.4. m. 3.3, 535.333.:- .... .. .é;..-_.. . ‘¢;-‘:.‘{.. .nxzzn'iu. ._ . v 213‘ - w—IA-u. . ‘ . _ . . .. “r: . . WW ‘ ' - ~ A , -. . ‘. ”:2"; _ 7 . . -. . “ -~~ M .ei‘ . , . . , . . . . - 3 , - . . i L, 7 ,, - £323? “£:’A~M§-P kw. .. 3 :Wiég is"??? L w “fixfi 'Mh‘- yfixf. 1:?"qu ifrfi ,. *3 “£131“ r :. A“? v- a" flan-1., vfy’a‘ ,.‘__“';- ... v . "l" o -,»'1£’: ‘» ' g .4. ”9..“ . J.r.. . . xi " ». ..-. utw-b | $2?” ...-..._ rr‘”: ’-o «no»... fl,“ .. ”Lil": ‘ '.' $331235 11'.- ‘ , " in: kg...» -~ ‘ ' ~ “—- .l.,-_ a ‘ ' ‘- ;:..:3.:..—.—v: 1:4? %le_.v.z-myfi3_ _ , .m- Mu. ... . . - ..... r . 3 u yum war-wag... v2. “ 2 1:33wa ' "' ' . ...‘ mo...- vow“- mn no. u- ' .A ”ugh—”v “"3” Turn 31 g. M M 'Mfi; ””‘~ . .3: -- ~ m Ffl'h'v ~r- “an" fifié‘i ’ - ... 1“ Mu: » 'u “~3- .. u _ m ....., ..-mm.m:*'m‘g “L. . .v “v Wrwi", - . -. . . . 4,9121%.“ . . , 433...: :‘2 2 ”IL, ~~ut- g-HH 5 13 41‘ w. M... “.a—~..Z;2....,,. “swan: 1w Wx; “.33; W. .. , '§:““‘1‘ I, ;" “t" 525:5 ’4 (”Yd 31.0? M... ..5::.. :‘rg‘M‘IL-FN‘ “WLKQM :N‘ .. “ti-1" 2:. )3“..— CAN STAT NIV " Iu‘imi'm 1m MMumnlifiifml‘imm ” 3 1293 01654 5695 LIBRARY Michigan State University l i PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINI return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. I DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE IMArgézuzgoe) 5) 1/98 animus-p.14 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled Attitudes on the Impact of Foreign Labor Force in Saudi Society: The Case of Jeddah City presented by Ali Sagr Al-Ghamdi ) has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctdral~ degree in Sociology V Major professor U Date September 16, 1985 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 ATTITUDES ON THE IMPACT OF FOREIGN LABOR FORCE IN SAUDI SOCIETY: THE CASE OF JEDDAH CITY BY Ali Sagr Al-Ghamdi A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology 1985 Copyright by ALI SAGR AL-GHAMDI 1985 .l' i ABSTRACT ATTITUDES ON THE IMPACT OF FOREIGN LABOR FORCE IN SAUDI SOCIETY: THE CASE OF JEDDAH CITY BY Ali Sagr Al-Ghamdi This study was primarily designed to examine Saudi citizens' attitudes toward foreign workers and the impact of labor migration on Saudi society. Aspects related to the country's influx of expatriate workers, such as demand and ethnic composition, are examined. The forms of the society's dependence on foreign labor are discussed. A survey was conducted of 508 subjects to obtain specific information on attitudes toward the impact of foreign labor. The subjects were from three occupational categories: businessmen, goverment employees, and Social Security recipients, so that low, medium and high income groups were represented. Seven hypotheses, and a simple paradigm to help explain the hypotheses, were employed to guide the research. Data were analyzed using frequency analysis, correlation coefficients, and cross-tabulation techniques. The attitudes of the Jeddah citizens in the — Ali Sagr Al-Ghamdi sample toward the foreign workers, who comprise half the country's workforce were examined. The major findings dealt with (a) respondents' socioeconomic status and relationships among background variables; (b) frequency distributions and intercorrelations among attitude variables; and (c) relationships between background variables and attitudes toward expatriate labor. Generally, it was found that foreign labor has had a negative impact on the society, with strong agreement among the respondents on the problems associated with the presence of foreign workers. Of the background variables hypothesized to affect the attitudes of Saudi citizens toward foreign labor: age, income, education, occupation, family size, cross-societal exposure, and contact with foreign workers, only occupation had a significant effect. More positive attitudes were expressed by businessmen than those in the other occupational groups. Among the various tYPes of cross-societal exposure, frequency of watching foreign television broadcasts had a significant effect on attitude, but neither exposure to foreign radio programs nor travel outside the country had similar effects. The determination, across socioeconomic groups, that the presence of a large foreign labor force has a negative imPact on Saudi society, is in conflict with findings that show a continuing need for expatriate labor in Saudi Arabia in coming years. Some policy recommendations for dealing _———__h Ali Sagr Al-Ghamdi saith this dichotomy are made and suggestions :for further research. are provided Habitation @n my Mam! father @thman Bin Ahhullaziz Bin Sagr... J behiratr this humble moth! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS At the outset of these acknowledgements I would like to thank God, who gave me the strength, patience and endurance to enable me to accomplish this simple manuscript. Sincere gratitude and appreciation are expressed to my friend, academic advisor and committee chairman, Professor Christopher K. Vanderpool for his valuable comments, encouragement, and helpful suggestions. It was an honor for me to have Professor Vanderpool as my major advisor. He is one of the most knowledgeable and distinguished professors at Michigan State University with a broad and open-minded view of the world. I would like to express my thanks to Professor Harry Schwarzweller who worked with me very closely during the analysis phase of this manuscript. Thanks is also extended to the other committee members, Profesor Allen Beegle and Professor John Gullahorn for their comments and encouragement. I would also like to thank Mr. Ahmad Al- Yahya, Deputy Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs for Saudi Arabia who provided me with a great deal of information without any reservations during the data collection phase. iii I would also like to thank the peOple in the Arab Planning Institute in Kuwait, who provided me with valuable information with regard to the labor situation in the Gulf States. Last, but not least, special thanks goes to my parents and relatives for their patience, endurance and financial support. Appreciation goes to my wife, my daughters, Huda, Hind, Hanna and my lovely son, Hani, who added so much to my life when he was born during the final stages of my graduate work. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List Of Tables.‘OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOO0.. List Of FigureSOOOOOOOOOOOOO00......OOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOO CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM.............. I Sociological Relevance of the Study.............. 3 The Structure of the Saudi Labor Force........... 4 Labor Force Participation Rates.................. 9 Organization of the Study........................ 17 CHAPTER TWO EXPATRIATE LABOR SITUATION IN SAUDI ARABIA 18 . Types of Labor Migration......................... 19 Labor Supply and Demand.......................... 29 The Impact of Foreign Labor on Saudi Society..... 39X Future Expectations for Expatriate Labor......... 49 CHAPTER THREE THEORETICAL DISCUSSION AND LITERATURE REVIEWOOOOOCOOOCOCOCOOOOOOOOCOCOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOO 54 The Impact of Foreign Labor on the Process of Social Change in Host Countries.................. 58yl.w \ CHAPTER FOUR INTERNATIONAL LABOR MIGRATION IN THE ARAB WORLDOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOI...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 66\/ Volume of Arab Labor Migration................... 7O Demographic Characteristics...................... 78 Implications for Labor Importing And Exporting ML Countries........................................ 84% Prospects for the Future......................... 905% CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY......... 99 ResearCh ParadingOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.. 101 HypotheseSOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00...... 105 V i/ Description of the Study Area............. ....... 106 Population and Sampling Strategy................. 111 Definition and Measurement of Variables.......... 114 Instrumentation.................................. 116 Data Collection.................................. 118 Statistical Analysis............................. 120 CHAPTER SIX FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS.................... 122 The Socioeconomic Status of Respondents.......... 122 Relationships Among Background Variables......... 127 Attitude Variables............................... 1382< Descriptive Analysis of Attitude Variables....... 140 Intercorrelation Between Attitude Variables...... 147 Measurement Techniques and Scale Validation...... 154 Expansion of the Findings........................ 159 Discussion and Interpretation.................... 175 /’ CHAPTER SEVEN THE NEED FOR MANPOWER PLANNING IN SAUDI ARABIA AND THE GULF STATESOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOC 180 The Importance of Developing Human Resources..... 182 Human Resources Development in the Gulf States and Saudi Arabia................................. 186 Strategies in Future Manpower Planning........... 1912K V Summary.......................................... 198/” CHAPTER EIGHT CONCLUSIONS, POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND AVENUES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH................. 200 summary Of the Findings 0 O O I O O O O O I O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I 200 \ P01 icy Recommendations 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O I 2 0 6/ Avenues for Further Research..................... 210 APPENDICES...... ...... . ................ ............... 213 Appendix A O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 2 1 3 Appendix B O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O .0 O I 2 2 1 Appendix C O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O I O O O O O I O O O I O O O O O O O O O 2 4 5 Appendix D O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O I O O I I O O I O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O I 2 4 6 BIBLIOGRAPHYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO .......... 255 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.1 Saudi Population Estimates (in Millions).......... 5 1.2 Saudi Population by Age and Sex................... 7 1.3 International Comparison of Vital Statistics for Selected Nations in the Middle East, North America, and EuropeOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOO‘OOOOOOO 8 1.4 Population, Labor Force, and Participation Rate by Age and Sex for Saudis and Non-Saudis (12 years and over), 1974.0......O000......OOOOOOOOOIIOOOOOO 12 1.5 Saudi Population Ten Years and Over by Educational Attainment, 1974 AOD. (1394 AOHO)OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 14 1.6 Employment Status of the Saudi Population Twelve Years of Age and Over by Sex and Nationality, April 1977.0...OOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOO...0.0.0.0000... 16 2.1 Estimates of Population and Work Force in Saudi Arabia..00......00......0.0.000...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 21 2.2 Sources of Foreign Labor in Saudi Arabia .......... 22 2.3 Saudi Arabia: Migrant Workers by Country or Area of Origin, Ranked by Size for l975................ 25 2.4 Summary of Foreign Nationalities in Saudi Arabia.. 26 2.5 Regional Distribution of the National and Ex- pariate Worker Population in Saudi Arabia... ...... 27 2.6 Saudi Arabia: Gross Domestic Product by Economic Activity (at Current Prices) for 1975/76.......... 32 2.7 Estimates of the Labor Elasticity of Output....... 33 2.8 Saudi Arabian Employment by Economic Sector and Nationality, 1975..OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0000... 35 vii 2.9 4.2 4.3A 4.38 4.4 4.10 Expatriate Labor According to Sex and Age (Ineludes FamilieS)OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00...... Estimated Non-Saudi Arabian Manpower by Occupational Group, 1975 and 1980 (Thousands)..... Cost of Living Index (CLI) and Rates of Inflation (RI) in Saudi Arabia 1964-1978 (1963=100)......... Number of People by Nationality (Saudis and Non- Saudis) Who Committed Serious Crimes, 1966-75 and 1977-780000000000000000000......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Convicted Offenders by Types of Crimes and Nationality in Saudi Arabia, 1978................. Saudi Arabian: Non-National Population in 1975 Projeted for 1985 (at High and Low Growth Rates).. Selected Arab States, Ranked by GNP per Capita, 1976.00.00.00000000.000.000.0000I.OOOOOOOOOOIOOOO. Comparison of Various Estimates of Arab Labor Migration (1975-1977).............................. Arab Migrant Workers in the Arab Region, 1975...... Arab Migrant Workers in the Arab Region, 1975...... National POpulations and Workforces Ranked by Size for Capital-Rich and Capital-Poor States, 1975..... Migrant Workers in the Arab Region by Country of Employment and Region of Origin, 1975.............. Demographic Characteristics, Arab Countries, 1978.. Sectoral Distribution of Local and Imported Labor Force in Selected Oil-Rich Countries (1973-1975)... Flow of Workers' Remittances and Its Share in Total Imports and Exports of Goods in Selected Labor Exporting countries...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Major Labor Countries: Total Labor Requirements 1975 and 1985, by Country (High and Low Growth RateS)coo...00.0.0...oooooooooooooooooo0000......o. Sectoral Composition and Growth of Total Manpower Requirements in the Eight Major Labor-Importing countires’ 1975' 1980 and 1985.00000000000000COOOOO viii 37 40 43 46 48 69 71 73 74 76 77 82 83 86 92 93 4.11 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 Occupational Composition and Growth of Total Manpower Requirements in the Eight Major Labor- Importing Countries, 1975, 1980 and 1985........... 95 Resolution of Labor Demand and Supply: 1975 and 1985. A More Selective Labor Market in the Capital- Rich States, Less Open to Arab Labor.......... ..... 96 Saudi and Non-Saudi Population of Jeddah City (19.78-1983)00.000000.ooooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooo 108 Distribution of Sample Subjects....................112 Distribution of the Respondents by Age.............123 Distribution of the Respondents by Level of EducationOOOOOOOOOO...0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.124 Distribution of the Respondents by Income Group....125 Distribution of Respondents by Type of Occupation..126 Age of Respondents by Level of Education (in PercentS)0.00...O0.00000000000000000000.0.0.0000000128 Age of Respondents by Level of Income (in percent).129 Age of Respondents by Type of Occupation (in percent).0.0I...0......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ..... 130 Age of Respondents by Size of Family (in percent)..131 Level of Education of Respondents by Level of Income (in percent)......................... ....... 132 Respondents' Level of Education by Type of Occupation (in percent)............................133 Respondents' Level of Education by Family Size (in Percent)0.0000000000000000000000000...0.. ..... .134 Level of Income of Respondents by Type of Occupation (in percent)OOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.00.00.135 Respondents' Level of Income by Family Size (in percent)O...OOOOOOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.136 Respondents' Type of Occupation by Family Size (in percent)O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.137 ix 6.17 6.18 Means and Standard Deviations (SD) of Attitude variables.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...IOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.141 Frequency Distribution to Attitude Questions Suggesting That Foreign Labor is a Mutual/ Dependency Need and Positive Influence.............142 Frequency Distribution to Attitude Questions Suggesting Solutions to the Problem................144 Frequency Distribution of Responses to Attitude Questions Suggesting Foreign Labor had Negative Social/Economic Influences.........................146 Significant Correlations Between Attitude variables.O000......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.0..148 Biserial Correlation Showing Relationships Between Eight-Item Attitudinal Scale Score and Other Questions, Ranked by Overall Strength of Correlation........................................156 Correlation Between Scale Score and Other Attitude Variables, Showing Chi—Square and Gamma Values.....158 Age of Respondents and Attitude Toward Foreign Labor (In percent)OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.00000000160 Respondents' Level of Education and Attitudes Toward Foreign Labor (in percent)..................162 Level of Income of Respondents and Attitude Toward Foreign Labor (in percent).........................163 Type of Occupation of Respondents and Attitudes Toward Foreign Labor (in percent)..................164 Family Size of Respondents and Attitudes Toward Foreign Workers (in percent).......................166 Travel Outside Saudi Arabia and Degree of Attitude (in percentS)OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOI00.0.00000000000000167 Frequency of Travel and Respondents' Attitude Toward Froeign Workers (in percents)...............168 Respondents' Contact with Foreign Workers and Attitude Toward Foreign Labor (in Percents)........170 Type of Contact and Respondents' Attitudes Toward Foreign Labor (in percents)........................170 Frequency of Contact and Degree of Attitude (in percent).00...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.00000000000000171 Respondents' Attitudes Toward and Employment of Foreign Labor (in percent).........................172 Respondents' Attitudes and Experiences Employing Foreign Workers (in percent).......................173 Frequency of Watching Foreign Broadcasts and Attitudes Toward Foreign Workers...................174 Frequency of Listening to Foreign Radio Broadcasts and Respondents' Attitudes (in percent)............175 Incrmental Expatriate Labor Flows to Selected Arab Oil Exporting Countries (in Thousands)........181 Countries Grouped by Levels of Human Resource Development According to Composite Index...... ..... 187 Corelation Coefficients: Indicators of Human Resource and Economic Development..................188 xi LIST OF FIGURES Saudi Male Labor Force Particiation Rates by Age Group, April 1977.......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0010 Sources of Foreign Labor in Saudi Arabia...........23 Regional Distribution of National and Expatriate workers in saudi Arabia.....OOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0000000028 Age-Sex Pyramid of the Non—National Population, saudi Arabia, 1974.00.00.0000000000000..0.0.0.0....38 Employed Nationals and Non-Nationals in the Major Oil-Producing Countries, 1975......................72 Major Movements of Migrant Workers in the Middle East (1973 to Present)0.0.00.0...0.0.0.00000000000080 Paradigm of Attitude Formation.......... ........ ..102 The Study Area -- Jeddah City.....................109 Jeddah Population Growth Trends...................110 World Trends and Future Prospects..... ......... ...184 Manpower Planning Model...........................194 xii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM Saudi Arabia is one of the most powerful countries in the Middle East with vast amounts of wealth generated primarily from oil revenues. , This wealth has clearly contributed 'to the rapid social change and the development which is currently visible. During the past decade, more sectors of the Saudi economy have been transformed, guided mainly by a series of Five Year Plans. Consistent with these plans there has been an increasing demand for foreign labor to fulfill the social and developmental requirements of the development plan objectives. Consequently, the country has been inundated with foreign workers coming from diverse cultural backgrounds. The focus of this research is primarily to determine Saudi citizens' attitudes toward foreign labor and other aspects of labor migration into Saudi Arabia, including the demand for foreign labor. Most importantly, the impact of foreign labor on the Saudi society is also an integral part of this research. Saudi Arabia has been importing labor since the 19503 when the government embarked on its ambitious development 1 plans. The Kingdom has a relatively small indigenous workforce of 1.5 million, out of a population of approximately 7 million. This distribution of the workforce is due to a rather young demographic structure, moreover, the country's customs and policies have restricted .women's participation in the economy to a limited number of occupations. Hence the country remains one of the largest employers of foreign labor in the Arab World (U.N., 1982). The presence of two or three million foreign workers in Saudi Arabia has had tremendous impact on Saudi society, positively as well as negatively. Some of the positive effects include resolving indigenous labor shortages in almost all economic sectors, such as road construction, agriculture, and industry. On the other hand, the negative effects have been felt in an increased crime rate, greater pressure on public services such as education and health care, inflation and limited involvement of the local population in the economy. This study examines the Saudi citizens' attitude toward these impacts of the foreign labor force on Saudi society and more specifically in the city of Jeddah. Jeddah is a cosmopolitan city which attracts people from many parts of the world. In addition, this study will attempt to trace the forms of the Saudi society's dependence on foreign workers. ~a—-Q7_ r" r- “‘1’! A. ".w in} Sociological Relevance of the Study The sociological importance of this study lies in its effort to probe the attitudes of groups of Saudi citizens (government employees, private businessmen and social security beneficiaries) toward the impact of foreign labor. The findings of the study isolate existing sentiments from a diverse Saudi population about their perceptions of the role which foreign labor plays in the Saudi economy and society. To the researcher's knowledge, this is the first such study conducted in Saudi Arabia, therefore, its findings may have important sociological implications. The importation of foreign labor ‘was considered economically justifiable when development of the indigenous labor force was in its infancy and lagging behind societal demand. This situation has changed as a result of the government's five-year plan to develop Saudi human resources. Substantial changes may be observed, for example, in the field of higher education. Such changes mean an increasing general awareness among Saudi citizens' that they should determine the country's economic destiny. However, it should not be assumed that this attitude- prevails. This study, therefore, was designed to investigate whether or not Saudis' prevailing attitudes toward the continued presence and impacts of a large foreign labor force are variable in nature. Sociologically, this study is intended to identify similarities and/or differences in attitudes between the different Saudi groups. While the focus here is to find out whether or not there are different reactions to the impact of foreign labor, the findings from this study may contribute to and generate further inquiry into foreign labor migration into societies similar to Saudi Arabia. The Structure_of the Saudi Labor Force: POpulation There is no reliable estimate of the actual size of the Kingdom's population. Different sources indicate various estimates (See Table 1.1). For example, Birks and Sinclair estimated there were 4,592,500 in 1975: the United Nations Demographic Yearbook, estimated the Saudi population at about 9.68 in 1982. The World Bank Report estimated the population of Saudi Arabia at about 10 million. The Saudi government claims that the total population of the country as of the 1974 Census was 7,012,642 including non-Saudis and Saudi natives who were living within the country's boundaries, as well as Saudi citizens who, were living outside the country (Gadi, 1979:63). It seems to me that the United Nations' and the World Banks' estimates are highly inflated, and a more reasonable estimate is 7 million. mmaummma .amcooa unwnom eona emanate "momDOm c.oa mmma mmma mo.m mmma amma omma o.a mama mama ~m.m aama mv.a e~.m mama mm.v ~.m om.m am.a am.a mama om.v ao.a aa.m am.a mama mm.v am.a mv.m mama ~m.o a~.m mama mv.o am.a aama mm.o va.a oama mm.m ac.o mm.a mmma mm.m mm.a mmma ~a.a aoma mm.m coma ma.m moma am.a coma ~¢.m mama am.m mm.o Noma Na.o amma mm.m coma xcmm HflMHOCflm mDmch HOHCOU ZD OJH\.mZH mflmch Hm0> cauoz nmxuam .m.: cmdme .<.m amcoaaaaz sav maumsaumm c0aumasaom ansmm "a.a mqm<9 Awwad (1979) provides a breakdown of the population by age and sex for Saudis and non-Saudis (Table 1.2). Of his 6,726,466 total, 5,935,361 were Saudis (excluding those living outside the country); non-Saudis accounted for 791,105 (or 11.3 percent) of the total population (Awwad, 1979:25). It should be noted that the country's official population census, which was taken in 1974 does not include all the vital statistics. Table 1.3 shows an international comparison of vital statistics of several countries including Saudi Arabia. It is clear from the table that Saudi Arabia's vital statistics (as of 1979) were among the worst in the oil producing countries. The death rate in Saudi Arabia was 20.2 per 1,000 of the population, while in Kuwait it was 5.3. 'Life expectancy in Saudi Arabia was 45 years, while in Kuwait it was 71.5 years. Inhabitants per hospital bed and per physician in Saudi Arabia were respectively 897 and 4,995, while in Kuwait they were 150 and 800, respectively. Infant mortality in Saudi Arabia was over 110 per 1,000 births, while in Kuwait it was 44.3. Seventy percent of Saudis are illiterate while Kuwait had only a 20 percent illiteracy rate (Gadi, 1979:29). Labor Force Structure The total labor force of an economy is composed of the civilian labor force and non-civilian labor force who are either working or seeking jobs. The labor force is a be Uwauaovam “Oz. o~umama .u«::< "mozaom om..o~a.o aaa.mva.a ama.oam.a naa.ama ca..~o~ aao.m~m aoa.mam.m ma~.amm.~ ~mo.m.o.a an.oa “am.a aaa ~a¢.a aaa aoa man «so sea on. ..m.z aam..m~ coa.maa aa¢.maa oaa.o .au.a .ao.a «am.ava mon.moa ama.~aa +mo vao.mo_ m~m..a Gmo.am oma.~a ova.“ avm.o .aa.oma mao.om mma.om .G-oo osm.moa cam... o.m.oo .m..m mna.n mm¢.o Naa.mm amm.ma amm.oo mm-mm mem.c.~ m~m.om o.m..aa oaa.- «am.a aan..a moo.mma -m.om asa.mm .m-om asa.mo~ cac.am. a-.-a .oa..~ -~.o mao.ma oom..ma a...mo ova..oa m.-m. nam.mm~ ocm.maa ma..eoa ama... mm..aa maa.on «va.am~ amo.a~a amo.oMa ..-a. mm_.a.a ama.mma .ma.aoa oao.on coo..a one... mmn..m~ ama.a.a .oa.a.a ma-ma «am.ama mm..maa aao.nc~ vao.oa aoo.o~ aao.an aam.~oa amo.am_ oo~.mva .n-am oam.aav aam..o~ mmn.on~ «am.aoa coa.e~ www.ma naa.oan mon.maa ..a.oea m~-m~ ~mo.~am «am.aaa o.o.o¢~ ovm.oaa amo.n~ mma.aa amm.aav aaa.oma .mc.aa~ .~-c~ amo.mmo .mm.oaa mv~.aon .mn.oa oom.o~ oma.am amv.amn nmm.ma~ omv.moa ma-ma amm.amm aaa.mc. www.mvv «am.au o~m.o~ aoa.oa moa.ama aaa.ama mam.mov .a-ca ma..vaa.a mmm.oom oma.nam .aa..a was... maa.nv mo..mvc.a vam.mam amv.m~m m-m ama.oom mo~.amv a.m.ma. nmm.em nae.ma «ca.av mma.mam amm.a.. oo~.aav v-a aaa.mma ama.~m «so.am mNa.ma m-.m .am.m vam.moa oun.~m ova.ao tam» use finch. «no; aaa09 massed onmm munch canton mam: a~a0h oameom 0am: 9mm coauuaszd aaaoe awcsamncoz. nacsam new and ou< an coaumasaom «gnaw am.a 32¢... amumama .aUso "muzssm .aama. .Nama. .aama. .aam_. .Gama. ..am.. ...no. manao._muz m... v~o no. o.aa ..m o.~a ocm.~ m.~n .o..o om..m x.us:aa .sama. .sama. .oama. .oama. .aama. .aama. «an.o.aoaz ~.m_ aao caa aa m.m o.va .mm.mm a.oma.a mam.a aam.a_~ modern ouaaca .coaaaae. om .<.z mvv.o~ mvv.a ma o.o~ o.m. cam coo ma. omo.a cyan» .mama. ...no. mo .<.z maa.a ova an a... m. amo va amm.m coo.~ uaa.s .aama. .vama. .oama. ma ... «mm ... .<.z ma on ca. a.o aam.m oaa musataam as: auras: .aama. . .vama. ...mo. .ouacazou. ma N. cam em a. .ma on no ~.v oca.~. om. .asno .mnaa. .mnaa. ..umw. .oualaaau. c~ a... com on. .n.aa a.m a.a. eon o.~a mm..aa oco.a arcane .aama. .nama. ca caa .cao mmm.. amm no ~.a~ m.mv oeo.a m. on..o ocm.a manet< .usam a .3..an coa.a ..ama. ..ama.uoa am.aoa. one: .mama. oc¢.a .oama .oama m. aura-arm» atscaou >oauo sod. >aaa~a cma0aa>nm acumdnoz aocaauoaxm sumo: coo.a boa canon coaaaan m. osoocn onoa coo.a. nuaaaa nuo: acmuca Com nucauabmnca mug; ouausauam gonna .a.z.c muaaao hum coauaaaoom .oaopsm one .aoauoa< saga: .uaaa oaocaz function of an economy's population, labor demand, labor supply, wages, etc. (Jakubauskas and Palomba, 1973:7). Saudi labor law does not clearly specify a certain age for employment, but Article 163 of the law specifies that "a juvenile who has not completed thirteen years of age shall not be employed, nor shall he or she be allowed to enter places of work." (Awwad, 1979:32) The Saudi labor force thus consists of those individuals who are twelve years and over and either employed or seeking employment, including those serving in the armed forces. The Saudi population census classifies the country's population of twelve years of age and over as either: (a) employed, (b) unemployed, (c) students, (d) housewives, (e) retired, (f) individual income, (g) disabled (invalid) or (h) not specified (Ibid:32). Labor Force Participation Rates According to Jakubauskas and Palomba, the labor force participation rate is that percentage of the population which is in the labor force (either employed or unemployed) at a given period of time (1973:8). Participation by Age and Sex The data in Figure 1.1 show the Saudi Arabian male labor force participation rates are highest for the group 40 10 Saudi Male Labor Force Participation Rates by Age Group April, 1977 1 % 100% 93.2 93.1 93.5 923 1'7 862 j 1 _ 81.7 8 /. —-’ j “,1 —-~= — ~- 4— 80% 724 d I V in i-_ 70.5 °/. . —~ —-, ~ ~ —. - — ~ 60% 44,5 40% — A — — — —-' ... - a - a~40°/. 33.3 20%- 13.5 " L"V“ “'1’ ~ -‘ _‘ i _“ _. "‘ "‘ '- V“ “'200/0 6.9 0% ~ a _. . . W o 12 16 18 20 25 30 35 4O 45 50 55 60 65+ 0 to to to to to to to to to to to to 15 17 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 Age Group Source: Saudi Arabia. Ministry of Finance and National Economy. Central Department of Statistics. Labor Force Statistics in Saudi Arabia 1397 A.H. - 1977 A.D.. n.p. Figure 1.1: Saudi Male Labor Force Participation Rates by Age Group, April, 1977 11 to 44 years of age, but are close to the peak for the 30 to 34 year old group. The 25 to 29 year-age group rates are relatively low because a large number of these males are still enolled in higher education. The data in Table 1.4 showing labor force participation rates by sex and age group, make it clear that participation in the labor force is highest among males aged 30 to 50 years and is over 75 percent for males of all ages. In contrast, the participation rate of females of all ages is only 5.4 percent. Awwad (1979:37,38) points out that the low female participation rate in the labor force may be attributed to several factors: (1) soCioeconomic circumstances have not yet been structured in a way to allow women to work in conditions that do not conflict with the values, traditions, and religion of the Saudi culture; (2) women who are not in the labor force are either full-time housewives or full-time students; (3) the span of occupations open to women is limited to teaching, nursing, and social services; (4) although economic forces have emerged with modernization and the nuclear family which motivate women's participation in the labor force, facilities, like day care centers, are not available to help mothers with young children to enter the labor force: (5) although female labor force participation has not been studied, it is anticipated that there is a high correlation between females, marital status and labor force 12 Unauauvam 432. amumaoa .em:2< "au223m ~.vv vv.m -.on opa.moo._ -..ao. on..mon.. nnm.m¢o.v NMa.mvm.. .a..ov~.~ .uaos 5.5. nc.n av.an one - fine «an.. ..n .nc.~ ..m.z a..~ Mm.. aa.n. a...no «on.~ ppm.ao pnm.vm~ oc..m.~ .no.mn. .mo p.~v .o.~ oo.a~ omw.~n~ opa.~ coo.a~.. oao.nn~ oao.n.. ~vo.vo_ co-mm e.vm ~v.m on.va mo~.o- op~.o «oo.n- o-.a~. amm.no. nom.om~ .n-m. n..n ...n «v.5a as..cmn co..o. a.¢.¢.n ¢-.~.o “ma.nm~ m-.oqn vv-mm ...m a... no.9o ~on.n.v o-.o. .vo.o~. .sv.o.o «am.aan onv.am. cm-m~ m._m am.a o..vo mac.am~ one..a .oa.nv~ ~ao.~cm ~mo.~.~ cvo.aa~ .~-o~ v.~n ~o.~ an.nm oa~.~.~ pvn.a~ ava.na. poo.oao ~om.oom o.~.men a.-n. ..- am.a. -.nn mam..a. o...m~ a:..oa aao.~m. noa.nm~ mm.»mm~ o.-~_ ~Na0h. o~m¢0m GHQ: «much. flmfllflh 0am! aduOh. mefiom Q—m! 96¢ can: co_uamuuuuuam canon gonna coaumuzmom vno. .co>o ace maao> Na. nuoaamncoz 0cm nuoaam now new use 00¢ >3 ouam coda~Q«04aucm Uca .oouoa boom; .cowumqaaom v.— uaa<é l3 participation and educational status and labor force participation in Saudi Arabia; (6) another factor that might contribute to the low participation rate of women is that some of the occupations are carried out within the home by unpaid family workers. Many of the women performing this type of work do not appear to have been enumerated in the census as workers. Participation by Educational Attainment Generally speaking, the educational status of the labor force is low; illiteracy continues to be a major problem among the Saudi population. The data presented in Table 1.5 show that in 1974 about 66.2 percent of the native population ten years old and over were illiterate, another 3.2 percent of the population read only, while 16.7 percent were considered literate. The illiteracy rate in Saudi Arabia is still considered higher than the illiteracy rate in some other Arab countries (Awwad, 1979:32). The high rate of illiteracy in Saudi Arabia translates into a greater number of people in the unskilled labor force, which poses a serious constraint on economic productivity. Women in the Labor Force Saudi women represent a large pool of human resources that have been largely underutilized. Their low 14 TABLE 1.5: Saudi Population Ten Educational Attainment, Years and Over by 1974 A.D.,(l394 A.H.) Percent Education of the Level M E Total Total Illiterate 1,043,711 1,496,788 2,540,499 66.2 Reading Only 75,075 46,431 121,506 3.2 Literate 461,829 177,474 639,303 16.7 Education N.S.* 4,548 11,237 15,785 0.4 Elementary School 223,301 70,836 294,137 7.7 Intermediate School 89,875 20,962 110,837 2.9 Intermediate Institute 9,208 6,489 15,697 0.4 Secondary School 41,733 5,772 47,505 1.2 Secondary Institute 8,748 3,012 11,760 0.3 Diploma 5,862 128 5,990 0.2 Institute (Voc.,Tech.,etc) 4,593 550 5,143 0.1 University Degree 16,616 795 17,411 0.5 Certificate N.S.* 8,178 2,433 10,611 0.2 Total 1,993,277 1,842,907 3,836,184 100.0 SOURCE: Awwad, 1979:31 *Not Specified 15 participation in the labor force has contributed to an increased demand for imported foreign labor. Saudi women did not enter the public sector until the beginning of the 19603 because of the previously cited economic, social and cultural factors. These factors still limit their full participation in the labor force. The data presented in Table 1.6 show that the total female population of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabian and non- Saudi Arabian, was 2,174,926. The percentage of the female labor force relative to the female population was 5.94 percent; 4.32 percent were Saudi Arabian and 1.62 percent were non—Saudis. Also, there were 93,960 Saudi Arabian working women of the 1,940,007 women in the Saudi population, or 4.84 percent, and 35,258 non-Saudi Arabian working women of the total 234,919 non-Saudi women in Saudi Arabia or 15 percent (Gadi, 1979:117). According to the Third Development Plan, the rate of women's employment in Saudi Arabia is expected to reach six percent between 1980 and 1985. This rate of participation is still very low, and unless government policies change, women will still be restricted to certain occupational categories. The government of Saudi Arabia, however, pledges to increase employment opportunities for women because some Saudi officials believe that the huge influx of foreign labor has serious socio-cultural implications. These officials are convinced that one solution to the 16 Hmumnaa .uomo "mumDOm oao.mom.a am.am www.moo.m ame.mea mmo.vaa Ahm.nma.d mmm.mao.aemv.nmm.a sauce ammumm He.o Hom.mma vwnwm m-.m moo.m~ oemwoa aam.e~ Hosmmucoz oom.mm am.a hvo.m4m.n omo.v~ coo.vm Noa.omm mmm.omm.~eoo.ova.n Hosmm mam mmn mm.~ moa.mvo.~ omm.o~ mm~.¢m Hmm.m~v moo.eqm.nmma.qaa.~ sauce wdmemh Nooumao mm.ma mao.smn pmm.na mom.m wmm.eaa www.mn omo.mmm Hosmmncoz omp.monun mm.m~ mma.nom ~o>.oon www.mv cam.mam noo.mm mmm.mom.~ Assam Nam «so a Hm.hm ova.mmm voo.mnfl Aom.sm www.man mmm.mm mmm.-m.~ sauce 028: coHumHsmom mconmom xuoz Cu Hoonom muommox c0aumazmom xuflamcoflumz Lonesz.uuo unmouom Hmuoe uozuo manna: o» oo immso: Hmuoe couch Loam; ouuom Donna :H uoz puma «acne .muflHMCOAHmz 0cm xom >n uo>o Cam mac we mumo> o>Hmze coHumasmom Hcsmm ecu mo naumum ucoe>oHQEmhw:H.mqmma mnuohma opummmn omma . mean ohms mama smuH any oumm suzouw UoHHmEH Anconumm mo mpcmnsocu. mmumeflumm wanmb< Hpamm 2H muuom xuoz can coflumasaom mo mmumEaummua.N mqmoo Hosmm >n coma: muwcuo “mauflw mum>flua cuH3 oeomv muwwcaoco an>flo «mamauaccumu .mumaonma omannxm momaumuouco :ofiuusuumcoo Ucm ocfl>w>u3m msofium> mo mmmonmem cam mumxuo: HHO mufiummEOU "mum>au© "Azmw my muouonma Hmscme.muwuoan coaafixm Anamoaousm LOm >Hamflooamm. nofiunmeon .num>fiuc nuouonma Hmzcme 30w m .numuonma cmaaaxm nuocmpumm .mcmH0auu .mcmflUwccuoy guano: Ucm mucuooo .cwenocmuu ucm ibcwdoccfl Hmcoflmmuoo .>ufiam:oHumc :30 Laws» mo moflucoom Hmucmecum>om 0cm meuwm baa: mamauflcnomu 0cm muoomcmz icomcu>mm .czs .ooemu< .a.mv neuwm .m.: 0cm nmwucoo< .mUHCMLOOE .mcmwuflccomu Iowan 26 .m.: mafia ooh mans con mafia con Aaanmcmuauno Assam can: >cme. oom.a ob ooo.~ ooo.~ on oom.a mafia oom.H ooo.m 0» ooo.~ Amocmum a >cmeumo .camafium scum comm com usonm Ucm mama -HmuH omm noun: cos made oom.~ mmauohma .numz "monsom ..mgmmnmms mammCOUcH macsaaanaca cmmmn mflameom Ammuuflum >Humosv mflaoncum MHGCH :mumflxmm odousm ucwecuo>oo .m.D >9 Um>oHaem >Hch: mafia com.w mmDMum Gouda: moaunoeoc .mumcommu .nuoxcmn .nxuoao "ocmuu cH occ.va cmcsm moumeeoo can mcoflmnmmoum ooo.om ou ooo.oa cocmnoq ucmE>oHQ50 nmannxmtaemm cam omdnaxm .mconmmmmoua ooo.oa on ooo.om mna>m cosmmmcfinzn 30m m .mu0uma imcmuu .mumflamcuSOH .mumnommu Hoonom ooo.om ambuon Amucmpcmamp suflz 30m moaumoeoc .muouonma Hmacm: >H0>HumHmuv ooo.ooa Cu ooo.om swam» Aaflcmcmuwuwu apsmm womb» ca saumoz can: somec ooo.oma on ooo.o~H ussmncom: Godummsuoo ucm:fleocoum . Amwcoccomoo mcflpaauch cflmfluo nonesz mumsflx0uaac MHDMH< fivsmm Ca mwflufiamcofluflz cmamuom «0 >umEE3muv.N m4m¢9 27 Table 2.5: Regional Distribution of the National and Expatriate Worker Population in Saudi Arabia P0pulation Eastern Central Northern Western Southern Total Saudi 537 1,140 528 1,494 1,041 4,740 Expatriate 151 266 43 688 129 1,340 Total 688 1,406 571 2,182 1,233 6,080 Source: Sirageldin and others, 1984:39. the administrative regions in Saudi Arabia. Clearly, the Western region has the largest population base. Increased commercial activities have attracted Saudis from other regions and the boom of the 19705 generated such a great demand for labor that it caused enormous expatriate inflows. By 1975 more than half the expatriates were living in the Western region. The Northern region, with its low level of economic activity has attracted the smallest number of both Saudis and expatriates. The Central region has the second largest population of both Saudis and expatriates in an area where government, finance and related functions are the main activities. The Southern region ranks next, where the main activity of the population is agriculture. The Eastern region contains the second smallest-national population, but a relatively larger expatriate population, probably because it is the center of the most important industry in the «.3244. 33m 5 mums—.83 33:.”me can amcowumz mo cofiuzfluuma Hocofiwom "~28. “spam: 28 C 48— ...a E 52385 Homecom . a 4 < a 8:5. com o 1 «32:5 :oEo> .o .mdd wait—maxw ' 225m '1 Km - Eoctoz can - 52.8w 8N.— . cansom 83 - .9.ch coczm mafia - 5233 3.89 22o... .22 I! cadmium _ :9. m39< 5.5m E 99:25 32.696 can 3:232 co :otsntuma .9353. v x > 553.. 29 country (Sirageldin, 1984:39). Siryani (1980:12) has indicated that a large proportion of these migrants entered the country after 1964. However, it was between 1970-1975 that about 60 percent of the total migrants entered the country during the economic boom. Labor Supply And Demand Labor supply in an economy is related to its population and the population's choice between work and leisure, as well as workers' choices between alternative occupations (Gadi, 1979:6). The relatively small size of the Saudi population, and its low rate of labor force participation has severely limited the size of the country's indigenous labor force. As Jakubauskas and Palomba (1973:64) explain: Changes in the size and nature of population can have far-reaching effects on the welfare of an economy. Population quality and quantity can af- fect the quality and quantity of the labor supply; population growth can exert an influence on the quantity and composition of savings and investment: and population changes can affect a nation's stan- dard of living. The whole question of population growth is a relative question. The burden of pop- ulation must be considered in terms of the resource patterns of the region; the level of technology and the educational and skill level of the labor force. Sources outside Saudi Arabia suggest that the number of economically active non-nationals was 773,400 in 1975. The best estimate of the total population of Saudi Arabia in 30 1974/75 was 6.1 million persons, with some 4.59 million or 74.6 percent of these being Saudi Arabian nationals and 1.56 million or 25.4 percent non-nationals. Workforce estimates were 1.8 million, of whom 1.03 million or 57.0 percent were nationals and 773.400 or 43.0 percent were migrants (Birks and Sinclair, 1980:97). As previously noted, this large proportion of foreign workers is a relatively recent phenomenon. The non-Saudi population during the 19505 and 19605 was increasing but remained rather small, until the great expansion in the 19705. It will most likely continue to grow both in absolute and relative terms through the mid-19805. Future changes in labor supply will arise from both sources: Saudi population and expatriate population (Sirageldin and Others, 1984:29). The Saudi economy has grown rapidly as a result of oil production and oil revenue increases over the past three decades. During the 19505, the growth rate of gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at a little under 6 percent per annum, almost identical to the rate of growth of oil production. During the 19605, growth of GDP increased to 8 percent per annum in association with an acceleration of oil production at 11.5 percent per annum. Beginning 'in the 19705 a distinction was made between oil GDP and non-oil GDP. While growth in oil production continued at the same rate as in the 19605, non-oil GDP 31 accelerated to over 10 percent in the first half of the decade, and still further to about 16 percent in the second half of the decade (Sherbiny and Serageldin, 1983:228). Table 2.6 shows these economic activities and the share of GDP for which they account. As a result of improvements in the Saudi economy, there have been changes in the country's demand for labor. Table 2.7 shows that growth of non-oil GDP from 1962 to 1975 accelerated from 8.1 percent to 10.4 percent and then tolS.8 percent. The growth in non-oil GDP can be attributed to the expansion in the economy caused by the increases in oil I revenue. With increased revenues, the other sectors in the society were also experiencing growth and expansion. Structure Of The Saudi Labor Market The labor market in Saudi Arabia can be distinguished by characteristics relative to the country's economlc position and population. According to Jakubuskas and Palomba (1973:97), labor market structure is: a set of established practices which are applied consistently in carrying out the various employ- ment functions, such as recruitment, selection, assignment to jobs, wage payment, and separation. These established practices create a 'rule of law' in employment matters and their main effect is to limit managerial discretion in the solution of employment problems. 32 Table 2.6: Saudi Arabia: Gross Domestic Product by Economic Activity (at Current Prices) for 1975/76 Economic Activity GDP ($Million) Percent Agriculture, forestry and fishing 488 1.0 Mining and quarrying 33,888 72.0 Manufacturing 2,201 4.7 Electricity, gas and water 105 0.2 Construction 3,545 7.5 Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels 1,428 3.0 Transport, storage and communi- cation 1,777 3.8 Finance, insurance, real estate and business services 923 2.0 Community, social and personal services 219 0.5 Public administration and defence 1,151 2.4 Other Services 1.358 2.9 GDP (producer values) 47,083 100.0 Source: Birks and Sinclair, 1980:103 33 Table 2.7: Estimates of the Labor Elasticity of Output Growth of Non Growth of Period Oil GDP (dx/x) Labor (dL/L) 1962/63- 1969/70 8.1% 7.4% .91 1969/70- 1974/75 10.48 7.2% .69 1974/75- 1978/79 15.88 10.0% .63 dx/x = relative change in output dL/L = the relative change in labor input SOURCE: Sherbiny and Serageldin (1982:23). Saudi Arabia shares several labor market characteristics with other capital-rich states in the Arab world. Some features they have in common are large inflows of expatriate labor, massive training programs, and minimal institutional rigidities in the functioning of the market. The national work force is relatively small, the participation rate is very low as few women are employed outside their homes, and the majority of the local population is illiterate. The economy depends heavily on expatriate labor both quantitatively and qualitatively. Expatriates make up an increasingly large portion of the employed workforce, from about 27 percent in 1970 to 40 34 percent in 1975 and about 53 percent in 1980. Workers have crossed international borders to the Saudi labor market in response to the country's large demand for labor which far exceeded local supply (Sirageldin, 1984:22). In some sectors non-national employment has been particularly high. Table 2.8 shows that expatriates comprised more than 50 percent of the workforce in five economic sectors: manufacturing, electricity, construction, trade, and finance. The table also shows that more than half of the Saudi labor force is engaged in agriculture and related activities (Ibrahim, 1982:97). Sirageldin and others (1984:22) explain what this means: this massive inflow of foreign labor has important conceptual implications both for the functioning of the market and for the development of Saudi labor. Expatriate labor is expected to reduce imbalances in supply and demand in the various segments of the market, this may tend to speed the adjustment mechan- ism. It may reduce the mobility of the Saudi workers since the incentives, in terms of wage benefit differential are being reduced. Demographic Characteristics Of Expatriate Labor Choaci (1977:422) has indicated that the Arab Middle East in general represents a demographically closed system, in that its demographic characteristics have not been influenced by large scale out-migration. Almost all movement across national boundaries is within the region itself and is temporary in nature. In this context, four 35 055.0555 .a5m5uc5m 6cm mxu5m "momDOm c.5m oom.mm5.5 o.oo5 cos.m55 o.oO5 ocm.m5o.5 58505 o.mm oo5qmom 5.55 505.555 o.55 OO5.555 m805>umm 5mconuom w xuecseeou 5.5a OO5.55 m.o omm.m m.o om5.m mocmasmc5 a mocmc5m 5.05 omm.mo5 0.5 om5.om 5.5 oom.55 co5umo5cseeoo a oomMOum .uuoamcmne m.5m o05.5m5 0.55 oom.555 5.5 oom.om 86855 558005 a 850:2 o.m5 oom.mm5 5.55 oov.5o5 5.5 oom.mm :05502508800 «.mm omm.O5 5.5 om5.m5 5.o oo5.5 50582 a mmu .>u505uu005m 5.55 oom.m55 5.55 omm.vm 5.5 omm.55 555bzuumcscm: o.5m ooo.55 m.5 ooo.55 m.5 oov.m5 220505585 a aC5c5z m.oa oom.mmm 5.5 oom.vm 5.5m oo5.omm oc5nm5m a ousuasofium< ARV acoemOHQ Hmuoe x .02 x .02 Houomm new 55m mo oumcn .ncmwnmu< 563mm Hm505um2|coz cmflnmu< 503mm mhma .au55m505umz Ucm “Ouumm Ufleocoum >9 ucmE>05dem :M5nmuc 565mm um.N m4m<9 36 types of migratory situations can be delineated, each differing according to manpower composition and attendant implications: (1) countries that export largely skilled or professional labor (most notably Egypt, but also Lebanon and Jordan); (2) countries that import a large or critical portion of their labor force, particularly skilled workers (Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and the Arab States in the Gulf region); (3) countries that export relatively unskilled workers (predominantely Algeria): and (4) countries that are relatively ”self-sufficient” and neither export nor import labor extensively (Tunisia, Moroco, Syria and Iraq). The demographic characteristics of the expatriate labor force in Saudi Arabia according to sex and age are indicated in Table 2.9. One can clearly see from Table 2.9 that a large proportion of the expatriate labor falls in the working age group, between 15—64 years for both males and females. Expatriates come to Saudi Arabia mainly to work and benefit from the wealth generated by oil revenues. Those groups under fifteen and above sixty-five both considered "dependent" populations, constitute a small percentage of the expatriate labor force. Figure 2.23 shows that the age distribution of the expatriate population is skewed in favor of the economically active age group. Nearly three-fourths of expatriate males and more than half of expatriate females are in the age range of 15-59 years. Sirageldin (1984:35) notes that since 37 Table 2.9: Expatriate Labor According to Sex and Age (Includes Families) Age Male Female Less than 15 years 24.9 44.3 15-64 years 73.6 53.2 More than 65 1.4 2.4 Unknown 0.1 0.1 Total 100.0 100.0 Source: Siryani, 1980:25 the only reason for expatriates to be in Saudi Arabia is to benefit from employment, the labor force participation rate of expatriates not only was much higher than that for the Saudis, but in all (likelihood, will) stay the same in the forseeable future. Not only do we find most expatriate labor to be disproportionately males, but one can surmise from Figure 2.3 that they are also single or unaccompanied by their spouses if they are married. This may be the case because the difficulties for families migrating are greater than for single individuals. 38 Age-Sex Pyramid of the Non-National Population, Saudi Arabia, 1974 I Female l‘ ‘ L ~ « f ' . I “ I FE r r r r :3, 10 5 5 10 Percent Age Percent Source: Sirageldin at al.. 1%. Figure 2.3: Age-Sex Pyramid of the Non-National Population, Saudi Arabia, 1974 39 The Impact Of Foreign Labor On Saudi Society Saudi Arabia has been able to realize the potential of its natural endowments, and its growth and development have been unprecedented. Thompson (1966:21) has noted that even in the 19605 Saudi Arabia had developed in such a way that it could no longer be properly described as "an island." Now its external communications reach out in every direction, providing avenues for the improved ideas and technical devices from the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, as well as from the Arab and Islamic world. As a result of its ambitious development plans, Saudi Arabia has experienced phenomenal growth. Expatriate labor has contributed immensely to this growth and expatriates have also been key beneficiaries of this growth in the economy. In the last decade alone, electricity has been provided to 2,000 villages, 15,000 kilometers of paved roads have been built, 700,000 telephones have been installed, and 300,000 housing units constructed. Health facilities have quadrupled, and the number of doctors has grown from fewer than 1,000 to 4,600. Two huge industrial complexes are underway (Ibrahim, 1982:105). It is no doubt the case that without the role which foreign labor has played, such significant changes would not have taken place. When the Second Five-Year Plan (1975-1980) was formally put together, it predicted that 812,600 foreign workers would be needed by 40 1980, an increase of 494.6 percent over 1975 (Table 2.10). Semi-skilled, service, and clerical workers were also expected to show increases of 99.7 percent, 98.1 percent, and 90.4 percent, respectively. As Ibrahim argues, Saudi Arabia's impressive growth could not have taken place without three necessary conditions: Table 2.10: Estimated Non-Saudi Arabian Manpower by Occupational Group, 1975 and 1980 (Thousands) Increase Occupational Group 1975 1980 1975-80 Managers 6.3 12.4 6.1 Professionals 15.7 23.5 7.8 Technicians and sub- professionals 31.4 81.3 49.9 Clerical workers 31.4 121.8 90.4 Sales workers 47.1 112.8 65.5 Service workers 47.1 145.2 98.1 Operatives 25.1 51.4 26.3 Skilled workers 47.1 101.9 54.9 Semi-skilled workers 62.8 162.5 99.7 TOTAL 314.0 812.6 498.6 Source: Ministry of Planning, Second Plan, p.217. 41 (1) the oil revenues (2) foreign labor (3) the leadership decision to plunge the full weight of the state into a deliberate growth process. The presence of one to two million foreign workers in Saudi Arabia has also had a role in energizing the business sector of the economy. Consumers' purchasing power has greatly expanded the domestic market and accelerated the circulation of money. Additionally, the mere presence of many foreigners and interaction between foreign workers and the indigeneous population has added a cosmopolitan dimension to many Saudi communities (Ibid:106). All of this clearly indicates that Saudi Arabia, along with many other Arab Gulf oil states, has been undergoing a rapid social transformation much of which is being carried out by increased foreign labor participation. The economic development that is underway has had and is having a great impact on individuals, families, villages and cities. At the same time, it has been a great challenge for the government to accommodate the influx of foreign labor so that it can continue to exploit the advantages derived from their presence. The negative social impacts resulting from foreign labor migration to Saudi Arabia are those that have to do with the stress and strain on the local culture and population due to sharply increased cross-cultural contact over a relatively short period of time. Because Saudi Arabia 42 is one of only two Arab countries without direct colonial experience, most of its population had remained, until mid- century, virtually locked up in the hinterland of the Arabian peninsula and removed from foreign influences (Ibrahim, 1982:106). The influence of hundreds of millions of dollars annually in oil revenues and development based on labor importation has also had negative economic and infrastructure impacts on both foreign and domestic populations in the country. Some of these negative impacts, according to Ibrahim, (1982) are inflation, mounting pressure on public services and urban sprawl. Inflation is known and feared by governments all over the world fer its politically destabilizing consequences. In Saudi Arabia, inflation has remained fairly high during the last ten years (See Table 2.11). Part of this inflationary pressure stems from vast improvements in the availability of goods brought about by the increased integration of the country into the world capitalist-based market economy. The huge influx of expatriates has primarily been felt in the major urban areas of Saudi Arabia. Along with an increased trend of internal rural—urban migration, this influx has more than doubled city population in the kingdom. In the last decade, the urban population has risen from one million to approximately two and a half million. The result 43 55555555 .5055552 55 ”555505 5.5- 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.5- 5.555 5.5- 5.555 5555 5.55 5.555 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5.55 5.555 05555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5555 5.55 5.555 5.5 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.55 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5.55 5.555 5.5 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.5- 5.55 5.5 5.555 5.5- 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.55 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.5- 5.55 5.5 5.555 5.5- 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.5- 5.55 5.5. 5.555 5.5 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.55 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.5- 5.55 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5555 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5.5 5.555 5555 55 x5555 55 x5555 55 555:5 55 x5555 Haumcmo 05555050 055mso: boom 5555u5555. mhlvom5 m5nmuc 563mm :5 AHmV c055m5m5H we mmumm cam 55405 x0055 OC5>5J mo “moo "55.N m4m<9 44 is rapid urban sprawl in the desert, which has made motor transportation indispensable (Ibrahim, 1982:117). The presence of a large expatriate labor force has induced serious pressure on public services, such as in education, health care and transportation. Since the huge influx of expatriates has arrived over a relatively short period of time, public services have not been able to expand quickly enough to keep pace with the burgeoning population. Another problem associated with the importation of labor is the manner in which it has been carried out. The need for labor has set in motion what can be accurately described as a "trade in human beings" that is as close to exploitation and greed as any other type of commerce. In Saudi Arabia, every imported worker needs to have a Saudi sponsor or Kafil, whether it is an individual or a private company, in order to provide legal justification for the workers' stay in the country. Ibrahim (1982:12) explains how this system works: The institution of the Kafil (sponsor) has several variations. In one activist version, a Kafil may travel around the neighboring countries, recruit peOple of various skills, and set them up in appropriate enterprises as employees of his or as partners. A Kafil may simply import labor and then retail it out to other local employers for a percentage of their wages. The Kafil often keeps with him the passport and all traveling documents of those individuals whom he sponsors. Thus they cannot travel in or out of the country or work for anyone else without his consent. In other words, the Kafil not only extracts a substantial profit 45 from the sponsored ones, but he also controls them almost completely while they are in the country. In the least activist version, a 52521 may lend his signature to enable potential workers from other countries to come to Saudi Arabia. They would be on their own until they found employment and would then pay their 53211 a fee. This human trade has grown over recent years and generated other problems such as crime and unemployment. The §g£i1 or sponsor is not always obligated to employ or find jobs for the people he sponsors. The sponsored may have to look for jobs by themselves, even though he still takes a percentage of their wages. In many cases, a Eéfill may recruit people who are only marginally employable, and cannot find jobs very easily. Failure to gain employment turns these individuals to crime out of a sense. of desperation, while others find crime an easier way out than working at a menial job. Thus, the importation of foreign workers has increased the crime rates in the country. Table 2.12 shows the total number of people, by nationality, who committed serious crimes from 1966 to 1975 and from 1977 to 1978. Of the total number of persons who committed crimes in 1978, we find that a total of 5,826 Saudis, out of‘ a population of 8,612,970, had committed crimes, as compared with a total of 2,713 foreigners who committed crimes out of a total foreign population of 859,694 living in Saudi Arabia during that same period (Rajhi, 1981:93). Table 2.13 shows a one-year breakdown of convicted offenders by nationality and types of crime commited during 46 vmnamma .55555 umUmDOm 059555m>m 50: 0503 @555 505 00530555 Xmm 55.5m 55m Ram Ram 55m Rom 55m Xmm 55m .Rom 5mm m5csmmucoz 555 55.55 x55 $55 555 R55 555 555 N55 555 flow 555 m5csmm 50055500505 5555 @555 5555 5555 5555 5555 5555 5555 5555 mm55 5555 5555 55509 M555 M555 wa th 5mm 5mm N55 055 555 555 555 555 m5csmmlcoz 5555 M555 5555 5555 mQO5 5555 mum 5555 5505 5555 5555 omm5 n5055m 5555 5555 5555 5555 mhm5 5555 5555 osm5 5555 5055 5555 5555 >555mc055mz m30550m pmuu5eeou 0:3 AnHUQmmlcoz 0cm 55515555 new 55:5555 m5psmmv >5555505umz >n 05aomm mo umnesz .m025uu "NH.N mqm¢9 47 1978. While most of those convicted were Saudis, foreigners still accounted for 40 percent of the overall total, a percentage greater than their representation in the population. Foreign workers' greatest concentration was in financial crimes and crimes of fraud (49 percent and 40 percent, respectively) (Ibrahim, 1982:116). The social-cultural impact of labor importation has not been excessive since a common language and shared cultural affinities unite foreign laborers and the indigenous population, as in the case of laborers coming from other Arabic-speaking, Islamic countries. Some of the expatriate workers, however, speak unfamiliar languages and come from vastly different cultural backgrounds. They come from societies that, in many cases, are more advanced educationally and economically and have more differentiated social structures and more advanced social formations. As Ibrahim (1982:104) concludes: "the migrant labor to Saudi Arabia is virtually shaping the host country's new institutions and forging its modern infrastructure almost from scratch." Saudi Arabia thus faces a growth versus security dilemma. It has called for reducing dependence on expatriate labor, but dependence on foreign labor has become an inevitable aspect of the current Saudi economy. One reason the government desires to reduce its dependence on foreign workers is because the Kingdom perceives a threat to 48 Table 2.13:Convicted Offenders by Types of Crime and Nation- ality in Saudi Arabia, 1978 Nationality/ Type of Other Crime Murder Financial Moral Fraud Crimes Total Saudis 86.7 50.8 70.4 57.6 63.4 59.9 Non-Saudis 13.3 49.2 29.5 42.4 36.6 40.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Ibrahim, 1982:111 49 its most cherished spiritual and cultural values which may be eroded by the presence of many non-Muslems in the labor force. As one Saudi official stated: We welcome the foreigners, we need them, their technology and their labor. We do not, however, need their social and cultural input into our society. They are a threat to our morals and _traditions (From Naff, 1981:188). Future Expectations For Expatriate Labor Predictions of future patterns of migrant labor in Saudi Arabia are difficult because the migration process depends on many variables. Some variables tend to increase the volume of migration. Some variables decrease it. Siryani (l980:2) has argued that in order to accomplish its five-year plan, the government will need to continue to recruit skilled and unskilled labor. Looking at the domestic labor force Siryani has found three primary factors which cause Saudi Arabia's current dependence on a foreign workforce, and, he argues, these factors will continue to determine this dependence in the foreseeable future. These factors are: 1. labor shortages: 2. the unskilled nature of the labor force and the social attitues which exist: 3. the low level of participation of Saudi women and their confinement at home. 50 As long as these factors continue, Saudi Arabia's requirements for imported labor will continue to generate social, cultural and economic tension throughout the society. In this connection, a new trend in segregating imported Asian laborers from the Saudi population has come about as a result of a new development strategy involving enclave development projects and enclave labor camps. Increased importation of Asian workers is (and is likely to continue) due to political and economic conditions in their home countries and to the increased activity by multinational corporations in Saudi Arabia as a result of the increases in oil prices. [On a national level, Asian labor is less costly than Arab labor and, with enclave labor camps and development projects, interaction between the indigenous population and the imported labor is minimized (Al-Tarrah, 1983:168). Weiner (1982:12) has noted that Asian migrants do not bear the baggage of political ideologies and make few demands. They do not interact with the local Arab population, do not make claims upon the Saudi state for benefits, and do not desire or expect to live in the country on a permanent basis. Moreover, Asian migrants often have skills that are not so easily provided by migrants from Arab countries, and they are willing to engage in jobs that Arabs often will not accept.i] Table 2.14 shows the number of expatriate laborers employed or needed in Saudi Arabia in 1975 and 1985 at both 3. v~ ...-Co uhn. 51 5O5ummm5 .e5cmun5 “ouusom 5.5 o.o05 oow.-~.m5 «.5 o.ooH oom.oom.m5 o.oo5 oo~.vmm.5 cofium5saom 5muoe o.q 5.55 OOH.555.5 o.5 5.55 oc5.5mk.m m.om oom.mmm.m mHmcofiumz Hmpoe m.~5 o.OOH oom.mov.v ~.m5 o.OO5 OO5.mqm.v oo.o05 oom.mmm.5 mcoflsmz Icoz 5muoe 5.55 m.o~ oom.mov 5.o~ 5.55 oom.vmm 5.5 oon.«m oHHoz mo ummm m.~5 5.5 ooo.om~ 5.MH 5.5 ooo.mm~ 5.5 oom.mm .ymomc swam» 5.5 m.55 oom.o~5 5.m v.55 oo~.vvm o.~v cos.emm Am<55 swam» n.55 ~.o ooo.o5 5.55 ~.o OO5.OH 5.0 oo~.~ m5m5cse 5.55 5.m oo~.m- ¢.m5 ,o.m oom.55~ m.m oo5.mm m5u>m 5.05 a.m oom.55~ 5.o~ 5.5 oo~.~5~ o.m oom.55 :mosm m.m~ m.m oo~.mm~ 5.55 5.5 oov.m5~ m.5 oom.mH m5m< ummm nusom 5.55 m.~5 oom.mom 5.55 5.55 oom.o~o o.m oom.555 cmumflxmm c.55 mmaw oom.o~ 5.55 m.5 coo.55 m.5 ooo.m5 cmeo ~.55 5.o oom.m 5.55 5.o oom.m 5.o oov.5 oououoz 5.55 m.5 oom.5o m.5~ v.5 oo5.55 5.o oom.m cocmnmq m.m m.o5 oos.am¢ 5.m m.m ooc.m5v m.m5 oo5.om5 cannon 5.OH m.5 oom.mo 5.55 5.5 oom.mm 5.5 coo.m~ cmuH o.m~ 5.5 oO5.hm5 m.om 5.5 oon.-~ 5.5. oo~.m5 mHocH 5.55 m.55 ooq.mm5 5.55 c.55 oom.M5m 5.55 oo5.555 ua>om ucmuumm UCOUHmm MODE—AZ ucwuumm chouwm MODE—52 uchHmm HOQEDZ m555umkm5 mmm5 mmm5umhm5 mmm5 m5a5 mmmwuucH mumm £53050 304 mmmmuucH mumm suzouo :55: HMSCC‘ Han—C55 Ammumm cuzono so; new :55: umc mmm5 uom nobumnoum 5555 :5 co5um52aom Hacoflumz-coz "cmflbmuc 562mmuqa.wumgmhucaou >9 mucmuo5e 50 :o5uan5uum5o OUMuCUUmmm 6.665 566.66 6.665 556.66 6.665 666.66 6.665 656.665 6.665 655.665 6.665 565.666 56.66 --- 5.6 655 iii 5.6 665 ii. 5.6 666.5 66666 6.6 655 5.6 66 6.5 555.5 5.6 656 6.6 555.5 6.6 655.5 6566666 5.5 665.5 6.6 666 5.6 665 6.6 666.5 6.6 665 5.5 666.6 6666 6.5 665 5.5 656 6.5 655.5 6.5 666.6 6.6 655.5 6.6 656.5 .6666 6.6 666.6 --- ii. 6.5 666.5 6.5 666.6 6665 5.55 665.6 6.65 666.65 ii. i- ii i- 6.5 666.5 .6666 6666. 666066 6.6 665.6 6.6 665.6 6.6 665.6 5.5 665.65 6.5 665.6 5.6 665.55 66666566 6666 6665:: 6.65 565.6 6.65 665.65 5.55 656.6 6.65 656.66 6.5 656.5 6.6 655.66 656266 5.55 666.5 5.65 666.65 .. 6.5 655.65 ii- 6.65 665.655 6556566666 nmuc c6595; 6.66 666.65 6.55 666.55 6.66 666.55 5.66 666.565 6.66 666.665 6.65 666.56 656666 56666 M .02 M .02 i .02 fl .02 fl .02 fl .oz acme>o5maa coconuq .Qom nmu< :65555 c050» U5umnuoeoo 0:5umo5mm\chuon c0305 65555 50 >uucaou ucvmxo5oem uo n05uucnou couzaun manucuuumm can c5m5uo no 6056 no auucsou 5555 .co5oum £664 0:5 :5 nuoxuoz 6:6555: bmuuuczou >9 mucouo5e mo co5uan5uum5n UOMucm05mm 656.565.56.665 565.5 6.665 665.6 6.665 556.65 6.665 556.65 6.665 666.65 6.665 556.56 66666 omm6~ III III III III III III swear 665.6 III III 6.6 655 6.5 565.5 III 6.6 666 6566666 666.6 III 6.6 665 III III 5.6 665 5.5 665 c6eo 666.65 III III III 6.6 656.5 III 6.6 666 .6660 665.55 III III III III III 6.6 665 0655 666.55 III III III III III III 56666 5666. 660.06 666.56 II 5.55 666.5 6.5 665 6.65 666.65 III 5.5 665.5 66666556 6666 666566 66 665.565 .6.5 56 6.5 665 5.66 666.55 5.6 666.5 5.6 66 6.5 556 656366 7. 655.655 5.66 665.5 III III III 6.66 665.65 5.55 666.5 6656566266 n656 666654 666.666 III 6.65 666.5 5.6 666.5 6.56 665.55 III 5.65 666.55 656666 56:65 Amuoe u .02 u .02 fl .02 N .02 fl .02 fl .oz ucms>05aem ouuouo:.a5uwmm< nunalom mama cmeo 6565::9 cmczm uo >5ucsou ucoeaodmeo no nouuucsou coozuon amoucouuom flea :«m5uo no @050 no Nuucsou 5565 .co5oom n65< 0:5 :5 6565503 566505: 5656566.6 65666 75 and Kuwait, while the foreign workers of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Libya comprise 30 percent to 40 percent of the host country's total population. In 1975, the share of foreign labor in the total work force was 89 percent in the United Arab Emirates, 83 percent in Qatar, 71 percent in Kuwait, and 39 percent in Saudi Arabia (Ecevit, 1981:260). It is clear that the United Arab Emirates consistently has the highest foreign labor dependency ratio. The high dependence on immigrant labor in countries like Qatar, Kuwait, and United Arab Emirates can be attributed primarily to their small indigenous populations; low labor force participation rates, especially among women; and the underdeveloped nature of education and training, which further restrict the manpower stock available for rapid expansion in these economies (Ecevit, 1981:260). Table 4.4 shows the crude participation rates, national population and work force for both the capital-rich and capital-poor Arab states. By 1975 some 550,000 non-Arab workers had migrated to the Middle East. Although this stock of migrant workers was smaller than those in Europe, as a proportion of the workforce of both the labor importing and exporting countries of the Arab world, these movements were much greater than in the European case (Birks and Sinclair, 1979:286). We also note that among the Asian migrants, there is disproportional representation. Table 4.5 shows that in 76 TABLE 4.4:National Populations and Workforces Ranked by Size for Capital-Rich and Capital-Poor States, 1975 Crude Parti- Population Workforce cipation rate State (thousands) (thousands) (Percent) Capital-Rich Saudi Arabia 4,592.5 1,026.5 22.4 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 2,223.7 449.2 20.2 Kuwait 550.0 137.0 24.9 Bahrain 472.1 91.8 19.4 United Arab Emirates 214.0 45.8 21.4 Qatar 67.9 12.5 18.4 TOTAL 3,320.2 1,807.8 21.7 Capital-Poor Egypt 37,364.9 12,522.2 33.5 Sudan 15,031.3 3,700.0 24.6 Syrian Arab Republic 7,335.0 1,838.9 25.1 Yemen 5,037.0 1,425.8 28.3 Jordan (East Bank) 2,616.7 532.8 20.4 Democratic Yemen 1,660.0 430.5 25.9 TOTAL 69,044.9 20,450.2 29.6 SOURCE: Birks and Sinclair, l980:l3l,132 '77 hm~uomm~ .55m5uc5m Ocm mx55a "wUzDOm c5o5uo 50 >uucsou n5cu now Umnuooou mucmuo5e o: I III 6.665566.656.56.5 555.665 5.6 555.6 6.6 666.65 5.5 656.55 6.65 656.655 6.6 666.65 5.6 656655 665655.665 6.665 656.565.556665 6 665 665.56 65:6666.66 III III 6.6 665 5.55 666665 III 6.6 666.5 6.6 666.5 5.55 665.55 6665 6.665 656.5 III III III 5.6 665 III III III III 6.56 655.5 66565 6.665 665.66 6.6 666 III III 6.6 666.5 6.56 666.65 5.6 665 6.65 666.65 65: 665.55 6.55 666.6 6666 6.665 666.55 III III III 5.6 665 III III III III 5.66 666.555xc6a.m. coupon 6.665 565.65 6.6 566.5 III 5.6 55 5.55 566.6 6.65 666.65 5.5 566 5.65 566.6 6555666.6 5.55 665.6 6566666 6.665 655.55 6.5 666.6 III III 6.5 666 5.56 666.65 5.5 666.5 6.65 666.65 565.666.65 5.55 656.65 .6666 6.665 566.665 665 556.65 6.6 55 5.6 565 6.5 656.5 5.65 656.55 5.6 565.5 5.65 566.55 5.5 656.55 6.66 665.565 656266 6.665 665.555 5.6 666.55 III III 6.5 666.5 6.56 665.565 6.6 666.5 5.65 665.56 «65 666.665 5.65 666.56 .m.6.6 6.665 655.555 III 5.5 666.6 5.6 665 5.5 666.5 5.5 665.5 5.6 665 5.6 665 6.5 665.6 6.56 655.655 655656 .zuEmd 6666 cm>n54 6.665 666.555 5.5 666.65 6.6 665 5.5 666.65 6.5 666.55 6.6 666.65 6.5 666.6 6.5 666.55 6.5 666.55 5.66 666.666 656656 56666 R .02 x .02 fl .02 fl .02 X .02 R .02 fl .02 R .02 u .02 M .02 5cvexo5m 5&509 comm xoxuzb 50:50 @05505< cm5m< 55¢ cm5m< umcuo m5ccH cmum5xmm Iem 50 a ao5uu< a odousm >55csou 66660 26566 6666 mh¢5 .c5o5uo uo co5omm vcm ucoe>o5aem mo >5ucaou >2 c0500: nmuc 0:5 :5 m50x5o: ucouo5zum.v m42<5 78 1975, the Asians in the Arab labor force were almost exclusively either Indians or Pakistanis. Other Asians accounted for only four percent of the "All Asian" total. The nationalities covered by the term "Other Asian" include Malaysians, Nepalese, Filipinos, Thais and nationals of the Republic of Korea, all of whom were working in the capital- rich states in 1975, but only in small numbers (Birks and Sinclair, 1980:32). Demographic Characteristics The indigenous populations of the Arab world have in common a high rate of population increase. Few states have natural growth rates lower than 2.5 percent, while most states are growing at 3.5 percent per annum (Birks and Sinclair, 1980:12,13). Azzam (1979:39) has summarized the demographic profile of the Arab world and provides the following comparative analysis: The Arab countries as a group have certain economic and demographic characteristics that are different from other less developed countries. The rich oil countries have the wealth and material resources but are still in the early stages of development and demographic transition. Large families are the norm rather than the exception, and there are several restrictions on female participation in all aspects of society. While the less affluent Arab countries are short of capital but have abundant labor, they are more liberal concerning female labor force participation and some have introduced family planning programmes to check the increase in population. The two groups of countries complement each other in several ways and the 79 considerable flow of capital and human resources across boundaries, together with geographic proximity, common language, religion and historical and cultural heritage would render the Arab world an interesting case study on its own. Figure 4.2 depicts the major movements of migrant workers in the Middle East. According to Choucri (1980:45), theH distinctive features of this movement of migrants are the following: First, it is a pattern of flow among developing countries; labor remains within the region, rather than migrating externally. Second, it is composed neither of skilled nor unskilled labor alone; the entire structure of the labor force is involved in and, in turn, affected by this movement. Third, no one ”flow" is permanent in nature, but temporary, generally from one to four years. Fourth, it is generated and maintained by underlying economic and political forces that create the incentives for movements and the regulations for sustaining the flows. Fifth, it is recognized by both sending and receiving countries as an explicit feature of the political economy of the region whereby both political and the economic dimensions are given equal weight. Sixth, these perceptions in policymaking circles are maintained by economic imperatives; the supply and demand for labor generate an underlying rationale that places pressure on policy responses to regulate and facilitate the movement of labor. TableI&6 shows the basic demographic characteristics of the Arab world. The migrant workers are predominantly male and either unskilled or semi-skilled. There are differences 8O Aucmmoum ou mmmav uomm 05vp5z 0:5 :5 650x503 5:65w5: wo oucQEm>oz 5Onmz 55.6 ouzm5m 5.... 4.6: Iv . 5. I . w... z a. ....M. .....IMXI ... \K./ (J . .... .II 611.5 .33....» f ..ml. ajfi ..IrJ/‘LI ,6 . ..2... .6... aim fl .. >. ? 60:55:58 0066: to. 6.5.0 :66... .3 35.53.53 50:93:35:— 052 5539.0 .858 61 .2.: 65.66 OOOdN on 536.: 006.23 3 occdw ll 1 666.665 8 666.5. I OOOdON .3650 666: 5 5.56-6.6.566. 5 .5 5 6 “It Md 5,55. A9 5.325.565.5556 5 55:396. 3 mum: 65cm 0:625. 05 E «53.33 55.9.95. 5o macoEo>oS_ 3.5.6.2 J9 / «ii/II\.II/ 5262/ 81 in the kinds of immigrant workers going to individual countries, depending on the nature of the demand for labor. Algeria and Iraq recruit skilled professional workers, while the Gulf States demand labor at all skill levels with higher proportions of unskilled workers (Ecevit, 1981:265). Sectoral distribution patterns among oil-rich countries also indicate considerable differences. Table 4.7 shows the sectoral distribution of local and migrant labor in Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kuwait, and Oman, where migrant laborers dominate the construction and services sectors. The only exception is Libya which has a smaller percentage in the services sector. Expatriate labor makes up more than 60 percent of the construction labor force in most of these countries: 65 percent in Libya, 67 percent in Oman and 95 percent in Kuwait. In the manufacturing sector, the percentage of expatriate labor is 89 percent in Kuwait and 62 percent in Saudi Arabia (Ibrahim, 1982:39). It is perhaps for this reason that Birks and Sinclair (1980:13) suggest that there is no need for capital-rich states to limit the growth of their own indigenous national populations and that rapid population growth may in fact, be beneficial rather than detrimental to their development efforts. This is so because development generates domestic demand both for consumption and the labor-input requirements. 82 .oqumaaq .zazm "39x23m m.~v . o on~ m.m am m.~ ow mv a.~ zoa cosy» m.av m.o o_~ o.a ea a.~ - av o.a =< :msu» o.mv o.n mm_ a.a an n.~ m. on o.o a~m.::9 n.av o.» v.~ o.o_ mm «.m v— mv ~.o auu>m o.mv o.» vv. -.vm - ~.n om av u.a. cupam o.mv ..o as. ~.o o~ ~.~ _~ mv v.m an_aeom o.ev m.o an. a.om m~ _.m v. mv a.m~ oooouox c.~v a.m no— v.~ mm ~.~ v~ mv m._ 5.:ma.u:ax o._v o.v an o.m am n.~ a mm a.~ cocoon; a.av m.o am «.0 o~ m.n m~ av a.~ coupon n.9v o.m «as ~.- a~ s.~ .s an o.an ua>0m o.vv ~.n av— m.on .m v.n v~ av v.m— auuao.< nooau4.o ~.o~ a.m man m.~ v~ o.n v~ vv o.o m<= n.vv ..n ~m~ a.v~ v~ o.m a~ av c.n a~bmu< spasm v.vv «.9 an. v.o «N n.n o~ av ~.o guano . ~.cv n.n and a.~ v~ o.n a~ av m.~ :meo o.av a.o and n.« vm a.~ a av m.~ m>buu m.vv ~.~ vv n.~ u~ v.n m av ~.~ agazax a.av ~.n on v.v~ - «.m o~ ~v ~.- on.“ a.ov ~.o vv 3.: o~ o.n 5 av n.o cumusma 20.x-4‘o o.vv n.o and m.om~ vN a.~ v~ mv «.mmu noomuuqo ~.cv o.h Nag v.~m «N ~.n ma mv n.o~ :o«¢-~ao n.vv n.w aw" o.~a~ vN o.n vd nv m.~m~ capo: nuuc .a. .o. .n. .o. .m. .v. .n. .N. .4. moquucaoo mumo> ma saga «you vcaazoza .ncouuuun. couuauaooo .u. Occasoza ocaaaosu .acoaqdql. an»; omo< >uuqquuom hog can: ooo~ «assoc mononucw nod can» non each couum~aoom :o‘umqaoom a qaaofi >uu~auuox uao> cu cu uuao> gauzaac snoop gamma noun-aunm acaucn coquOOHOum no .02 no cash ocauo Guano codes—sacs «page ana- .nouuuc:ou nmuv .nouuauHOuuouazU unscaLOOIoo no.v mum‘s 83 ovummafi .eflnmubH "momaom maflmqwm>m uoz .m.c o.vm o.mo a.o> H.a~ o.NN o.mh o.mv o.hm Jumm .m.c .m.c .m.c .m.c a.m H.0a m.c m.c mmcommo a mofl>umm HA>HU o.ma v.~m a.o> H.am v.v w.ma H.ov a.mm coflumoflcseeou w uuoamcmufi o.wv o.vm o.vm o.o~ >.a m.oa m.~m ~.hv moumesou m.aH m.om o.~h o.m~ >.m~ m.vm u.am m.m~ >uflofiuuomam w umumz.mm0 b.0w v.mm m.va m.m v.vo v.mm v.vv v.~m . coHuusuumcoo a.mm H. vm v.vm w.ma m. vm m. vm m. aw ~.mm mcfimmmooum a ocflusuumwscmz .m.c m.c o.hv o.mm m.o~ m.am a.~o H.5m moguH20aua< ucmumfiz Hmooq ucmumfiz Hmooq ucmmmw: Hmuoq ucmumwz Hmooq Hobomm vasocoom Awwad. :meo Amnaav ufimzsx Amnaav man“; .mpaa. mflbmuc .m >uucsoo AmhmHIMBmHV wwwuucsou LUHmIHflO Umuumdwm CA QUMOE HODMJ UGHHOQEH UCG HMUOJ MO COHUQDHHHmfiD HMHOHUGWHP.V MJQwom "mozDOm xumcfieaawuduo ummx Anomawuo moumefiumoun :oaaafis .moofiua acouuzo cuum av Nam papa ov AmN maa Nm mam mm mm adv «v .m.o.m swam» and avv.m mdo.~ and ao~.v mmm «A omm.H -~ as mmm.~ mmd uoadnsamm nauc swam» ha mm wma ha om ~ma m~ va -m.~ mm ma m~v.~ >oxLPr a ma ~v~ m ha mag a pa ova a ma m- mundane A a Ha ~ m an m o mm v a No uflanaamz nmuc cmflt>m ov mm m-.~ Nu Am mmm m - omm o mg Hma ucmumfixmm m~ vv ham ea mv avm mm mm mmm nu am can 0000uoz on was .m~v on mad man as mos has - ov me canton om - noov.~ Nu AH news a Na co. m a cam omdncH an no va.~ mm hv vmh h mm hum m AH and uQ>Om a ma mm A ed on A a an m «a mm ocummommocmm n v cv~ v m mv~ a HA oov a a cam Mahogac manomeH muuomxm moocmu manomsn nanomxm moocmu muuomeH manomxm mmocmu manomeH manomxm mucosa» xuuczou mo ucmouwm mc IuHEom uo ucoouom mc :uwaom uo ucoouom m4 uuweom no ucoouom m4 Iufieom snag onau wham vnau mouuucaoo ocuuuoaxm mono; vouUOAom ca moooo no muuoaxu 0cm mquQEH «Muck ca oumcm mun 0cm moccauuwemm .muoxuoz «0 30am "v.vmqa<9 87 make economic and social demands (Keely, 1981:145). Even though .it is unlikely that foreign workers will be a major destabilizing factor in the near future, a large foreign population could no doubt exacerbate economic and political problems should they arise (Ibid:147). Keely (1981:149) makes the following observations and predictions: International labor migration involves contradictions and tensions for sending and receiving countries. That these contradictions and tensions are manageable in the short term, especially given the individual and societal advantages that result from labor flows, has been demonstrated in the Middle East, in Europe, in North America, in Southern Africa and elsewhere. Labor migration and the presence of foreign populations seem unlikely to trigger instability in the Middle East in the next five years. However, they can fuel the flames if instability arises from other sources in the near future, and therefore, the horizon of twenty years hence is another question. With regards to policy implications, it is necessary to point out at the outset that the nature of demand for migrant labor in the Middle East has been quite different from that in Europe and other economically developed countries. First of all, the demand for labor in the Middle East has been limited to specific skill groups, even though some skills are more highly valued than others. Instead, workers at all skill levels, 'including large numbers of highly skilled professionals, technicians and managers as well as unskilled labor, have been in demand. On the other hand, labor demands in Europe were more 88 selective. As an example, the demand structure in Germany has been one which depends only minimally on the importation of highly skilled manpower, because the country has almost enough of its own. Rist (1978:11) concludes: The fact that foreign workers are in Germany is not the consequence of random events and their own strictly private decisions. They are in Germany as the result of policies made at the highest levels of the German government. In the Middle East, foreign labor was expected to play a critical role in running and managing the productive sector of the economy. In Europe, the role of foreign labor has been to facilitate the already existing industrial infrastructure of the national economy. Motives for labor imports have also been different. In Europe, selective temporary labor imports, at least initially, were envisaged as a tool for short-term cyclical adjustment, for achieving full employment, price stability, and a favorable balance of payments. Moreover, in the industrial countries of Western EurOpe such as in West Germany, there were other viable alternatives to reach an equilibrium in the labor market, finding the labor necessary for socially undesirable jobs (Ecevit, 1981:273). In the Middle East there was certainly no short-term cyclical adjustment, nor was there really any viable alternative to large scale labor imports in the short run. The Middle East, in this sense, is far from reaching self- 89 sufficiency in its labor demands, which are therefore, a major immediate concern of the governments. In contrast to Western Europe, cultural constraints have also generally caused the employment of less educated women to be limited to family agricultural work and the traditional sector. In Saudi Arabia,” one of the major constraints on manpower resources is the fact that women's economic roles are very limited and prescribed by society to be so. This, of course, means foreign labor will have to make up for the shortage of women in the labor force. In the West, a greater proportion of women have been employed and engaged in productive activity because the cultural and institutional biases against the participation of women were challenged and, therefore, change was imminent. Finally, in the Middle East, the ratio of demand for expatriate labor to indigenous labor is very large, thus creating a greater dependence on labor imports. Moreover, the governments of most industrially advanced countries have had more leeway in determining whether or not foreign labor would make up for indigenous manpower shortages. In the Arab world, there are economic imperatives which make similar decisions unlikely and impossible. Therefore, they must rely inevitably on foreign labor in order to achieve their developmental objectives. Due to these and other oil-exporting countries, the consequences on society are expected to be vastly different. 90 Labor-importing countries generally suffer from social tensions due to a huge influx of foreign workers, but it has been more of an issue to Arab Middle Eastern societies. Ecevit (1981:273) provides the following advice: Future policies directed towards decreased dependence on expatriate labor or increased investment beyond current levels would have to aim at more effective use of local labor supplies. In most countries, there is certainly room for increasing local labor supplies both through increased labor participation rates and improved educational output. However, in spite of an urgent need for policy formulations by labor-importing countries in the Middle East and North Africa to effectively manage and regulate the huge influx of foreign labor, there is no indication that any government has such a concrete policy yet. There is, therefore, a greater necessity now to work out a clear-cut policy that addresses the problems generated by dependence on expatriate labor and, most importantly, the challenges of effective utilization of the indigenous human resources in the future development of the region. Prospects for the Future In the future, patterns of labor migration to the oil- rich countries in the Middle East and North Africa are expected to become more formalized. The World Bank study on future manpower needs in the Middle East estimated that 91 under high growth rates, labor demand will rise from its 1975 level of 9.7 million to about 15.3 million in 1985, a net increase of 5.6 million and a relative growth of 58 percent. At low growth rates, the net increase in manpower requirements in these countries would still be 4.3 million is shown in Table 4.9 (Ibrahim, 1982:49). The sectoral composition of total manpower requirements is shown in Table 4.10. It indicates that for the eight labor-importing countries, agricultural employment is projected by 1985 to have increased only by about 20 percent. Manufacturing is projected to experience a greater relative growth (1975 Index of 100.0; 1985 = 230.7) followed by utilities (l985=206.8), trade and finance (l985=l97.3) and services (1985:195.4) (Birks and Sinclair, 1981:123). The occupational composition of manpower requirements is projected to change rapidly over the 1975-1985 period. Weiner (1982:28) indicated that the demand for professional and paraprofessional workers ”will more than quadruple over the ten-year period (from 1975 to 1985) and that the proportion of professional and paraprofessionals among the migrants are likely to increase from 17 percent in 1975 to 27 percent by 1985." According to Weiner this upward trend in skill requirements is combined with an overall increase in the flow of migrants demanded by the oil-exporting countries. Table 4.11 shows that the unskilled share of employment is projected to fall from 44 percent in 1975 to Q I \ '.. omummma .eflcmunH "momaom m.vq o.ooH coo.mmo.vH m.hm o.coH ooo.o~m.ma o.oo~ ooo.m-.m asses ~.mm H.v ooo.o~m v.8HH H.v ooo.~mo o.m ooo.~a~ mmumuflem nmua amuse: «.mm p.- ooo.mmo.m m.vo ~.~m ooo.mv~.m ~.o~ ooo.moa.~ mflnmu< flosmm u.as m.o coo.mMH m.mm m.o ooo.mm~ n.o ooo.v~ umumo m.mm m.H coo.~m~ a.mm A.H ooo.nmm o.~ ooo.~m~ cmeo v.~n o.m ooo.oo~.~ «.ma ~.a ooo.vdv.a 8.5 coo.mm~ m>nflq m.~m m.~ coo.mam v.mm n.~ coo.vav H.m ooo.um~ Lamaze m.~m >.om ooo.~om.v ~.ov m.a~ ooo.owm.v a.cm ooo.moo.m amuH m.mo m.o ooo.a~H m.mm o.H ooo.~m~ m.c ooo.ah cflmtcmm m.m~ H.m~ ooo.vmm.m m.mv «.mm ooo.-m.v u.am coo.mmo.m marmoda mmmthr—H mwhmcm ucwemufiamm wwMQHUCH mwhmcm ucwEwhflzmumm mmumcm ucwemhflzmwm mmwhuCDOU ucmuumm “EQUHQQ H03OQCMZ Hathwm ucmuumm MOZOQCMS ucmuumm HO3OQCMZ . wmumm £u30h0 UflEOCOUH 30..— mwumm £83030 UHEOCOUH Smar— mhmd mama mama 304 com Loam. >uucsou >n .mmaa ocm mnaa mucmsmuflsgmm Loom; Hmuoe Ammumm Luzouo "mmauucsou Lonmq u0nmzna.v m4m<9 93 «Naufimma .mtmsuo ocm mxtflm momDOm og:efioon.mao.v o.oo~ oom.ocm.od o.oo~ ooa.fim~.m o.oo~ oom.o-.o Hayes «.mmd o.c«~ o.oo~ xmocH H.vm oom.smm.a m.h~ oom.asm.~ m.v~ oom.mvo.~ s.mm ooo.vov.~ mmofl>umm «.mma m.HmH o.oca xmcH m.m oom.omm o.m oo~.m~m H.m com.mom o.m oom.~Hm mcouumu . . uflcseeou a uuoawcmufi m.~m~ m.~md o.oo~ xmocH o.v~ ood.hmm A.H~ oom.o-.~ v.HH oo~.nmm a.m oom.mao mocmcflm a means h.-~ h.vmd o.ood xmocH m.oa oov.smo m.m~ oom.mmo.d n.n~ oom.mov.H ~.mH oo~.ova censusuumcoo m.oc~ H.h¢~ o.ooH xmocH o.H ooo.>o m.H oon.m- H.H osm.~m o.H oo>.~m mmflufldfiu: m.mo~ «.mma o.ood xmocH s.- oom.amm m.m oom.o~m v.5 oc~.-m «.8 oo~.mmm ocflusuommscm: o.mmH m.mm~ o.ooH xmocH m.~ oo~.om H.~ oom.HH~ N.~ oo~.ana a.d oo~.maa ocflsuumso new means: H.o~H o.mo~ o.oo~ . xmocH m.HH oom.~mv m.m~ oo~.omh.~ ~.a~ oom.-v.~ o.hm ooa.pm~.~ mussH:Uuum< x .02 x .02 x .02 M .02 mma~-mem~ mama omma mama cuzouo umz mmaa cam omaa .mhaa .mmfluucsoo acfluuodsH-uonma LOnmz ucoflm mcu ca mucmemuwoqom umzoacm: Hmuoe mo cuzouo Ucm cofluflmoasou Hmu0uomm "oa.a mqmca 94 39 percent in 1985. Semi-skilled occupations are projected to decline from 28 percent in 1975 to 26 percent in 1985. All other occupations show a steadily increasing share over the projected period (Birks and others, 1981:125). Increased formalization of international labor migration to the oil-rich countries indicates a rapid expansion in the share of expatriate workers from Southeast Asia. With the oil boom of the 19703, a tendency developed which favored the importation of Asian workers to Arabs or other non-Arabs. This was the first time when the oil-rich states initiated a more selective approach in the employment of migrants. This is consistent with Birks and Sinclair's "second scenario"--A Selective Labor Market in the Capital- Rich States, Less Open to Arab Labour. This scenario projected that due to certain market trends, the number of Arabss working in the capital-rich states would remain constant and would not rise between 1975 and 1985 (Birks and Sinclair, 1980:157). In fact, the Arab expatriate's share of the labor market would fall from 75 percent in 1975 to 41 percent in 1985. On the other hand, Asian and oriental migrants were expected to increase in number from 292,000 in 1975 to 1,679,400 in 1985 (See Table 4.12). Birks and Sinclair believed that by 1985 the labor market of the Arab world would have dramatically changed from what it looked like in 1975 (Ibid:157). 8m8u8888 .888880 888 88888 "momaom 95 ‘ 8.888 888.888.8 8.888 888.888.88 8.888 888.88~.8 8.888 888.88~.8 88888 8.888 8.888 8.888 x8888 8.8m 888.888.8 8.8m 888.888.8 8.88 888.mmm.m 8.88 888.888.~ 88088 umo:ooO pmdaflxmcana 8.888 8.888 8.888 88888 8.88 888.888 8.88 888.888.N 8.88 888.888.~ 8.8m 888.888.8 88888888888 888882 8 888880 88888888888 ”~18 8.888 8.888 8.888 x8888 8.88 888.888 8.88 888.888.8 8.88 888.mmm.8 8.88 888.888 88088888888 88888: 8 888888 8888888 ”8.8 8.888 8.888 8.888 x8888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 88888888888 888888 Immwouanzm uocuo "mum 8.888 8.888 8.888 x8888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8888888 ISUUO CMHUflCr—Omwfiu Him 8.888 8.888 8.888 x8888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 88888888868 888088 \ ImmwOHm MOSHO “NI< 8.888 8.888 8.888 x8888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8.8 888.888 8888888 IZUOO HmOHCSOmE Iamcoflmmmwoum "8:4 x .02 (R .02 R .02 M .02 mmmmlmhmd mmmH ommd mhmd 883080 882 . mmaa 0cm oma8 .mna8 .mowuucsou oc8uquEHnuoomq uoflmz ucm8m 828 :8 mucmemu8zgmm umZOQcm: 88809 mo £83080 ocm.coflu8moosou 8mco8umosouo "88:8m4m<9 96 Table 4.L2:Resolution of Labor Demand and Supply: A More Selective Labor Market in the Capital-Rich States, Less Open to Arab Labor 1975 and 1985. 1975 % 1985 % Total Labor Demand 3,319,900 100.0 5,212,500 100.0 Of Which Nationals 1,670,800 50.3 2,156,500 41.4 Residual Demand for Migrants 1,649,100 100.0 3,056,000 100.0 Of Which Arabs 1,236,600 75.0 1,236,600 40.5 Asians 277,500 16.8 500,000 16.3 Orientals 14,600 0.9 1,179,400 38.6 Europeans and Americans 34,300 2.1 70,000 2.3 Iranians 86,100 5.2 70,000 2.3 SOURCE: Birks and Sinclair, 1980:158. 97 Based on the previous discussion, it is apparent that dependency on imported labor will, in all likelihood, continue into the foreseeable future. The oil-rich countries in the Arab world are passing through rapid social, economic, and population changes as a result of the oil boom, the government's development, and the need for services, such as education and health. These processes have contributed to a rapid increase in the volume of labor migration to these oil-rich countries. It is true that the discovery of oil has had a tremendous impact on the population structure. This dependency by the labor-importing countries on expatriate labor raises critical questions and concerns about the future, in lieu of the fact that the high influx of expatriate labor over a short period of time has exceeded the native population in some areas and made the native population a minority in their own countries. Human contact on such a large scale will inevitably have an impact on the local population. Labor migrants bring with them their customs, language and their life styles. The population admixture of people from diverse cultural backgrounds serves to create a number of social problems, a phenomenon which has already occurred. Stress, conflict and tensions between different groups have emerged and the sheer volume of people demanding to be fed and housed, and provided with basic services is a serious challenge to the integrity of these 98 governments. Failure to meet this challenge successfully would allow inequalities and disparities to surface, a situation deemed highly undesirable. CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The central problem, as stated earlier, was to examine Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the impact of foreign labor on Saudi society. In this chapter, seven hypotheses regarding the subject matter are postulated. Field methods, research questions, description of the study area and sampling strategy are explained, as are the methods used to analyze the data. The purpose of this research was to test the relationship, if any, between those variables that are expected to influence Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the presence and importation of foreign workers. In the process of social change and modernization, attitudes of people are transformed, whether these attitudes pertain to the introduction of family planning, technology or other types of innovations. These attitudes are expected to vary from one category to another and may range from very positive to very negative. Use of the direct impacts of change and modernization is on the socioeconomic position held by people. This is reflected by indicators such as the level of education, income and occupational achievements. These outcomes of 99 100 modernization shape the attitudes of people in a consistent manner. Inkeles (1969:212, 213) has emphasized that education is perhaps the most important of the influences moving men and women away from. traditionalism toward modernity in developing countries. Achievements of high levels of education, high income and high occupational status are associated with privileges in society that are different from those afforded persons with little education, low income, and low occupational status. Persons having the former achievements are concerned with the problems of their society's well-being as it relates to the positions they occupy and the information to which they have access. Such information may be important for their'own assessment of their life conditions, but they have limited access to information available from communication networks. McCanany (l980:l9,20) has elaborated on the role of communication in social change by confirming that information made available through television and radio can easily promote development in the Third World countries. Those individuals with a broader view are those who also maintain cross-societal links through communication networks such as radio, television, newspapers, telephone and satellites. Thus, we can expect to find variables such as education, income, occupation and exposure to communication 101 systems helping to bring about more favorable attitudes toward the role of foreign labor in Saudi Society. The other variables in this study, such as age, family size, and personal contact with foreign workers are less well grounded in previous theoretical studies. It was, however, one purpose of this study to find out whether they are meaningful variables. For example, it was postulated that at a younger age there is more receptiveness to social change and as a result less young people will have positive attitudes toward foreign workers. The relationship between_ family size and attitudes toward foreign workers was approached from two levels. First, large family size may be a reflection of strong traditional values. Second, those with large families may have a vested interest in keeping opportunities open for their own kin and, therefore, the presence of foreign workers may constitute a threat. Research Paradigm The paradigm shown in Figure 5.1 portrays the processes which facilitate attitude formation concerning the presence of foreign labor and its societal impact. The effect of socioeconomic status on attitudes has been studied by researchers such as Lerner (1958), Rogers (1969), and others, but few scholars have investigated the impact of these socioeconomic effects on the attitudes toward foreign 102 cowumEuom onauwuu< mo Ewwboumm ”8.m ouswfim .0988 c990“. 0.830. moves; 8005508250 8.0.52.0“. 283.348 80 59.88me >J_E<..._ “.0 mN.m 20:.(uaooo > >oAWM3Wmm$ 28:03:88.... 89:00 .093 \Eooos: .2900m 88.95“. 888880 -8890 o. AIII. 20:86:88 2.55 _8_oow o8 Samooxw «09:00 coszoto macaw:— m0< «88888098: moiomtmx, 98.8.6225 mo‘omtg pczotmxomm 103 labor. The paradigm shows a number of factors which affect people's attitudes, including background variables such as age, income, level of education, occupation and family size and other intervening variables, such as exposure to cross- societal contact, orientation to social change, and contact with foreign labor. The consequences are attitudes toward foreign labor, whether positive or negative. Socioeconomic Status (Background Variables) and Attitudes Toward Foreign Labor It is expected that pe0ple of high socioeconomic status (SES) are more likely to hold positive attitudes toward expatriate workers than those of lower SES. It is assumed that those of high SES are likely to enjoy advantages consistent with their status (education, travel abroad, the opportunity to employ others, etc.) that will provide them with exposure to cross-societal contacts and thus help to shape their attitudes toward people from other cultures, including foreign workers. Exposure to Cross-Societal Contact Contact with Foreign Labor (Intervening Variables) and Attitudes Toward Foreign Labor Previous studies have shown that exposure to cross- societal contact through mass media exposure and contact with the outside world are likely to produce receptiveness 104 to social change. As a consequence, people exposed to such contact will have positive attitudes toward foreign labor. In order to investigate the Saudis' attitudes toward the impact of foreign labor on Saudi society, research was conducted using a survey questionnaire. The following questions were used to guide construction of the hypotheses and survey instrument: 1. What is the impact of foreign labor on Saudi society? 2. What are the major factors behind this great importation of foreign labor? 3. What is the role of foreign labor in the improvement of the Saudi economy? 4. What are the implications of foreign labor in Saudi Arabia in terms of dependency? 5. What are the Saudi citizens' attitudes towards the presence of huge numbers of imported foreign laborers? 6. What is the significance of differences in attitude toward foreign workers (if any) and Saudi socioeconomic occupational groups? 7. Can improvement of education (formal, voca- tional, technical) among the indigenous population reduce the dependency on foreign labor? 8. Will increasing the level of citizen participation in the labor force have a positive impact on re- ducing the need for imported foreign labor? 9. Would increased utilization of a major indigenous human resource, women, reduce reliance on imported foreign labor? 10. What are the consequences of the presence of large numbers of foreign workers for the indigenous Saudi labor force? 105 11. What types of long-term planning are being de- veloped to train indigenous labor resources? The answers to these questions were considered essential in evaluating Saudi attitudes toward the impact of foreign labor on Saudi society. Accordingly, the survey was designed to elicit helpful information toward assessing the positive as well as the negative consequences resulting from large numbers of expatriate workers. Hypotheses The following hypotheses, which were based on a review of the literature on foreign labor and international labor migration, and the paradigm, served to guide the researcher's inquiry into the impact of foreign labor on Saudi society. Hypothesis I: The younger their age, the more favorable will be Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia. Hypothesis II: The higher their level of education, the more favorable will be Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers. Hypothesis III: The higher their income, the more favorable will be Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the importation of foreign workers. 106 Hypotheis IV: Saudi citizens in professional occupations will be found to hold more favorable attitudes than Saudi non-professionals, toward the importation of foreign labor. Hypothesis V: The larger their family size, the less favorable will be Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the importation of foreign workers. Hypothesis VI: Saudi .citizens with more exposure to cross- societal contacts are likely to have more favorable attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers than those with less or no cross- societal exposure. Hypothesis VII: Saudi citizens who have more contact with foreign workers ' are likely to have more favorable attitudes towards the presence of foreign workers than those with little or no contact. Description of the Study Area Jeddah city was selected as the study area because it is considered to be one of the cities most absorptive of foreign labor in Saudi Arabia. It has one of the country's largest airports, through which the majority of foreign workers find their way into the country. Its accessible location has contributed positively to its rate of growth, as well as its population size, giving Jeddah a large concentration of foreign labor. 107 Jeddah is situated in western Saudi Arabia on a coastal plain east of the Red Sea at 21°30' north and 37012' east (See Figure 5.2). Its location enables it to dominate the western region, since it has the major international airport, seaport, and major wholesaling and retailing facilities for the region (Al-Ghamdi, l981:4). As the main transit point for most travelers making their prilgrimages to the Holy City of Mekkah, it provides comprehensive services. not only for the western region, but also for the whole country (Ibid). Within the last decade, Jeddah has experienced growth that has more than doubled its population. In 1971 the population was estimated at 381,000; it may now exceed 800,000 (Ministry of Interior, 1972). Of the present population, about 47 percent are Saudis and 53 percent non- Saudis (Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs, 1980). Table 5.1 shows that between 1978-1983 the percentage of foreign population residing in Jeddah has consistently exceeded 50 percent of the total. "The large influx of foreign immigrants has brought the non-Saudi component of the population to over half of Jeddah's total residents, making Saudi citizens a minority in one of their own major cities (Atiyah, 1984:107). Figure 5.3 shows that the trend of high p0pulation growth is likely to continue in Jeddah. The growth of Jeddah is related to a variety of job opportunities in the metropolitan area that have led people 108 TABLE 5.1:Saudi and Non-Saudi Population of Jeddah City (1978-1983) Non- Date Total Saudi % ' Saudi % 1978 (Socio- Economic Survey) 916,000 432,000 47.2 484,000 52.8 1980 (Start of first year of Third De- ve10pment Plan) 1,037,000 479,000 46.2 558,000 52.8 1981 (End of first year of Third De- ve10pment Plan) 1,118,000 528,000 47.2 590,000 52.8 1982 (End of second year of Third De- ve10pment Plan) 1,201,000 579,000 48.2 622,000 51.8 1983 (End of third year of Third De- ve10pment Plan) 1,285,000 631,000 49.1 654,000 50.9 Note: Figures are to nearest 1,000 1980-1983 figures are projections SOURCE: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, Deputy Minister for Town Planning. 109 45' 55 Saudi Arabia Jeddah new airport \2 E Sourcu: Kingdom at Slum Arab-a. 0 Ministry 0! MunICIOII and Rural Aflaurs. Exmlng Condmons o! the Muropoman Aron-Jeddah. 1960 Figure 5.2: The Study Area - Jeddah City accoue £83080 :o8um8saom :mooow "m.m ouswwm 110 v— .02 toqom .8253... 9:55.". :33. to. 15352 >530 .93.? .85: can 392.52 .0 BEE—2 .8303 Baum .0 80095. ”outaow 888. . 888. 83. 88. 8B. :8. ocmdmm \omwfipa 8.82.8.2 8 ...\ ......88888; .‘. r‘\\t!\ O‘ “f‘ ‘ Q‘ ooodmv... €988.28. _ . _ 00Ew¢ 25¢ DOEm¢ 25¢ OOEm¢ 25¢ “ b2w2¢04m>mo h2m2¢04w>w0 P2w§¢04m>m0 80:08... 530.0 coin-anon. £0382. uouelndod 111 to migrate to the city from rural areas, from a number of neighboring Arab countries and from other countries such as Africa, India, Pakistan and Southeast Asia. Population and Sampling Strategy In order to investigate the impact of foreign labor on Saudi society, a field survey in Jeddah was conducted sponsored by the Ministry of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia. Appropriate questionnaires were prepared to elicit the necessary data (See Appendix A) and distributed to sample subjects. In order to obtain representative opinion data on the subjects of the study, the research population comprised three segments of Jeddah's population: private businessmen, government employees, and Social Security recipients. These groups were selected to represent three socioeconomic levels in Saudi society, the upper, middle, and lower income classes, respectively. The lower income group consisted of those with incomes less than 40,000 SR*, the middle group consisted of those with incomes about 40,000 and less than 60,000 SR and the upper income. group comprised those with incomes of 60,000 SR and over. 7*One United States dollar equals 3.5 Saudi Riyals 112 To get the widest possible diversity within these groups, given the limited time and resources available, a total of 600 sample subjects were selected. The distribution of these sample subjects is shown in Table 5.2. To obtain subjects representative of the upper class group (businessmen), assistance was sought from the branch office of the Ministry of Commerce and Trading located in Jeddah. Their list of all Saudi businessmen holding official certificates (to do business) was used as a sample frame from which the 200 subjects noted in Table 5.2 were drawn at random (using the ten thousand randomly assorted digits table). TABLE 5.2: Distribution of Sample Subjects Number to be Classification Randomly Selected Businessmen (upper class) 200 Government Employees (middle class) 300 Social Security Beneficiaries (lower class) 100 Total 600 113 Sample government employees, representing the middle income group, were selected from 20 government ministries in Saudi Arabia, which have offices in each major city (outside the political capital). Each of the ministry offices in Jeddah was contacted and lists of all Saudi employees in the branches were obtained with the help of the branch managers. Since some agencies had more employees than others, the total number selected from each ministry's branch office was calculated pr0portionately and the 300 sample subjects representing this socioeconomic group (middle class) were drawn on a proportionate and random basis. The emphasis on selecting a proportionate percentage from each branch was to assume, as much as possible, a fair and equal representation so that no government branch was under- or over-represented. Specific sample subjects from each agency were then drawn randomly (using the ten thousand randomly assorted digits table). Finally, for the lower class group (Social Security beneficiaries) the Social Security office located in Jeddah city was contacted. The Social Security office handles assistance to all low income individuals needing government financial aid, including the aged, the unemployed, the handicapped and those who may be employed but unable to earn enough to sustain their families. A list which included the number of all Social Security beneficiaries was used as a 114 sample frame from which 100 sample subjects were drawn at random (using the ten thousand randomly assorted digits table). Definition and Measurement of Variables The term "attitude," as it is used in this study, refers to the stands people take on controversial issues. Upshaw (1969:60) points out that, whether implicitly or explicitly, discussion of social attitudes usually focuses on three classes of phenomena. One of these is cognitive in nature and refers to an individual's information regarding an issue. Another is behavioral and refers to the acts which an individual performs, advocates or facilitates with regard to an issue. The third phenomenon is affective and refers to the individual's valuations. The dependent variable in this study was attitude toward the impact of foreign labor on Saudi society. Of the measurement techniques used to measure social attitudes, the Guttman Scalogram was chosen to measure attitudes toward foreign labor. The results of the scalogram analysis will be discussed in the following chapter. The socioeconomc characteristics employed as independent variables were: age, level of education, level of income, type of occupation, and size of family. The survey questionnaire completed by sample subjects included questions to elicit information about these variables among 115 the target population. Possible responses to the questions about individuals ranged from 1 to 6, with 1 corresponding to earnings of less than 30,000 SR and 6 corresponding to earnings over 70,000 SR. For individual educational attainment, possible responses ranged from 1 (no formal education) to 6 (college education or higher). Responses to family size ranged from 1 (one person) to 6 (twelve or more persons). Individual age groups ranged from 1 (less than 24 years) to 8 (50 years and above). Occupational responses included businessmen (a), government employees (b), and Social Security beneficiaries (c). For ease of cross-tabulation analysis, potential response to all these independent variables was combined to reduce them to three response categories for each variable. The eight age groups, for example, were reduced to three age categories of (a) 28 years and under, (b) 29-39 years and (c) over 40 years. Education responses were divided into three levels: low (no formal education or elementary school only), average (middle or high school) and high (college or higher). Income responses were reduced to three categories of low (30,000 to 40,000 SR), medium (41,000 to 70,000 SR), and high (70,000 SR or more) annual income. Family sizes included small (2 people or less), medium (3-5 people), and large (more than 5 people). 116 Instrumentation Through careful review of the literature, it was determined that there were no existing instruments which could appropriately serve the purposes of this study. Although instruments exist to measure the attitudes of different socioeconomic groups toward a wide variety of variables, none seemed to be appropriate to the target population's unique situation in a society undergoing change at an unprecedented Speed. Therefore, in order to examine the attitudes of different Saudi groups toward the impact of foreign labor in their society, a questionnaire containing 51 questions was designed by the researcher for this study. The first seven items asked for information on the socioeconomic status of the three groups under study. Questions 3 through 12 asked about the subjects' exposure to areas outside their city. Questions 13 through 20 asked about direct contact with foreign labor, including frequency of contact, employment of foreign workers and satisfaction with foreign employees' performance. Questions 21 through 23 asked for opinions regarding different nationality groups and nationality groups with which respondents felt most comfortable. Questions 24 through 28 examined their exposure to foreign mass media (frequency with which they watched foreign broadcasts, read foreign newspapers, etc). 117 The last section of the survey instrument (questions 29 through 51) were designed to elicit respondents' attitudes toward the impact of foreign labor on the Saudi society. Questions in this section dealt with the positive and negative impacts of foreign labor. To measure the respondents' attitudes toward the positive impact of foreign labor, items assessed attitudes toward (a) the salutary effect of the foreign labor force on the Saudi economy, (b) the necessity for vforeign workers to overcome local shortages of native workers. Possible responses to these questions ranged from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." Other questions were asked to measure the respondents' attitudes toward the negative impact of foreign labor. Three questions covered such issues as (a) the harmful effects the presence of a large foreign work force has had on the society's traditions and customs; (b) the threat to the Spiritual values of the Saudi society created by the presence of large numbers of non-Moslem foreign workers: (0) the pressure the large imported labor force has put on local public services, like education, health care and transportation: and (d) the effects of the foreign workers in Saudi Arabia on the availability and costs of housing. The responses to these items ranged from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree.“ 118 Data Collection Data collection was accomplished by using the survey questionnaire (Appendix B) which was administered in written form to those whose responses could be obtained in writing. Persons who were illiterate were 1 administered the questionnaire orally. Since the native language of the respondents is Arabic, the questionnaire, which was written in English, was translated into Arabic. The responses were then translated back into English. The back translation procedure is used to insure that words are translated accurately. It is also a way to determine the extent to which words and phrases used as equivalents convey equivalent meanings across two languages and cultures. Before starting the data collection phase of the study, the researcher secured the permission and support of the Saudi Ministry of Higher Education and an official letter asking appropriate agencies to cooperate in the research. The researcher administered the survey with the help of six senior students from the Sociology Department at King Abdulaziz University. _ The students wre given training in conducting interviews before starting the fieldwork to facilitate the use of standard techniques and make sure they knew the objectives of the survey. The students were also asked to read the questions very carefully and simplify 119 them, if necessary, for those respondents who needed to have the questionnaire administered orally. Of 600 questionnaires distributed, 508 were returned and of those 508 were found to be usable (19 were incomplete). Data collection was done between March and June of 1984, which was a period when most employed persons could be found at their work sites. Some methodological problems were encountered while collecting the data. First, despite preplanning to avoid popular vacation periods and the like, the absence of businessmen from their offices inhibited data collection. It was very difficult to contact some of them who frequently traveled outside the country or ran their businesses entirely by phone or on-site foreign labor. Another problem was due to the respondents' varied levels of understanding. Those in the Social Security group needed more help than others, and some interviewers had difficulty obtaining responsive answers to oral questions even after multiple repetitions and simplifying them as much as possible. Additional data to supplement the survey results were collected from the following agencies: (1) Office of Imported Labor in the Ministry of Interior in Saudi Arabia, which issues visas for imported workers: 120 (2) Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs in Saudi Arabia, which provided information on labor and employment law; and (3) The Arab Planning Institute in Kuwait, which collects, analyzes and makes available information about foreign labor in the Gulf states. The researcher had planned to visit the International Labor Organization (ILO) archives in Geneva, Switzerland, where certain information is made available about foreign labor throughout the world. However, during a research trip to Kuwait, it was found that most of the ILO documents and seminar and conference materials were available at the Arab Planning Institute because of the cooperation between the two organizations. Statistical Analysis Following data collection, the answers were tabulated coded. Completeness and reliability were checked and the information was transferred to computer cards. The researcher carried out the tabulation coding procedure with the assistance of colleagues who were experienced in this field. To examine the attitudes of the three respondent groups toward the impact of foreign labor on their community, frequency analysis, correlation coefficients, and cross- tabulation techniques were used. The Michigan State 121 University computer was employed to analyze the subjects' responses. The results and findings derived from that analysis are reported in the following chapter. CHAPTER SIX FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS Through responses to the survey conducted in Jeddah City to assess the attitudes of the Saudi businessmen, government employees, and Social Security beneficiaries toward the influx of foreign labor on Saudi society, various aspects of the impact of expatriate labor were examined using the statistical techniques detailed in the previous chapter. Discussion in this chapter is focused on (1) the socioeconomic status of the respondents and relationships among the background variables; (2) frequency distribution and intercorrelation of the dependent variables (attitudes); (3) measurement techniques and scale validation; and (4) the relationship between the socioeconomic factors and the attitude variables. The Socioeconomic Status of Respondents The first part of the questionnaire was designed to elicit demographic characteristics of the three groups of subjects under study, such as age, income, level of education, occupation, family size and marital status. 122 123 The survey results summarized in Table 6.1 reveal that the majority of respondents (51.8 percent) was between the ages of 25 and 39. The next largest group was those aged 40 and over (38.9 percent). These two groups comprised over 90 percent of the respondents, leaving less than 10 percent in the under 25 category. TABLE 6.1: Distribution of the Respondents by Age Age Absolute Relative Group Frequency (N) Frequency(%) 20-24 48 9.3 25-29 99 19.5 30-34 94 ' 18.5 35-39 70 13.8 40-44 76 15.0 45-49 43 8.5 More than 50 78 15.4 Total 508 100.0 Roughly, 85 percent of the respondents reported that they were married. A high marriage rate is the usual situation in Saudi Arabia as a whole, where people of both sexes tend to marry early. Considering this tendency toward early marriage, it is not surprising that about 70 percent of the sample reported a family size of 124 three to nine people. Eight percent of the respondents reported a family size larger than nine people. Table 6.2 shows that the majority of the respondents (58 percent) had completed high school or a college education, either undergraduate or higher. Roughly 16 percent had completed only a middle school education and 12 percent had not gone beyond elementary school. Only 12.8 percent of the respondents reported that they had no formal education. The percentage of those who had completed high school or college and university programs was high ibecause most of the respondents were working in government agencies and were required to have at least a high school education in order to qualify for employment. TABLE 6.2: Distribution of the Respondents by Level of Education Level of Absolute Relative Education Frequency (N) Frequency(%) No formal education 65 12.8 Elementary 62 . 12.2 Middle School 85 16.7 High School 118 23.2 College 159 31.3 Higher Education 19 3.7 Total 508 100.0 125 The survey results summarized in Table 6.3 reveal that one-third (33.1 percent) of the respondents earned more than $70,000 a year, while 18 percent of the subjects made $61,000 to $70,000 a year; 13 percent made $51,000 to $60,000: 10 percent made $41,000 to $50,000: 12 percent made $30,000 to $40,000 and only 13 percent of the respondents made less than $30,000 a year. The majority of the respondents (51.6 percent) fell within the top two income categories because most of the respondents were either government officials (52.4 percent) or businessmen (29.7 percent), so it was not surprising that income levels overall were relatively high. It should be kept in mind, also, that the study site was a major urban locale and these high income levels would not be found in rural villages or among Bedouin tribes. TABLE 6.3: Distribution of the Respondents by Income Group Income Absolute Relative Group Frequency (N) Frequency (%) Less than $30,000 67 13.2 $30,000 to $40,000 59 11.6 $41,000 to $50,000 52 10.2 $51,000 to $60,000 68 13.4 $61,000 to $70,000 94 18.5 More than $70,000 168 33.1 Total 508 100.0 126 The survey results summarized in Table 6.4 show that the majority of the respondents (54 percent) were government employees working in various official capacities. The next largest occupational group was businessmen, who comprised over 29 percent of the respondents. Only 16.4 percent of the respondents reported that they were Social Security beneficiaries. This occupational group was receiving financial assistance from the government through the Social Security office, which handles functions analogous to both the welfare agencies and the Social Security offices in the U.S. TABLE 6.4: Distribution of Respondents by Type of Occupation Type of Absolute Relative Occupation Frequency (N) Frequency (%) Businessmen 149 29.1 Government Employee 275 54.1 Social Security . Beneficiaries 84 16.4 Total 508 100.0 127 Relationships Among Background Variables Age,‘Income, Education, Occupation and Family Size This section will be used to examine the relationships, if any, between the background variables pertinent to this study. As discussed in Chapter Five, these background variables were divided into three categories. Age groups were combined into (a) those 28 years and under, (b) those 29-39 and (c) those 40 years and older. Educational attainment was classified low, average or high. Income included levels of low, medium and high, and family sizes included (a) 2 or less people, (b) 3-5 people, and (c) more than 5 people. In Table 6.5, a significant negative relationship is shown between age and levels of education, that is, the greater the age, the lower the level of education. This relationship, especially in the 40+ age group, can be expected given the rapid expansion and improvement of the educational system and the emphasis placed on education by the Saudi government in the last two decades.‘ - Table 6.6 shows a significant positive relationship between age and income level. In general, the greater the age, the greater the income. There was a significant variation from expectation in each income category, with a large part of it occurring in the low income category. More 128 TABLE 6.5: Age of Respondents by Level of Education (in Percents) Level of Education Age Low Average High Group (N=127) (N=203) (N=178) 28 & under 5.5 31.5 42.7 (N=l47) 29-39 8.7 38.9 41.6 (N=164) 40+ (N=197) 85.8 29.6 15.7 Totals (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-Squares a 167.00: Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig.=.05: Gamma = -.61 of the group aged 40 and over fell into the low income category than was expected, while very few of the 29-39 year olds had low incomes and somewhat fewer than expected of the 28 year olds and under had low incomes. Additionally, fewer of the 40 and over group had higher incomes than expected, more of the 29-39 year olds had medium incomes than expected and fewer of the over 40 age group were at the medium income levels. These variations may be explained by the tendency toward skilled jobs which works to the advantage of the people who were under 40 years old in the job market. Table 6.7 illustrates the relationship between age and type of occupation. We can see that more of the over 40 and fewer' of the under 40 subjects were Social Security 129 TABLE 6.6: Age of Respondents by Level of Income (in Percents) Level of Income Age Low Medium High Group (N=126) (N=214) (N=168) 28 & under 27.8 39.3 16.7 (N=l47) 29-39 9.5 36.4 44.0 (N=164) 40+ 62.7 24.3 39.7 Totals 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-Square = 75.40; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig.=.05 level beneficiaries than would be expected by chance. The youngest group tended more heavily toward government employment than expected and the over 40 group had fewer government employees than would be expected. It is obvious that the majority of those on Social Security were 40 or older, while most of the government officials were under 40. This can be explained by the government's policy toward educating more people to fill the requirements of the expanding bureaucratic government structure. It is clear from this table that there was a relationship between age and type of occupation with chi-square 16.59 (4 df, .05). 130 9 TABLE 6.7: Age of Respondents by Type of Occupation (in Percent) Type of Occupation Business- Government Social Security Age men Officials Beneficiaries Group (N=149) (N=275) (N=84) 28 & under (N=l47) 14.8 44.7 2.4 29-39 (N=164) 43.6 35.3 2.4 40+ (N=197) 41.6 20.0 95.2 Totals (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 178.83; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig. = .05 level Table 6.8 shows the relationship between age and size of family. Most of the variation from the expected occured in the families of two persons or less and those of more than five persons. The over-40 repondents tended to have the largest sized families, while those under 29 tended to have the smallest families. This is the general situation in Saudi Arabia where older people tend to have large sized families. The table shows a relationship between age and family size, with chi-square 100.62 (4 df, x.05). 131 TABLE 6.8: Age of Respondents by Size of Family (in Percent) . Family Size Age 2 or less 3-5 More than 5 Group (N=106) (N=205) (N=196) 28 & under (N=146) 56.6 29.3 13.3 29-39 (N=164) 28.3 41.3 25.0 40+ (N=197) 15.1 29.3 61.7 Totals 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 100.62; Degrees of Freedom = 4; $19.: .05 level; Gamma = .55 Table 6.9 reveals a significant relationship between level of education and level of income, that is, the higher the level of education, the greater the income. Those with a low level education accounted for most of the variation from expectation, with most of them having low incomes and few of them receiving high incomes. The medium income group tended to be made up of average and highly educated respondents. The high income group tended to comprise respondents at an average education level. However, one would expect low education to be associated with low income, etc. Overall, the table shows a clustering at the middle income level with more highly educated and fewer 10w educated respondents in this income bracket. 132 TABLE 6.9: Level of Education of Respondents by Level of Income (in Percent) Level of Income Level of Low Medium High Education (N=126) (N=214) (N=168) Low (N=127) 69.0 9.3 11.9 Average (N=203) 23.0 42.1 50.0 High (N=178) 7.9 48.6 38.1 Totals 100.0 100.0 100.0 (N=508) Chi-Square = 181.90: Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig. =.05 level; Gamma = .46 The relationship between level of education and type of occupation is shown in Table 6.10. Most of the variation occurred in the Social Security category, most of whom had only low level education. Most of the government officials tended to have high or average levels of education. This can be explained by the fact that the majority of the Social Security group tend to have only non-formal education, while the government officials tended to have had at least elementary level formal education in order to qualify to work for the government. Most of the business group tended to have an average education which is required to enable them to run their businesses. These variations can be 133 explained by the fact that some occupations either require or tend to attract people with particular educational attainments. Hence, level of education is related to type of occupation. TABLE 6.10: Respondents' Level of Education by Type of Occupation (in Percent) Type of Occupation Level Business- Government Social Security of men Officials Beneficiaries Education (N=149) (N=275) (N=84) Low (N=127) 20.8 _ . 6.9 91.7 Average (N=203) 57.0 40.7 7.1 High (N=178) 22.1 52.4 1.2 Totals (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 278.03: Degrees of Ereedom = 4; Sig. = .05 Table 6.11 indicates a significant negative relationship between level of education and size of family, most of the variation occurring in the group with the smallest sized families. In general, the higher the educational level, the smaller the family size. Most small sized families are among the highly educated, while most of 134 those with the largest families had low or average education. People with smaller families may be able to expend more resources on each of their children to support them in attaining higher levels of education, TABLE 6.11: Respondents' Level of Education by Family Size (In percent) Eamily Siie Level of 2 or Less 3-5 More than 5 Education (N=106) (N=205) (N=196) Low (N=127) 9.4 22.0 36.7 Average (N=203) 29.2 42.9 42.9 High (N=177) 61.3 35.1 20.4 Totals (N=507) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 58.67; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig.=.05: Gamma = -.44 Table 6.12 shows the relationship between level of income and type of occupation. Most of the variation occurs in the Social Security and businessmen categories. Businessmen have high incomes while Social Security recipients have low income levels. Government officials tend to have medium income levels. Hence, there is a 135 significant relationship between level of income and type of occupation. TABLE 6.12: Level of Income of Respondents by Type of ' Occupation (In Percent) Type of Occupation Level Business- Government Social Security of men Officials Beneficiaries Income (N=149) (N=275) (N=84) Low (N=126) 0.0 18.2 90.5 Medium (N=214) 20.8 64.0 8.3 High (N=168) 79.2 17.8 1.2 Totals (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 398.97; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig. = .05 level Table 6.13 shows the distribution of family size by income group. Level of income is not found significantly related to family size. In Saudi Arabia, level of income does not determine the size of family because, traditionally, people in Saudi Arabia tend to marry early and have large families despite their level of income. This situation does not apply in the West. 136 TABLE 6.13: Respondents' Level of Income by Family Size (in Percent) Family Size Level of 2 or Less 3-5 More than 5 Income (N=106) (N=205) (N=196) Low (N=126) 20.8 38.9 , 28.1 Medium (N=213) 50.9 43.9 35.2 High (N=168) 28.3 32.2 36.7 TotaIs . (N=507) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 7.52; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig. = n.s. Table 6.14 shows the relationship between type of occupation and family size. Most of the variation from the expected occurs here in the smallest and largest family groups. Government officials tended to have smaller families than the other occupational groups. This may be explained by the fact that most of the government officials are highly educated, knowledgeable about family planning programs, and more likely to ad0pt such programs. Thus, the table indicates that type of occupation is related to family size. 137 TABLE 6.14: Respondents' Type of Occupation by Family Size (in Percent) Family Size 2 or less 3-5 More than 5 Type of Occupation (N = 106) (N=205) (N=196) Businessmen (N=149) 22.6 28.3 34.2 Government Officials (N=274) 67.9 55.6 49.9 Social Security Beneficiaries (N=84) 9.4 16.1 20.9 Totals (N=507) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 15.68; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig. = at .05 level In examining the relationships between background variables, significant relationships were found between such socioeconomic variables as age and level of education, age and level of income, age and occupation, and age and family size. There were significant positive relationships between level of education and level of income, and level of education and type of occupation. A significant negative relationship was found for level of education and family size. While there was not a significant relationship between income and family size, there was a relationship between type of occupation and both occupation and family size. 138 Attitude Variables In order to gain an understanding of the respondents' attitudes toward foreign labor, the attitude variables were classified into three categories or groups to simplify the analysis. Category l--Foreign Labor as a Mutual Need and Positive Influence This category included attitude questions which suggested that the presence of foreign labor in Saudi Arabia was a need of both the sending and receiving countries and had a positive impact on Saudi society. This category included the following items in Section II of the questionnaire: (Ql) Saudi Arabia has foreign labor because it needs it; (02) foreign laborers can't earn enough at home: (Q3) foreign labor has helped improve the Saudi economy; (Q4) foreign labor has solved local labor shortages: (Q18) continued need of foreign labor is expected; (Q20) the foreign labor presence has improved Saudi training; (Q21) Saudi Arabia needs all the foreign labor it now has; (Q23) foreign labor does not affect crime rates . 139 Category 2--Solutions to Foreigp Labor Problems This cateogry dealt with attitude items that suggested solutions for developing and utilizing native human resources and slowing down the influx of foreign labor. It included the following attitude questions: (Q5) increased participation of local people: (Q6) increased participation of women; (Q10) develop local human resources; (Ql7) improvement of the educational system; and (Q19) efforts to slow down the influx of foreign labor. Category 3--Sphere of Negative Influence of Foreign Labor This category dealt with attitude questions suggesting that the presence of foreign labor has social/economic impacts on Saudi society. This, category included the following attitude items: (Q7) impact on traditions and customs; (Q8) impact on family relationships; (Q9) impact on spiritual values; (Q11) pressure on public services, (Q12) crowded traffic conditions; (Q13) increasing inflation; (Q14) increasing rents and shortages of housing: (Q15) declining productivity of Saudi labor force; (Q16) extravagance of Saudis employing foreign servants; (Q22) increased crime rates. 140 Descriptive Analysis of Attitude Variables Table 6.15 shows the means and standard deviations of attitude variable response frequencies by type of attitude variable. It is clear from the table that the most agreement and least agreement occurred in the category of variables that provide solutions to foreign labor problems. These responses indicated strong agreement among the respondents that there are problems associated with the presence of foreign labor. Agreement characterized 89.9 percent of the responses on average, while disagreement was only 6.6 percent. There were also very few "don't know" responses (3.6 percent). The next most popular attitude variable group was that indicating that foreign labor has a negative influence, with averages of 83.6 percent agreement, 11.5 percent disagreement and 4.9 percent "don't know" responses to questions about the negative influence of foreign labor. The least agreement and most disagreement was expressed toward the group of variables which viewed foreign labor as a mutual need and positive influence, with 59 percent agreeing and 28 percent disagreeing. This group of questions also obtained the largest average of "don't know" responses, nearly 13 percent of the respondents were less sure about positive influences than they were about negative influences. 141 TABLE 6.15: Means and Standard Deviations (SD) of Attitude Variables TYPe of Don't Attitude Variable Agree Know Disagree l.Foreign labor as a mutual need and posi- tive influence Mean 300.1 64.5 142.4 (S.D.) (164.8) (34.2) (134.4) 2. Solutions to foreign labor problems. Mean 455.6 18.0 33.2 (S.D.) (65.8) (15.4) (51.9) 3. Foreign labor as a negative influence Mean 423.6 24.7 58.2 (S.D.) (38.6) (17.6) (28.9) All Attitude Variables Mean 387.6 37.1 82.0 (S.D.) (120.3) (31.1) (93.3) Table 6.16 shows the frequency distribution for the first group of attitude questions suggesting that foreign labor is a mutual/dependency need and positive influence. When the respondents were asked to indicate whether the existence of foreign labor in Saudi Arabia was a result of the country's need, about 89 percent of the respondents agreed, with 87 percent also agreeing that it had solved labor shortage problems. Most respondents (83 percent) agreed that foreign labor migrates to Saudi Arabia because 142 TABLE 6.16: Frequency Distribution to Attitude Questions Suggesting that Foreign Labor is a Mutual/Dependency Need and Positive Influence Don't Dis- Attitude Questions Agree Know Agree S.A. has foreign labor 89.2% 4.1% 6.7% because it needs it (Ql) (452) (21) (35) Foreign laborers can't 83.4% 8.7% 7.9% earn enough at home (Q2) (423) (44) (40) Foreign labor has helped 68.6% 15.6% 15.8% improve Saudi economy (Q3) (348) (79) (80) Foreign labor has solved 86.8% 4.9% 8.3% local labor shortages (Q4) (440) (25) (42) Continued need of foreign 62.5% 12.8% 24.7% labor is expected (Q18) -(316) (65) (125) Foreign labor presence has 63.9% 14.0% 22.1% improved Saudi training (Q20) (324) (71) (112) S.A. needs all the foreign 17.6% 17.2% 65.2% labor it now has (Q21) (89) (87) (331) Foreign labor does not 1.8% 24.4% 73.8% affect crime rates (Q23) (9) (124) (374) Mean 300.1 64.5 142.4 S.D. 164.8 34.2 134.4 143 of low wages and living conditions in the home countries, but fewer of them (69 percent) were willing to agree that foreign labor had contributed to the improvement of the Saudi economy or contributed positively to effective training of the Saudi labor force (64 percent). Only 63 percent believed that dependence on foreign workers would continue in the coming year. Respondents disagreed (65 percent) with the statement that all foreign labor currently in Saudi Arabia was necessary and 74 percent disagreed that the presence of foreign labor has no effect on the crime rate. Table 6.17 shows the frequency distribution for responses to the attitude questions incorporating potential solutions to the foreign labor problem. The most popular solutions for curbing the huge influx of foreign labor were through improved education (99 percent), increased participation of local people (79 percent) and government programs to develop human resources (97 percent). Eighty- nine percent of respondents agreed that an effort must be made to slow down the influx of foreign labor. The least popular solution was to increase women's participation in some governmental agencies and the labor market, but even this solution obtained 68 percent agreement--with 24.5 percent of respondents disagreeing and 7.9 percent undecided. It seems that the negative impacts of the foreign work force has led to a change in the traditionally 144 TABLE 6.17: Frequency Distribution to Attitude Questions Suggesting Solutions to the Problem Don't Dis- Attitude Questions Agree Know agree Increased participa- 96.6% 2.2% 1.2% tion of local people (QS) (490) (ll) (6) Increased participa- 67.7% 7.9% 24.5% tion of women (Q6) (343) (40) (124) Develop local human 96.6% 2.6% 0.8% resources (Q10) (489) (13) (4) Improve Educa- 99.4% 0.0% 0.6% tion (Q17) (504) (0) (3) Must slow down in- 89.2% 5.1% 5.7% flux (Q19) (452) (26) (29) Mean 455.6 18.0 33.2 Standard Deviation 65.8 15.4 51.9 145 negative attitudes of Saudis toward women working outside their homes. In Table 6.18 is the frequency distribution for attitude questions in a third group of .questions which suggested that foreign labor had negative social and economic influences. It is clear from the table that the greatest areas of agreement on the types of negative impacts that foreign labor had in Saudi Arabia were in order of highest agreement-negative effects on traffic conditions (94 percent), pressure on public services (92 percent), impact on traditions and customs (90 percent), impact on relationships with the family (89 percent), increasing rents and housing shortages (87 percent), crime rates (82 percent), extravagance of Saudis employing foreign servants (80 percent). Areas of less agreement were concerns of negative impact on inflation (77 percent), declining productivity of the Saudi labor force (74 percent) and spiritual values (73 percent). Areas where respondents were not sure, were the negative influence on declining Saudi labor productivity (12 percent) and spiritual values (9 percent). Disagreement was high on some questions related to the impact on spiritual values (18 percent) and the impact on crime rateS' (18 percent). There were no respondents who were not sure on the impact of increasing crime rates. It is clear from the analysis that the distribution is skewed in the direction of negative 146 TABLE 6.18: Frequency Distribution of Responses to Attitude Questions Suggesting Foreign Labor had Negative Social/Economic Influences Don't Attitude Questions Agree Know Disagree Traditions and 89.5% 4.1% 6.3% customs (Q7) (453) (21) (32) Family 88.5% 3.0% 8.5% relationship (QB) (448) (15) (43) Spiritual 72.9% 8.7% 18.4% values (Q9) (369) (44) (93) Pressure on public 92.1% 4.9% 3.0% services (Q11) (467) (25) (15) Traffic Condi- 93.5% 2.0% 4.5% tions (012) (474) (10) (23) Inflated 76.9% 7.1% 16.0% prices (Q13) (389) (36) (81) High Rents & 87.4% 2.4% 10.2% Housing Shortage (Q14) (443) (12) (52) Declining produc- 73.7% 11.7% 14.6% tivity of Saudi (373) (59) (74) labor force (Q15) Extravagance of Saudi 79.7% 4.9% 15.4% employer of servants (Q16) (404) (25) (78) Higher Crime 82.1% 0.0% 17.9% rates (Q22) (416) (0) (91) Mean 423.6 24.7 58.2 S.D. 38.6 17.6 28.9 147 attitudes toward foreign labor. The responses to the attitude questions posing solutions to the problem indicated strong attitudes toward solving the problem. This consistent and strong pattern showed that the respondents have unfavorable attitudes toward the presence of foreign laborers now in Saudi Arabia. Appendix A, Table B.l gives more details on the frequency distribution of all attitude variables. Intercorrelation Between Attitude Variables In order to simplify the analysis, the three groups which were used for the descriptive analysis were also used for the intercorrelation among attitude variables. In Table 6.19 we can see that variable #5 (increase local participation) correlated strongly and positively with other solution questions, especially those which emphasized ways to increase local participation, such as: development of human resources, participation of women, and improving the educational system. It was less strongly, but still significantly correlates with variable #20 (the need to slow down the foreign labor influx to Saudi Arabia). This is to be expected as Solutions Variable #5 correlated positively with all the negative influence variables, except variable #15 (low productivity of Saudi Arabia) and variable 111€3 .3. as 8000...:u.0 080) 0:0..0.nu.oo -< 8 no. va. 0... o~. o..- n .~.u u .N Cm o~. a~. an. ~.. h. w. n. v. 8. ... 8.. 8.. 8.. 8.. ... 88. .8. .8. 88. 88. 8.. 8.. 8.. 88. 8.. ... 8.. 8... .8.- 8..- 8..- 8.. .8. 88. 88. .8. 88. 88. 88. 88.- 88. 8.. 8.. 8.. ... 8.. 88. ... 8.. 8.. 8.. 8.. 88. 88.. 88. .8. 88. 88. 8.. 8.. 88. ... 88.- 88. 88. 88. 88. 88. 8.. 8.. .8.- .8. 88. .8. 88. 88. 8.. 8..- 8 .8. 8.. .8. 88. 88. 88.- 8.. 8 ... 88. 88. 88. 8.. 8 8.. 8.. ... 8.. 88. 8 .8. 8.. 8.. ...- 8 88. ... 8 8.. 8 8.. 8.. u n 8. .. 0. a 0 8 8 8 v v.. a..- ...- .0. ... 0.. an. n.. a.. no. 6.. 09.- ~.. vn.n n n..- n n ~ .0.. 8.88 00.80 :0 .8838. 0: 8 N 8888 00.88 a=.88888=. 8mm .8.- 8888. 88.8.8. ..8 .8. 8888 ".8 a0. .0088 :0 8.800.880. .0 .8830. .808 new 8008. 09.080. .0 80..¢. 00.8008: 8m— 8088. 80.8.0. :0 8800088880 .r. 80.888008 00.80830. .w. 8.0088 .0 oucva888888. .0. .8.- 8.....888888 88.8..888 .8. 8:08 .0 .808 00.880880. 8v— 00..v..:. :0 .8800. um. a0. 8:0...0008 8...... :0 8.088888 .m— 888.8808 u..008 :0 8.08888. 8 .. 880800888 08003 ...80 00.30.8800 .... a0. . 880.88 .808.8.08 :0 8880:. 8 a n..08. :0 .8801. 8 o «Io-800 00 80005. 8 P 0800: .0 00.880.8.8888 8 u 00. 8.8000 .800. .0 :0.vs.u..888 8 m n~. 880888038 8008. 88.08 8 v v~. 8(00008 83. 00.80.88. 8 n 0000:. :0. 8toea.8.0. . N u .008. 03.0.0. 80. 000: 8 u — 80.88.88» 88.00.80: 0008.888 080880: 000.80.88800 8080...:u.m a..o Onaou 149 #53 (increased crime rate). The significant, but least strong correlation was with the question of extravagance by Saudis who employ foreign servants. The strongest correlation was with negative influence on traditions and customs. Eighty percent of these variables correlated with variable #5. In the positive influence and mutual need group, significant correlations occurred on only 37.5 percent of these variables, with strong correlations between the need of foreign laborers to earn more than they can at home and the lack of impact on the Saudi crime rate. Variable #1 (need for foreign labor) correlated less strongly. As might be expected, variable #7 (negative impact on traditions and customs) was found to correlate most strongly with the other negative impact variables. The strongest of these were negative impacts on: the relationships within the family (.50), spiritual values (.42), traffic problems (.26), and crime rates (.25). Also significant were correlations with: extravagance (.24), pressure on public services (.20) and impact on inflation (.20). Least strong, but still significant, were correlations with low productivity of the Saudi labor force (.11) and the impact on rents and housing (.11). There were four significant positive correlations with positive influences: lack of impact on crime (.19), need for all foreign labor currently present (.15), continued need expected (.13), and need for foreign labor (.10). The 150 negative correlation was with the improved training of the Saudi labor force due to the presence of foreign labor. Variable #7 correlated positively with three solution variables: need to slow down foreign labor (.23), need for more local participation (.15), and need to develop local human resources (.15). These results are consistent with expectations. Since the respondents indicated that there were negative impacts and problems resulting from the presence of .foreign workers, they agreed with various suggestions to resolve the problem. As might be expected, variable #8 (negative impact on family) was significantly correlated with all other negative influence variables. The strongest correlations were those related to negative impact on traditions and customs (.50), spiritual values (.41) and the extravagance of employing foreign servants (.39); also, impact on rent (.25), pressure on public services (.24), traffic problems (.23), inflation (.23) and high crime rates (.22). The least strong, but still significant was the correlation with attitudes on lowering the productivity of the Saudi labor force (.09). Variable #8 correlated to three of the positive influence variables: no effect on crime rate (.19), the need for all foreign labor currently in Saudi Arabia (.17) and foreign labor improvement of the Saudi economy (.08). Significant correlation with solution variables occurred in questions such as, slowing down the influx of 151 foreign labor (.29), the participation of local people (.11) and development of human resources. Variable #9 (negative impact on spiritual values) showed significant positive correlation with all other negative influence variables, with the strongest being impact on traditional customs (.42), impact on the family (.41), pressure on public services (.32), and inflated prices (.37). Other significant correlations were with: high rents (.30), high crime rates (.27), and traffic conditions (.27). The weakest correlations in this group were with: extravagance of Saudis employing foreign servants (.24) and low productivity of the Saudi labor force (.19). Seven out of eight of the positive .influences were significantly correlated with variable #9 but two were negative correlations (to the labor shortage solution that foreign labor provided, and to the improved training of the Saudi labor force due to foreign labor presence). Positive correlations were with the influence of an improved economy (.19), continued need expected (.18), need for all foreign labor currently in the country (.16), and lack of crime rate (.15). The smallest correlation was with existence of foreign labor being due to the need for them (.09). Four of the five solutions correlated significantly with the largest one being the need to slow down the influx of foreign labor (.31). Following that were the need to 152 develop local resources (.14), participation of local people (.12), and the need to improve the educational system (.11). As might be expected, variable #12 (negative impact on traffic conditions) showed significant positive correlation with the rest of the negative influence variables. The strongest ones were: pressure on public services (.4), lowered productivity of Saudi labor (.28), spiritual values (.27), inflated prices (.27), high rents (.27), and impact on traditions and customs (.26). Less strong but still significant correlations were to high crime rates (.23), impact on family (.23), and extravagance of Saudis employing foreign servants (.15). All solution variables correlated significantly with one having a negative correlation (women's participation = -.09). Positive correlations were found for: the need to slow down the influx of foreign labor (.21), develop local human resources (.18), improve education (.11), and increase participation of local people. Correlations to positive influence variables were all positive except one (foreign labor presence has improved Saudi training - .07). Positive correlations were: foreign labor has no effect on crime rate (.17), continued need of foreign labor expected (.20), Saudi Arabia needs all foreign labor now in the country (.10) and that the foreign labor presence is in the country because it needs them (.09). Variable #11 (pressure on public services) showed a significant positive correlation with all other negative 153 influence variables, with strong correlation to traffic conditions (.41), inflated prices (.34), high rents (.25), impact on the family (.24) and the crime rate (.21). Other significant correlations were to traditions and customs (.20), lower productivity of. Saudi labor (.16) and extravagance of Saudis employing foreign servants (.17). Variable #11 correlated positively and significantly with four out of five solution variables with the strongest being to the need to slow down foreign labor influx (.23) and the need to develop human resources (.17). Also, significant were correlations to the need to improve the educational system (.13) and the participation of local peeple (.12). Half of the positive influence variables were correlated significantly with variable #11, with the strongest one being the continued need expected (.18). Others were: needs foreign workers (.13), lack of effect on crime rate (.12) and current need for all foreign labor in the country (.10). Variable tl9 (need to slow down the influx of of foreign labor) correlated significantly to only three of the four other solution variables. It correlated most strongly to: develop local human resources (.21), improve educational systems (.14) and increase local participation (.09). Variable l9 correlated significantly to all negative influence variables. The strongest ones were to spiritual values (31), impact on family (.29), extravagance of Saudis 154 employing foreign servants (.24), impact on traditions and customs (.23), pressure on public services (.23), high rents (.23), traffic conditions (.21), inflated prices (.20), high crime rates (.20), and lower productivity of the Saudi labor force (.18). Variable #19 correlated to half the positive influence variables, with one negative correlation to foreign labor having solved the labor shortage (-0.8). Positive significant correlations were to the need for all foreign labor currently in the country (.33) and the lack of effect on crime rates. It is clear from the analysis of the correlation matrix that most of the attitude variables were significantly and positively correlated. Eight out of 23 attitude variables included in the construction of the Guttman scale were strongly correlated. Measurement Techniques and Scale Validation Attitude is viewed by social scientists as the combination of cognitive, effective and behavioral positions of individuals toward certain issues or social subjects. This behavioral aspect can be measured by Guttman scaling. Scalogram analysis is an approach to the measurement of cognitive, behavioral and affective-subject variables which, when its conditions are met, yields an ordinal scale (Upshaw, 1968, p. 98). Guttman Scaling is based on the fact that some items under consideration may prove to be harder 155 indicators of the variables than others. Respondents who accept a given hard item also accept the easier ones (Babbie, 1973, p. 273). An attempt was made to produce a scale. For the construction of the Guttman Scale, several trials were made on an experimental basis. Eight items were included in the scale and the cumulative percentage for all responses were calculated. Each item was treated as a dichotomy. Different cut off points were used. For all trials, the responses did not form a Guttman scale pattern. The coefficient of reproducibility was below .90, which is one of the criteria for a good Guttman Scale. Scale Validation The first step in an index on scale validation is an internal validation which is called Item Analysis. The researcher should examine the extent to which the composite index is related to the questionnaire items included in the index itself (Babbie, 1973, p. 266). Scalogram analysis established that the eight-item scale was not unidimensional. In order to examine the validity of the scale, a number of correlates were used. Table 6.20 presents the result of Yule's Q. In general, these correlations were strong except for the ones which referred to respondents' attitudes toward inflation and toward increasing crime rates. It is clear that variable #8 (impact of foreign workers on 156 TABLE 6.20: Biserial Correlation Showing Relationships Between Eight-Item Attitudinal Scale Score and Other Questions, Ranked by Overall Strength of Correlation Variable . Yule's Q 1. Impact on family .79 2. Impact on tradition and customs .73 3. Impact on spiritual values .70 4. Impact on traffic conditions .70 5. Reduction of foreign labor influx .59 6. Pressure on public services .54 7. Inflation: Goods and services .43 8. Increasing crime rates .40 157 relationships within the family) correlated most strongly with opinions on all the other attitude questions. If we look at Table 7.19, we can see that it was significantly and positively correlated to 15 of the 23 attitude questions. Still, the greatest strength of correlation was found for Variable #7 (concern about the impact of foreigners on traditions and customs). It was positively correlated to 17 of the 23 attitude questions. To explore the validity of the scale, cross-tabulation analysis was done. Table 6.21 presents the correlation between the scale score and the other attitude variables. Computation of Scores Before scores were computed, variables #32 through #54 were recoded so that 1 and 2 equaled 1, while 3, 4 and 5 equaled 2. Sum Score (Sum)--the sum score was calculated by adding V38, V39, V40, V42, V43, V44, V50 and V53. Scale Score (Scalesc)--The scalesc was calculated by duplicating the sum score. The scalesc was recorded so that 829, 9:8, 10-7, 11-6, 12:5, 13:4, 15=2, 16=1. For further analysis, the scalesc was recorded so that 9=l, 8:2, and 1 through 7=3. Dependent Variable Score (Depscore)--the depscore was calculated by adding variables 32 through 54. A distribution of the depscore was examined and it was divided 158 TABLE 6.21: Correlation Between Scale Score and Other Attitude Variables, Showing Chi-Square and Gamma Values Attitude Chi- Degrees of Signi- Variable Direction Square Freedom ficance Gamma Increasing . Rent Rate + 59.93 2 .05 .74 Rates of Crime + 100.60 2 .05 .71 Countries Need of Foreigners + 45.74 2 .05 .49 Extravagance of Saudis + 31.18 2 .05 .47 Dependence on foreign labor + 27.59 2 .05 .38 Declining in productivity + 19.46 2 .05 .33 Solving Labor Shortages + 14.16 2 .05 .32 Improving the Economy + 8.33 2 .05 .26 Foreigners' Low Income at home + 4.51 2 NS .16 Developing native human resources + 2.87 2 NS .22 Participation of Local People + 2.51 2 NS .28 Positive Impact on training + 2.09 2 NS .11 Need of foreign labor + 1.39 2 NS .14 Participation of women + .87 2 NS .07 Improving educa- tional system + .30 2 NS .18 159 into three groups, so that scores of 0-25=1, 26-29=2, and 30-45=3. One (1) was considered a negative attitude, two (2) was considered no opinion or neutral, and three (3) was considered a positive attitude. Due to the uniformity of respondents' attitudes, none of the experimental trials formed a Guttman Scale. It was a cumulative type of scale but not unidimensional. Expansion of the Findings: Relationships Between Background Variables and Attitude Variables It was the intent of this research to test the relationship between background variable (age, income, level of education, occupation and family size) that would be expected to influence Saudi citizen's attitudes toward the impact of foreign workers on Saudi society. In this part of the analysis, the relationships between those background variables and the dependent variable (attitudes toward foreign labor) are tested. Testing the Research Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: The younger their age, the more favorable will be Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia. Previous studies have indicated that older people are more likely to have low education levels and lower social 160 status than younger people. Therefore, they are less likely to be receptive to social change. Table 6.22 shows the relationship between age and attitudes toward foreign labor. The percentages of the age groups holding each type of attitude were relatively consistent, with the largest percent of each age group indicating no opinion or neutrality. The 28 and under age group had the largest percentage of positive attitudes while the group aged 40 years and older had the largest percentage of negative attitudes. Chi-square testing of these results, however, showed that age was not significant as a factor of attitude toward foreign labor. TABLE 6.22: Age of Respondents and Attitude Toward Foreign Labor (in Percent) Age Group Attitudes Toward Foreign Under 29 29-39 Above 40 Labor (N=l47) (N=164) (N=197) Negative (N=122) 21.1 23.2 26.9 No Opinion (N=274) 50.3 55.5 55.3 Positive (N=112) 28.6 21.3 17.8 Totals (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 6.26; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig.= n.s. 161 Hypothesis 2: The higher their level of education, the more favorable will be Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers. Literacy and education tend to increase the knowledge and understanding of people. Therefore, people who can read and write will be exposed to the outside world and be more adaptable to change than those who are illiterate. Table 6.23 shows the relationship between level of education and attitude toward foreign workers. At each educational level, the largest percent of each group indicated no opinion or a neutral attitude toward foreign workers. Of the others, those with average educational levels had equal percentages of negative and positive attitudes (24.6 percent). A slightly larger percent of the low education group had negative attitudes rather than positive attitudes, and the same was true of the high education group. Chi-square values did not show that education was a significant factor in attitudes toward foreign labor. Hypothesis 3: The higher their income, the more favorable will be Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the importation of foreign workers. It was assumed that people with high income levels would be able to employ foreign workers and, therefore, would tend to have positive attitudes toward them. Table 162 TABLE 6.23: Respondents Level of Education and Attitudes Toward Foreign Labor (in Percents) Attitudes Level of Education Toward Foreign Low Average High Labor (N=127) (N=203) (N=178) Negative (N=122) 23.6 24.6 23.6 No Opinion (N=274) . 54.3 50.7 57.3 Positive (N=112) 22.0 24.6 19.1 Totals (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-Square = 2.13; Degrees of Freedom = 4: Sig. = n.s. 6.24 shows that the largest percent of each income group indicated no opinion or a neutral attitude toward foreign workers. High income respondents did show a positive opinion more often than low and medium income groups, which had relatively the same percentage of negative attitudes on foreign labor. Overall, chi-square results showed that income level was not a significant factor in attitude toward foreign labor. Hypothesis 4: Saudi citizens in professional occupations will be found to hold more favorable attitudes than Saudi non- professionals, towards the importance of foreign workers. 163 TABLE 6.24: Level of Income of Respondents and Attitude Toward Foreign Labor (in Percent). Attitudes Level of Income Toward Foreign Low Medium High Labor (N=126) (N=214) (N=168) Negative (N=122) 25.4 25.7 20.8 No Opinion (N=274) 54.0 53.3 54.8 Positive (N=112) 20.6 21.0 24.4 Total (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 1.73; Degrees of Freedom 8 4: Sig. = n.s. It was assumed earlier that the achievement of high levels of education, high income levels and high occupational status would be associated with privileges in society that are different from those afforded persons with little education, low income, and low occupational status. That those with high socioeconomic status would be concerned with the problems of their society's well-being as it relates to the positions they occupy. Table 6.25 shows the relationship between type of occupation and attitude toward foreign workers. The chi-square and gamma values indicate a significant relationship between occupation and attitudes toward foreign labor. Businessmen more often had positive attitudes toward 164 TABLE 6.25: Type of Occupation of Respondents and Attitudes Toward Foreign Labor (In Percent). Attitude Type of Occupation Toward Business- Government Social Security Foreign men Officials Beneficiaries Labor (N=149) (N=275) (N=84) Negative (N=122) 16.1 28.0 25.0 No Opinion (N=274) 54.4 50.9 63.1 Positive (N=112) 29.5 21.1 11.9 Total (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 15.32; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig. =.05 foreign labor than either government officials or social security beneficiaries, and least often had negative attitudes. Government officials had the largest percentage of negative opinions and Social Security recipients had the lowest percentage of positive attitudes. These results showed that occupation was a significant factor in the type of attitude held toward foreign workers which was not unexpected since it was part of the rationale used in selecting these three socioeconomic groups to represent the upper, middle, and lower classes. Businessmen were found to hold favorable attitudes because they tended to employ 165 foreign workers and eventually benefit from their presence in the country. Government officials tended to hold positive, negative and neutral attitudes because of their share in the workplace, while the Social Security recipients held essentially negative and neutral attitudes. This tendency may be attributed to the fact that the presence of large numbers of foreign workers may affect them by limiting their access to jobs. Hypothesis 5: The larger their family size, the less favorable will be Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the importation of foreign workers. The relationship between family size and attitudes toward foreign workers was approached from two angles. First, large family size may be a reflection of strong traditional values. Second, those with large families may have a vested interest in keeping opportunities open for their own kin, and therefore, the presence of foreign workers may constitute a threat to them. Table 6.26 shows the distribution of family size and attitudes. Family size was not found to be a significant factor in the type of attitudes held toward foreign workers. Again, this result can be explained by the fact that people in Saudi Arabia tend to marry early and have large families. Therefore, having a large or small family did not affect their 'attitudes toward foreign workers. TABLE 6.26: 166 Family Size of Respondents and Attitudes Toward Foreign Workers (in Percents) Attitudes Family Size Toward 2 or less 3-5 more than 5 Foreign Labor (N=106) (N=205) (N=196) Negative (N=122) 29.2 21.5 24.0 No Opinion (N=274) 45.3 56.1 56.6 Positive (Nalll) 25.5 22.4 19.4 Total (N=507) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 4.87: Degrees of Freedom = 4: Sig. = ns However, as noted earlier, it was found that age was significantly correlated with family size, which was to be expected. Hypothesis 6: Previous indicated that people who are studies (Lerner, Saudi citizens with more exposure to cross-societal contact are likely to have more favorable attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers than those with less or no cross-societal exposure. 1958: Rogers, 1964) have exposed to cross-societal contact through mass media exposure and cosmopolitanism are 167 more likely to be receptive to social change: as a result they have more favorable attitude toward it. Table 6.27 shows that whether or not the respondents had traveled outside Saudi Arabia had no significant impact on the attitudes toward foreign workers indicated by respondents. Those who had traveled outside the country had slightly more negative opinions but also slightly more positive opinions. The majority of both travelers and non- travelers had no opinion on foreign workers. TABLE 6.27: Travel Outside Saudi Arabia and Degree of Attitude (in Percents) Attitudes Toward Travel Outside Saudi Arabia Foreign Yes No Labor (N=379) (N=127) Negative (N=122) 25.1 20.5 No Opinion (N=274) 52.5 , 59.1 Positive (N=112) 22.4 20.5 Total (N=508) 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 1.75; Degrees of Freedom = 2; Sig. = n.s. It was also assumed that travel outside the country would affect Saudi citizens' attitudes toward foreign workers. Essentially, it was found that those who travel 168 very frequently outside of Saudi Arabia are more likely to have positive attitudes toward foreign workers, but Table 6.28 shows that frequency of travel had no significant effect on attitudes toward foreign workers. Those who had never traveled were equally likely to have a positive or negative attitude. Those who had traveled outside Saudi Arabia three or more times were slightly more likely to have a positive attitude. TABLE 6.28: Frequency of Travel and Respondents' Attitude . Toward Foreign Workers (in Percents) Attitudes Frequency of Travel Toward Foreign Never 1 or 2 times 3 or more times Labor (N=129) (N=93) (N=286) Negative (N=122) 20.9 28.0 24.1 No Opinion (N=274) 58.1 46.2 54.5 Positive (N=112) 20.1 25.8 21.3 Total (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 3.31; Degrees of Freedom = 4: Sig. = n.s. Hypothesis 7: Saudi citizens who have more contact with foreign workers are likely to have more favorable attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers than those with little or no contact. 169 Personal contact with foreign workers is less grounded on previous theoretical studies, but it was one of the intentions in this research to find out whether those people who have contact with foreign labor (type of contact, frequency of contact) are more or less likely to have positive attitudes toward them. Table 6.29 shows that contact with foreign labor had no significant impact on the respondents' attitudes with regard to foreign labor. Those having such contacts had slightly more negative attitudes than positive ones, while those without such contacts had equal negative and positive attitudes. The majority _of both groups of respondents indicated neutral attitudes toward foreign workers. Furthermore, Table 6.30 indicates that the type of contact with foreign labor did not significantly affect attitudes indicated by respondents. Those with contact in the workplace showed slightly more negative rather than positive attitudes and those with no contact tended to have equal negative and positive attitudes, but overall, the majority of both groups indicated they had no opinion. Table 6.31 shows that frequency of contact with foreign labor did not significantly affect the respondents' attitudes on foreign labor. Of those with the most frequent contact, a larger percent held negative attitudes than positive ones. A slightly larger percentage of those with moderately frequent contact had positive attitudes than 170 TABLE 6.29: Respondents' Contact with Foreign Labor and Attitude Toward Foreign Labor (in Percents) Attitude Contact With Foreign Labor Toward Foreign Yes No Labor (N=361) (N=l47) Negative (N=122) 25.8 19.7 No Opinion (N=274) 51.2 60.5 Positive (N=112) 23.0 19.7 Total (N=508) 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 3.76; Degrees of Freedom = 2, Sig. = n.s. TABLE 6.30: Type of Contact and Respondents' Attitudes Toward Foreign Labor (In Percents) Attitude Type of Contact Toward Foreign No Contact Contact at Work Labor (N=l48) (N=360) Negative (N=122) 19.6 25.8 No Opinion (N=274) 60.8 51.1 Positive (N=112) 19.6 23.1 Total (N=508) 100.0 100.0 Chi-Square = 4.09; Degrees of Freedom = 2: Sig. = n.s. 171 TABLE 6.31:. Frequency of Contact and Degree of Attitude (in Percent) Attitudes Frequency of Contact Toward Foreign Everyday Several per Once or Less Labor (N=210) Week (N=150) (N=l48) Negative (N=122) 24.8 26.7 20.8 No Opinion (N=274) 56.2 44.7 60.1 Positive (N=112) 19.0 28.7 19.6 Totals (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-Square = 9.23; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig. = n.s. those with negative attitudes. Roughly similar percentages of those with less frequent contact had negative as well as positive attitudes. Generally, however, the largest percentage of each group had no opinion or a neutral attitude. It was anticipated that people who employ foreign workers, especially those among the business gorup, would be more likely to have positive attitudes toward them, because they are benefitting from their presence in the country. However, Table 6.32 shows that whether or not the respondents employed foreign workers did not significantly affect the attitudes reported on this survey. A slightly larger percent of those who did not employ foreign workers 172 TABLE 6.32: Respondents' Attitudes Toward and Employment of Foreign Labor (In Percents) Attitudes Employing Foreign Labor Toward Foreign Yes No Labor (N=168) (N=339) Negative (N=121)~ . 19.6 26.0 No Opinion (N=274) 56.0 '53.1 Positive (N=112) 24.4 20.9 Total (N=507) 100.0 100.0 Chi-Square = 2.65; Degrees of Freedom = 2: Sig. = n.s. had negative attitudes, while a slightly larger percent of those who employed foreign labor had positive attitudes than those who did not employ foreign workers, but the majority attitude expressed by each group was no opinion or neutral. Also, the length of employment of foreign labor did not significantly affect the respondents' attitudes (Table 6.33). Those employing foreign labor three years or less more often had positive than negative attitudes, while positive and negative attitudes were equal for those employing foreign labor more than three years, but a majority of all three groups again expressed no opinion. 173 TABLE 6.33: Respondents' Attitudes and Experience Employing Foreign Workers (in Percent) Attitudes Length of Employment Toward 3 years More than No Employ- Foreign or less 3 years ment Labor (N=lll) (N=56) (N=341) Negative (N=122) 18.9 21.4 26.1 No Opinion (N=274) 55.0 57.1 53.1 Positive (N=112) 26.1 21.4 20.8 Total (N=508) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-Square = 3.22; Degrees of Freedom = 4: Sig. a n.s. Exposure to mass media (radio, television, newspapers, etc.) will tend to facilitate movement from a traditional way of life to a modern one and to make individuals more adaptable to change and to new ideas. Rogers (1964:52) points out that mass media in less developed countries like Colombia carry mainly prodevelopment messages. Thus, it was expected that exposure to these messages would be positively related to innovativeness, political knowledge, and other consequent variables. Therefore, it was assumed that those exposed to mass communication would be more likely to have favorable attitudes toward foreign workers. Additionally, in the survey instrument, certain questions were designed to 174 find out the extent to which respondents' exposure to foreign mass media would affect their attitudes toward foreign workers. Table 6.34 shows that daily viewing of foreign television programs significantly affected attitudes toward foreign workers. Most of the variations from expectations occurred in the category of persons who never watched foreign TV programs. They tended more often to have no opinion or to report positive responses and less often to have negative opinions. There was a similarity between the’ groups who watched foreign TV, with more of both groups having negative attitudes than positive. TABLE 6.34: Frequency of Watching Foreign Broadcasts and Attitudes Toward Foreign Workers Attitudes Frequency of Watchipg Toward Foreign <31 hour > 1 hour Do not View Labor (N=233) (N=103) (N=l71) Negative (N=122) 28.3 28.2 15.2 No Opinion (N=274) 51.1 51.5 59.6 Positive (N=112) 20.6 20.4 25.1 Total (N=507) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-Square = 10.70: Degrees of Freedom = 4; sig. = .05; Gamma = .15 175 Table 6.35 shows that frequency of listening to foreign radio broadcasts did not significantly affect the attitudes of respondents toward foreign workers. Slightly more of those not listening had positive opinions than those who listened more than one hour daily. TABLE 6.35: Frequency of Listening to Foreign Radio Broadcasts and Respondents' Attitudes (in Percent) Attitues Toward Foreign <1 hour >1 hour Do Not Listen Labor (N=l93) (N=41) (N=273) Negative (N=122) 28.5 29.3 19.8 No Opinion (N=274) . 53.9 46.3 55.3 Positive (N=112) 17.6 24.4 24.9 Total (N=507) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chi-square = 7.50; Degrees of Freedom = 4; Sig. = n.s. Those listening to foreign broadcasts more often had negative opinions than those who did not. Discussion and Interpretation The existence of two to three million foreign workers in Saudi Arabia has generated many problems which have had 176 considerable impact on Saudi society. In order to gain insights into the problems attributed to the presence of foreign workers in the country, this study examined the attitudes of three segments of the public in Jeddah City, namely businessmen, government officials, and Social Security beneficiaries. In terms of the relationships among background variables, the data suggest that there was a relationship between several background variables (age, level of education, level of income, and size of family). The frequency distribution of the attitude variables indicated similar patterns and strong agreement among the respondents that there are problems associated with the presence of foreign workers. These findings are consistent, to a large extent, with the findings of Polinard, Wrinkle, and Gavza (1984), from their study of attitudes of Mexican-Americans toward irregular Mexican immigration. They found similar consistency, in the direction and strength of attitudes toward certain immigration issues. For example, all the respondent groups opposed an increased rate of immigration, . considered illegal immigration as an important problem, and supported stricter enforcement of immigration laws (p.796). Investigation of background variables with relation to the respondents' attitudes, did not indicate differences among the three socioeconomic groups. Type of occupation was found to be a strong factor which influenced the 177 respondents' attitudes toward foreign workers, but this was not unexpected as it was an underlying assumption made in selecting these three groups to represent the upper, middle and lower classes. It was also assumed that businessmen would be more likely to have a favorable attitude toward foreign workers than the other two groups, because the presence of foreign workers in the country is benefitting them. In examining the relationship between intervening variables (cross-societal contact, contact with foreign workers, exposure to foreign mass media) and respondents' attitudes, the data did not show significant relationships, except for those who viewed foreign television broadcasts on a daily basis. The generally negative attitude of Saudi citizens toward foreign workers can be attributed to what is called xenophobia*. Their negative experiences with foreign workers in terms of increasing crime rates, pressure on public services, inflation, and social impact on tradition and customs, has led them to be xenOphobic. *According to the American Heritage Dictionary, xenophobe is a person unduly fearful or comtemptuous of strangers or foreigners, especially as reflected in his/her political or cultural views. 178 Saudi citizens have very strong commitments to their culture, traditional family relations and religious values, and customs. Therefore, the presence of many foreign workers from different cultural backgrounds is perceived to be a threat to the society's culture and values. Previous studies, with regard to the attitudes of Saudi students abroad toward their traditional family relationships and religious values, have shown that neither contact nor length of stay has had an impact on these attitudes. This pattern implies the impact on attitudinal outcomes of a strong commitment to cultural background (Al- Banyan, 1974; Al-Dakerlallah, 1984). In order to determine whether the generally negative attitudes of Saudi citizens toward foreign workers held true for the diverse nationality groups now living in Saudi Arabia, respondents were asked: ”Which of the following nationality groups do you feel most comfortable with? l. Arabs 2. Muslim non-Arabs 3. Southeast Asians 4. Europeans and Americans The data show that about 49 percent (N=249) of the respondents felt most comfortable with Arabs, while 28 percent (N=l42) respond favorably toward Muslims who come from non-Arab countries. Roughly 12 percent (N=63) “felt most comfortable with Europeans and Americans. Less than 10 179 percent (N=53) felt most comfortable with Southeast Asians. The more favorable attitudes toward Arabs and Muslim non- Arabs undoubtedly reflected similar cultural and religious values. Respondents were also asked: "Which nationality groups do you think work for their own interests more than the interests of the Saudi society?" The data show that 36.6 percent (N=186) felt Southeast Asians emphasized their own interests over Saudi interests. Of the rest, 31 percent (N=158) chose European and American, 23.6 percent (N=112) chose Arabs and 8.5 percent (N=43) chose Muslim non-Arabs. We can see that the Southeast Asian workers tend to be more negatively regarded by Saudi citizens than other nationality groups, but negative attitudes prevail toward all foreign worker groups. Even those who indicated they were most comfortable with Arabs of other nationalities were less than a majority. One may conclude from this analysis that the generally negative attitudes of Saudi citizens toward foreign workers hold true to a large extent across the different nationality groups working in the country. A recent Gallup Polls Opinion Index indicates a majority of Americans oppose immigration increases and seek stricter enforcement of immigration laws (Miller et a1., 1984:192). This reflects U.S. attitudes toward Mexican and South American immigrants in spite of the close ties between their countries. Therefore, it is not surprising to find this attitude among Saudi citizens toward foreign workers who come from diverse cultural background. CHAPTER SEVEN THE NEED FOR MANPOWER PLANNING IN SAUDI ARABIA AND THE GULF STATES The attitudes of Saudi citizens toward foreign labor, and the continuing necessity for the importation of expatriate labor, reflect the urgent need for manpower planning in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states; a case in which focusing programs on manpower is neither ideological nor rhetorical, but pragmatic. The labor situation shows that manpower programs must be the target of development plans. Codim (1982:26) notes that any plan to secure the government's political, economic and social objectives should include plans to develop and improve manpower, both as a natural resource and as an objective of development activity. These development plans should be preceded by and based upon a manpower assessment which should include an analysis of the existing situation, an estimation of the manpower required to attain economic goals, and the capacity of educational and training systems to supply such manpower. The aim of manpower assessment is to ensure that human resources programs move in the right direction. It is quite obvious from the review of the literature (Chapters Two and Four) pertaining to Saudi Arabia and the 180 181 Arab World, that there is, and will continue to be, a dependence on expatriate labor (See Table 7.1). As is clearly evident from this table, the expected projection in the number of expatriate laborers is one of slow decline (e.g., Libya and U.A.E.) and increases, as this is the case at least for Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. There is, therefore, an urgent need for an effective manpower planning for all the Gulf countries, and especially in those countries where the indigenous manpower resources still remain undeveloped. Table 7.1: Incremental Expatriate Labor Flows to Selected Arab Oil Exporting Countries (in Thousands) Projections Country 1970-75 1975-80 1980-85 1985-95 Kuwait 37 163 124 164 Libya 145 69 90 40 Saudi Arabia 349 679 633 680 U.A.E. 168 251 . 120 109 Total 699 1,162 967 993 SOURCE: Sherbiny, 1984:37 182 The Impprtance of Developing Human Resources The development of human resources is considered one of the critical factors in the modernization of developing countries. In spite of their enormous wealth, the Gulf countries of the Middle East find themselves in an unenviable position due to their lack of trained manpower resources (Abdullrahman, 1982:2). Shaw (l983:2) argues that deficiencies in the quantity, quality and distribution of human resources is the single most important bottleneck in the Gulf region. The relative smallness of the population base, coupled with the insufficiency of trained personnel in the face of an enormous expenditure capacity, poses an impediment to development. Abdullrahman suggests that a solution to this predicament rests in the introduction of intensive human development programs that are both reactive and intergradive in nature. The development of a nation's human resources is challenging and often requires long-range planning. Sundberg and Thurber (1980:245) in their discussion of world trends and future prospects, have identified six major forces influencing the development of human resources. These include: proliferating technology, changing economic growth and distribution, increasing and shifting 183 populations, expanding information, shifting values and beliefs, and rising social expectations (See Figure 7.1). However, careful analysis of a nation's manpower situation must begin by examining the types and levels of education-~formal education at the primary, secondary, and college levels, as well as, vocational educational programs, training and apprenticeships (Jakubauskas & Polomba, 1973:15). Non-formal educational training has also gained popularity during the last decade. Education is a critical factor in modernization and plays a key role in initiating processes of "development" or "change". The role of education in the economic development of Third World countries is one of uplifting and transforming the skills, aptitudes, and mind-set of the population so they can engage in more productive activities. Kazamias (1965:178) argues that education has an integral role to play in the movement toward modernity and contributes to the creation of better human beings and better societies. Economists who recognize the importance of education, as a strategy toward effective programs of human resource development include Smith (1973), Marshall (1930), Schultz (1961, 1963), Harbison and Myers (1964), Jakubauskas and Baumel (1967), Harbison (1983) and Shaw (1983). Harbison (1973:i-iii) has explained the function of education as a national investment in human resource development: 184 Pique 7.1. World Trends and Future Prospects /.............. \ “\m/ infill-u fMmedfil‘mflka-phs mmumnm,p.z«. 185 Human beings are the active agents who accumulate capital, exploit natural resources, build social, economic and political organizations, and carry forward national developments. Clearly, a country which is unable to develop the skills and knowledge of its people and utilize them effectively in the national economy, will be unable to develop anything else. Extensive work in illuminating the role of education in economic development has been done by Harbison and Myers in Education, Manpower and Economic Growth: Strategies of Human Resources Development. The authors investigate the hypothesis that human capital accumulation (human resources development) is a precondition of economic development in less developed countries. Based on extensive research and data analysis for seventy-five countries, they conclude there is a significant positive correlation between the level of education of a country's manpower resources and its level of economic development. In conducting their research, Harbison and Myers developed a simple composite index to distinguish between countries that categorically fall under any one of four levels of human resource development. . This composite index is the arithmetic total of (l) enrollment at the secondary level of education as a percentage of the 15-19 year old age group adjusted for the length of schooling, and (2) enrollment at the third level of education, as a percentage of the age group multiplied by five. Using this composite 186 index, they divided the seventy-five countries they examined into four distinctive human resource development levels: less developed (I), partially developed (II), semi- advanced (III), and advanced (IV). (See Table 7.2). Their composite index has a high positive correlation with GNP per capita, number of teachers per population, and number of physicians and dentists per population, but a negative correlation with percentage of population active in agriculture (See Table 7.3). . Harbison and Myers (l964:7) point out that the building of modern nations depends upon the development of people and the organization of human activity. Capital, natural resources, foreign aid, and international trade play important roles in economic growth and deve10pment, but none is as important as a country's human resources development. Human Resources Development in the Gulf States and Saudi Arabia The Gulf states region is one of the wealthiest in the world, but in spite of its enormous financial capital, the region lags in human resources development and has had to meet manpower shortages by importing foreign labor, both skilled and unskilled. While this has provided a short-term source of development labor, development planners in these countries have recognized that long-term, self-reliant 187 .mm .a .qomq .nuv>z a comsbun: "muzzcm >m3uoz w.mn >maozn: u.am oqu>o~mocumuu a.mo occaom m.oo au>m~moozr m.oo vats ~.~m stem ~.om smxtze ~.- mUAMEmo m.o~ cansm mm.> mwumum pours: (n.so~ aumuH 0.6m cmumsxma ~.m~ mecca: mv.m ocmsmmn 38: m.~v~ mmuox nuaom c.mm Loomaom v.vN zmomcmm mv.m mqsmuums< 9.5mq ceases m.mm cocmnmu m.e~ «Dam: m.m moccaumzumz h.mm~ >uaocsz a.mm m>m~mtmé.m~ muumoaz mm.v ezsosmm o.m- aggro ~.~m smaomuma ~.- m>cox mp.v eooocdx tonic: S.ANA moomuo n.s. mdneosoo o.- «Armada ~.v cmamn v.-~ m~o=~mcm> n.s. Adumum m.o~ cocoo mm.m mucosa m.pod muse mumoo m.~v Avcmzcdmx. mezzo m.m~ osmooocm cumzuuoz mm.~ «cacao o.~o~ ~mo=uuoa m.oq :muH m.>~ ammoo >uo>a o.~ .m.m.m.a a.~m buxom ~.ov msmgcpem~.m~ mxz>cmocme ~.~ ocmdcfim n.mo mufluu< canom o.ov mfl>q~om m.q~ mznmu< ansmm m._ >cm5umo 6mm: c.mm cumam o.mm ozsnaamm :moflcfleon m.q~ cmsmscmcouc m.z Homumu a.vm unno m.mm manna ~.v~ mzzmeom mm._ mcgucmoua c.~m anus“ ~.mm msndsmm.c~ cam.zmm>z ~.~ cooozm ~.m~ ocmdsmce ~.mm mfimmcooca n.o~ awaoscum mn.o xumecmo «.ps ovaxmx c.mm msmeoamso n.c~ umozz m.o coocm>o< omocm>0mdeom Umao~m>mn >-mduumm oomo~m>vouvo:: ">H "Hum ~m>mu "Hm ~o>mu "H ~m>mu meCH muamoaeou Ou Ocfivuouu< acmeaoqm>mo ocuzommm sass: uo mam>mq >2 UmQDOLO monuucsou "N.b mqn<9 mauvoa_ .muo>z use cougars: ”aux23n 188 o-.- ems. m-. qm~.- opo.- «cm.- o-.- ooo.- Nzo.- o.m.- mom. mlm.--m.u ..v_-m macro mom cs Saxony; .4. o-.- msw. was. one. ohm. mks. so..- NNF. Nov. NVA. com. dos. mmo. .....................neou:. ~mcoaum: ucooumav ccquo 1:63 co wuzudvcwaxm U-23m .MA I l l om~. mam.) vm~.n and.) o-.n ao~.u o-.u coo. mvo. who.u nee.) ndo.uco~.u ..................31~ .msss .mouuncmszc c« beached .- mwd. mow.) vm~.| ova.) moo. cad. ham. c-.u mom.) moo. mes.) -o. mhc. mo~u~aumm «couscous new oucmfiom cg ucvouvm .qq can.) vmn. Am~.u ov~.: wmh. own. mma. mmm. van. Nan. mhm.s mmp. o~o. ..........oflumu ~o>m~|pudcs .oq ooh.) ohm. o-.n moo.) amp. vow. mac. omo. Amp. ape. mmm.u hdm. mom. .........o«umu ~o>m~u©cooom .m vom.n mom. mo~.u wad. vvn. com. mow. mmn. moo. chm. ova.) Nmn. Cam. ......................ofibmu ~m>o~1pcooom ocm nunss; .m o-.u Hov.n o-.| ham. mmq. mmv. com. mow. MOM. amp. mun.) moo. mmo. ......................odumu ucmE-0ucm ~m>m_numus; .5 gob.) th. mmo. o-.- mam. owe. amp. mow. cam. amm. h~m.s con. Nov. ......couum~:doa ooo.o~ nod mumgucmo Ocm mcmmuum>zm .c mso.- ~cv. mvo. mam.- can. Ass. mam. mos. was. mpm. oom.- mam. mhm. ......cosum.:aoa ooo.oz Ema momflucoqom 0cm muwmcqocm .m can.) mva. who.) moo. Non. “no. ohm. man. mmm. mnm. has.) mmn. cub. .................co~bu~:Q0Q _ ooo.o~ umd muchQOE .v mom. vow.) mwo.u ave.) who.) mmm.n ova.) mun.o mmm.u com.) nan.) m~m.uv~m.u .............wu:u~:u~uom cs coqumdsmoa m>uuum acme nod .m m~m.- meg. nqo. Ame. mne. ham. was. com. con. mmm. mmh. mam.) mom. ....................mum-op .m.: .muddao you azo .N -m.u moo. cud. mno. cwo. mom. cum. one. “av. mnm. ash. qua.) mam. ............xoncu oufimOQEOG .— vH Ma NH - GA a m n o m v m N H muouwusccH ucmEQ0~o>ma quocoum 6cm mohaommx amen: uo muODMUAUCH "mucmfioauuoou coflumambuou "m.> msn<9 189 development entails the development of their own indigenous populations. The role of education, as mentioned in earlier sections, is critical in the process of human resources development. But, the educational system in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States, as pointed out by Birks and Sinclair (1979:305), has failed to serve the interests of the society. They argue that the modern educational system adopted by Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States has not been the type of system most suited to the needs of such rapidly developing economies. Shaw (1983:182, .183) also reports that for all its remarkable progress, education in most Arab countries, will be incapable of meeting demands for skilled or highly qualified manpower for some time to come. He goes on to say that improvements must await a vastly expanded primary and secondary school system and recommends systematic expansion of vocational and technical institutes, substantial improvements in quality of teacher training, correction of extreme inequalities in the geographical distribution of educational investment, and checks on the ever-present "brain drain.” The widespread introduction and expansion of vocational and technical programs has been inhibited, chiefly, by cultural beliefs and practices. These programs have not been popular because the citizens of the country view manual 190 work as inferior and socially demanding. As a result, vocational and technical education have suffered from a lack of adequate curriculum, qualified teaching personnel, program facilities, and interested trainees. The type of educational system that has been put in place by the Arab Gulf states, however, has tended to accentuate further the disinclination of the population to undertake jobs other than administrative posts in government service (Birks and Sinclair, 1979:305). In summary, therefore, the manpower development situation has been gravely affected by the type of educational system existing in the countries of the Gulf. It is only recently that the manpower development problem has begun to receive attention, as the governments of these countries realize the implications of foreign labor dependence, socio-culturally, politically and economically. In Saudi Arabia, for example, the beginnings of movement toward comprehensive manpower planning are evident in the establishment of a labor force council whose objectives are (l) to study current labor force needs of Saudi society, taking into account both Saudi and non-Saudi workers reflecting the overall development plan; (2) to suggest avenues for coordination between various government agencies involving in manpower training in order to lavoid duplications and inconsistencies; (3) to propose policies which would increase Saudi participation in the labor force; 191 (f) finally, to propose measures that would effectively decrease the quantity of imported labor (Abdullrahman, 1982:208). Abdullrahman also makes reference to the Bahrain Development Conference, held in 1980, in which participants affirmed the importance of foreign labor, even while they emphasized the need to limit foreign labor importation. The participants stressed: (a) the negative impact associated with the dependence on foreign labor; (b) the obstacles to self-reliant development inherent in increases in importation of foreign labor; (c) the need to promote rational policies of population growth which will avoid foreign labor overemployment at the expense of indigenous labor (p.278). Strategies in Future Manpower Planning Abdullrahman, in Oil Bureaucracy and Development Obstacles, emphasizes the primary importance of developing and upgrading human resources, and the various problems related to the development of human resources in the Gulf states. Among the problems he cites are the role of development administrators who fail to underscore the importance of indigenous development, and the problems associated with current education and training programs. It is crucial fo the Gulf countries to take an investigative look at the content of their training programs and make sure 192 that the huge expenditures on schools, training programs and universities reflect actual needs. He notes that one of the major weaknesses in manpower planning has been a lack of coordination between educational and training programs and actual personnel needs. . Based on his study of an assessment of occupational needs and training programs, Awwad has recommended the establishment of an independent manpower planning organization. As far as he is concerned, the establishment of such an organization is crucial in order to implement a comprehensive manpower planning on a national, regional, and local levels. It would fulfill the following tasks: (a) collect data on manpower requirements for each administrative area and identify those areas that have labor market problems to determine if they pertain to a lack of basic training, unemployment, forces which discourage labor force participation or problems of fair compensation for existing employment; (b) periodically analyze the nature and causes of existing manpower problems: (c) establish manpower objectives for local administrative areas; (d) recommend training programs needed for different regions; and (d) conduct follow-up study to make sure manpower programs are meeting their objectives. The studies and recommendations of scholars like Abdullrahman and Awwad, who are conducting serious research in Saudi Arabia and the Arab Gulf states, need to be taken 193 seriously. Abdullrahman's critical look at the educational- vocational training system and Awwad's prescription of a manpower planning organization are instructive of how manpower planning strategies should evolve in Saudi Arabia, where there is an urgent need to understand labor force dynamics and the strategies are needed to reverse undue dependence on expatriate labor. By 1980, the ratio of expatriates in the Saudi work force had risen to where one of two workers was nonindigenous (Sherbiny, 1984:35). A Model for Manpower Planning Given the urgent need for manpower planning in Saudi Arabia, the model described in the following pages and in Figure 7.2 is suggested as a tool for tackling human resources development problems in Saudi Arabia. It has been adapted from work done by the World Bank Technical Assistance and Special Studies Division for the Europe, Middle East and North Africa Region and may have utility for Arab Gulf countries with similar labor dynamics. Effective manpower planning policy requires the use of a working model that incorporates all the components necessary to a manpower planning system. In the case of Ilabor dependent countries such as Saudi Arabia, the model should be able to address the role of expatriate labor as a dynamic variable that is affected by and affects all kinds 194.l 33: u.a.—Ha..— .oseaaaz .N.n 9:3..— _ lllll —| lllllll _ .3435 _ _ 1‘3: .3... 2..—...... .o ...: _ ...-o: _ 3.52»... o. .03: Ana ...-:5 — _ .. an» _ ...-u. :- 53 ousted .. a 3n.— _ _ 13...: . V 1‘ _ 9 _ ...-.2. 3:3...- >=I4.. 3.3:: _ _ .34!— 1-332 _ .ox‘na 3:13—50“ .9. aisle: .0: ...! ......" _ :31. .333: 3.. 03:6 _ _ — _ h—xfl 3.2.}... _ .031..." .11. 13...: lo 3.50 _ ...—....“ 33 12...»: .02. a.” _ n =- _ _ ...-so .13....” ...-...... + 2.1.15... ...-... . a . 2.3:... . 4 _ . .33 _— .a ...-nu .... .. I.“ 3.... ...-...... 12...... a: .3... .23.... 3.3.5 _ A, _ .35 .o .15....456 . .n— 0.. ... ...-.2 _ 3.33... ‘5 35820 _ > _ sic-896.com .o .8 _ <_ _ _ rillllllllllh _ . .II .IIIII 1.5..- n 3“. 7102.4.“ nil.§—eh 3.0.3! h _a no“.— .h 3 / ..A a 810.1“ 1.35 _ _ ......s. ... ..3 E... / 5.5.5. .u ...): 11...... v I5 3: mic-Bu man-u I. I I l I: II I I .II II I .ll _ . o _ v o .a- .32-0.3... .30-8'..— 7 .... .- 51.. ... .. .. .a in... .o . .- . g o _ .359... 3. V u 48.. 3‘3 2.0:...“— =IJ ... 1....“ :8: 3““ _ _1 ”Iowa: r lo-Su .13" .2.—non 1:39..— »lo-Su .13“ _ 1‘ I l I II—IWIHIHIIIJIII III I llullhl III I I I I V I _ _ _ o... .. .1... a: V _ \fir «En-nu 5|... .3 e... .- .1!— .o sis-u 8.6 .o .o u.a.—.1...— .o .0: _ 195 of social and economic variables. The foreign labor component is a critical component in the manpower planning model proposed here. The objectives of the proposed model, represented in Figure 7.2, are as follows: (1) to predict manpower potential shortages, both with respect to national and foreign labor groups; (2) to identify, assess, and isolate specific bottlenecks in the supply of manpower by estimating and simulating flows of students and trainees throughout the educational and training systems, keeping in mind such parameters as participation, repetition, dropouts and entrants in other programs; (3) to enable decision-makers and planners to set specific manpower targets throughout an allocation submodel within an integrative system (e.g., to maximize the number of nationals or qualified laborers in certain occupational categories or economic sectors); (4) to enable decision-makers and planners to incorporate sectional production targets, together with certain assumptions about productivity growth, for the sectors concerns (e.g., to assist in predicting production levels in given sectors with existing endogenous manpower stocks or determining ‘ . ‘flnx... w.a.fi‘£:f" ‘- 196 the need for growth, if any, in foreign manpower required). The graphic representation of the proposed model shows that it consists of: (a) national labor sub-model (NLS), (b) a labor-force submodel (LFS), (c) economy input-outputs sub-model (EIS), and (d) a manpower policy-making sub-model (MPS). ‘ The national labor sub-model (NLS) is essentially an inter-loop model. The first component of it accounts for the formal educational/training system. This educational submodel is separated from the non-educational submodel (unskilled and non-school attenders). With the use of such a submodel, one can account for areas or regions where the absence of formal education may create a target for the introduction of formal and/or non-formal educational programs. The sum of the two components constitutes the National Labor Model, which serves: (a) to identify available national labor forces and to determine what is required at each simulation year by occupational categories: (b) to account for available new labor force entrants from the educational submodel. The economy input-output sub-model (EIS) is the second submodel of the overall model. To assess and estimate technical and economic relationships, it requires specification of the various sector production targets as well as calculations of occupational requirements for nationals in light of assumptions about initial productivity 197 in the base year and expected productivity growth. To operationalize this sub-model, data about gross domestic product (GDP) by sector, annual sector targets for projected years, sector productivity for the base year and sector productivity and growth rates will be needed. Labor-output elasticities can also be used to estimate employment needs. This sub—model's principal outputs are: (a) expected production by sector, (b) related manpower requirements (national and foreign), (c) net labor additional requirements and (d) aggregate manpower by sector. The third component of the proposed model is the labor force sub-model (LFS) where national plus foreign labor components are aggregated. This representation is but one of many and has the advantages 'of clearly showing the current labor employment dichotomy and identifying current employment opportunities available to both groups of labor (i.e., national and foreign). Another advantage of this sub-model is that most of the data needed are relatively easy to obtain. The national labor component here is taken directly from the educational component of the NLS and foreign labor estimates can be obtained directly from government entrance permits (visas and work permits). In essence, the LFS operates as a "filter" for both types of labor. This indicator could be of relevance to long-term planning where policies such as future automation, industry incentives, work place safety 198 hazards, and the like are considered. Aside from its actual output on labor stock availability, the LFS principal outputs have to be combined with those of the EIS for meaningful interpretation. Finally, the manpower policy-making sub—model (MPS) constitutes the final component. Its function is to allocate labor supply from the NLS and the LFS to the overall system according to specific objectives. Data requirements are a function of current public policy priorities based on labor market surveys that inventory critical skills shortages of public and private enterprises. Its principal outputs are: (a) sector/occupation requirements, (b) existing national labor force, (c) number of nationals needed, and (d) net additional foreign labor requirements. Summary From the discussion of the‘ manpower development challenge in the Arab Gulf states, and, more specifically, in Saudi Arabia, it is clear that the time is overdue for initiating investigative studies on the manpower planning problems of those countries. A critical overhaul of the educational-training system, in light of developmental needs, must receive serious consideration to reduce foreign labor dependency. 199 In order to accomplish strategic manpower planning in Saudi Arabia, a realistic and pragmatic model is needed. The model proposed will consider all the critical components of an integrated manpower planning system. CHAPTER EIGHT CONCLUSIONS, POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND AVENUES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH The objectives of the present study were to examine the Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the impact of the foreign labor force on Saudi society, in the city of Jeddah. Furthermore, the investigator traced the forms of the Saudi society's dependence on foreign workers. Field work was conducted to collect the data and various quantitative methods were employed to analyze it. The major findings 'of this study are included in the next section: followed by policy recommendations and suggestions for further reserach. Summary of the Findings Findings Regardingpthe Socioeconomic Status of the Respondents and Relationships Among Background Variables The majority of respondents were between the ages of 25 and 39. Roughly 85 percent reported that they were married and about 70 percent reported family sizes of three to nine persons. The majority had completed a high school education and about one-third earned more than $70,000 a year. The majority were government employees. 200 201 With regard to the relationships among background variables, most of the relationship between age and level of education occurred in the low education group, especially in the 40 plus age group. Almost 89 percent of the people with low educations were clustered in the 40 plus age category. The relationship between age and level of education showed that there was significant variation from expectation in each income group with a large part of it occurring in the low income category. There is a relationship between age and type of occupation in that the youngest people tended heavily toward government employment. The relationship between age and family size showed that the largest family sizes tended to be found in the over-40 age group, while the smallest families tended to occur in the under-28 age group. The relationship between education and level of income showed that less educated respondents accounted for most of the variation, with most of them having low incomes and fewer of them receiving high incomes. In the relationship between level of education and type of occupation, most of the variation occurred among Social Security recipients, most of whom had low educations. Most of the government officials tended to have high or average levels of education. The relationship between level of education and size of family showed that most of the 202 variation occurred in the smallest family groups and most of those were highly educated. There is a relationship between level of income and type of occupation, with most of the variation appearing in the Social Security and business categories. Businessmen tended toward high incomes while Social Security recipients tended to have low income levels. The distribution of family size by income group level showed income did not significantly affect family size, but the relationship between type of occupation and family size showed that most of the variation occurred in the smallest and largest family groups. * Government officials tended to have smaller families than the other occupational groups. Findings on Frequency Distribution and Intercorrelation Among Attitude Variables The most agreement and least agreement occurred in the group of variables that suggested solutions to the foreign labor problems. The responses indicated strong agreement among the respondents that there are problems associated with the presence of foreign labor. Agreement was 89.9 percent of responses on average while disagreement was only 6.6 percent. The next most favored group was that comprised of variables indicating that foreign labor has a negative influence with an average 84 percent being in agreement, 5 203 percent that did not know and 11 percent that disagreed that foreign labor was a negative influence. The least agreement and most disagreement, in general, was expressed toward the group of variables which indicated that foreign labor was a mutual need and positive influence, with 59 percent agreeing and 28 percent disagreeing. This group of questions elicited the largest average of "don't know" responses. Nearly 13 percent of the respondents were less sure about positive influence than they were about negative «influences. With regard to the intercorrelation among attitude variables, the correlation matrix showed that most of the attitude variables were found to be significantly and positively correlated. Eight out of 23 variables which were included in the construction of the Guttman scale were found to be strong and highly correlated. Findings Regarding the Relationship Between Background Variables and Attitude Toward Foreign Labor In this study, a series of hypotheses were postulated pertaining to the Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the impact of foreign labor on Saudi society. It was hypothesized that young Saudi citizens were more likely to hold favorable attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers then older Saudi citizens. The findings, however, did not reveal a significant relationship between age and "lIlEfii {pa-a... u 204 attitude toward foreign workers. Age did not differentiate between younger and older people regarding their attitudes toward foreign workers. Therefore, this hypothesis was rejected. It was hypothesized that Saudi citizens with higher levels of education would be more likely to have favorable attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers, but ~data analysis showed no significant differences consistent with level of education. Since the chi-square values did not indicate that education; was a significant factor in determining the type of attitude toward foreign labor, this hypothesis was also rejected. It was also hypothesized that Saudi citizens with higher level incomes would be more likely to have favorable attitudes toward the influx of foreign workers, but the findings did not show that income level was a significant factor in the type of attitude citizens held toward foreign labor. Therefore, this hypothesis was not supported. Consistent with the education and income hypotheses, it was hypothesized that Saudi citizens in professional occupations would be found to hold more favorable attitudes than non-professionals toward the importation of foreign labor. Results of the data anslysis showed a significant relationship between occupation and attitudes toward foreign labor. Businessmen were found to have more positive 205 attitudes than were government officials or Social Security recipients. Therefore, this hypothesis was accepted. It was hypothesized that Saudi citizens with larger family sizes would be likely to have less favorable attitudes toward the importation of foreign workers than those with small families, but the analysis showed that family size was not a significant factor in the type of attitudes toward foreign workers. This is explained by the fact that Saudi citizens tend to marry early and have large families. Since this is a long standing traditional custom that is changing among younger Saudis, having a large family does not affect attitudes toward foreign workers. Therefore, this hypothesis was not supported. It was hypothesized that Saudi citizens with more exposure to cross-societal contact would be more likely to have favorable attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers than those with little or no cross-societal exposure. The findings, however, showed that whether or not the respondents had traveled outside Saudi Arabia had no significant impact on their attitudes toward foreigners in their country. The analysis did show that frequency of exposure to foreign television broadcasts significantly affected atitudes on foreign workers, so this hypothesis was partially supported, even though frequency of listening to foreign radio broadcasts did not have a similar effect. 206 It was hypothesized that Saudi citizens who have more contact with foreign labor are likely to have more favorable attitudes toward the presence of foreign workers than those with less or no contact. The analysis showed that contact with foreign labor had no significant impact on the type of attitude reported toward foreign labor. Furthermore, neither type of contact nor frequency of contact with foreign labor significantly affected the respondents' attitude toward foreign labor. Therefore, this hypothesis was not supported. Policy Recommendations The main objectives of this study were to examine the Saudi citizens' attitudes toward the presence of foreign labor and to trace the forms of dependency on expatriate labor. The theoretical intent was to examine to what extent background variables, such as age, income, level of education, occupation, size of family, treated as independent variables, affected Saudi attitude formation. In addition, a series of intervening variables (cross- societal contact, orientation to social change, contact with foreign labor, and exposure to foreign broadcasts) were included to examine what impact they may have had on people's attitudes toward expatriate labor. Generally, the attitudes of those citizens willing to express an opinion toward foreign workers were found to be 207 negative and this was reflected in the findings, but the literature has indicated that there will need to be a continuing dependence on foreign workers in coming years. To help resolve the conflict inherent in these dichotomous positions, the researcher would recommend efforts on the part of the people and the government. An effort should be ‘made to change Saudi citizens' attitudes toward expatriate labor by showing them that foreigners' presence in the country is a necessary result of the country's need for them, because there are severe labor shortages at almost all levels. The series of five-year plans have required and still require additional labor to accomplish their objectives. Furthermore, the existence of foreign expertise in Saudi Arabia has helped improve the infrastructure of the country. Therefore, foreign workers' presence in the country has had beneficial and positive impacts for the society. On the other hand, efforts must be made at the government level to encourage coordination between different governmental agencies, such as the Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, to curb the huge influx of expatriate labor as much as possible in the coming years. This should be done by determining the actual numbers needed to fulfill the requirements of the Five Year Plan and by greater selectivity in choosing highly skilled people who can be of greatest benefit to the country. 208 To facilitate any significant overall reduction in expatriate labor will require some far-reaching societal changes to achieve the Optimum use of native human resources. First, an increase in women's participation in the labor force probably has the greatest potential for reducing expatriate labor needs, because Saudi women represent an almost entirely untapped reservoir of human resources. The findings of this study showed that about 68 percent of the respondents supported the idea of increasing the participation of women in the work force. About 96 percent of the respondents encouraged the participation of local population in local projects. Development projects in many Third World countries have failed because the people who were supposed to benefit from these projects were not actively involved in them. Therefore, increasing the participation of women and local residents, and utilizing those who are unemployed in public administration or the business sector will enable them to play a larger role in the development process and eventually lead to a decline in the need for importation of foreign workers. Second, there is a need to improve the educational system at all levels (formal, vocational, technical, etc.) so that the country can produce an adequate number of educated and qualified people to fill vacancies and new occupations in the labor force created by the development of the Saudi economy. 209 Relatedly, high status and sufficient rewards should be provided to citizens who enroll in technical and vocational programs. We have seen at the outset the part of the labor shortage problem is created by a lack of enrollments in vocational and technical education, which is not popular in Saudi Arabia, because people view this type of employment as "blue collar” work. However, giving the citizens appropriate incentives and rewards will help change their attitudes toward these educational and training programs, and eventually reduce the country's dependence on foreign workers. There is an imperative need for manpower planning in Saudi Arabia. If the country is to decrease its need for expatriate labor in coming years, effective manpower planning to develop native human resouces, involving cooperation and coordination between different governmental agencies and the private sector, is essential. This is likely to require a manpower planning organization to establish objectives, priorities, and utilize effectively the available stock of labor. The model adapted from the work of the World Bank group could be useful in developing a manpower planning program for the future. Finally, accurate population assessment and national immigration policies are needed to lew the influx of expatriate labor and determine realistic supply and demand of the labor market. 210 Avenues for Further Research International labor migration has not received as much empirical and theoretical study as the international circulation of capital and goods. Many of the previous studies have approached international labor migration from demographic perspectives rather than examining it from an empirical perspective which views the entire process as a circulation of human resources, similar to the circulation of capital and goods. Empirical studies such as this one add to the total sum of knowledge about rapidly developing countries and expand the sociological literature on the international circulation of labor. The researcher recommends further, more detailed, survey research with regard to attitudes among Saudi citizens toward foreign workers. The findings of this study showed strong and consistent patterns of attitudes among three socioeconomic groups in one city in Saudi Arabia. Further studies in Riyadh, the capital city, or in the Eastern region where 'ARAMCO is located and Saudi citizens have more interaction with foreigners, may produce different results. The findings of this study have indicated the general impact of foreign workers on the relationships within the Saudi family. About 88 percent of the respondents believed that having a foreign driver,. nurse, or servant within the Saudi family was likely to produce harmful effects on 211 relationships within the family. Further field research to investigate, in depth, the social impact on the spiritual values and the traditions and customs of Saudi society is recommended. Such indepth research might profitably utilize ethnographic methods to examine the relationships within several nuclear and extended families that do and do not depend on foreign domestics to care for children and assist in running the households. In general, the findings of this study showed negative attitudes on the part of Saudi citizens toward foreign workers, a phenomenon attributed to xenophobia. Saudi citizens have very strong commitments to their culture, traditional family relations and religious values and customs. An important question Saudi society will have to face in the near future is: How long will these kinds of commitments to culture and cohesiveness and the system of extended family last in a relatively open society undergoing rapid modernization and development? Previously, 'a geographical study examined the distribution of one foreign population (the Americans) in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia to determine the factors which affected their decision in selecting residential areas (Atiyah, 1984). Similar cross-cultural comparative research which deals with the attitudes of foreign workers in terms of their adaptation, social interaction and acculturation to Saudi society is needed. Foreign workers in Saudi Arabia 212 are from diverse cultural backgrounds. Therefore, it would be interesting to study the attitudes of various ethnic groups in an alien society. This was one of the initial- objectives of this research, but time constraints as well as the volume of material to be researched, limited this investigator to Saudi attitudes. Further research which focuses on the impact of out- migration on the national economies of the sending countries is also needed. Out-migration from the Yemen Arab Republic to Saudi Arabia and the other oil-producing countries in the region has led to a decline in agricultural production, and a corresponding increase in food importation. Such negative consequences of extensive out-migration not only provide an area for fruitful future research, but are important in terms of the oil exporting countries' future relations with neighboring countries that do not have minerals to export. Carrying out these studies is also one way of expanding the literature in the field, which, in turn, will stimulate other researchers to replicate studies and research additional sociological problems. APPENDICES Appendix A Tables A.1. A 2 A 3 h" 213 Eli .- ‘— mvmm. m.a c.... m~.~. ovoo m.mw~ Nonn— nmvm. comp. «_ow. a.mu:occ. naa.. oao.. mon._ -mo~ cvv.. mahoa m.~n. ncm~v whee. ucmnw enact momN co.m mvmm awmv u.aw w~mm .oom o.cm mean mvvv a.n>u.e: vmv.n -.ao «man w.oo naaNN ~v¢v~ .mo— avoa one. woww cos— coaww oom- .onv~ mc.o~ mvo.n o°¢.m nQ—vv Nuanv ommvo _ahmv >vxuae .vom caBN. moo ~o~v o.m man. man. ..m— Noo— ~om. ca.m.cu:0u¢ "mo.uuc:ou :a.m< smm~ov. canomv. .h.mmm~ vavnvm— command a.aoco. vcoammq moo.oo~ ~m.nnn~ vmnncn. J2.4 .wav ch~m acov ~omo ncOv snow. coca vane. coma mama a.a«c:b cvmnv man.o ocean ~vmom n~omn mwooo .aaon vmccc~ umooo amwma cupam o-m omnn ~...m some .omm oc-~ «awn «hmo~ am.a cams couches ~mnonn awommn an~non o~.~on mooom~ nommnv .onh~n v~o~ov ocmnav woouov ud>om woo .av aco mmv. can aav «an. cub mam. vac m.cauuu:uz .mfiw .mnq amm~ oocv Ncqv ammo vm~m meow omen. vac amunm.< oneMN ocvmu .nmnw uuuun nonnw nauan «mo.n acnvv n~aom -c- oc..no.am mmom ~vm~ «mom n¢m~ c¢- mom~ n... moan «..o anom cuao coca. no... o~om~ among ~v¢- ¢~ouq ouch. 09mm. v~na~ ougn. ao.su.la nou< mvo~o a~oco canoe «snow manna «mono momvn «vvvh vdnno ~momo Guano mvoNo cacao canoe hnoan ocmnn owaon anvov «vvov nvoov noomv sunbeam comm. omnna comma nova. comma coho. mc-. «goon vwan. noon. cosy» .suosuzom. cup< n~v~m~ ~aama~ naa~mN ammuam manonw scavo~ oaOvnn nhuvnm ohmonn avnoom .guuoz. cues» o~.n. no~n~ cummn vmvwa sauna camp. oo..~ o~o- N.o- annum u.m3:x man.o~ ahpmm~ «macaw ~n~¢¢~ man-nu oomnm~ nonama «mu—om c¢¢~¢~ nm¢~o~ cannon o..c- .av.- vvaoua dovoqu unnqu whoev. waned. aaono— fiance. «memo. cocmnog mmmvm. .oona. «macaw naooaq uoaooa w.cna. canon. anaoo~ cuomma swoon. a.u>m u.an. omn~— vchm— ov-hu u~o- manna homo. when. ~mmo~ nave. omen "acquucaou b~n< u a m a m a m a m 4 xuq.mco..az cam—\omnq ahauxaann cooqxcov~ .ma.x.¢v. Nom.\.ov~ Noa.nono~ .>..-co-umz an a.bau< «pawn vegans; ecu ochOucu nuocoquuom u..< mqao c.os. ..ca. ~omn. vnmo. a~o.. .mvn. vnm~. moo~. cmmv. m~mo. oououo .mBN n~mn v~.n mam. ~v¢~ «ohm on~m oGoN anm~ ~mom grass»: swam “no" amps ~.mm amo. o~m~ onvm a..~ soNv .nan =.aam a.a- homh~ on¢o~ ~aoa~ ~v-~ cmmvn mn-~ ~omom ooavN «Bonn ..muz. >=mauao th. -- vam. vnc~ .om. «on. com. so.. «as. ~mm. a...m:< .~.~ npnn ;a~vm vovo .nnv ...m who. m-v acme «saw u:a..o~..3m who. .ma. sac. oaw~ .-. can. «pp. mvm. map. «on. >czuoz mmvp . nave .mmn «Ava each «amp m~o~ some ~vnn some cooozm vaomn nvm~n nan.~ ocean .m~o~ n~.n¢ am.a. mafia. vm.o. oom- >.a.. «as. nov. .o.n ~oop o.m~ oom~ nm.v mama ...m pmnn 33.9.6: .Nmp. mo~o. conv. nn~a. Home. o~vn. c~.~. mama. when. moan. u:~..o= vo.- v.o.~ om.- «anon vuo.~ sovoa onvv~ am.an amas~ oc~.m oocaua .vmno. coo.a .p.~o comma o~.pa vnoao. on~vc. m-oo. .m~v~. «.mon. :.mu.ua "acquucsou caud0usm .oaoav ao-ov nmnonm e.a~mo .n.moo an.voo ca.maa amon~m «.mmno. p.mm~o 4.909 .mm ma~ moo. 5a.. can on n~n oao ~sv n.o uc....a:o..az caum< umzao aa.m n.s. «was m.m. cs~a nm~o a~na~ ~ma.. .mpnm ms~u..co.>oo. oxen. ..m mwnv~ Mano. annum usavm .mam. ..ovn nacho oo..o ~oomm ov.~o uc-.«=e ca an an: an: nun In: In: an. In: nun 0:0: 0:0: p.so o.ov vvoa. voa.. move. vnov. n.onn mesa. «am.a «mov. amoua.o.am .ao. np- has. mom~ om~. «~A. moo. no". pnv. vms. «toaaoc.m cocoa momma pvnva cacao cacao ~vmv~o. pvooo. nuao~. ~cn... one... auto: 2.26m an- nu: nut no: In: unn I): In: (I: (n: no.0: nauoz ms.“ oo~m mama can. o~.m capo o..p mvmp «nap .moh ac.;u .ma.o o~m~m mno~o avmnu e.o-. ocvmo °.aco. ~pmo~. o.nme~ posoc. a.oc. -pqm. «mama. momma. o~ooo. vo.a- n.9oou maovo~ «am..n nmava~ scm~n~ :a.m.xaa mo~mn a~oo~ .nNmm nanvn nmnvo noaoo wanna. nn.a.. aonva. ~.~on. ao:.aa...zm u s u 4 u 4 m a a . a...a:o..ez who—\oom. anmuxannom coonxoOv. .aa.\~ov. ~oa~\.cv. ucou u~.< mqm<9 215 aa~ .a .~aa. .xoonuaua .au..m..a.m "mozzom aaa.aa~ aaoaoaa avaaava avaaavu aaooaa~ ovaaaaa oaaava~ oaca.aa acco.aa vacaaoa uceos azan III II: sun nun In: III III In: N In: uflmzsx "mdeuCSOU Qmu< mam: mHmemm mam: mamemm mam: mamemm mam: mamemm mam: mamemm xufiamcofiumz msofl>mum NNaH\NaNH aNaH\aaNH NNaH\No«H HNaH\Ho«H NNaH\No«H .:.< NNaH NNaH >uflamcoflumz msofl>mum 6cm xmm >3 GOMNmmmHU >DHHmcoHumz Nosmm chcNmuno mumcmflmuom "N.< mam<9 “H" 217 moa Q'Vv—i mv hm OH om N om H m H H VNN mv 0H m ma bod av cam m vm ma NH m mv OH mm N NmH H mm b N m Hmm om mu ma NH va NNH mo ma v OH m mm «H OH ma ham m vm NN ma VA JdEOB mfiuums< ESNOHmm NHmHH ocmaocm "moHHucsou cmoaousm J cmuH measm Emflm mflm>mamz mam: mamemm mbma\mmma mam: mamsmm mhma\mmma wamz mamemm omma\oowa mam: mamemm mam: mamemm Hmma\aoma NNaHNNo«H wuflamcofiumz msoN>mum AuCOU. N.< mdmcfi 218 NNN.a .NNaH .xoonummN HmoHHmHHNHN "NoNNoN «NN NHN NNN NNN «NN H«N N«NH NNN N«NH NNN NNNoe NZNNN --- --- --- --- NN Na --- --- ON ON mnmcuo III II: III III III III In: I): III III mNQESHoU III III III III III III III III III III momcmu --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- .N.N.: “mwfluucsou cmoflumsc mam: mamemm mam: mamsmm QHMZ wdmewh mam: mamemm mhma\mmma mhma\mmma omma\oova Hmma\aova mam: mamemm NmmH\~ovH hpNHmcoNumz msofi>mum uCOU N.< mdm<8 219 .va .Q .mmmm .xoonumm> Hmoflumflumum "mumsom NNNNNN No«NoN «NNNNN HNaNNN NNHNNN NHHNNN Hmuoe NNNHN NNNNN NNNNN HNNN« a«No« NNN«« coHomN caucusom NNNNN NNNN« NNNN« NNNNN NNoaH NaNNH coHomN cnmcuuoz NNN«NH HNNN«H NNNaNH aaNNNH «NNNaH HHNNoN coHomN cuoummm NNNNHH NNNo«N NNNNNN HHaNHN aNNHNH «N«aNH coHomN cumummz HNHNNH «NHaNH HN«aoN NHoaaH «NNNHN NNNNHN :oHamm Hanucmo NNaH NNaH aNaH NNaH HNaH NNaH conmN Hmm> NNaH-NNaH .mcoflmmm >9 muflmmo aboammmm mooNHm> um mumcaflmuom o» UmsmmH .muHEHmm mocmOwam "m.< mqmmo oumocmum N.NN H.NN N.NNN cmmz m.MN «Nm v.vm «NH m.~ m mumu OENHU co DomQEN oz m.>~ Hm o.o o H.Nm mag OEHHO OcflmmmuocH N.NN HNN N.NH NN N.NH aN NobmH conNoN HcoHNso HHm How ommz H.NN NHH o.¢a HN m.mm «mm mchHmuu co mumcofimuow mo DOMQEN m>NuHmom N.N aN H.N NN N.NN NN« . Hoan conuoN No szNcH ocHosomN N.«N NNH N.NH NN N.NN NHN nobmH :onHoN co Nucmucmamo N.N N N.N 0 «.aa «NN :oHumosom mcH>oNaeH «.NH NN a.« NN N.NN «o« mucmom>muuxm N.«H «N N.HH aN N.NN NNN NHH>HHospoud ochHHomo N.NH NN «.N NH «.NN N«« Hemp No umou ochmmnocH N.NH HN H.N NN N.NN NNN coHHmHmcH co HomdeH N.« NN N.N oH N.Na «N« mcoHuHocoo oHNNmuu co musmmmnm N.N NH a.« NN H.Na NN« mmoH>Nmm oHana co mnswmmna m.o « N.N ma N.Nm cmv moousommu cmssn HmuoH chQon>mQ «.NH NN N.N «« N.NN NNN mmsHm> HmsuHHHam so HomaeH N.N N« N.N NH N.NN N«« NHHemN co HomaeH N.N NN H.« HN N.NN NN« msonso co HomaeH m.vm «NH m.h ov 5.59 mvm c0503 mo CONHMQNONHHMQ N.N m N.N HH 0.0m omv mHQoma Hmooa mo :oNquHONuHmm N.N N« a.« NN N.NN N«« mmmmuuosm Noan m>Hom N.NH NN N.NH aN N.NN N«N Neocoom mg. mcH>onasH N.N o« N.N «« «.NN NN« meoucH 30H .mnmconHom N.N NN H.« HN N.NN NN« NoamH cuHmnom owe: oz mmsmumb HH m>mN Hmuoe N0 N Hmnoemru N Hmuoe «o N memHHm> ucmuumm 3mm ucmoumm 3mm ucmOumm 3mm mwmmmmHo zocx u.coa mmum¢ moaanum> monuHuu< mo >Ocmsvmum "H.m mqm Z. \2 Hens/v 5.1/3,, a,\é,&;L3(/.;us (2‘; (gr-Am... 1.1», a...» 4} a.» oa‘vWJ &\:-U W FAA/La): He}; plw;/C:k/Mb awyflvpgu (Cw AVJMLJLOD} 2991} grunge 5 d . 231 uzwfrui.-.-,NC;:J_HJ .14.»... 091.9% . .34.; figmacm gJled; ~ WJU/Gr :Jfiavfisl ? efazgym A V ‘\ a 2. Y 5 l ‘1" ‘1:- 1‘-1‘- 21v”... ‘fi-Y‘M“Y£"'~ ‘3-5‘4- 1“».- ”'03; 4. g. gfiérd‘ a.) ’ijf‘ ‘\ o I X 5 \ ”I!“ \\o« - D\m#$\“~p V“... p‘mw" 9.», v.... my...» .x...,3o, a}, 0.... 951.... 1:. 2).”; .00 232 s. 19L». ».1;—‘.;>\a.m.ot. -2 ) V 5 - 9,1,...) ., M 2)} a?" kg." 5", “’1‘” a» gal}: 94" at)“ V ‘\ o 1 3, (ajyxbug (NHL-'43) (”Jagflwufibwweio ‘\ o '2. Y Q \ Mir" “-\OM “at" ‘-Y’ ‘ a; ’5 I; op La": ’14} was-uyasc ga- <. 3.25:)» Guava» -1 .vA ,9» lei-o (2)-s '2 w kwééufr" ‘0 fig ‘n‘” 20‘” L‘dé‘ 12 I3 232 ’ ’ A ’ \ 5.1.7ng; (9)144; \ war-rd g 33.)”)st S l w; . 0 o ’ J 9g 5)." U W). ’ . a1f2\(.o « '4‘ ’ ‘ a I \J—‘w. . ‘w . ‘ @0\&JAH¢>\‘3 )V\ v I Z /6 /7 h- .1} 234 g éa/d\w\g\¢431\béép\a3w\dhx 4394'“), ‘3“ “u" \ 4.1M a..." a ‘ o a. a): 3:3 ufi| 3’)” béé‘b‘ /2 __1_. S gélgfimcjir-‘\ g awe-94% M ‘- (A &) gig/Hod QYHSV“ 92')? Jade“ M’ ‘5»),- fl)" 7. él-SJJ‘J\Z)L “’ ZI ‘- 235 1 abm5».m\-y€=1,lhn V 8' \ “meda- (Hag ...: ‘33“ 220?; (J: 5 3 )1 (7‘ f yoswmau 9’31 jHéLcCH-La'uglejékzg 1.33M o . .. ‘ A /. ‘.@~.~I".3\A,o.=)\ 9M6.“ V S x ”54" Y-‘Mb’é‘ V 5 \ g ‘30," 4.;‘\’ 21+ 15 7-6 —_-)— 236 o o 1 t I ’ ’ , wawxdpwd\wwsa—Lgy\fl y)... -- --b s.» HAW 14"”; 5")“- (93’) ' /D c O , I ’1 fi y;wg(.,1/g P)\uw\ég<'r ‘1‘.“ .4 B‘WW?wé-kflvw‘=?mfl‘im 5. Gigi—J “(’2’ ”'1’"? L Y S ‘ “Maw: “fax: Maw Av“ 393 y»; P339549 92“.? 4.2;". '2. Y < 3 4.4.4.»: 0.»qu Maw: Hum 91. r»; 9.925;; 921,4 9,: 7. V i ) Fug—M ”’iww: War: a) v" ' Ff/‘Jfiwjlr:% 4% 92>} 2../m 28 1? --—-( _—- _-- . h " ‘ ' . H. "Ea-“1:. 237 g Jay} wiéu‘igxzb-Jkéfigémefi ’ ' ° "' ’ 5 1W 3 (23.-2’ aH—‘efi‘w‘ ~12.) Wd\ «“9 < V K 3 / '1 . Adj—H Ava-H 1.4-Hi.» an. 2M. ‘1’ 5 3 r, (J Hm ”J; » ..M-v 544v S l A) (9' V S \ “L, ”in M03: p ’ -.. ‘ wlwcv\ wow» 238 g ;._\,;.3 axe»; \ a). .9 Ln 2...“ A 239 V ‘ ‘ :ébl) ‘s - 03M ‘ 1‘ . Ar'lv‘» 4.5/91.0425»: M WfllflWL’J/JLOUJIMQ; 33 lv '6! I #:9wawa VIM a»; Mg» .7 b {2.2159,} ... .fifllfi évb/ivtyé} ark-393...}- 9.512;»3‘224945?» . (4)/‘9‘?” . / . j 5” ‘13-’14 54" WW4"? "yJ‘Mzs MU 5(0)»?43 1.0% my» 2..»... \HJ‘ \ a ‘ c Mgr—fl -” Hf .. . J ‘ ‘ u—‘Wék-e—‘b" “:14?“ “JV-h 4.4L X afiflcé 62%.» Z15): u—I-L-vzfi)\c§3_—-e—3¢$J\ W154») .9. &H¢2¢ab\‘_}ueL-Mdfisaygu .2.—w My» u‘J-LJ NAM waggiylafu. ......J‘_ ' 331—; .. 1", . , , , ADI-00$ ULJ‘) Are/Lilc-HvBW) d‘215’43‘3-M, MU‘da-vbll M$\W\ - /é a . a I W\ uhl/‘MQQLJCUT‘H _1 ...... Nob ‘98}:ng 413.3... um . éEQA-JM WM 4 / , - A . J MW\’LLS.‘\J\JJ:E;A_J/y—v 19) ,V #5143)" %3\WW\=&3flI 4‘1““).13 * god-9233‘ 433LJD22‘201 A Ngtiewafixm war—gm ~ 339—4)! lp '0 'e |\ 42 _.—._ Lb |w 241 o 2. Y Q \ '\ '\ pub—1 \‘ . ‘ ‘\ ’9’.” ,. MJJJ (.999 Mg\ ,. . / , ” .. ...;lefawey ice-”‘JP—‘J‘w L‘e» .1 gnéguwviebwwfi'wé £2)? yéz‘d‘ 54M”, wyfi‘éfigpsoi .\. )BS—gj‘ J) Lafi- J19? 3:4,“ QJJJUs=gaJ\)U-&$J\M 3).... .544.“ . WJJ\QJJU\ . , / ‘ . @Hgé—ylflzaJ\/‘J}J\M)a\ m 553‘.» agapaxas'x age-9' ."43wp\.;,4)\. ,4.) ‘ u ,. cfi.;_1.(_.n Nut" ’.¢3,_.f””,211¢9\dw\w.¢im was». Igujwmfia y- g Hug-HA — A ‘ ‘. . a}.._,3\¢-.~J),4\ 9)};gléql 242 grid.) as?» HM , / , . 4 4 ”Ln-{92.2%.- ”\prlw 9| 41f gm—\¢J!‘5.\;._fi)'cé z..'._~.m .51.» bug” bud" Lupwia a ’ ' / ’ ' 1.5 .JNHég—LAM #UJJHJUxJ ¢v\-\1 szé.‘ aHHLH/IJMB ;_.JL,.._SJ1 / I - ., ’ ‘ 4s _ «figmeékfl‘vaw‘Jéi—w SH)\AJVJ\Wru5-dlodcb—/L)‘ ,&C_13\5)\:.'¢:3;:A$\392U3U\ds '2'7‘ —" affine @Jf—J\¢>y:w\fd:fi.\:\x\ ...—922219» é—rJ'Hvogée—P‘Hiu\ . 4439)), (QT-3.1M 5o 51 .— 243 n L V 3 1 ”3‘28: .\, .. W , 55M 2’. Maw an» ”'2‘ 5.»? 2.11:9)..‘1: ‘.;.(,:JH;J\.l:~¢.—v_,u\.\v (21....‘ft$¢¢.';.n(r\srci.3, .wgflaflggazaélg. é}..¢.Q\AJJL-3\cé¢a_b\‘5\S-9J‘fl\¢§_“ saggyymawywasflg .aJ-J_‘\&\r—)' ‘LIBW: .‘ . JIM" pl...“ &_{.9\¢:\S- W ‘ J‘y\/W.¢'.\J4Q\Mu 'cwm . “...? . . fi‘u‘ \a-“ 4243”; 5‘3ufHIu1'LoLaweH;\e\&fi\.-\ '1 \JuZHDégyma). \L’E‘J, N. ; 4.3. 93-4" {Jew/:44 294' JJF'JU‘H-MQA S~ I r N ’ f); ‘ ./ . NHHHN’HNHXHWHB ...)» 4.1-)1 244 D 2. Y 3 3 0‘ ' o o 2») . I 0 o . ’ ‘ ,2: u ,2‘2‘» 9“» ,2)” ”if? _93." __ ‘__ {hw‘fiagufii-LLJMMM m / 0 . .M‘ga3\i)fl\wz .',_b\.‘y\-J\ --1—0- 53 5))\ ; ..." ' . .":J\£J-L-J\‘=bv_ inf—’43 M,“ .zfiéuéayé. Pgm...» aWNNNMLéw‘ngudyu 3.44/1“? W5“ is... gyydg. 1.11.3»... ' Wfi‘flwwé‘fib‘am on . I .‘ ¢ - /. wheéérQOé-LQMJJ" ‘J‘N—‘JJ‘JL‘t 55 .. L..- . ° 1 1 ‘ 1 -;43¢—3’\5\*U‘44J"W ) ’ o .‘ . I ‘1“ 3.1.34.2: 3w.\ -\ 4W9»? \zfl'fi’afigihgué -¢ Anv‘ swine)» 9..»ij» -v :31) (5:3st G”:7 Appendix C Government Ministry Branches in Jeddah City 245 APPENDIX C List of the Twenty Government Ministries in the Capital City and Their Branches Located in Jeddah City. 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry Ministry of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of Interior Planning Justice Labor and Social Affairs Pilgrimage and Endowments Foreign Affairs Commerce Defense and Aviation Health Municiple & Rural Affairs Agriculture Housing and Public Work Communication Information Eduation Telegraphs Petroleum Industry Finance and National Economy Higher Eduation Appendix D Cartoons in this section are media depictions that reflect public perceptions of and reactions to the presence of a large expatriate labor force in Saudi Arabia. While the situations are exaggerated for humor, the underlying themes accurately echo the society's frustration and exasperation with its growing dependence on foreign workers and their cultural differences 246 :4: .: ....NQ utiixfiztz 3...... 5:5”... «than ......Sa 33.: .... 3.... N.NNN .2. .33. N . . .33... N \. ...... N.NN .QNNKHNM. 8283, 5% 32.3 . . NE 23 cm. 0.0 7111:} 0.24050) InquMI 247 Tea. .. . ....i... .....AE?:.:. 3...... 5.5.... .....E....... ...:e\ 3 $3.. N. ....SNQHCK :5 .533. a... 82 ...SENNS 22.5.83. .2.. 3.2.8 2.3 . . .55: 2.5.0 ...NNgQ 248 T43 «N >5? 512?.3: 3.2% 3:5: .2.:zaw. :é§~§u 3S €35 .3 333% .3 EB SE: \a \25 EB . . . Rem #0: Rio 5.43%}.mv 8.25% @2839 585.53% at»: k 249 :5 ~ .2” i=3 .kx‘xExSEz 3.2% 5:5: .....zzew. SE: 3:: e=§x$n~ .3: 3 . . $232.8 :8 cm SES: “5% m: ~33 Ram 38% .mfiSQfi» 233 Sea 33 83% ES $3 «35 EU 22%: .vxn 250 74m; H~z boyish : .BN\ .3: ”Q ES 33‘ S: .35 .35 5.2; 28w» 3.3% :33 u§:..§v< BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdullrahman, Osama.‘ Oil Bureaucracy and Development Obstacles. Al-Anba's Press, Kuwait, 1982. (In Arabic). Adler, S. International Migration and Dependence: Farn- borough. Hauts Saxon, Houston, l977. Alejandro, Portes, "Models of Structural Incorporation and Present Theories of Labor Immigration: Trends, Effects and Policies" in Global Trends in Migration: Theory and Research on International Population Movements. Mary: M. Kritz, Charles B. Keely and Silvano M. Tomasi (eds.). Center for Migration Studies, N.Y., 1981. Al-Ghamdi, Abdullaziz, Sagr. ”An Approach to Planning a Primary Health Care Delivery System in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.” (Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1981). Al-Madani, Abdel Rahman and Muhamed Al-Fayez. The Demographic Situation in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Population Bulletin of the United Nations, Economic Commission for Western Asia. January-July, 1976. Al-Obaid, Abdullah Saleh. "Human Resources Development in Saudi Arabia. ‘ A Case of Technical Manpower Programs and Needs.” (E.D.D. Oklahoma State University, 1979). Al-Oteiby, Mohammed K. "The Participation of Women in the Labor Force of Saudi Arabia." (M.A. Thesis, North Texas State University, 1982). Al-Tarrah, Ali A. “Economic Development and the Structure of the Kuwaiti Labor Force." (Ph.D. Dissertation. Sociology Department, Michigan State University, 1983). Arab Planning Institute, Seminar: "Human Resources Development in the Arabian Gulf States" in Bahrain, Feb. 15-18, 1975, Kuwait: The Arab Planning Institute. 256 257 Arab Planning Institute and International Labor Organization, Seminar: ”Population Employment and Migration in the Arab Gulf States," Dec. 16-18, 1978 in Kuwait. Atiyah, Asaad, M. "The American Population Abroad: A Case Study of Their Residential Patterns and the Selection of Residential Housing in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia. Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1984. Awwad, Mohammad Joma. 'An Assessment of Occupational Needs and Training Programs in Saudi Arabia," M.S. Thesis, North Texas State University, 1979. Azzam, Henry. Analysis of Fertilitykand Labor Force Differentials in the Arab World. Population Bulletin of the Ufiited Nations Economic Commission for Western Asia, June 1979. Babbie, Earl R. Survey Research Methods. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., Belmont, CA, 1973. Badre, Albert and Simon Siksek. Manpower and Oil in Arab Countries. Economic Research Institute. American University of Beirut, 1959. Birdsall, Nancy. ”Population Growth--Its Magnitude and Implications for Development.” Finance and Development vol. 21, no. 3 (September 1984). Birks, J. and C. Sinclair. "Some Aspects of the Labor Market in the Middle East with Special Reference to the Gulf States." The Journal of Developing Areas, 13 (April 1979). , Arab Manpower: The Crisis of Development. St. Martin's Press, Inc., 1980. , International Migration and Development in the Arab Region. Geneva, International Labor Organization, 1980. Birks, J. and J. Socknat. "International Migration, Manpower and Economic Growth in the Arab Region.” In T. Naff (ed.) The MiddlelEast Challenge 1980-1985. Southern Illinois University Press, 1981. Bohning, W.R. "International Migration and the International Economic Order.” Journal of International Affairs, vol. 33, no. 2 (Fall7Winter, 1979), pp. 187- 200. 258 Bouhdiba, Abdelwahad. ”Arab Migrations." in Robert Aliboni, Arab Industrialization and Economic Integration. London: Groom-Helm, Ltd., 1979. Bouhouche, Ammar. "Conditions and Attitudes of Migrant Algerian Workers in France: A Survey Analysis.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia, 1971. Brazzel, Jan and Mary Gillespie. ”Comparative Demography." International Journal of Comparative Sociology. Vol. xxii, No. 3-4 (Sept-Dec. 1981). Bryant, Coralie and Louise G. White. Managing Development in the Third World. Westview Press, Boulder, CO., 1982. Castells, Manual. "Immigrant Worker and Class Struggles in Advanced Capitalism: The Western European Experience.” Politics and Society, vol. 5, no. 1, 1975, pp. 33-66. Castles, Stephen and Godula, Kosack. Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Eurppe. London: Oxford Press, 1973. Chase-Dunn, Christopher. "The Effects of International Economic Dependence on Development and Inequality: A Cross-National Study." American Sociological Review 40 (December 1975), 720-738. Choucri, Nazli. ”Demographic Changes in the Middle East.” in Joint Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress, The Political Economngf the Middle East: 1973-1978. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980. . The New Migration in the Middle East: A Problem for Whom?“ International Migration Review, Vol. 11, no. 4 (1977). Cicourel, Aaron, ”Living in Two Cultures: The Everyday World of Migrant Workers.” in R. Parris (ed.) Living in Two Cultures: Thg Socig-Cultural Situation of Migrant Wofkers and Their Families. Aldershot, Eng., Gower, Parris: UNESCO, 1982. Damachi, Ukandi & Victor Diejomach. Human Resources and African Development. Praeger, N.Y., 1978. Devoretz, Don and Maki Dennis. “The Immigration of Third World Professionals to Canada: 1968-1973." World Development, vol. 11, no. 1, (1983), pp. 55-64. 259 Disney, Nigel, "South Korean Workers in the Middle East." (MERIP Reports), no. 61, 1977. Ecevit, Zafer H. "International Labor Migration in the Middle East and North Africa: Trends, Effects and Policies,” in Mary M. Kritz, Charles B. Keely and Silvano M. Thomasi (eds.), Global Trends in Migration: Theory and Research on International Population Movements. New York: The Center for Migration Studies, 1981. El-Gehlawi, Hazem. "The Predicament of the Arab Gulf Oil States: Individual Gains and Collective Losses." In Kerr Malcolm and El Sayed Yassin. Rich and Poor States in the Middle East. The American University in Cairo Press, Egypt, 1982. El-Mallakh, Ragaei and Dorothea E1 Mallakh. Saudi Arabia-- Energy, Developmental Planning and Industrialization. D.C. Heath and Company, Lexington, 1982. El-Mallakh, Rajaei. Saudi Arabia'g Rush to Development: Profile of an Energy Economyand Investment. The John Hopkins University Press, Baitimore, 1982. Eng Fong, Pang & Linda Lim. "Foreign Labor and Economic Development in Singapore.” International Migration Review, vol. XVI, no. 3 (Fall 1982). Findlay, Allan M. "Labor Mobility and Manpower Planning in Tunisia." In John Clarke and Howard Bowen-Jones, Change and Development in the Middle East. Methuen and Go., Ltd., N.Y., 1981. Francis, David R. "Straightened Saudi Finances May Hit Outsiders." The Christian Science Monitor (April 18, 1985). Gadi, Adnan A. "Utilization of Human Resouces: The Case of Women in Saudi Arabia." (M.A. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento, 1979). Gilpin, Kenneth H. "Saudi Economy is Ailing: Three Years of Recession." The New York Times. Feb. 18, 1985. Gonodim, Navarro. "Manpower Assessment and Planning." International Migration, vol. xx, no. 1-2 (1982). Grasmuck, Sherri. "The Impact of Emigration on National Development: Three Sending Communities in the Dominican Republic." Development and Change, vol. 15 (1984):381-403. 260 Greenwood, Michael J. ”The Determinants of Labor Migration in Egypt." Journal of Regional Science, ix (1969): 283-90. . I'Research on Internal Migration in the United States." Journal of Economic Literature, xiii (1975):397-433. Grubel, Herbert. ”The International Flow of Human Capital.” The American Economic Review, vol. LVI, no. 2 (May 1966). Guecioueur, Adda. The Problems of Arab Economic Development and Integration. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press,. 1984. Guff, Daniel F. ”The Big Saudi Move in Petrochemicals." The New York Times. Feb. 5, 1985. Hadley, Lawrence H. The Migration of Egyptian Human Capital to the Arab Oil-Producing States: A Cost-Benefit Analysis." International Migration Review, 11, no. 2, 1977, pp. 285-299. Halliday, Fred. ”Labor Migration in the Middle East.” MERIP Reports, no. 59 (1977). Harbison, Frederic H. Human Resources as the Wealth of . Nations. New York: Oxford University Press,ii973. Harbison, Frederic and Charles Myers. Education, Manpower and Economic Growth. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964. . Manpower and Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965. Hardiman, Margaret and James Midgley. The Social Dimensions 9f Development:__Social Policy and Planningpin the Third World. John Wiley 8 Sons Limited, N.Y., 1982. Hiemenz, U. and K.W. Schatz. Trade in Place of Migration. Geneva: International Labor Office, 1979. Hill, Allan G. "Population Growth in the Middle East Since 1945 With Special Reference to the Arab Countries of West Asia." In John Clarke and Howard Bowen-Jones (eds.), Change and Development in the Middle East. Methuen and Go., Ltd., N.Y., 1981. 261 Ibrahim, S.E. The New Arab Social Order: A Study of the Social Impact of Oil Wealth. Westview Press, Boulder, CO., 1982. Internatinal Labor Office. Manpower Assessment and Planning Projects in the Arab Region: Current Issues and Perspectives. Geneva, I.L.O., 1979. Jakubauskas, Edward and Philip Baumel, Human Resources Development Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 1967. Jakubauskas, Edward and Neil Palomba, Manpower Economics. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1973. Jenkins, Craig J. “The Demand for Immigrant Workers: Labor Scarcity or Social Control?” International Migration Review. vol. XII, no. 4 (Winter, 1978):514-533. Kavoussi, Rostam M. "011 Exports and the Changing Occupational Structure in Saudi Arabia.” Arab Studies Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 4. Keely, Charles B. "Policy Dimellas for International Migration in the Middle East.” In Thoman Naff, 322 Middle East Challenge 1980-1985. Illinois: Southern Illin01s University Press, 1981. Kelly, John J. "Possible Approaches to Improving the International Comparability of Immigration and Emigration Statistics: An Illustration of the Canadian Situation." International Migration Review vol. xvi, no. 3 (Fall, 1982). Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Finance and National Economy. Statistical Yearbook, 1982. Kirtz, Mary M. and Douglas T. Gurak. "International Migration Trends in Latin America: Research and Data Survey." International Migration Review vol. xiii, -no. 3 (Fall, 1979). Krane, R.E. Manpower Mobility Across Cultural Boundaries: Social EconomicL and Legal Aspects. E.J. Brille Leiden Netherlands, 1975. Lerner, D. The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing The Middle East. Glenco: Illin01s, Free Press, 1958. Levine, Solomon and Hisashi Kawada. Human Resources in Japanese Industrial Development. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1980. 262 Levy, Mildred B. and Walter J. Wadjcki. "What is the Opportunity Cost of Moving? Reconsideration of the Effects of Distance on Migration." Economic Development and Cultural Change. Vol. 22, No. 2 (January I974). Looney, Robert E. Saudi Arabia's Development Potential: Application of an Islamic Growth Model. Lexington Books. D.C. Heath and Company, Lexington, 1982. Luthra, K.L. "Human Resources Development in Asia: Achievements and Tasks Ahead." Asian Development Review, vol. 2, no. 1 (1984). Miller, Judith. ”Foreigners Flock to Fill Saudi Arabia's Jobs.” The New York Times, Oct. 22, 1983. Miller, Lawrence W. and others. ”Attitudes Toward Undocumented Workers: The Mexican American Perspective.“ Social Science Quarterly, vol. 65, no. 2 (June 1984): Miller, Mark J. and Philip L. Martin. Administering Foreign Workers Programs. Lexington Books--D.C. Heath and Company, Lexington, 1982. Moliver, Donald and Paul J. Abbondante. The Economy of Saudi Arabia. Praeger Publishers, N.Y., 1980. More, Wilbert and Arnold Feldman. "Labor Commitment and Social Change in Development Areas." Social Science Research Council, N.Y., 1960. Morley, Samuel A. What to do about Foreign Direct Investment: A Host Country Perspective. Studies in ngparative International Development. Vol. i0, no. 1 (Spring 1975). Mostyn, Trevor. "Finding One's Feet in Saudi Arabia." ‘ Middle East International, No. 60, June, 1976. Nagi, Mostafa H. Development with Unlimited Supply of Capital: The Case of OPEC. The Developing Economies 20: 1982b:3-20. . "Dimensions of Dependency in the Oil Rich Countries." Paper presented at the annual American Sociological Association Meeting in Detroit, 1983. Newland, Kathleen. "International Migration: The Search for Work." World Water Paper 33, November 1979. 263 Niblock, Tim. Social and Economic Development in the Arab Gulf. London and New York: Croom Helm and St. Martin's Press, 1980. . State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia. London, Groom Helm Ltd., 1982. Omar, Mansour Hussein. ”The Discovery of Oil and Its Impact on the Industrialization of Saudi Arabia: An Historical Analysis." (Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Arizona, 1973). Oppenheim, A.N. Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement. N.Y.: Basic Books, Inc., 1966. Papademetriou, D.G. "Rethinking Internatinal Migration: A Review and Critique." Comparative Political Studies vol. 15, no. 4 (Jan. 1983). Polinard, Jerry L. and Others. "Attitudes of Mexican- Americans Toward Irregular Mexican Immigration." International Migration Review vol. xviii, no. 3 (Fall, 1984). Rajehi, Mohammad Owayedh. ”The Impact of Social Change on Police Development in Saudi Arabia: A Case Study of the Riyadh Police Department." (Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1981). Richards, Alan and Philip Martin. "The Laissez-Faire Appoach to International Labor Migration: The Case of the Arab Middle East.” Economic Development and Cultural Change. vol. 31, no. 3 (April 1983): 455-473. Rist, Ray C. Guest Workers in West Germany. The Prospects for Pluralism. Praeger Publishers, 1978. . ”The European Economic Community (EEC) and Manpower Migrations: Policies and Prospects." Journal of International Affairs. vol. 33, no. 2 1979 (Fall? Winter): 201-218. Rogers, Everett M. Modernization Among Peasants: The Impact of Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969. Sassen-Koob, Saskia. ”The International Circulation of Resources and Development: The Case of Migrant Labor." Development and Change. vol. 9, no. 4 (Oct. 1978). _ . "The Internationalization of the Labor Forceiw Studies in Comparative International Development. Vol. xv, no. 4, (1980) -2.“ ‘_-'fi.}.’." >‘-'“-'..‘. 41. 264 Sayigh, Yusif. The Arab Economy--Past Performance and Future Prospects. New York: Oxford University Press, i982. Schultz, T.W. ”Investment in Human Capital." American Economic Review. 51 (March 1961). Schwarzweller, Harry and .Martin Crow. ”Adaptation of Appalachian Migrants to the Industrial Work Situation: A Case Study." In E. Brody (ed.) Behavior in New Environments: Ada tation of Migrant P0pu1ations. Beverely H1IIs, CaE1f: Sage Publication, Inc., 1970. Sciolino, Elaine. ”Saudis Tighten Belt a Notch." The New York Times. Saturday, April 20, 1985. Sharshar, A.M. "Oil, Religion, and Mercantilism: A Study of Saudi Arabia's Economic System.” Studies in Comparatiyg International Development. vol. Xii, No. 3 (Fall, 1977). Shaw, R. Paul. "Manpower and Educational Shortages in the Arab World: An Interim Strategy." World Development vol. 9, no. 7 (1981). Shaw, Paul R. "Migration and Employment in the Arab World: Construction as a Key Policy Variable." International Labor Review. (September/October 1979). . Mobilizing Human Resources in the Arab World. Kegan Paul International, Ltd., London, 1983. Sherbiny, Naiem A. ”Expatriate Labor in Arab Oil Producing Countries: Will the Momentum of Inflows Continue?" Finance and Development, vol. 24, no. 4 (Dec. 1984). (ed.) Manpower Planning in the Oil Countries. Connecticut: JAI Press, Inc., 1981. . Manpower Planning in the Oil Countries. Reseamch in Human Capital and Development, Supplement 1, JAI Press, Inc., 1981. Sherbiny, Naiem A. and Ismail Serageldin. "Expatriate Labor and Economic Growth: Saudi Demand for Egyptian Labor." In Malcolm, Kerr and E1 Sayed Yassin (eds.) Rich and Poor States inithe Middle East. The American University in Cairo Press, Egypt, 1982. Serageldin, Ismail and Others. Manpower and International Labor Migration in the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1983. 265 Serageldin, Ismil and Others. Saudis in Transition: The Challenges_of a Changing Labor Market. World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1984. Siryani, Mohammad. Migration to Saudi Arabia. King Abdullaziz University, Mecca, 1980. (In Arabic). Sturmathal, Adolph and James A. Scoville (eds.) The International Labor Movement in Transition: Essays on Affica, Asia, Europe, andiSouth America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973. Sundberg, N. and Clarence Thurber. "World Trends and Future Prospects for the Development of Human Resources." International Journal of Intercultural Relations. vol. 4 (1980). Swanson, Jon. Emigration and EconomigDevelopment: The Case of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, Colorado: WestView Press, 1979. Tanton, John. "International Migration as an Obstacle to Achieving World Stability.” Mitchell Prize Competition, (October 1975). Todaro, Michael P. Economic Development in the Third World. (2nd Ed.) New York: Longman, Inc., 1981. Torgerson, Warren S. Theorynand Methods of Scaling. N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons, 1958. United Nations. "International Migration Policies and Programs: A World Survey." Department of International Economic and Social Affairs. Population Studies No. 80. New York: United Nations, 1982. . Trends and Characteristics of International Migration Since 1950. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Demographic Studies, no. 64, New York: United Nations, 19792 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Labor Development Abroad, vol. 14, (8 Aug. 1969): 1-9. r . Labor an and Practice in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, BLS Report No. 407 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973). 1 rig-'4 266 Useem, John; Ruth H. Useem: and John Donoghue. "Men in the Middle of the Third Culture: The Roles of American and Non-Western Peoples in Cross-Cultural Administration." Human Organization 22 (1963):l69-179. World Bank. Labor Migration from Bangladesh to the Middle East. Working Paper, No. 454. Washington, D.C., 1982. . Population Change and Deve10pment. World Development Report, World Bank, Oxfore University Press, 1984. Yahya, Hussein A. ”Human Capital Migration from Labor-Rich Arab States to Oil-Rich Arab States and the Consequences for the Jordanian Economy." (Ph.D. Dissertation, Oklahoma State University, 1980). 1111111111111“ .-