. One out of ten female workers earns as much as males in similar jobs. The median annual salary is $19,433 for male college graduates and $12,028 for female college graduates, according to the Census Bureau's current population survey. Kandel also cited the fact that even female physicians earn less than men: Doctors are among the highest paid professionals in the country, but women physicians, on the whole, earn less than men. The average income for all doctors in private practice in 1978, according to an AMA survey, was almost $70,000, whereas women doctors averaged about $45,000.2 Cochs told us that "the situation is not a lot brighter on the management level. In 1980 the median salary for women managers and administrators was $12,936, vs. $23,558 for their male counter- parts."3 According to Mellor and Stamos, "For men working full-time, median weekly earnings in 1981 were $347. For women, the median was $224, or 65 percent of that for men."4 Figure 2-4 provides a weekly earnings comparison for women and men of various age groups. Even when women and men are clustered in the same occupation, salary levels differ. In her article, "Earnings of Men and Women, A Look at Specific Occupations," Rytina presented charted information 1Thelma Kandel, "What Women Earn," Detroit Free Press, Parade Magazine, September 6, 1981, p. 10. 2Ihia. 3Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 23. 4Earl F. Mellor and George 0. Stamps, "Usual Weekly Earnings: Ariother Look at Intergroup Differences and Basic Trends," Monthly Labor Review 105 (April 1982): 16. 21 Usual weekly earnings $500 Men l////’/, 1 Women \\ /\\ 200 :::””,r ~eeby‘ 400 100 0 16 20 25 35 45 55 65 to to to to to to and 19 24 34 44 54 64 over Figure 2-4.--Earnings profile of full-time wage and salary workers, by sex and age, 1981. (From Earl F. Mellor and George D. Stamos, "Usual Weekly Earnings: Another Look at Intergroup Differences and Basic Trends," Monthly Labor Review 105 (April 1982): 17.) on the earning differentials of men and women in specific occupa- tions.1 Particular occupations are cited in Table 2-1. There appear to be two overriding problems that influence the overall salary levels of women, keeping them at levels less than men's salaries. Gordon wrote, Women's earnings, like those of men, are positively related to educational attainment, but highly educated women do not 1Nancy Rytina, "Earnings of Men and Women: A Look at Specific Occupations," Monthly Labor Review 105 (April 1982): 25-31. .«emzscaaO—z .: ak....Q=.:t~ whim-«ALSO ~n~3£2- ~Q§~ .53... 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The explanations are (1) that there is a concentration of educated women in such professions as teaching and nursing, in which earnings do not rise as much with advancin age as fer physicians, lawyers, business execu- tives, and (21 that there is a lack of continuity in the employ- ment of married women. Rytina agreed: "Occupations in which women workers dominate tend to rank lower in terms of earnings; men dominate higher paid "2 occupations. Mellor and Stamos also stressed that Among some of the personal characteristics which are difficult to quantify but which may have a significant effect on the male- female earnings ratio is the discontinuous work experience of many women. Although this practice has changed considerably in recent years, it used to be customary for women to leave the job market for many years in order to bear and rear children. This affected not only their accumulation of seniority, but also their advancement of skills.3 The nature of the job and the size of the woman's paycheck can be just as important to the woman and her family for economic and psychological reasons as it is for the man. "Even though a woman's paycheck is less than a man's, it keeps many an American family alive," said Betty Friedan. "Given the realities of humor, family and national survival there can't be any serious consideration that women will go home again."4 Jobs to provide for economic needs are essential. Jobs to satisfy needs of esteem and self-actualization can also be perceived to be essential. "Traditionally, jobs are the tools of success. In 1 2 Gordon, "Women and Work," p. 126. Rytina, "Earnings of Men and Women," p. 25. 3Mellor and Stamos, "Usual Weekly Earnings," p. 17. 4Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 23. Cent MN I coll t “01111 / 24 America they have become something more. We have learned that jobs do not simply earn money, they also create people," said Betty Stein, president of Goodmeasure, a Cambridge, Massachusetts, business con- sultancy. She continued, Jobs, we have on good authority from the forefathers, confer respect, status and community well-being. The foremothers were apparently not consulted on the subject. It is difficult for a woman to find status in a pay envelope that is substan- tially thinner than a male co-worker's. Rosalind Barnett, a psychologist at Wellesley College's Center for Research on Women, talked about work as crucial to both men's and women's sense of who they are. Cochs wrote, "Barnett and a colleague, Grace Baruch, completed a study demonstrating that, for women between the ages of 35 and 55, a paying job is the overriding factor that enhances a sense of worth."2 This section was provided to give the current status of women in the work force in general. The following section is included to focus specifically on the current status of female professionals in higher education. The Status of Women Employed in Higher Education Higher education systems must change to include women admin- istrators because huge pools of creative and effective talent should not be ignored. The increasing complexity of higher education requires the talents of women and men working together. 1Ibid. 2Ibid. 3Judith Touchton and Donna Shavlich, "Challenging the Assump- tions of Leadership: Women and Men of the Academy," New Directions for Higher Education 6,2 (1978): 95. ‘fh. 25 Women today are seeking undergraduate, graduate, and profes- sional education in unprecedented numbers, but the administrators of educational institutions and the instructing faculty are still pre- dominently male. In a recent Iimg_article, Cochs noted, "The majority of American college students now are women, and yet the faculties instructing them are still mostly male."1 An example of this phe- nomenon can be found in our medical schools. "Approximately 25% of first year medical students in the U.S. are women. But only 15% of our medical school faculty members of all ranks are women. And no medical school in this country has a full dean who's a female."2 In 1960-61, the percentages of women receiving bachelor's degrees was 38.2, masters 32.3, doctorates 10.5, and "first professional" 2.7. By the year 1978—79, percentages for women had increased, especially in higher educational levels: bachelor's degree 48.2, master's 49.1, 3 Table 2-2 shows the doctorate 28.1, and "first professional" 23.5. number of degrees granted to men and women during the years 1960-61 through 1978-79. Numbers of female faculty members have not approached an increase in proportion to the increase in female students. A recent Associated Press article on sex-equity gains cited a report to Congress of the National Advisory Council on Women's Educational Programs. The 1 2 Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 20. Kandel, "What Women Earn," p. 12. 3Mary L. Randour, Georgia L. Strasburg, and Jean Lipmen-Blumen, "Women in Higher Education: Trends in Enrollments and Degrees Earned," Harvard Educational Review 52 (May 1982): 195. 26 .8. 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A. .8 Plate «r . 1v 1 27 report noted clear improvements in areas such as enrollment levels and degree awards but . concluded that there are still marked pockets of resist- ance to the law in such areas as employment and wages. . . . The percent of women who are full professors at colleges and universities remained static between 1975 and 1981. In a survey conducted by the American Association of Univer- sity Professors, it was found that only 9.7 percent of all professors are women who earn a salary figure that is approximately 11 percent less than their male counterparts.2 Table 2-3 gives a clear indica- tion of the average pay and distribution of women among the profes- sdrial and instructor ranks. The relatively fewer number of women professors not only exposes females to a male-dominated faculty but may also give the female student a subtle message about her own future potential in such nontraditional career areas. Hammond, in writing about the lack of female faculty, commented: A woman is all right as a coed, but when she comes back after college with all the same training and preparation male students have been given, she is suspect and welcomed only as a stop gap or a permanent instructor on the lower levels. . . . You cannot open all the doors through college and then with no warning close them all at graduation. At least you cannot do so morally and in good faith. - 1"Sex Equity Gain Hailed," Lansing State Journal, October 18, 1981, p. 2-A. 2 The Chronicle of Higher Education, July 7, 1982, p. 10. 3Geraldine Hammond, "And What of the Young Women?" in Design for Equity: Women and Leadership in Higher Education, ed. Carol Konek and others. 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In its annual study of administrative salaries published in March 1981, the College and University Personnel Association found that "in every administrative job but one, the median salary for men is higher than the median for women. The one in which the median is higher for women than for men 1 is that of Dean of Nursing." Table 2-5 gives the differences in admin- istrators' pay for male and female group members. The facts and figures presented give indication of the current status of female professionals in higher education. I The increase of female percentages among faculty and adminis- tration for tomorrow could be affected by the social conditions of declining enrollments and deteriorating economic conditions.2 According to Kilson, Despite raised consciousnesses, affirmative-action guidelines, day-care centers, and women's studies programs, the status of women in higher education promises to decline. Even were posi- tions within institutional hierarchies allocated sex blind or preferentially to women, the impact of demographic changes and economic constraints would limit opportunities available to them. With a declining population and a restrictive economy, fewer positions will exist in academe. Consequently, even if women fill a larger proportion of academic positions than they do now, the number so employed is unlikely to be significantly increased. As it is, such societal forces threaten to undermine recent gains made by women at lower levels of academe as students and junior faculty. Men and women in higher education will have to be 1Jack Magarell, "Administrators' Salaries Rise 8.7 Percent. Women's Pay Is Lower in Most Fields," The Chronicle of Higher Educa- tion 22 (March 1981): 8. 2Randour, Strasburg, and Lipmen-Blumen, "Women in Higher Education." ‘ 33 Table 2-5.--Differences in administrators' pay for men and women. Male Position Male Female Differential Chief executive of a single institution $48,257 $40,000 + 20.6% Executive vice-president 40,300 29,970 + 34.5% Chief academic officer 38,000 31,000 + 22.6% Chief business officer 35,588 23,175 + 53.6% Chief student-affairs officer 31,950 25,127 + 27.2% Chief development officer 32,500 26,219 + 24.0% Chief public-relations officer 28,320 18,575 + 52.5% Director, personnel 8 human resources 29,705 20,807 + 42.8% Chief health-professions officer 57,000 26,800 +112.7% Chief budgeting officer 31,365 23,700 + 32.3% Director, legal services 36,000 32,800 + 9.8% Registrar 26,000 17,859 + 45.6% Director, library services 28,909 21,753 + 32.9% Director, computer services 27,600 19,980 + 38.1% Director, affirmative action, equal employment 27,500 25,000 + 10.0% Comptroller 28,500 19,900 + 43.2% Director, information systems 32,130 24,000 + 33.9% Director, auxiliary services 28,943 19,000 + 52.3% Director, admissions 25,850 19,824 + 30.4% Director, international-studies education 31,277 18,600 + 68.2% Director, student financial aid 22,700 17,100 + 32.1% Director, student health services 43,000 16,257 +164.5% Director, student housing 20,849 15,200 + 37.2% Director, campus recreation 8 intramurals 20,640 17,292 + 19.4% Director, alumni affairs 23,000 15,930 + 44.4% Director, information office 23,731 20,000 ' + 18.7% Chief development 8 public-relations officer 35,000 28,000 + 25.0% Director, personnel 8 affirmative action 27,000 18,000 + 50.0% Director, admissions 8 financial aid 28,000 19,000 + 47.4% Dean, development 8 alumni affairs 28,166 20,800 + 35.4% Dean, arts 8 letters 36,221 31,300 + 15.7% Dean, arts 8 sciences 40,000 33,790 + 18.4% Dean, business 38,116 28,035 + 36.0% Dean, communications 34,150 25,672 + 33.0% Dean, continuing education 32,850 23,370 + 40.6% Dean, education 39,429 33,278 + 18.5% Dean, engineering n/a n/a n/a Dean, fine arts 36,350 29,640 + 22.6% Dean, graduate programs 40,000 34,910 + 14.6% Dean, health-related professions 38,376 30,743 + 24.8% Dean, home economics 44,000 36,000 + 22.2% Dean, humanities 31,000 28,984 + 7.0% Dean, instruction n/a n/a n/a Dean, law - n/a n/a n/a Dean, library 8 information sciences 41,000 27,660 + 48.2% Dean, mathematics 32,012 29,400 + 8.9% Dean, nursing 32,815 34,000 - 3.6% Dean, sciences 33,000 27,067 + 21.9%‘ Dean, social sciences 30,600 28,600 + 7.0% Dean, social work 40,000 27,950 + 43.1% Source: The Chronicle of Higher Education, July 7, 1982, p. 10. 34 vigilant if institutional gains for women are to be consoli- dated and not eroded.l Further, efforts to increase the number of women in adminis- trative positions will be dependent upon a pool of qualified appli- cants. Cummings stated, Efforts to expand the pool, however, must take into consideration the factors which account for the smallness of the pool in the first place. That is, before asking how we can get more women into academic positions, we must have some understanding 3f why there are not more women in academic positions right now. Discrimination as a factor has been amply documented. The sections following, pertaining to historical perspectives on women and the history of women in higher education, are included to give perspective to the psychological and sociological factors perceived to influence the career aspirations of women in our present day. Historical Perspectives on Women We who like the children of Israel have been wandering in the wilderness of prejudice and ridicule for forty years feel a peculiar tenderness for the young woman on whose shoulders we are about to leave our burdens. . . . The younger women are starting with great advantages over us. They have the results of our experience; they have superior opportunities for educa- tion; they will find a more enlightened public sentiment for discussion; they will have more courage to take the rights which belong to them. . . . Thus far women have been mere echoes 1Marion Kilson, "The Status of Women in Higher Education: Review Essay," in Design for Equity: Women and Leadership in Higher Education, ed. Carel—KOnek and others. WiChita, Kansas: Wichita State University, 1980 (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 200 124, 1980), p. 19. 2 p. 63. Cummings, "Women in Higher Education Administration," 35 of men. Our laws and constitutions, our creeds and codes, and the customs of social life are all masculine in origin. The true woman is yet as a dream of the future. Elizabeth Cady Stanton at the age of 72, speaking to the Interna ional Council of Women, 1888 Although writers and researchers acknowledge women as a force in history, several writers have strongly stated that historical writings do not accurately depict the strength and influence of that force. Henry Adams was convinced of women's force in history but felt the subject had been neglected among professional historians.2 Beard, in writing about Adams' view of historical writings, noted: Of woman's force Adams had no doubt: "The idea that she was weak revolted all history; it was a palaeontological falsehood that even an Eocene female monkey would have laughed at. . . . One's studies in the twelfth century, like one's studies in the fourth, as in Homeric and archaic time, showed her always busy in the illusions of heaven or of hell--ambition, intrigue, jealousy, magic." . . Convinced that she was a, if not the, determining force in the rise and decline of civilization, Adams fumed against the kind of history-writing which prevailed in his time. "American history," as he knew it, "mentioned hardly the name of a woman, while English history handled them as timidly as though they were a new and undescribed species." Since written history, in the prevailing American and English style, scarcely mentioned women, Adams pronounced a critical judgement on this literature: "The study of history is useful to the historian by teaching him his ignorance of women; and the mass of this ignor- ance crushes one who is familiar enough with what are called historical sources to realize how few women have ever been known. The woman who is only known through a man is known wrong. . . . The American woman of the nineteenth century will live only as 1E. Flexner, Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: ’Harvard’UniversityTPress, 1959), p. v. 2Mary Beard, Woman as a Force iri History (New York: Octagon Books, 1946; reprint ed., 1976), p. 218} 36 the man saw her; probably she will be less known than the woman of the eighteenth; none of the female descendants of Abigail Adams can ever be nearly so familiar as her letters have made her; and all this is pure loss to history."1 Further, Flexner stated that historians have paid little attention to woman's changing role.2 Schlesinger referred to this neglect in New Viewpoints in American History, published in 1928: An examination of the standard histories of the United States and of the history textbooks in use in our schools raises the pertinent question whether women have ever made any contribu- tions to American national progress that are worthy of record. If the silence of the historians is to mean anything, it would appear that one-half of our population have been negligible factors in our country's history. . . . [And] any consideration of woman's part in American history must include the protracted struggle of the sex for larger rights and opportunities, a story that as in itself one of the noblest chapters in American democ- racy. In writing about her study of women as a force in history, Beard told of her individual effort in attempting to write a history more accurately depicting women: I have roughly outlined, in my analytical chapters and in my last chapter dealing with long history, the kind of studying, writing, and teaching which I believe to be mandatory if a genuine interest in understanding human life is to be culti- vated. For getting closer to the truth about it, the personali- ties, interests, ideas, and activities of women must receive an attention commensurate with their energy in history. Women have done far more than exist and bear and rear children. They have played a great role in directing human events as thought and action. Women have been a force in making all the history that has been made. 1ihid.. pp. 213-19. Flexner, Century_of Struggle, p. viii. Cited in Flexner, Century of Struggle, p. viii. «th Beard, Women as a Force in History, p. ix. 37 There have been some individuals who have been generally recognized for their force in history and who have emerged as event- ful women. Among those mentioned by Hook in his book, The Hero in History, are Cleopatra, Theodora, and Catherine II.1 In speaking of Cleopatra and Theodora, Hook acknowledged that, like most women who played a role in history, influence was achieved by influencing men. He also pointed out, however, that success was achieved through the "intelligence" of these women. "And like most women who have influ- enced eventful men, Cleopatra owed her success not so much to her beauty as to qualities of intelligence, will, personality and an obscure 2 appeal that does not depend on face or figure." Beard, in describ- ing Cleopatra, noted her intelligence as a source of power as opposed to mere beauty, as popular sentiment might portray: Writers have made much of her "sex appeal," but historians familiar with the documents of her history go beyond this superficial judgement of her whole personality to her role as administrator and protector of her people. They tell us that she was not "especially beautiful" but attracted masterful men by other qualities. Then they emphasize other facts. "Apart from her attractions, she was highly educated, interested in literary studies, conversant with many languages, and a skilled organizer and woman of business". . . .3 In describing Theodora, Hook claimed, "As a woman she was attractive, but her contemporaries thought her more graceful than beautiful and were most impressed by her spirit, intelligence, and 1Sidney Hook, The Hero in History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1943). p. 176. 2Ibid., p. 177. 3Beard, Woman as a Force in History, pp. 291-92. i 38 sharp wit."1 Hook also wrote about Catherine II: "Among modern eventful women, probably of greatest distinction is Catherine 11, that 'Russian Empress of German blood and French culture.'" Further, he stated that "her eventfulness as a historic character was due to unique gifts of political intelligence."2 Although these women stood out individually as having power in the formation of history, women as a collective force have also influenced the transformation of great societies in history. Beard wrote, Fatefully interlocked with all the visible, vocal, and revolu- tionary upheavals which, in our time, have been ripping open and transforming great societies inherited from the nineteenth century and its long past are the relations between men and women. . . . As in the beginning of organized warfare, back in the aeons of unrecorded history, so in its latest forms the 3 sanction of women is deemed essential to its terrific force. Beard also asserted that "the competition among the revolu- tionists for mastery in the human world has been emphatically marked by competition in conceptions of sex_relations."4. One is the view that the "woman's problem," a definition respecting woman's place in society satisfactory to herself, can only be solved by complete equality with men, and that the equality can only be established under Communism. A second view is that woman must find her greatest happiness and con- tribute most to the State by limiting her ambitions to domes- ticity and still more narrowly to child-bearing, in order that the population rate may be high enough to keep a given nation secure against crowded societies on its borders, and strong enough within for aggressive action when desired against 1Hook, The Hero in History, p. 181. Ibid., p. 182. Beard, Women as a Force in History, p. 13. boom Ibid., p. 38. 39 neighbors or more distant communities; this is the ideology of Fascism. The third view is that woman must have the right to choose her way of life even to the point of self-centered interests; this is one among the ideologies of Democracy. The leaders of revolutionary efforts had to reckon with the role and force of women. "Equally with Lenin, Mussolini, and Franco, Hitler understood the force of women as an imperative in achieving and establishing a revolution."2 And, of course, the power of the vote in democracy was a factor of power for women. In 1944, Roose- velt had to recognize the power of women having 65 percent of the voting power.3 Women as a group were a force throughout history; individually some women, through wit and intelligence, were influential, but mostly by influencing men in power. Generally, women were not known to be socially and legally equal to men. Writers have attested to the subjection of women in a social sense as well as in the legal, religious, economic, intellectual, military, political, and philo- sophical realms. In speaking on the subjection of women, John Stuart Mill said: The masters of all other slaves rely, for maintaining obedience, on fear; either fear of themselves, or religious fears. The masters of women wanted more than simple obedience, and they turned the whole force of education to effect their purpose. All women are brought up from the very earliest years in the belief that their ideal of character is the very opposite to that of men; not self—will, and government by self-control, but submission, and yielding to the control of others. All the moralities tell them that it is the duty of women, and all the current sentimentalities that it is their nature, to live for others; to make complete abnegation of themselves, and to have no life but in their affections. And by their affections are 1 2 3 Ibid., p. 14. Ibid., p. 19. Ibid., p. 25. 1-_._ ___ 40 meant the only ones they are allowed to have--those to the men with whom they are connected, or to the children who consti- tute an additional and indefeasible tie between them and a man. When we put together three things-~first, the natural attraction between opposite sexes; secondly, the wife's entire dependence on the husband, every privilege or pleasure she has being either his gift, or depending entirely on his will; and lastly, that the principal object of human pursuit, considera- tion, and all objects of social ambition, can in general be sought or obtained by her only through him, it would be a miracle if the object of being attractive to men had not become the polar star of feminine education and formation of character.1 Mary Wollencraft talked about the fact that "Rousseau, and most of the male writers who have followed his steps, have warmly lnculcated that the whole tendency of female education ought to be directed to one point:--to render them pleasing."2 Frederick Engles spoke to the oppression of women in Ihg_ Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, which was first published in 1884. The book offers the basic Marxist explanation for the oppression of women. According to Engels, that oppression is rooted in the twin facts of private ownership of property and the exclusion of women from social production. He recognized the family as a basic social organization within which the woman becomes subject to man: The overthrow of mother-right was the world historical defeat of the female sex. The man took command in the home also; the woman was degraded and reduced to servitude, she became the slave of his lust and a mere instrument for the production of children. This degraded position of the woman, especially conspicuous among the Greeks of the heroic and still more of the classical age, has gradually been palliated and glossed over, and sometimes clothed in a milder form; in no sense has it been abolished. 1Cited in Miriam Schneir, Feminism: The Essential Historical Writings (New York: Random House, 1972), pp. 167-68. 2 Cited in Schneir, Feminism, p. 9. 41 The establishment of the exclusive supremacy of the man shows its effects first in the patriarchal family, which now emerges as an intermediate form. . . .1 Engles further discussed the patriarchal family, which evidences the exclusive supremacy of the man: Its essential features are the incorporation of unfree persons, and paternal power; hence the perfect type of this form of family is the Roman. The original meaning of the word "family" (familia) is not that compound of sentimentality and domestic strife which forms the ideal of the present-day philistine; among the Romans it did not at first even refer to the married pair and their children, but only to the slaves. Famulus means domestic slave, and familia is the total number of slaves belong- ing to one man. . . . The term was invented by the Romans to denote a new social organism, whose head ruled over wife and children and a number of slaves, and was invested under Roman 2 paternal power with rights of life and death over them all. . . . Beyond the origins of the patriarchal family, Engles further stated that the origin and purpose of the monogamous family is based on the supremacy of man, "the express purpose being to produce chil- dren of undisputed paternity; such paternity is demanded because these children are later to come into their father's property as natural heirs. "3 Engels' historical writings appraising the oppression of the woman within the family structure were published in 1884; Margaret Mead's writings published in 1949 give evidence of the influence of the historical family structure on the role of women within the family in recent history: So it falls to the lot of women to design the way of life for the family, consulting her husband on major issues only, simply because that is her job. 1 2 Cited in Schneir, Feminism, p. 189. 3 Ibid., p. 190. Ibid.. PP. 190-91. 42 . . . TWO things mar her happiness, however: the fear that even though she never has any time, she is not perhaps doing a full-time job, and the fact that although she, like her brother, was taught that the right to choose a job is every American's sacred right, she doesn't feel that she chose this one. She chose wifehood and motherhood perhaps, but she did not neces- sarily choose to "keep house." That, in the phrasing of con- temporary America, is thrust upon her because she is a woman; it is not a full status to be proudly chosen, but a duty that one cannot avoid and still find happiness in marriage. Historically, socializing factors, such as those discussed in this section, have fostered among women patterns of dependence as opposed to styles and expectations of independence and liberation. The English novelist and critic Virginia Woolfe stressed that intel- lectual freedom and productivity depend upon a woman having "money and a room of one's own." Intellectual freedom depends upon material things. Poetry depends upon intellectual freedom. And women have always been poor, not for two hundred years merely, but from the beginning of time. . . . That is why I have laid so much stress on money and a room of one's own. But Woolfe also knew that, for women, "money" was not easily attained. Although she fortunately was a woman of inheritance, she spoke of her lot before the monetary freedom: . . . She had left me five hundred pounds a year forever. Of the two [recently attained]--the vote and the money--the money I own seemed infinitely the more important. Before that I had made my living by cadging odd jobs from newspapers, by report- ing a donkey show here or a wedding there; I had earned a few pounds by addressing envelopes, reading to old ladies, making artificial flowers, teaching the alphabet to small children in a kindergarten. Such were the chief occupations that were open to women before 1918. I need not, I am afraid, describe in any 1Margaret Mead, Male and Female (New York: William Morrow 8 Co., 1949), pp. 334-35. 2 Cited in Schneir, Feminism, p. 354. 43 detail the hardness of the work, for you know perhaps women who have done it; nor the difficulty of living on the money when it was earned, for you may have tried. But what still remains with me as a worse infliction than either was the poison of fear and bitterness which those days bred in me. To begin with, always to be doing work that one did not wish to do, and to do it like a slave, flattering and fawning, not always necessarily perhaps, but it seemed necessary and the stakes were too great to run risks; and then the thought of that one gift which it was death to hide-~a small one but dear to the possessor--perishing and with it myself, my soul became like a rust eating away the bloom of the spring, destroying the tree at its heart. It does seem apparent that women have taken some steps for- ward from the type of work described by Woolf. Technological advances as well as women's progress toward acceptance in differing occupations in the work force have been factors in the change in type of work available to women. Kerr and Rosow wrote, In 1900 the most important single occupation for women workers, accounting for nearly three-tenths of the total, was private household work. If we add semiskilled factory workers (opera- tives) and farm workers, we account for more than seven-tenths of all women workers at the beginning of the century. Since then, the upgrading of the female work force has proceeded more or less steadily. By 1976, only 16 percent of employed women were operatives, private household workers, or farm workers, whereas nearly 64 percent were white-collar workers.2 The theme of economic productivity as a means to liberation, equality, and productivity is central to numerous writings. Engels expressed this, as did Woolf; it was also recently expressed in 1968 in a government report presented by Sweden to the United Nations Economic and Social Council concerning the status of women in Sweden, 'Ibid.. pp. 348-49. 2Clark Kerr and Jerome M. Rosow, eds., Work in America: The Decade Ahead (New York: 0. Van Nostrand, 1979), p.116. 44 a country widely regarded as progressive in providing for a greater equality of women. The Official Report stated in part: The goal for a long-range program of "women's rights" must be that every individual, regardless of sex, shall have the same practical opportunities not only for education and employment but also fundamentally the same responsibility for his or her own financial support as well as shared responsibility for child upbringing and housework. If complete equality is ever to be reached in respect to these rights and responsibilities, there must be a radical change in deeply—rooted traditions and atti- tudes, as much among women as among men, and active measures must be taken by society which will stimulate a change in the roles of both men and women. The idea that women must be finan- cially supported by marriage must effectively be opposed--even in law, as it is a direct obstacle to woman's economic inde- pendence and her chances to compete on equal footing with men in the labor market. And so from ancient times to modern, the role of women evolves. Today's role and its perception by both men and women is affected by the traditions and customs of the past--a perception made obvious by the literature reviewed and yet to be discussed in a later section. For purposes of this dissertation, however, a historical perspective is not complete without a review of the female role in higher education. History of Women in Higher Education A woman who is guided by the head and not the heart is a social pestilence: she has all the defects of a passionate and affec- tionate woman, with none of the compensation: she is without pity, without love, without virtue, without sex. Honore de Balzac2 1Georgene H. Seward and Robert C. Williamson, eds., Sex Roles in a Changing Society (New York: Random House, 1970), p. 200. 2M. Horner, "A Bright Woman Is Caught in a Double Bind. In Achievement Oriented Situations She Worries Not Only About Failure But Also Success," _§ychology Today3 (November 1969): l. 45 The nineteenth century was a century of transition in regard to the education of women. At the beginning of the century, the majority opposed such education; however, by the end of the century, although much opposition remained, the idea that women would be educated became reality. It was now apparent that within a demo- cratic society women must be educated. The nature of the education remained a matter of tremendous debate, for there were those whose labors were concerned with preserving the "decorative innocence, the domestic saintliness, and the delicate health of women. Books of advice written by men for women were very popular and undoubtedly had an important influence in socializing women into anti-academic role 1 definitions." The adversaries of higher education for women fought hard to keep the role of women centered on domestic and social duties: Everything has its appointed sphere, within which alone it can flourish. Men and women have theirs. They are not exceptions to this truth, but examples of it. To be happy and prosperous, they must abide in them. Man is fitted for the storms of public life, and, like the petrel, can be happy amidst their rudest surges. Woman is formed for the calm of the home. She may venture like the land-bird, to invade the sphere of man: but she will encounter storms which she is utterly unfitted to meet: happiness will forsake her breast, her own sex will despise her, men will be unable to love her, and when she dies she will fill an unhonored grave. 1Carol W. Konek, "Roles Learned by Rote: Access to Higher Education for Women in the Nineteenth Century," Project Delta Wichita State University, Final Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Education, Women's Program Staff, 1979 (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Docu- ment Reproduction Service, ED 179 153, 1979). 2Daniel Wise, The Young Ladies Counselor (New York: Eaton and Mains, 1951), p. 96. 46 Women were thought to meet their need for power and achieve- ment and to reap rewards and satisfaction in a vicarious manner-- through the educating and inspiring of husband and sons. Nor are the pleasures of success less delightful in a woman's breast because she attains through another. If a rich rise of joy flows through the breast of an applauded hero, a triumph- ant statesman, or a useful philanthropist, there is another equally delightful in the bosom of the woman who is conscious that, but for her, the great man would never have mounted the pedestal of his greatness.1 It was a curious paradox that a woman should be entrusted with the education of the young, but should be discouraged from seeking further education herself. The role expectations of the woman appeared to be in conflict with the social goals she was expected to accomplish. The nineteenth-century woman in America was, by popular defini- tion, a household saint. She was expected to be the embodiment of all that was nurturing and pure in a violent and untamed country in the process of founding itself upon principles of equality and self-reliance. She had learned the lesson of courageous exploration in her emigration to these strange shores; she had learned from a revolution what was later to become the basis for a tradition of dissent; she had watched education emerge as one of the most vital values in a country establishing its national priorities. The importance of her role as the educator of the young was being impressed upon her: it was the role of molder of the character of future leaders of the country. She was to produce an educated electorate. Yet she was to think of herself as intellectually limited, as more spiritual than intel- lectual, as too gentle for public strife, as too fragile for the rigors of learning. Role expectations as they were embodied in the mythologies of the day were already in conflict with social forces which would make her entrance into higher education a cul- tural imperative. She could not be entrusted with the education of the young without educating herself. She could not educate herself for this purpose and be content with a little learning. It was inevitable that she would gain access to higher education.2 lIbid., p. 98. 2Konek, "Roles Learned by Rote," p. 3. 47 As the need to educate women became more inevitable and as women sought to acquire further education, female seminaries were established and recognized by some as being a substitute for higher education. Emma Willard established a school for girls in Troy, New York, in 1819; Catherine Beecher opened the Hartford Female Seminary in 1832; Mary Lyon founded Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary in 1836. "Myrtilla Miner, a young white woman from New York, received help from the Quakers and Harriet Beecher Stowe in establishing the first seminary for black women, which came to be called 'The Miner Normal School for Colored Girls.'"1 Konek summarized the impact of seminary education and the role the seminaries played in preparing the way for the acceptance of women in institutions for higher education: While there were academies which emphasized "accomplishments" to the exclusion of academic content, and while there were nor- mal schools which prepared teachers to perpetuate the prescrip- tive and often shallow teaching of rote skills, these seminaries were formulating curricular plans and theories of education for women which would pave the way for women into higher education. The rise of the female seminaries was important in upgrading standards, in gaining public acceptance for the education of women in roles of service, and in setting the precedent of government funding for the education of women. Although the seminaries were regarded by most as a substitute for higher education for women, it is questionable that the progress women made in gaining access to true institutions of higher education could have been made without the pioneering efforts of the women who made the semi- naries educationally respectable.2 1Patricia Scott, "Schooling Respectable Ladies of Color: Issues in the History of Black Women's Higher Education," Journal of the NAWDC 43 (Winter 1980): 22. 2Konek, "Roles Learned by Rote," p. 5. 48 Before the Civil War, colleges exclusively for women and coeducational institutions began to emerge. Wells College, located in Aurora, New York, was the second college in the country chartered exclusively for the education of women. It provides an example of the nature of education considered at the time of its establishment and the changes in that education as years passed, prompted by both female educators and students. Initial planning for Wells College was provided by two Victorian businessmen, Henry Wells and Edwin Barber Morgan. "Mr. Wells' complex vision of a college was of a 'home' that would combine the private virtues of that institution with the academic standards of the best male colleges."1 The curriculum at Wells College initially reflected the inten- tions of the founders: During the fledgling years, the original intentions of the founders, providing academic excellence, educating women in the social prescriptions of the nineteenth century, and train- ing women to be wives for college-educated men, remained unchanged. In their joint effort to create a safe educational environment fer young women, Henry Wells and E. 8. Morgan fol- lowed the mold of men who valued women being able to manage useful, purposeful, but constrained lives.2 As years passed, however, the curriculum changed. Females gradually became important figures in the governance of the school. By the late nineteenth century, Wells women no longer perceived of themselves as beings fitted only for moral leadership roles in the home or in the nonpaid benevolent associations designed 1Anne J. Russ, "Divergent Realities: The Wells College Experience, 1876-1905," paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, Massachusetts, April 9, 1980 (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 185 929, 1980). p. 2. 2Ibid.. p. 3. 49 to bring about the regeneration of a decadent society. Wells women began to enter the new fields of social work, nursing and library science. Wells College was but one of several colleges available to women during the mid to latter part of the nineteenth century; a number of these colleges gained acceptance as being among the best liberal arts colleges of the day. Through this educational oppor- tunity, women were being exposed to an academic environment unavail- able to their mothers and grandmothers. "In a time when women writers and intellectuals were ridiculed and labeled 'blue stockings,‘ these institutions made scholarship respectable for women, justifying their claim that students need not see womanhood and scholarship as oppo- sites."2 In 1837, Oberlin College opened its doors and became the first institution of higher learning in America to admit women and men of all races. "Among the major priorities listed in the first circular issued by the college was 'The elevation of the female character.'"3 There were only four young women enrolled that first year, and even though the curriculum offering for these women was diluted in comparison with that offered to men, their enrollment was, nevertheless, of major historical importance to the higher education of women. "If one takes a broader historical view, it is possible to look beyond the impact of education on these few women and to see 1 2 Ibid. Konek, "Roles Learned by Rote," p. 7. 3Scott, "Schooling Respectable Ladies of Color," p. 23. 50 the larger issue--that of the role expectations that were altered by this event."1 Subsequent to Oberlin, coeducation emerged as a gradual process, the result of numerous social forces. Although one source of the occurrence was ideological, the major impetus for women's higher education came in the second half of the nlneteenth century, a time of dire economic need for many colleges, caused chiefly by the shrinking enrollments of males. The sag in college enrollments was attributed to the Civil War, to economic depressions, and to dissatisfaction with college curricula.2 During and following this period, women began to gain access to higher education with tremendous rapidity. The number of colleges admitting women immediately after the Civil War almost doubled. In 1902, 25 percent of the undergraduates, 26 percent of the graduate students, and 3 percent of the professional students in America were women.3 Women had gained some acceptance within higher education, but there remained a conflict between possible career aspirations and the role of women as perceived by society. Many women acquired an educa- tion but tended to see college as an end in itself. Konek commented on the fact that the result for many was that they were prepared to become educated wives and mothers. Yet there were greater gains to be made before the American woman could synthesize her academic and professional roles and her domestic and social roles and experience herself as an autonomous, contributing individual. A few pioneers had been admitted into medicine, the bar, and the ministry; yet there 1Konek, "Roles Learned by Rote," p. 7. 2Ibid., p. 8. 3Edith H. Altbach, Women in America (Lexington, Mass.: 0. c. Heath & Co., 1974). p. 180. 51 were still graduate and professional schools which barred women from admittance. Women were likely to enter either co-educational or women's institutions of higher learning which imposed limita- tions upon their learning in subtle and unconscious ways, prepar- ing them to be educated wives and mothers who were not encouraged to think of career options or professional potential. Despite these difficulties yet to be challenged, the nineteenth century must be recognized as the time when very significant and rapid advancements were witnessed in the education of women. Women in America had and still have a long way to go, but the advancements yet to be seen in the twentieth century could not have occurred without the initial stages taken to help students emerge from the restraints and limitations of the past. Social and Psychological Factors Perceived to ‘Influence Women's Career Aspirations The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep. Robert Frost "Stopping by Woogs on a Snowy Evening" Literature on women today abounds with echoes of sex-role images of the past. Although "women now constitute 22 percent of all "3 managers and administrators in the United States, their potential for success may be dependent on reconciliation of sex-role images lKonek, "Roles Learned by Rote," p. 9. 2Selected Poems of Robert Frost (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1963), p. 140. ‘ 3Linda Brown, "Women and Business Management," igns 5 (Winter 1979): 26. 52 existing from the past and the present role expectation placed upon them as managerial women. For example, in a most extensive experi- ment involving responses from 1,500 Harvard Business Review sub- scribers in management positions, Rosen and Judee found that there appears to be a greater concern with organizations for the careers of men than for those of women, and the ability of women to balance work 1 In addi- and family demands is viewed with a degree of skepticism. tion to this skepticism generated by the perceived role of women relative to family responsibilities, women are not perceived as having the "masculine" traits necessary for effective management. Brown wrote, Certain personal characteristics are identified as necessary for a capable manager; the most commonly mentioned sets of traits are self-confidence and self-esteem, aggressiveness and domi- nance, emotional control and sound judgement. Women are seen as lacking in these qualities because of differences from mgn in their training, socialization and "natural" disposition. The problem areas of family demands and sex-role stereotypes are expanded on in this section. Comments on the benefits of special- ized education and training, affirmative-action programs, increased availability of child-care centers, and possible flexibility in work schedules are also commented on. In a study of variables affecting career progression involving 181 women holding administrative positions in higher education in Minnesota, Mills-Novoa identified two background factors that add 1B. Rosen and T. H. Judee, "Sex Stereotyping in the Executive Suite," Harvard Business Review 5,2 (1974): 45-58. 2 Brown, "Women and Business Management," p. 283. 53 significantly to the predictability of administrative status: (1) educational degree and (2) primary responsibility for household/ child-caring duties fer those women living with spouses/significant others.1 Implications for women interested in advancing are that (1) they should pursue the terminal degree for their field and (2) they should try to negotiate household/child-caring responsibili- ties with their spouse/significant other. In a correlational analysis between administrative status and family variables, Mills-Novoa found an indication that it may not be as important for a woman's career advancement whether she has children at home or even whether she participates in her husband's career as it is that he participates in the household/child-caring responsibilities at home.2 In comparing the personality characteristics and background factors of a sample of 300 administrators from education, business, and government, Holtz found "coping with family and career responsi- bilities to be a significant barrier for women among all three groups."3 Hochschild identified the fact that the academic career is founded on assumptions about men (at the present time) rather than women. These assumptions include: the expectation that time out for 1Beverly Ann Mills-Novoa, "A Study of Selected Variables Affecting the Career Progression of Women in Higher Education Adminis- tration" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1980). 2Ibid. 3Mary Ann Peterson Holtz, "A Comparison of the Personality Characteristics and Background Factors Among Women Administrators in Education, Business and Government" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1979). 54 child bearing will not occur; that home situations will be completely supportive of and flexible to job moves, long hours, career socializ- ing, and the like; that career preparation will take place in the shortest amount of time possible; and that child and home care will be handled by someone else in the family (not the employee).1 Slay and McDonald reported that women professors . . do benefit from their career through personal fulfill- ment, financial gain, and increased career opportunities, just as their male counterparts. However, women professors indi- cate more feelings of discrimination and more personal and family conflict than do men. Etaugh concluded that "one probable deterrent to women's pursuit of professional careers [is] the negative attitudes toward the dual role of the married professional woman held by the profes- sionals."3 There is evidence, however, that women's perceptions of sex stereotypes held by men were strongly related to women's own role expectations and role behaviors. As Terborg stated, To the extent that these perceptions place home and family duties primarily in the domain of the "feminine role," then working women may experience pressures from relevant others, and perhaps their own self-concepts, to sacrifice their pro- fessional careers for family responsibilities. 1Arlie R. Hochschild, "Inside the Clockwork of Male Careers," in Women and the Power to Change, ed. Florence Howe (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975). 2Tana Slay and Ann MacDonald, "Female Professors/Male Professors' Career Development: Attitudes, Benefits, Costs," Psychological Reports 48,1 (1981): 307. . 3Claire E. Etaugh, "Attitudes of Professionals Toward the Married Professional Woman," Psychological Reports 32 (June 1973): 779. 4James R. Terborg, "Women in Management: A Research Review," Journal of Applied Psychology 62 (December 1977): 657. 55 Broschart hypothesized that family complexity is negatively related to professional achievement and status. She reported on her study, which revealed additional insight into this issue: This study examines the relationship between family status and the professional status and achievement of a sample of 415 women doctorates. The subjects, selected from Who's Who of American Women, were primarily employed in higher educa- tion. *It was hypothesized that family complexity is negatively related to professional achievement and status; however, the data suggest that the relationship is a more complex one. Mar- ried women and women with children were found in lower-ranking academic positions than single or childless women, but they did not exhibit lower levels of professional productivity or pro- fessional recognition. Further analysis suggests that differ- ent patterns of labor force participation may account for the observed discrepancies between the professional status and the professional recognition and productivity of married and single women doctorates. That lack of continuity in employment is a major factor in perpetuating occupational segregation and low earnings of women has already been noted. Aside from the problem of available child care, the "superwoman" role required to combine family and career responsi- bilities may require more effort than some women are willing to put forth. A report on women in Sweden emphasized that "married women with jobs today have less free time than any other group in society."2 In a report to the United Nations in 1968 regarding the equality of men and women in Sweden, financial independence was noted as a necessity, but also of necessity was participation by the fathers 1Kay R. Broschart, "Family Status and Professional Achievement: A Study of Women Doctorates," Journal of Marriage and the Family 40 (February 1978): 71. 2Rita Liljestrom, "The Swedish Model," in Sex Roles ina ChangingSociety, ed. Georgene Seward and Robert CITWilliamson (New York: andom House, 1970), p. 201. 56 in the duties of child care. The Official Report included the following statements: By the same token, the traditional duty of the man to support his wife must be supplanted by responsibility, shared with her, for the support of the children. This support of the children should also find expression from the man's side, in a greater share in the care and upbringing of children. The editor of M§;_magazine, Gloria Steinem, recently reported: If there is any single daily problem that most women share, it is this: coming home from work to another full-time job. This decade may not solve that problem, but it can: (1) Finally do away with the idea that one woman can or should Do It All (giv- ing up this impossible goal will have the healthy impact of turn- ing guilt into anger and action.) (2) See to it that men become self-sufficient. (He who eats can also cook.) (3) Reconcile women to the fact that, if we don't do the hougework, it won't be done the way we like it. (And that's okay.) Increased availability of child care as well as available homemaking services would help remedy, at least in part, the homemak- ing problems encountered by women. With only 0.8 percent of full- time working women in this country earning $25,000 and over,3 the problem of purchasing quality services could be prohibitive to numerous women. Homemaking responsibilities obviously complicate the lives of married and single career women with children; it is a problem area less applicable to the single woman without children. All women, however, seeking nontraditional careers will be likely to face the conflict between the "image" of the career and the "image" of the "feminine" sex-role expectation. 1Ibid., p. 200. 2Steinem, "The Stage Is Set," p. 79. 3Kandel, "What Women Earn," p. 10. 57 Historically, males were the sex identified with leadership. Women were identified as more of a subject sex, having duties relating to providing for child bearing, child rearing, and homemaking chores. As recently as 1973, during hearings to promote the passage of the Women's Educational Equity Act, the fact that women face discrimi- natory attitudes and stereotypes through their educational experience was addressed: In the course of the hearings, the Senate and House subcommit- tees learned that, from birth, women face discriminatory atti- tudes, stereotypes and assumptions and that these are reinforced in their educational experience. In the schools, textbooks literally illustrate that women just don't count as much as men: studies show that stories, examples, and illustrations choose boys and men as subjects more frequently than girls and women. When females are represented, they are usually drawn as help- less, frightened or stupid people usually doing housework, or watching, or being rescued by males. Equally damaging are the attitudes of teachers and counselors whose different expecta- tions of boys and girls are transmitted to the students who incorporate them into their own self-images. Boys learn to be strong, assertive and competent and girls learn to be weak, passive and dependent. Children also learn that, while boys can grow up to engage in a great variety of interesting occupa- tions, girls will grow up only to be housewives and mothers. One thing they seldom learn is that 40% of women over 16 are in the work force and that more than 90% of women work outside the home at some time in their lives. In a recent article titled "Silent Sexism," Schmidt reported on a project recently concluded by the staff of the Project on the ~Status and Education of Women at the Association of American Colleges in Washington, D.C. "The report's conclusion--that different faculty behavior toward male and female students is one of the major reasons 1Annette Ten Elshof, "The Women's Educational Equity Act," in Design for Equity: Women and Leadership in Higher Education, ed. Canal Konek andTothers. Wichita, Kansas: Wichita State University, 1980 (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 200 124, 1980). 58 for women's lower self-confidence and career ambitions is an idea whose time has come."1 In the report was included a situation in which a coed wanting to pursue a Ph.D. was told that a pretty girl would certainly get married. She was advised to stop with an M.A. Schmidt also reported on the importance of the role of the advisor in graduate school: The professional success of a graduate student depends largely on the strength of the apprentice/mentor relationship she has with her adviser. It's even more crucial that faculty be demanding and have high expectations of the women they advise because female graduate students are less confident about their preparation for and ability to do graduaEe work-~even when they're as academically qualified as men. Children's books reflect a social reality, but they also help to conserve this reality. Collegiate experiences such as those described by Schmidt, recently published in Working Woman, October 1982, can perpetuate reality. Although much progress has been made, it is not surprising that the attitudes toward female sex-role stereo- types still exist in the labor force in terms of women's role. Traditionally, women have been reluctant to prepare for busi- ness careers. . . . Since the dominant managerial model is male, women who accept the stereotypic feminine role are less inclined to acquire the training or job behaviors associated with manag- ers because such characteristics are inconsistent with their self-image. This situation becomes self-reinforcing by keeping women out of role-model positions whicg could encourage more women to aspire to managerial careers. 1Peggy Schmidt, "Sexist Schooling," Working Woman (October 1982): 102. 2Ibid. 3Brown, "Women and Business Management," p. 270. 59 In the summary of his research review on women in management, Terborg reported: Based on aggregate data, women describe themselves and are described by men as having self-concepts that are not suit- able for management. Also, women who do choose nontraditional careers fail to receive support for their choice or are actually discouraged from pursuing their choice by members of the family and by vocational counselors. It is not known, however, whether those women who choose nontraditional careers have different self-concepts from women who choose traditional careers because no research on career choice has been reported. It does appear that women who pursue nontraditional careers reject sex role stereotypes and that, once in those positions, they have needs, motives, and values that are similar to men who also are in those positions. Whether this similarity is the result of self- selection experience, or both is not known given available research.1 In fact, there are women who are rejecting sex-role stereo- types. In a recent study by Foster and Kolinko, individual differ- ence variables of female MBA students were measured toward the end of their academic careers: Data from these subjects as well as from male MBAs and from male and female MA candidates in elementary education were ordered in a 2 x 2 female/male, traditional role/nontraditional role matrix of analysis (N=151). Female MBA candidates were found to differ significantly from the other subjects on sev- eral dimensions. Female managers-to-be saw themselves as more self-assured, more creative, and higher in initiative than did the others. There was no evidence of fear of identity or of sex role inappropriateness, which had been suggested in earlier lit- erature dealing with women entering nontraditional careers.2 Lester and Chu developed a questionnaire that included items from the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Work and Family Orientation Ques- tionnaire, the Texas Social Behavior Inventory, and the Attitudes 1 2Lawrence Foster and Tom Kolinko, "Choosing to Be a Managerial Woman: An Examination of Individual Variables and Career Choice," Sex Roles 5,5 (1979): 627. Terborg, "Women in Management," p. 658. 60 Towards Women Scale. The questionnaire was administered to males and females holding higher education administrative positions. For com- parison purposes, the same instrument was administered to public- school teachers and administrators and college undergraduate students. Among the male sample, the only significant differences found between students, teachers and [higher education] administra- tors was on the social desirability scale, which showed that administrators scored higher than teachers. On the contrary, among the female sample many significant differences were found. Female [higher education] administrators had higher masculinity, social desirability, self-esteem, mastery, and work scores than female students and teachers.1 Lester and Chu reported that the results of their study supported the hypothesis that women in higher education administration are not necessarily less feminine than other women but have incorporated additional masculine traits such as assertiveness, ambition, and self- reliance. The concept of androgyny was also addressed by Lester and Chu. Androgyny calls for the integration of masculine and feminine traits in the same person. "An androgynous person is one who can be both assertive and sensitive, agentic and communal, instrumental and expressive, and is flexible in exhibiting the situationally appropri- ate behavior."2 To succeed in their nontraditional roles, women have had to adopt many masculine-oriented behaviors. "Men, on the other hand, tend n2t_to be incorporating feminine traits into their per- sonalities."3 1Patricia Lester and Lily Chu, "Women Administrators: Feminine, Masculine or Androgynous?" (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 181 107, 1979), p. 7. 3 2Ibid., p. 9. Ibid., p. 11. 61 The need for power and achievement has been a topic of numerous writings in regard to women. In a study of achievement and aspiration among male and female academic-career aspirants, Fox and Faver reported: (1) Women's achievement-aspiration conversion is different from, but not necessarily lower than, men's. Rather, the strength and direction of the relationship vary with aspiration type (tra- ditional versus alternative) and, to some extent, with specific types of academic achievement (e.g., paper publication and GPA). (2) The mediators of the achievement-aspiration relationship also vary by sex and aspiration type. Notably, women's aspira- tions for traditional career rewards are largely a function of their perceptions of the structural availability of job opportu- nity. Winter, interviewed on the subject of power for Working Woman magazine, reported: The first thing we found is that women are as interested in power as men. The myth is that women are not interested in power, that power is in the male sphere. People who believe that often have a fear of powerful women. A woman who shows any power is threatening and frightening, like Joan of Arc, and has to be put to death; or like the goddess Kali in India, who is also the goddess of pestilence. There is a real contra- diction-~women aren't supposed to be interested in power, yet people's imaginations are full of powerful, female demon figures. According to Winter, there actually is a lot of overlap in the actions displayed by power-motivated men and power-motivated 'women. They both tend to be officers in volunteer organizations and are attracted to prestigious positions in which they can have a direct effect on other people--such as law, medicine, executives in business, 1Mary F. Fox and Catherine A. Faver, "Achievement and Aspira- tion: Patterns Among Male and Female Academic-Career Aspirants," Sociology of Work and Occupations 8,4 (1981): 439. 2Aida K. Press, "00 Women Handle Power Differently Than Men? An Interview With David G. Winter," Working Woman 5 (April 1980): 44. 62 psychology, and teaching. Winter, the author of The Power Motive, questioned the myth that women have to be jocks to learn to rise to power. "Recent research on other topics suggests that women develop the desire to lead not through sports, as men do, but through science and holding of office in extracurricular organizations."1 Horner talked about power being the capacity to influence. Part of power at the top level is being able to see the big picture.2 In speaking of women and power, Horner suggested, The other big problem, as I said earlier, is people's perception of your power and reaction when you exercise it, particularly if you are young and a woman. . . . One of the things that frequently happens when sex-role or age-role expectations or boundaries are broken is that, after you have won your point, you have to be gracious enough to allow the relationship to be re-established in other ways. It may mean allowing somebody to hold the door for you or to pick up the tab for lunch. To move onto the next step it's important to let people regain their sense of self- esteem.3 In the available writings there certainly was evidence of women who reject the "feminine" sex-role stereotype; there was also evidence that man's perception of women inamanagerial role is chang- ing. In late May 1982, Business Week magazine commissioned Louis Harris and Associates to conduct a public-opinion survey, focusing on the executive's view of women in management. "The poll reflects the views of more than 600 high officials from the 1,200 largest U.S. 'Ibid., p. 46. 2Julie Englund and Carol Sienkiewicz, "Learning to Lead Beyond Fear of Success: An Interview With Matina Horner," Working Woman 5 (April 1980): 47. 3Ibid., p. 48. 63 companies included in Business Week's Corporate Scorecard."1 The report of conclusions strongly stated the changing viewpoint. "By enormous margins, top executives affirm that despite a decade of doubts that women could perform well as managers, they have, in fact, succeeded."2 Table 2-6 reflects the conclusion that women are per- ceived to be positively affecting organizations. The table also conveys the message, however, that both men and women are far from total acceptance of women as supervisors. Harris did caution that responses could be biased because (1) executives questioned were so high on the corporate ladder that competition from executive women did not threaten them, and (2) overwhelmingly positive answers were elicited when questions probed official corporate policy on hiring women executives. Harris also believed answers to questions about practices that reflect operational realities revealed a far deeper split. He noted that "the division is really between hiring and promoting." The article further described the situation today: When executives were :asked to agree or disagree with the state- ment that "it has been harder to promote women to high-level positions than we thought it would befi'a substantial minority --40%--agreed. A bare majority--52%--disagreed. . . . [However], despite the qualifications and cautions, the main thrust of the survey's findings is far different from what might have been expected a decade ago--or even five years ago. At the level of the largest U.S. companies, at least, top executives are making a determined effort to focus on performance rather tgan on per- ceived differences between men and women executives. 1"How Executives See Women in Management," Business Week, June 28, 1982, p. 10. 2 3 Ibid. Ibid. Table 2-6.--How executives see women in management. 64 Q. Here are a series of statements about women in the workplace. Do you agree or disagree? A. Contributions of women executives in the company are more positive than negative. Women executives are performing on the job as well as or better than expected. Quite a number of women use sex and guile to get ahead. Some men now can't get ahead in certain jobs because they are being saved for WOMEN . Q. Do you agree or disagree with these statements? A. It has been harder to promote women to high-level positions than we thought it would be. Men don't like to take orders from women. Women don't like to take orders from other women. Percent Agree Disagree 94% 2% 86 5 7 87 8 89 41 52 41 49 39 45 Source: "How Executives See Women in Management," Business Week, June 28, 1982, p. 10. 65 The changing attitudes of male executives may be timely. Although the numbers of women among executives today is miniscule, there are indicators that younger women have intentions of greatly increasing their numbers among managerial and executive ranks. "A recent Fortune survey of the 1,300 largest companies in America found only ten women among the 6,400 corporate officers and directors."1 In considering historical perspectives on female role expec- tations, the relatively few number of women among executives is quite understandable. - Executive recruiters estimate that a manager requires fifteen to twenty-five years to become a top executive. The presence, however small, of women in the chief executive suite today is actually surprising since these women would have had to achieve much of their progress up the ranks during the 1950's, a period of extreme emphasis on women's domestic functions. In the 19705, data indicated mgng-changes in women's career- oriented behavior. Harvard's two-year graduate school business program was not open to women until 1963. "Women now constitute nearly 25 percent of the total enrollment of collegiate schools of business as compared to 13 percent in 1972."3 There are researchers who feel this increase will not be enough to meet the demands for managers yet to come. "The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the number of managerial and administrative jobs will increase more rapidly in the 4 next few years than in the past decade of the 1960's." Schneider 1 2 4S. A. Schneider, The Availability of Minorities and Women for Professional Managerial Positions,fil970-1985 (Philadélphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1977), p. 98. Brown, "Women and Business Management," p. 268. 3 Ibid., p. 269. Ibid., p. 271. 66 further believed that the relative number of women and men in the initial labor force and high departure rates as a consequence of family commitments will mean only a minimal increase in the propor- tion of women in business. "The high departure rates for women must be reduced if busi- ness is serious about developing women managers," according to Brown.1 Fogarty, Rapaport, and Rapaport suggested adaption of employment practices.2 Suggested adaptions included flexible hours, maternity leave, part-time work, relaunching, and accelerating back to the top. The intention would be to enable women to combine having children with a chance of promotion to senior posts. First there are nine months before the baby is born. Then the baby is born. Then there are three or four months spent in feeding the baby. After the baby is fed there are certainly five years spent in playing with the baby. You cannot, it seems, let children run about the streets. People who have seen them running wild in Russia say the sight is not a pleasant one. 3 Children need proper and adequate care. "The important point is that in too many cases a mother is forced to st0p working because child-care arrangements have broken down."4 Sherman stated, It is surprising that predominantly female unions and organi- zations devoted to the advancement and welfare of the female sex have not moved more effectively in the development of l 2M. P. Fogarty, R. Rapaport, and R. N. Rapaport, Women in ‘pr Jobs: Four Studies in Achievement (London: George Allen 8 Unwin, 1971). p. 25. Brown, "Women and Business Management," p. 273. 3Virginia Woolf, quoted in Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 24. 4Gordon, "Women and Work," p. 131. 67 child care facilities1 emergency homemaker care, and home- malntenance services. Sweden took up the quality banner earlier and has carried it further than has the United States: High-quality, government-subsidized, full-time cay-care centers, plus municipally licensed family day-care, now accommodate nearly 40 percent of all preschool children, or about two-thirds of those whose mothers work. (Even when private facilities are included, only 5 percent of American children under age 6 have access to full-time licensed day care.) However, progress has been made in the United States. Steinem described changes in the last two years: Now, 359 top national companies offer maternity leave. Ten years ago, the first was a privilege--and the second wasn't even a term. . . . Now, kids are beginning to have two parents--and other adult friends. Ten years ago, Dr. Spgck and psychiatry were still insisting Only Mothers Mattered. Again, although we've progressed in this area, Sweden might offer an example of further progress yet possible: The most important innovation--because it officially smashed the myth that women were the only "natural" caretakers of babies --was "parental leave." Introduced in 1974 to replace maternity leave, it now provides either parent with six months of leave after the birth of the baby at 90 percent of pay.4 Although, as a country, we have permitted and fostered the increasingly larger numbers of married women in the labor force, 1Julia A. Sherman, On the Psychology of Women: A Survey of Empirical Studies (Springfield, 111.: Charles C} Thomas, 1971), p. 243. 2Hilda Scott, "World Equality Swedish Style," WorkingWoman 7 (June 1982): 21. 3Steinem, "The Stage Is Set," p. 78. 4Gordon, "Women and Work," p. 131. 68 we have not had the same concern for the necessary changes in social policies. It is true that antidiscrimination and affirmative-action poli- cies have been stressed at both the federal and state levels, though generally without adequate or carefully integrated poli- cies of enforcement, but in many other respects we have failed to develop social policies that accommodate and encourage careers for women while at the same time protecting the welfare of the aml y. Gordon pointed out that, in the long run, the social provision for child care may become less urgent than it is today. She stated that small-scale changes are already occurring along the lines that imaginative writers of future social changes have predicted: In this world of the future, child rearing will become a joint responsibility, shared equally, by both parents. This will probably be most feasible if both parents work on a part-time basis, alternating responsibilities for child care, but other arrangements, such as alternating periods of full-time work, are conceivable. There is growing interest in "flexible hours" or "flex-time," in which employees have considerable voice in selecting their working hours. The idea was first promoted by a German economist and management consultant, Christel Kaemmerev, in 1956. Flexible hours are now used by 6,000 European com- panies ang have been adopted by several hundred larger American concerns. In addition to being able to manage homemaking and child care to assure adequate time and energy for career responsibilities, the woman must prepare for and take advantage of educational opportuni- ties to assure competence in the chosen area. The topic of necessary preparation programs for women seeking and holding administrative and inanagerial positions has been addressed by numerous writers. The 1Ibid., p. 129. 2Ibid., p. 132. 69 literature covers such areas as the nature of degree preparation, special training programs for women, and the value of internships. Nannerl Overhauser Keohane, Wellesley's new college president, recently stated her ideas on the type of education necessary for women now and in the future: First, we must ensure that our students have grasped the rudiments of several essential technological skills, such as computing, . . . in this way, we make it more likely that edu- cated persons in the future will be informed users of the powerful tools at their disposal, capable of appreciating and taking advantage of their powers. . . In the second place, we must ensure that all students are familiar with the lineaments of the mature humanism developed in many ancient cultures, including--but not limited to--the Hebraic and Hellenic, and brought forward through modern lit- erature and art into the present day. . . Finally, we must ensure that students are trained to understand the complexities of human social life, and to respect the dignity of each individual person. As an aside and to note a point of interest, a recent UPI article related to the need for technological literacy being proposed by Keohane. The article, entitled "Girls Shy Away from Computers," pointed to the fact that we are.entering the information age, and those who have the ability to access computer information will have the power.2 It is primarily today's adolescent boys who are fre- quenting video arcades and tinkering with computer programs at summer canon A number of educators have said that "job gains made by mothers 1Nannerl Overhouser Keohane, quoted by Judy Foreman, "Wellesley's New President: The Right Woman for the Right Job," Change 14 (April 1982):l43. ZJaOEt 5- Rae, "Girls Shy Away From Computers," Detroit Free Press, September 28, 1982, p. 2-C. 70 and grandmothers may be lost by daughters because they are not keeping up with the boys."1 Keohane was not only concerned about degree preparation of undergraduates but also intended to provide for the needs of those seeking better qualification and preparation for the world of work. She said, A month-long intercession course is being initiated: "Wellesley and the World of Work," an intensive program open to those affiliated with the college, and eventually to those in the community at large. .It will focus on accounting, managsment analy51s, career adVlce, and general bu51ness know-how. With knowledgeable and insightful educational leaders such as Keohane, the educational training for professional women of tomorrow should prepare them better for the world of work. But what about the women in the work force today? "Although more young women each year are choosing college majors leading toward managerial careers, a gap appears in management education for women already in the work force."3 The continual need for women-only management training is being questioned, but it is still very much in vogue. Many of the programs would provide valuable training for either gender, but sessions also help female managers deal with problems unique to them. Topping the list is the fact that women are still trying to catch up on needed skills, says Camilla Colantonio, director of the Continuing Education for Women Program at the Univer- sity of Minnesota (Minneapolis), who adds that the female MBA 1Ibid. 2Quoted in Foreman, "Wellesley's New President," p. 45. 3Guvenc G. Alpander and Jean E. Gutmann, "Contents and Techniques of Mana ement Development Programs for Women," Personnel Journal 55,2 (1976?: 76. 71 is a relatively new phenomenon. While many of their male colleagues have past work experience in management, many women are trying to move up from positions such as administrative assistant, and therefore lack formal training. These women find seminars that cater to women very helpful. Commenting on training for women entering academic adminis- tration, Andre and Edwards advised that training programs "do not substitute for academic credentials," but are most useful to women already "in place" in academic institutions.2 Further, they described training programs as being basically of two kinds: short-term summer institutes and longer internship programs. They stated, "Our data show that programs which included internships had considerably higher percentages of people who reported a positive impact on their careers."3 Kanter and Wheatly, in studying the benefits of training programs for women in higher education administration, arrived at the conclusion that the value of training programs varies according to the target populations who attend. The most effective programs in terms of providing the largest number of benefits and the biggest boost to careers seem to be those that are aimed at two very different populations: (1) senior women, carefully selected, benefit from an extra amount of prestige and connection with prestigious individuals, along with management training suitable for top officials; and (2) entering women benefit from internships as a way to gain job experience. 1Pam White, "00 Women Managers Still Need Special Training?" Training/HRD (September 1981): 102. 2Rae Andre and Mary 1. Edwards, "Training Women in Administra- tion," Journal of the NAWDC 42 (Fall 1978): 16. 31bid.. p. 18. 4Rosabeth Kanter and Margaret Wheatley, "Career Development-- kknnen in Academic Administration: The Role of Training," in Women in Hi her Education Administration. Washington, D.C.: Association of fierican Colleges, Profict on the Status of Women (Bethesda, Md.: ERICiDocument Reproduction Service, ED 162 572, 1978), p. 1. 72 Brown felt that "the development of women managers is an area where opinions are plentiful, but research is not."1 She stated that there is a serious need for research to examine the long-range impact of training and to compare the benefits of training fbr women with that directed toward their male colleagues and superiors. "Admittedly, such research is difficult, but it is crucial to this field because, without research substantiation, special training for women appears often to fulfill the practical needs of others and not those of aspiring female executives."2 White reported on the results of a survey of 40 organizations that indicated that career-development programs for women only are tapering off: One reason for this is the growing number of women who have MBAs. . . . With the benefits of a good, thorough education and the lessons of the women's movement behind these new graduates, career development specialists see a dramatically decreasing need for women-only seminars over the next decade. 3 As women-only seminars become less numerous, alternatives are appearing. White reported on men-only training, which includes consciousness-raising pertaining to attitudes and stereotypes regarding women managers; and courses that address gender-related issues in socially mixed groups.4 In addition, some corporations have initiated special supportive programs for women. Honeywell Corporation has 1 2 Brown, "Women and Business Management," p. 282. Ibid. 3White, "00 Women Managers Still Need Special Training?" p. 103. 4Ibid., p. 108. 73 established a Women's Task Force and Women's Network. David Dotlitch, Honeywell's corporate manager of human resources development, commented: Until there are further changes in the culture, women will con- tinue to need specific programs such as these. . . . Though women are entering the work force better prepared than ever before, the image of leadership continues to be masculine. The training need for today is to help the rest of the organi- zation understand that the model of successful management will be a participative, andogynous model. That's the kind of man- ager we're going to need in the 1980's. Finally, in the development of competency, women need to have a chance to acquire a position and develop skills within it. Kanter and Wheatley, in reporting to the Carnegie Commission, commented: Competence, of course, also is critical. But for most of the administrators to whom we spoke, formal education or train- ing merely gives people access to the positions which allow them to develop competence. Specialized technical skills can be quickly learned outside the institution. It is inside the institution itself, and inside the job, that most administra- tors learn what they actually need to do the job. At best, training programs provide a spurt of energy, a booster rocket propelling one to a new position. But the long-term effects on careers and the factors that determine career success come not from training but from the jobs people hold. The women's movement and resulting affirmative-action programs may ensure some women the jobs they need to gain competence. Donna Shalala, president of New York City's Hunter College, is one woman who gives credit to the women's movement for her career success. She stated, "Most of the critical breaks in my career would not have hap- pened if it wasn't for the women's movement."3 l 2 Ibid. Kanter and Wheatley, "Career Development," p. 4. 3Cochs, "How Long Till Equality?" p. 21. 74 The comments in this section resulted from sources related primarily to higher education administration and business management. The leadership skills needed and the barriers to the exercise of effective leadership seem to be essentially the same for both groups. As demonstrated in the following section, the successful leaders in both areas share some common traits. Some Characteristics of Successful Women in Leadership Positions To be what we are, and to become what we are capable of becoming, is the only end of life. Robert Louis Stevenson Familiar Studies of Men and’Books*(1882) Nannerl Overhauser Keohane, Wellesley's new president, was described in a recent article in Change magazine as being "the right woman for the right job."1 She is one of a new class of leaders: "feminist presidents of some of the most prestigious colleges in the 2 country--if not, their most fitting symbol." She is an outstanding match for the college she leads, for others like it, and for the betterment of higher education in general. Change described her: The image is right: She jogs, she swims, she' 5 young. . . The brainpower is right: She's Phi Beta Kappa (Wellesley, '61). Sterling Fellowship to Yale for a Ph. D. in political science in 1967; Gores Award for Excellence in Teaching in 1976 at Stanford; Honorary Woodrow Wilson Fellowship; and the list goes on. The family solidarity is right: Her father gave the invocation at her inauguration in September. Her husband, Robert O. Keohane, gave up his post at Stanford to follow her east and become pro- fessor of political science at Brandeis University and a fellow 1 2 Foreman, "Wellesley's New President," p. 42. Ibid. 75 at Harvard University Center for International Affairs. And their collective four children--his, hers, and theirs form the human core of her life. . . . Perhaps most important, the poli- tics are right: Keohane is a strong feminist who is not afraid to say so.1 In another arena, Maccoby described Elsa Porter, U.S. Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Administration, as an example of a new style of leadership. She is a person developing the new functions of leader- ship. Bureaucratic systems in business and government that are built on assumptions of control and competition are inadequate to the requirements of our time. To change them we need new kinds of leaders who can involve employees in the study and transforma- tion of work according to the emerging ideals of our society. Although this requires technical understanding, the task is not mere}y technical but, in the fullest sense of the term, politi- cal. Maccoby described Porter as being a person who cares about people and resents the wastage of human life in work that mechanizes people. She is able to assert authority strongly on issues of principle, but she is also willing to stand back and let others take control. She is a student of the organization she leads, being able to evaluate both its mission and the way performance is controlled and measured. In addition to individual profiles of successful leaders, research has given collective profiles. In a study of selected women executives in business, government, and education, Hughes reported that respondents indicated their success as a manager was attributable to five factors: (1) knowledge of the job, (2) motivation to manage, 1 Ibid. 2Michael Maccoby, "The Leadership Crisis: New Room at the Top for Women," Working Woman 5 (April 1980): 43. 76 (3) communicative skills--verbal and written, (4) intelligence, and (5) knowledge and understanding of people. Respondents indicated that the personal characteristics requisite to success were a strong motivation to manage and sensitivity and/or concern for people.1 McGee reported on a profile of the female college president in 1978 determined by considering majority responses from 35 women: 15 heading two-year institutions and 20 heading four-year institutions.2 In 1978, the women college presidents tended to have (1) spent her entire career in education; (2) received a doctorate; (3) had a mother Who was at least a high school graduate not working outside the home, and a father who had attended college and worked in a professional, technical, or managerial field; (4) had not initiated her own applica- tion but was approached by a search committee; (5) was formerly or currently married; (6) expressed great satisfaction with her position; and (7) considered her sex a distinct asset. In an article appearing in the Wall Street Journal, Hull reported the findings of a study of characteristics of executive women. The study reported involved senior executives at large U.S. companies with salaries of about $92,000. Hull wrote, They attribute their success to ambition, drive and a will- ingness to take risks, and they blame their failures on a male world and their lack of confidence in it. They were 1Martha A. Hughes, "An Investigation of the Aspirations, Atti- tudes, Apprehensions and Strategies for Success of Selected Women Executives in Business, Government and Education: A Case Study" (Ph.D. dissertation, Kansas State University, 1981). 2Martha McGee, "The Woman College President in 1978" (paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Association for Women Deans, Administrators and Counselors, Washington, D.C., April 4-7, 1979). 77 more often first-born or only child in their families and favored their father. Most of the respondents were vice-presidents, with an average age of 46. Comparison showed the biggest difference between executive men and executive women to be marital and family status. "Fifty-two per- cent of the women surveyed are single, compared with only 4% of the men. In addition, 61% of the women are childless, while 97% of the men were parents."2 Hull pointed out differences between younger and older female executives: Nearly half of the women over 52 years of age started in cleri- cal positions, compared with only 23% of the younger female executives, who were more often started in management. The younger women also have more earning power than their elders. Some 60% of the women earning more than $106,000 are between 38 and 52, compared with only 20% of those over 52. . . Although executive women have more limited educational back- grounds than their male counterparts, more than in the past are graduating from college. Some 20% of the respondent's don't have a college degree, compared with 8% of the men surveyed. But 34% of the younger women surveyed have advanced degrees, compared with only 14% of the older women. There are numerous writings available depicting characteris- tics of successful women. Brown cautioned that present profiles should be reviewedin proper perspective.4 Are factors reported unique only to executives? Morrison and Sebald reported on a study that involved matched pairs of executive and nonexecutive women. There were no 1Jennifer B. Hull, "Female Bosses Say Biggest Barriers Are Insecurity and 'Being a Woman,'" The Wall Street Journal, November 2, 1982, p. 36. 2Ibid., p. 29. 3 Ibid. 4Brown, "Women and Business Management," p. 287. 78 significant differences between the women in their current marital environment or in their early socialization process (e.g., father's occupation). The study did find that the executive group was sig- nificantly higher in mental ability, the need for power, and the need for achievement.1 Brown also indicated that aspects of the profile can be affected by the age of the subjects. Researchers must give greater consideration to delineating gen- erational differences since there are actually three age groups of female managers working today: senior executives, middle managers (about thirty-five to forty-five years of age), and managers under thirty-five. . . . If this generation of women survives the deteriorating economic conditions, the profiles of their careers twenty years from now should be quite differ- ent from those of their few female predecessors. A Similar Study Burleigh-Savage conducted a study in which she examined the influence of female career aspiration for administrative positions in higher education;3 The population used in the study comprised men and women professors taken from four of Michigan's public fbur-year universities: (1) Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan; (2) University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; (3) University of Michigan, Dearborn, Michigan; and (4) University of Michigan, Flint, 1R. F. Morrison and M. L. Sebald, "Personal Characteristics Differentiating Female Executive From Female Nonexecutive Personnel," Journal of Applied Psyohology 59,5 (1974): 656-59. 2Brown, "Women and Business Management," p. 288. 3Charlene Burleigh-Savage, "A Study of the Relationship Between the Scarcity of Women in Higher Educational Administrative P051tions and the Multiple Factors Which Influence the Career Aspirations of Women Professors" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1979). 79 Michigan. Questionnaires were mailed to 600 professors selected from this population. There were significant differences between men and women respondents and their aspirations toward levels of administra- tion in higher education. The positions of chief academic officer, dean of a major college, and administrative vice-president were three positions in which differences in aspiration levels of men and women were indicated. There were no significant differences in the aspira- tions of men and women for the position of university/college presi- dent. Also, there were significant differences between men's and women's age level, teaching rank, and number of years in teaching. Differences were recorded between male and female responses regarding the following: (1) women's dependability, (2) administrative ability, (3) men's professional advancement and know-how in seeking adminis- trative jobs, and (4) institutional encouragement for positions in administration. Specific conclusions were as follows: 1. A small percentage of men and women professors compete for administrative jobs. 2. Women's aspiration levels are slightly higher than men's. 3. Women are not as confident about their administrative ability as men. 4. Not only women's, but also men's aspirations decrease as the responsibilities of the administrative job increase. 5. Large majorities of professors, male or female, do not aspire to be administrators in our institutions of higher learning. 80 6. Women seem to be rejecting the sex-stereotyping views of men being superior in leadership roles. 7. Although some male bias against women seems to be per- ceived, it is probably decreasing, and men's acceptance of women in administrative ranks seems to be increasing. 8. Women's perception that there are unfair odds against them discourages them from seeking administrative positions. 9. Men today seem to be more aware that family responsibili- ties are not incompatible with women's careers in higher educational administration. It is the intent of this researcher to replicate the proce- dures of the Burleigh-Savage study and to expand it to include not only the two Big Ten institutions in Michigan but also the remaining eight. Summar The literature review described the status of women in the contemporary work force and served as a reminder of the historical antecedents of the sex-role stereotypes that still exist and that often act as barriers to the advancement of today's professional woman. The first section, "The Status of Women in the Contemporary Work Force," addressed the fact that increasingly large numbers of women are now entering the work force. The trend toward increasing numbers is expected to continue through 1990. More women are not only working, but a considerable number are entering nontraditional occupations, previously considered to be the nearly exclusive domain 81 of men. In comparison with male salaries, women's pay is less. Two factors were cited as contributing to the lower salary levels of women: (1) Women tend to leave the work force for extended periods of time for purposes of child bearing and child rearing. This pattern gives them less seniority and perhaps less sophistication in skill levels. (2) Large numbers of women enter fields dominated by women, which tend to have less status and lower pay. Women need work fer the same reasons as men: economic needs, as well as the opportunity to meet needs of affiliation, esteem, and self—actualization. I "The Status of Female Professionals in Higher Education" gave a comparison of women and men professors and administrators in regard to numbers in the profession, comparative numbers within various ranges, and comparative salary figures. There are fewer women among full professors, and in all ranks women earn less. In the adminis- trative ranks, women are almost nonexistent at the top and tend to be clustered in the middle levels of administration. Women tend to earn less than men in comparable administrative positions. Comments on the history of women were included as reminders of the historical antecedents of the sex-role stereotypes that still influence the contemporary woman. Historically, men were the leaders of society, the work place, and the family. Men needed to be educated fer their role in life. Women were more of a subject sex, with responsibilities of child bearing, child rearing, and homemaking. Women met achievement needs through their husbands and sons. Women were not expected to be educated nor independent. 82 The historical role of women and the resulting expectations and perceptions of women's role have been perceived to provide bar- riers to the now-aspiring professional woman. The role of women in regard to child—care and homemaking responsibilities was noted as a demand often in conflict with career aspirations. A second major barrier discussed was the concept of the "feminine" sex-role stereo- type, which is perceived to be incongruous with the "masculine" traits perceived to be necessary for leadership. Increased access to quality child care, shared homemaking responsibilities, and flexible work hours were discussed as possible solutions to the demands of working women. Various preparation programs and training programs were dis- cussed as a means to assure greater competence in the chosen career area. A profile of the successful woman in leadership positions was included as a point of interest. However, caution was advised in interpreting the numerous profiles found in the literature of today. Finally, a brief summary was presented of a study of the aspirations of female professors for positions in higher education administration, conducted by Burleigh-Savage in 1979. The study included four universities in Michigan, including two of the Big Ten, whereas the present study includes all Big Ten universities. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction It should be recalled that the major purpose of this study is to investigate the disparity between women in higher education administration and the career aspirations of women professors. Further investigation focuses on whether factors such as culture, educational climate, personal perspectives, psychological aspects, and the world of work may have an influence on women professors in their aspirations for a position in administration. Chapters I and II served to introduce the problem under inves- tigation and to review the literature pertinent to the primary concerns of the study. The purpose of Chapter III is to explain the investi- gator's methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the data derived from the instrument administration. Type of Study The descriptive method of research was used in this study. Sax described the goal of this particular type of study: The purpose of descriptive research is to show conditions as they exist without being influenced by the investigator. Descriptive research encompasses a number of different tech- niques, including correlational analyses, case studies, sur- veys, and interviews as well as direct observation. 1Gilbert Sax, Empirical Foundations of Educational Research (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: ‘Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. 36. 83 84 Both male and female professors in the Big Ten institutions were given the identical questionnaire for the purpose of determining the levels of administrative aspiration as well as degree and inten- sity of aspiration. The use of the descriptive study enables the researcher to obtain the necessary data for analysis and to determine "the extent of the problem and indicate how serious and widespread it is."1 Population and Sampling Methods A random sample of professors from the ranks of assistant, associate, and full were chosen from the main campuses of the Big Ten Conference institutions. Boocock stated that The random sample, in which every case in a population has an equal likelihood of being included in the final sample, is the only kind that allows the researcher to make estimates about the total population and to compute the degree of confidence to be placed in his or her estimates. In other words, if one is to use sampling, as this study did at the higher education level, then random selection should be used. The population used in the study comprised men and women from the ranks of assistant professor, associate professor, and full pro- fessor from the institutions of higher education in the Big Ten Conference. They include Michigan State University, University of Michigan, University of Minnesota, Purdue University, University of Illinois, University of Iowa, Northwestern University, Ohio State 1Ibid. 2Sarah Spence Boocock, Sociology of Education (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1980), p. 24. 85 University, University of Wisconsin-Madison, and Indiana University. Descriptions of these universities are as follows: I. Institution Identification1 1. School Name: Michigan State University 2. Address: East Lansing, Michigan Zip Code 48824 3. Established: 1855 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 47,316 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $1,502 Quarter 7. Highest Offering: Doctorate 8. Program: Terminal Occupational Below Bachelor's; Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional II. Institution Identification2 1. School Name: University of Michigan-Ann Arbor 2. Address: Ann Arbor, Michigan Zip Code 48109 3. Established: 1817 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 36,211 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $1,738 Trimester 7. Highest Offering: Doctorate 8. Program: Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional III. Institution Identification3 1. School Name: University of Minnesota of Minneapolis, St. Paul 2. Address: Minneapolis, Minnesota Zip Code 55455 3. Established: 1851 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 65,293 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $1,264 Quarter 7. Highest Offering: Doctorate . 8. Program: Terminal Occupational Below Bachelor's; Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional 1Educational Directory of Colleges and Universities 1981-82, by Susan Broyles andiGeneva C. Davis (Washington,D.C.: Nationil Center fer Education Statistics, Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office, 1982), p. 107. 2Ibid., p. 110. 3ihid., p. 115. 86 IV. Institution Identification] 1. School Name: Purdue University 2. Address: West Lafayette, Indiana Zip Code 47907 3. Established: 1869 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 32,978 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $1,158 Semester 7. Highest Offering: Doctorate 8. Program: Terminal Occupational Below Bachelor's; Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional V. Institution Identification2 1. School Name: University of Illinois 2. Address: * Urbana, Illinois Zip Code 3. Established: 1867 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 34,791 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $1,074 Semester 7. Highest Offering: Doctorate 8. Program: Terminal Occupational Below Bachelor's; Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional VI. Institution Identification3 1. School Name: University of Iowa 2. Address: Iowa City, Iowa Zip Code 52242 3. Established: 1847 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 25,998 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $950 Semester 7. Highest Offering: Dottorate 8. Program: Terminal Occupational Below Bachelor's; Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional 1 Ibid., p. 72. 2Ibid., p. 108. 3Ibid., p. 77. 87 VII. Institution Identification1 1. School Name: Northwestern University 2. Address: Evanston, Illinois Zip Code 60201 3. Established: 1851 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 15,224 5. Control: Independent Nonprofit 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees: $6,885 Quarter 7. Highest Offering: Doctorate 8. Program: Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional VIII. Institution Identification2 1. School Name: The Ohio State University 2. Address: Columbus, Ohio Zip Code 43210 3. Established: 1870 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 54,533 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $1,380 Quarter 7. Highest Offering: Doctorate 8. Program: Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional Ix. Institution Identification3 1. School Name: University of Wisconsin-Madison 2. Address: Madison, Wisconsin Zip Code 53706 3. Established: 1849 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 41,349 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $984 Semester 7. Highest Degree: Doctorate 8. Program: Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional 1 2 3 Ibid., p. 68. Ibid., p. 178. Ibid., p. 245. 88 X. Institution Identification.I 1. School Name: Indiana University 2. Address: Bloomington, Indiana Zip Code 47405 3. Established: 1820 4. Student Enrollment 1981-82: 31,877 5. Control: State 6. Undergraduate Tuition and Fees (In-State): $1,172 Semester 7. Highest Offering: Doctorate 8. Program: Terminal Occupational Below Bachelor's; Liberal Arts and General; Teacher Preparatory; Professional To insure sampling techniques were carefully observed in the 'various institutions, Dr. Lynn Peltier, of the Michigan State Univer- sity Office of Planning and Budgets, wrote a letter to the respective directors of research in Big Ten institutions to obtain their coopera- tion. Each of them agreed to conduct the sampling of their staffs and to distribute the questionnaire with a self-addressed envelope to the male and female professors in their respective institutions. Specifically, the methodology used by one institution to create these samples is described briefly as follows: (1) the universe was the on-line data base of all the assistant, associate, and full profes- sors currently associated with the University. The pool for the male sample was all the known males in this universe. The pool for the female sample was all the known females in this universe. Out of the total assistant, associate, and full professors, those who had missing sex codes were excluded from the pools. (2) Each member of the male pool was arbitrarily assigned a unique number going from 1 to the total in the pool in the order they appeared in the on-line data base 1Ibid., p. 69. 89 which was sorted in ascending order by the social security number. Similarly, each member of the female pool was assigned a number from 1 to the total number in the pool. (3) Separate Sets of 50 nonduplicat- ing pseudo-random numbers were generated independently using the uniform distribution function in SAS with the starting value devaluated to the time of the day. (4) These sets of pseudo-random numbers were then used to pick the individuals from each of the pools to yield the male and female random samples. It should be further pointed out that while the samples were randomly selected they do not reflect the relative sizes of the dif- ferent departments at each university. In an examination of the numbers of faculty on each of the campuses of the Big Ten institutions, it was decided to limit the sampling to male and female professors on the main campuses. Further- more, in consultation with Drs. Robert Ebel and William Farquhar, professors at Michigan State University, it was agreed to do a strati- fied sampling of these institutions and to attempt to obtain a total of 600 returned questionnaires from these institutions. According to Isaac and Michael, "it is important that each category is propor- tionally represented in the sample. The population is subdivided into the appropriate strata and then a predetermined quota of cases is drawn at random from each substratum."1 The weight given to each institution and the number of ques- tionnaires needed are shown in Table 3-1. 1Stephen Isaac and William B. Michael, Handbook in Research and Evaluation (San Diego, Calif.: Robert R. Knapp, Publisher, 1974), p. 146. 90 Table 3-l.--Number of questionnaires needed from each institution to reach the sampling size. - No of . N9- 0f. Institution Staff) Weight Questionnaires Needed Indiana University 1,353 -07 42 Michigan State University 2,450 .12 72 Northwestern University 778 .04 24 Purdue University 1,981 .10 72 University of Illinois 2,379 .12 60 University of Wisconsin 2,144 .11 66 Iowa University 1,533 .08 48 The Ohio State University 3,096 .16 96 University of Minnesota 1,769 .09 54 University of Michigan 2,259 :11_ _£gi Total 19,742 .99 600 To insure the elimination of a follow-up letter and yet secure a large enough sample for the study, 75 questionnaires for males and 75 questionnaires for females were sent to the designated samples at lWichigan State University, Ohio State University, Purdue University, University of Illinois, University of Michigan, and University of Wisconsin, whereas 50 questionnaires for males and 50 for females were sent to the remaining institutions. Instrumentation In this study to determine the aSpirational levels of women professors for higher educational administrative positions, a survey 91 was conducted using a structured questionnaire. Sax summarized the advantages of such an instrument: 1. The major advantage of the questionnaire is one of econom- ics: the time and expense involved in questionnaires sent through the mail has practical ramifications over other types of survey, such as the interview. 2. Each respondent receives the same set of questions phrased in exactly the same way: the job of summarizing and com- paring reSponses is reduced. 3. The use of the mail in sending out the questionnaires means that a larger variety of persons can be contacted.1 The questionnaire used in this study was developed by Burleigh- Savage after a review of the literature pertaining to women in admin- istrative roles in higher education.2 The first-draft questionnaire was critiqued by professors at Michigan State University, the week of April 2, 1979, who have appointments in the Administration and Higher Education Department. The identical questionnaire was given to the same professors, the week of February 8, 1982, to determine if further revisions were necessary. No suggestions were made except for the opening paragraph on general directions. A few terms were changed to fit this particular study. A letter of explanation was developed to accompany the ques- tionnaire. Also, at each institution, the Director of Research asked for the cooperation of the personnel in his/her respective institu- tion. The services of a research consultant with the Michigan State 1Sax, Empirical Foundations of Educational Research, pp. 214-15. 2Charlene Burleigh-Savage, "A Study of the Relationship Between the Scarcity of Women in Higher Educational Administrative Positions and the Multiple Factors Which Influence the Career Aspirations of Women Professors" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1979), p. 110. 92 University College of Education were obtained for the purpose of analyzing the data which will be later described. During the month of March 1982, each sample population received the same questionnaire. The survey instrument was divided into three parts: EARI_I contained levels of aspiration in higher educational administration for which an appropriate response might be included: 1. I have applied for this position. I would aspire to this position. It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. hum I would never apply for this position. The administrative positions described were: (1) Chief Academic Officer, (2) Dean of a Major College, (3) Administrative Vice- President, (4) College President, (5) Other (Please specify). PART 11 contained 13 demographic items intended to indicate the various backgrounds, for descriptive purposes only, among the sample population. PART III contained the following five major topic areas with appropriate statements for each: Cultural Considerations (Questions 1 through 11) Educational Factors (Questions 12 through 21) Personal Perspective (Questions 22 through 31) Psychological Aspects (Questions 32 through 42) The World of Work (Questions 43 through 53) The Likert scale of five choices was used for response codes: 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = undecided, 4 = disagree, and 5 = strongly disagree. 93 Two additional items were also contained in Part III of the questionnaire. They were as follows: 1. Please indicate your major teaching department. (Statement 54) 2. What do you consider your primary academic (professional) responsibility? (Question 55) These two items were not treated as factors that may be related to administrative aspirations but to ascertain whether a sig- nificant difference existed among men and women professors in higher education. Collection of the Data One hundred fifty questionnaires were mailed to each sample population (75 female professors and 75 male professors) selected from Michigan State University, The Ohio State University, Purdue University, University of Illinois, University of Michigan, and University of Wisconsin. One hundred questionnaires were mailed to each sample population (50 female professors and 50 male professors) selected from Northwestern University, University of Iowa, Indiana University, and University of Minnesota. An appropriate letter requesting participation in the study, an endorsement note of the institutional research directors, and a return self-addressed and self-stamped envelope were contained in the package to each respondent. (See Appendix.) Table 3-2 lists the number of ques- tionnaires mailed to and returned by the groups surveyed and the final total for the collectivity of the sample. 94 Table 3-2.--Surveyed population table. Quesfi;gn231res Completed Returns % of the N % N % Returned Population Male 650 50 264 44 20 Female 650 50 339_ _£§i _3§i Total 1,300 594 100 45 Treatment of the Data As the completed questionnaires were returned, the researcher assigned a code number to each one beginning with a numerical order of 001 to 594. Since the items on the questionnaires were pre-coded before mailing, the responses were easily transferred and coded using the Fortran statement coding form. This statement, containing all responses from the total sample population, was given to the Michigan State University Data Processing Division for key punch and verify- ing purposes. Data analysis included cross-tabulations, frequency distribu- tions, chi-square test of association, and the t-test of significance was based on alpha, testing at the .05 level with various degrees of freedom.1 1Items in Parts I, II, and III were crossed with sex. 95 Testable Hypotheses To ascertain whether significant differences existed among men and women professors concerning their aspiration levels for a higher educational administrative position, it was necessary to test the following null hypotheses based on Parts I. II, and III of the questionnaire. PART I: PART II: PART III: Intent of Aspiration for a Position in Higher Educational Administration Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between men and women respondents and their aspira- tions to an administrative position in higher education. Demographic Data Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demographic characteristics between men and women reSpondents. Multiple Factors Which May Be Related to Administrative Aspirations CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. EDUCATIONAL FACTORS Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. PERSONAL PERSPECTIVES Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in the personal perspectives between men and women reSpondents. 96 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in the psychological aspects between men and women respondents. THE WORLD OF WORK Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women respond- ents. MAJOR TEACHING DEPARTMENTS Hypothesis 8: There is no significant difference in the major teaching departments between men and women respondents. PERCEIVED PRIMARY ACADEMIC RESPONSIBILITY Hypothesis 9: There is no significant difference in the perceived primary academic responsibility between men and women respondents. Statistical Procedures The Michigan State University College of Education Office of Research tical tec office as The compu East Lans Consultation assisted in recommending appropriate Statis- hniques for data analysis. A research consultant from this sisted in writing all computer programs for data analysis. ter programs and facilities of Michigan State University, ing, Michigan, were used. The statistical procedures used in the analysis of data were: 1. Cross-tabulations 2. Frequency distributions 3. The chi-square test of association 97 4. The t-test of significant difference between group means 5. The hypothesis test of significance based on the .05 level with various degrees of freedom Summar In this chapter the writer attempted to provide a descrip- tion of the planning and implementation of the study. Specific attention was given to describing the type of study and discussing the population and sampling methods used. The development and pre- sampling of the instrument were then discussed, along with a descrip- tion of the components that comprised the structure of the final survey instrument. The procedures used to collect the data and the treatment of the data were also presented. The testable hypotheses were reviewed, and the statistical procedures used in the analysis of the data were the closing topics of discussion. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the dis- parity between women in higher education administration and the career aspirations of women professors. Further investigation focuses on whether factors such as culture, educational climate, personal perspectives, psychological aspects, and the world of work may have an influence on men and women professors in their aspira- tions for a position in administration in colleges and universities. In addition, the major teaching departments and perceived primary academic responsibilities of the respondents were also testable items. The analysis of the data is presented in the following manner: 1. Part I is related to the level of aspiration of both men and women professors. The appropriate hypothesis is stated with the accompanying data and explanation. 2. Part II presents the demographic data. Appropriate data and explanation are included in this section. 3. Part III presents the factors that influence the higher educational administrative aspirations, namely, cultural considera- tions, educational factors, personal perspectives, psychological 98 99 aspects, and the world of work. Each hypothesis is analyzed to determine if there is a significant difference between men and women respondents. Part I of the Questionnaire: Perceived Aspiration Levels of Men and Women Professors for an Administrative PoSition Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between men and women respondents and their aspira- tions for an administrative position in higher education. Position: Chief Academic Officer In Table 4-1, 4 percent of the men had applied for the chief academic officer position, and 6 percent of the women had done so. However, only 21 percent of the men would aspire to this position, whereas 29 percent of the women would like to move into this posi- tion. This hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 6.73 with 3 degrees of freedom and found not to be significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4-l.--Chief academic officer. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position. 9 4 16 6 I would aspire to this position. 50 21 84 29 It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. 84 35 83 28 I would never apply for this position. 100 41 107 37 Total 243 46 290 54 100 Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between men and women respondents and their aspirations for an administrative position in higher education. Position: Dean of a Major College As shown in Table 4-2, 5 percent of the men had already applied for the position as dean of a major college, as had 5 percent of the women. However, 21 percent of the men would aspire to become a dean, as would 28 percent of the women. This hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 8.63 with 3 degrees of freedom, which was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. Table 4-2.--Dean of a major college. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position. 11 5 l5 5 I would aspire to this position. 50 21 81 28 It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. 68 28 96 33 I would never apply for this position. 114 47 102 35 Total 243 45 294 55 Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between men and women respondents and their aspirations for an administrative position in higher education. Position: Administrative Vice-President In Table 4-3, 1 percent of the men had already applied for the position as administrative vice-president, as well as 2 percent of 101 the women. However, 11 percent of the men would aspire to this position, as would 17 percent of the women. This hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 5.69 with 3 degrees of freedom, which was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4-3.--Administrative vice-president. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position. 3 l 5 2 I would aspire to this position. 26 ll 50 17 It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. 70 29 87 30 I would never apply for this position. 141 58 148 51 Total 240 45 290 54 Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between men K and women respondents and their aspirations for an administrative position in higher education. Position: College President In Table 4-4, only 1 percent of the men and women had already applied for the position as college president. Similar results were found for both men and women who would aspire to this position, namely, 11 percent for men and 10 percent for women. This hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 1.40 with 3 degrees of freedom, which was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. 102 Table 4-4.—-College president. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position. 1 l 3 1 I would aspire to this position. 26 ll 30 10 It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. 52 22 72 25 I would never apply for this position. 158 67 183 64 Total 237 45 288 55 Table 4-5 summarizes the results of testing the level of aspiration of men and women respondents for various administrative positions. Table 4-5.-—Results of tests for significant differences between male and female respondents on level of aspiration to become an administrator in higher education. Administrative Positions T95t 0f "“11 Hypothesis Chief academic officer NR Dean of a major college ' R Administrative vice-president NR College president NR Key: R = rejected NR = not rejected Table 4-6 summarizes the data regarding aspiration levels between men and women respondents for administrative positions in higher education. 103 Table 4-6.--Aspiration levels of males and females for administrative positions. Male Female N % N % CHIEF ACADEMIC OFFICER Aspirers I have already applied for this position. 9 4 l6 6 I would aspire to this position. 50 21 84 29 Total 59 25 100 35 Nonaspirers It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. 84 35 83 28 I would never apply for this position. 100 41 107 37 Total 184 76 190 65 DEAN OF A MAJOR COLLEGE Aspirers I have already applied for this position. 11 5 15 5 I would aspire to this position. 50 21 81 28 Total 61 26 96 33 Nonaspirers It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. 68 28 96 33 I would never apply for this position. 114 47 102 35 Total 182 75 198 68 104 Table 4-6.--Continued. Male Female N % N % ADMINISTRATIVE VICE-PRESIDENT Aspirers I have already applied for this position. 3 1 5 2 I would aspire to this position. 26 11 50 17 Total 29 12 55 19 Nonaspirers It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. 70 29 87 30 I would never apply for this position. 141 58 148 51 Total 211 87 235 81 COLLEGE PRESIDENT Aspirers I have already applied for this position. 1 1 3 1 I would aspire to this position. 26 11, 30 10 Total 27 12 33 ll Nonaspirers It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. 52 22 72 25 I*would never apply for this position. 158 64 183 64 Tota1 210 86 255 89 105 Table 4-7 summarizes aspiration levels between men and women respondents on the basis of aspirers and nonaspirers for administrative positions in higher education. Table 4-7.--Summary of aspirers versus nonaspirers for administrative positions in higher education. Male Female N % N % CHIEF ACADEMIC OFFICER Aspirers 59 25 100 35 Nonaspirers 184 76 190 65 Total 243 101 290 100 DEAN OF A MAJOR COLLEGE Aspirers 61 26 96 33 Nonaspirers 182 75 198 68 Total 243 101 294 101 ADMINISTRATIVE VICE-PRESIDENT Aspirers 29 12 55 19 Nonaspirers 211 87 235 81 Total 240 99 290 100 COLLEGE PRESIDENT Aspirers 27 11 33 ll Nonaspirers 210 89 55 89 Total 237 100 288 100 Part II of the Questionnaire: Descriptive Demographic 106 Characteristics Data of Males and Females Hypothesis 2: Factor: Age There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. In Table 4-8, 12 percent of the men and 7 percent of the women were in the 20-29 age bracket, whereas 37 percent of the men and 25 percent of the women were in the over-50 age bracket. The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 12.66 with 4 degrees of freedom, which was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. Table 4-8.--Nhat is your age? Age Male Female N % N % 20-29 12 5 24 7 30-39 74 28 120 36 40-50 81 31 105 32 Over 50 97 37 82 25 Total 264 101 331 100 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Sibling Placement In Table 4-9, 26 percent of the men and 20 percent of the women were the youngest child in the family. Within the other 107 categories, there were small differences between the men and the women . The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 7.90 with 5 degrees of freedom, which was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4-9.--Nhat is your sibling placement in your family? Sibling Placement -———Ma‘° ———Fe"'a]e N Z N % Youngest child 68 26 66 20 Second youngest to middle 19 7 26 8 Middle child 29 ll 48 15 Middle to second oldest 15 6 34 10 Oldest 104 39 119 36. Only child 30 ll 37 11 Total 265 100 330 100 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- ‘ graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Marital Status: In Table 4-10, 9 percent of the men and 31 percent of the women were single, whereas a larger percentage of women were divorced/ widowed with children (13 percent) or divorced/widowed without chil— dren (6 percent), as compared to men, who had 6 percent and 1 percent, respectively. 108 The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 7.90 with 5 degrees of freedom, which was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4-10.--Nhat is your marital status? Marital Status -—-!E!5L- -—EEEE!EL- N % N % Single 25 9 103 31 Married 95 36 86 26 Married with children 125 47 7O 22 Divorced/widowed with children 16 6 43 13 Divorced/widowed without children 3 l 21 6 Separated 3 l 8 2 Total 265 100 331 100 - Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Number of Children In Table 4-11, 17 percent of the men and 52 percent of the women did not have children. Of the men, 61 percent had two to four children, whereas 31 percent of the women had two to four children. The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 87.82 with 4 degrees of freedom, which was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. 109 Table 4-11.--How many children do you have? Number of Children __ Male Female N z N z 0 46 17 172 52 1 37 14 47 14 2'4 161 61 101 31 5 or more 20 8 3 2 TOW 264 100 320 99 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo? graphic characteristics between men and women respondents.- Factor: Teaching Level In Table 4-12, 20 percent of the men held the assistant pro- fessorship, whereas 42 percent of the women were at that teaching level. At the associate professor level, there were 27 percent men and 34 percent women. Fifty-three percent of the men and 25 percent of the women were at the professor rank. The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 52.28 with 2 degrees of freedom, which was significant at the .05 level.. The null hypothesis was rejected. Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Racial Group In Table 4-13, the largest racial group was Caucasian, which included 76 percent men and 78 percent women. The next largest racial group was the native American: 14 percent men and 11 percent women. 110 The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 8.65 with 5 degrees of freedom, which was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4-12.--Nhat is your teaching level? Teaching Level -——!Eflfi- -—JEEEEEE N % N % Assistant professor 52 20 132 42' Associate professor 71 27 106 34 Full professor 136 53 78 25 Total 259 100 316 100 Table 4-13.--Nhat is your racial group? Racial Group _____Male ___Femal e N % N % Native American 37 14 37 11 Black 6 2 17 5 Asian American 13 5 8 2 Caucasian 199 76 259 78 Hispanic 0 O 2 1 American Indian 8 3 8 2 Total 263 100 331 99 111 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Level of Education In Table 4-14, the doctorate was achieved by 89 percent of the men and 74 percent of the women. The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 26.30 with 3 degrees of freedom, which was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. Table 4-14.--Nhat level of education have you completed? Level of Education ___l§{ki_ -—EEE319- N % N % Doctorate 233 89 245 74 Graduate hours beyond master's 10 4 48 15 Master's degree 13 5 33 10 Bachelor's degree 5 2 4 1 Total 261 100 330 100 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Number of Years in Teaching In Table 4-15, 4 percent of the men and women were in their first year of teaching, whereas 15 percent and 23 percent, respec- tively, were in their first through fifth years. Forty-eight percent of the men had 15 or more years of experience, as compared to 32 per- cent of the women. 112 The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 17.50 with 4 degrees of freedom, which was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. Table 4-15.--How many years have you been teaching? Years in Teaching ___Male Female N % N % First 10 4 l3 4 1'5 4O 15 77 23 5‘10 37 14 65 20 11-15 50 19 53 21 15 or more 127 48 106 32 W131 264 100 329 100 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Educational Commu nity As shown in Table 4-16, approximately 60 percent of both men and women professors were teaching in urban communities, whereas the smallest number were teaching in rural areas (9 percent men, 14 per- cent women). The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 4.41 with 2 degrees of freedom, which was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. 113 Table 4-16.--Identify the educational community in which you are now teaching. Community Male Female N % N % Urban 152 60 188 58 Suburban 78 31 88 27 Rural 22 9 46 14 Total 258 100 322 100 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Sports Participation In Table 4-17, 20 percent of the men and 9 percent of the women had participated in sports as a youth. Approximately the same per- centage (15 percent men, 16 percent women) had participated in indi- vidual sports. Forty-one percent of the women as opposed to 20 percent of the men had not participated in sports as a youth. The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 39.6 'with 4 degrees of freedom, which was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Mothers Working In Table 4-18, approximately the same percentages were found for both men and women professors whose mothers had worked during their growing years. For example, 53 percent of the men and 55 percent of the women had mothers who worked during these years. The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of .81 114 with 3 degrees of freedom, which was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. Table 4-17.--Did you actively participate in sports as a youth? . . Male Female Type of Sports Act1v1ty -—11___l; -—11___15 Team 53 20 28 9 Individual 4O 15 52 16 Both team and individual 119 45 117 35 Did not participate 52 20 134 41 Total 264 100 331 100 Table 4-18.--How many years did your mother work during your growing years? Either full or part-time? Number of Years ___IE{UE_ -—IEEEEEE N % N % 0 141 53 180 55 1-5 46 17 50 15 6-10 41 16 57 17 All 36 13 43 13 Total 264 100 330 100 115 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the demo- graphic characteristics between men and women respondents. Factor: Worked for Female Administrator As shown in Table 4-19, only 37 percent of the men had worked for a female administrators, whereas 62 percent of the women had had this experience. Sixty-three percent of the men and only 38 percent of the women had not had the experience of working for a female admin- istrator. The hypothesis was tested by obtaining a chi-square of 37.12 with 1 degree of freedom, which was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. Table 4-19.--Have you ever worked for a female administrator? Male Female Reply N % N % Yes 96 37 205 62 No 167 63 124 38 Total 263 100 329 100 Summary of Demographic Data Table 4-20 summarizes the results of testing the various demographic data of men and women respondents who aspired for admin- istrative positions in higher education. 116 Table 4-20.--Resu1ts of tests for significant differences between men and women respondents on various demographic data. Demographic Data TBSt 0f N011 Hypothesis Age R Sibling placement NR Marital status NR Number of children R Present teaching level R Racial group NR Level of education R Years in teaching R Educational community NR Sports as a youth R Mother working NR Working for a female administrator R Key: R = rejected NR = not rejected Part III of the Questionnaire: Perceived Multiple ’Factors That'May Be Related to Administration Aspirations of Men and Women Cultural Considerations Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Colleagues React Unfavorably This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "My colleagues would react unfavorably if I became an administrator." The obtained t-statistic of -.10 with 586 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the 117 null hypothesis was accepted. As shown in Table 4-21, 67 percent of the women and 65 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-21.--My colleagues would react unfavorably if I became an administrator. Correlation Between Responses ____Mal e ______Femal e N % N % Strongly agree 7 3 24 7 Agree 40 15 43 13 Undecided 46 18 42 13 Disagree 120 46 136 42 Strongly disagree 49 19 81 25 Total 262 100 326 100 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Men Are More Effective Administrators This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "For psychological and social reasons, men are more effec- tive administrators than women.“ The obtained t-statistic of -6.67 with 590 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. There- fore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-22, 83 percent of the women and 62 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 118 Table 4-22.--For psychological and social reasons, men are more effective administrators than women. Correlation Between Responses -——IE{EE— -—JZEEEEE N % N % Strongly agree 10 4 10 3 Agree 48 18 28 Undecided 42 16 17 Disagree 99 38 105 32 Strongly disagree 63 24 169 51 Total 263 100 329 100 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Better Organizers This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Women are better organizers than men." The obtained t-statistic of 7.70 with 585 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-23, 38 percent of the women and 62 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Seek Proximity to Others This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently." The obtained t-statistic of -.03 with 589 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null 119 hypothesis was accepted. As shown in Table 4-24, 52 percent of the men and 58 percent of the women disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-23.--Women are better organizers than men. Correlation Between Responses ___£EflUi. ——ESEE12- N % N % Strongly agree 2 l 27 8 Agree 15 6 81 25 Undecided 83 32 94 29 Disagree 121 47 96 29 Strongly disagree 39 15 29 9 Total 260 100 327 100 Table 4-24.--Women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently. Correlation Between Responses -——!313—- ——EEE319- N % N % Strongly agree 1 1 8 2 Agree 36 14 57 17 Undecided 9O 33 71 22 Disagree 104 40 148 45 Strongly disagree 32 12 44 13 Total 263 100 328 100 120 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Ask for Help This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In a given task, women are more likely to ask for help or rely on others in face of a threat than are men." The obtained t-statistic of .24 with 589 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. As shown in Table 4-25, there seemed to be similarity in the responses of both men and women. Table 4-25.--In a given task, women are more likely to ask for help or rely on others in face of a threat than are men. Correlation Between Responses -——EElE—- -—E§EEIS- N % N % Strongly agree 6 2 10 3 Agree 56 21 83 25 Undecided 65 25 73 22 Disagree 107 41 107 33 Strongly disagree _ 29 ll 55 17 Total 263 100 328 100 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Not as Dependable This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In general, I consider women not as dependable as men because of women's biological and personal characteristics." The at 121 obtained t-statistic of -5.56 with 591 degrees of freedom was sig- nificant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-26, 87 percent of the men and 93 per- cent of the women disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-26.--In general, I consider women not as dependable as men because of women's biological and personal character- istics. Correlation Between Responses ...!EQEL. Female N % N % Strongly agree 2 1 4 1 Agree 16 6 9 3 Undecided l7 6 10 3 Disagree 114 43 68 2] Strongly disagree 115 44 238 72 TOW 264 100 329 100 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Male Spouse Would Feel Threatened This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "A male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career- oriented wife." The obtained t-statistic of .80 with 581 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was not rejected, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Approximately 57 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. (See Table 4-27.) 122 Table 4-27.--A male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career- oriented wife. Correlation Between Responses ___Male __Female N % N % Strongly agree 3 1 ll 3 Agree 47 18 61 19 Undecided 56 22 75 23 Disagree 109 42 117 36 Strongly disagree 43 17 61 19 Total 258 100 325 100 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Lower Achievement This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Women generally have a lower level of achievement moti- vation than men." The obtained t-statistic of -.15 with 588 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted, indicating no differences in the responses of men and women. (See Table 4-28.) Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Men Know More About Opportunities This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Men know more than women about how to seek and obtain opportunities to become administrators." The obtained t-statistic of 4.84 with 588 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. 123 The null hypothesis was rejected. Forty-one percent of the men strongly agreed, whereas 65 percent of the women took this position, as shown in Table 4-29. Table 4-28.--Women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. Correlation Between Responses ...!313_. Female N % N % Strongly agree 1 1 6 2 Agree so 23 83 25 Undecided 42 16 41 13 Disagree 110 42 109 33 Strongly disagree 49 19 88 27 Total 263 101 327 100 Table 4-29.--Men know more than women about how to seek and obtain opportunities to become administrators. Correlation Between Responses _____Mal e ____Fema1 e N % N % Strongly agree l4 5 35 ll Agree 95 36 176 54 Undecided 54 21 39 12 Disagree 73 28 54 17 Strongly disagree 26 10 24 7 Total 262 100 328 100 124 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Lack Drive This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Women lack the drive to become administrators." The obtained t-statistic of -.10 with 588 degrees of freedom was not sig- nificant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. Fifty- six percent of the men disagreed with this statement, whereas 43 percent of the women disagreed also. TWenty percent of the men and 30 percent of the women strongly disagreed with this statement. (See Table 4-30.) Table 4-30.--Women lack the drive to become administrators. . Male Female Correlation Between Responses -—1l___7{ “1T"‘TZ Strongly agree 1 l 5 2 Agree 24 9 41 13 Undecided 38 15 44 13 Disagree 7 146 56 142 43 Strongly disagree . 52 20 97 30 Total 261 101 329 100 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the cultural considerations between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Who Compete Lose Popularity This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "College women who attempt to compete with men usually do 125 so at the expense of their popularity or social life." The obtained t-statistic of -.33 with 588 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. Fifty-nine percent of the men responded that they disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement, whereas 60 percent of the women disagreed or strongly disagreed also. (See Table 4-31.) Table 4-31.--College women who attempt to compete with men usually do so at the expense of their popularity or social life. Correlation Between Responses -——£Eflfi- __JEEE{EE N % N % Strongly agree 4 2 11 3 Agree 50 19 70 21 Undecided 53 20 45 14 Disagree 117 45 140 42 Strongly disagree 36 14 64 19 Total 260 100 330 100 Table 4-32 summarizes the data for the statements under the Cultural Considerations section of Part III of the questionnaire. Educational Factors Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Downgrade Teaching Profession This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Welcoming women as equals into the professional manage- ment levels may tend to downgrade the teaching profession." The 126 Table 4-32.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on Cultural Considerations. Statement Test of Null Hypothesis My colleagues would react unfavorably NR if I became an administrator. For psychological and social reasons, men are more effective administrators than women. R Women are better organizers than men. R Women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently. NR In a given task, women are more likely to ask for help or rely on others in face NR of a threat than are men. In general, I consider women not as depend- able as men because of women's biological R and personal characteristics. A male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career-oriented wife. NR Women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. NR Men know more than women about how to seek and obtain opportunities to become R administrators. Women lack the drive to become administrators. NR College women who attempt to compete with men usually do so at the expense of their NR popularity or social life. rejected not rejected Key: R NR 127 obtained t-statistic of -2.58 with 586 degrees of freedom was sig- nificant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-33, 88 percent of the men and 91 percent of the women disagreed or strongly disagreed with this state- ment. Table 4-33.--Welcoming women as equals into the professional manage- ment levels may tend to downgrade the teaching profession. Correlation Between Responses .__IE{NE_. _ Female N % N % Strongly agree 0 0 5 2 Agree 8 3 13 Undecided 23 9 12 4 Disagree 105 40 80 24 Strongly disagree 124 48 218 57 TOtal 260 100 328 100 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Female Students Never Experience Women Leaders This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Female students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes." The obtained t-statistic of 5.64 with 586 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. fore, the null hypothesis was rejected. There- As shown in Table 4-34, 128 38 percent of the men and 63 percent of the women strongly agreed and agreed with this statement. Table 4-34.--Female students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes. Correlation Between Responses -——BEQEL- -—JEEE£BE N % N % Strongly agree 6 2 51 16 Agree 97 37 155 47 Undecided 52 20 44 13 Disagree 92 35 55 17 Strongly disagree 13 5 23 7 Total 260 100 328 100 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Women Have Less Power This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Women administrators have less power to make decisions than men.“ The obtained t-statistic of 1.88 with 583 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothe- sis was rejected. In Table 4-35, 18 percent of the men and 25 percent of the women strongly agreed and agreed with this statement. 129 Table 4-35.--Women administrators have less power to make decisions than men. Correlation Between Responses -——!E!£i— -—j3!fiibi N % N % Strongly agree 1 l 14 4 Agree 35 14 68 21 Undecided 55 21 53 16 Disagree 124 48 126 38 Strongly disagree 42 16 67 20 Total 257 101 328 100 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: More Comfortable Working for a Male This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator." The obtained t-statistic of -6.77 with 585 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-36, 55 percent of the men and 78 percent of the women disagreed and strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Courses Designed for Males This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In my college career, most college courses were designed for male advancement and emphasis." The obtained t-statistic of 1.23 130 with 585 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-37, 25 percent of the males and 32 percent of the females strongly agreed and agreed with this statement, whereas 62 percent of the males and 57 percent of the females disagreed and strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-36.--I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator. Correlation Between Responses ___fl313_. Female N % N % Strongly agree 12 5 6 Agree 33 13 22 Undecided 7O 27 46 14 Disagree 108 42 141 43 Strongly disagree 33 13 113 35 Total 256 100 328 100 Table 4-37.--In my college career, most college courses were designed for male advancement and emphasis. Correlation Between Responses _____Mal e ___Femal e N % N % Strongly agree 6 2 31 10 Agree 60 23 71 22 Undecided 33 13 41 13 Disagree 125 48 121 37 Strongly disagree 35 14 64 20 Total 259 100 329 100 131 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Uncomfortable in All-Male Class This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I would feel uncomfortable in a higher education adminis- tration class of all males." The obtained t-statistic of -5.58 with 583 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-38, 21 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while only 12 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with the statement. Sixty-five percent of the males disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement, whereas 80 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-38.--I would feel uncomfortable in a higher education administration class of all males. Correlation Between Responses __M_a_l_e_ M N % N % Strongly agree 7 3 7 2 Agree 45 18 34 10 Undecided 38 15 27 8 Disagree 3 134 52 136 42 Strongly disagree 33 13 124 38 Total 257 100 328 100 132 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Educational Counseling for Advancement This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Educational counseling enabled me to ment in my career." The obtained t-statistic of . of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. hypothesis was accepted. As shown in Table 4-39, males and 11 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 81 percent of the males and 79 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-39.--Educational counseling enabled me to plan for advance- ment in my career. plan for advance- 39 with 580 degrees Therefore, the null 12 percent of the Correlation Between Responses ___!313_. Female N % N % Strongly agree 3 1 5 2 Agree 28 ll 28 9 Undecided l7 7 34 1] Disagree 106 41 137 42 Strongly disagree 103 40 121 37 Total 257 100 325 100 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Female Administrators Encouraged Me This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "There have been female administrators who have encouraged 133 me to seek an administrative position." The obtained t-statistic of 5.90 with 583 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4—40, 20 percent of the males and 40 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, whereas 73 percent of the males and 54 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-40.--There have been female administrators who have encouraged me to seek an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses ______Mal e _______Femal e N % N % Strongly agree 5 2 37 ll Agree 45 18 95 29 Undecided 20 8 21 6 Disagree 104 41 112 34 Strongly disagree 82 32 64 20 Total 256 100 329 100 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Most Administrators Male This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Most administrators in my schooling process were male." The obtained t-statistic of -3.34 with 584 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-41, 88 percent of the males strongly agreed or 134 agreed with this statement, while 75 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement. Table 4-4l.--Most administrators in my schooling process were male. Correlation Between Responses -——!ElE—- -—ESEEIE- N % N % Strongly agree 92 36 117 36 Agree 133 52 129 39 Undecided ll 4 10 3 Disagree l9 7 52 16 Strongly disagree 3 1 20 6 Total 258 100 328 100 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. Factor: Men and Women Apply for Positions This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In our institution both men and women are encouraged to apply for administrative positions." The obtained t-statistic of -4.81 with 584 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-42, 68 per- cent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, whereas 54 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement. Ten percent of the males and 23 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 135 Table 4-42.--In our institution both men and women are encouraged to apply for administrative positions. Correlation Between Responses __Mal e _____Femal e N % N % Strongly agree 48 19 34 10 Agree 126 49 144 44 Undecided 62 24 71 22 Disagree 20 8 53 16 Strongly disagree 4 2 24 7 Total 260 100 326 100 Table 4-43 summarizes the data for the statements under the Educa- tional Factors section of Part III of the questionnaire. Personal Perspectives Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal perspectives between men and women respondents. Factor: A Woman Can Be Happily Married This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "A woman can be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time." The obtained t-statistic of 2.59 with 585 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-44, 77 percent of the men and 83 percent of the women strongly agreed or agreed with this statement. 136 Table 4-43.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on Educational Factors. Statement Test of Null Hypothesis Welcoming women as equals into the professional management levels may tend to downgrade the teaching profession. Female students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes. Women administrators have less power to make decisions than men. I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator. In my college career, most college courses were designed for male advancement and emphasis. I would feel uncomfortable in a higher educa- tion administration class of all males. Educational counseling enabled me to plan for advancement in my career. There have been female administrators who have encouraged me to seek an adm1nistrat1ve position. Most administrators in my schooling process were male. In our institution both men and women are encouraged to apply for administrative positions. NR NR rejected Key: R = NR = not rejected 137 Table 4-44.--A woman can be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time. Correlation Between Responses -——lEflEi- -—JZEE£EE N % N % Strongly agree 52 20 113 35 Agree 147 57 158 48 Undecided 4O 15 36 ll Disagree l7 7 10 3 Strongly disagree 3 l 11 3 Total 259 100 328 100 Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal Factor: Know Administrators fOr Support This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I feel I need to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position." The obtained t-statistic of 1.09 with 575 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-45, 47 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 54 percent of the females answered in the same manner. Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal Factor: Too Many Family Responsibilities This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position." The obtained t-statistic of -3.41 with perspectives between men and women respondents. perspectives between men and women respondents. 138 577 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-46, 74 percent of the males and 82 percent of the females strongly disagreed or disagreed with this statement. Table 4-45.--I feel I need to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses ___flfll§_. Female N % N % Strongly agree 14 6 4] 13 Agree 105 41 131 41 Undecided 77 30 71 22 Disagree 53 21 66 20 Strongly disagree 5 2 14 4 Total 254 100 323 100 Table 4-46.--I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses .__JE£Ei_ Female N Z N % Strongly agree 4 2 8 3 Agree 34 13 25 3 Undecided 28 ll 27 8 Disagree 148 58 157 49 Strongly disagree 42 16 186 33 Total 256 100 323 100 139 Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal perspectives between men and women respondents. Spouse Would Be Upset Factor: This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "My spouse would be upset if we had to move because I was selected as an administrator.“ 495 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. fore, the null hypothesis was accepted. the males and 47 percent of the females disagreed or strongly dis- agreed with this statement. The obtained t-statistic of 1.11 with There- Table 4-47.--My spouse would be upset if we had to move because I In Table 4-47, 59 percent of was selected as an administrator. F Correlation Between Responses -——!ElE—- ___£§EEUE N % N % Strongly agree 5 2 21 8 Agree 47 19 35 14 Undecided 49 20 79 31 Disagree 106 44 66 26 Strongly disagree 35 15 54 21 Total 242 100 255 100 Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal perspectives between men and women respondents. I'm Encouraged to Get a College Degree Factor: This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In my home, I was encouraged to get a college degree." The obtained t-statistic of .03 with 586 degrees of freedom was not 140 significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. As shown in Table 4-48, 89 percent of the males and 85 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement. Table 4-48.--Inmyhome, I was encouraged to get a college degree. Correlation Between Responses -——1E£Ei— -—JEEEEUE N % N % Strongly agree 137 53 210 64 Agree 94 36 7O 21 Undecided 7 3 4 1 Disagree 18 7 23 7 Strongly disagree 5 2 20 Total 261 100 327 100 Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal perspectives between men and women respondents. Factor: Planned for Advancement This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I have planned specifically for advancement in higher education administration." The obtained t-statistic of 3.22 with 582 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-49, 11 percent of the males and 18 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, whereas 82 percent of the males and 71 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 141 Table 4-49.--I have planned specifically for advancement in higher education administration. Correlation Between Responses -——1E£!i— -—13§E£BE N % N % Strongly agree 6 2 18 6 Agree 24 9 39 12 Undecided l6 6 35 ll Disagree 130 50 157 48 Strongly disagree 83 32 76 23 Total 259 100 325 100 Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal perspectives between men and women respondents. Factor: Spouse Thinks Influence Me This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "What my spouse thinks about an administrative position has an influence on me." The obtained t-statistic of -2.18 with 496 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-50, 66 percent of the males and 50 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal perspectives between men and women respondents. Factor: Eager to Move This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I would be eager to become an administrator, even if I had to move somewhere else." The obtained t-statistic of 5.31 with 580 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, 142 the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-51, 18 percent of the males and 26 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 69 percent of the males and 51 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-50.--What my spouse thinks about an administrative position has an influence on me. Correlation Between Responses -——!E!3—- __E£EELE N % N % Strongly agree 26 ll 10 4 Agree 133 55 118 46 Undecided 24 10 71 28 Disagree 43 18 4O 16 Strongly disagree 16 7 17 7 Total 242 100 256 100 Table 4-51.--I would be eager to become an administrator, even if I had to move somewhere else. Correlation Between Responses ...!Eflki. Female N % N % Strongly agree 5 2 24 8 Agree 27 16 57 18 Undecided 46 18 77 24 Disagree 98 38 105 33 Strongly disagree 33 31 59 18 Total 260 100 322 100 143 Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal perspectives between men and women respondents. Factor: Personally Received Encouragement This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I have personally received encouragement from an admin- istrator in my institution to apply for an administrative position." The obtained t-statistic of -.05 with 582 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-52, 34 percent of the males and 35 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while both groups had 58 percent in the disagree and strongly disagree responses. Table 4-52.--I have personally received encouragement from an admin- istrator in my institution to apply for an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses Jak— M N % N % Strongly agree 18 7 32 10 Agree 71 27 8O 25 Undecided 21 8 25 8 Disagree 103 40 120 37 Strongly disagree 46 18 68 21 Total 259 100 325 100 Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in personal perspectives between men and women respondents. Factor: Negative Image of Administrators This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I have a negative image of university/college 144 administrators." The obtained t-statistic of .10 with 584 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. As shown in Table 4-53, 34 percent of the males and 33 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, whereas 51 percent of the males and 47 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4—53.--I have a negative image of university/college administrators. Correlation Between Responses __Ma_l_e_ m N % N % Strongly agree 27 10 25 8 Agree 62 24 BO 25 Undecided 37 14 68 21 Disagree 113 43 126 39 Strongly disagree 22 8 26 8 Total 261 100 325 100 Table 4-54 sumnari zes the data for the statements under the Personal Perspectives section of Part III of the questionnaire Psychological Perspectives Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Satisfied With Present Employment This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I am satisfied with my present employment and would not seek an administrative position." The obtained t-statistic of -4.19 145 Table 4-54.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on Personal Perspectives. Statement Test of Null Hypothesis A woman can be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time. I feel I need to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position. I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position. My spouse would be upset if we had to move because I was selected as an administrator. In my home, I was encouraged to get a college degree. I haVe planned specifically for advance- ment in higher education administration. What my spouse thinks about an adminis- trative position has an influence on me. I would be eager to become an adminis- trator, even if I had to move somewhere else. I have personally received encourage- ment from an administrator in my institution to apply for an adminis- trative position. I have a negative image of university/ college administrators. NR NR NR NR NR Key: R NR rejected not rejected 146 with 588 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. There- fore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-55, 63 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed, while 47 percent of the females answered in the same manner. Table 4-55.--I am satisfied with my present employment and would not seek an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses -——£EQEL- -—£EEE13- N % N % Strongly agree 59 23 50 15 Agree 102 40 104 32 Undecided 36 14 54 17 Disagree 51 20 91 28 Strongly disagree 8 3 27 8 Total 256 100 326 100 Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Confident in Leadership Positions This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I feel confident in most leadership positions." The obtained t-statistic of .33 with 585 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-56, 80 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 83 percent of the women answered in a similar manner. 147 Table 4-56.--I feel confident in most leadership positions. Correlation Between Responses -——£E!£L- -—JZEE£BE N % N % Strongly agree 51 19 94 29 Agree 158 61 177 54 Undecided 24 9 36 ll Disagree 23 9 l7 5 Strongly disagree 4 2 3 1 Total 260 100 327 100 Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Willing to Train for Administrative Post This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I would be willing to further my education or training for an administrative position." The obtained t-statistic of 5.99 with 583 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-57, 24 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 48 percent of the women answered in a similar manner. Fifty-four percent of the males and 31 percent of the females responded disagree or strongly disagree. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Administrators React Favorably This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Administrators in my institution would react favorably if I became an administrator." The obtained t-statistic of .14 with 148 578 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-58, 49 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 46 percent of the females answered in like manner. Eleven percent of the males and 10 percent of the females answered this statement as disagree or strongly disagree. Table 4-57.--I would be willing to further my education or training for an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses -——!EQEL- -—JEEE£EE N % N % Strongly agree l7 7 43 13 Agree 43 17 113 35 Undecided 59 23 7O 22 Disagree 98 38 62 19 Strongly disagree 42 16 38 12 Total 259 100 326 100 Table 4-58.--Administrators in my institution would react favorably if I became an administrator. . Male Female Correlation Between Responses -———-———— -—————-—- N % N % Strongly agree l9 7 32 10 Agree 108 24 117 36 Undecided 103 40 143 44 Disagree 22 9 22 7 Strongly disagree 6 2 8 3 Total 258 100 322 100 149 Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: In Present Position Too Long This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I have been in my present position too long to seek an administrative position now." The obtained t-statistic of -3.17 with 572 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-59, 16 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while only 10 percent of the females answered in like manner. Table 4-59.--I have been in my present position too long to seek an administrative position now. Correlation Between Responses ____Mal e ___Female N % N % Strongly agree ll 4 6 2 Agree 30 12 25 8 Undecided 28 11 33 10 Disagree 141 56 172 54 Strongly disagree 43 17 85 27 Total ' 253 100 321 100 Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Like Delegating Tasks This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I like delegating tasks and working with people.“ The obtained t-statistic of 4.39 with 580 degrees of freedomwas significant 150 at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-60, 79 percent of the males answered strongly agree or agree, while 87 percent of the females answered in a similar manner. Fourteen percent of the males and 7 percent of the females answered disagree or strongly disagree. Table 4-60.--I like delegating tasks and working with people. Correlation Between Responses ______Male ____Female N % N % Strongly agree 28 11 81 25 Agree 176 68 199 62 Undecided 21 8 21 6 Disagree 30 12 21 6 Strongly disagree 4 2 l 1 Total 259 100 323 100 Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Enhance My Self-Image This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: “Being an administrator would enhance my self-image." The obtained t-statistic of 3.30 with 577 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-61, 25 percent of the males answered the statement strongly agree or agree, while 37 percent of the females answered in the same manner. Fifty percent of the males and 36 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 151 Table 4-61.--Being an administrator would enhance my self-image. Correlation Between Responses -——£EEE1— -—JZEE{Ei N % N % Strongly agree 8 3 21 7 Agree 55 22 97 3O Undecided 67 26 89 28 Disagree 96 38 82 25 Strongly disagree 30 12 34 11 Total 256 100 323 100 Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: If I Apply, Might Be a Top Contender This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: “If I applied for an administrative position, I feel I might be a top contender." The obtained t-statistic of 1.04 with 577 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. As shown in Table 4-62, 42 percent of the males and 45 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Not Compete for Administrative Job This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I would rather not compete for an administrative posi- tion." The obtained t-statistic of -3.88 with 576 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected. 152 In Table 4—63, 51 percent of the males and 37 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 30 percent of the males and 43 percent of the females disagreed or strongly dis- agreed. Table 4-62.--If I applied for an administrative position, I feel I might be a top contender. Correlation Between Responses ———EElS—- __539313. N % N % Strongly agree l8 7 33 10 Agree 94 36 113 35 Undecided 86 33 110 34 Disagree 51 20 54 17 Strongly disagree 9 4 ll 3 Total 258 100 321 100 Table 4-63.--I would rather not compete for an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses __1a_l_e_ M N % N % Strongly agree 41 16 32 10 Agree 89 35 85 27 Undecided 47 18 65 20 Disagree 69 27 107 33 Strongly disagree 11 4 32 10 Total 257 100 321 100 153 Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Administrators Become "Out of Touch" This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Administrators tend to become 'out of touch' with the teaching environment." The obtained t-statistic of -2.71 with 585 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. The null hypothe- sis was rejected. In Table 4-64, 61 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with the statement, while 50 percent of the females answered in the same manner. Twenty percent of the males and 27 per- cent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed. Table 4-64.--Administrators tend to become "out of touch" with the teaching environment. Correlation Between Responses ———!319—- -—559913- N % N % Strongly agree 35 14 35 ll Agree 122 47 129 39 Undecided 51 19 76 23 Disagree 49 19 71 22 Strongly disagree 3 1 l6 5 Total 260 100 327 100 Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in psycho- logical perspectives between men and women. Factor: Seeking an Administrative Position Involves Too Much "Politics" This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Seeking an administrative position involves too much 154 'politics.'" The obtained t-statistic of .32 with 582 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-65, 51 percent of the males strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 48 percent of the females answered in a similar manner. Table 4-65.--Seeking an administrative position involves too much "politics." Correlation Between Res ns 5 Male Female p°e N z N % Strongly agree 28 11 43 13 Agree 102 40 114 35 Undecided 57 21 94 29 Disagree 66 26 61 19 Strongly disagree 4 2 12 4 Total 257 100 324 100 Table 4-66 summarizes the data for the statements under the Psychological Perspectives section of Part III of the questionnaire. The World of Work Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: People Asked to Compromise This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "People who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles." The obtained t-statistic of -.53 155 Table 4-66.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on Psychological Perspectives. Test of Null Statement Hypothesis 1 am satisfied with my present employ- ment and would not seek an adminis- R trative position. I feel confident in most leadership positions. R I would be willing to further my education or training for an administrative position. R Administrators in my institution would react favorably if I became an administrator. NR I have been in my present position too long to seek an administrative position now. R I like delegating tasks and working with people. R Being an administrator would enhance my self-image. R If I applied for an administrative posi- tion, I feel I might be a top contender. NR I would rather not compete for an admin- istrative position. R Administrators tend to become "out of touch" with the teaching environment. R Seeking an administrative position involves too much "politics." NR rejected Key: R = NR = not rejected 156 with 582 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-67, 45 percent of the males and 46 percent of the females answered strongly agree and agree, while 28 percent of the males and 29 per- cent of the females answered disagree or strongly disagree. Table 4-67.--People who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles. Correlation Between Responses -——!ElE—- ——ESEE13- N % N % Strongly agree l9 7 l9 6 Agree 97 38 129 40 Undecided 72 27 83 25 Disagree 69 27 85 26 Strongly disagree 2 l 9 3 Total 259 100 325 100 Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: My Present Position Provides Security This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: “My present position provides too much security for me to seek an administrative position." The obtained t-statistic of -2.38 with 575 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. ‘Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-68, 18 per- cent of the males and 13 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 64 percent of the males and 72 157 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4-68.--My present position provides too much security for me to seek an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses -——jfiibi— —-EE!E13- N % N % Strongly agree 5 2 3 1 Agree 41 16 39 12 , Undecided 46 17 49 15 Disagree 142 56 188 59 Strongly disagree 22 9 42 13 Total 256 100 321 100 Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: Men Advance Faster in Administration This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Men advance faster in administration with less experi- ence simply because they are men." The obtained t-statistic of 7.15 with 580 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. There- fore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-69, 44 percent of the males and 69 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this statement. Thirty-two percent of the males and 13 percent of the females answered disagree or strongly disagree. 158 Table 4-69.--Men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men. Correlation Between Responses ————Mfl e ____Fema1e N % N % Strongly agree l7 7 75 23 Agree 96 37 49 46 Undecided 63 24 59 18 Disagree 72 28 29 9 Strongly disagree 10 4 12 4 Total 258 100 324 100 Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: "White-Male Club“ Promotes Men This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "The 'white—male club' promotes men over women for posi- tions in administration." The obtained t-statistic of 8.56 with 575 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-70, 45 percent of the males and 74 percent of the females answered strongly agree and agree, while 26 percent of the males and 9 percent of the females answered disagree or strongly disagree. Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: A Position Is Attainable This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I see a position in higher education administration as attainable by me." The obtained t-statistic of 10 with 579 degrees 159 of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-71, 62 percent of the males and 65 percent of the females answered strongly agree and agree, while 16 percent of the males and 15 percent of the females answered dis- agree or strongly disagree. Table 4-70.--The "white-male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. Correlation Between Responses ________Male _____Female N % N % Strongly agree 15 6 87 27 Agree 99 39 151 47 Undecided 74 29 52 17 Disagree 55 21 20 6 Strongly disagree l4 5 10 3 Total 257 100 320 100 Table 4-7l.--I see a position in higher education administration as attainable by me. Correlation Between Responses ...!313_. Female N % N % Strongly agree 21 8 39 12 Agree 151 59 171 53 Undecided 44 17 66 20 Disagree 37 14 36 11 Strongly disagree 4 2 12 4 Total 257 100 324 100 160 Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: Men More Often Chosen This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Men are more often chosen for an administrative position than women." The obtained t-statistic of 3.79 with 578 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothe- sis was rejected. In Table 4-72, 79 percent of the males and 81 per- Cent of the females answered strongly agree or agree, whereas 8 percent of the males and 5 percent of the females answered disagree or strongly disagree. Table 4-72.--Men are more often chosen for an administrative position than women. Correlation Between Responses & M N % N % Strongly agree 28 11 109 34 Agree 175 68 152 47 Undecided 35 13 46 14 Disagree 17 7 l4 4 Strongly disagree 1 1 3 1 Total 256 100 324 100 Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: Willing to "Go for Broke" This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I am willing to 'go for broke' in my quest for a posi- tion in administration." The obtained t-statistic of 4.09 with 161 579 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-73, 7 percent of the males and 9 percent of the females answered strongly agree or agree to this statement, whereas 86 percent of the males and 71 percent of the females answered disagree or strongly disagree. Table 4-73.--I am willing to "go for broke" in my quest for a position in administration. Correlation Between Responses ______Mal e ____Femal e N % N % Strongly agree 6 2 9 3 Agree 12 5 l9 6 Undecided l7 7 66 20 Disagree 96 37 121 38 Strongly disagree 127 49 108 33 Total 259 100 323 100 Hypothesis 7: There is no significant differehce in the world of work between men and women. Factor: College Students Are More Rewarding This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I consider that working with college students is more rewarding than administration." The obtained t-statistic of -3.29 with 578 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. There- fore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4-74, 67 percent of the males and 47 percent of the females answered strongly agree and agree, while 17 percent of the males and 22 per- cent of the females answered disagree or strongly disagree. 162 Table 4-74.--I consider that working with college students is more rewarding than administration. Correlation Between Responses _____Mal e _____Femal e N % N % Strongly agree 51 20 51 16 Agree 121 47 99 31 Undecided 41 16 104 31 Disagree 38 15 63 20 Strongly disagree 6 2 6 2 Total 257 100 323 100 Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: Too Much Competition This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "There is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator." The obtained t-statistic of 2.82 with 574 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-75, 9 percent of the males and 17 percent of the females strongly agreed or agreed with this state- ment, while 60 percent of the males and 52 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: Successful Administrator Easier for Men This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women." The obtained t-statistic of -l.25 with 577 degrees of 163 freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-76, 37 percent of the males and 35 percent of the females answered strongly agree or agree, while 38 percent of the males and 47 percent of the females answered dis- agree or strongly disagree. Table 4-75.--There is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator. Correlation Between Responses ____Mal e _____Femal e N % N % Strongly agree 3 1 8 3 Agree 20 8 46 14 Undecided 78 31 100 31 Disagree 132 51 142 45 Strongly disagree 24 9 23 7 Total 257 100 319 100 Table 4-76.--Being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women. . Male Female Correlation Between Responses -—-—————— -—-——-——- N % N % Strongly agree 10 4 20 6 Agree 85 33 92 29 Undecided 67 25 58 18 Disagree 79 31 124 39 Strongly disagree l7 7 27 8 Total 258 100 321 100 164 Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women. Factor: Colleagues Assisted Me This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "My university or college colleagues assisted me in seek- ing an administrative position." The obtained t-statistic of -.72 with 551 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-77, 30 per- cent of the males and 25 percent of the females answered strongly agree or agree, while 47 percent of the males and 51 percent of the females answered disagree or strongly disagree. Table 4-77.--My university or college colleagues assisted me in seeking an administrative position. Correlation Between Responses .__JE£Ei_ Female N % N % Strongly agree 10 4 18 5 Agree 64 26 58 19 Undecided 54 23 71 24 Disagree 92 37 115 38 Strongly disagree 26 10 39 13 Total 249 100 304 100 Table 4-78 summarizes the data for the statements under the World of Work section of Part III of the questionnaire. 165 Table 4-78.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on World of Work. Statement Test Of Null Hypothesis People who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles. NR My present position provides too much security for me to seek an adminis- R trative position. Men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men. R The "white-male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. R I see a position in higher education administration as attainable by me. NR Men are more often chosen for an adminis- trative position than women. R I am willing to "go for broke" in my quest for a position in administration. R I consider that working with college students is more rewarding than admin- R istration. There is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator. R Being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women. NR My university or college colleagues assisted me in seeking an administrative NR position. rejected Key: R = R = not rejected 166 Major Teaching Hepartment Hypothesis 8: There is no significant difference in the major teaching departments between men and women respondents. Factor: Major Teaching Departments This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Please indicate your major teaching department." The obtained chi-square of 150.77 with 56 degrees of freedom was signifi- cant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. In Table 4-79, 14 percent of the males were in the health services, while 30 percent of the females were in that department. Most of the female respondents were in the nursing field. Another interesting finding was in the numbers of males and females in the physical sciences and technology. The larger number were males--24 percent, compared to 3 percent females. Table 4-79.--Major teaching departments. Department Male Female N % N % College of Education 51 20 80 25 Social Sciences 59 23 72 22 Health Services 38 14 96 30 Arts and Letters 50 19 65 20 Physical Sciences and Technology 61 24 12 3 Total 259 44 325 56 167 Primagy Academic (Professional) Responsibility Hypothesis 9: There is no significant difference in the primary academic responsibility between men and women respondents. Factor: Perceived Primary Academic Respon- sibility This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "What do you consider your primary academic responsibility?" The obtained chi-square of 40.85 with 36 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. In Table 4-80, 42 percent of the males and 51 percent of the females were teaching as their primary academic responsibility. In research only,there were 7 percent males and 10 percent females. Administration only included only 7 percent of the males and females. Table 4-80.--Perceived primary academic responsibility. , . _ Male Female RESPOHSlblllty W T? Teaching only 109 42 165 51 Research only 22 7 32 10 Administration only 19 7 23 7 Teaching and research 101 40 89 28 Teaching and administration 6 2 14 4 Research and administration 1 O 0 0 Total 258 44 323 56 168 Summar This chapter was designed to investigate the disparity between women in higher education administration and the career aspirations 0f women professors. Further investigation focused on whether factors such as culture, educational climate, personal perspectives, psychological aspects and the world of work have an influence on men and women professors in their aspirations for a position in adminis- tration in colleges and universities. In addition, the major teaching departments and perceived primary academic responsibilities of the respondents were also testable items. Part I and Part II and the last two hypotheses in Part III of the questionnaire were analyzed through the use of the chi-sqaure test of association. All of the hypotheses in Part III were analyzed through the use of the t-test of significance. The hypothesis test of significance was based at the .05 level for all tests. A summary of the study, discussion, implications for educa- tion, and recommendations for future research are presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents a review of the purpose, a summary of E the procedures employed to collect the data, a summary and discussion 5 of the research findings, conclusions, and recommendations for further research. Summar This study was conducted to determine any differences that might exist among men and women professors concerning their aspira- tion levels for a higher educational administrative position. The men and women responded to a questionnaire that focused on their aspiration for an administrative position, and certain factors that influence their advancement into higher educational administrative positions, namely, cultural, educational, personal, psychological, and the work environment. The literature was reviewed in the seven major areas listed below: A 1. Women in the Contemporary Work Force The Status of Women Employed in Higher Education Historical Perspectives on Women History of Women in Higher Education 01 h u N o o o 0 Social and Psychological Factors Perceived to Influence Women's Career Aspirations 169 170 6. Some Characteristics of Successful Women in Leadership Positions 7. A Similar Study Nine hypotheses were considered in this study. They were the fOllowing: 1. There is no significant difference between men and women respondents and their aspirations to an administrative position in higher education. 2. There is no significant difference in the demographic characteristics between men and women respondents. 3. There is no significant difference in the cultural con- siderations between men and women respondents. 4. There is no significant difference in the educational factors between men and women respondents. 5. There is no significant difference in the personal per- spectives between men and women respondents. 6. There is no significant difference i :3 the psychological aspects between men and women respondents. 7. There is no significant difference in the world of work between men and women respondents. 8. There is no significant difference in the major teaching departments between men and women respondents. 9. There is no significant difference in the perceived primary academic responsibility between men and women respondents. l7l Egpulation Sample A random sample of professors from the ranks of assistant, associate, and full were chosen from the main campuses of the Big Ten Conference institutions. To insure a large enough sample, 75 ques- tionnaires were sent to men and 75 to women in the larger institutions, and 50 questionnaires for men and 50 for women in the smaller insti- tutions. Instrument Emplgyed A structured questionnaire developed by Burleigh-Savage was critiqued by professors at Michigan State University to improve its quality. The questionnaire was divided into three parts. They included: Part I--levels of aspiration in higher education adminis- tration; Part II--demographic items; and Part III--factors related to cultural considerations, educational factors, personal perspec- tive, psychological aspects, and the world of work. A Likert scale of five choices was used. An additional item in Part III asked for the major teaching department and primary academic responsibility. With the cooperation of the research departments in each of these ten institutions, a cover letter, an endorsement note from the research directors, and a return self-addressed and self-stamped envelope were contained in the package to each respondent. 0f the 1,300 questionnaires mailed, 594 usable questionnaires were returned. 172 Findings Part I of the Questionnaire: PerceivedAspiration Levels of Male and Female Professors for an Adminis- trati ve Position 1 11 PM gher’ Education 1. Both males and females were unlikely to or would never apply for the chief academic officer position (76 percent men, 65 percent women). On the other hand, more women than men had already applied or would aspire to this position (25 percent men, 35 percent women). Women seemed to aspire to this position more than men, but the differences were not significant. 2. Both males and females were unlikely to apply or would never apply for the dean's position of a major college (75 percent men, 68 percent women). More women (35 percent) would aspire for this position than men (26 percent). Again, women would aspire to this position, and the differences were significant. 3. There was no significant difference between men and women respondents who aspired for the administrative vice-president position. Women (19 percent) more than men (12 percent) would aspire for this position, whereas men (87 percent) and women (81 percent) would be unlikely to or would never apply for this position. 4. There was no significant difference between men and women respondents who aspired for the position as college president. Eleven percent of the men and women would aspire for this position, while 89 percent would be unlikely to or would never apply for this posi- tion. 173 Part II of the Questionnaire: Descriptive Demographic Char- acteristics of Male and Female Professors l. Thirty-six percent of the women were in the 30-39 age bracket, while there were only 28 percent of the men in this bracket. More men (37 percent) were over 50 years of age, whereas only 25 per- cent of the women were in this age bracket. There was a significant difference in the age of the men and women professors. 2. The only large difference in the sibling placement in the family was in the youngest-child category. Twenty-six percent of the men and 20 percent of the women were in this category. There was no significant difference in the sibling placement in the family between male and female professors. 3. The largest difference in the number of children in the family was found in the women. Fifty-two percent of the women and only 17 percent of the men had no children in the family. Sixty-one percent of the men had two to four children, whereas only 31 percent of the women were in this category. There was a significant differ- ence between men and women professors in this demographic area. 4. The data on teaching level of professors showed that the largest number of assistant professors (20 percent men, 42 percent women) were women; on the other hand, the largest number of full pro- fessors were men (53 percent men, 25 percent women). There was a significant difference in the teaching level between men and women professors. 174 5. Most of the men and women professors were Caucasian. There was no significant difference between these two groups in the area of race. . . 6. The men professors had the most doctorates (89 percent men, 74 percent women), but women had larger percentages in all of the other levels of education. The data analysis showed a signifi- cant difference between men and women professors. 7. Most of the men professors had more than 15 years of experience (48 percent men, 32 percent women). In the two categories, 6-10 years and ll-15 years, 29 percent of the men and 43 percent of the women were included in these categories. The data analysis showed a significant difference in years of experience between the men and women professors. 8. There was great similarity between the men and women pro- fessors in the educational community in which they were teaching. The data analysis showed no significant difference between these two groups. 9. More women (41 percent) than men (20 percent) had not participated in any type of sports activity, while in team sports the men had been involved to a greater extent (20 percent men, 9 percent women). The differences in men and women in sports activity were significant. 10. All of the percentages for men and women professors in the category of their mother working were almost identical. The dif- ferences in men and women whose mothers worked during their growing years were not significant. 175 11. Most of the women professors had worked for a female administrator (37 percent men, 62 percent women), whereas most of the men professors had not (63 percent men, 38 percent women). There was a significant difference between men and women professors on this demographic item. Part III of the Questionnaire: Perceived’MultipleFactors That May Be Related to Administrative Aspirations of Men and Women Cultural considerations.--There were significant differences between men and women professors on the following cultural considera- tion factors: 1. More men agreed or strongly agreed (22 percent men, 12 percent women) that women professors, for psychological and social reasons, are less effective administrators, but the largest percentage of women strongly disagreed (24 percent men, 51.perCent women). 2. More men disagreed with the statement that women are better organizers (62 percent men, 38 percent women). Thirty-three percent of the women agreed that they are better organizers, whereas only 7 percent of the men agreed with this statement. 3. Although more men (43 percent men, 21 percent women) disagreed with the statement that women are not as dependable as they are, 72 percent of the women strongly disagreed and only 44 percent of the men strongly disagreed. 4. Women agreed that men know more than they do about how to seek and obtain opportunities to become administrators (41 percent 176 men, 65 percent women), while 38 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. There were no significant differences between men and women professors on the following cultural consideration statements: My colleagues would react unfavorably if I became an administrator. Women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently. A male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career- oriented wife. Women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. Women lack the drive to become administrators. College women who attempt to compete with men usually do so at the expense of their popularity or social life. In a given task, women are more likely to ask for help or rely on others in face of a threat than are men. Educational factors.--There were significant differences between men and women professors on the following educational factors: 1. Women strongly disagreed (67 percent) with the statement that welcoming women as equals into the professional management levels may downgrade the teaching profession. Only 48 percent of the men strongly disagreed. 2. Most women (63 percent) agreed that female students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereo- types. Only 39 percent of the men agreed with this statement. 177 3. Twenty-five percent of the women agreed that women admin- istrators have less power to make decisions than men, while only 18 percent of the men agreed with this position. The larger percentage of men (64 percent) disagreed with this position than did the women (58 percent). 4. Most women (78 percent) did not think that they would feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female admin- istrator. 5. Most women (80 percent) would feel uncomfortable in a higher education administration class of all males, as compared to 65 percent of the men. 6. Most women (40 percent) stated that a female administrator encouraged them to seek an administrative position, while 73 percent of the men did not have this experience. 7. More men (88 percent) stated that most administrators in their schooling process were males, while 75 percent of the women found this to be true. 8. More men (68 percent) than women (54 percent) stated that in their institution both men and women are encouraged to apply for administrative positions, whereas more women than men disagreed with this statement (10 percent men, 23 percent women). There were no significant differences between men and women professors on the following educational factors: In my college career, most college courses were designed for male advancement. Educational counseling enabled me to plan for advancement in my career. 178 Personalyperspectives.—-There were significant differences between men and women professors on the following personal perspec- tives: l. Eighty-three percent of the women felt that a woman could be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time. Seventy-seven percent of the men agreed with this statement. 2. Most of the women (82 percent) did not feel that they had too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative posi- tion, as opposed to 74 percent of the men. 1 3. Most of the men (82 percent) planned specifically for advancement in higher education administration, while only 71 percent of the women did so. 4. Most of the men (66 percent) agreed that what their spouse thinks about an administrative position would influence them. Only 50 percent of the women agreed. 5. Most of the men (69 percent) would be eager to move some- where else to become an administrator, whereas only 51 percent of the women would make a move. There were no significant differences between men and women professors on the following personal perspectives: I feel I need to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position. My spouse would be upset if we had to move because I was selected as an administrator. In my home, I was encouraged to get a college degree. I have personally received encouragement from an administrator in my institution to apply for an administrative position. I have a negative image of university/college administrators. 179 Esychological perspectives.-—There were significant differ- ences between men and women professors on the following psychological perspectives: 1. Most of the men (63 percent) were satisfied with their present employment and would not seek an administrative position, whereas 47 percent of the women were satisfied. Most of the women (36 percent) were not satisfied with their present employment, as opposed to 23 percent of the men. 2. Most of the women (83 percent) would feel confident in leadership positions, as opposed to 80 percent of the men. 3. Most of the women (48 percent) would be willing to further their education or training for an administrative position. Only 24 percent of the men would agree on further education. 4. Women (81 percent) did not feel that they had been in their present position too long to seek an administrative position, as opposed to 73 percent of the men. 5. Women (87 percent) stated that they like to delegate tasks and work with people, as opposed to 79 percent of the men. 6. Women (37 percent) felt that being an administrator would enhance their self-image, as opposed to 25 percent of the men. Fifty percent of the men and 36 percent of the women did not agree with this statement. 7. Men (51 percent) as opposed to women (37 percent) would rather not compete for an administrative position. 180 8. Men (61 percent) felt that administrators tend to become "out of touch" with the teaching environment, as opposed to women (50 percent). There were no significant differences between men and women professors on the following psychological perspectives: Administrators in my institution would react favorably if I became an administrator. If I applied for an administrative position, I feel I might be a top contender. Seeking an administrative position involves too much "poli- tics." The world of work.--There were significant differences between men and women on the following world-of—work concepts: 1. Most of the women (72 percent) did not feel that their present position provided too much security for them to seek an administrative position. 2. Most of the women (69 percent) felt that men advanced faster in administration with less experience simply because they were men. Forty-four percent of the men agreed with this statement. 3. Seventy-four percent of the women felt that the "white- male club" promoted men over women for positions in administration, while only 45 percent of the men agreed with this position. 4. Most of the men (79 percent) agreed that they are more often chosen for an administrative position than women. 5. Most of the men (86 percent) would not be willing to "go for broke" in their quest fOr a position in administration, which was also true of women (71 percent). 181 6. Most of the men (67 percent) felt that working with college students was more rewarding than administration. Only 47 percent of the women agreed with this position. 7. Most of the men (60 percent) did not agree that there was too much competition in trying to become an administrator, whereas 52 percent of the women took the same position. There were no significant differences between men and women professors in the following world-of—work statements: People who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles. I see a position in higher education administration as attainable by me. Being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women. My university or college colleagues assisted me in seeking an administrative position. Indication of major teaching department and primary academic responsibility of men and women professors.-- 1. In the College of Education, there were 20 percent men and 25 percent women, whereas there was very little difference in the Social Sciences. A significant difference was found in the Health Services: 14 percent men and 30 percent women. A small difference was found in the Arts and Letters, but in the Physical Sciences and Technology there was a significant difference: 24 percent men and 3 percent women. 2. Most of the men and women professors were involved in teaching or teaching and research. Most women (51 percent) were in 182 teaching only, as opposed to 42 percent of the men. In teaching and research, 40 percent were men and 28 percent women. Conclusions The results of the data analysis seem to point to the follow- ing factors: 1. Approximately 25 percent of the men and women sampled would aspire to administrative positions. The higher the level of the position, the lower the percentage of aSpirants. 2. There was a greater percentage of female professors at the assistant—professor level, whereas there was a greater percentage of male professors at the full-professor level. 3. A significant number of women in comparison with men had no children in the family. 4. A small percentage of the male professors had the experi- ence of working for a female administrator. 5. Women's aspiration levels tended to be somewhat higher than the men's. 6. Male professors tended to feel that women professors are less effective administrators. 7. Women seemed to lack the skill needed in seeking and obtaining opportunities to become administrators. 8. Women agreed that female students who never experience women in leadership roles are not likely to develop aspirations for administrative roles. 183 9. A significant number of women agreed that women adminis- trators have less power to make decisions than men. 10. Most women stated that a female administrator had encouraged them to seek an administrative post. 11. Most women agreed that a woman could be a successful administrator and be happily married at the same time. 12. Only one-half of the women would move somewhere else to become an administrator. l3. One-third of the women professors were not satisfied with their present employment and would not seek an administrative posi- tion. 14. Most of the women professors would be willing to further their education or training for an administrative position. 15. One-third of the women would rather not compete for an administrative position. 16. Most women did not feel that their present position provided too much-security for them to seek an administrative post. 17. Most women agreed that men advance faster in administra- tion with less experience simply because they are men. 18. Most women felt that the "white-male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. 19. Most men agreed that they are more often chosen for an administrative position than women. 20. Most women would not be willing to "go for broke" in their quest for an administrative position. 184 21. Most women felt that working with college students is more rewarding than administration. I 22. One—half of the women did not feel that there is too much competition in trying to become an administrator. 23. Most women were involved in teaching or teaching and research. 24. Men professors tended to have more seniority than women professors. Discussion Eleven percent of the men and women in the study would aSpire to the position of college president. Since the presidency is an extremely demanding administrative position, it is not surprising that more men and women professors did not aspire to such a position. It may be more logical to assume that those individuals who chose the professorship did so because the nature of responsibilities was attractive to them--responsibilities that, by nature, differ largely from those required in top administrative positions. It is surprising that clearly one-third of the female profes- sors would aspire to the position of chief academic officer and/or dean of a major college. By contrast, only one-fourth of the men would so aspire. Further, 83 percent of the women would feel compe- tent in a leadership position. Women, however, saw men as attaining administrative positions more easily simply because they are men and have the benefits of the "white-male club." TWice as many women as men would be willing to further their education or training for an 185 administrative position. More men than women were satisfied with their present employment and would not seek an administrative posi- tion. Most of the men (67 percent) felt that working with college students was more rewarding than administration, but only half of the women gave the same response. In reference to the preceding three factors, there may be some indication that more men than women chose the professorship as opposed to desiring an administrative position; women may not have seen an administrative position as a realistic option. . In the area of homemaking responsibilities, 83 percent of the women respondents felt that a woman could be a successful adminis- trator and happily married at the same time. Eighty-two percent did not feel they had too many family responsibilities to seek an admin- istrative position. And yet, 52 percent of the women as opposed to only 17 percent of the men had no children in the family. More than half of the female professionals in this study did not have the added responsibilities of child care. Based on the review of the literature and on the finding that there are women professors who aspire to administrative positions, and based on the fact that in the world of work today, women in the admin- istrative ranks of academic administration are relatively scarce in comparison with men, the following is recommended: College and university departments providing graduate educa- tion in higher education administration should promote strong cam- paigns to attract women to enroll in the programs. At the same time, such departments should reevaluate graduate programs to assure they 186 are preparing administrators for the world of work today. Women, especially, need assistance with career advice, general business know-how, and more sophisticated training in human-relations skills, specific management skills, and accounting. It is essential that graduate programs in administration include training in technologi- cal literacy. Those who can understand the use of computers in the coming age of information will be those who have power. Adminis- trative internships should become a part of graduate training fOr women, especially since many women entering administration today have not had the benefits of previous administrative-management exposure and experience. Administration is still a male-dominated field, and those women entering the field need all the preparation and confidence they can obtain. Discrimination aside, women must be competent in their field. Since academic administration is a nontraditional field for women and a field in which women lack role models, faculty should provide talented women with as much encouragement as possible. Although training is important, there is absolutely no substitute for academic credentials. For those women professors who aspire for an administrative position and who have the appropriate academic credentials, there should be opportunities to gain both an internship experience and the necessary management skills through attending workshops, insti- tutes, and so on. All of these activities should be sponsored by the institution without any salary loss to the women. Furthermore, women professors who appear qualified, talented, and motivated should be encouraged to apply for administrative 187 positions and to pursue administrative careers. Aggressive action should be taken in this regard by both men and women serving in administrative positions. Women, in comparison to men, have fewer role models and mentors and might be less inclined to pursue an administrative position without this type of encouragement. Finlay and Crossen found that the largest number of women are in lower-level administrative positions.I It seems that every effort should be made to move successful women administrators to more respon- sible positions. These women can be assisted by providing further insights into the job functions and responsibilities of these more responsible positions. Men currently holding administrative positions as well as those men in faculty positions having responsibility for the graduate education for women may hold values, attitudes, and stereotypes that conflict with the concept of women as administrators. Many men have held positions during years when society was not promoting the idea of women for administrative positions. In the past, men worked with women who were primarily secretaries, administrative assistants, or perhaps administrators in typically women-dominated departments. Consciousness-raising efforts should be initiated or continued to make men more aware of the capabilities of women in administrative positions. 1Cheryl Finlay and Patricia Crossen, "Women in Higher Educa- tion Administration: Status and Strategies,“ Administrator's Update 2 (Winter 1981) (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 200 120, 1981). 188 Still another recommendation calls for women in administra- tive positions to form support groups within their respective insti- tutions for the purpose of initiating programs that enable women aspiring to administrative positions to learn more about the opportunities available to them and to serve as a kind of "women's club." This group could also serve as an advisory group to the top administrators. Women should become fully informed of the nature of discrimi- nation and the subtle ways in which it is employed. At the same time, women should take the responsibility to educate themselves about the legal means to combat discrimination and the legal rights due them. It is strongly advised and recommended that women aspiring to administrative careers accurately and realistically assess home- making demands. The career woman who believes she can "do it all" and still have the time and energy to compete in a world in which men do not have these responsibilities is only naive. Such a career woman needs the unequivocal support of her spouse and needs to know the avenues she can use to enable her to relieve herself of homemaking tasks. Using day-care centers, housekeeping services, and, more important, sharing responsibilities with the spouse, are advocated. If higher educational institutions are serious about cultivat— ing and using female talent, it is recommended that progress continue in the area of permitting both parents to take leaves of absence for childbirth and child care. Flexible work schedules should be imple- mented to the greatest degree possible. It is further recommended 189 that quality day-care centers be provided on the campus or within the community if such facilities are not available. Brown noted that in the world of business it takes 15 to 25 years to become a top executive.1 Extensive experience and training are also essential for effective leadership within an educational institution. If educators are serious about including women in the top administrative ranks, it is important that actions such as those recommended above be taken to recruit and train talented women and to provide conditions that foster greater continuity in the work experience of present and future female educational leaders. Comparison With the Burleigh-Savage Study In a comparison of the Burleigh-Savage findings with those of this study it should be pointed out that the first study was limited to men and women professors from four of Michigan's public four-year universities, while this study included all institutions in the Big Ten Conference. In both studies, a slightly higher percentage of women than men would aspire to become a chief academic officer, dean of a major college, or administrative vice-president. For the presidency of a college, more women than men would aspire for this position although the percentages were smaller in comparison to the other three posi- tions. Apparently, both men and women do not aspire for the top posi- tion in the administrative hierarchy in colleges and universities. 1Linda K. Brown, "Women and Business Management," igns 5 (Winter 1979): 269. 190 In both studies, the following similarities were found in the demographic data: (1) A majority of the females were in the 39 age bracket or younger, while the majority of males were 40 years of age or older. (2) The largest number of assistant professors were females, and the largest number of full professors were males. (3) Male professors had the most doctorates and had spent more years in teaching than the female professors. (4) Most of the women professors had worked for a female administrator, whereas most of the men profes- sors had not. In Cultural Considerations, only five of the factors were tested for significance in the Burleigh-Savage study, while all of the factors were tested in this study. The results were identical except in one of the factors, i.e., "In a given task, women are more likely to ask for help or rely on others in face of a threat than are men." The Burleigh-Savage study found this factor to show a significant differ- ence between men and women professors, while this study did not show a significant difference. In Educational Factors, all of the factors tested in the Burleigh-Savage study and the present study were significant. These findings show that female professors and male professors differ in their perceptions on these factors. For example, in the factor, "I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator," most females did not feel that they would feel uncom- fortable working for a female administrator, but this was not true of the male professors. 191 In Personal Perspectives, only five of the factors were tested in the Burleigh-Savage study. Three of these factors, namely, “In my home, I was encouraged to get a college degree," "I have personally received encouragement from an administrator in my institution to apply for an administrative position," and "I have a negative image of uni- versity college administrators," were not significant in both studies. In the Burleigh-Savage study, "I feel I need to know a few adminis- trators well in order to win their support for an administrative posi- tion" was significantly different between female and male professors, while in the present study there was no significant difference. Opposing findings were found between the female and male respondents on the factor, "I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position." In Psychological Aspects, only four of the factors were tested for significance in the Burleigh-Savage study. Both studies showed a significant difference on the factor, "I have been in my present posi- tion too long to seek an administrative position now" and "I would rather not compete for an administrative position." Both studies did not reject the null hypothesis on the following factor: "If I applied for an administrative position, I feel I might be a top contender." In the Burleigh-Savage study, there was no significant difference on the factor, "I like delegating tasks and working with people," while in the present study there was a significant difference. In World of Work, only five factors were tested for signifi- cance in the Burleigh-Savage study. Four of these factors had the same conclusions. Significance was found on these factors: "My 192 present position provided too much security for me to seek an adminis- trative position,“ "Men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men," and "I am willing to 'go for broke' in my quest for a position in administration." There was no significant difference on the following factor: "People who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles." On the factor "There is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator," the Burleigh-Savage study concluded that there was no significant difference between the female and male respondents, but in the present study there was a significant difference. Apparently, many of the factors were not tested in the Burleigh- Savage study, which made it difficult to provide a more comprehensive comparison between these studies. Suggestions for Further Research Women in higher education who aspire to an administrative position raise many issues. These issues need to be studied in depth and, it is hoped, emerge with solutions to the many problems surround- ing this particular topic. The following are suggestions for further research: 1. Replicate this study on a national basis because this problem is not limited to the Big Ten Conference schools. The Big Ten represents large-enrollment institutions, and a national study might present findings more in tune with amore representative group of colleges and universities. 193 2. Conduct case studies of successful women administrators to determine what factors enabled them to move up the administrative ladder. 3. Identify and study a particular institution that has a large number of women administrators to determine what policies were effective in bringing about this situation. 4. Another interesting study would be to examine in depth a number of women in one institution to determine whether they aspire to an administrative post. What factors are at play that provide them with the incentive to move into administration? Also, it would be helpful to determine why some women do not aspire to move into administration. 5. Study a well-defined internship program for women who aspire to an administrative position. What features in the program proved to be successful? What features in the program should be revised or dropped? Such a study would prove to be an excellent model for other institutions to emulate. 6. It is well known that many women move into an administra- tive post because of a mentor. Such a mentor would prove to be an interesting study to determine why he undertook to assist this woman in obtaining an administrative position, and what steps proved to be invaluable in a realization of an administrative position for the aspiring woman administrator. APPENDIX 194 195 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY OFFICE OF PLANNING AND BUDGETS EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ‘ 48824 ADMINISTRATION BUILDING June 15, 1981 STUDY BETWEEN THE SCARCITY OF WOMEN IN HIGHER EDUCATION ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS AND THE MULTIPLE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE CAREER ASPIR- ATIONS OF WOMEN PROFESSORS MEMORANDUM TO: Institutional Researchers in the Big Ten FROM: Lynn Peltierjfl/fl’ SUBJECT: Request for a Sample of Faculty Dr. Louis Romano, Professor of Administration and Higher Education at Michigan State University, is conducting a study of the relationships between the scarcity of women in higher education administrative positions and the multiple factors which influence the career aspirations of women professors at Big Ten institutions. The study will involve the use of a survey to be distributed to approximately 100 individuals at each institution. Attempts to utilize faculty and/or staff direc- tories at each institution have proven to be extremely difficult. Would it be possible to prevail upon your resources to assist in the development of a list of 50 males and 50 females selected at random from the ranks of assistant, associate, and full professors? The name and department affiliation would be sufficient to provide a mailing address. Alternately, Professor Romano would be willing to work with an alphabetical list of individuals holding professorial rank including the additional variables of departmental affiliation and gender. Funds to support this research are extremely limited and any information you might supply at minimum cost would be appreciated. If there is a charge for the service, please contact Professor Romano at area code 517, 353-5461, and inform him of the estimated cost before proceeding. Any assistance that you may provide will be appreciated. LHP/jb be: Dr. Louis Romano I96 Dear Colleagues: This letter is an invitation for you to participate in a study considering the factors that are important in aspiring to higher educational administrative positions. The study is being conducted to determine the relative difference, if any, in the administrative aspirations of men and women professors. The purpose of the study is to obtain information upon which to assess the perceived lack of aspiration of women at the administra- tive levels of higher education. The questionnaire is easy to complete, and just a few minutes of your time will provide data that may help educators to assess the factors that influence a career for women in higher educational administration. This survey will be valid only if you will give complete information. Your confidence will be honored. We pledge complete secrecy of indi- vidual responses. The results will be reported in statistical form only. No individuals or institutions will be identified. Please answer the enclosed questionnaire and return it in the self-stamped addressed envelope. Your return will be very much appreciated. The results should prove interesting. If you wish a review of the results when the study is completed, just let us know and we will be happy to oblige. Thank you for your time and interest. Sincerely, Louis Romano ' Jeanne Karr Professor Project Co-director Col 1.! “5‘7. Col. 1-3 .NOM" ID 197' Form No. _______ FOR OFFICE USE ONLY ADMINISTRATIVE ASPIRATION QUESTIONNAIRE GENERAL DIRECTIONS: This questionnaire is designed to obtain the opinions of professors of Big Ten universities concerning their administrative aspiration. Aspiration is a term used to describe the seeking after or actively applying for a particular level of educational administration. It is an important issue regarding equal employment oppor- tunities for all administrative applicants. What is wanted is your own point of view about each of the statements in Parts I, II, and III of the questionnaire. Part I indicates actual administrative positions: Part II simply seeks demographic data to aid in analyzing results obtained. Your answers will be kept strictly confidential and at no time will individuals be identified. After reading each item in Part III, indicate the extent of agreement with your point of view on each item by encircling the apprOpriate response selected. PART I Answer each item under "Level of Aspiration" with an appropriate response from below. Numbers may be used as often as necessary. -- I have already applied for this position. -- I would aspire to this position. It is unlikely that I would aspire to this position. -- I would never apply for this position. «thu-I I I Level of Aspiration: 1. Chief Academic Officer 2. Dean of a Major College 3. Administrative Vice President 4. College President 5. Other (Please specify) Part II Demographic Data Answer each of the following questions: 1. What is your age? 3. What is your sibling placement in 1 ) 1. 20-29 your family? ) 2. 30-39 () l. Youngest child 3; 3. 40-50 () 2. Second youngest to middle 4. Over 50 () 3. Middle child E) 4. Middle to second oldest 2. What is your sex? ) 5. Oldest child () 1. Male () 6. Only child () 2. Female '198 9. How many years have you been teaching?,, Nhat is your marital status? ()1 Single g: 51;“ Mr E; 2. Married 3. 5-10 3. Married with children 4. 11-15 E; 4. Divorced/widowed with children 5; 5. 15 or more 5 Divorced/widowed without children 0 5 599"“th 10. Identify the educational conmunity in u now eachin . How many children do you have? "hifi? ’fiibgfie t g E ;- gne I; 2. Suburban ( 3 Two-four () 3. Rural ( 4 F‘Ve 0' more 11.. Did you actively participate in sports 19 What is your present teaching level? ?§ : y°¥§2$ () 1 Assistant professor ( 2: Individual (1 2 Associate P'Of955°' (3 3. Both team and individual (I 3 FUII professor () 4. Did not participate What is your racial group? () 1. Native American () 2 Black 12. How many years did your mother 20 E) 3 Asian American work during your growing years? ) 4 Caucasian Either full or part-time? () 5. Hispanic () 1. O () 6. American Indian () 2. 1-5 () 7. Other () 3. 6-10 () 4. All What level of education have you completed? () 1 Doctorate 13. Have you ever worked for a female 21 () 2 Graduate hours beyond Master's administrator? () 3 Master's degree () 1. Yes () 4 Bachelor's degree () 2. No 22 23 2h 25 26 27 26 29 30 31 32 DIRECTIONS: 199 RATING SCALE: Cultural Considerations 10. 11. My colleagues would react unfavorably if I became an administrator. For psychological and social reasons, men are more effective administra- tors than women. Nomen are better organizers than men. women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently. In a given task, women are more likely to ask for help or rely on others in face of a threat than are men. In general, I consider women not as dependable as men because of women's biological and personal character- istics. A male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career-oriented wife. Women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. Men know more than women about how to seek and obtain opportunities to become administrators. Homen lack the drive to become administrators. College women who attempt to compete with men usually do so at the expense of their popularity or social life. II I Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strong Disagree Encircle your response to each item. Strongly Agree 1 Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Disagree 2 3 4 5 33 3h 38 3! “I *2 “3 Eds. 12. 13 14 15 If A! 33 3h 35 36 37 3B 39 '00 ‘01 b2 '03 200 Educational Factors 12. Welcoming women as equals into the professional management levels may tend to downgrade the teaching profession. 13. Female students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond tradi- tional stereotypes 14. Women administrators have less power to make decisions than men. 15. I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator. 16. In my college career, most college courses were designed for male advancement and emphasis. 17. I would feel uncomfortable in a higher education administration class of all males. 18. Educational counseling enabled me to plan for advancement in my career. 19. There have been female administrators who have encouraged me to seek an administrative position. 20. Most administrators in my schooling process were male. 21. In our institution both men and women are encouraged to apply for admini- strative positions. Personal Perspectives 22. A woman can be a successful admini- strator and happily married at the same time. Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Disagree 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 55 51 52 58 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. PSYC 32. 33. 34 Mb '05 046 '47 ‘48 '49 50 SI 52 53 5'4 55 56 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 2CH I feel I need to know a few admini- strators well in order to win their support for an administrative position. I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position. My spouse would be upset if we had to move because I was selected as an administrators. In my home, I was encouraged to get a college degree. I have planned specifically for ad- vancement in higher education administration. What my spouse thinks about an admini- strative position has an influence on me. I would be eager to become an admini- strator, even if I had to move somewhere else. I have personally received encourage- ment from an administrator in my institution to apply for an admini- strative position. I have a negative image of university/ college administrators. Psychological Aspects 32. 33. 34. 35. I am satisfied with my present employ- ment and would not seek an admini- strative position. I feel confident in most leadership positions. I would be willing to further my education or training for an admini- strative position. Administrators in my institution would react favorably if I became an ad- ministrator. Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Undecided Disagree Disagree 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 57 50 53 60 61 62 63 604 65 66 67 60 69 7° 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 202 Strongly Agree I have been in my present position too long to seek an administrative position now. I like delegating tasks and working with people. Being an administrator would enhance my self image. If I applied for an administrative position, I feel I might be a top contender. I would rather not compete for an administrative position. Administrators tend to become 'out of touch" with the teaching environment. Seeking an administrative position involves too much "politics." The Horld of Hork 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. People who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles. My present position provides too much security for me to seek an admini- strative position. Men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men. ‘ The "white-male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. I see a position in higher education administration as attainable by me. Men are more often chosen for an admini- strative position than women. I am willing to “go for broke' in my quest for a position in administration. Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Disagree 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 so. ’2 51. ’3 52. 75 53. 75"354. 77"°55. 7’ 50. 72 51. 7’ 52. 7“ 53. 75-7554. 77-1355. 203 Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree I consider that working with college students is more rewarding than adni ni stration. 1 2 3 4 There is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator. I 2 3 4 Being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women. 1 2 3 4 My university or college colleagues assisted me in seeking an administra- tive position. 1 2 3 4 Please indicate your major teaching department. Uhat do you consider your primary academic (professional) responsibility? Thank you for your assistance in my efforts to improve higher education. Please return this form to: Dept. of Administration and Higher Education Michigan State University Erickson Hall, Room 406 East Lansing, MI 48824 Strongly Disagree BIBLIOGRAPHY 204 Alpal Altb Andi Ast Bee Bo Br BIBLIOGRAPHY Alpander, Guvenc 6., and Gutmann, Jean E. "Contents and Techniques of Management Development Programs for Women." ‘PerSOnnel Journal 55,2 (l976): 76-79. Altbach, Edith H. Women in America. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath and Co., l974. Andre, Rae, and Edwards, Mary 1. "Training Women in Administration." Journal of the NAWDC 42 (Fall 1978): l6-22. Astin, Alexander W. "Academic Administration: The Hard Core of Sexism in Academe." In Design for Equity: Women and Leadership in Higher Education. Editedby Carol Konek and’others. Wichita, Kansas: Wichita State University, l980. Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 200 124, 1980. BeardigMary. Woman as a Force in History. New York: Octagon Books, 76. Boocock, Sarah Spence. Sociology of Education. 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