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dissertation entitled
REFORM EFFORTS IN THE MICHIGAN SCHOOLS:
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN DISTRICT SIZE, PER-PUPIL
REVENUE, DISTRICT TYPE, AND SCHOOL

REFORM
presented by

Michael S. Shibler

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

 

Ph.D. degweh, Education

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REFORM EFFORTS IN THE MICHIGAN SCHOOLS:
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISTRICT SIZE,
PER-PUPIL REVENUE, DISTRICT TYPE, AND SCHOOL REFORM

By
Michael S. Shibler

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Education
Department of Administration 8: Higher Education

1997

ABSTRACT
REFORM EFFORTS IN THE MICHIGAN SCHOOLS:
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISTRICT SIZE,
PER-PUPIL REVENUE, DISTRICT TYPE, AND SCHOOL REFORM
By

Michael S. Shibler

The purpose of this study was to determine if A Nation at Risk has made a
significant difference in Michigan schools and the extent to which district improvements
have been related to district size, district per-pupil funding, and rural/urban setting.

A survey instrument was developed to assess individual district plans for each of
the A Nation at Rislg recommendations:

Survey responses from approximately 294 districts were analyzed to determine the
extent to which reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented. Further
analysis was used to determine the relationship between district reform implementation
and per-pupil funding, district size, and district type.

Chi Square analysis identified a relationship between per-pupil spending and
district plans for implementing recommendations for competitive salary increases for
certified staff, increased allocations for per-pupil instructional expenditures, master
teacher programs, and the use Of non-certified “experts”. The analysis also revealed a
significant relationship between per-pupil funding and the increase in the number of
minutes per day for instruction.

Analysis identified a relationship between enrollment and recommendations

related to master teacher programs, foreign language requirements, computer science

requirements, competency testing requirements, salary increases for certified staff, use of
non-certified “experts”, length of school day, and lengthened school year. A relationship
between school size and perceived effectiveness of lengthened school year, effectiveness

of salary increases for certified staff, effectiveness of plans to use non-certified “experts”,
and the impact of alternative education programs was determined.

Relationships between district type (rural, suburban, and urban) and
recommendations for improvements in English, social studies, foreign language,
computer sciences, and length of school day were identified.

Chi Square analysis revealed only a small number Of statistically significant
differences relative to the breakdown variables of school enrollment, school type, and
per-pupil funding.

The survey results did identify some improvement across the State of Michigan in
implementing and/or planning to implement plans for increased math requirements,
increased English requirements, increased science requirements, increased social studies
requirements, increased computer science requirements, increased attendance
expectations, alternative education programs for gifted and/or remedial students, and
slight increases in number of minutes added to the school day and days added to the

school year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of a doctoral program while simultaneously serving as a
superintendent of schools, presented a unique set of challenges that often tested the
mental and physical skills of the candidate. In order to successfully meet these
challenges, the writer relied on the encouragement, understanding, and support of many
other individuals who deserve recognition.

First of all, sincere appreciation is offered to an exceptional doctoral committee
chairperson, Dr. Louis Romano, for his assistance, encouragement, and guidance
throughout the preparation and writing of this dissertation.

A special thank you is also extended to committee members Dr. Peggy
Reithmiller, Dr. Michael Boulus, and Dr. Ed Duane for their outstanding leadership,
sincerity, and insightfulness throughout the dissertation process.

Irnmeasurable appreciation is extended to Dr. Ty Wessell for his critical input,
advice, and encouragement during the writing of this dissertation.

This writer also expresses a special thank you to Ms. Marlene Clark for her many
hours of extra effort in attending to the tedious details associated with this project.

Finally, a very special thank you to the writer’s wife, Connie, and daughters Katie,
Chelsea, and Holly for their patience, support, and understanding throughout the writing

of this dissertation.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables .............................................................................................................. viii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................. ix
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................ 1
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................ 2
Hypothesis ............................................................................................................... 2
Rationale for Study .................................................................................................. 3
Assumptions ............................................................................................................ 6
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................. 7
Definition of Terms ................................................................................................. 9
Summary and Overview ........................................................................................ 11
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature .................................................................... 14
Findings Regarding High School Credits .............................................................. 15
Findings Regarding Expectations .......................................................................... l6
Findings Regarding Time ...................................................................................... 16
Recommendations ................................................................................................. 17
Recommendation A: Content ............................................................................... 17
Recommendation B: Students and Expectations .................................................. 18
Recommendation C: Time ................................................................................... 18
Graduation Requirements in Michigan ................................................................. 18

V

Instructional Time ................................................................................................. 22

Legislative and Governmental Initiatives and Mandates ...................................... 28
Chapter 3: Design of the Study .................................................................................. 6O
Purpose and Population ......................................................................................... 60
School Improvement Survey ................................................................................. 62
Instrumentation and Statistical Analysis ............................................................... 64
Summary ............................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 4: Findings .................................................................................................... 66
Mathematics Implementation ................................................................................ 69
English Implementation ........................................................................................ 71
Science Implementation ........................................................................................ 74
Social Studies Implementation .............................................................................. 76
Foreign Language Implementation ........................................................................ 79
Computer Science Implementation ....................................................................... 81
Increased Graduation Requirements ...................................................................... 83
Strengthening Testing Requirements .................................................................... 84
Attendance Policy Implementation ....................................................................... 86
Lengthening School Day and/or School Year Implementation ............................. 88
Implementation of Salary Increases and Expanded Contract Year ....................... 90
Implementation of Per-Pupil Allocation of Financial Resources .......................... 92

vi

Findings on Implementation of Improvement Plans ............................................. 94

 

Findings on Utilization of Non-School Personnel ................................................ 96
Implementation of Plans to Meet Student Needs for Instructional Diversity ........ 98
Implementation of Career Ladder Programs for Teachers .................................. 100
Implementation of More Instructional Time ....................................................... 102
Findings as Related to District Types .................................................................. 105
Findings as Related to Enrollment ...................................................................... 106
Findings as Related to Per-Pupil Spending ......................................................... 107
Relationship of District Type, Per-Pupil Spending, and Enrollment With
Nation at Risk Recommendation Implementation .............................................. 108
Summary ............................................................................................................. 121
Chapter 5. Summary, Findings, Interpretations, Reflections, and Suggestions
for Further Study ....................................................................................................... 122
Summary of Purposes and Procedures ................................................................ 122
Findings Relative to the Hypothesis .................................................................... 124
Interpretations and Implications .......................................................................... 128
Reflections ........................................................................................................... 1 33
. Suggestions for Further Study ............................................................................. 134
Appendix A: Excerpt from A Nation at Risk ........................................................... 136
Appendix B: Survey Cover & Follow—Up Letters .................................................... 143
References ................................................................................................................. 145

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. High School Graduation Requirements ........................................................ 35
Table 2. District and School Respondents’ Views About Effects of New

Graduation Requirements ............................................................................................ 53
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Selected Survey Responses (N=29l) .................... 67
Table 4. Statistical Differences in Survey Response by District Type ..................... 105
Table 5: Statistical Differences in Survey Response by Enrollment ........................ 106
Table 6: Statistical Differences in Survey Response by Per-Pupil Spending ........... 107

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Percentage and Types of Districts Responding ........................................... 68
Figure 2. Math Credits Required for Graduation ....................................................... 69
Figure 3. Plans for Increased Math Requirements ..................................................... 70
Figure 4. Effectiveness of Math Improvements ......................................................... 70
Figure 5. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Math Improvements ......................... 71
Figure 6. English Credits Required Graduation ......................................................... 72
Figure 7. Plans for Increased English Requirements .................................................. 72
Figure 8. Effectiveness of English Improvements ..................................................... 73
Figure 9. Reasons for Non-Implementation of English Improvements ...................... 73
Figure 10. Science Credits Required for Graduation ................................................. 74
Figure 11. Plans for Increased Science Requirements ............................................... 75
Figure 12. Effectiveness of Science Improvements ................................................... 75
Figure 13. Reasons for Non-Implementation Of Science Improvements ................... 76
Figure 14. Social Studies Credits Required for Graduation ....................................... 77
Figure 15 . Plans for Increased Social Studies Requirements ..................................... 77
Figure 16. Effectiveness of Social Studies Improvements ......................................... 78
Figure 17. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Social Studies Improvements ......... 78
Figure 18. Foreign Language Credits Required for Graduation ................................. 79

ix

Figure 19. Plans for Increased Foreign Language Requirements ............................... 80
Figure 20. Effectiveness of Foreign Language Improvements ................................... 80
Figure 21. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Foreign Language Improvements... 81
Figure 22. Plans for Increased Computer Science Requirements .............................. 82
Figure 23. Effectiveness of Computer Science Improvements .................................. 82
Figure 24. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Computer Science Improvements .. 83
Figure 25. Plans for Increased Graduation Requirements .......................................... 83
Figure 26. Plans for Competency Test Requirement for Graduation ......................... 84
Figure 27. Effectiveness of Adding Competency Test Requirement for Graduation. 85
Figure 28. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Competency Test Requirement ...... 85
Figure 29. Plans for Increased Attendance Expectations ........................................... 86
Figure 30. Effectiveness of Improved Attendance Policy on School Quality ............ 87
Figure 31. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Attendance Policy Improvement 87
Figure 32. Plans for Lengthened School Day/Y ear .................................................... 88
Figure 33. Effectiveness of Lengthened School Day/Y ear on School Quality .......... 89
Figure 34 Reasons for Non-Implementation of Lengthened School Day/Y ear ......... 89
Figure 35 Plans for Competitive Salary Increases and Expanded Contract Year

for Teachers ................................................................................................................. 90
Figure 36. Effectiveness of Salary and Contract Improvements on School Quality .. 91
Figure 37. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Competitive Salary Increases ......... 91

Figure 38. Reasons for Non-Implementation Of Summer Contracts for Teacher
Inservice ...................................................................................................................... 92

Figure 39. Plans for Adequate Per-Pupil Allocations ................................................ 93
Figure 40. Effectiveness of Per-Pupil Allocation Increases on School Quality ......... 93

Figure 41. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Improvement in Per-Pupil

Allocation .................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 42. Plans for Master Teacher Program ............................................................ 95
Figure 43. Effectiveness of Master Teacher Program on School Quality .................. 95
Figure 44. Reasons for Non-Implementation Of Master Teacher Program ................ 96

Figure 45. Plans for Use of Non-Certified “Experts” to Teach in
Science/Technical Areas ............................................................................................. 97

Figure 46. Effectiveness of Use of N on-Certified “Experts” on School Quality ....... 97
Figure 47. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Use Of Non-Certified “Experts” ..... 98

Figure 48. Plans for Alternative Education Program for Gifted and/or Remedial
Students ....................................................................................................................... 99

Figure 49. Effectiveness of Alternative Education Program on School Quality ........ 99

Figure 50. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Alternative Education Program 100

Figure 51. Plans for Career Ladder Program for Teachers ....................................... 101
Figure 52. Effectiveness of Career Ladder Program on School Quality .................. 101
Figure 53. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Career Ladder Program ................ 102
Figure 54. District Report of Number of Minutes Added to School Day ................ 103
Figure 55. District Report of Number of Days Added to School Year .................... 103

xi

Figure 56. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Lengthened School Day/Year ....... 104
Figure 57. Reasons for Non-Implementation of English Improvements by

District Type .............................................................................................................. 108
Figure 58. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Social Studies Improvements by
District Type .............................................................................................................. 109
Figure 59. Plans for Increased Foreign Language Requirements by District Type.. 109
Figure 60. Increased Foreign Language Requirements by Enrollment .................... 110
Figure 61. Increased Computer Science Requirements by Enrollment .................... 111
Figure 62. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Computer Science Improvement

by District Type ......................................................................................................... 111
Figure 63 Plans for Competency Test Requirement by District Size ...................... 112
Figure 64. Plans for Competitive Salary Increases by Per-Pupil Revenue ............... 113
Figure 65. Plans for Adequate Per-Pupil Allocations by Per-Pupil Revenue .......... 113
Figure 66. Plans for Master Teacher Program by Per-Pupil Revenue ...................... 114
Figure 67. Plans for Use of Non-Certified “Experts” by Per-Pupil Revenue ........... 114
Figure 68. Number of Minutes Added to School Day by Per-Pupil Revenue .......... 115
Figure 69. Plans for Competitive Salary Increases by Enrollment ........................... 116
Figure 70. Plans for Use of Non—Certified “Experts” by Enrollment ....................... 116
Figure 71. Number of Minutes Added to School Day by Enrollment ...................... 117
Figure 72. Effectiveness of Lengthened School Year by Enrollment ...................... 118
Figure 73. Effectiveness of Salary Improvements by Enrollment ............................ 119
Figure 74. Effectiveness of Use of Non-Certified “Experts” by Enrollment ........... 119

xii

Figure 75. Effectiveness of Alternative Education Program by Enrollment ............ 120

Figure 76. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Master Teacher Program by
Enrollment ................................................................................................................. 120

Figure 77. Effectiveness of Lengthened School Day by District Type .................... 121

xiii

Chapter 1. Introduction
Reform Efforts in the Michigan Schools: An Investigation of the Relationship Between
District Size, Per-Pupil Revenue, District Type, and School Reform

The year 1997 represents the fourteenth anniversary of the now-famous A Nation
wk report commissioned by the National Commission on Excellence in Education.
This report, and the many state-initiated reports such as Michigan’s A Blueprint for
Agti_on_, focused national and state-wide attention on educational reform. Indeed, the ten
years following A Nation at Risk have been referred to as the “Decade of Reform” by
educational writers.

A leiflt Risk (see listings of recommendations in Appendix) called for
increased high school graduation requirements, improved student testing procedures,
expanded accountability, changed teacher preparation standards, a variety of building and
district standards, and a variety of policy changes at the school level. While touting
improved standards, a variety of efforts at improvement in graduation requirements,
reading, mathematics, science, government, writing, student retention, and student effort
were established as national goals. Equal education and equity standards across socio-
economic and ability groups were made real issues for reform.

That A Nation at Risk served as a catalyst has been suggested by many “experts”.
Authors such as Theodore Sizer and John Goodlad have cited the report’s value. Most
State efforts at reform used the report from the National Commission on Excellence in

Education as a backdrop for their many recommendations.

Purpose of the Study

Did A Nation4at Risk make a significant difference to Michigan schools? Have
the reforms suggested by the report been implemented in Michigan’s school districts? If
implemented, have these reforms been successful infifecting real improvement in the
educational programs? In those districts where reforms have been less widely
implemented, are financial resources an issue?

The purpose of this investigation will be to determine the extent to which public
school districts in the State of Michigan have implemented the recommendations for
reform and, where implemented, assess the perceived impact upon quality.

Specifically, the investigation will attempt to assess the extent to which the
various proposals have been implemented and determine the relationship of district size,
district per-pupil funding, and rural/urban setting to reform implementation. Finally, the
investigation will attempt to assess perceived effects of the reform upon quality of
programming.

Hypothesis

It is hypothesized that:

1. There is a significant relationship between per-pupil funding and the extent to
which reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented.

2. There is a significant relationship between district size and the extent to which
reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented.

3. There is a significant relationship between district rural/urban status and the

extent to which reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented.

4. School superintendents’ evaluations of the impact of reforms will be related to
school size, school finances, and the rural/urban nature of the district.
fitionale for Study

A review of the literature of the last several years reveals that there continues to
be much debate over the impact of A Nation at Risk on educational thinking and
educational policy making. The Educemn USA @ecial Stggplement (1993) suggests that
the report “helped develop a mindset for reform among people in the country” (p. 1).
“That reform,” stated Torn Shannon, NASB (1993), “has started and produced a
consensus for educational excellence. It signaled the start of a new era in education” (p.
1).

Anne Campbell (1993), a member of the National Commission on Excellence in
Education which published A Nation at Risk, suggested that:

. . . it directed attention to the public schools so that legislators and politicians,

and particularly business, got interested in what was happening in the classroom.

It resulted in raised standards for high school graduation and raised admission

standards at the college level. (p. 1)

Goodlad (1993), in commenting upon the impact of the report, stated “It made
education the number one topic and brought the corporate world into it. The weakness
was that the report declared war on our educational establishment without providing the
tools to make improvements” (p. 2). Robert Fox (1993), Superintendent of the Hanover
Massachusetts School District, cited in the same report, . . we have not seen the kind of

support for change necessary to make some of these things happen” (p. 2).

Although less than successful in pushing educational reforms, the Education USA
Special Supplement (1993) suggests that the report’s major impact was that it generated
more than 280 studies.

A review of the literature on school reform highlights the role that A Nation at
B_i_s_k, public opinion, various funding incentives, and demands Of the workforce have had
upon school reform.

Smith (1987) studied the effects of increased academic requirements for
graduation on secondary vocational education programs. Results of the survey indicated
that increased standards resulted in increased student enrollment. Clark et a1. (1989)
studied Wisconsin’s education reform and evaluated the impact of the State-sponsored
competency testing policy and its effects upon local school district program adoption.
Findings of this study revealed that local districts are more likely to share state goals if
they share the goal of the state policy. Local control issues did delay initial participation,
but State assistance and State policy encouraged later adoption. Omstein (1992)
summarized the contents of 13 national commission reports from the 1960s to the 19908
and reviewed improvements in graduation requirements, grade inflation, achievement test
scores, international comparison, functional illiteracy figures, and school demography.
Omstein concluded his review with a recommendation to invest in human capital and
balance.

Sizer (1991) reviewed the various reform proposals and concluded his analysis by
insisting that serious restructuring cannot be done without “honest confrontation” of well-

intentioned, deeply traditional, but flawed ideas.

Webster et al. (1991) surveyed 50 state education agencies about secondary school
reform and found that 88% have developed an improvement effort. Toch (1991), in his
book In the Name of Excellence, concluded that the curricular reforms Of the 1980s have
been undercut by teachers’ inadequate subject knowledge and unimaginative pedagogical
techniques, union impediments tO professionalism, and flawed testing programs.

The Tennessee Higher Education Commission (1992) concluded that plans for
restructuring Tennessee public education have been interrupted by the recession and
reduced state monies. At the same time, the Tennessee report claims progress in
graduation rates, GED recipients, college admissions, improvement in minority
enrollment in higher education, improved test scores, improved teacher training, and
increased school-business partnerships. This same report claims progress in school-based
management efforts, usage of technology, early childhood education, and elementary
grade retention.

Medrich et a1. ( 1992) described the impact of state-level reforms upon students in
an overview and inventory of state requirements for school coursework. Chapter 2 of
Medrich et al.’s report discussed the great variety of reform activities that have occurred
at the state level in the last 10 years; and Chapter 3 reviewed research on trends in student
outcomes, attendance, and high school completion rates.

Several articles have addressed the need for, or experiences with, competency and
proficiency examination programs. Klein (1991), Ferrara (1988), and Norton (1987)
discussed the relevancy of using exams and assessment practices to ensure improved

quality at the secondary level.

Despite these theoretical and philosophical writings on educational reform, a
review of Dissertation Abstracts International and the extant literature collected and
reviewed in ERIC provided very little actual research on the extent of the reforms and the
impact of these reforms on the perceived quality of education that resulted. N 0 research
on the extent of the reforms coupled with local district evaluation of the reform efforts
has been reported in Dissertation Abstracts International or ERIC Clearinghouse
documents.

Of the articles and reports abstracted in ERIC identified in a search of both
published and unpublished works, most consisted of summary reports of individual
district efforts toward improvement. A search of dissertations and theses related to
school improvement efforts yielded only three separate studies related to the impact of the
reforms. A search of United States Government Office publications on graduation
requirements and competency testing yielded only nine separate documents of a research-
based nature. No detailed analysis of State of Michigan status relative to the purposes of
the study were identified in a computer search of the published and unpublished literature
in the field.

Assumptions

This research is based upon the following important assumptions:

1. The superintendents responding to the survey are representative of the total
population of local district superintendents in Michigan.

2. The survey used for the purpose of collecting the data for this study was a

valid and reliable assessment device.

3. Respondents were informed about and accurately and honestly reported the
improvement plans and reform efforts within their local district.

4. Respondent answers to the survey questions on program impact accurately
describe the actual impact of improvement plans and implementations.

5. The 55% response rate was sufficient to support the interpretations reached in
the conclusions section of this dissertation.

Limigltions and Delimitations

Considering how many surveys educators are asked to complete, and recognizing
the workload of central office administrative staff members, this researcher acknowledges
and appreciates the willingness of respondents to participate in the survey used to collect
data for this report.

Despite the fact that a 55% return rate for a survey of this type is considered quite
successful, the primary limitation of this study is the fact that it is based upon a return
response rate of only a non-random sample of the entire state of Michigan’s K- 12 local
districts. The investigator must ask himself the question, “Would the results have been
changed if all local school districts had returned the survey?”

As noted by Borg & Gall (1979), it is likely that the findings could have been
altered if the non-responding group had returned the questionnaire and had answered in a
markedly different manner than the responding group. The investigator has no reason to
believe, however, that the respondents represented a biased sample; and the survey
instrument was constructed in such a way as to avoid the problems sometimes associated

with questionnaires not being returned because school administrators are reluctant to

admit deficiencies. Although this researcher feels confident in the representative nature
of the responses, and although the obtained response rate was significantly above the
minimum necessary, it was hoped that a rate closer to 100% could have been received.

The study’s results are further limited in the manner in which it utilized opinion-
type responses tO the questions about impact of district improvements. Other limitations
and delimitations of the study are the following:

1. The scope of the study is limited to those Michigan public school districts
which chose to respond to the original survey and the follow-up letter.

2. The motivation of the respondents to accurately respond to the survey is
probably directly related to the respondents’ Opinions of the purposes of the project. The
researcher has no valid measure of the degree to which the respondents valued the
purposes of the research project and, thus, has no way of measuring the motivation to
respond accurately.

3. Although it is assumed that respondents answered the survey in a complete
and honest manner, the researcher has no reasonable way to establish the reliability of the
various survey responses.

4. The perceptions of the respondent, although assumed representative of the
entire district and accurate, are limited by their prior experiences, personal biases, and
local district conditions.

5. The survey requested information about district improvement efforts during
the l3-year period between the publication of the A Nation at Risk report and the receipt

of the survey. In many cases, especially in those districts experiencing high staff

turnover, local district central Offices may have incomplete records of improvement
efforts.

6. The manner in which the study classifies districts as urban, rural, or suburban,
although having face validity, does allow some possibility for error in testing the
hypotheses about school district type and planned improvements.

Definition of Terms

Good (1973) defines the following terms:

Carnegie unit: a standard of measurement for describing the secondary school
subject-matter pattern that constitutes the entrance requirements of a college. Represents
a year’s study in any subject.

College prepagtorv courses: a sequence of subjects or group of courses
prerequisite for college enrollment.

Cowtencv tests: ability to apply to situations the essential principles and
techniques of a particular subject-matter field.

Core courses: a course required of all students, giving instruction in minimum
and basic essentials of living.

Course credits: a course that carries academic credit.

Curricula: systematic group of courses or sequences of subjects that the school
should offer the student by way of qualifying him for graduation.

Electives: one of a number of courses that a pupil or student may select from an
area in which he is required to do a certain amount of work.

Functional illiteragy: inability to read and write to meet the needs of adult life.

10

General track courses: a pattern of subject organization or of course sequence in a
schooL

High school diploma: a formal documentary credential given by educational
institutions certifying the completion of a curriculum.

High school graduation requirements: specifications of minimum educational
achievement and other qualifications necessary for granting a degree. Stated in terms of
semester or quarter hours, sometimes in terms of units or credits in certain subject matter
fields.

Instructionjal time: the time a teacher gives to pupils during class or directed study
periods.

Master teacher: a teacher recognized as possessing exceptional ability in the art of
teaching.

Per-pupil expenditure: the annual direct expenditures (including expenditures for
administrative, instruction, attendance, health services, pupil transportation services,
operation of plant, maintenance of plant, and fixed charges) divided by the average daily
membership for the year.

Reform (school): a term to describe deliberate changes made in educational
systems and curricula.

R_u;a_l: a school located in the open country or village or town of fewer than 2,500
population.

School day: the portion of the calendar day during which school is in session

(typically contains 5 1/2 hours Of instruction time).

11

School systems: all the schools operated by a given board of education or central
administrative authority.

School year: that period of time during which the school Offers daily instruction,
broken by only short intermittent periods; varies from 32-40 weeks.

Standardized tests: a test for which content has been selected and checked
empirically, for which norms have been established, for which uniform methods of
administering and scoring have been developed.

StudentJachievement: the status of a pupil with respect to attained skills or
knowledge as compared with other pupils or with the school’s adopted standards.

Suburban: a school located in the population centers, usually incorporated
townships, surrounding a city.

Technical/vocational: a type of education that emphasizes the learning of a
technique or technical procedures and skills.

M3 a school in a concentrated population area, as Opposed to a rural or
village.

Summary and Overview

An investigation of the extent tO which A Nation at Risk reforms have been
implemented and the relationship between these reforms and school financial
information, school size, and school rural/urban setting is important.

This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 consists of an
introduction, a description of the purpose of the study, the limitations and delimitations,

and rationale for study.

12

Chapter 2 reviews and critiques the reform literature of the last 14 years and
identifies and describes the five major categories and various reforms of the
Commission’s report.

Chapter 3 describes the methods, materials, and procedures used to conduct the
study. This discussion includes the sampling, data collection procedures, the survey
instrument which was developed specifically for this study, and the methods of analysis.

The research methods include a survey of all 530 local districts throughout the
State of Michigan. The districts are categorized by size, rural/urban setting, per-pupil
Spending, and in-formula/out-of-formula status. Respondents to the survey were
superintendents or assistant superintendents for curriculum.

The survey consists of a number of questions relative to the extent to which the
various A Nation at Risk recommendations were implemented. For each of the
recommendations implemented within the district, the respondents were asked to evaluate
the impact. If not implemented, respondents were asked to cite the reason for non-
implementation and provide an assessment as to the value of such a reform to the quality
of the district.

Reliability and validity of survey results are not viewed as a problem because of
the objective and easily-verifiable nature of most of the reform efforts. In addition to the
survey responses, districts within the sample were asked to submit copies of their
improvement plans to verify the extent to which the various recommendations were

implemented.

l3

Descriptive statistics have been used to portray the results of the survey, and Chi
Square analysis and correlation techniques have been used to make decisions on the
various hypotheses.

Chapter 4 presents the findings of the survey research and study, and also includes
a detailed summary of the various improvement plans received.

Chapter 5 provides a summary of the study; reviews the results; and discusses

implications, conclusions, and recommendations.

Chapter 2. Review of Related Literature

Secretary of Education T.H. Bell, under the Reagan Administration, created the
National Commission on Excellence in Education on April 26, 1981. The Commission’s
directive was to examine the quality of education in the United States because of a
widespread public perception that something was seriously remiss in the country’s
educational system.

The Commission (1981) reported that “the educational foundations of our society
are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a
Nation and a people” (p. 5). The Commission (1981) also reported that “our society and
its educational institutions seem to have lost sight of the basic purposes of schooling and
Of the high expectations and disciplined effort needed to attain them” (pp. 5-6).

Several of the indicators Of risk as presented to the Commission through
testimony included:

1. Twenty-three million American adults are, at the time of the report,
functionally illiterate by the simplest tests of everyday reading, writing, and
comprehension.

2. Thirteen percent of all 17 year olds in the United States are considered
functionally illiterate.

3. Nearly 40% of 17 year olds did not possess the “higher order” intellectual
skills to draw inferences from written material; only one fifth can write a persuasive
essay; and only one third can solve a mathematical problem requiring several steps. (pp.

8-10)

14

15

Educational researcher Paul Hurd (1983) concluded at the end of a national survey
of student achievement, that within the context Of the modern scientific revolution,
“We are raising a new generation of Americans that is scientifically and technologically
illiterate” (p. 10) cited in A Nation at Risk.

Another analyst, Paul Copperrnan (1983), summarizes:

Each generation of Americans has outskipped its parents in education, in literacy,
and in economic attainment. For the first time in the history of our country, the
educational skills of one generation will not surpass, will not equal, will not even

approach, those of their parents. (p. 11)

The Commission (1981) reported, “We should expect schools to have genuinely
high standards rather than minimum ones” (p. 13).
Findings Regarding High School Credits

The Commission studied high school courses students took in 1964-69 compared
with courses in 1976-81. Based on the Commission’s (1981) analysis, it was concluded
that:

1. Secondary school curricula have been homogenigeil, diluted, and diffused to
the point that they no longer have a central purpose.

2. Students have migrated from vocational and college preparatory programs to
“general track” courses in large numbers.

3. Twenty-five percent of the credits earned by general track high school students
are in physical education and health education, work experience outside the school,
remedial English and mathematics, and personal service and development courses such as

training for adulthood and marriage. (pp. 18-19)

16

Findings Regarding Expecgtions

The Commission (1981) further reported that:

l. The amount of homework for high school seniors has decreased. Two thirds
report less than one hour a night.

2. In many other industrialized nations, the time students spent on subjects such
as mathematics and science is about three times that spent by even the most science-
oriented US. students.

3. A 1980 state-by-state survey of high school diploma requirements showed that
only eight states required high schools to Offer foreign language instruction, but none
required students to take the courses. Thirty-five states required only one year of
mathematics, and 36 required only one year of science for a diploma.

4. In 13 states, 50% or more of the units required for high school graduation may
be electives chosen by the student.

5. States that required “minimum competency” examinations fell short Of what is
needed, as the “minimum” tends to become the “maximum”, thus lowering educational
standards for all. (pp. 19-21)

Findings Regarding Time

Relative to the use of time spent in academic pursuits, the Commission ( 1981)
reported that:

1. In several industrialized countries, it is not unusual for academic high school
students to spend eight hours a day at school, 220 days per year. In the United States, the

typical school day is six hours, and the school year is 180 days.

l7

2. The time spent learning to cook and drive counts as much toward a high
school diploma as the time spent studying more traditional academic courses, i.e.,
English, biology, etc. (pp. 21-22)
Recommendations

In light of the urgent need for improvement, both immediate and long term, the
Commission (1981) agreed on a set of recommendations that the American people should
address, that can be implemented over the next several years, and that promise lasting
reform. The Commission’s (1981) recommendations stated the belief that:

. . . everyone can learn, that everyone is born with an urge to learn which can be

nurtured, that a solid high school education is within the reach of virtually all, and

that life-long learning will equip people with the skills required for new careers

and for citizenship. (p. 24)
Recommendation A: Content

Concerning the content of instruction, the Commission (1981) suggested that
State and local graduation requirements should be strengthened and, at a minimum, all
students seeking a diploma should be required to lay the foundations in the Five New
Basics by taking the following curriculum during their four years of high school: (a) four
years of English; (b) three years of mathematics; (c) three years of science; (d) three years
of social studies; and (e) one-half year of computer science. For the college-bound

student, two years of foreign language in high school is strongly recommended (p. 24).

18

Recommendation B: Students and Expectations

According to the Commission (1981), standardized tests Of achievement should be
administered from high school to college and work for the purpose to: (a) certify the
student’s credentials; (b) identify need for remedial intervention; and (c) identify the
opportunity for advanced work (p. 28).

Recommendation C: Time

According to the Michigan School Board Journal (Vol. XXX, NO. 2, June 1983),
the Commission (1981) further directed that significantly more time should be devoted to
learning the New Basics. This will require more effective use of the existing school day,
a longer school day, or a lengthened school year. School districts and state legislatures
should strongly consider seven-hour school days as well as 200- to 220-day school years
(p. 29).

Qidtgnion Requirements in Michiga_n

According to “Better Education for Michigan Citizens: A Blueprint for Action”
(January 11, 1984), the State of Michigan has demonstrated a tradition of local control
over school programs and has instituted few State requirements for high school
graduation, most notably, one semester of civics. While local districts should continue to
have jurisdiction over its curriculum, State surveys of both the Michigan public and of
Michigan high school principals Show support for several graduation requirements.

As reported in “A Blueprint for Action” (1984), the State Board of Education

recommended that local boards of education require all students to complete:

l9

1. Four years of communication skills. Of the Michigan public surveyed, 83%
favored requiring four years of high school English.

2. Two years of mathematics, including at least one course in algebraic concepts.

3. Two years of science, including both biological and physical science.

4. Three years of social studies, including government, history, economics,
cultural and ethnic studies, geography, law-related studies, and critical thinking.

5. Two years or more in one or a combination of the following areas: (a) foreign
language; (b) fine or performing arts; or (c) vocational education or practical arts.

6. One year of health and/or physical education.

7. One-half year of computer education. (p. 9)

According to the 1984 Blueprint, the State Board of Education also recommended
that:

local boards of education encourage students who planned on attending a four-

year college or university to study the following: (a) one additional year of

mathematics, to include geometry, advanced algebra, and trigonometry; (b) one

additional year of science to include chemistry and physics; and (c) at least two

years of a foreign language. (p. 5)

In regards to instructional time, the State Board of Education, in 1984,
recommended to local school districts the following considerations:

1. High schools Should operate with a minimum Of six classes of 50 minutes.

Forty-five percent of the Michigan public surveyed favored a seven-hour day.

20

2. Provide a school year of 200 days, at least 190 days Of which should be for
instruction. At the same time, the State Board of Education recommended to the
Governor and the Legislature that local school districts be required to provide a 200-day
school year, and that State funding to local school districts be increased as a condition of
lengthening the school year. This did not occur. (p. 6)

In 1984, the State Board of Education also considered the area of assessment of
student performance. In addition to the annually-administered State MEAP tests for
Michigan’s fourth, seventh, and tenth grade students in mathematics and reading, the
State Board recommended that “the Governor and Legislature increase funds to the
Educational Assessment Program to:

1. Establish a State-level assessment service center which would assist local
school districts in the development and implementation of competency tests.

2. Explore increasing the scope of the State-wide assessment testing beyond
reading and mathematics to a periodic, every-pupil assessment in other subjects, such as
science and writing.” (p. 8)

According to the Third Annual Status Remrt (January 28, 1987), the original A

Blueprint for Action was adopted by the State Board of Education on January 11, 1984,

 

followed by progress reports in 1985, 1986, and the final report in 1987. The intent of the
Blueprint was to provide a framework to guide educational change throughout Michigan.
The information relating to graduation credits, policies, and issues are based on 1986-87

data provided from 507 local school districts prior to January 1987.

21

The Michigan Board of Education’s high school graduation requirements found in
A Bluegint for Action were similar to A Nation at Risk, with the exception that the State
Board recommended one year less in mathematics (two years instead of three) and one
year less in science (two years instead of three).

According to the Third Annual Status Report (1987):

1. It was reported that most local districts in Michigan had taken actions designed
to make available to all students the high school course requirements recommended by
the State Board of Education.

2. In 1984-85, specific language, along with a $28 per student incentive, was
added to Section 21 of the State Aid formula for school districts who made available to
its students the courses recommended in Blueprint. In 1985-86, the incentive was
continued. (pp. 4-6)

The key intent of the State Aid incentive was that courses be made available to all
students, not required for all students.

In communication skills, social studies, mathematics, and science, the levels of
credits required for graduation did not change between 1984-85 and 1985-86. However,
for 1986—87, and for students graduating in 1988-89, the requirements have increased
even further.

For example, in communication skills, the percentage of districts with
requirements equal to (four years) or greater than the State Board’s recommended credit
level, increased from approximately 32% in 1984-85 and 1985-86 to 36% in 1986-87 and

tO 45% in 1988-89.

22

In social studies, the percentage of Michigan school districts meeting or exceeding
the State Board’s recommended credits for graduation (three years) increased from 53%
in 1984-85 and 1985-86 to nearly 57% in 1986-87 and to 69% in 1988—89.

In mathematics, the percentage of local school districts meeting or exceeding the
State Board’s recommended credit level (two years) increased slightly from 65% to 67%
in 1986-87 and to 81% in 1988—89.

In science, the percentage of Michigan school districts meeting or exceeding the
State Board’s recommendation (two years) increased slightly from 53% in 1984-85 and
1985-86 to 54% in 1986-87 and to 71% in 1988-89.

In A Blueprint for Action (1984), the State Board of Education also recommended
that local school boards encourage students who plan on attending a four-year college or
university to study an additional year in both mathematics and science as well as two
years of a foreign language. From the summary provided in the third annual report, a
vague opinion that progress is occurring is all that can be discerned.

In regards to written student performance standards for use in parent reporting and
promotion of graduation criteria, it was reported that many districts had developed
student performance standards for use in reporting to parents. No mention was provided
regarding the development or use of high school competency tests.

Instructionéal Time

Timothy J. Dryer (1996), Executive Director of the National Association of

Secondary School Principals, wrote in the preface to the NASSP report Breaking Rags:

Changing an American Institution, “The high school of the 21st Century must be much

23

more Student-centered and above all much more personalized in programs, support
services, and intellectual rigor” (p. 65).

A report entitled “Schools Must Devote More Time to Academics” in Education
USA (36, #18, May 9, 1994), cited continuing problems with time devoted to academics
in the American high school and calls for longer days and longer years. Gordon Cawelts,
in a major 1984 ERS Report on “High School Restructuring: A National Study”
highlights the importance of time in school restructuring efforts. Calling for reforms in
curriculum, teaching, and the school organization, Cawelts makes the case for an
extended school year and an extended school day.

Dryer delineated the recommendations of the Commission on the Restructuring of
the American High School, formed through a partnership between NASSP and the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The report consolidated more
than 80 recommendations into several major main themes, which included:

1. The high school experience should be personalized for the students, with larger
schools being broken down into units of no more than 600 students. Teachers can then
use a variety of instructional strategies that meet individual student learning styles.

2. High school should be clear about the specific skills and knowledge students
must acquire in order to graduate. Disciplinary departments should be organized
allowing subjects to be more closely linked, and schools should align what they teach

with what they test.

24

3. Flexibility is important when reorganizing teaching and student learning time.
The Carnegie Unit should be revised so that seat time is no longer equated with learning
within a 12-month school calendar.

According to the 27th Annual Phi Delta Kappan Gallup Poll (1995), there
continues to be significant public support for higher academic standards in the public
schools. In addition, higher standards as a graduation requirement also continue tO
receive strong public support. For example, 65% of the people responding favored
stricter requirements for high school graduation even if it meant that significantly fewer
students would graduate than is now the case. Also, 65% of the people responding
supported requiring students in public schools to pass standardized, national
examinations for promotion from grade to grade (p. 47).

Since A Nation at Risk was published, virtually every state in the United States
has enacted legislation and adopted polices that state leaders believed would address the
issues identified in A N ation at Risk and improve quality in our nation’s schools. By the
end of the 19805:

1. Most states had introduced new standards for graduation.

2. Most states had adopted policies that increased the number of credits required
for graduation.

3. Most states had established procedures for special honors recognition.

4. Most states had adopted policies for advanced placement opportunities for high
school students.

As cited in the Southern Regional Education Board’s (1996) publication, High

25

School Graduation Standards: Whig We Expected and What We Got, changes in the
kinds of courses that high school graduates have taken have been dramatic.

In 1980, less that 15% of high school students completed the basic core
curriculum recommended by the National Commission on Educational Excellence; by
1990, 40% of our nation’s high school students completed 13 or more courses in the core
subjects. Additionally, more students are now currently taking more rigorous courses,
most states have adopted new standards for graduation, most states have increased the
number of credits required for graduation, and most states have eliminated the “general”
curriculum and expected students to complete either an academy or technical/vocational
program of study. Additionally, according to this same report, most colleges and
universities have increased their admissions requirements and, at the same time, become
more Specific about the minimum courses required for admission.

In the booklet, Americar’s Tflhers Ten YES After “A Nation At Risk”, the third
booklet in a series, Findings from The Condition of Education (1994), data from the
National Center for Education Statistics is used to examine the current state of the
teaching profession and how aspects of it have changed since A Nation at Risk. Findings
from this report include:

1. The teaching force has become more female, older, and more ethnically
diverse.

2. Growth in the numbers of teachers has outpaced increases in both elementary
and secondary student enrollment.

3. An increasing proportion of newly-hired teachers are “first-time teachers”.

26

4. Schools are using a variety of methods to respond to teacher shortages in
particular subject fields.

5. Teachers are better educated than at the time of publication of A Nation at

6. Almost all of the public secondary teachers are teaching in their major or
minor areas of certification.

7. Salaries for public school teachers (adjusted for inflation) increased
substantially between 1980 and 1990.

8. Teachers report themselves to be more satisfied with their choice Of profession
than they were a decade ago.

9. Teachers reportedly have more influence over classroom and curricular
practices than they did at the time of A Nation at Risk.

The first booklet in the Findings from The Condition of Education series
documents advances of high school students since the publication of A Nation at Risk.
Among the documented changes highlighted:

1. High schoolers are taking more courses, particularly in academic areas.

2. Students are taking more difficult courses and a greater number of courses.

3. Students are learning more (according to NAEP results) in math and science.

4. Fewer high school Students drop out of high school between tenth and twelfth
grade.

5. Students’ educational aspirations are increasing.

6. The percentage of students making the immediate transition from high school

27

to college continues to rise.

7. A greater percentage of students is enrolling in college.

In addition to these improvements, The Condition of Education Report reported
finding no evidence that students with lower abilities have suffered as a result of
increased standards and, at the same time, there is no evidence that the increase in
academic course taking has adversely affected achievement of advanced students.

Despite these apparent gains since A Nation i Risk, much has been written about
states’ failures to implement necessary changes to substantially improve the condition of
education. Terrell H. Bell, former Secretary of Education and mastermind behind the
National Commission on Excellence in Education which authored A Nation ILRisk,
reflected on progress since A Nation at RisJk in a 1993 issue of Phi Delta Kappan.
Criticizing the nature of many of the top-down initiatives of the 19805 and early 19905,
Bell concluded his analysis by stating:

The ten years since the publication of A Nation at Risk have been a splendid
misery for American education. We have learned much. We have suffered
many disappointments. But we have not given up the quest to shape
education into the super-efficient enterprise that it must become if America is
to keep its proud place of leadership in the marvelous Information Age of this
decade and beyond. Perhaps we should have made more progress than we
have. But at least we have stayed with the task. (p. 597)

Coley (1994) critiques the progress in state-level initiatives by concluding that the

research on state-level reform-is inconclusive. In updating a 1989 report, Coley suggests

28

that there have been steady improvements in the proportion of students taking a defined
minimum academic program and a core curricula. In fact, concluded Coley, students are
taking more courses and more advanced studies.

But, according to Coley (1994), much room remains for improvement. Less than
one half of the 1990 graduates participated in the defined minimum academic programs
and less than one in five students completed the A Nation at Risk core curriculum.
Legislative and Govemmeng Initiativesfiand Mam

References to national, state, and legislative initiatives and mandates are
numerous. O’Brien (1983), in a dissertation presented to the Graduate School at Drake
University, reviewed high school graduation requirements as prescribed by local school
districts and state department Of education. Although outdated and of very little use for
school districts seeking to improve the quality of their educational programs in 1996, the
author provided an in-depth look at competency testing requirements, alternative
diplomas, attendance policies, instructional time policies, and graduation requirements.

Clune, White, and Patterson (1989) present an argument for improving high
school graduation requirements as the first step toward curricular reform in public
education. Likewise, Smite (1987), examined the effects of increased academic
standards for high school graduation on enrollment trends in public vocational education
and concluded that increased graduation requirements did not significantly reduce overall
vocational equation program enrollments. Similarly, Tuma and Gifford ( 1990) published
a comprehensive review on the effects of higher requirements for high school graduation

on patterns of participation in secondary education among high school graduates and

29

different patterns of course-taking among college-bound and non college-bound students.
Using data from several longitudinal studies, the authors concluded that raised standards
have resulted in a change in course loads among high school graduates and more course
work in mathematics, science and foreign languages. Additionally, data indicated that an
increased number of students express an intention of attending higher education.

Tuma and Gifford did find, however, that those students most affected by reform
efforts, and thus those most benefiting from the improvements, were those students
planning to go to college. The authors concluded that those planning to enter the labor
force were not experiencing the same benefits.

The Policy Information Center of the Educational Testing Service provided a
1990 overview of educational reforms during the period 1978 to 1988 and their effects as
perceived by policy makers, practitioners, and interested citizens. The first part of the
report, called The Reforms Of the 19805 summarizes the results of a 50-state survey and
research report. The second and third parts Of the Testing Service Report used statistics
and assessments provided by the National Center of Education Statistics.

The Testing Service Report credits state-level reform laws and policy changes that
were initiated and carried out by governors and legislatures for most of the progress of the
19805. Referring to the 19805 as “The Excellence Movement”, the report traces progress
in graduation requirements, student testing, accountability, teacher standards, school
district standards, and local policy changes.

Kino et a1. (1990) reported on the state of assessment programs in a paper

presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council on Measurement in Education.

30

Taking data from biennial surveys by the Association of State Assessment Programs, first
conducted in 1977, the study reports on such issues as subject areas tested, type of
programs, uses of test results, district controls, sampling procedures, test development,
and assessment of various domains of learning. The authors reported that most programs
assess basic skills which are related to high school graduation; off-the-shelf tests are Often
chosen and the changing nature of many testing efforts. Finally, the authors concluded
that networking among states is crucial if continued success is to be experienced.

In his article, “The Consequences of High School Graduation Testing Programs”,
Peter W. Airasian (1987) notes the effects of graduation testing:

1. Pupils—larger number of students who would normally leave high school with
a diploma did not under the new requirement. Moreover, a disproportionate percentage
of the failing students are members of racial minority programs.

2. The main impact of high school graduation tests is upon the 10 to 15% of
pupils in most high schools who are academically “at risk”.

State-wide assessments of progress toward A N agon at Risk recommendations
have been undertaken and reported by various states. Wale and Irons (1990) published an
evaluative study of Texas certification programs, and Graham and Ruhl circulated an
undated
summary of perceptions Of federally-recommended reform initiatives within the state of
Missouri public schools.

The Missouri Legislature adopted a “far-reaching omnibus bill” addressing l3

broad areas of education reform. To determine the extent to which Missouri had

31

implemented the reform efforts, a questionnaire designed around the 38 recommendations
made by the Commission pertaining to public education was sent to all 530
superintendents in the State. Results, based upon a 55% return rate, indicated that most
local districts had, in fact, implemented a significant number of reform efforts since the
publication of A Nation at Risk.

The Educational Testing Services published a Bibliography of Research on
Graduation Requirements which provides an analysis of policy changes in New York,
New Jersey, Florida, Texas, South Carolina, New York City, North Carolina, Virginia,
Minnesota, Maryland, and California.

Medrich et al. (1992), writing in a document entitled Overview and Inventory of
State Requirements for School Coursework—and Attendance, reviewed (a) the available
information on the current state of education reforms aimed at raising student standards
and the relationship of such standards to student outcomes, and (b) the range Of state
initiatives designed to achieve higher student standards and the problems of assessing
impact upon student behavior. In reviewing the reform activities of the period 1983 to
1990, Medrich highlighted the impact of state reform and suggested analytical strategies
that could be used to describe linkages between the reforms and achievement.

In a comprehensive review entitled The Implementation and Effects of High
School Graduation Requirements: First Steps Toward Curricular Reform, Clune et a1.

( 1989 ), studied the implementation and effects of high school graduation requirements
upon student outcomes and concluded that real progress was not documented.

Citing evidence that student standards are conditions required for the receipt of

32

educational benefits which also have an impact upon various aspects of the school
program (curriculum design, counseling, and course selection), Clune et a1. (1989)
reviewed improvements to student standards including 45 states with increased high
school graduation requirements, 21 states with longer school days, 14 states with new or
modified high school exit exams, and a few states with grade point standards for
participation in specific programs.

Concentrating on high school graduation course requirements because, “such
requirements were the single most popular type Of reform and because, on theoretical
grounds graduation requirements promised to have the greatest impact on student
learning” (p. 1), the authors reviewed the changes implemented within 45 states.

The Clune et a1. (1989) research focused on high school graduation course
requirements because such requirements were, according to the authors, the single most
popular type of reform and because, on theoretical grounds, graduation requirements
promised to have the greatest impact upon student learning. According to the authors,
“graduation requirements are aimed at controlling the content of education; and content
has been linked empirically with gains in achievement” (p. 1).

Support for the connection between graduation requirements and gains in
achievement have been documented by Borg (1980), Jones et a1. (1986), Koretz (1988),
Raizen (1988), Wiley and Hamischfeger (1974), and Wolf (1977).

In introducing their study, Clune et a1. (1989) raised serious questions about the
extensiveness and quality of implementation of graduation requirement reforms.

In reviewing the implementation, the authors discussed the great variety of change

33

required among districts to meet the new mandates and in the district’s capacity to meet
the mandate’s purposes.

The A Nation at Risk report, called the “bible of school reform” by Clune et al.
(1989), suggested the following goals for graduation requirement reform:

I. A more uniform and less diluted curriculum, rather than a cafeteria-style
curriculum in which the appetizers and desserts can be easily mistaken for the main
courses.

2. Reversal of the trend away from vocational and college preparatory courses
toward general track course.

3. Raising the low percentages of students taking regular academic courses, such
as intermediate algebra, French I, geography, and calculus.

4. Supplementing academic math and science courses for college-bound students
with new, easily demanding curricula for those who don’t contemplate college. (p. 2)

The Clune et a1. (1989) report presented evidence of the varied approaches at
meeting the intent of A Nation At Risk. Math and science courses were added in
response to state high school graduation requirements, but mostly at the basic, general, or
remedial levels. Vocational courses declined sharply. Regular academic course
requirements increased in response to increased university entrance requirements.
Despite all this, Clune et al. revealed, “The academic curriculum remained quite stratified
because the new academic courses added for the non college-bound were generally not
traditional academic courses but rather basic, general, or remedial courses” (p. 2).

The Clune’s et a1. (1989) report further stated, “Different combinations of policies

34

affected different states and districts in different ways” (p. 2).

A summary finding of the Clune et a1. (1989) report stated, “Rather than
producing a high-level, uniform academic curriculum for all students, the requirements
affected a particular group of students in a particular way. . . . Rather than achieving all of
the goals simultaneously, the requirements achieved some at the expense of others” (p. 3).

Clune’s et a1. (1989) summary portrayed the actual effects of the changes in
graduation requirements and other reforms as quite varied relative to the goals of
curriculum reform and increased participation in “new, equally demanding . . . curricula”
as called for in A Nation at Risk (p. 25) for those not pursuing a college preparation
program. The findings suggested that although math and science coursework were added
in response to reform recommendations, these courses were mostly at the “basic, general,
or remedial levels” (p. 2).

Clune et a1. (1989) also found that vocational courses declined sharply, that new
courses were added as preparation for high school exit exams with emphasis on basic and
functional skills, and that there was an increase in regular academic courses.

Clune et al. (1989) summarized the changes in graduation requirements across the

nation in Table l.

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52

As a part of their study, Clune et al. (1989) asked respondents for their personal
assessment of the effects of curricular changes upon the school curriculum. Respondents
were asked if the reforms achieved the effects intended and to summarize advantages and
disadvantages of the policies upon students. Finally, respondents were asked to assess the
impact of the policies upon local needs. Table 2 portrays Clune’s et al. findings relative

to the perceived effects of the new graduation requirements upon respondents’ districts.

53

Table 2. District and School Respondents’ Views
About Effects of New Graduation Requirements

 

 

 

 

# of # of # of
Type of Response States“ Districts“ Schools“
ADVANTAGES:
I. raised test scores 2 3 5
2. better college preparation 3 9 l3
3. better employment preparation 2 3 2
4. improved quality of instruction 3 3 5
5. provided students with more basic 3 3 4
skills (broader background)
DISADVANT AGES:
1. delayed graduation 5 5 5
2. increased dropout rate 4 13 17
3. increased failure rate 5 7 8
4. reduced electives (number offered 5 10 19
and number students could take)
5. lack of funds 3 3 4
6. reduced vocational offerings 5 9 11
7. reduced fine arts offerings 2 3 4
8. hurt lower-achieving students 5 9 l6
9. reduced choices and options for 4 6 8
students
10. reduced flexibility in scheduling 4 4 5

1 1. reduced attendance 5 6 6

54

 

 

 

 

# of # of # of

Type of Response States“ Districts“ Schools*
DISADVANTAGES (cont’d):
12. increased discipline problems 2 2 3
13. lack of teachers, space, equipment 5 7 8
14. raised anxiety of teachers 1 4 6
15. raised anxiety of students 3 5 6
16. increased summer school enrollment 5 4 6
17. increased workload for teachers 2 4 6
18. watered-down the curriculum 2 2 2
IDENTIFIED AS BOTH ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:
I. hired more teachers 3 4 5
2. challenged students (students had to 5 9

work harder)
3. more exposure to science and math 5 11 13
4. increased standards and teacher 3 3 3

expectations of students

From Clune et al., p. 71-72.

55

Relative to the issue of perceived success of the reforms in achieving their
intended effects, approximately one half of the respondents reported that the new
requirements were not likely to produce the kinds of effects that state policy makers
intended, and approximately 20% of the respondents felt that the requirements were likely
to have the effects intended by policy makers.

As can be seen in Table 2, respondents mentioned disadvantages of the reforms
more frequently than advantages. The most common advantage was better college
preparation; and the most frequently-cited disadvantages were increased dropout rates,
harm to lower-achieving students, and reduced vocational offerings. The single most
common complaint about the new graduation requirements was that they reduced the
number of electives offered and the number of electives that students could enroll in.

According to Clune et al. (1989), the overriding opinion of school-level people
(including principals, counselors, and teachers) was that new graduation requirements did
not address the districts’ real needs; and that different students had different needs and the
requirements did not address divergent needs, especially not the needs of the
disadvantaged students, minority students, or the non college-bound students.

On the other hand, despite the generally disapproving responses by school
officials, the overall responses regarding community support were favorable. According
to the report, of 14 districts in five states, nine indicated that the new requirements were
generally supported by the community; three districts reported that there was mixed
support; and two districts indicated that the community was generally unconcerned or

unaware of the changes.

56

Massell and Fuhrman (1994), review the evolution of change from 1983 to 1993
in a major report entitled “Ten Years of State Education Reform, 1983-1993”.

In a threefold look at the changing constellation of power and authority in school
reform, the changes in the capacity for reform, and new directions in the mechanisms of
state policies directly targeted on classroom instruction, Massell and Fuhrman trace the
reform ideas and strategies from the former focus upon inputs of education to the latter
attention to the results of education. According to the authors, A Nation at Risk focused
reform on the inputs of (a) more required credits in the academic core, (b) more testing,
(c) longer school days and years, ((1) higher teacher salaries, (e) tougher certification and
professional entry requirements, (f) heightened state monitoring, (g) state-centered testing
programs, and (h) improvement incentives and rewards.

In analyzing the success of A Nation at Risk reforms, Massell and Fuhrman
(1994) cited substantial progress made between 1983 and 1993 but concluded that A
Nation at Risk did not directly address the academic content of schooling and that top-
down mandates and regulatory approach used in the 19805 ignored what we now know
about the value of site-based management and restructuring in real school improvement.

In a summary report entitled “Discussion and Policy Recommendations: Partal
Policy, Limited Results, and Further Steps Toward Curricular Reform”, Clune et a1.
(1989), raised the following questions:

1. Were the graduation requirements a basic success?

2. Should the states have gone beyond the minimum and passed even higher

graduation requirements?

57

3. Were the courses offered the most demanding possible for the students
affected?

4. Were the new courses better than the ones they replaced?

5. Will the reforms produce major gains in work skills?

6. Will the reforms raise achievement scores in academic subjects?

7. Will the reforms raise dropout rates and hurt at-risk students?

8. Did the requirements satisfy the public about the value of educational reform?

9. Were the reforms successful in communicating their purpose to the educators
who implemented them? (pp. 33-38)

First, in response to the question about the relative success of the graduation
requirements changes, the authors concluded that “yes”, graduation requirement reforms
were implemented and they did make a difference. Reports of the study indicated that
about 27% of the students are taking an additional mathematics course and 34% an extra
science course. Many, also, are taking an additional social sciences course.

Relative to question two, the authors indicated that there was not support for
going beyond initial reforms in raising math, science and social sciences coursework
requirements. Instead of additional courses, Clune and colleagues (1989) suggested that
real curricular revision should be undertaken.

The quality of the course (question three), according to Clune et a1. (1989), is
questionable. While course requirements were added, little effort to improve instruction
accompanied the graduation requirement reforms.

Despite this fact, the Clune et a1. (1989) study did provide evidence that new

58

courses, added in response to reform proposals, were better than the courses that they
were intended to replace.

The authors also found some evidence to suggest that the reforms will probably
not produce major gains in work skills, but they will raise achievement scores in
academic subject.

Despite conclusive evidence, Clune et al. (1989) also suggested that increased
standards will not raise dropout rates nor will they hurt at-risk students. At the same
time, the authors did report some evidence that the new requirements did, at least
partially, satisfy the public about the value of educational reform.

As a result of their in-depth study, Clune et a]. (1989) made the following specific
recommendations about future reform efforts:

1. Streamline the core curriculum.

2. Aim the curriculum at higher-order learning objectives.

3. Pay more attention to instruction for middle- and low-achieving students.

4. Use different policy instruments for different purposes and groups of students.
5. Investigate cognitively-demanding vocational education.

6. Design technical assistance to schools for improved content.

7. Build an indicator system to traditional content and course-related
achievement.

8. Continue research on curriculum improvement.

9. Evaluate changes in the policy making process. (pp. 40-45)
Patterson (1989), in a supplement to the Clune et al. (1989) report, summarized
the high school graduation requirements for the various states. The authors concluded

that although many states had made significant progress, the Center for Policy Research

59

in Education summary suggested that very few of the reform proposals have been
implemented in Michigan because of the independence of local board of education

control.

Chapter 3. Design of the Study

The purpose of this chapter is to outline the design of the investigation and to
make explicit the procedures used to implement the purposes of the study. Included
within the chapter are the following: (a) the population for the study, (b) the sampling
procedures, (c) instrumentation, (d) data collection procedures, (e) statistical analysis of
the data, and (f) the summary.

Purpose and Population

In an attempt to determine if A Nation at Rig has made a significant difference
and the extent to which the reforms suggested by this document have been implemented,
a survey developed by the author was distributed to local districts within the State of
Michigan.

To define the population, all district superintendents (n=530) were requested to
complete the survey. The initial mailing resulted in a return rate of approximately 45%.
Follow-up inquires and mailed/personal communications resulted in obtaining responses
by approximately 55% of the local districts.

The survey attempted to assess the extent to which the various proposals had been
implemented and to determine the relationship of district size, district per-pupil funding,
and rural/urban setting to reform implementation. Finally, the survey attempted to assess
the districts’ perceptions relative to the effect of the reforms upon the quality of the local
district programming.

The survey was developed to assess individual district plans for each of the

following A Nation at Risk recommendations: (a) increased graduation requirements in

60

61

math, (b) increased graduation requirements in science, (c) increased graduation
requirements in English, (d) increased graduation requirements in social studies, (e)
increased graduation requirements in computer science, (f) increased graduation
requirements in foreign languages, (g) successful performance on competency test(s)
required for diploma, (h) attendance policies resulting in higher expectations for
attendance, (i) lengthened school day, (i) lengthened school year, (k) competitive salary
increases for teachers, (1) expanded contractual year and/or summer contracts for
inservice, (m) adequate per—pupil allocations obtained, (n) “master teacher” program
adopted in district, (0) non-certified “experts” employed to teach in science/technical
areas, (p) alternative education programs implemented for gifted/remedial students, and

(q) career-ladder program developed for teachers.

62

SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT SURVEY

E E'D"|l[ I'

Name oi District

Title oi Administrator Responding
! oi Students in District
|994.95 Per/Pupil Allocation
Type oi District (urban, suburban, rural)

t of Math credits required for graduation

s of English credits required for graduation

l of Science credits required ior graduation

t at Social Studies credits required for graduation

I of Foreign Language credits required for graduation

Ten years ago. A Nation at Risk recommended school improvements in curriculum. standards. teacher

preparation, and expectations for students. For each oi the proposed improvements. please circle one of
the following codes to indicate what your district did regarding the recommended reform.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0 . Neither planned for nor implemented
1 :- Planned ior but not implemented

2 a Planned for and implemented partially
3 a Planned ior and implemented fully

increased graduation requirements in Math

increased graduation requirements in Science

increased graduation requirements in English

Increased graduation requirements in Social Studies

increased graduation requirements in Computer Science

increased graduation requirements in Foreign Languages

Successful performance on competency test(s) required to r diploma
Attendance policies resulting in higher expectations to r attendance
Lengthened school day

Lengthened school year

Competitive salary increases for teachers

Expanded contractual year and/or summer contracts to r inservice
Adequate per-pupil allocations obtained

'Master Teacher" program adopted in your district

Non-certified " e xp e rts" employed to teach in science/technical areas.
Alternative education programs implemented i or giited/remedial students
Career-Ladder program developed ior teacher

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
d—b—L-L—Ld-A-A-Ld—L-b-A-A-l—b-L
NMMNMMMNMMNNNNMNN

"graduation requirements increased in any of the subjects listed below,
please state O of credits increased:

Math

Science

English

Social Science

Computer Science

Foreign Languages __

it increased school day. state O of minutes increased
it increased school year, state 0 oi days increased

UQQGQUQQQUQQQGQQO

63

WSW

For each improvement listed in Part Two WHICH WAS BOTH PLANNED FOR AND lMPLEMENTED, please rate the
effectiveness in improving quality in your district. Use 0, 1. 2 , 3, or NA to rate each improvement.

0 a No impact 1 a Minor impact 2 2 Moderate impact 3 2 Significant impact NA :- Not Applicable

PLAMED AND WLENENTED mom EFECTNBIESS lN M’ROVING OUAIJ‘IY
Increased graduation requirements in Math 0 1 2 3 NA
increased graduation requirements in Science 0 1 2 3 NA
Increased graduation requirements in English 0 1 2 3 NA
Increased graduation requirements in Social Studies 0 1 2 3 NA
increased graduation requirements In Computer Science 0 1 2 3 NA
Increased graduation requirements In Foreign Languages 0 1 2 3 NA
Successful performance on competency test(s) required 0 1 2 3 NA
. Attendance policies resulting in higher expectations 1 or attendance 0 1 2 3 NA
Lengthened school day 0 1 2 3 NA
Lengthened school year 0 1 2 3 NA
Competitive salary Increases fo r teachers 0 1 2 3 NA
Expanded contractual year and/or summer to r inservice O 1 2 3 NA
Adequate per-pupil allocations obtained 0 1 2 3 NA
“Master Teacher' program adopted in your district 0 1 2 3 NA
Non-certified ‘exp e rts' employed to teach in science/technical areas. 0 1 2 3 NA
Alternative education programs for gifted/remedial students 0 1 2 3 NA
Career-Ladder program developed fo r teacher 0 1 2 3 NA

WWII.

For each item PLANNED FOR BUT NOT iMPLEMENTED in Part two, state reason by circling C, F, S or NA.
C - Contractual reasons F s financial reasons 3 a Support lacking NA :- Not applicable
PLANNED iMPROVEMENTS NOT IMPLEMENTED REASGI INOT lMPLEMENTED

Increased graduation requirements In Math

Increased graduation requirements in Science

increased graduation requirements in English

Increased graduation requirements in Social Studies

Increased graduation requirements in Computer Science

increased graduation requirements in Foreign Langmes

Successful performance on competency test(s) required

Attendance policies resulting in higher expectations for student attendance
Lengthened school day

Lengthened school year

Competitive salary increases for teachers

Expanded contractual year and/or summer contracts to r inservice
Adequate per-pupil allocations obtained

'Mester Teacher’ program adopted in your district

Non-certified 'e xp e rts' employed to teach in science/technical areas.
Alternative education programs implemented to r gifted/remedial students
Career-Ladder program developed to r teacher

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
mmmmmmmmmmmm'flm'fl'flm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§E

Thank you for your support. Please return to Michael Shibler, Superintendent, Rockford Public
Schools. 350 N. Main Street, Rockford, MI. 49341

64

Responding districts were categorized as follows:

1. District size:

a) Large district: above median of 1,900 students
b) Small district: below median of 1,900 students
2. Per-Pupil Funding:
a) Below median of $4,919 per student spending
b) Above median of $4,919 per student spending
3. District Type:
a) Rural
b) Suburban
c) Urban
Instrumentation and Statisticgl Anglvsis

The survey (see page 62) was developed by the author and piloted in several local
districts, two graduate research classes, and at a meeting of the Kent Intermediate School
District superintendents.

Part 1 of the survey requests information about the local district including: (a)
district name; (b) number of students within the district; (c) 1994-95 per-pupil spending;
(d) self report of district type; and (e) number of math, English, science, social studies,
and foreign language credits required for graduation.

Part 2 of the survey requests respondents to indicate the extent to which planned
improvements in curriculum, standards, teacher preparation, and expectations for students

have been implemented.

65

Part 3 requests that respondents rate the perceived impact of each of the
improvements which had been implemented within the local district; and Part 4 requests
information about reasons for non-implementation of planned for, but not implemented,
reforms.

Survey responses were received from 178 rural, 93 suburban, and 20 urban
districts and Chi Square analysis was performed to test the following hypotheses:

1. There is a significant relationship between per-pupil funding and the extent to
which reforms suggested in A N gtion gt Risk have been implemented.

2. There is a significant relationship between district size and the extent to which
reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented.

3. There is a significant relationship between district rural/urban status and the
extent to which reforms suggested in A N flmt Risk have been implemented.

4. School superintendents’ evaluations of the impact of reforms will be related to
school size, school finances, and the rural/urban nature of the district.

Summary

This chapter describes the methods, materials, and procedures used to conduct a
study of the extent to which reforms proposed by A Nation at Risk have been
implemented in State of Michigan schools.

The survey was mailed to all local districts throughout the State. The results of

the survey are presented in Chapter 4.

Qigpter 4. Findings

The presentation of the findings of this investigation will be discussed with
respect to each of the major questions and hypotheses of the study. Specifically, the
organization of the findings will be reported as follows:

1. Descriptive statistics summarizing the responses for the State of
Michigan public school districts relative to A Nation at Risk recommendations.

2. Overall district response to the questions concerning planned
improvements around A Nation at Risk recommendations.

3. Similarities and differences, if any, between responses of districts when
analyzed by district type, district size, and district per-pupil spending based upon a
Chi Square analysis.

Because of the large number of analyses conducted, this chapter will summarize
findings and significant differences. The final portion of this chapter will provide a

general summary of the various responses and additional supporting data.

66

67

 

 

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Selected Survey Responses (N=291)
flandard
Mean Deviation Median Range
Credits required for graduation:
Math 2.2663 0.558168 2 3
English 3.71196 0.942628 4 10
Science 2.2135 0.526792 2 5
Social Studies 2.96182 0.805658 3 7
Foreign Language 0.269874 0.652542 0 4
Number of credits increased if
graduation requirements increased:
Math 0.932515 0.528553 1 5
Science 0.946309 0.612761 1 4
English 0.780488 0.647018 1 3.5
Social Studies 0.753788 0.561134 1 3
Computer Science 0.661538 0.314278 0.5 2
Foreign Language 0.398876 0.649212 0 2
If increased SChOOl day, number of 16.5872 19.4228 10 60
minutes increased
If increased school year, number of 130233 1.53446 1 9
days increased

 

 

The median district size is 1,900 students with a range of 170,926 students. The
median per-pupil expenditure is $4,919 per student with a range of $6,400 from the
lowest to highest spending district.

Survey responses, as depicted in Table 3, reflect a sizable range in credits required
for graduation in all content areas. Across districts, English requirements are most
diverse.

The increase in credits required for graduation was similar for most districts with

a slightly greater range reported for math and science.

68

Finally, as depicted in Table 3, districts reported a median increase in minutes per
day of instruction equal to ten minutes and a median number of days added to the school
year of one.

Figure 1 provides a summary of the number of districts responding from the rural,

urban, and suburban settings.

 

Rural

 

 

Suburban
93

 

 

 

Figure 1. Percentage and Types of Districts Responding

As portrayed, 61% of responding districts represented the rural setting, 32% the

suburban setting, and only 7% represent an urban setting.

 

69

 

A NATION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
State and local graduation requirements be strengthened
to a minimum of three (3) years of mathematics

 

Miattliemgtics Implemerfltion

Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5 provide a summary of the responding district data relative to
the question of the A Nation at Risk recommendation concerning strengthened
mathematics requirements. As depicted, the majority of the districts have two credits
required for high school graduation, and 122 districts have increased graduation
requirements by one credit. Figure 4 summarizes the perceived impact of the math
improvement with the majority of the districts reporting a moderate impact. In response
to the question about reason for non-implementation of planned improvement in the math
requirement, 19 responses indicated problems with support, and 11 responses indicated

that there were financial reasons for non-implementation.

 

 

 

 

250
212
200
a
C
E 150
C
3
g 100
.5
so
0

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. Math Credits Required for Graduation

 

70

 

 

Districts Reporting

140

 

 

 

 

Figure 3. Plans for Increased Math Requirements

 

 

Districts Reporting

80

60

4O

20

 

 

20"

 

 

Figure 4. Effectiveness of Math Improvements

 

 

 

 

71

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Math Improvements

 

 

A NA TION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
State and local graduation requirements be strengthened
to a minimum of four (4) years of English

 

English Implementation

Figures 6, 7, 8, and 9 provide a summary of the responding district data relative to
the question of the A Nation at Risk recommendation concerning strengthened English
requirements. As depicted, the majority of responding districts have planned increases of
one credit required for high school graduation. Figure 8 summarizes the perceived
impact of the English improvement with 76 districts reporting a moderate impact and 20
districts reporting a significant impact. In response to the question about reason for non-

implementation of planned improvement in the English requirement, lack of support or

 

72

financial reasons were cited as the reasons for non-implementation of the planned English

improvement.

 

 

160

140

120

100

80

60‘

Districts Reporting

40

20

 

 

 

Credits

 

 

 

Figure 6. English Credits Required for Graduation

 

 

80

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 7. Plans for Increased English Requirements

73

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

100
76 '
80 71
U)
.C
E
8 so
0
a:
g 40
'o 17 20' '
20 10
0
c} o‘ 6‘ \°
to e e c o
\6‘9 .\¢9 «‘9 \6‘Q 6“?
9° «9‘ 0‘ “K 0"
‘8‘ e‘ 03$? e9
‘3‘ 9‘9
Figure 8. Effectiveness of English Improvements
0
C
‘E
8
O
a:
ii
5
o

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 9. Reasons for Non-Implementation of English Improvements

 

 

 

74

 

A NATION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
State and local graduation requirements be strengthened
to a minimum of three (3) years of science

 

Science Implementation

Figures 10, 11, 12, and 13 provide a summary of the responding district data
relative to the question of the A NaLtion at Risk recommendation concerning strengthened
science requirements. As depicted in Figure 10, 220 districts have two credits required
for graduation in science. Figure 11 shows that 109 districts have plans for one additional
credit in science, and Figure 12 depicts that 85 districts report a moderate impact
concerning the effectiveness of planned science improvements. In response to the
question about reason for non-implementation of planned improvement in the science
requirement, 18 districts report the reason for non-implementation being the lack of

support, and 12 districts cite lack of financial resources.

 

 

250

220

200

150

100

Districts Reporting

50

 

 

 

Credits

 

 

 

Figure 10. Science Credits Required for Graduation

 

75

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

u
.C
E
8
G
a:
E
Figure l 1. Plans for Increased Science Requirements
100
85
80
a
C
"E
a so 50
0
m , ,
g 36
1: 40
E
D 19
20 10
0
r} o c} 0‘ \°
@Qo «Q0 (go . Q0 ‘62?
\ "\ \ \\ Q\
‘30 _¢o *0 90 .09
‘8‘ obs ~80 60‘
‘3‘ g0

 

Figure 12. Effectiveness of Science Improvements

 

 

76

 

 

100 90

80

60

40

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

‘5 \0 . Q
0 '0 0
a" (as as
8‘0 $9 (\
.\ \
<66? To 9°°Q°

 

 

 

Figure 13. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Science Improvements

 

A NA TION ATRISK RECOMMENDATION:
State and local graduation requirements be strengthened
to a minimum of three (3) years of social studies

 

Social Studies Implementation

Figures 14, 15, 16, and 17 summarize the responding district data relative to the
question of the A Nation at Risk recommendation concerning strengthened social studies
requirements. As depicted in Figure 14, the majority of the districts have three credits
required for high school graduation; and 70 districts have planned for increased
graduation requirements by one credit. Figure 16 summarizes the perceived impact of the
social studies improvement with the majority of the districts reporting a moderate impact.

In response to the question about reason for non-implementation of planned improvement

 

77

in the social studies requirement, financial reasons and lack of support were reported as

the reasons for non-implementation of the social studies improvements.

 

 

 

 

 

200
150
g 100
50
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 6 7 8
Credits

 

 

 

Figure 14. Social Studies Credits Required for Graduation

 

 

80

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 15. Plans for Increased Social Studies Requirements

78

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 00
7 7 8
80
.9 60
E
8 60
o
c:
g 40
. 23
D 2 1
20 1 1
0
0‘ 0‘ c} 0‘ \°
9 o c o 0
SQ .59 ea \6‘9 -\\<?
3° ~s°‘ «0 @8 JRQ
é . 05$ 9°
'0‘

 

Figure 16. Effectiveness of Social Studies Improvements

 

 

 

.A A
O N
o 0

co
0

Districts Reporting
18 01
O O

N
O

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 17. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Social Studies Improvements

 

 

79

 

 

A NA TION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
State and local graduation requirements be strengthened to a
minimum of two (2) years of foreign language for college-bound students

 

Foreigp Langpage Implementation

Figures 18, 19, 20, and 21 provide a summary of the responding district data
relative to the question of the A Nation at Risk recommendation concerning strengthened
foreign language requirements. As depicted in Figure 18, 195 districts have no
graduation credits in foreign language for high school graduation, and Figure 19 depicts
that only a few districts have plans for increased graduation requirements in foreign
language. Figure 20 shows that few districts perceive a significant and/or moderate
impact from the planned foreign language improvement. Figure 21 depicts lack of
support and financial reasons as the reasons for non-implementation of the planned

improvements in foreign language.

 

 

250

200’

150

100

Districts Reporting

50

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 18. Foreign Language Credits Required for Graduation

 

80

 

 

 

70

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

Figure 19. Plans for Increased Foreign Language Requirements

 

 

 

 

 

120

100

.........................

.........................

 

 

 

 

Figure 20. Effectiveness of Foreign Language Improvements

 

 

 

81

 

 

100

.77..
80

Districts Reporting
(4)
to

 

 

 

 

a“
O
\‘b

(s
9°qu

0 6°
99° at?
\ 9°
to to

‘go‘

 

 

 

Figure 21. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Foreign Language Improvements

 

A NA TION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
State and local graduation requirements be strengthened
to a minimum of one-half (1/2) year of computer science

 

 

Computer Science Implementation

Figure 22, 23, and 24 summarize the responding district data relative to the
question of the A Nation at Risk recommendation concerning strengthened computer
science requirements. Because most districts have no current computer science
requirement, the question of current graduation requirements in computer science have
not been reported. As depicted in Figure 22, 122 districts have reported plans for an
increased computer science requirement, with 188 districts reporting moderate or

significant impact from the planned computer science requirement (see Figure 23).

82

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

140

_a
N
O

_a
O
O

a
O

0’
O

a
O

20

 

 

 

Credits

 

Figure 22. Plans for Increased Computer Science Requirements

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

120

100
79 '

on
O

01
O

A
O

.23

 

N

O
.2
O

 

 

 

 

Figure 23. Effectiveness of Computer Science Improvements

 

 

83

 

 

Districts Reporflng

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 24. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Computer Science Improvements

Increased Graduation Requirements

Figure 25 reports a summary of plans from all reporting districts relative to

increased graduation requirements in math, science, English, social studies, computer

science, and foreign language.

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

Math Science English Soc Sludes Com: Science Foreiw- Lang
INenher planned for nor implemented DPIanr-ed ior but not Implemented
UPlanned ior l ' ' UPlanned ior 8

 

 

 

 

Figure 25. Plans for Increased Graduation Requirements

 

84

 

A NATION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
Standardized tests of achievement (not to be confused with aptitude tests)
should be administered at major transition points.

 

 

Strengthening Testing Requirements

Figure 26, 27, and 28 depict the responding district data relative to the question of
the A Nation at Risk recommendation concerning strengthened testing requirements. As
depicted, the majority of the districts have no plans for a competency test requirement for
graduation. Figure 27 portrays a majority of the districts reported that implementation of
the competency testing recommendation would have a perceived impact from this
recommendation. Figure 28 reports that the majority of districts failing to implement a
competency testing requirement cite lack of support as the reason for non-

implementation.

 

 

180 , 155
160
140
120 I , rrrrrrrr

1oo , - » » 77777
so I
so I 37 - , . -39
4o

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 26. Plans for Competency Test Requirement for Graduation

85

 

 

 

 

 

100
80 '
80
u
,c
§ 60
d:° 41
g 40 27 31
O 18
20
0
0‘ o‘ ‘ \0
e e e c
9 o" \0 0‘ 99°
49° 9° “

 

 

 

Figure 27. Effectiveness of Adding Competency Test Requirement for Graduation

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 28. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Competency Test Requirement

 

86

 

A NATION ATRISK RECOMMENDATION:
Attendance policies with clear incentives and sanctions
should be used to reduce the amount of time lost
through student absenteeism and tardiness.

 

Attendance Policy Implementation

Figure 29, 30, and 31 report the responding district data relative to the question of
the A Nation at Risk recommendation concerning implementation of attendance policies
with clear incentives and sanctions which would result in reduced lost time through
absenteeism and tardiness. As shown in Figure 29, 172 districts planned for and
implemented fully a policy on attendance. The data in Figure 30 indicates that most
districts view these policy changes as having a moderate or significant impact upon
school quality. Figure 31 shows that very few districts cited reasons for non-

implementation of improvements in attendance policies.

 

 

20° 172

150

100

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 29. Plans for Increased Attendance Expectations

 

87

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 OO
76

80
U 64
E
8 60
:13
a 37 38

40
g 2.

20

0
0‘ c} (1 \°
0 o e 0
s" 06‘" s9 ‘69 s?
9° 0 \° 0 QQQ
4‘ «P «5? x
s of?

 

 

Figure 30. Effectiveness of Improved Attendance Policy on School Quality

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 31. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Attendance Policy Improvement

 

88

 

 

A NATION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
School districts and State legislatures should strongly consider
seven-hour days, as well as a 200- to 220-day school year.

 

Lengthening School Day and/or School Year Implementation

Figures 32, 33, and 34 report respondent data relative to the A Nation at Risk
recommendation on lengthened school day and/or school year. The data in Figure 32
show that the majority of districts neither planned for nor implemented plans for
lengthened days or years; and only 59 districts within the State added instructional time to
the school day. Not surprisingly, Figure 33 shows little perceived impact from
implementation of this recommendation and Figure 34 reports that contractual reasons
were the most-often cited reason for non—implementation of lengthened school day/year

policies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

250
, ‘ ’ ’ '18'9 """""""""""""
2' 200 ‘8‘
g 150 I
g 100 i
50
O
\o‘
0995’
0“ '3
o‘.¢9
ea“ 0“
Q
IDa DYear

 

 

 

Figure 32. Plans for Lengthened School Day/ Year

 

89

 

 

 

120 i

100

80

........................

 

Districts Reporting
8

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 33. Effectiveness of Lengthened School Day/Y ear on School Quality

 

 

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

-Da [3er

 

Figure 34. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Lengthened School Day/Y ear

 

 

90

 

A NA TION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
Salaries for the teaching profession should be increased and
should be professionally competitive.
School boards should adopt an eleven-month contract for teachers.

 

 

Mulememtion of m Incre§e3__ and Expanded Contgwt Yea_r

Figures 35, 36, 37, and 38 depict district data relative to the A Nationéat Risk
recommendation on competitive salary increases and expanded contract year for teachers.
Figure 35 shows that a significant number of districts did not plan for increased salary
benefits nor lengthened contracts for teachers. Figure 35 also reports that 92 districts
implemented plans for competitive salary increases, and 47 districts implemented plans
for an expanded contract year for teachers. Figure 36 summarizes the data on the
perceived effectiveness of salary and contract improvements on school quality. Figures
37 and 38 depict the lack of financial resources as the most-often cited reason for non-

implementation of these A Nation at Risk recommendations.

 

 

160 - - ‘47 . .........................

14o ' 123 _________________________
120 .........................

Districts Reporting
at
O

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[-Salary ClContract]

 

 

 

Figure 35. Plans for Competitive Salary Increases and Expanded Contract Year for Teachers

91

 

 

 

 

 

120
100 92
a ..........................
‘5 so 65
g . ------------------------
a, .
lg 60 46 46 46 41
1% 4o '
5 23 _ .23. . . . _ .24. .
2° 10
0
c} o‘ c} 0‘ \°
<2" <2" , 9” Q” .67?
4° \6‘ 4° \ \\
° 0‘ \9 0‘ §Q
\5 \° «9 3S? x
“‘ 06" s‘ e°
‘3‘ 9‘9
ISala DContract

 

 

 

Figure 36. Effectiveness of Salary and Contract Improvements on School Quality

 

 

80 72

60

40

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 37. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Competitive Salary Increases

 

92

 

 

'6'7

Districts Reporting
8

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 38. Reasons for Non—Implementation of Summer Contracts for Teacher Inservice

 

A NATION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
Citizens across the nation hold educators and elective officials responsible
for providing the leadership necessary to achieve reforms, and citizens
provide the fiscal support and stability required to bring about the reforms.

 

 

Implementation of Per-Pupil Allocation of Financial Resources

Figures 39, 40, and 41 report respondent data relative to the A Nation at Risk
recommendation on increasing per-pupil allocation of financial resources. Figure 39
shows that only 44 of the 294 districts planned for and implemented per-pupil allocation
increases, and 133 districts planned for increases but were unable to implement these
plans. The data in Figure 40 shows no clear consensus on the impact of these plans.
Figure 41 reports the obvious conclusion that most districts were unable to implement

improvement plans in this area due to financial reasons.

93

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 39. Plans for Adequate Per-Pupil Allocations

 

 

 

 

 

so ................... . .
7o 65
so ........
2'
E so , .42
'1 40 I .31 , , , 32
g 30 ' 23
‘o
20
10
o
6‘ c.‘ c} o
49° «9° - 30‘} s30 so?
\ ‘ \ ‘\ Q
9° (9 ° {,0 99
xx“ 05° (é 9°.L
x1: 9‘9

 

 

 

Figure 40. Effectiveness of Per-Pupil Allocation Increases on School Quality

 

94

 

 

80 ,
65
7° ,‘ ' ' 59

60
50
40

3°]. ., . "19

Districts Reporting

20

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 41. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Improvement in Per-Pupil Allocations

 

A NATION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
Master teachers should be involved in designing
teacher preparation programs and in supervising teachers
during their probationary years.

 

 

Findings on Implementation of Improvement Plans

Figures 42, 43, and 44 summarize district responses relative to the
recommendations concerning the implementation of a master teacher program. As
depicted, most districts were unable to implement improvement plans in this area
recommendation on master teacher programs. The data in Figure 42 show that most
districts neither planned for nor implemented plans for a master teacher program.

Likewise, Figure 43 depicts very little perceived impact of a master teacher program.

95

Figure 44 attributes lack of support as the primary reason that most districts were unable

to implement improvement plans for this recommendation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

250
.199 ..........................
200
9 .......................
g ..
m .......................
g 100
........... 42-----------
50 25 21
0
K
(9&6 (031.6 go: s 06%“
61b°\°6‘ 0;; 6‘ Q9 ¢°¢\ob
V‘ oé 99‘ 4“
Figure 42. Plans for Master Teacher Program
120 110
,l ----------------------
100
E so
i 6,,
.3 .......................
g 40 31
‘ ' a. """ 1 8 """"
20 8
o a
O
0...»: g as 9,...» of
_ x
e “$9 «if $9
‘39

 

 

 

Figure 43. Effectiveness of Master Teacher Program on School Quality

 

96

 

 

 

 

 

 

80
66

70
G 60
'5

50
§ 38
E 40 , ,

26

- 30
g .

20 . ‘10' .

10

0
9 ‘3 \0 .99
6° . ()9
\\°° \‘o‘b 9Q“ 9\9
Q)? Cs}? 0‘? QQO
0° 1“
C)

 

 

 

Figure 44. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Master Teacher Program

 

A NA TION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
Substantial non-school personnel resources should be
employed to help solve the immediate problem of the

shortage of mathematics and science teachers.

 

Findings on Utilization of Non-School Personnel

Figures 45, 46, and 47 report survey responses to the question about the use of
non-school personnel to help solve the immediate problem of the shortage of mathematics
and science teachers. Figure 45 reveals that almost all of the districts responding to the
survey have no plans for the use of non-certified “experts”. Figure 46 reveals that of that
small minority of districts planning for the use of non-certified “experts”, no impact is
predicted. Because of the small number of districts reporting plans in this area, Figure 47

data for reasons of non-implementation is of limited value.

 

97

 

 

 

 

 

 

300 266 _______________________
250 ' i _______________________
E 200 , _______________________
150 i _______________________
g 100 *1 _______________________
50 ’ i 13 5 4
_ —
0
it, is
3‘2“? éx§°b flay c°fgx§§
o
fifééé‘ 43:6? 8‘ °°Qo ff$
V‘ (d (‘0‘ f \
\69

 

 

 

Figure 45. Plans for Use of Non-Certified “Experts” to Teach in Science/Technical Areas

 

 

 

 

 

 

140 ....................... 127
120i _______________________
g 100 _______________________
w?
a .......................
g 60’ _______________________
5 40 33 __________________
20’ 5
_ -
O
a a a 99
fat 0°" fr“ $99
‘3‘ 9‘9

 

 

 

Figure 46. Effectiveness of Use of Non-Certified “Experts” on School Quality

98

 

 

100
776 ,
80
60

40 28

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

006‘
\S‘
“’64.
a

 

 

 

Figure 47. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Use of Non-Certified “Experts”

 

 

A NA TION ATRISK RECOMMENDATION:
Additional time should be found to meet the special needs of slow learners,
the gifted, and others who need more instructional diversity.

 

Implementation of Plans to Meet Student Needs for Instructional Diversity

Figures 48, 49, and 50 portray district responses to the A Nation at Risk
recommendations on alternative programming for slow learners, gifted learners, and other
learners needing remediation enrichment and/or acceleration. As summarized in Figure
48, the majority of districts implemented, partially or fully, programs for the gifted and/or
remedial students. Figure 49 reveals that most districts perceived that these programs had

a moderate or significant impact. As was true for most other recommendations, Figure 50

 

99

depicts financial and/or lack of support for districts’ inability to implement programs in

this area.

 

 

.A
h
0

,,,,, '118"'

.e
N
O

.5
o
O

68

a)
O

0’)
O

Districts Reporting
b
O

 

N
O

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 48. Plans for Alternative Education Program for Gifted and/or Remedial Students

 

 

 

 

 

 

100
, , .75. ,,,,,,,

30
a ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
C
E 60

49
g _ . 47
"’ 34
g 40
E
o ,
15
20
0
0‘ Ci 0‘ \°
0 e .0
0&9 «‘6‘ 59$ '0‘0 <3“?
V‘ -\o° ‘0‘ do“ \‘9
\‘ 06° 6% 60
\i‘ :39

 

 

 

Figure 49. Effectiveness of Alternative Education Program on School Quality

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

80 72
D) 60
C
'E
a ,,,,,,,
o
E 40
- 24
C
,5 ,,,,,,, , ,
E 15

20

0
9°09 9° a (960 ($9
0 '0 ‘\\ 9°
‘0 ‘0 Q \
\ _ \ Q 9
0" do 0‘0 Qo
C} - 90 9‘. (9‘9
os‘ «9
O

 

 

 

Figure 50. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Alternative Education Program

 

A NATION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
School boards, administrators, and teachers should cooperate to
develop career ladders for teachers that distinguish among the
beginning instructor, the experienced teacher, and the master teacher.

 

Implementation of Career Ladder Programs for Teachers

Figures 51, 52, and 53 report respondent data relative to the A Nation at Risk
recommendation on the establishment of career ladder programs for teachers. Figure 51
reports almost no interest on the part of districts for this recommendation. The data in
Figure 52 confirm that this recommendation is viewed as having little impact, and Figure
53 shows that lack of support is the most frequent reason for non-implementation of this

recommendation.

 

101

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

30° _ 259 ___________________________
250
200
150
100
50 14 a
— —
O
x & 1r 1’
o \105 \o“0&°b \o‘ééi °b\°"§$\
o
é‘é ‘§¢ Q9 $9 Q & Q 069
‘ x x o \
$0 (\0 0° \06‘ \69

 

Figure 51. Plans for Career Ladder Program for Teachers

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

140 127

.........................

120

........................

100

........................

80

60'L

 

...................

20' 5

 

 

 

Figure 52. Effectiveness of Career Ladder Program on School Quality

 

 

 

 

102

 

 

 

 

 

on
C
E ,
o 37
E 40
5 1's
0 20 12
0
9 ‘9 \0 . 9
90“ o ' c? 6‘50
‘0'” @ Q\‘ \0
9"} at} 32 £6
"(be .600 ‘3 (9"
o°° ‘6

 

 

 

Figure 53. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Career Ladder Program

 

A NATION AT RISK RECOMMENDATION:
Significantly more time should be devoted to learning the New Basics.
This will require more effective use of the existing school day,

a longer school day, or a lengthened school year.

 

 

Implementation of More Instructional Time

Figures 54, 55, and 56 report survey responses to the question about devoting
significantly more instructional time to the learning of the New Basics. Figure 54 depicts
the district responses to increased minutes added to the instructional day. Figure 55
summarizes the district reports of number of days added to the school year. Figure 56
summarizes the reported reasons for non-implementation of these recommendations for a
lengthened day and/or year, with contractual and financial reasons being the most

frequently-cited reasons for non-implementation.

103

 

 

50

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

0-04 5-9 10-14 15-19 20—24 30-34 35-39 40+
# of Minutes Increased

 

Figure 54. District Report of Number of Minutes Added to School Day

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

0 1 2 3 4 6 9
#otDayslncreased

 

Figure 55. District Report of Number of Days Added to School Year

 

 

104

 

 

 

 

DistrictsReporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

IDa CJYear

 

Figure 56. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Lengthened School Day/Year

 

105

Findings as Related to District Types

To test the hypothesis of differences in responses based upon district setting
(rural, suburban, or urban), enrollment, and/or per-pupil expenditures, Chi Square
analysis was conducted on all responses. Table 4 lists those survey items that produced
statistically significant responses based upon a .05 level of significance on the breakdown

variable of district type.

 

 

 

Table 4. Statistical Differences In Survey Response by District Type
Chi Square Probability

Survey Item Value Level

Reasons for non-implementation of

English improvements by district 28.24 0.00

type

Reasons for non-implementation of

social studies improvement by 23.20 0.03

district type

Plans for increased foreign

language requirements by district 23.79 0.02

type

Reasons for non-implementation of

computer science improvements by

district type 24.68 0.02

Effectiveness of lengthened school

day by district type 26.39 0.03

 

As depicted in Table 4, Chi Square analysis of the survey responses identified a
relationship between district type (rural, suburban, urban) and recommendations for
improvement in English, social studies, foreign language, computer sciences, and length
of school day. The same Chi Square analysis revealed no other relationships between
district type and implementation or planned implementation of A Nation at Risk

recommendations.

106

Findings as Related to Enrollment

Table 5 lists those survey items which produced statistically significant

differences on the variable of enrollment.

 

 

Table 5. Statistical Differences in Survey Response by Enrollment
Chi Square Probability

Survey item Value Level

Reasons for non-implementation of

master teacher program by 19.73 0.01

enrollment

Increased foreign language

requirements by enrollment 156.68 0.00

Increased computer science

requirements by enrollment 16.65 0.03

Plans for competency test

requirement by enrollment 27.63 0.00

Plans for competitive salary

increases by enrollment 19.28 0.01

Plans for use of non-certified

experts by enrollment 23.68 0.00

Number of minutes added to school

day by enrollment 175.67 0.00

Effectiveness of lengthened school

year by enrollment 18.34 0.05

Effectiveness of salary

improvements by enrollment 22.41 0.01

Effectiveness of use of non-certified

experts by enrollment 38.63 0.00

Effectiveness of alternative

education program by enrollment 23.78 0.01

 

 

In the Chi Square analysis of the relationship between enrollment and A Nation at

Risk recommendation plans and/or implementation, statistical significant differences

107

were found in the recommendations related to master teacher programs, foreign language
requirements, computer science requirements, competency testing requirements, salary
increases for certified staff, use of non-certified “experts,” length of school day, and
lengthened school year. Further Chi Square analysis revealed relationships between
school size and perceived effectiveness of lengthened school year, effectiveness of salary
increases for certified staff, effectiveness of plans to use non-certified “experts,” and the
impact of alternative education programs.
Findings as Related to Per-Pupil Spgnding

Table 6 lists those survey items that produced statistically significant differences

on the variable of per—pupil spending.

 

 

 

Table 6. Statistical Differences in Survey Response by Per-Pupil Spending
Chi Square Probability

Survey Item Value Level

Plans for competitive salary increases

by per-pupil revenue 49.08 0.00

Plans for adequate per-pupil

allocations by per-pupil revenue 34.53 0.00

Plans for master teacher program by

per-pupil revenue 23.30 0.03

Plans for use of non-certified experts

by per-pupil revenue 30.93 0.00

Number of minutes added to school

day by per-pupil revenue 139.86 0.00

 

As depicted in Table 6, Chi Square analysis revealed a significant relationship
between per-pupil spending and district plans for implementing recommendations for

competitive salary increases for certified staff, increased allocations for per-pupil

108

instructional expenditures, master teacher programs, and the use of non-certified
“experts.” Additionally, the Chi Square analysis revealed a significant relationship
between per-pupil funding and the increases in the number of minutes per day for

instruction.

Relationship of District Type. Per-Pupil Spending. and @rollment With “A Nation at
Risk” Recommendation Implementation

Figures 57-77 depict the results of the Chi Square analysis which portrayed
significant relationships between one or more of the breakdown variables (per-pupil
spending, district type, and/or enrollment) and implementation status and/or perceived

effectiveness of implemented program.

 

 

[-Rural DSuburban Dumanj

 

7O

................. 58.------..-..-.

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 57. Reasons for Non-Implementation of English Improvements by District Type

109

 

 

[laurel DSuburban DUrbanl

 

7O

60

DistrictsReporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 58. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Social Studies Improvements by District Type

Figure 59 summarizes the results of the Chi Square analysis of district type and

plans for increased foreign language requirements.

 

 

[-Rurgj DSuburbgLn Dumafl

 

120 .118 ............................

 

 

 

 

e e I f ,9 Q,
3;” 43""; fix f”

calmed?!
mam

 

 

 

Figure 59. Plans for Increased Foreign Language Requirements by District Type

110

A Chi Square value of 23.79 revealed a significant relationship between type and
plan for implemented increased English.
Figure 60 depicts the results of the analysis of enrollment (school size) and

foreign language.

 

 

Districts Reporting

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cndlfs

ILess than 1900 students

:21: Saw- '56-“ DMore than 1900 students

 

 

 

Figure 60. Increased Foreign Language Requirements by Enrollment

Chi Square analysis yielded a significant Chi Square value of 156.68, indicating a
significant relationship between school size and increased foreign language requirements
for graduation.

Figure 61 depicts the results of the analysis of enrollment (school size) and

computer science.

lll

 

 

70

 

 

 

 

 

Credits

ILess than 1900 students

ON Sen-16.66 DMore than 1900 students
not» coo

 

 

 

Figure 61. Increased Computer Science Requirements by Enrollment

Chi Square analysis yielded a significant Chi Square value of 16.65, indicating a
significant relationship between school size and increased computer science requirements
for graduation.

Figure 62 depicts the results of the statistical analysis of the survey results on

reasons for non-implementation of computer science requirements and district type.

 

 

[-Rural DSuburbaiDUrbanl

 

70

................. 59W

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 62. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Computer Science Improvements by District Type

112

The obtained Chi Square value of 24.68 revealed a significant relationship
between district type and reasons for non-implementation of this A N gtion flisk
recommendation.

Figures 63-67 portray the results of the Chi Square analyses of survey responses to
questions concerning competency testing requirements, competitive salary increases,

plans for adequate per-pupil allocations, and plans for a master teacher program.

 

Districts Reporting

Neither planned for
nor Implemented .

Planned for but

 

  

Planned for &
implemented partially

Planned for &
implemented fully

 

 

O 20 40 60 80 1 00

ILess than 1900 students

on 5“" 2753 DMore than 1900 students
Prob o

 

 

 

Figure 63. Plans for Competency Test Requirement by District Size

The obtained Chi Square value of 27.63 revealed a significant relationship
between district size and plans for competency testing. As shown, a significantly greater
proportion of larger districts planned for and implemented, fully or partially, competency

testing programs.

113

 

Districts Reporting

Neither planned for
nor implemented

 

Planned for but
not implemented

Planned for L
implemented partially

Planned for A
implemented fully

 

 

 

0 10 20 30 4O 50 60 70
IBelow Median of $4919

on 5.... 49.0! DAbove Median of $4919
Prob o

 

 

 

Figure 64. Plans for Competitive Salary Increases by Per—Pupil Revenue

The obtained Chi Square value of 49.08 revealed a significant relationship
between plans for implementing salary increases for certified staff and district —per-pupil
spending. A significantly larger proportion of below median per-pupil districts
implemented these salary increases partially, and a greater proportion of above median

per-pupil districts implemented this A Nation at Risk recommendation fully.

 

Districts Reporting

Neither planned for
nor implemented

Planned for but
not implemented

Planned for a.
implemented partially

Planned for 8-
implemented fully

 

 

 

O 10 20 30 40 50 60
-Below Median of $4919

our sq... 34.53 DAbove Median of $4919
m o

 

 

 

Figure 65. Plans for Adequate Per-Pupil Allocations by Per-Pupil Revenue

114

As seen in Figure 65, the Chi Square value of 34.53 indicated a statistically

significant relationship between per-pupil revenue and plans for improvements in per-

pupil allocations for instruction.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Districts Reporting
Neither planned for
nor lmpiernented .
Flamed for but ' ' ' I '
not implemented
Flamed for a
implemented partially
Flamed for 8
implemented filly
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
.8eiow Medan of $4919
ovum-23.30 CIAboveMedianof34919
macs

 

 

 

Figure 66. Plans for Master Teacher Program by Per-Pupil Revenue
Chi Square analysis of the relationship between per-pupil revenue and plans for
the implementation of a master teaching program yielded a Chi Square value of 23.30.

This analysis revealed a significant relationship between revenue and plans for program

 

 

 

 

 

implementation.
Districts Reporting i
Neither planned for
nor irnpiemented
Flamed for but ' ' ' ' I '
not implemented
Flamed for s
implemented partially
Pinned for 8-
implemented filly
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
IBeIow Medan of 34919
Pub 0

 

 

 

Figure 67. Plans for Use of Non—Certified “Experts” by Per-Pupil Revenue

115

As depicted in Figure 67, a Chi Square value of 30.93 revealed a significant
difference in plans for use of non-certified “experts” and district per-pupil revenue.
Figure 68 portrays the results of the analysis on the breakdown variant of per-

pupil revenue and implementation of plans to increase the minutes per day of instruction.

 

 

25

15*

10’

0mm

 

 

 

 

 

1
-
m s-e 10-14 “-19 ave-24 ma 3549 do»
I of Minutes Increased

-Below Median 0184919
Chi ngu. 139’” DAM MadIan 0' “9‘9

ProbO

 

 

 

Figure 68. Number of Minutes Added to School Day by Per-Pupil Revenue

As shown, district per-pupil funding did significantly relate to the number of
minutes increased.
Figures 69 and 70 depict results of the Chi Square analysis of the relationship

between district enrollment and plans for salary increases and use of “experts.”

116

 

Districts Reporting

Neither planned lor
nor implemented

 

Planned for but
not implemented

Planned for a
implemented partially

Planned for a
implemented fully

 

 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

ILess than 1900 students

c" M’ UMore than 1900 students
Plus 0.01

 

 

 

Figure 69. Plans for Competitive Salary Increases by Enrollment

A Chi Square value of 19.28 revealed a significant relationship between these two

variables.

 

Districts Reporting

Neither planned for
not implemented

 

Planned for but
not irnpiemented

Planned for r.
implemented partially

Planned for &
implemented fully

 

 

O 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

ILess than 1900 students

on 5 23.00 DMore than 1900 students
Pins 0

 

 

 

Figure 70. Plans for Use of Non-Certified “Experts“ by Enrollment

A Chi Square value of 23.68 indicated impact on plans for use of “experts" and

district enrollment.

117

Figure 71 portrays the results of the statistical analysis on improvements in length

of school day on the breakdown variable of district enrollment.

 

 

25

 

 

 

 

o-o‘ s-e ro-u rs-is sir-24 sees sees a»
I of Minutes Increased

ILess than 1900 students
on. Square 175 or DMore than 1900 students

ProbO

 

 

 

Figure 71. Number of Minutes Added to School Day by Enrollment

A Chi Square value of 175.67 revealed a significant relationship between
enrollment and the number of minutes per day added.
Figure 72 depicts the results of the analysis of perceived impact of lengthened

school year by enrollment type.

118

 

 

Moderate impact

Significant impact

 

Not applicable

 

 

 

f

O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

 

ILese than 1900 students

on 5",. “'3‘ DMore than 1900 students
moss

 

 

 

Figure 72. Effectiveness of Lengthened School Year by Enrollment

The obtained Chi Square value of 18.34 revealed a significant relationship.
Figures 73, 74, and 75 summarize the results of the Chi Square analysis on school
size and perceived effectiveness of improvements on salary improvements, use of

“experts,” and programs for gifted or remedial students.

119

 

Districts Reporting

No impact
Minor impact

Moderate impact

 

Significant impact

 

Not applicable

 

 

ILess than 1900 students

on sq". 22.“ DMore than 1900 students
m 0.01

 

 

 

Figure 73. Effectiveness of Salary Improvements by Enrollment

The obtained Chi Square value of 22.41 yielded a significant relationship between

school size and perceived effectiveness.

 

Districts Reporting

    

No impact

Minor impact

Moderate Impact

Significant impact

 

Not applicable

 

0 10 20 30 4O 50 60 70 80

-Les than 1900 students

c” s sass ClMore than 1900 students
Pmb o

 

 

 

Figure 74. Effectiveness of Use of Non-Certified “Experts” by Enrollment

120

The obtained Chi Square value of 36.63 yielded a significant relationship between

school size and perceived effectiveness.

 

Districts Reporting

No inpact

Minor impact

Moderate impact

 

 

Significant impact

Not applicable

 

 

0 10 20

-Less than 1900 students

m Sum 2115 EIMore than 1900 students
Prue om

 

 

 

Figure 75. Effectiveness of Alternative Education Program by Enrollment

The obtained Chi Square value of 23.78 yielded a significant relationship between

school size and perceived effectiveness.

Figure 76 summarizes the results of the statistical analysis on reasons for non-

implementation of a master teacher program and school size.

 

Districts Reporting

 

Contractual reasons

Financial reasons

Not applicable

  

 

Support lacking

-Less than 1900 students
DMore than 1900 students

CflSqr-e‘lfl'n
moor

 

 

 

 

Figure 76. Reasons for Non-Implementation of Master Teacher Program by Enrollment

121

The obtained Chi Square value of 19.73 showed significantly more large districts
citing contractual reasons and smaller districts citing financial reasons for non-
implementation of master teacher programs.

Figure 77 portrays the results of the statistical analysis on the relationship between

district type and perceived effectiveness of a lengthened school year.

 

 

[-Rural DSuburban Bunion l

 

 

..........................

Districtsi-‘teporting
88

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chi Square 26.39
Prob 0.03

 

 

 

Figure 77. Effectiveness of Lengthened School Day by District Type

The obtained Chi Square value of 26.39 revealed a significant relationship
between district type and the districts’ perceptions of the impact of a lengthened school
year.

Summgg
As indicated, most respondents attributed little to moderate impact in length of

school day, with rural districts citing more impact than either suburban or urban districts.

Chapter 5. Summa_ry, Findings, Integpretations,
Reflections, and Suggestions for Further Study

The purpose of this chapter is to present the conclusions of the study and suggest
implications for further research.

This chapter is organized into four sections. The first section contains a brief
summary of the purpose and procedures. In the second section, a brief review of the
findings relative to the hypotheses of the study are summarized. Section three reviews
interpretations and implications, summarizing the conclusions; and the fourth section
recommends suggestions for further study.

Mary of Purposes and Procedures

Since A Nation at Risk was published in 1983, virtually every state in the United
States has enacted legislation and adopted policies that state leaders believed would
address the issues identified in A N atiorgt Risk and improve quality in our nation’s
schools. By the end of the 19805:

1. Most states had introduced new standards for graduation.

2. Most states had adopted policies that increased the number of credits required
for graduation.

3. Most states had established procedures for special honors recognition.

4. Most states had adopted policies for advanced placement opportunities for high
school students.

Since 1983, documented progress has been highlighted in the findings from :11;
Condition of Education series published by the National Center for Education Statistics.
Among the documented changes:

122

123

1. High schoolers are taking more courses, particularly in academic areas.

2. Students are taking more difficult courses and a greater number of courses.

3. Students are learning more (according to NAEP results) in math and science.

4. Fewer high school students drop out of high school between tenth and twelfth
grade.

5. Students’ educational aspirations are increasing.

6. The percentage of students making the immediate transition from high school
to college continues to rise.

7. A greater percentage of students is enrolling in college.

Despite these apparent gains since the publication of A Nation at R455, much has
been written about states’ failures to implement necessary changes to substantially
improve the condition of education.

In an attempt to determine if A NaLion LRisk has made a significant difference in
the State of Michigan public schools, and to assess the extent to which the reforms
suggested by this national report have been implemented in Michigan, a survey developed
by the investigator was distributed to all local districts within the State. Approximately
55% of the local districts responded to the survey.

The survey assessed the extent to which the various proposals have been
implemented and determine the relationship of district size, district per-pupil funding, and
rural/urban setting to reform planning and implementation. Finally, the survey assessed
the districts’ perceptions relative to the effect of the reforms upon the quality of the local

district programming.

124

The survey was developed to assess individual district plans for each of the

following A Nation at Risk recommendations:

1.

2.

10.

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Increased graduation requirements in math.

Increased graduation requirements in science.

Increased graduation requirements in English.

Increased graduation requirements in social studies.

Increased graduation requirements in computer science.

Increased graduation requirements in foreign languages.

Successful performance on competency test(s) required for diploma.
Attendance policies resulting in higher expectations for attendance.
Lengthened school day.

Lengthened school year.

Competitive salary increases for teachers.

Expanded contractual year and/or summer contracts for inservice.
Adequate per-pupil allocations obtained.

“Master Teacher” program adopted in district.

Non-certified “experts” employed to teach in science/technical areas.
Alternative education programs implemented for gifted/remedial students.

Career ladder program developed for teachers.

Findings Relative to the Hypothesis

Survey responses were received from 178 rural, 93 suburban, and 20 urban

districts, and Chi Square analysis was performed to test the following hypotheses:

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1. There is a significant relationship between per-pupil funding and the extent to
which reforms suggested in A Nation gt Risk have been implemented.

2. There is a significant relationship between district size and the extent to which
reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented.

3. There is a significant relationship between district urban/rural status and the
extent to which reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented.

4. School superintendents’ evaluations of the impact of reforms will be related to
school size, school finances, and the rural/urban nature of the district.

Summary findings related to the four major hypotheses of the study are
summarized in Table 4 (see page 105), Table 5 (see page 106), and Table 6 (see page
107) in Chapter 4 of this dissertation.

Hypothesis 1: There is a significant relationship between per-pupil funding and
the extent to which reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented.

Chi Square analysis identified a relationship between per-pupil spending and
district plans for implementing recommendations for competitive salary increases for
certified staff, increased allocations for per-pupil instructional expenditures, master
teacher programs, and the use of non-certified “experts”. The statistical analysis revealed
a significant relationship between per-pupil funding and the increase in the number of
minutes per day for instruction. N 0 additional relationships between district size and
implementation or planned implementation of A Nation at Risk recommendations were

identified.

126

Hypothesis 2: There is a significant relationship between district size and the
extent to which reforms suggested in A Nation at Risk have been implemented.

Chi Square analysis identified a relationship between enrollment and
recommendations related to master teacher programs, foreign language requirements,
computer science requirements, competency testing requirements, salary increases for
certified staff, use of non-certified “experts”, length of school day, and lengthened school
year. The same Chi Square analysis revealed relationships between school size and
perceived effectiveness of lengthened school year, effectiveness of salary increases for
certified staff, effectiveness of plans to use non-certified “experts”, and the impact of
alternative education programs. No additional relationships between district size and
implementation or planned implementation of A Nation at Risk recommendations were
identified.

Hypotheses 3: There is a significant relationship between district rural/urban
status and the extent to which reforms suggested in A Nation a; Risk have been
implemented.

Chi Square analysis identified a relationship between district type (rural,
suburban, and urban) and recommendations for improvement in English, social studies,
foreign language, computer sciences, and length of school day. No additional
relationships between district type and implementation or planned implementation of A
Nation at Risk recommendations were identified.

Hypothesis 4: School superintendents’ evaluations of the impact of reforms will

be related to school size, school finances, and the rural/urban nature of the district.

127

Chi Square analysis revealed statistical significant differences relative to the
breakdown variable of school enrollment with respect to superintendent responses to the
effectiveness of lengthened school year, salary improvements, use of non-certified
“experts”, and alternative education program implementation. The same analysis
revealed significant differences relative to the breakdown variable of district type on
effectiveness of lengthened school day. No other statistical differences were identified in
superintendent responses based upon school size, school finances, and school district
type.

Considering the number of A Nation at Risk recommendations, very few
significant relationships were identified in the analysis of the relationships of district type,
per-pupil spending, and enrollment on respondent implementation, or plans to implement,
the various 1983 recommendations.

The survey results did identify some improvement across the State of Michigan in
implementing and/or planning to implement plans for increased math requirements,
increased English requirements, increased science requirements, increased social studies
requirements, increased computer science requirements, increased attendance
expectations, alternative education programs for gifted and/or remedial students, and
slight increases in number of minutes added to the school day and days added to the
school year. In the vast majority of cases, however, the research failed to support the

hypotheses relative to the impact of school size, school type, and per-pupil funding.

128

Interpretations and Implications

In the fourteen years since the A Nation at Risk report was published, there has
been much dialogue and debate about school improvement. At the same time, the State
of Michigan has undergone major change in school finance, State-mandated school
assessment practices, and school programming.

An analysis of the results from this study suggests the following interpretations
and implications.

1. There is a sizable range in credits required for a high school diploma in all
content areas. English requirements are the most diverse among the districts queried, but
very little consistency was discovered. If educators wish to standardize educational
output and produce students who have mastered the curriculum, more attention must be
given to make course requirements more consistent.

2. The post-A Nation at Risk increase in credits required for a high school
diploma is similar in most districts with a greater range reported for math and science.
Most educators agree that increased credits in designated content areas is important for
educational quality. As schools continue to increase required coursework, less
opportunity for elective coursework is possible.

3. Districts reported a median increase in minutes per day of instruction equal to
only ten minutes and a median number of days added to the school year of only one. If,
as it appears, additional time for instruction is not a realistic goal, districts must ensure

that all existing time is used in an efficient and effective manner.

129

4. One-hundred twenty two school districts have developed plans to increase
mathematics requirements for a high school diploma, with most districts reporting that
they believe this reform will have moderate to significant impact. If, in fact, districts do
implement plans for additional mathematics courses, colleges and universities will need
to consider mechanisms for attracting qualified teacher education candidates to this field.
Additionally, increased mathematics course requirements will have implications for all
other content areas and much curriculum work must be initiated soon.

5. The majority of school districts reported having plans to increase by one credit
the English requirement for a high school diploma, with approximately 65% of the school
districts anticipating a moderate impact. If districts do implement plans for additional
English courses, colleges and universities will need to consider mechanisms for attracting
qualified teacher education candidates to this field. As in the mathematics area, increased
English course requirements will have implications for all other content areas and
planned curriculum work must be initiated soon.

6. The majority of school districts reported having plans for one additional
science credit for a high school diploma, with most reporting districts expecting a
moderate impact. As was suggested for mathematics and English, colleges and
universities will need to consider mechanisms for attracting qualified candidates to this
field. Additionally, increased science course requirements will have implications for all
other content areas and planned curriculum work must be initiated.

7. A small majority of Michigan public school districts reported having plans for

increasing the social studies requirement for a high school diploma by one credit, with

130

less consensus on impact. With the addition of a social studies requirement for the High
School Proficiency Test, districts may want to consider both the scope and sequence of
the social studies curriculum.

8. Because few school districts (23) reported having plans to increase the foreign
language requirement for a high school diploma, it seems important for educators to
consider other mechanisms for preparing students for an increasingly complex and global
world. If foreign language courses are not expanded, other content areas must provide
instruction in foreign language and culture.

9. Almost all school districts reported having plans to increase the computer
science requirement for a high school diploma, with most districts reporting an
anticipated moderate to significant impact. If districts do implement plans for additional
computer courses, colleges and universities will need to consider mechanisms for
attracting qualified candidates to this field. Despite the recommendations of A Nation at
R_isk, much consideration should be given to integrating technology into all of the
instructional subject areas instead of creating additional computer and technology
coursework.

10. Despite A Nation at Risk recommendations to the contrary, the majority of

 

school districts reported having no plans to implement a competency testing requirement
for a high school diploma. Although most districts appear to lack support for this A

Nation at Risk recommendation, one must assume that the High School Proficiency Test

 

(HSPT) requirement which was added in recent years satisfies the same needs for

assessment as recommended by the Commission. If, however, the State maintains the

131

HSPT, major improvements in the scoring and reporting of this proficiency test must be
developed.

11. The majority of school districts have plans to implement an attendance
requirement (policy) with most districts reporting an expected moderate to significant
impact. As more and more students come from “non-traditional” homes, increased
attention must be devoted toward this A Nation at Risk recommendation. The custodial
function of schools, and the legislated responsibility of the schools for ensuring that
compulsory attendance laws are enforced, will continue to make development and
administration of attendance policies an ever-increasing challenge and important
responsibility.

12. Very few school districts planned for nor implemented a master teacher
program, although most respondents indicated support for this A Nation at Kg
recommendation. This researcher sees no serious problem with districts’ lack of support
for this A Ngtion at Riik recommendation. Although professionalism and professional
development must continue to be promoted, the establishment of a master teacher
classification seems unnecessary and somewhat arbitrary. As was true for the master
teacher program, very little interest from districts was reported for the development of a
career ladder for teachers and, at least in the view of this researcher, little impact will be

realized from our failure to support this A Nption L Risk recommendation.

 

13. Almost no school districts report having plans for employing non—certified
staff for instruction. Among those districts using non-certified “experts”, very little

impact was predicted. One of the true marks of a profession is its ability to deliver a

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unique function. The unique function for educators is the ability to teach students.
Districts’ lack of support for this recommendation is both understandable and justifiable.

14. The majority of school districts reported partial or full implementation of
planned programs for the gifted and talented. Most districts expected a moderate to
significant impact for these improvements. As program costs for special education
programs continue to rise, districts must identify funding sources for that equally-needy
population at the other end of the spectrum. The literature on ability and achievement
grouping documents evidence to support both homogeneous grouping and heterogeneous
grouping of students and the need for appropriate mechanisms for serving the needs of
the gifted student. Districts must find ways to finance, staff, and support programs for the
gifted and talented students of our schools.

In the analysis of the relationship between district type and program
improvements, significant differences were found in the following areas: (a) English
improvements; (b) social studies improvements; (c) foreign language improvements; ((1)
computer science program improvements; and (e) effectiveness of perceptions of the
length of the school day.

In analyzing the relationship between district size (student population) and
program improvements, significant improvements were found in the following: (a)
master teacher programs; (b) foreign language improvements; (c) computer science; ((1)
competency testing requirements; (e) salary increases; (i) use of non-certified “experts”;

and (g) length of school year.

133

Throughout the study, and almost unrelated to district type and/or district size,
most school districts reported that plans had been developed, but not implemented, for
many of the A NatiorLat Risk recommendations because of financial reasons.
Reflections

Of most significance to this investigator, is the finding that district size and/or
district finances were very little related to whether or not recommendations for change
were considered or implemented. Instead, it appears most probable that the single most
important variable in the entire school improvement process is the vision and leadership
skill of the administrative staff and, most specifically, the superintendent.

As one considers the findings of this study and reads the detailed responses from
the surveys from the districts, this investigator has a sense of pride for the profession and
for the State. Although many districts, for many reasons, have been unable to affect real
school change in the manner proposed by A Nation at Risk, much progress has been made
and many noble efforts have been advanced.

Many of us were alive during the Sputnik years when critics questioned our ability
to compete defensively with the rest of the world and during the 19608 when the book,
American Education, A National Failure was published. In 1983, A Nation at Risk
warned readers about the condition of American education and claimed that the schools
were about to destroy our ability to maintain our place in the world.

Recent reports on the condition of schools, such as Berlinger’s (1996) m
Manufactured Crisis, and Bracey’s book, Setting the Record Straight: Response to

Misconceptions About Public Education in the United States, provide much evidence that

134

charges of overall poor quality of our public schools are only a myth. As so appropriately
pointed out in the 1991 Sandea Report, perceptions of poor quality are unfounded and
most of our schools are doing a good job.

Educators shouldn’t ignore charges of incompetence or low quality against the
schools. In fact, some schools are not successfully teaching their students. But we must
keep in perspective the fact that published charges are not new. We’ve heard them for 50
years.

Public school programs do make a difference, and our reform efforts do matter. It
seems to this investigator that we must take pride in all the progress that has been made.
As professionals, we must continue to debate proposals for reform and we must be
steadfast in our efforts to obtain the resources necessary for improvement.

Above all, educators must heed the words of Gerald Bracey, who suggests that we
need not assume school failure to propose and implement school reform. We must strive
for improvements, and we must continually evaluate our efforts against high performance
standards.

Suggestions for Further Study

In view of the findings from this study, and because of recent and significant
changes in Michigan’s school finance laws and legislation, additional study is
recommended. Among the questions for further study are the following:

1. What has been the impact of Proposal A on Michigan education in general and

school improvement efforts recommended by A Nation at Risk in particular?

135

2. What has been the impact of blended count upon growing districts’ plans for
improvement?

3. How has the High School Proficiency Test (HSPT) affected district plans for
implementing competency testing programs as recommended by A Nation at Rigk?

4. What has been the impact of increased hours/days of instruction upon
achievement?

5. In those districts which have successfully implemented A Nation gt Risk
recommendations, have there been observable and documentable program improvement
and performance improvements?

Most importantly, and in light of the only slight relationship between school
district finances and district ability to implement improvement, major research into
essential leadership skills for school change is recommended.

In summary, despite the dialogue, this study has shown that many school districts,
for a variety of reasons, did not implement, or plan to implement, improvements

recommended by A Nation at Risk.

APPENDIX A

EXCERPT FROM A NATION AT RISK

 

Excerpt from A Nation at Risk
Recommendations

In light of the urgent need for improvement, both immediate and long term, this
Commission has agreed on a set of recommendations that the American people can begin
to act on now, that can be implemented over the next several years, and that promise
lasting reform. The topics are familiar; there is little mystery about what we believe must
be done. Many schools, districts, and States are already giving serious and constructive
attention to these matters, even though their plans may differ from our recommendations
in some details.

We wish to note that we refer to public, private, and parochial schools and
colleges alike. All are valuable national resources. Examples of actions similar to those
recommended below can be found in each of them. We must emphasize that the variety
of student aspirations, abilities, and preparation requires that appropriate content be
available to satisfy diverse needs. Attention must be directed to both the nature of the
content available and to the needs of particular learners. The most gifted students, for
example, may need a curriculum enriched and accelerated beyond even the needs of other
students of high ability. Similarly, educationally disadvantaged students may require
special curriculum materials, smaller classes, or individual tutoring to help them master
the material presented. Nevertheless, there remains a common expectation: We must
demand the best effort and performance from all students, whether they are gifted or less
able, affluent or disadvantaged, whether destined for college, the farm, or industry.

Our recommendations are based on the beliefs that everyone can learn, that
everyone is born with an urge to learn which can be nurtured, that a solid high school
education is within the reach of virtually all, and that life-long learning will equip people
with the skills required for new careers and for citizenship.

Recommendation A: Content

We recommend that State and local high school graduation requirements be
strengthened and that, at a minimum, all students seeking a diploma be required to lay
the foundations in the Five New Basics by taking the following curriculum during their 4
years of high school: ((1)4 years of English; (b) 3 years of mathematics; (c) 3 years of
science; (d) 3 years of social studies; and (e) one-half year of computer science. For the
college-bound, 2 years of foreign language in high school are strongly recommended in
addition to those taken earlier.

Whatever the student’s educational or work objectives, knowledge of the New
Basics is the foundation of success for the after-school years and, therefore, forms the
core of the modern curriculum. A high level of shared education in these Basics, together
with work in the fine and performing arts and foreign languages, constitutes the mind and
spirit of our culture. The following Implementing Recommendations are intended as

136

137

illustrative descriptions. They are included here to clarify what we mean by the essentials
of a strong curriculum.

Implementing Recommendations

1. The teaching of English in high school should equip graduates to: (a)
comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and use what they read; (b) write well-organized,
effective papers; (c) listen effectively and discuss ideas intelligently; and ((1) know our
literary heritage and how it enhances imagination and ethical understanding, and how it
relates to the customs, ideas, and values of today’s life and culture.

2. The teaching of mathematics in high school should equip graduates to: (a)
understand geometric and algebraic concepts; (b) understand elementary probability and
statistics; (c) apply mathematics in everyday situations; and ((1) estimate, approximate,
measure, and test the accuracy of their calculations. In addition to the traditional
sequence of studies available for college-bound students, new, equally demanding
mathematics curricula need to be developed for those who do not plan to continue their
formal education immediately.

3. The teaching of science in high school should provide graduates with an
introduction to: (a) the concepts, laws, and processes of the physical and biological
sciences; (b) the methods of scientific inquiry and reasoning; (c) the application of
scientific knowledge to everyday life; and (d) the social and environmental implications
of scientific and technological development. Science courses must be revised and
updated for both the college-bound and those not intending to go to college. An example
of such work is the American Chemical Society’s “Chemistry in the Community”
program.

4. The teaching of social studies in high school should be designed to: (a)
enable students to fix their places and possibilities within the larger social and cultural
structure; (b) understand the broad sweep of both ancient and contemporary ideas that
have shaped our world; and (c) understand the fundamentals of how our economic system
works and how our political system functions; and (d) grasp the difference between free
and repressive societies. An understanding of each of these areas is requisite to the
informed and committed exercise of citizenship in our free society.

5. The teaching of computer science in high school should equip graduates
to: (a) understand the computer as an information, computation, and communication
device; (b) use the computer in the study of the other Basics and for personal and work-
related purposes; and (c) understand the world of computers, electronics, and related
technologies.

In addition to the New Basics, other important curriculum matters must be
addressed.

138

6. Achieving proficiency in a foreign language ordinarily requires from 4 to
6 years of study and should, therefore, be started in the elementary grades. We believe it
is desirable that students achieve such proficiency because study of a foreign language
introduces students to non-English—speaking cultures, heightens awareness and
comprehension of one’s native tongue, and serves the Nation’s needs in commerce,
diplomacy, defense, and education.

7. The high school curriculum should also provide students with programs
requiring rigorous effort in subjects that advance students’ personal, educational, and
occupational goals, such as the fine and performing arts and vocational education. These
areas complement the New Basics, and they should demand the same level of
performance as the Basics.

8. The curriculum in the crucial eight grades leading to the high school years
should be specifically designed to provide a sound base for study in those and later years
in such areas as English language development and writing, computational and problem
solving skills, science, social studies, foreign language, and the arts. These years should
foster an enthusiasm for learning and the development of the individual’s gifts and
talents.

9. We encourage the continuation of efforts by groups such as the American
Chemical Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the
Modern Language Association, and the National Councils of Teachers of English and
Teachers of Mathematics, to revise, update, improve, and make available new and more
diverse curricular materials. We applaud the consortia of educators and scientific,
industrial, and scholarly societies that cooperate to improve the school curriculum.

Recommendation B: Standards and Exmctations

We recommend that schools, colleges, and universities adopt more rigorous and
measurable standards, and higher expectations, for academic performance and student
conduct, and that 4-year colleges and universities raise their requirements for admission.
This will help students do their best educationally with challenging materials in an
environment that supports learning and authentic accomplishment.

Implementing Recommendations

1. Grades should be indicators of academic achievement so they can be relied
on as evidence of a student’s readiness for further study.

2. Four-year colleges and universities should raise their admissions
requirements and advise all potential applicants of the standards for admission in terms of
specific courses required, performance in these areas, and levels of achievement on

139

standardized achievement tests in each of the five Basics and, where applicable, foreign
languages.

3. Standardized tests of achievement (not to be confused with aptitude tests)
should be administered at major transition points from one level of schooling to another
and particularly from high school to college or work. The purposes of these test would be
to: (a) certify the student’s credentials; (b) identify the need for remedial intervention;
and (c) identify the opportunity for advanced or accelerated work. The tests should be
administered as part of a nationwide (but not Federal) system of State and local
standardized tests. This system should include other diagnostic procedures that assist
teachers and students to evaluate student progress.

4. Textbooks and other tools of learning and teaching should be upgraded
and updated to assure more rigorous content. We call upon university scientists, scholars,
and members of professional societies, in collaboration with master teachers, to help in
this task, as they did in the post-Sputnik era. They should assist willing publishers in
developing the products or publish their own alternatives where there are persistent
inadequacies.

5. In considering textbooks for adoption, States and school districts should:
(a) evaluate texts and other materials on their ability to present rigorous and challenging
material clearly; and (b) require publishers to furnish evaluation data on the material’s
effectiveness.

6. Because no textbook in any subject can be geared to the needs of all
students, funds should be made available to support text development in “thin-market”
areas, such as those for disadvantaged students, the learning disabled, and the gifted and
talented.

7. To assure quality, all publishers should furnish evidence of the quality and
appropriateness of textbooks, based on results from field trials and credible evaluations.
In view of the enormous numbers and varieties of texts available, more widespread
consumer information services for purchasers are badly needed.

Recommendation C: Time
We recommend that significantly more time be devoted to learning the New

Basics. This will require more effective use of the existing school day, a longer school
day, or a lengthened school year.

Implementing Recommendations

1. Students in high schools should be assigned far more homework than now
is the case.

140

2. Instruction in effective study and work skills, which are essential if school
and independent time is to be used efficiently, should be introduced in the early grades
and continued throughout the student’s schooling.

3. School districts and State legislatures should strongly consider 7-hour
school days, as well as a 200- to 220-day school year.

4. The time available for learning should be expanded through better
classroom management and organization of the school day. If necessary, additional time
should be found to meet the special needs of slow learners, the gifted, and others who
need more instructional diversity than can be accommodated during a conventional
school day or school year.

5. The burden on teachers for maintaining discipline should be reduced
through the development of firm and fair codes of student conduct that are enforced
consistently, and by considering alternative classrooms, programs, and schools to meet
the needs of continually disruptive students.

6. Attendance policies with clear incentives and sanctions should be used to
reduce the amount of time lost through student absenteeism and tardiness.

7. Administrative burdens on the teacher and related intrusions into the
school day should be reduced to add time for teaching and learning.

8. Placement and grouping of students, as well as promotion and graduation
policies, should be guided by the academic progress of students and their instructional
needs, rather than by rigid adherence to age.

Recommendation D: Teachinfig

This recommendation consists of seven parts. Each is intended to improve the
preparation of teachers or to make teaching a more rewarding and respected profession.
Each of the seven stands on its own and should not be considered solely as an
implementing recommendation.

1. Persons preparing to teach should be required to meet high educational
standards, to demonstrate an aptitude for teaching, and to demonstrate competence in an
academic discipline. Colleges and universities offering teacher preparation programs
should be judged by how well their graduates meet these criteria.

2. Salaries for the teaching profession should be increased and should be
professionally competitive, market-sensitive, and performance-based. Salary, promotion,
tenure, and retention decisions should be tied to an effective evaluation system that

141

includes peer review so that superior teachers can be rewarded, average ones encouraged,
and poor ones either improved or terminated.

3. School boards should adopt an 11-month contract for teachers. This
would ensure time for curriculum and professional development, programs for students
with special needs, and a more adequate level of teacher compensation.

4. School boards, administrators, and teachers should cooperate to develop
career ladders for teachers that distinguish among the beginning instructor, the
experienced teacher, and the master teacher.

5. Substantial nonschool personnel resources should be employed to help
solve the immediate problem of the shortage of mathematics and science teachers.
Qualified individuals, including recent graduates with mathematics and science degrees,
graduate students, and industrial and retired scientists could, with appropriate preparation,
immediately begin teaching in these fields. A number of our leading science centers have
the capacity to begin educating and retraining teachers immediately. Other areas of
critical teacher need, such as English, must also be addressed.

6. Incentives, such as grants and loans, should be made available to attract
outstanding students to the teaching profession, particularly in those areas of critical
shortage.

7. Master teachers should be involved in designing teacher preparation
programs and in supervising teachers during their probationary years.

Recommendation E: LeadershiL and Fiscal Support

We recommend that citizens across the Nation hold educators and elected
ofi‘icials responsible for providing the leadership necessary to achieve these reforms, and
that citizens provide the fiscal support and stability required to bring about the reforms
we propose.

Implementing Recommendations

1. Principals and superintendents must play a crucial leadership role in
developing school and community support for the reforms we propose, and school boards
must provide them with the professional development and other support required to carry
out their leadership role effectively. The Commission stresses the distinction between
leadership skills involving persuasion, setting goals and developing community
consensus behind them, and managerial and supervisory skills. Although the latter are
necessary, we believe that school boards must consciously develop leadership skills at the
school and district levels if the reforms we propose are to be achieved.

142

2. State and local officials, including school board members, governors, and
legislators, have the primary responsibility for financing and governing the schools, and
should incorporate the reforms we propose in their educational policies and fiscal
planning.

3. The Federal Government, in cooperation with States and localities, should
help meet the needs of key groups of students such as the gifted and talented, the
socioeconomically disadvantaged, minority and language minority students, and the
handicapped. In combination these groups include both national resources and the
Nation’s youth who are most at risk.

4. In addition, we believe the Federal Govemment’s role includes several
functions of national consequence that States and localities alone are unlikely to be able
to meet: protecting constitutional and civil rights for students and school personnel;
collecting data, statistics, and information about education generally; supporting
curriculum improvement and research on teaching, learning, and the management of
schools; supporting teacher training in areas of critical shortage or key national needs;
and providing student financial assistance and research and graduate training. We believe
the assistance of the Federal Government should be provided with a minimum of
administrative burden and intrusiveness.

 

5. The Federal Government has the primary responsibility to identify the
national interest in education. It should also help fund and support efforts to protect and
promote that interest. It must provide the national leadership to ensure that the Nation’s
public and private resources are marshaled to address the issues discussed in this report.

6. This Commission calls upon educators, parents, and public officials at all
levels to assist in bringing about the educational reform proposed in this report. We also
call upon citizens to provide the financial support necessary to accomplish these
purposes. Excellence costs. But in the long run mediocrity costs far more.

APPENDIX B

SURVEY COVER & FOLLOW-UP LETTERS

 

Rockford
Public
Schools

ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE

350 N. Main
Rockford. Michigm 49341
(616) 866-1597

Fax (616) 866-1911

ADMINISTRATION

Michael S. Shibler
Superintendent of Schools
(616) 866-7122

Douglas L. Derks
Assistant Superintendent
for Business
(616) 866-7151

W. Michael Mioele
Assistant Superintendent
for Instruction. K42
(616) 866-7121

Jamie Heston!

Assistant Superintendent
for Human teeotnoes
(616) 866-7123

BOARD OF EDUCATION

Allan Fisher. President

Kathleen M. Remingn. Vice Resident
Linda A. Bursch. Secretary

James E. Bogart. Tremurer

Halden L. Babcock. Trustee

James C. Hessler. Trustee

Sally L. Larimore. Trustee

An Equal Opportunity Employer

 

November 5, 1994

Dear Superintendent:

My name is Mike Shibler, and I am currently superintendent of
the Rockford Public Schools, located just north of Grand Rapids.
I am also in the process of writing the dissertation for my Doctor-
:tel from Michigan State University, and I am requesting your

e p.

In summary. the intent of my study will be to provide answers to
the following questions:

1) Did the national report, 'A Nation at Risk” make a significant
difference to Michigan's public schools?

2) Have the reforms suggested by the report been implemented
in Michigan's public schools?

3) If implemented, have these reforms been successful in
creating real improvement in the educational programs?

4) In those districts where reforms have been less widely
implemented, are financial resources an issue?

In order to determine the extent to which public school districts
in the state of Michigan have implemented the ”Nation at Risk”
recommendations for reform, and where implemented, assess
the perceived impact upon quality, I need your assistance in
completing the enclosed survey.

The survey should take no more than 10-15 minutes to complete.
A return, self-addressed, stamped envelop has been provided.
Confidentiality is assured. and if you would like a summary of
the assessed data, I will be happy to provide it upon request. If
possible, I would appreciate the survey returned prior to
Christmas break.

In closing, I want to thank you in advance for taking the time to
respond to my enclosed survey.

Thank you,

sleaze,

ichael S. Shibler
Encl.

143

144

February 13, 1995

Dear Superintendent:

Prior to the holiday season, I mailed to your office a copy of the enclosed
survey, along with a self-addressed, stamped envelope, requesting that you
complete the survey, and mail it back to me as soon as possible. By the middle
of January, I received approximately 50% of the surveys completed.

lam in the process of writing my dissertation at Michigan State University,
and I need a minimum of 70% returned. Please complete the enclosed survey,

and return as soon as possible to:

Michael Shibler, Superintendent of Schools
Rockford Public Schools

350 N. Main St.

Rockford, Ml 49341

I thank you in advance for your response.
Sincerely,

[i «fwd,

ic ael Shibler,

uperintendent of Schools
Rockford Public Schools
Encl.

4

 

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