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This is to certify that the
dissertation entitled
The Drama of Education:
Crafting an Ethical Practice
presented by

Randall J. Buursma

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph .D. degree in Teacher Education

Li‘eflmd MWK

Major professor

/(
Date W7)?

MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0.12771

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
To AVOID FINES return on or before date due. '
MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

DATE DUE

DATE DUE

DATE DUE

 

MAR 2 3 2005

 

.0211 93

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THE DRAMA OF EDUCATION: CRAFTING AN ETHICAL PRACTICE
By

Randall J. Buursma

A Dissertation
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Teacher Education

2000

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ABSTRACT
THE DRAMA OF EDUCATION: CRAFTING AN ETHICAL PRACTICE
By

Randall J. Buursma

I set out to create a course that would increase preservice students’ awareness of
teaching’s moral dimension with the hope that this course would help them to craft an
ethical practice. I wanted to learn more about assisting preservice teachers to deepen their
understanding and awareness of the moral dimension of teaching. The study describes
and analyzes the effect of the course on 16 students at a small liberal arts Christian
college. The study also describes and analyzes the effect of the course on two students
who in the following semester were in field placements.

The findings of this study are based on data collected through student journals,
course assignments, student interviews, and audio and videotape recordings of the
discourse and activities of the course. Lee Schulman’s ( 1987) model for pedagogical
reasoning provides the framework for the organization and analysis of the study.

The study concludes that a variety of teaching strategies create opportunities to
increase student awareness of teaching’s moral dimension. In particular, the use of
improvisation and classroom observations engaged students in the issues pertaining to the
topic and increased their awareness of teaching’s moral dimension. The two students in
field placements were limited in applying that awareness in classroom settings due to the
teaching pedagogy used during the course, the two students’ “apprenticeship of

observation” (see Lortie, 1975), and the context of the field placements.

DEDICATION
Jesus Christ’s life and teachings prdvide the foundation for my conception of
crafting an ethical practice. My work is offered in thanksgiving for His gift of salvation

and the mysterious workings of His Kingdom.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The most important part of this dissertation may be contained in this section for it
points out the support, encouragement, and insight others have shared with me.

Debra Buursma has been my greatest advocate. Her insight on educational issues
has deepened my thinking on what it means to craft an ethical practice. Debra has the
amazing gift of challenging my thought processes in ways that encouraged and enabled
me to continue this work. Because of her love, patience, and care, I persevered in
completing the dissertation.

Benjamin, Derek, and Erica Buursma continually gave a sense of perspective to
the process of completing a dissertation. Their smiles, laughter, and hugs served as gentle
reminders that living ethically happens in relationship with others.

To my extended family and friends at home and church, thank you for your
sincere interest in this work and your prayers on my behalf.

Helen F eatherstone guided and directed my study. Her probing questions and
insightful comments proved invaluable in shaping the analysis and writing of the project.
David Labaree, Cheryl Rosaen, and Jay Featherstone read drafts of the study and
provided feedback that pushed my thinking and analysis of the data. I was blessed with a
committee that cared about my work.

Richard Mezeske continually encouraged me through his humorous emails and
his willingness to share his knowledge on the education process. I am grateful for his

friendship and willingness to share his expertise with me.

iv

I would also like to acknowledge Nancy Alexander as a fellow student who made
the many trips fi'om Grand Rapids to Lansing enjoyable. Nancy’s friendship made
completing the coursework possible.

Finally, I would like to thank Sharon Juell. Sharon’s help in formatting the
dissertation proved helpful while her encouragement and support of my work proved

essential.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ................................................................................................................. iv
List of Figures and Charts ................................................................................................ v
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1 The Study .............................................................................................. 15
Chapter 2 Comprehension ...................................................................................... 46
Chapter 3 Transformation ....................................................................................... 78
Chapter 4 Instruction and Evaluation .................................................................... 129
Chapter 5 Reflection ............................................................................................. 199
Chapter 6 New Comprehension ............................................................................ 276
Appendix A Course Syllabus .................................................................................... 298
Appendix B Journal Response #1 ............................................................................. 300
Appendix C Student Information Sheet .................................................................... 301
Appendix D The Case of Mr. Sheldon ...................................................................... 302
Appendix E The Case of Linda ................................................................................ 303
Appendix F Research Group Requirements ............................................................. 304
Appendix G Student Information Sheet on The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie .............. 305
Appendix H Shoe Salesperson Improvisation ........................................................... 307
Appendix I Grading Scenes with Teacher Green ..................................................... 309
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 3 13

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LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 1
Table 1.1 The Summary of Data from Calvin Questionnaire ............................. 23
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 The Parables and Pedagogy of Devotions ........................................ 112
Table 3.2 Student Characteristics .................................................................... 115
Table 3.3 Student Reasons for Taking Course ................................................. 118
Table 3.4 Student Goals .................................................................................. 120
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Categories of Students Journals ....................................................... 143
Table 4.2 Pedagogical Strategies for The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie .............. 146
Table 4.3 List of Drama Games ....................................................................... 153
Table 4.4 Categories of Student Journals Responding to Devotions ................. 184

vii

LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS

Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Shuhnan’s model of pedagogical reasoning ....................................... 44

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INTRODUCTION

Tony struggled with math in my fourth grade class. I tried solving two problems
in order to help him. First, I wanted to make sure he understood the mathematical
concepts and procedures taught in class. Second, I wanted Tony to complete his work on
time. Tony seemed to understand his math assignments. He completed his problems
correctly when I sat beside him. When lefi to his own endeavors, Tony procrastinated and
could not finish his assignments. I focused my efforts on strategies designed on helping
Tony complete his math problems. I tried cutting down the number of problems assigned,
thinking the amount of work would be less overwhelming. Tony still struggled with
completing the assignments. I tried homework logs that his parents would sign afler Tony
completed his work at home. That met with only partial success given the logistical
problems of getting the math work home, having Tony do it that day, signing the
homework log form, and then returning the math book, assignment, and homework log
back to school. I took more drastic measures such as keeping him in at recess or telling
him that he could eat his lunch after he completed the first five assigned problems.
Despite my best intentions, I failed in helping Tony finish his assignments on time.
Exasperated with the situation, I called his mother and asked if she had any insight to
share. Her response shocked me. She said Tony was convinced that I did not like him.
Somehow in my energy in helping Tony complete his work, I sent the message that I did
not like him.

I remember the feeling of being a failure in the pit of my stomach. I told Tony’s
mother I would talk with him the next day about our relationship and explain my attempts

at helping him complete his math assignments. Although not wanting to admit it, I could

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understand why Tony felt the way he did. When reflecting on my actions, I could see
how Tony came to his conclusion. He sensed my frustration with his behavior.

The next day, I apologized to Tony and assured him that I liked him and hoped
that we could continue working together. He nodded his head but did not say anything. If
he had any questions or concerns, I told him to let me know. I decided not to pressure
Tony about his math assignments. Whatever he completed, I would accept. Life went on.
Teaching continued and I avoided thinking about Tony and that awful feeling in my
stomach.

It took a career change and a Ph.D. program to bring Tony back from the “just as
soon forget” part of my memory. Calvin College hired me as an instructor in the
Communication Arts and Science Department. I enjoyed teaching college age students
and the interaction with faculty. Realizing college teaching requires a Ph.D., I started my
program at Michigan State University. One of the biggest lessons I learned from the
coursework at MSU was that I had not thought carefully about my philosophy of
education or the teaching process. I spent most of my time at MSU. feeling ignorant. I
considered myself an effective elementary educator, but the coursework continually
questioned my practice. What subject matter is important to teach? Why? What should
you know about that subject matter? What should you know about how to teach that
subject matter? What is learning? How do you know when you have learned something? I
did not have good answers to these questions.

In one of my classes, I was asked to write a pedagogical autobiography. The
purpose of the assignment was to help me reflect on my development as a teacher by

reflecting on the events that shaped my teaching, the influences that contributed to my

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professional learning, and my philosophy of education. As I tried to answer these
questions, Tony reappeared. I wrote back in 1994,

When I reflect on my growth and development as a teacher at Sylvan, it
seems to be shrouded in a fog. I do not have strong, vivid memories of
educational experiences that shaped and formed my perspective. I cannot point to
any seminar or class which altered my way of teaching to any great extent (even
though I earned a Master’s Degree from M.S.U.). I relied on the relationships
with the kids that I taught to carry me through. (I then describe my experience
with Tony.)

My frustration as a teacher took precedence over who Tony was as a
person. I didn’t value Tony for who he was, I only tried to make him do things
that I wanted as a teacher. This whole incident shook me to my core. I considered
myself a wonderful teacher, respected among peers. But somehow I managed to
confuse the importance of covering material and completing assignments with
understanding and valuing the children that I was allowed to be with. It bothered
me for many weeks and I still think back to it this day.

Tony reminded me that my practice was not perfect. The coursework at MSU. began to
explain why that was so. I did not have a philosophy of teaching that included a process
for taking and assessing classroom actions based on beliefs.

An ethics class at Calvin College two years later provided a way to think about
this experience. The class focused on the writings of Immanuel Kant. His perspective on
living an ethical life (see Chapter Three for further explanation) provided a framework
for thinking about what went wrong with Tony and a way to make decisions and take
action in the classroom. For example, Kant believed that a person may not treat others as
a means to an end, but rather each person must be treated as an end. In other words, I
cannot use people to get what I want. Each person must be treated with respect and
dignity. After applying Kant’s principle to the situation with Tony, 1 concluded that I was
treating Tony as a means and not an end in the educational process. I was more interested

in Tony finishing his work than in Tony as a person. My goal was to have students

complete their work and Tony was a means used to accomplish this goal.

 

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The ethics class was important in my effort to understand the limitations in
crafting an ethical practice. Two years earlier, I was writing about valuing children, and
now I could provide some substance to that belief. Valuing children means treating them
as an end and not the means in the educational process. I also had a way of thinking
before taking action in a classroom. I could ask myself whether my actions were
respecting students as the end in themselves or treating them as the means in the
educational process. I could ask myself, “Does making Tony finish five problems before
he is allowed to eat lunch respect Tony as a person or does it treat him as the means to
having completed math assignments?” Taking time to think in this way might have
prevented me from taking actions that I regret to this day.

I reflected about Tony and my teaching perspective during the ethics class. I
remember feeling that the actions with Tony were unethical in many ways. At the time of
the incident, I had thought I was doing the right thing. I became so preoccupied with
Tony completing his math work that I forgot about him. I missed what he was thinking
' and feeling. I missed Tony as a person. But I also remember a feeling of frustration
because my actions with Tony could have been prevented if I had only thought about my
practice from a moral or ethical standpoint. Why did it take me so long to figure out a
significant limitation to my teaching? Why did not somebody tell me about ethical
teaching earlier in my career? How could I be so oblivious to Tony’s reaction? If
someone had asked me before the phone call to Tony’s mother about his feelings, I would
have said that Tony does not like to do math. I would not have thought about Tony’s

feelings toward my efforts in helping him complete his math assignments. Did Tony do a

 

 

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great job in masking his feelings about our relationship or did my perspective on teaching
blind me to Tony’s concerns and feelings?

After analyzing my interaction with Tony, I could conclude that here was one of
those situations where I failed to reach a student. Teachers cannot possibly reach
everybody, so consider the case closed. I tried my best but misunderstandings do happen
in the classroom. I said I was sorry, so forget about it and go on. In fact, that was exactly
my reaction for about ten years, and although my rationale allowed me to ignore Tony’s
response, it did not accurately articulate what happened.

The coursework at MSU. and the ethics class at Calvin gave me a new
understanding of Tony and my teaching perspective. I failed with Tony, not because of
my good intentions, but because my good intentions were not based on a strong, clearly
articulated moral foundation. My relationship with Tony was defined by Tony’s
academic progress. It was as though I drew a circle and at the center of it was my goal of
getting Tony to complete his math problems. Around the circle were the different factors
that could help me achieve my goal: curriculum guides, parents, rewards, threats of
punishment, and even Tony. I tried using all of those components to reach my goal. I
used Tony.

Contrast that picture with another one, only this time at the center of the circle is
Tony. Tony is a special person with gifts and needs that surround his circle. His gifts of
being a good friend, his love for drawing, and his sense of humor intertwines with his
needs of understanding math concepts and completing his assignments. Another ring
encompasses Tony’s needs and gifts. On this outer ring lie the resources of Tony’s world.

They include his parents, fellow students, and his teacher carrying curriculum guides.

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These resources exist to affirm who Tony is, not what Tony has to do. I realize now that
in the process of affirming Tony as a person, I will help Tony make progress in
mathematics. That is one of the positive side—effects of keeping Tony at the center of the
circle. A good title for this picture would be “The Moral Dimension of Teaching.”

During my elementary teaching experiences, I did not have a vision that would
help me draw this picture. I did not have a system or a process for acting on good
intentions. I reacted to situations and did what was best based on my experience as a
student, the training received at the preservice level, and my limited teaching experience.
These experiences did not prepare me for thinking about the ethical dimensions of
teaching.

I did not want that to happen to preservice students at Calvin College. I also did
not know how to prevent it from happening, but I wanted to learn. I had many questions:
how would I have to teach in order to help preservice students craft an ethical practice?
What do students need to understand concerning teaching’s moral dimension? Are there
techniques that must be modeled, learned, and practiced if students are to craft an ethical
practice? What teaching methods facilitate student understanding in this area? How will I
know if students are understanding what is meant by the moral dimension of teaching?
How will I know if that knowledge makes a difference in their teaching practice? If the
issue is developing students’ awareness of teaching’s moral dimension for the purpose of
crafting an ethical practice, how do I go about doing that?

These are some of the questions that initially energized the study. Before
describing the study in detail, I will conclude this introduction by defining teaching’s

moral dimension. By defining the moral dimension of teaching, I hope to avoid any

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confusion as to my interpretation of the term’s meaning and to provide a context for the
study.
Defining the Elusive

I will define the moral dimension of teaching by weaving together the thoughts of
Gary Fenstermacher, Philip Jackson, and Christopher Clark. By using these sources, I
will demonstrate the high moral expectations placed on teachers, the difficulty of crafting _
an ethical practice, and the necessity of having a way to think about the influence of
teacher actions. I contend that without a way of thinking about the moral dimension,
teachers run the risk of acting in immoral ways despite having good intentions.

Gm Fenstermacher

What makes teaching a moral endeavor is that it is, quite centrally, human action

undertaken in regard to other human beings. Thus, matters of what is fair, right,

just, and virtuous are always present. The teacher’s conduct, at all times and in

all ways, is a moral matter. For that reason alone, teaching is a profoundly moral

activity (p. 133).
Fenstermacher (1990) defines the moral dimension of teaching as an interaction between
people. In these interactions, principles involving fairness and justice emerge. He leaves
no doubt to the pervasive nature of teaching’s moral dimension—everything a teacher does
is a moral matter. Fenstermacher’s definition articulates the importance of actions in
defining why teaching is a moral activity. He does not say that a teacher’s intentions are
critical in determining whether a teacher acted in moral ways, but rather it is in the
interaction between teacher and child that the moral dimension is seen.

Fenstermacher does provide a purpose for the interactions between teacher and

child. He argues that teaching involves the "enlightenment of the young, the

emancipation of the mind and soul, or the development of human virtue" (p. 131).

 

Fenstermacher’s conception of classroom teaching illuminates his definition of teaching
as a moral endeavor. Teacher interactions should lead to enlightenment, emancipation,
and development. These concepts point out the purposes of teacher interaction. The
concepts of fairness and justice are the criteria that the interactions must consider.

How a person defines teaching or its purposes will have a direct influence on
moral considerations. For example, suppose teaching aims only to impart skills and
knowledge associated with the "back to basics" perspective. The actions of teachers
would then be judged on how well their pedagogy accomplished the goals of improving
students’ competence in reading, writing and arithmetic. The criteria of coverage,
assessment, and competency may take precedence over Fenstermacher’s issues of what is
fair, right, just, and virtuous. The purpose of the school or teacher sets the standard by
which the actions of the teacher are evaluated.

While Fenstermacher submits that the moral dimension of teaching relies on
human relationships, he also gives guidance as to how it is seen in practice. He includes a
number of criteria that he considers indicators of moral worth. Teachers’ actions must be
fair, right, just, and virtuous. For example, was I being fair to Tony in preventing him
from eating lunch until some of his math problems were completed? The concept of
fairness could serve as a criterion used in deciding what action to take.

But this leaves the arduous task of defining “fair.” I could argue that I was being
fair to Tony by preventing him from eating lunch until he completed a number of his
math problems. After all, he chose not to do his problems and that action has
consequences. Fenstermacher might suggest that before taking action, I should ask what

would be fair to Tony in terms of the purposes for education. Would my actions lead to

Tony’s enlightenment, the emancipation of his mind and soul, or the development of his
human virtue? Answering these difficult questions might have resulted in being “fair”
with Tony.

Fenstermacher provides some language and concepts for mapping the complex
terrain of moral teaching. He focuses on the interactions between humans that lead to
enlightenment, emancipation, and development for students. The emphasis on the human
relationships and the high standards of fairness, justice, and virtue provide a context for
teachers to judge and craft their practice.

Philip Jackson

Jackson, Boostrom, and Hansen (1993) spent two—and—a—half years in eighteen
schools analyzing the moral influence that emanates from classrooms. Their
comprehensive study points out two important. features of teaching’s moral terrain. Like
Fenstermacher, they claim the moral dimension of teaching pervades schools. It
infiltrates every aspect of the education process. Every teacher action might have moral
consequences. Second, teachers do not think critically about the moral dimension of
teaching. They understand that teaching is a moral endeavor, but they do not consciously
attend to the moral aspect of their teaching.

Before explicating Jackson’s perspective, I will explain Jackson’s educational
purpose. Jackson writes,

The question of what students are taught and how well they are taught is always,

at heart, a moral question. This is so because education is a moral endeavor.

Education’s overarching goal is to make its recipients better than they were when

they began the process. It seeks to improve them in some way. This means that

shortcomings in the delivery of educational services—giving students less than was
promised them, for example, or less than they required to meet life’s basics

demands-are a form of consumer fraud, a way of shortchanging those being
served. Giving students less than they are capable of handling, failing to challenge

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them, and treating them in ways that are better suited to much younger students
are only variants of the same thing. (p. 146)

While the definition is not exhaustive, it does indicate a standard the researchers used in
the study. Did the teacher’s action make the student better? Did the action improve the
student’s chances of meeting life’s demands? Jackson does not provide a list of life’s
demands or the educational services to which students are entitled. His book does not
focus on those issues; nor will I.

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become visible. The following list summarizes his eight sites.

p...
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Moral instruction that occurs as a formal part of the curriculum.

2. Moral instruction seen within the regular cuniculum through classroom
discussion or activities.

3. Rituals and ceremonies (special assemblies and speakers) that create moods such
as pride, loyalty and thankfulness.

4. Visual displays, such as bulletin boards or posters, containing moral content.

5. Spontaneous interjection of moral commentary by the teacher into on going

classroom activity.

Classroom rules and regulations for student behavior.

The morality of the curricular substructure, or the conditions required for the

learning process—such as truthfulness and worthwhileness.

8. The expressive morality within classrooms seen in teacher verbal and non—verbal

communication.

NP‘

Jackson describes in detail the “human action undertaken in regard to other human
beings” that Fenstermacher defines as teaching’s moral dimension. Jackson does not limit
his definition to the interaction that a teacher and student might have, but argues that
virtually all of teaching has moral significance, including bulletin board and lesson plan
design.

His category descriptions provide further evidence of the pervasiveness of
teaching’s moral dimension. Most of the literature reviewed (see Clark, 1995; Noddings,

1992; Goodlad, 1990; Fenstermacher, 1990) focused on the teacher/student relationship

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when explaining why teaching is a moral endeavor. Jackson challenges teachers to think
about how the placement of the teacher’s desk or where the teacher stands when the
children come in from morning recess affects a child.

Jackson then demonstrates how his categories appear in schools by describing
eight sets of classroom observations. He observes the objects found in a classroom and
the actions that take place there and speculates on the symbolic meaning for the students.
He attempts to answer the questions: What does this action or this physical object stand
for? What does it symbolize? What moral significance might the action or object have for
students? When reflecting on my own elementary teaching experience, I did not ask
myself these types of questions but focused on student understanding and covering
material. I did not consciously think of my work in moral terms.

Jackson argues that teachers do not consciously think about the moral significance
of their pedagogy or classroom environment. He contends that teachers should
consciously think about the moral dimension of teaching for two important reasons. First,
. teacher actions reveal moral character. Jackson contends these actions express an
approach to life. Jackson assumes that teachers want to be known as moral, ethical
people; therefore, teachers should want their actions to reflect their vision of morality.
Second, Jackson makes a strong case that teacher actions carry potential moral
significance for students. He claims many teacher actions are moral because, “they entail
judgments about good and bad, that they are either sought after or gratefirlly received,
that they function to affect the self—esteem of their recipients” (p. 64).

Having provided a rationale for acting in ethical ways, Jackson notes why

teachers struggle in this endeavor. One teacher remarked, “In teaching we’re mostly so

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caught up in measuring, we don’t think about creating a more humane environment.
We’ve lost sight of what’s truly important, but the project has brought it back in view” (p.
280). The teachers realized the amount of responsibility they have for ethical teaching.
The phrase, “We teach ourselves” served as reminder for them that their actions, however
subtle, reflect on their moral integrity. Jackson’s research forced them to reflect on the
type of people they were and how that was modeled in their teaching.

Having explained how teaching is a moral endeavor, and demonstrating how the

moral dimension is seen in the classroom, Jackson concludes, “teachers also have a
corresponding obligation, it seems to us, to learn as much as possible about their own
potency as moral agents and about the moral potency of the schools and classrooms in
which they work” (p. 293). Jackson argues,

Teachers, in other words, live under an obligation to be as considerate and

understanding as possible in dealing with their students, not because such

treatment works pedagogically or has positive outcomes, which we may safely
assume it does, but simply because students deserve to be treated that way. It is

their right as humans (p. 292—293).

My study focuses on learning what might assist preservice students understand
the moral dimension of teaching for the purpose of crafting an ethical practice. I want my
students to think of their practice in moral terms and then to have the skill to make
deCiSions that would enable them to act in ethical ways. Jackson demonstrates the need
for Web reflection in experienced teachers.

I Christopher Clark
Christopher Clark (1995) provides another vital insight into the moral dimension

of teaching. First, I will outline Clark’s teaching goals. He writes,

The ultimate purpose of teaching is to serve children on their own journeys to
adulthood, citizenship and leadership of the next generation. . .. Admittedly, there

12

is more to teaching than feeling affection for children. Yet without love and ’
eagerness to serve schoolchildren well, teaching loses its heart (p. 3).

His emphasis on serving has implications for what he considers moral in teaching.
Clark’s idea of service has two critical components. First, he echoes Fenstermacher’s
belief that teaching entails human relationships. Teachers serve children, not curriculum.
Teachers use curriculum in the service of their students. Issues of pedagogy, assessment,
and political considerations revolve around the central issue of serving students in their
journey to adulthood.

Serving someone else, especially a child, does require skills. A teacher will need
sensitivity to the child. The act of serving involves the process of knowing the one served
in order to give that person what they need. “A thoughtful person is able to do two things
well: see and feel life from the perspective of another, and say and do the right things
when we most need that help and support” (p. xv). A moral teacher is one who has the
ability to "walk a mile" in students’ shoes giving them the teaching, support, and
encouragement they need. Clark’s second skill assists in this endeavor.

According to Clark, moral teaching has an intellectual component. A sensitive,
intuitive teacher bases his/her actions on what was learned from previous experience.
Teachers need to reflect on their actions for the purpose of making positive choices later.
The thoughtfulness that Clark envisions involves the human relationship component and
knowledge about the academic disciplines, problem—solving skills, and the process of
making decisions. The tendency might be for teachers to say that being a good
person—someone who is nice to others—is enough. Clark’s assertion clearly points out the
need for more. Moral teaching is demanding in the cognitive sense. To teach morally

requires knowledge about a number of elements of the educational process; students,

13

student learning, subject matter, curriculum, pedagogy, and school setting to name a few.
Teachers should understand these elements and how they interrelate in order to craft a
moral practice.

Clark’s conception of thoughtful teaching requires a teacher who has a variety of
virtues: a sensitive and compassionate personality combined with the characteristics of
being knowledgeable, reflective, and thoughtful. Such a combination places a high
expectation on those who wish to be teachers.

Summa_ry

The process of defining the moral dimension of teaching is challenging and
complex. I have tried to demonstrate that every teacher action becomes part of the moral
fiber of a school. These actions stem from the teacher’s thought pattern and perspective
on the purpose and value of school. In order to evaluate teacher action, issues of right and
wrong, fairness, justice, and virtue must be addressed. While actions may be judged for
their moral worth, the process of evaluating the thought process and actions may lead to
insights for developing and improving future moral action. If teacher educators take
seriously developing preservice students’ understanding of teaching’s moral dimension
and ability to craft an ethical practice, they will need to explore and influence preservice

students’ values and the way they think about the educational process.

14

Chapter One

The Study

1 set out to create a course that would increase preservice students’ awareness of

teaching’s moral dimension with the hope that this course would help them to craft an

ethical practice. I wanted to learn more about assisting preservice teachers to deepen their

understanding and awareness of the moral dimension of teaching. The study will address

the following questions:

1.

What happens when a teacher/educator tries to create and teach a course about the
moral dimension of teaching at a small Christian college?

How does the context of a small Christian Liberal Arts College enable and constrain
the teaching of the course?

What pedagogical strategies contribute to student understanding of teaching’s moral
dimension?

In what ways can a course on the moral dimension of teaching affect students’

teaching practice?

What will this study contribute to what is known about assisting preservice students

to craft an ethical practice and what questions will it reveal that need further study?

These questions guided the study. In the following section, I will describe and analyze the

relevant information and research studies that contribute to addressing questions two,

three, and four of the study. (I will address question one and question five later in the

dissertation.) I will begin describing the context of the study, Calvin College. Next, I will

analyze four studies specifically designed to create awareness of the moral dimension in

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professions. Finally, I will describe research that focuses on influencing the practice of
preservice students.
How Does the Context of a Small Christian Liberal Arts College
Enable and Constrain the Teaching of the Course?

The teaching context, Calvin College, played a significant role in how I
approached the moral dimension of teaching. The set of ideas and concepts that I ~
comprehended were transformed at Christian Liberal Arts College. The following section
will briefly describe Calvin’s history, the beliefs and mission of the college, and the
implications the mission has for both faculty and students.

The Christian Reformed Church (CRC) sponsors Calvin College. The CRC was
started in 1857 by a determined group of immigrants from the Netherlands who wanted to
break away from the established church. They. settled in various locations in the Midwest
and based their church on three statements of faith. The Apostles’ Creed, the most widely
recognized creed of the CRC, summarizes succinctly the major beliefs of the church.

I believe in God, the Father almighty,

creator of heaven and earth.

I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord,

who was conceived by the Holy Spirit

and born of the virgin Mary.

He suffered under Pontius Pilate,

was crucified, died, and was buried;

he descended to hell.

The third day he rose again from the dead.

He ascended to heaven

and is seated at the right hand of God the Father almighty.
From there he will come to judge the living and the dead.

I believe in the Holy Spirit,

the holy catholic“ church,

the communion of saints,

the forgiveness of sins,

the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.
*that is, the true Christian church of all times and all place)

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In 1876, the CRC established Calvin College in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The
six—year curriculum produced graduates for the CRC ministry. By 1900, the curriculum
broadened to include those interested in teaching or preparing for preprofessional courses
in other colleges or universities. Gradually, the college added courses and programs of its
own and awarded its first Bachelor of Arts degree in 1921. The CRC sponsors only
Calvin College.

Calvin’s relationship to the CRC is complex. A single board of trustees that
represents the various locations of the CRC governs the college. Board members must be
approved at Synod, which is the yearly meeting of CRC delegates that discusses and
decides on church matters. The Board of Trustees meets three times a year to hear the
progress of the college and vote on matters requiring their approval. The college’s
administration and faculty committees do the vast majority of college related work and
planning. The independent nature of the college is also evident from the amount of
money contributed to the college by the CRC—less than 5% of the Calvin’s operating
budget.

One area of the CRC influence on Calvin is seen in the confessional beliefs that
undergird both the 'CRC and Calvin. In Calvin’s expanded statement of mission, the
characteristics of these basic beliefs are described.

God is sovereign over all of creation. The scope of humanity’s rebellion against

God is total, affecting every aspect of creation, including every area of human

life. In divine grace God acted unconditionally in Jesus Christ to redeem

humanity and all creation from sin and evil. We receive God’s salvation through
faith alone, which is a product of divine grace. The Bible is our only infallible
guide for faith and practice in the Christian life. All believers stand in direct
relationship and communion with God through the Holy Spirit. We are called to

experience God’s grace regularly conveyed in the preaching of the Word and
administration of the sacraments. All believers are called to serve the Lord as

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witnesses to Christ’s love in every area of life and as agents of renewal in the
creation.

(P- 3)

From the founding of the college until today, the college has reinforced the beliefs of the
CRC. The opening statement of the college catalog states that “Our primary purpose is to
engage in vigorous liberal arts education that promotes lifelong Christian Service” (p. 7).
The first admissions brochure that most prospective students receive declares,

Calvin College is a comprehensive liberal arts college in the Reformed tradition

of historic Christianity. Through our learning, we seek to be agents of renewal in

the academy, church, and society. We pledge fidelity to Jesus Christ, offering our
hearts and lives to do God's work in God's world. (Calvin College Admissions

Brochure).

According to college documents, admissions brochures, and the Calvin web site,
an education at Calvin should result in graduates who are able “to engage, transform, and
redeem” contemporary society. Explaining how Calvin develops students who can
transform and redeem contemporary society is more complex. The admissions brochure
describes it this way.

As a part of our Christ—centered mission, Calvin encourages you to think about all

aspects of our society—books, music, movies, television, science, politics, and

more—as part of a process called “cultural discernment”. . .. Cultural discernment
asks that we see culture not with quick judgments, but with thoughtfulness,
integrity, and above all, a desire to transform it for the Kingdom of God. A Calvin
education provides many forums for learning to think critically and respond
thoughtfully.

Any college or university would agree with this statement, except for the phrase
“and above all, a desire to transform it for the Kingdom of God.” That appears to be the

defining issue for Calvin College. Like many other colleges, Calvin College wants its

graduates to make the world a better place. But Calvin has a particular language for

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describing how the world is to be improved. Calvin wants its thoughtful students to
“transform and redeem God’s world.”

In his inaugural address as Dean of Calvin’s Chapel, Cornelius Plantinga Jr.
provided insight into what this transformation and redemption might look like in the
world.

That’s what Christian higher education is for. It’s for shalom. It’s for peace in the

sense of wholeness and harmony in the world. It’s for restoring proper

relationships with nature and other humans and God, and for teaching us to
delight in the wonders of creation that remain.

Most colleges and universities would agree with Plantinga’s vision for education.
I have not done a study on the mission statements from other colleges, but it seems
plausible that most higher education institutions hope their graduates have a sense of the
wholeness and harmony possible in the world. The distinctive difference between Calvin
and other institutions comes in the rationale for such a vision. Secular colleges may point
to the positive effects on the individual, society, and democracy as solid reasons for
engaging students in education. Calvin shifts the focus by pointing to the transformative
and redemptive work God requires of those who serve Him.

An example from a specific department might clarify the transformative and
redemptive concepts that drive Calvin’s educational mission. David Smith and Barbara
Carvill (Carvill teachs at Calvin) present a transformative argument for the teaching of a
foreign language in their book, The Gift of the Stranger (2000). They describe six
motivations for the teaching and learning of a foreign language; economic opportunities,
to persuade others or gain security, self—enrichment, tourism, escape from the constraints

of monolingual culture, and discourse used to clarify values and assumptions of own

culture. Each of these reasons provide a rationale for the teaching and learning of a

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foreign language, but Smith and Carvill claim they lack an ethical context. What is '
needed to transform the common ideas and teaching pedagogy used in foreign language
programs is a foundational perspective that provides students with a way to take the ideas
presented in class and apply them in ethical ways in the world.
The foundational perspective that Smith and Carvill build their rationale for
foreign language is the Biblical notion of hospitality.
Hospitality to the stranger will serve primarily as a metaphor for the way both
teachers and students understand and interact with otherness. In other words, it is
our conviction that hospitality must shape the spirit and manner in which learners
welcome, acquire, and respond to the foreign language and culture. (p. 88).
They elaborate further on the concept of stranger, hospitality, and foreign language later
in the chapter.
The stranger we “embrace” in foreign language education is, in the broadest
sense, the language and culture of a people. We attempt to teach and learn a
foreign language not merely as a linguistic system, but as a medium of
communication used by human beings made in God’s image, and we see a foreign
culture as shaped by responsible personal agents. Communication across cultures
is not just for exchanging information, for wanting to sell or buy, for having
pleasure, and the like. Our motives in engaging the “other,” as we shall see in the
next chapter, should always be guided and inspired by the more fundamental aim
of cross—cultural communication, namely, to build hospitable and kind
relationships and good human connections through which people enrich and bless
each other, having the well—being and flourishing of each other at heart. (p. 99)
Smith and Carvill argue that teaching foreign language from the Biblical notion of
hospitality will allow the teachers and the students to transform that knowledge in ways
that reflect the redemption of God’s Kingdom.
Calvin’s mission does have implications for faculty. In order to teach at Calvin,
each faculty member must sign a statement of faith that indicates his/her agreement with

the doctrines and beliefs of the CRC church. The faculty is expected to integrate their

faith with the teaching that takes place in each discipline in ways that reinforce the tenets

20

 

 

of the CRC as well as help students develop the ability to transform the world. Calvin
students do not take special classes called, “How to redeem and transform the world.”
Students are required to take only two religion classes during their time at Calvin.
Professors are expected to develop knowledge and skills of transformational work in
every class.

Integrating faith and learning at Calvin happens in a variety of ways. Some
faculty begin their class sessions with a short time of devotions and prayer. During this
time, the professor (and students) may speak about his/her faith. Some professors design
devotions that connect with the topics being covered in class. For example, I teach a class
that focuses on the communication arts in elementary classrooms. For a devotion, I read
The Giving Tree by Shel Silverstein. Silverstein’s book creatively tells a story of how a
tree gives of itself throughout the life of a boy. The tree provides a rich lesson on how
giving leads to happiness. The boy who grows to be an old man demonstrates the
emptiness of selfishness. I use this book for two purposes. First, the book relates well to
my perception of God. Like the tree, God gives of Himself as seen in the giving of His
only Son. Silverstein’s story provides a vivid image of that type of love and
self-sacrifice. Second, during the class period I read The Giving Tree, I work on
expressive reading with my students. I model my expectations for expressive reading
when I read the book during devotions.

Some professors plan their courses to include Christian responses to issues or
structures found in the discipline. For example, a political science professor lists five
goals in his course syllabus:

l. to distinguish the realm of the political from the various other dimensions of
human experience

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2. to discern an appropriate method of study for things political, one which spurns
“ideological” means and opens itself to all of God’s truth as manifest in the
person of Christ, in Creation, and in Scripture
3. to connect the study of politics to one’s life in Christ. We shall attempt to discover
the place of the political both within God’s creation order and within His
redemptive plan
4. to begin to speak the language of politics
5. to identify some of the key characteristics of human beings which affect how they
might organize themselves politically.
The professor then lists the various topics covered in each class for the semester. I will
highlight five out of the thirty-six classes in his syllabus.

September 13: Christian Thinking and Politics

November 18: Confessing Christ and Doing Politics: “Saints as Citizens”?

November 22: Kingdom Bearings

November 25: The Role of the Church

December 4: Christian Principles and Politics
He attempts to integrate his faith with the teaching that takes place at various times in the
semester. On many days, the lectures and activities appear no different from those
encountered in other colleges. Issues of power, freedom, justice, democracy,
constitutionalism, and representation will all be addressed. But at least in theory, Calvin
professors discuss and analyze these issues guided by the beliefs of the CRC. For
example, studying the topic of democracy involves not only defining “democracy” and
understanding the role of democracy in our political system, but also trying to discover
how the concept of democracy connects to our beliefs in God and His call to transform
the world.

Although the College does not tell the faculty how to integrate faith and

instruction, something of Calvin’s mission does get through to the students. In a survey

conducted by the College’s Social Research Center in 1996 and 1997 , 452 recent

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graduates completed a six-page questionnaire. Three questions in particular asked
students about topics related to the mission of Calvin. The questions read as follows:

During your time at Calvin (including your experiences both within and outside
the classroom), how much growth did you experience in each of the following
areas? Circle on response for each item.

Developing a personal relationship with God
1=A great deal of growth

2=Some growth

3=Very little growth

4=No growth

5=No response

Developing a set of beliefs that gives meaning to life
(1—5 choices)

Applying my Christian faith to my actions
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Table 1.1 The summary of data from Calvin questionnaire

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Developing a Developing a Applying my

Rating Scale personal set of beliefs Christian faith to
relationship with that gives meaning my actions
God to life

A great deal 32.2% 51.8% 37.6%

of growth .

Some growth 53.7 42.2 51.7

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growth

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No response

 

 

 

 

 

At least 85% of Calvin’s recent graduates responding to the questionnaire experience

some or a great deal of growth related to faith and spiritual issues. What is unclear from
the data gathered by the Social Research Center is the source of the grth for students.
Without more substantial data, drawing conclusions about how many Calvin professors

effectively integrate faith and learning will be difficult.

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I have tried to describe Calvin College as a place that, from an institutional
standpoint, has a definite mission and set of core values. Calvin’s mission and set of
confessional beliefs should affect what takes place in the classroom. The degree of that
influence depends, in part, on each professor. Throughout the analysis of the study, I will
attempt to describe the ways Calvin College enables and constrains the students’ ability
to understand the moral dimension of teaching

What Pedagogical Strategies Contribute to Student Understanding
of Teaching’s Moral Dimension?

The paucity of research studies that analyze attempts to affect preservice student
thinking and behavior concerning teaching’s moral dimension indicates a need to address
this area of teacher education. In the following section I will review four studies that
provide some direction in helping teacher educators assist preservice students in crafting
an ethical practice.

Deborah Yost (1997) provides some insight into possible ways to influence moral
dispositions of students. She did a qualitative study at a large university with a five-year
education program. The university’s education program set a goal of developing an
attitude in preservice students that all children can learn and that all teachers should be
able to teach to the individual needs of each child. The university emphasized in their
mission statement the uniqueness of children and the belief that teachers need the skill
and fortitude to effectively deal with individual learning differences. The program
attempted to achieve its goal through course work, readings, clinical experiences, and the

influence of the professors.

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Yost interviewed fourteen students who completed the 5-year program to get their
perspective on the effect of the education program. For a framework to guide her study,
Yost relied on Goodlad’s four moral dimensions (1990, 1993, 1994): enculturating the
young in a social and political democracy, providing access to knowledge for all children
and youth, practicing pedagogical nurturing, and ensuring responsible stewardship of
schools. Yost conducted a two-hour interview with students and collected journals and
portfolios created in various education courses. The students’ work and answers to
interview questions supplied the evidence of their moral disposition to teaching based on
Goodlad’s work.

Yost concluded that these students did understand the university’s mission and
were able to. critically reflect on what was happening in schools. Yost contends that they
had characteristics of more experienced teachers, although she fails to describe what
exactly are those characteristics. The students pointed to their clinical experiences, course
work, the influence of professors, and readings as playing a role in their development.

' They also found helpful school observations that required critical reflection in the form of
papers or discussion.

Yost’s concludes that students’ moral dispositions were influenced, but 1 am
unclear as to how the university accomplished this. I question whether picking fourteen
students with “at least» a 3.0 average in education—related courses, demonstrated an
above—average teaching ability, and were highly—reflective” (p. 284) from the education
program will accurately indicate the program’s influence. Also, Yost relied solely on
student responses. If Yost based her findings on field observation of the students who

were now teaching, her results would be more impressive. Relying on student interviews

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calls into question if the University’s goals are carried through to the schools in which
their graduates teach.

Steven McNeel’s study (1994) reached conclusions similar to Yost. McNeel
studied the effect of a moral judgment research program implemented at Bethel College.
Bethel’s goal of improving the education of its students could be seen in programs
designed to develop faculty understanding of student moral development. The college
believed a more powerful education was possible if professors would consciously
constructed strategies in their teaching that focused on ethical growth in students.
McNeel did a longitudinal study of Bethel’s students analyzing their growth in moral
judgement. McNeel utilized Rest’s Defining Inventory Test to measure the moral
judgement of students in their freshmen year and in their senior year.

McNeel constructed his study based on the work of Kohlberg. Although Kohlberg
is discussed in Chapter Two, a brief explanation of his theory will set the context for
McNeel’s study. Kohlberg argued that a person’s thinking process determines that
person’s moral judgement. Kohlberg assessed a person’s thinking process by presenting a
series of dilemmas and analyzing the problem—solving strategies a person used to resolve
these dilemmas. He determined that a person would use basically one of six strategies in
resolving a dilemma These strategies represent the six sequential stages that Kohlberg
claimed to measure a person’s moral development. While Kohlberg could accurately
determine a person’s moral development, his interview process was difficult to
administer and score. To address this problem, James Rest created the Defining Inventory
Test, a multiple—choice version of Kohlberg’s interview process that measured moral

development.

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McNeel found the Bethel students did exhibit growth in principled reasoning V
during their experience at Bethel. (The DIT principled reasoning increased from 35.7 to
46.4 in the combined longitudinal cohorts. Using Bowen’s (1977) scale for effect sizes,
the jump was considered large. No control group was used.) McNeel analyzed certain
student experiences in an effort to narrow down which faculty efforts led to moral
reasoning growth. For example, he compared the DIT scores of students who participated
in off—campus programs with those students who stayed at Bethel. While conclusive
results eluded McNeel, he did find that experiences like off—campus learning
opportunities, close relationships with professors, and role—taking activities play an
important part in student growth.

I took special note of the use of drama in Bethel’s program. The students
responded to fOur “radio dramas” that depicted realistic dilemmas that college students
might experience. For example, one drama told the story of Jack who pressured his date,
Katie, to have sex with him. The students heard the story and then had state what advice
they would give to the main character. Coding manuals were constructed that measured
the students’ moral sensitivity. McNeel concludes, “Thus, our experience is that the
dramas can be used as effective educational stimuli to help our students understand the
need for moral sensitivity, and to see more clearly the microskills involved in being
morally sensitive in specific situations” (p.47).

Like Yost, McNeel’s study does indicate that deve10ping a student’s moral
thinking and perspective is possible, but what remains unclear is what teachers say and
do that brings about the change. Both studies did look at the big picture, attempting to

gauge the effect of a four or five year experience. Given the broad scope of their studies,

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specific outcomes were lacking. For example, McNeel briefly describes the content of the
role-plays, but does not describe the context of how they were used. He does not describe
when or how the Bethel students participated in the role—plays. When McNeel says that
close relationships with professors influenced student moral development, he does not
describe what is entailed in such a relationship. Instead, the reader must accept that these
types of experiences have some effect on student moral development, but is left
questioning how the effect occurs and to what degree it influences how the student lives
an ethical life.

McNeel also refers to Penn’s (1990) course intervention technique. Penn’s
approach begins with teaching his students about the skills involved in resolving any
ethical dilemma. He first presents material on the skills of logically dealing with moral
issues. He includes topics such as premises and conclusions of arguments and validity
issues. Next, he provides role—taking exercises that focus on taking on another person’s
perspective. Finally, he teaches Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and discusses
how to recognize the different reasoning used in each of the six stages. After the students
learn the “how to” of moral reasoning, they work through a number of dilemmas
applying the skills and concepts taught to resolve the dilemmas. He does not spend time
figuring out student personal beliefs and values but presents the principles involved in
ethical decision—making. Penn used the DIT to measure the growth in moral judgement
of his students. He found that his students improved significantly in their ability to use
principled reasoning in resolving dilemmas.

McNeel has experimented with Penn’s method and found that it does have a

significant effect on about thirty-percent of the students. He also found that business and

28

education students took to this approach more readily than students did fiom other
departments. What is unclear from Penn and McNeel’s study is if their students
demonstrated principled reasoning outside of the DIT. After reading through Penn’s
study, I felt that he taught the test. His students knew how to resolve ethical dilemmas
using principled reasoning, but there is no evidence here to indicate whether they could
or would use their knowledge in daily life

Muriel Bebeau (1993) works at the University of Minnesota’s School of
Dentistry. Her work focuses of developing professional ethics for dentistry and has
particular possibilities for education. Bebeau developed a curriculum for dentistry that
attempted to respond to four reasons why people do not act in ethical ways: people do not
recognize the moral dimensions of the situations they find themselves in, people may not
know how to make decisions in moral ways, people may choose to act in immoral ways,
people do not have the skill or ability to act in moral ways. Bebeau uses a number of
classroom interventions designed to address these concerns. Lectures, dilemma cases,
discussion, personal writings, small group activities, role—plays, and role concept
presentations are some of the ways she tries to get her students to think of the ethical
issues in dentistry. One strategy involves the use of video. The students would observe an
ethical dilemma presented in a video format and then be asked to explain what they
would do and why. Responding in this way to video has a similar effect as reading a case,
but the students see the dilemma unfold as it might happen in their own practice.

Bebeau used two different measures to assess the students in the dentistry
program: the Defining Issues Test (DIT), and the Dental Ethical Sensitivity Test (DEST).

Based on pre—program assessments, Bebeau concludes that students need to understand

29

 

 

 

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their personal beliefs and develop a way to think ethically about their profession. Role
concepts and responsibilities are not developed adequately when students enter the
program. Based on post—program assessment, dilemmas accompanied by both writing
assignments and group discussion may lead to better understanding of the professional
expectations required of the student. She noted that individual courses might help
students to grow in the knowledge of professional ethics, but to create a greater effect,
interdisciplinary collaboration is needed.

Bebeau’s work reinforces conclusions suggested by the work of Yost, McNeel,
and Penn. First, all of these studies incorporated a number of different strategies to assist
students in understanding moral concepts. Readings, lectures, role—plays, case studies,
field experiences, journals, group discussions, and close contact with professors are some
of the ways students come to understand the moral dimension of a profession. There does
not appear to be a specific way to have students craft an ethical practice. Second,
assessing how teaching interventions affect student development is difficult. The
Defining Issues Test accurately tells the level of principled reasoning used to resolve an
ethical dilemma. The numerical score indicates a level of moral reasoning indicating a
moral development stage. It makes no predication on how a person will act in actual
situations. Other assessment procedures, like journals and interviews, provided limited
evidence of student growth.

These studies point out certain strategies may foster ethical awareness and moral
decision—making ability in students. While knowledge will assist students in crafting an
ethical practice, it does not ensure that students will apply what learned in the classroom.

The next question of the study addresses that issue.

30

In What Ways Can a Course on the Moral Dimension of Teaching
Affect Students’ Teaching Practice?

Assisting students in crafiing an ethical teaching practice is a difficult challenge
for teacher educators for two reasons. First, teacher educators must address preservice
students’ past school experiences in order to influence their future teaching practice. The
work of Lortie and Feiman—Nemser and Floden support this claim. Second, student
characteristics may limit the effect of the teacher education program. I will analyze three
studies that connect student characteristics to moral development. In the final section, I
will analyze a study that attempted to affect the moral teaching practice of teachers.

The context of teacher education prom

Lortie (1975) argues that many teachers teach in the way they were taught. They
imitate their former teachers. His argument begins with the observation that a person will
spend close to 13,000 hours observing, relating, and responding to classroom teachers.
Given the vast amount of time in close contact with teachers, it seems reasonable that
students would learn how to teach. Lortie contends that this does not happen for two
reasons. First, the student has a specific perspective in the teaching process. The, student
is the recipient of the teacher’s work. Unlike a craftsperson telling the apprentice the how
and why of a crafi, the student only sees the final outcome of the craft. In some ways it
would be like a potter giving the apprentice a beautiful vase and telling the apprentice to
make one just like it. The apprentice would find it impossible to make such a vase. But
suppose the apprentice watched the potter make 13, 000 vases. Lortie’s second reason
argues that the apprentice would imagine, based on the number of hours watching the

potter make vases, he or she could make a vase. The apprentice would imitate what the

31

potter did without really understanding the craft of pottery. Lortie asserts that many
students enter teaching believing that they know how to teach. They have seen it done for
about fourteen years. What these students do not realize is that their apprenticeship of
observation has provided them with a knowledge of teaching that is “intuitive and
imitative rather than explicit and analytical; it is based on individual personalities rather
than the pedagogical principles” (p. 62).

I wanted the students to act on pedagogical principles embedded in ethical
considerations that they would acquire during the 45 hours of the interim course. Lortie
argues that doing so would be difficult, given the perspective students have on teaching.
Feiman—Nemser and Floden (1986) echo Lortie’s assertions and describe other areas that
will constrain teacher educators’ ability to influence the teaching practice of students. In
their review of studies related to the culture of teaching, they cite a litany of factors that
make teachers imitative rather than reflective in their teaching. Issues of teacher
knowledge, the classroom context, school structure, and the socialization of teachers
' create a complex web of factors that make understanding a teacher’s craft difficult. For
example, in describing how a first—year teacher begins to acquire the cultures of teaching,
Feiman—Nemser and Floden argue that the first—year teacher focuses on discipline as a
key element in teaching. Classroom management issues play an important role in the
socialization of a teacher. They argue that experienced teachers could help preservice
students with these issues but due to the isolationist nature of teaching, beginning
teachers ofien work through management issues alone. As a result, beginning teachers

revert to teaching in ways that they have been taught.

32

Lortie and F eiman—Nemser and Floden provide evidence that affecting a
preservice student’s practice is a difficult challenge. Issues of prior schooling, problems
in teacher education programs, limited knowledge of content area and teaching pedagogy
constrain the potential of teacher educators to influence preservice students thinking and
practice.

Student characteristics

Assisting preservice students to craft an ethical practice may also be hindered by
the level of student moral development. In the following section, I will look at studies
that focus on preservice students’ level of moral development. Second, 1 will narrow that
focus to moral development of students at Christian colleges, comparing aspects of moral
development at Christian colleges with that of Calvin College, the site of the study.
Finally, I will connect the need for advanced moral reasoning with effective teaching
practice.

While I did not find many research articles that specifically dealt with a
preservice student’s ability to reason morally, Bloom (1976) did provide two interesting
findings from research done at the College of William and Mary. He used James Rest’s
Defining Issues Test (D.I.T.) to measure the principled responses students give to
dilermnas. The D.I.T., like Kohlberg’s interview format, measures a person’s moral
development by evaluating the reasons he or she uses in resolving ethical dilemmas.
Bloom studied eighty—two education master’s degrees candidates and found they scored
lower on Rest’s principled responses’ scale than college students from other professional
schools. He noted that “graduates from teacher preparatory colleges are particularly apt to

be more impressed by the pretentiousness of a statement than by its substance” (p. 624).

33

 

 

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He cites the statement, “whether the essences of living is more encompassing than the
termination of dying, socially and individually” (p. 624) as an example of a meaningless
statement that teachers college graduates used in resolving a dilemma. His second finding
provided evidence that “education students made significantly fewer principled responses
(Stages 5 and 6) and were more likely than students in other fields to be Stage 4 (“law
and order”) moral thinkers” (p. 625). While Bloom does not describe other characteristics
of the subjects, (What type of teacher programs did they come from? What type of
teaching experiences did the subjects have? What were the ages of the subjects?), his
study does raise questions about a teacher’s ability to reason from principles.

Diessner’s (1991) findings, as reported by Chang (1994), fit well with Bloom’s:
Diessner reports that most teachers reason at the conventional level as measured by
Kohlberg’s interview process. Diessner noted that teachers understood post—conventional
thinking, but could not apply that type of reasoning to their own practice. Chang
concludes,

Although teaching is moral by nature and teachers make moral decisions
continuously, teachers do not seem to be well prepared for this aspect of their
jobs. Teacher educators, realizing this, may consider adopting the theory of moral
cognitive development to solve the problem (p. 72—73).

Both Chang and Bloom claim that teachers do not demonstrate principled moral
reasoning in the classroom. Neither researcher offers an explanation of this finding
Chang does advise adopting the theory of moral cognitive development, which turns out
to be Kohlberg’s six stage theory of moral development.

Piaget and Kohlberg (I will discuss their work in Chapter Two) both connected a

person’s moral reasoning to their cognitive skill. A person with the skill to think through

and analyze issues will score higher on moral development scales than a person who does

34

not have much skill in analytic thinking. Rest (1986) also found that education is a
powerful predicator of a person’s moral development. More education results in higher
levels of moral development. I wondered if the findings of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Rest
could be extended to a student’s ACT score. My hypothesis would state those with higher
ACT scores demonstrate higher levels of moral development. I would assume that
students with higher ACT scores would have higher cognitive skills than those students
with lower ACT scores. Would it then follow, based on Rest’s work, that those with
higher ACT scores will score higher on D.I.T. scale? I could not find in Rest’s work any
study dealing with ACT scores and moral development. I did discover that from the years
1990—1998, the average ACT score for the graduates of Calvin College was 24.]. During
the same time period, the average ACT score for those graduating with elementary
certification was 22.9. Based on this evidence, it does seem plausible that elementary
students may find it more difficult to use principled reasoning.

I did find two sources that offer a different perspective on the notion that
education students may not be as “smart” as other students. Bracy (1997) does admit that
SAT scores are lower for education majors but suggests two intriguing reasons. First,
women score on an average 45 points lower on the SAT than men do, so it does follow
that education majors who are made up of a majority of women would score lower. Bracy
adds that women earn higher grades in college than men, negating the stigma of having a
lower SAT score. Second, studies do not take into account those who actually end up in
the classroom. His point is reinforced by the work of Latham, Gitomer, and Ziomek
(1999) who conclude, “that people who pass teacher licensure tests have academic skills

that are comparable to or even slightly better than the skills of the overall population of

35

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people who take the SAT” (p. 25). Their study differs from other research done in this
area in the sense that it measures the skills of teachers who are qualified to teach, rather
than those who say they are interested in teaching. Many studies focus on the
characteristics of those who are interested in teaching, rather than those who actually
complete a teacher education program. Given the high turnover that occurs in teaching
(Hanushek and Pace, 1994), their findings more accurately assess the academic skills of
teachers.

Steven P. McNeel ( 1994) offers further insight into this issue with his study
involving Christian colleges. McNeel works at Bethel College—a college that like Calvin
College belongs to the Christian Coalition. His findings reveal a number of
characteristics of student moral development (McNeel, like Chang, used the D.I.T. in his
study). McNeel analyzed data from research studies at Christian colleges and universities
and found that students tend to have lower levels of moral judgement.

The mechanism is presumably an ideological, answer—oriented approach to

education that operates against the development or expression of autonomous

principled thinking in moral dilemmas. That is, because of a focus on given
answers, a Christian higher education might not develop in students what Western
philosophers call the moral viewpoint, the emphasis on making moral judgments
out of basic universalizable principles, such as justice, or the valuing of human

life and dignity(p. 29).

McNeel cautions against making generalizations to all Christian colleges due to the
diversity within Christian colleges. He noted that Christian colleges with a liberal arts

focus faired better on student moral development scales than non—liberal arts Christian

colleges, although the small number of colleges or universities in the study (12) limits his

claim.

36

McNeel (1992) used his findings as a foundation for action research at Bethel.-
Bethel made the moral development of its students a priority. Faculty participated in a
program designed to enhance their understanding of moral development. New courses in
ethics were introduced and implemented. Other programs (e. g. off—campus learning
experiences) were assessed for their effect on student moral development. McNeel asserts
that these interventions may contribute to a student’s skill in using principled reasoning,
although the size of the effect depended on student major. Education (and business)
students demonstrated the smallest gains in principled reasoning. In fact, freshmen who
came into an education program with a high principled reasoning scores were more likely
to show decreases in principled reasoning. McNeel notes that seniors in education use the
principled reasoning skills of freshmen. McNeel speculates that the lower growth gains
could be due to the type of discipline and pedagogy used in education or the personal
characteristics of the students in the program.

While McNeel’s work offers some possible solutions to helping preservice
students crafi an ethical practice, the research indicates these students’ moral reasoning
ability tends to be at lower levels than that of other college students, and this difference
may be amplified at Christian Colleges.

Analyng the significance of this research is difficult. For example, do teachers
who have higher scores on the D.I.T. make better educators? Fon—Yean Chang reviewed
the research studies that analyzed the correlation between the moral reasoning scores of
teachers and their views on discipline, teacher’s role, relationships with students, and
understanding educational concepts. He found that teachers at the higher stages have a

more complex understanding in areas of student discipline, teacher roles, curriculum, and

37

 

educational issues. For example, teachers with higher levels of moral reasoning tend to
take a more humanistic—democratic view of discipline. Teachers with lower moral
reasoning levels tend to take a more authoritarian view of discipline that focuses on
students obeying rules and following procedures. “Consequently, teachers with high
levels of moral reasoning can be more student—centered and perform more humanely,
democratically, and professionally”(p. 76). Chang concludes,

Teachers with higher moral reasoning can be more empowering to student

learning and healthy social development than teachers with lower moral

reasoning. These conclusions suggest that teacher moral reasoning play a crucial

role in teachers’ practice. Promotion of a moral reasoning component in teachers’
training programs seems to be necessary for cultivating fully functioning teachers

(p. 81).
The literature reviewed in this section indicates that education students do not come to
college with high-principled reasoning skills. Nor do they graduate with those skills.

The literature reviewed indicates that by using a variety of pedagogical strategies,
student moral awareness and thinking could be influenced. Assessing the degree of
influence or how the influence might be applied in a student’s life was difficult to
determine. Also, certain factors, such as teacher education programs and student
characteristics may constrain the efforts to influence how students think and take action
in practice. The work of Oser and Althof focused on influencing the practice of teachers
through the use of a strategy called “discourse morality.”

Oser and Althof (1993) take a different approach to helping students act in moral
ways. They contend professional morality is usually limited to teaching students about
ethical principles or trying to develop virtuous characteristics in students, trusting that

virtuous people act in virtuous ways. While being a virtuous person or knowing of ethical

38

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theory is important, Oser and Althof offer a procedure called “discourse morality” for
teachers confronted with a complex dilemma.

To have a moral method means not so much to be a moral person but to construct,

day by day, a moral journey as a way of life. . .. The strategy and readiness for

systematically reflecting, controlling, and evaluating through a moral method is

called procedural morality. This is where our research must begin (p. 117).

Before using discourse morality, a teacher must create a moral environment in the
classroom—one where students and teacher feel safe in stating their opinions and beliefs.
If the students believe their thoughts and feelings are respected, the teacher can create
roundtable conversations with the students and other people involved in the dilemma.
The purpose of the roundtable conversations is to hear the perspectives of those people
involved with the situation for the purpose of taking action of which participants feel a
part.

Leading such discussions takes training and practice, but Oser and Althof believe
such discourse,or dialogue, will lead to moral actions. Oser and Althof contend that a
. virtuous teacher who only uses ethical theory may not take action of which those
involved in the situation will understand or feel a part. Instead, by sitting the participants
around a table and having each play an equal role in the resolution process, the final
outcome will reinforce the integrity and worth of each person.

Oser and Althof have taught this method to teachers and have done follow—up
interviews and questionnaires with thirty teachers on the effect discourse morality has on
their students. Students also completed a questionnaire evaluating teachers who used
discourse morality and teachers who did not use the procedure. Oser and Althof have

found that the procedure creates positive feelings for the students because they feel that

the teacher respects them and values their opinion. Based on the comparisons of teachers

39

 

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who use discourse morality and those who do not, Oser and Althof claim teachers should
receive extensive training in discourse morality and the ability to create and lead
roundtables.

Oser and Althof’s seem to argue that when it comes to resolving ethical
dilemmas, discourse morality will provide an effective way to do it—regardless of your
virtue or knowledge of ethical theory. While having a procedure in place to deal with
complex dilemmas is important, a teacher’s role in modeling ethical action and creating a
classroom climate that attempts to prevent negative outcomes from occurring is equally
important. Teachers need more than a procedure to handle difficult situations in the
classroom. Teachers need a way to think about every aspect of their practice in an ethical
way. Preservice students who learn discourse morality may have the impression that
ethical teaching revolves around moral situations involving only relationships between
students and a teacher. Preservice students also need to understand that teaching’s moral
dimension comes out in areas like curriculum choices, pedagogical strategies, and
non—verbal communication.

The recommendations and research done in this area indicates that certain
instructional strategies may prove beneficial to student understanding of teaching’s moral
dimension, but knowing if and how students apply their understanding in their own
teaching situations is more difficult.

Organization of the Study

I have framed the rest of the dissertation with the work of Lee Shulman. Shulman

(1987) in “Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform,” argues that

teaching reform must emphasize “comprehension and reasoning, transformation and

40

reflection” (p. 1). Shuhnan builds his case by asserting that the current knowledge base of
teaching is often reduced to teaching behaviors that connect with higher achievement on
tests. Rejecting this view, Shulman claims that the learning process cannot be defined by
a list of teaching behaviors. Rather, Shulman paraphrases Fenstermacher’s (1986)
definition of teaching and claims that teaching is where

the unknowing can come to know, those without understanding can comprehend

and discern, and the unskilled can become adept. Thus teaching necessarily
begins with a teacher’s understanding of what is to be learned and how it is to be

taught (p. 7).

Shulman’s definition of teaching connects with the goals I had for the interim course. I
wanted my students, or “the unknowing”, to know, understand, and become adept at
crafting an ethical practice.

Shulman asserts that teachers should possess seven different types of knowledge
in order to teach well: content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, curriculum
knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of learners, knowledge of
educational contexts, and knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values. Shulman
defines and describes these seven different types of knowledge and then explores how an
effective teacher develops understanding in these seven areas of knowledge. He
concludes that a teacher’s reasoning ability influences a teacher’s ability to understand
and use these seven types of knowledge.

As we have come to view teaching, it begins with an act of reason, continues with

a process of reasoning, culminates in performance of imparting, eliciting,

involving, or enticing, and is then thought about some more until the process can

begin again. In the discussion of teaching that follows, we will emphasize

teaching as comprehension and reasoning, as transformation and reflection (p.
13).

41

 

 

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I wanted my students to reason in ethical ways about their practice. Shulman
might say that I would need to comprehend and reason about teaching’s moral dimension
for the purpose of transforming my understanding in ways that connect with students.
After teaching my lessons, I would need to reflect on my interaction with the students for
the purpose of forming a new level of comprehension to use in my next teaching
experience.

Shulman continues his argument by referring to Fenstermacher’s framework for
teacher education. The following passage could have also served as an accurate
description of my intentions for the students in the interim class.

The goal of teacher education. . .is to educate teachers to reason soundly about

their teaching as well as to perform skillfully. Sound reasoning requires both a

process of thinking about what they are doing and an adequate base of facts,

principles, and experiences from which to reason. Teachers must learn to use their
knowledge base to provide the grounds for choices and actions. Therefore, teacher
education must work with the beliefs that guide teacher actions, with the
principles and evidence that underlie the choices teachers make. Such

reasons. . .can be predominantly arbitrary or idiosyncratic (“It sure seemed like the

right idea at the time!” “I don’t know much about teaching, but I know what I

like”), or they can rest on ethical, empirical, theoretical, or practical principles

that have substantial support among members of the professional community of

teachers (p.13).

Shuhnan was writing his article in reaction to efforts to reform teaching by analyzing
teaching behaviors that lead to higher student achievement scores. Shuhnan asserts that
reform must be influenced by the intellectual basis for teaching performance-the ability
of teachers to reason about teaching.

I was also trying to institute a type of reform with the Calvin students. I wanted
the students to craft an ethical practice by having their pedagogical reasoning based on

ethical, empirical, theoretical, and practical principles. Through engagement with the

42

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readings, discussions, and classroom activities, the students might learn to reason and
think ethically about their choices and actions in their own classroom.

Shulman provides a model for pedagogical reasoning that teachers can use in
preparing material for instruction. He argues that pedagogical reasoning has five
components that teachers must continually engage in for effective instruction. The

following figure represents these elements of pedagogical reasoning.

43

 

Comprehension
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Figure 1.1 Shulman’s model of pedagogical reasoning
I use Shulman’s model to examine and analyze my own teaching and as an organizing
framework for the dissertation. I will describe and analyze my attempt at educating
preservice students “to reason soundly about their teaching as well as to perform

skillfully.”

44

Overview

I have framed my study into five major parts by adapting Shulman’s phases of

pedagogical reasoning. Each of these five parts is divided further into sections.
Chapter Two: Comprehension.

Shulman believes that teaching begins with the teacher’s effort to understand the
material she will teach. In Chapter Two, I describe my own efforts to comprehend the
complex topic of the moral dimension of teaching. I divide the chapter into two sections.
In the first section, I describe how three moral frameworks, Consequentialist,
Non—consequentialist, and Care Theory, provide a framework for understanding of what
is involved in crafting of an ethical practice. I connect these frameworks to the moral
development work of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan. The second section outlines the
knowledge students will need to understand in order to craft an ethical practice.

Chapter Three: Transformation.

This phase of pedagogical reasoning requires teachers to take what they
comprehend and transform it in ways that connect to the students. Shulman includes four
steps in this process. I have modified his process slightly to describe my attempts to
transform what I comprehended about teaching’s moral dimension in ways that students
might understand. Chapter Three is divided into three sections. In the first section, I
describe the potential roadblocks that interfere with the transformational process. In the
second section, I outline the design and rationale for the course. The final section, 1

describe and analyze the students for which the material was adapted.

45

 

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Chapter Four: Instruction and Evaluation.

Shuhnan separates these two phases in his model, but in Chapter Four, I
combined them for analysis purposes. I use classroom audio and videotape and student
journals to analyze the influence the course had on student reasoning. In this chapter, I
first outline the methods used in collecting and analyzing data. In the second section, I
analyze selected instructional strategies implemented during the interim time.

Chapter Five: Reflection of Learning.

Shuhnan asserts that careful reflection on teaching activity may lead to new
comprehension for the teacher. In Chapter Five, I reflect on the possible influence this
course had on two students who had their own extended teaching experiences the
following semester. Of the sixteen students in the class, only Erin and Debra had teaching
experiences immediately after the interim class. I analyze the effect of the course on
Erin’s student aiding and Debra’s student teaching experiences.

Chapter Six: New Comprehension.

Shuhnan believes that careful reflection leads to new comprehension of subject
matter, students, teaching, and self. In Chapter Six, I attempt to make sense out of my
study by pointing out areas of my own learning in these areas and raising questions that

remain unanswered after the study.

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Comprehension

Shulman argues that pedagogical reasoning begins with comprehension of the
subject to be taught. He writes, “We ask that the teacher comprehend critically a set of
ideas to be taught. We expect teachers to understand what they teach and, when possible,
to understand it in several ways” (p.14). In Chapter Two, I will describe the set of ideas
that contributed to my understanding of how to teach this course. I have organized the
chapter into three sections that answer three different questions. The following questions
reveal a set of concepts that form the foundation of my comprehension for teaching the
course:

1. What perspectives explain ethical thinking?

2. Is moral development possible?

3. What must students understand concerning teaching’s moral dimension?
Shulman contends that a teacher educator must first comprehend the answers to these
questions before transforming the material in ways that connect to students. Chapter Two
discusses a set of ideas and concepts that emerge from addressing these three questions.

What Perspectives Explain Ethical Thinking?

To live a moral life. and to take ethical actions requires a type of thinking and way
of processing decisions. The literature I reviewed took three different approaches in
describing ways of thinking that lead to ethical actions. The consequentialist,
nonconsequentialist, and Care Theory perspectives offer three ways to explain and to
guide ethical action. Other constructs exist, but I chose the following three for their direct

connection to educational settings. The consequentialist theory emphasizes maximizing

47

the good for the greatest number of people. The nonconsequentialist theory focuses on

duty and principles. Care theory accentuates the care each individual receives in building

relationships and community. I will connect these theories to the educational world by

describing the influence each theory has (or could have) on the teacher decision—making

process. My purpose in explaining these three theories is to situate my study within a

fiamework that helps explain teacher reasoning for the actions they take in classrooms.
The Consequentialist

As the term indicates, in consequentialist philosophy, the consequences of a
person’s action determines its value. Consequentialists try to maximize the good for all
those involved in a situation. But trying to define what is “good” does present some
problems. Bentham (1748—1832) and Mill (1806—1873) attempted to define good by
creating a system for adding up a person’s pleasure and subtracting the same person’s
pain for a particular situation. The resulting figure determines a person’s “utility score”
for a particular action. Bentham and Mill argued the world would be a better place if
actions taken would increase the utility, or pleasure, of the greatest number of people.
The challenge of determining the pleasure and pain for everyone involved in a policy
requires careful thought and analysis. Their theory became known as utilitarianism.

The following example demonstrates how consequentialist thinking could be used
in a classroom. Suppose a teacher is explaining the mathematical concept of fi'actions.
During the lengthy presentation involving manipulatives and examples, a student raises
his hand and begins to ask questions pertaining to the presentation. The student is
confused and has missed important parts of the presentation. The rest of the class seems

impatient with his questions and wants to continue the lesson. The teacher is now faced

48

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with a dilemma: of what action to take. Bentham and Mill reason that what should guide
the teacher’s thinking is an analysis of what action would bring the greatest good (or
pleasure) to the greatest number of students involved with the lesson. The teacher quickly
begins assessing the effect of taking the time to explain again to this one student the
concept of fractions. For that student, the utility score of this action is high. Next, the
teacher calculates the scores for the other students in the classroom. For almost all of
them, the utility score for this action is low. When the teacher combines the one high
score with all the other low scores, she may decide to act in another way.

Suppose the teacher decides to push the question off until the end of the lesson
and talk to the student afterwards. The student’s utility score plummets dramatically, but
the other students in the class will find their utility scores increasing. When she now
combines the scores, clearly the action of talking with the student after the lesson creates
a higher score. Granted, there may be a negative effect for the one student, but the
positive results for the other students dictate which action to take.

Strike (1992) points out two problems resulting from such thinking. First, the
teacher must determine accurately a student’s pleasure and pain. The teacher must judge
the consequences of her actions by predicting the effect it will have on others. Strike
contends that accurately assessing the effects of teacher action on students is difficult.
The second problem results from with the possibility of actions that the majority find
good, yet are immoral. For example, suppose a school district decides to give a reading
test at the end of the school year to each third grade student. If the student does not pass
the test, they remain in third grade. The district could have created this policy based on

the utility score for each student. The high utility score of students who can read being

49

grouped together outweighs the low utility scores of those students who remain in third
grade. What makes this a potentially immoral action is if the district made the policy
without carefully creating reading strategies that provide each student an opportunity to
learn to read and to receive help in that process if they struggle.

Consequentialist thinking connects to the educational process for two reasons.
First, the idea of teachers taking an action that benefits the most students has appeal.
Knowing a teacher did something for the betterment of a number of children eases the
decision to act in a certain way. Second, the pace of teaching forces teachers to quickly
act or respond to students. They usually do not have the time to think their decisions
carefully through or consult with other teachers. A form of consequentialist thinking can
occur despite the intensity and time limitations that are a part of teaching. Quickly
assessing the influence actions might have on students is possible given these conditions.

The Nonconsequentialjpt

The Nonconsequentialists, represented by Immanuel Kant, offer a different
process for evaluating an action. Kant emphasizes duty and principles in his theory. I will
take three of Kant’s principles and explain how they contribute to our thinking on moral
matters. Kant’s first rule, called the Formula of the Universal Law, requires that the
person taking the action remove reference to herself fiom that action. The person must be
willing to make that action a universal law. I interpret Kant as offering two ways to make
decisions. First, the person must be willing to require all other people in the same
situation to behave in the same way. Second, those other people would take the same
action that the person is contemplating given the circumstances. For example, suppose

Ms. Smith loves to teach science. She teaches it every day and is quite good at it. Ms.

50

Smith’s interest in math is quite different. She herself struggled in math and would rather
spend as little time on it as possible. How should Ms. Smith decide how much time to
devote to the teaching of science and math? At first glance, she may decide that given her
interests and strengths, she should teach more science, but Kant’s process of making
decisions will not allow her preferences to dictate her decision. Ms. Smith must remove
any reference to herself in making her decision. Instead, Ms. Smith begins to ask herself a
series of questions that will enable her to make a moral decision. For example, she might
ask, “If I was any student, parent, or other teacher in this situation, would I still believe it
is a good thing to teach more science than math? Based on what I know of the skills
needed in today’s society, can I still choose to teach the amount of science and math that
I prefer?” Questions like these assist Ms. Smith in making a moral decision; after all, her
actions affect the students, parents, school board members, other teachers, and future
employers associated with the school. Ms. Smith must make her decision without
knowing what role she would be playing in this complex web of characters. Teaching
more science than math may not be the thing to do from a future employer’s point of
view, but that is one consideration Ms. Smith takes into account when making her
decision.

I am not claiming that using Kant’s process of only taking actions that can be
made into a universal law will lead to the “right” action. It is possible that Ms. Smith
could conclude that given her limited expertise in the field of math, her lack of
comnritrnent and passion in the discipline, and the importance of having teachers who can

instill a love for math in the students, she should teach more science than math. I am not

51

arguing that using Kant’s principles led to taking the right action, rather, following
Kant’s principles will lead to more thoughtful, ethical actions.

Taking an action that becomes a maxim for all to follow seems overwhelming. I
would have to think carefully about the other people affected by my actions, their needs,
and their reactions to my actions. Thinking in this way may sound like consequentialist
thinking, but Kant would push for actions that all those involved in the process would
agree to, not just a majority of those who might benefit.

John Hare (1996) describes the tension that results from Kant’s high moral
demand and a person’s capacity to attain the moral demand. Taking action that satisfies
the requirements for the universal law seems impossible. Hare argues that Kant uses God
to resolve this tension in two ways. First, a person must have faith that God will make up
for a person’s lack of ability to meet the requirements of the universal law. Second, a
person must have faith that ‘God will grant success in attempts to do good and will reward
a person’s “disposition of the heart” (p.70) for obeying God. Calvin students may find
some comfort in Hare’s arguments of how faith integrates with their attempts to craft an
ethical practice. Believing that God works through a teacher’s weakness and rewards her
effort to act in moral ways may provide the motivation to craft an ethical practice.

The second guideline operates in a more specific way. Kant asserted that a person
may not treat others as a “means” to an end, but rather each person must be treated as an
“end”. A person must not use others as a way to get what he wants. Instead, a person
must consider others’ needs and goals, treating each person as though they possess the
same integrity, value, and moral worth that he does. Kant asserted that a person who did

not treat others merely as a means would eventually share the same “end” of those

52

 

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involved with the situation. I interpret Kant as saying that if I treat another person as an
end and not a means to my end, I will take an action that both the other person and I
agree is morally defensible.

The implications for education create interesting scenarios. Suppose Ms. Smith is
deeply involved in a lesson on social studies about Christopher Columbus. She asks why
Columbus sailed to America. Tommy raises his hand and responds that Columbus was
embarrassed and stopped as soon as he could. Ms. Smith must now respond to Tommy.
How will Ms. Smith decide what to do? What things will she pay attention to? Ms. Smith
is looking for and seeing the time restraints imposed on the lesson and the lack of clarity
of Tommy’s answer, she may decide to move on to the next raised hand. If Ms. Smith
discounts Tommy’s response by ignoring him or not seeking further explanation, Tommy
could become a casualty on the road to the right answer of why Columbus sailed the
ocean blue. In a sense, her actions might be considered immoral, because Ms. Smith
discounted Tommy by ignoring his response in favor of getting to her end of having the
' right answer. But Kant’s second principle requires Ms. Smith to carefully consider what
response would be appropriate in this situation. For example, she might ask herself,
“Why would Tommy think Columbus was embarrassed? What is Tommy getting out of
this lesson? What does Tommy want to get out of this lesson? Should I rephrase my
question in order to get a further explanation from him?” Tommy may (or may not)
weave an account that explains his earlier statement, but at least Ms. Smith did not treat
him as a means to her goal.

Kant’s second principle demands much from educators in two ways. First, Kant

argues that each person is worth no more or less than any other person. Worth, or

53

importance, does not increase with age or knowledge. The structure and nature of school
works against this principle subtle ways. Because of a teacher’s position and experience,
a teacher has to think carefully about believing that a teacher’s words and actions have
more value than the words and actions of children. If teachers fail to remember to treat
students as an end rather than a means in the education process, they may fall into a trap
that creates unethical teaching situations. Second, Kant’s principle of treating each person
as an end goes against a utilitarian calculation of doing what is best for the most people
involved. Kant challenges teachers to do what is best for each child.

Kant offers one other direction to those trying to act morally. Kant argues that
people belong to the Kingdom of Ends. He asserts people are interrelated in some way by
the various needs and gifts they bring to the Kingdom. He contends that in the Kingdom
of Ends, the needs and gifts of the members come together forming a unity. The
educational process is included in the Kingdom, and Kant expects those involved to
connect their needs and gifts.

For example, teaching is the process of connecting the subject matter with the
children. How does that subject matter get chosen? Who does the selecting? In Kant’s
view, the process involves a community that rationally deliberates about the worthiness
of what should be taught. The needs of the society as seen in family and commerce need
attention. Once families and society reach consensus on needs, those who have gifts are
expected to meet the needs. That is where teachers come in. Teachers have gifts that are

useful in making the learning process happen, but others also contribute in meeting the
needs found in educational settings. Students, parents, and members of the community all

contribute to the process. The easy answer lets the teacher decides how a child is

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educated, but Kant’s perspective expects a collaboration that seeks out the needs and the
gifts of those involved.

Kant provides teachers with a way of thinking about the dilemmas and situations
they face on a daily basis. Kant suggests three ways to process the information before
making a decision. First, remove singular reference. A person must be willing to make a
universal law out of the action taken, regardless of whether the person was the student,
principal, or playing some other role in the process. Second, actions should maintain the
dignity and integrity of each person by treating them as an end, rather than means. Third,
actions taken connect needs and gifts together in the Kingdom of Ends. These three
elements provide a way for teachers to think about making decisions that affect matters
ranging from cuniculum to the day to day procedural issues in classrooms.

Strike (1992) notes two weaknesses in Kant’s work. First, he notes the difficulty
in deciding on an action worthy of becoming a universal law. It requires the person to
think carefully about each of the people affected by the possible action and to decide
whether each would take the same action in this situation. As with the consequentialists,
most people would struggle to know how others think about various situations. Predicting
responses accurately appears problematic. Given the complex nature of learning and the
varied factors that influence the educational process, coming up with a maxim that could
satisfy Kant’s principal of Universal Law seems remote. Second, the knowledge of the
person making the decision is a crucial factor in the decision—making process. To go back
to the example involving Ms. Smith, she could conclude that anyone else would decide to
teach more science than math based on her assessment on how others would respond to

her situation. It could be that Ms. Smith’s lack of knowledge about who is affected by her

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decision and how they would respond would lead to a poor decision. Her good intentions
still may leave victims of the educational process.

Education is a complex endeavor. Strike concludes that while consequentialist
and non—consequentialist perspectives provide guidance in taking action, they are limited
constructs. Neither provides a step—by—step procedure for identifying the right action.
Instead, Strike argues that some combination of these viewpoints makes sense for they
both offer ways to help teachers craft an ethical practice. While I agree with Strike an the
value of understanding these perspectives and allowing them to guide a teaching practice,
teachers would benefit from understanding one more perspective: Care Theory.

Care Theogz

Since the time of Kant and Bentham and Mill, consequentialist and
nonconsequentialist perspectives have dominated the moral philosophical field. These
two pillars supported most of the research and application of modern moral thought. That
dominance changed with Carol Gilligan’s work (1982). Gilligan, a student of Lawrence
Kohlberg, questioned Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.

Kohlberg argued that moral development could be thought-of in three levels that
are divided into six stages. The first level, or the preconventional level, a person acts to
avoid punishment or to gain some reward. In the second level, or the conventional level, a
person acts to fit in with society and gain acceptance by others. A person becomes aware
4 of others and takes their feelings into account. In the third level, or post—conventional
stage, Kohlberg argued a person would use principled reasoning. A person acts in certain

ways based on the principles from which rules and laws stem. Instead of citing a law or

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the wish to maintain a peaceful society as a reason for taking actions, the principle of
justice would come to the forefront.

Kohlberg’s stages depend on cognitive development. To advance from one level
to the next requires careful thinking and reflection on personal values and beliefs of self
and others. Such complex thinking requires teaching and practice. (See Power, Higgins,
and Kohlberg’s (1989) book, Lawrence Kohlberg ’3 Approach to Moral Education for a
comprehensive source on Kohlberg’s perspective.) Kohlberg determined a person’s level
of moral development by interviewing people carefully about how they would act in a
number of morally complex situations. He relied on an analysis of a person’s moral
reasoning to make his determination.

Gilligan questioned the assumption that a person’s ideas about justice determine
his/her level of moral reasoning. Reacting to studies that indicated women did not score
high on Kohlberg’s scale of moral development, Gilligan argued that women speak with
“a different voice”—one of care rather than of justice. Gilligan reasoned Kohlberg did not
understand how women think about moral decisions; she contended women learn to think
in moral ways, in part, due to their relationships with their mothers. As a result, women
learn to emphasize relationships based on care and interconnectedness between people.
They are less concerned with issues of justice. Boys tend to break away from their
mothers and the emphasis of developing relationships with others based on care. Instead,
Gilligan asserts that the basis of interaction with others revolve around issues of power
and control. Issues of power and control create situations of justice. Gilligan contends the

idea of caring and building relationships seems less central to boys. Gilligan’s assertions,

57

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which lacked the benefit of documented studies, created a controversy and debate that
continues today.
This brief, historical backdrop serves as a segue to Nel Noddings’ work (1986,

1992, 1993). Building on Gilligan’s work, Noddings developed a philosophy of education
built on community and care. Noddings noted that Kant’s ethics depended on a careful
analysis of the situation and the possibility for action. That left her with a cold,
unemotional feeling. She also found fault with a version of utilitarianism that gauged
people’s happiness as a group, but failed to account for the individual within the group.
She tried to compensate for the weakness she saw in these two traditional approaches to
living morally with her Care Ethic. Noddings asserts that relationships must be concerned
with how people treat one another. Matters of justice are important, but they make up
only a small part of the relationships between people..Caring is concerned with justice,
but that should stem from hearing, seeing, and feeling what is in another person. Instead

of predicting what actions might do the greatest good for the greatest number of people,
. Noddings suggested that the actions people take should promote relationships with each
other. What I find appealing about Noddings’ work was her focus on the other person, or
in the case of teaching, the child. Instead of a sense of duty or adherence to a particular
principle, what guides action is the concept of building and maintaining of relationships
within community.

In terms of education, the teacher must want to know and to be known by her

students. Caring is a two—way relationship in which both the care giver and care receiver
play vital roles. Without response from the cared—for, the caregiver runs the risk of

burning out. Without being willing to receive from the cared-for, the caregiver will not

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understand what the relationship requires. This type of living (or teaching) requires a type
of sensitivity that develops over years.

Noddings offers teachers two important considerations in making decisions. First,
a teacher needs to think about the effect actions have on an individual child. Noddings
reminds teachers that actions affect a person. She advocates that such actions require
fidelity, or faithfulness, to that person. Her question connects with Kant’s tenet to treat
others as ends and not merely a means. Noddings’ ethic of care demands that teachers
hear, see, and feel what is in the students being served. Children have individual
integrity; some combined utilitarian score should not determine what action teachers take
in relation to them.

Second, Noddings asserts that teachers need to ask what effect decisions have on
the caring community they are trying to build. Noddings’ goal in education is to produce
caring, moral persons who live in community with each other. She realizes that the
actions taken with students are done in a broader context than in an individual
relationship. What is done with one student has implications for the whole class. Her
emphasis on the community is reminiscent of Kant’s Kingdom of Ends—they both point
to a broader context within which individuals may find themselves.

One concern with Noddings’ work stems from the faulty perception that teachers
should first be “buddies” with their students at the cost of being academically rigorous
with them. Noddings’ conception of caring includes teachers who, because they care so
much, are determined to be competent in what they do. To go back to an earlier example,
if Ms. Smith does not feel her gifts are in teaching math, because she cares for her

students, Ms. Smith will do what it takes to become more qualified in the math area. Care

59

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Ethic requires competency. It does not settle for lackadaisical effort or uninformed
decision-making processes.

Noddings’ position does have limitations. Teachers will still find themselves in
situations where they will have to determine how to meet the needs of individual students
who have competing aims. For example, the teacher may ask a question and suddenly a
number of students raise their hands wanting to give the answer. The teacher must decide
on what child to call on. The teacher wants to foster the relationships with each student,
but only one can be called on at any one time. The teacher must now start to weigh the
advantages and disadvantages of selecting one student to answer the question and that
quickly begins to sound like consequentialist thinking. The competing claims of the
different individuals’ rights and needs present difficult challenges for Noddings to
resolve.

Another limitation of Noddings’ work affects educators who must respond to the
current political emphasis on educational standards and state testing. Noddings argues
' that schools should develop caring, moral people, but that purpose requires a certain type
of pedagogy that may run counter to assessment driven education. If teachers want to
develop a caring person, they need to show care to that person. Showing care to 25
children in a class will take time, because it requires the teacher to hear and respond to
each child. When schools are faced will the challenge of increasing their students’ MEAP
scores or lose their funding, developing a caring child may have to wait until after the

test.

60

Summag

Other theories of ethics and moral decision—making processes exist. I have limited
my discussion to these three perspectives for two reasons. First, the consequentialist
viewpoint permeates the decision—making process that occurs in the classroom. Teachers
faced with a constant stream of complex situations and educational dilemmas resort to
accommodating the majority of their students. Thinking about doing “right” for most of
the children seems like a natural process for teachers to follow. After all, how wrong can
you be when you are doing right for so many?

I understand that I am making an unsupported assertion here. I came across no
studies or empirical evidence that supports my belief that teachers use consequentialist
thinking in making their decisions. Based on my experience as an educator, I contend this
type of thinking is the norm. Later in my study, I will offer some evidence from Calvin
students that support the contention that consequentialist thinking is the preferred method
of decision-making.

A second reason exists for the focus on these three schools of moral philosophy.
Kant and Noddings offer concrete ways for crafting an ethical teacher practice. It may
seem strange to combine a German philosopher from the late 1700’s with a modem-day
woman who takes a distinctly feminist perspective toward the philosophy of education,
yet they form a powerful combination. First, Kant (1996) places a premium on the ability
for rational thought. In order to act in ethical ways, he requires people to think carefully
during the decision-making process. Teaching requires similar thought processes.
Effective teachers think carefully about their pedagogy and reflect on their practice. Kant

encourages such activity. Second, Kant sets the bar high in regards to moral expectations.

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He is not satisfied with actions done for expedient, convenient, or political reasons. His
maxims stem from duty, not desire. The educational process would benefit from the kind
of thinking Kant encourages. Actions taken would require justification on a high moral
plane. Finally, Immanuel Kant’s influence on moral philosophy is significant. Although
teachers do not often quote his work, his ideas could assist educators in developing
ethically sound teaching practices.

Noddings (1986, 1993) might agree with Kant that teachers need to reflect on
their practice because of the high moral demands placed on them. She adds to Kant’s
work by pointing out that moral actions are taken as a direct response to individuals. The
relationship between individuals forms the foundation of all moral action. While Kant
relies on reasoning and logic, Noddings’ work adds the emotional element to the moral
dimension of teaching. Her focus on the individual provides another way of thinking
about how ethics may be applied in the classroom. Kant may seem abstract and rather
distant from what happens between a teacher and a student; Noddings brings moral
philosophy into the classroom.

Noddings may not agree with my argument that she and Kant form a solid
partnership. She has pointed out Kant’s shortcomings in her work (1986). She argues that
actions that stem out of a genuine care for the other have characteristics different from
actions that are borne out of duty. Actions begin more easily and are sustainable when
they arise from a caring ethic. Generating and maintaining actions from a sense of duty
may lessen the quality of the interaction with the other. I interpret Noddings as saying
that the moral life of Kant focused on “ought” rather than on “other”. Noddings might say

that Kant’s actions where motivated by what he ought to do, rather than a genuine desire

62

to care for another person. But rather than use one of these philosophers to the exclusion
of the other, I have attempted to show how Kant and Noddings complement each other.
Is Moral Development Possible?

As an teacher educator, I was interested in providing experiences that would
deepen preservice students understanding of teaching’s moral dimension and assist them
in crafting an ethical practice. What makes this topic challenging is the relationship
between that type of knowledge and students’ moral development. I was trying to have
preservice students become aware of how moral questions and issues permeate classroom
activities. Realizing the moral significance of teaching, I also wanted to provide them
with a way of thinking about the actions they would take in a classroom. The work of
Kant and Noddings could help them to think more deeply about the decisions in their
teaching.

In trying to meet my objective, I needed to address issues of moral development.
For example, what type of moral development is required for ethical teaching? Would the
Calvin students need to develop morally in order to craft an ethical practice? Is moral
development measurable? I had to think through carefully what I was trying to do;
otherwise, I ran the risk of becoming short—sighted in regards to the effect and
significance of the interim course.

When reviewing the literature on moral development, I found that moral
development is a complex business.The work of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan offered a
foundation for understanding the relationship of moral development and the purposes of

the course.

63

 

Jean Piaget

In some ways, the father of research on moral development is Jean Piaget.
Piaget’s work with children led him to assert that a child’s cognitive ability, or way of
thinking, determines the child’s moral development. Piaget developed two stages of
moral development. Children begin in a heteronomous stage characterized by obeying
rules. A young child cannot think about the intentions of a rule, merely the outcome of it.
Children in this stage see things as being right or wrong, often referring to rules they have
been taught.

Children move into an autonomous stage when they realize rules fit into certain
contexts. These contexts usually involve the feelings and ideas of other people. A child
must then begin to synthesize personal feelings with the feelings of others involved with
a particular situation. A child learns how to take another person’s perspective, which
depends on the child’s cognitive ability to think along those lines. (see De Vries and
Zan’s (1994) book, Moral Children: Constructing a Constructivist Atmosphere for
further information.)

Piaget provides an important piece to the moral development puzzle. Piaget
makes a connection between moral development and thinking. A person’s cognitive
ability makes a difference in his/her competence in producing moral decisions. The
connection Piaget makes between thinking and moral action indicates the importance of
developing a child’s cognitive ability. Piaget advocated for providing children with a
number of experiences that challenge the child’s current perspective. By resolving the
dissonance created by these experiences, the child will develop the cognitive ability

required in the next stage.

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Piaget’s work connects with the interim course in two ways. First, developing the
ability in preservice students to craft an ethical practice would require that I influence
their thinking processes. Second, influencing student thinking processes would involve
providing a number of experiences requiring resolution of difficult situations and
challenging student thinking about classroom events.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Kohlberg took Piaget’s work one step further by studying the moral development
of children and adults. In the previous section, I outlined the moral development stages
that Kohlberg constructed. To determine what stage a person might be in, Kohlberg
developed an elaborate interview process that focused on the resolution of dilemmas.
Kohlberg was not so much interested in what action a person would take in these
situations, but rather the rationale used for the ”action. Based on the person’s rationale,
Kohlberg would judge a person’s level of moral development. He contended that you
could assist a person from one stage to the next by providing experiences that would
force the person to confront the inadequacies of their current level. Like Piaget, Kohlberg
argued that people think in certain ways about their world. To change how they act within
their world, requires changing how they think about the actions they will take. Dilemmas
could confront people with difficulties with their beliefs, but Kohlberg did not think
discussing difficult dilemmas was enough. Kohlberg added that people need experience
in resolving moral situations by discussing what action to take, taking an action, and
living with the consequences. The “just community” school approach, begun by
Kohlberg, attempted to take his assertations seriously by providing students the

opportunity to make and live with moral decisions.

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Kohlberg reinforced Piaget’s emphasis on the role cognitive ability plays in moral
development. Assisting preservice students in developing their ability to craft an ethical
practice involves influencing their thinking process. Both Kohlberg and Piaget agreed
that influencing a person’s thinking process would require experiences confronting a
person with the inadequacies of his/her current beliefs. Resolving dilemmas could cause
the type of confrontation leading to such an adjustment, but it might not be enough. Life
experience plays a significant role in a person’s moral development.

I wanted the interim class to influence how the students would think about their
practice, but Kohlberg’s work presented an ominous warning for the study. I would not
be able to give my preservice students the type of real life experience that Kohlberg
advocated in his just community schools. I could put my students in role—plays and
improvisations that represented life, but those experiences lack the reality of living with
decisions that may or may not be ethical. I was not clear fiom the reading of Piaget and
Kohlberg whether educational experiences would be enough to influence students’
thinking in such a way that would lead to moral actions in the classroom.

Piaget and Kohlberg are unclear in explaining how thinking and action connect.
The assumption that Piaget and Kohlberg seem to operate under is that a person’s moral
development stage depends on the reasoning given for an action taken. The focus is not
on the action taken, but on the'reason given for that action. Two possible negative
outcomes stem from Piaget and Kohlberg’s assumption. First, a person may seem to
reason at a high moral stage because that person has learned the language or vocabulary
that coincides with that stage, rather than having a heart—felt conviction to act in a certain

way. Kohlberg could interview a person and determine a high moral stage based on the

66

rationale used in resolving various dilemmas. But the possibility exists that a person may
live differently than indicated by Kohlberg’s placement on a high moral stage. What a
person says in an interview format and what a person actually does in life may be two
different things. Knowledge and thinking ability play a role in a person’s decision to take
a particular action, but unless a person believes that the principles involved are important
ones, they may not act on that knowledge.

A second scenario exists for which Piaget and Kohlberg do not account. At some
level, the actions taken in situations do matter. A person could live in an exemplary moral
life but not have the language or the thinking process that an interview format would
value. I have known students who intuitively take actions with other students that indicate
a high degree of sensitivity and moral perspective. Yet if those students were
interviewed, their way of thinking may seem simplistic. The only words they might be
able to use might sound like; “I did it because that’s what I should do.” Piaget and
Kohlberg’s stage development does not take into account this type of situation.

I could convince my students of teaching’s moral dimension and I could provide
the students ways of thinking from Kant and Noddings that would help them craft an
ethical practice, but that knowledge might not be enough. to help preservice students craft
an ethical practice.

Carol Gilligan

Gilligan questioned Kohlberg’s assumptions. What if Kohlberg’s framework
proved applicable only for a certain type of gender? What if Kohlberg missed some rungs
on his moral ladder? I have already explained briefly what Gilligan found objectionable

in Kohlberg’s work. What Gilligan did not have was a schema demonstrating how

67

morality develops in terms of relationships. Eva Skoe (1994) took Gilligan’s objections
to Kohlberg into account and designed the Ethic of Care interview, which measures a
person’s ability to care for others. Skoe’s framework contains five levels. A caring for
self marks level 1 for the purpose of survival. The person at this level does not show
evidence of caring for other people. Level 1.5 makes a transition from survival to
concepts where selfishness and responsibility appear. The person shows some awareness
for others involved in the situation, yet survival still dominates his or her thinking. Level
2 people show caring for others and trying to do good based on constructs found in
families, churches, and society. Level 2.5 shifts the focus from doing good to seeking out
truth and honesty in the caring relationship. The reasons for caring reflect a careful
thinking about the relationship between self and other. The final level emphasizes the
caring both for self and others. The person achieves a balance between self and others by
carefully considering the moral considerations involved in the relationship.

Skoe found that women scored significantly higher on the Ethic of Care Interview
than did men. Her findings gave some support to Gilligan’s claim that women have a
different moral orientation than Kohlberg’s justice driven perspective. While much work
needs to be done to sort out the gender differences that may or may not occur in moral
development, Care Ethic adds another important element to the complex topic of
teaching’s moral dimension. The idea of caring for another connects readily in a teaching
situation. Teachers often explain that they went into teaching because “they love kids.” If
that is true, caring for these kids seems like a natural thing to do.

Teachers may also feel more comfortable in thinking about their practice in terms

of care, because they are women. Gilligan might agree that because of the high number of

68

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women teachers, the idea of care would resonant in school settings. Noddings might add
that teachers connect with the ideas of care theory because it is more relevant than either
consequentialist or non—consequentialist perspectives for education. While the debate
between consequentialist and non-consequentialist perspectives and care theory
continues, I am able to use these three viewpoints to bring about an awareness of
teaching’s moral dimension.

Moral development theories suggest that a person’s level of cognition contributes
to that person’s moral reasoning ability. If that is true, influencing the future classroom
actions of my students requires challenging and stretching their thought process and
reasoning ability now.

What Must Students Understand Concerning Teaching’s Moral Dimension?

Piaget and Kohlberg argue that cognitive reasoning plays a significant role in
moral development. The work of Sharon Strom (1989) reinforces the concept that “moral
consciousness functions best with knowledge” (p. 272). Strom, a researcher from the
University of Minnesota, designed programs to develop moral responsibility in the
education program. She contends,

In addition to basic understandings from applied ethics, the development of

ethical competence in teaching also depends on background knowledge expected

at the point of entry into teacher preparation, including meanings drawn from
ethical theory and certain personal qualities typically associated with liberally

educated persons. (p. 268)

In the following section, I will describe three ideas from the research literature that give
structure to Strom’s call for ethical competence that functions best with knowledge.

First, students need knowledge of their own values and beliefs and how to

articulate them. Language becomes a key element in building the foundation of ethical

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action. Second, students’ need knowledge of the influence community and ethical theory
and principles can have on moral development. Students need to understand the various
perspectives used in acting in ethical ways. Finally, the research literature indicates that
students need knowledge of ways to connect their own personal values and beliefs with
other ethical perspectives.
m—Thinldng

The first idea that emerges from the literature reviewed involves the teacher
educator knowing what and how the preservice student thinks about the moral dimension
of teaching. Before guiding the student’s thinking about teaching, teacher educators
ought to understand the student’s thought processes. Dewey (1904) argued that starting
with the beliefs and experiences of students and connecting them to theoretical principles
creates powerful learning opportunities. Separating a student’s experience from the
knowledge presented in classrooms “throws away or makes light of the greatest asset in
the student’s possession—the greatest, moreover, that ever will be in his possession—his
own direct and personal experience” (p. 323). .

Dewey does provide some guidance in using the student’s experience.

,I think it will follow as a matter of course, that only by beginning with the values

and laws contained in the student’s own experience of his own mental growth,

and by proceeding gradually to facts connected with other persons of whom he

can know little; and by proceeding still more gradually to the attempt actually to

influence mental operations of others, can educational theory be made most

effective. (p. 326. 327)
Trying toidefine what Dewey meant by “values and laws contained in the student’s own
experience” or developing teaching strategies to access these values and laws is more

difficult. Nash (1996) provides a possible way to think about Dewey’s argument. Nash

theorizes that what motivates people to act in certain ways goes back to their core beliefs

7O

and values (p. 35-56). Nash claims that to influence a preservice student’s ability to craft
an ethical practice, a teacher educator needs to understand how that person makes sense
out of the world. Students need to understand and articulate, as Nash calls it, their own
first moral language—the language they use to justify, explain, and rationalize why they
do what they do.

Nash teaches a course in applied ethics at the University of Vermont’s College of
Education and Social Services. He uses a number of readings to stimulate student
thinking about the underlying beliefs that help them make sense out of their world. He
also requires each of his students to complete a “First Moral Language Manifesto” that
describes in 15 to 20 pages what convictions undergird a student’s ethical belief system.
By engaging his students in readings and an autobiographical account of their core
values, Nash contends that students develop a language to express what is most
significant to them. While Nash’s work lacks empirical studies that back up his claims, he
offers ways to bring out the “values and laws” that Dewey found to be the greatest
student asset.

Language plays a key role in understanding and developing a person’s moral
outlook. To grow in knowledge about the ethics of teaching, preservice students need a
language and vocabulary to discuss and make sense out of it. Most preservice students
will have feelings about why they act in certain ways, and Nash challenges them to put in
words where those feelings are coming from. Strike (1993) makes a similar argument.
Strike refers to a person’s core values as the primary moral language. He claims students
learn this language from family and community. The primary moral language expresses

central moral convictions. If students take the time to reflect on what they believe and

71

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why, both Nash and Strike assert a student can make powerful connections to the best
thinking on ethical philosophy.

The idea of developing a language or vocabulary to discuss the moral dimension
of teaching at first glance may seem unnecessary. Bergem (1993) concludes from his
study of preservice student responses to an ethical dilemma that,

One major problem that has to be overcome if professional ethics are included in

teacher education programmes-and I strongly recommend that they are—is the

lack of a well—established professional moral language. Neither researchers nor

teachers have developed one thus far (p. 311).

The students he studied had difficulty articulating how they would approach dilemmas
and what principles would guide their actions. Part of this problem stems from not
understanding how to talk about such problems.

Influences on Moral Development

After students understand the beliefs and core values that guide their action, they
need to explore the various influences on their moral development. The following section
describes two possible spheres of influence for teacher educators to consider in
addressing the moral dimension of teaching.

The first sphere of influence involves the students’ immediate context. Nash
reasons that the various communities that students belong to influence their thinking and
action. He cites the community of family, church, school, political organizations, and
clubs as influencing the moral development of students. Students must come to
understand how these various communities will affect their ability to develop moral
character. I interpret Nash as saying that if a student wants to live an ethical life, that

student will need to create a vision for what that life looks like and understand how these

various communities enable or interfere with attaining that vision. Nash calls this the

72

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second moral language and asserts that if students know their core beliefs and understand
the moral context of their life, they can potentially make decisions that lead them to their
vision of a moral person.

The second potential influence on students’ moral development depends on the
students’ ability to understand moral principles and theories. Students need knowledge of
the thinking that comes from the consequentialist or utilitarian perspective,
nonconsequentialist or Kantian thinking, and care ethic (Strike, 1992; Nash, 1996;
Kidder, 1999). Students should hear how their own core values and beliefs connect with
these perspectives. The purpose is not to place a student in a particular camp, but to
provide the vocabulary and language needed for intelligent discourse about why people
do what they do. Nash sees a progression from the first moral language, the language of a
person’s beliefs, to the second moral language. In the second moral language, a person
describes his/her moral character. Nash contends that actions should be driven by the
image of who students think they are becoming—their character. Character arises out of
the integration of a vision for life and the community and professional influences on
actions.

Nash believes moral character develops through discussing, analyzing and
refi'aming of core values. Hostetler (1997) states it this way, “We understand our ethical
values by playing them off against each other. This is not simply a learning strategy but is
a statement about the nature of our ethical world” (p. 13). Moral character continues to
evolve through the carefirl reflection on and analysis of experience.

Nash continues his argument by advocating for a third moral language, because it

provides a framework for justifying and defending actions. The third moral language

73

synthesizes a person’s core values and moral character with the language of moral
principle. For Nash, the process of moral decision-making involves knowing core values,
understanding the influence of community, and taking actions for principled reasons.

Strike uses slightly different terms. He calls Nash’s third moral language a
“public moral language,” and it focuses on issues of justice and fairness that arise in
political settings. Strike believes that students need knowledge of both their primary
moral language and the public moral language in order to craft an ethical practice. Strike
contends that a thorough knowledge of consequentialist and nonconsequentialist thinking
will go a long way in allowing teachers to take their personal convictions and use
language that the public will accept and understand as legitimate. I agree with Strike but
would add that knowledge of and language for building relationships and a caring
community is also essential for students to understand for their teaching practice.

Crafting an Ethical Practice

Knowledge should shape and give reason to action. Teachers must get to the point
I Where their behavior in the classroom is not simply a replication of how they were taught
(see Lortie, 1975) or a reaction to the context of a teaching situation. Rather, their actions
should be based on the principles and values shaped and .molded by personal experience
connecting with theory.

Strike (1993) notes how preservice students move from a strategic to ethical
language when they reach the point of acting on their principles and values. Instead of
teachers explaining their actions in terms of the means to achieve an end, teachers now
I start with the principles that guide their actions and explain why it is a worthy action to

take. Hostetler adds that at this point teaching first becomes an ethical activity, not

74

merely a technical response to teaching methodology. Clark (1995) reinforces this
outlook on teaching by stating that teachers need the intellectual and cognitive capability
involved in the teaching process, but that it must be connected with the emotional and
relational aspects of working with children. The emphasis on the emotional and heart—felt
response is critical for it points to a way of thinking about and acting during the teaching
process. A teacher may have knowledge about what she believes and the major ethical
theories that exist but not allow that knowledge to guide her practice. It is reminiscent of
the Biblical warning that faith without works is dead. The idea of crafting an ethical
practice relies on knowledge that leads to a way of thinking that is seen in action that is
taken in the classroom. If moral issues permeate the educational process, it follows that
teachers need a way of thinking about their practice that recognizes that fact and allows
them to take action that is ethically responsible. Clark understands the importance of this
concept and advises,

Be very thoughtful, reflective, self—conscious, and intentional all of the time. This

is the secret of good teaching. . .. Be good all of the time. And be especially aware

of the ethical and moral implications of everything you do, for the future of the

human race depends on your good effects on children (p. 20).

Oser (1994) provides a word of caution. He points out that what matters most in
the educational process is the influence of any concrete teaching act. As a result, four
possible outcomes exist for each teaching act. A teacher may be morally responsible and
have a successful teaching act. A teacher may also be morally irresponsible and still have
a successful teaching act. A third possibility includes the morally responsible teacher
having an unsuccessful teaching act. Finally, as a worse case scenario, a morally

irresponsible teacher may have an unsuccessful teaching act. Oser defines successful

teaching acts as those that help students learn.

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Oser’s argument sends a cautionary reminder to teacher educators. Being a
morally responsible teacher does not guarantee positive teaching results. Morally
sensitive teachers may act with the right intentions but may have a negative effect on
student learning. Teacher educators may provide sound educational experiences and
present potentially life-changing material for students, but have seemingly little control as
to the effect it will have on student teaching practice.

Wideen, Mayer—Smith, and Moon (1998) comprehensively studied the research
on learning to teach. Part of their research analyzed the studies done to influence the
beliefs of preservice students. Their study connects with Oser’s warning. They
discovered that a majority of the studies provide little evidence of positive effects on the
beliefs of preservice students. I conclude from these studies that creating educational
experiences that guide a preservice student’s thinking process will be a difficult
challenge.

Conclusion

I have attempted in Chapter Two to outline a set of ideas that I needed to
comprehend in order to teach this class effectively. An understanding of
consequentialists, non—consequentialists, and Care Theory could provide a strong
foundation to build an ethical practice. Knowledge of how students develop morally
could contribute to my pedagogical decision—making. Understanding what students think
and the influences that affect their moral development could assist me in connecting who
they are to a vision of an ethical teacher. Shulman might agree that the ideas and concepts

that I comprehended build a foundation for my teaching, but what becomes critical is

76

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how these ideas are transformed in ways that lead to student understanding. That issue is

addressed in the next section.

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Chapter Three

Transformation

Shulman argues that once the teacher comprehends the ideas and concepts to be
taught, the teacher must then transform these ideas from what the teacher understands
“into the minds and motivations of learners” (p. 16). Shuhnan believes this happens in a
four-step process. First, the teacher should carefully assess whether the ideas and
concepts studied are worthwhile to teach. If the teacher believes in the value of the
content to be taught, the teacher must transform these ideas and come up with alternative
ways to represent them to students. Shuhnan suggests thinking in terms of analogies and
metaphors. After thinking about alternative representations that might connect with
students, the teacher must also create varied instructional strategies that provide the
opportunity for students to understand the ideas and concepts that the teacher deems
important. Shulman lists several traditional instructional strategies, such as lectures and
seatwork, as well as other strategies that include discovery learning, project methods, and
cooperative learning. Finally, before enacting some of these strategies, the teacher must
adapt the material and instructional strategies to the learner.

In Chapter Three, I address .Shulman’s call to transform ideas and concepts in four
ways. First, I describe the potential roadblocks that might hinder the transformative
process for the students. Next, I describe the variety of ways that others have suggested
or have tried in other studies to assist students in crafting an ethical practice. In the third
section, I describe what I intended to do with the design and rationale of my course.
Finally, I analyze what I know about the Calvin students and the implications this

knowledge has for my teaching.

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Obstacles in the Transformation Process

The following section describes a number of roadblocks that could hinder my
efforts to transform concepts of teaching’s moral dimension into student understanding
that could assist them in crafting an ethical practice. I have categorized these roadblocks
into three categories: philosophical concerns, the nature of teaching and teacher
perspective, and professional, cultural and societal factors.

Philosophical concerns

Barry Bull (1993) believes the philosophical question concerning the purpose of
school creates a difficult challenge for teacher educators. He argues that the moral
dimension of teaching can be seen in the political and interpersonal nature of schools, but
these two elements create tension in how preservice students should be taught. Bull
explains that schools operate in a political context of legislatures and school boards
expecting democratic schools. Defining what a democratic school means depends on
whom you ask. For example, Amy Gutrnann’s work (1987) exegetically demonstrates
that a democratic education should result in citizens who are capable of rationally
deliberating on the issues of society and reaching consensus and conclusions for the
betterment of society. Her schools might focus on critical thinking skills and group
activities centered on a curriculum based in political and social theory.

President Clinton offers different version of a democratic education. In a speech
delivered to the Joint Session of the Michigan Legislature (1997), President Clinton

advocated,

Leadership can be taught, leadership can be trained, and 90 percent of the children
in this country plus — 99 percent of them — can learn what they need to know to
succeed and triumph in the modern world. They can do it and we have to do it.

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His schools might train students in communication and business skills for the purpose of
economic success. While Gutrnann and Clinton may both value democracy, their vision
of what should happen within a school might be quite different.

In contrast to the democratic perspective for schooling would be the interpersonal
approach. The focus of this approach centers on the development of an individual child.
The purpose of education is defined in terms of developing the whole child. Issues of
how the child contributes to a democratic society become secondary. Noddings (1986)
advocates one version of such an approach.

Our guiding principles for teaching arithmetic, or any other subject, are derived

from our primary concern for the persons whom we teach, and the methods of

teaching are chosen on consonance with these derived principles. An ethic of
caring guides us to ask, “What effect will this have on the person I teach? What

effect will it have on the caring community we are trying to build? (p. 499).

A Noddings’ school that focuses on relationships and community and a Clinton school
that focuses on leadership might look quite different in regard to the “what” and “how” of
teaching. Bull would claim the philosophical differences between a Noddings and a
Clinton school might also lead to differences in judging the moral worth of actions taken
in these two different schools.

Bull argues that the political (Clinton) and interpersonal (Noddings) purposes of
schools cause tension in teacher education programs. Bull asserts that teacher education
programs will find it difficult to develop both a teacher for a Noddings school and a
Clinton school, because both require a consistent philosophical perspective. Since the

professors cannot agree on a consistent philosophical perspective, students are left to

figure out what they value in education and how that will be seen and judged in- the

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students’ practice. Bull concludes that students will find it difficult, given these
conditions, to craft an ethical practice.

Bull’s perspective points out a possible obstacle in my goal of assisting preservice
students to craft an ethical practice. Bull concludes that because the professors within
teacher education programs disagree about the purpose of education, teaching’s moral
dimension is not taught with consistency, if at all. Moral action stems from beliefs
concerning the purposes for education. If teacher education programs do not articulate
clearly those beliefs, they cannot deal effectively with teaching’s moral dimension. Bull
quotes Goodlad’s (1990) study of teacher education programs as evidence supporting his
claims. Goodlad writes, “The idea of moral imperatives for teachers was virtually foreign
in concept and strange in language for most of the future teachers we interviewed” (p.
264).

Bull raises two legitimate concerns that I must address. If I do not have a clear
conception of the purpose of schooling, it will be difficult to influencing student thinking
' concerning the moral dimension of teaching. But I must also consider how the other
professors in the education program view the purpose of school. If the message I send
runs counter to the message other professors offer to preservice students or is not
reinforced an other classes, the student may feel confused and uncertain on how to craft
an ethical practice.

Bull is concerned about the different philosophical perspectives on the purpose of
school and how the resulting values may lead to conflicting viewpoints on moral

teaching. While Bull does not resolve the issue in his article, he identifies philosophical

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reasons that could create obstacles in transforming the ideas of teaching’s moral
dimension in ways that connect with students.
The Nature of Teaching and Teacher Perspective

1 divided this section into. two parts. First, I will show how the nature of teaching
interferes with the crafting of an ethical practice. Second, I will explain how a teacher’s
perspective may create obstacles in helping preservice students understand the moral
dimension of teaching. Some of the evidence used in to support these claims come from
my nine years in elementary education.

Maire of haching

The nature of teaching does seem to create barriers to the crafting of a moral
practice. I remember the first school meetings where the curriculum and school policies
were explained. I left feeling overwhelmed by the amount of material that I was expected
to cover and the details surrounding everything from bus duty to lounge clean—up.
Crafting a moral practice was the furthest thing from my mind. Surviving the first year of
teaching occupied my thoughts constantly. Because of the hectic pace of classroom life,
and my limited ability to reflect on what I was doing, I did not consciously make moral
teaching a priority. I assumed that covering all this material was the nature of teaching.

I walked back to my room and began planning how to meet the curriculum
demands and job responsibilities of a teacher. I did get through that first year, but it
proved to be a difficult challenge. Although I did not know it at the time, Lortie (l 97 5)
could have predicted my struggle. He claims that teaching is a craft that teachers learn by
doing in isolation. Given the physical structure of classrooms and the routine of the day,

teachers lack the time to build supportive relationships with each other. Crafting a moral

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practice depends, in part, on a teacher’s opportunity to discuss with colleagues the actions
taken in the classroom. The stories teachers share with each other refine perspectives on
what teachers teach and why. Lortie contends that dialogue between teachers is difficult
given the structure of schools. Piaget and Kohlberg both note the importance that
interactions with society play in moral development. Given the isolated nature of
teaching, opportunities for such interaction is limited.

A Teacher’s Perspective

If the curriculum demands of covering content, the job responsibilities of being a
teacher, and the structure of schools was not enough to overcome, I did have one other
reason for not attending to teaching’s moral dimension: 1 never saw it as a potential
problem. I loved children and had just completed training that focused on techniques for
educating these children in the best possible manner. Given my intentions of doing what
was best for children and my love for them, I did not imagine my actions would hurt a
child in a significant way. Realizing that not all of my lessons would benefit every
student, I did not think my actions would have detrimental effects on children. I was
predisposed to think my actions would benefit children. In analyzing why I thought this
way, I reflected on the training received from the Calvin College Teacher Education
Program.

Teacher education programs face the daunting challenge of preparing students for
the classroom. I went to college and learned ways to teach reading, mathematics, and
social studies. I learned that there are different purpose for schools and different
philosophies of education. I learned classroom management techniques. I learned that

teaching is more exciting than talking about what teaching is like. In all those things I

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something. My teacher training pointed out what actions to take, but it failed to provide
me with a way to think about and evaluate the effects of my actions on children. I could
evaluate their academic learning, but I could not evaluate the moral significance of my
teaching. I did not leave my teacher education program thinking that my actions could
negatively affect the children with whom I was going to work.

Jackson (1986) offers one possible explanation for my thinking. He contends
teachers often treat knowledge as a product deposited in a student’s mind. The result is
“mimetic” teaching that emphasizes rote memorization involving pretests, presenting new
information, practice, and post—test procedures. Teacher education programs may
reinforce this concept of knowledge by offering methods courses that come off as “how
to” courses. By following a few steps, the preservice student acquires the tools and
procedures to teach subject matter.

One problem with viewing knowledge in this way is that it separates the knower
from the known. Such separation diminishes the opportunity for transformative teaching.
Parker Pahner (1998) convincingly argues that objectifying knowledge in this way
encourages a divided life. He cites a chilling personal example of learning about the
Holocaust in school in such a distanced way that it felt like those events happened on
another planet to people with no relationship with him. He could claim knowledge
concerning the events of the Holocaust, but that knowledge was separated from who

Palmer was as a person. Palmer asserts presenting knowledge in such a way is morally

deformed.

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Jackson and Palmer’s argument cannot be understated. Jackson concludes that
mimetic teaching leads to a less demanding type of teaching that focuses on details and
facts. Moral considerations are not readily apparent when the expectation for the students
is to memorize information. Palmer adds that a teacher’s view of knowledge determines
the type of learning in a classroom. They both warn of potential factors that exist in
teaching that may prevent my students from crafting an ethical practice.

Dewey (1904) differentiated between two types of knowledge in teacher
education. He described the tension between the practical aims of teaching—the tools of
the trade type of knowledge—and the theoretical instruction or intellectual method. Dewey
argued that the lack of time spent in connecting educational principles with the technique
of classroom management resulted in preservice teachers being given the outward form
of teaching, but little insight into the “soul—action” of a child. Palmer might say his
experience with the Holocaust was about the outward form of teaching but did not touch
his soul in a way that challenged how he thinks and acts about those types of issues.
Jackson might describe the difference Dewey refers to as mimetic versus transformative
teaching. What seems critical concerning Dewey, Palmer, and Jackson’s perspective is an
emphasis on making the educational process a moral endeavor by focusing on developing
children’s beliefs and thinking processes. The training I received at Calvin focused on
techniques that cover curriculum and management of classrooms rather than on the soul
action of children. Teaching that centers on the soul action of a child may lead to crafting

an ethical practice rather than one that leads to proficiency with technique.

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The third obstacle that teachers may have to overcome results from a particular
cultural and societal context. These factors may also influence a teacher’s moral action. I
will first describe a professional influence that comes from the Code of Ethics of the
Education Profession adopted by the 1975 NBA Representative Assembly. Second, I will
describe two studies that attempt to connect the effects of culture and society on
teaching’s moral dimension. I will demonstrate how cultural and societal factors make it
difficult for teachers to craft a moral practice.

Professional Factors

Kenneth Strike (1992) outlines the NEA’s code of conduct for teachers. The code
uses two principles as a springboard for teacher action. First, teachers must have a
commitment to “help each student realize his or her potential as a worthy and effective
member of society. The educator therefore works to stimulate the spirit of inquiry, the
acquisition of knowledge and understanding, and the thoughtful formulation of worthy
goals” (p. x). The second principle underscores a commitment to the profession by

encouraging teachers

to raise professional standards, to promote a climate that encourages the exercise
of professional judgment, to achieve conditions which attract persons worthy of
the trust to careers in education, and to assist in preventing the practice of the
profession by unqualified persons (p. X + XI).

A few observations about the code demonstrate the need for teachers to think carefully
about teaching’s moral dimension. First, the existence of the code may point to a

potential problem found in the education system. If all teachers loved children and acted

in their best interest on a consistent basis, there might not be a need for a code of conduct.

The fact that it exists seems to say that teachers may need to take note of this area in the

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process of education. A walk down the hallways of any school might reinforce the need
for the commitment the code stresses. I remember back from my own teaching the
temptations to belittle students when frustrated with their behavior or lack of
understanding. I remember walking out of faculty meetings feeling put off by the
demands of the school and the profession. The NBA put in writing two principles, that if
taken seriously, would keep in check the frustration and annoyance that teachers often
feel.

Alter outlining the principles, the code provides some guidelines for educators.
Like the Ten commandments, the code reminds teachers of things they ought not to do.
Educators shall not exclude or deny students on the basis of race, color, creed, etc.
Educators shall not distort subject matter. Educators shall not misrepresent professional
qualifications. All of “thou shalt not” statements have a common sense characteristic to
them. What is missing is the thought process that would get you there. The code provides
a rationale for acting in these ways—to help develop worthy and effective members of
society—but that does not give educators a way to think about actions they have taken or
will take.

Many teachers may not even realize their profession has a code of conduct that
guides their actions. Instead, most teachers understand that when you teach, the parents,
students, school board, and others involved in the process have placed certain spoken
(and unspoken) expectations on you. Teachers use their common sense in navigating
through these expectations. Consulting a professional code or relying on a systematic

thought process to guide their actions does not occur.

87

 

Culturaland Societal Factors

While professional expectations may play a role in a teacher’s action, school
culture may also have an effect. Aurin and Maurer (1993) describe some of these
influences in their study.

Rather, a teacher’s ethical stance is just as much a social phenomenon; it is

influenced, on the one hand, by the objective structure of the professional field

and, on the other hand, by the interaction of colleagues, students and teachers, by

the daily life of the school, by school traditions and by the changing developments

and demands of a modern society (p. 279).
Aurin and Maurer set out to determine the professional ethical dimensions of which
teachers are aware and the degree to which teachers share common aims and values for
the school. They interviewed 124 teachers in five secondary schools in Germany. Aurin
and Maurer claim that some consensus exists among teachers in regards to the purposes
of schools and the focus placed on students and subject matter, but that the teachers are
unaware of each others beliefs. The lack of discussion among the teachers is attributed to
the various elements that contribute to the school setting. They recommend that
. administrators provide opportunities for teachers to engage each other in the ethical
issues of the school.

Due to the factors that influence the teachers’ ability to craft an ethical practice,
Aurin and Maurer also recommend that teacher educators place more emphasis on the
ethical aspects of a teacher’s activities. They suggest linking teacher—training to school
projects. By being a part of a school project, the preservice student may begin to
understand how school culture influences teacher action.

Concluding that teacher educators need to address the ethical aspects of teaching

is not surprising. Aurin and Maurer do demonstrate the influence of school culture on

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teachers’ ethical practice and the need for preservice students to be prepared to deal with
these influences. Designing teacher education programs that take into consideration the
influences found within the school becomes more of a challenge.

Joseph and Efron (1993) asked 26 teachers in structured interviews to describe
moral conflicts they experienced in their classroom and how they resolved it. They also
explored the moral conflicts teachers encountered with students’ parents, administrators,
colleagues, and community. Their findings indicated teachers might experience conflict
of values while resolving difficult situations in teaching. For example, one of the teachers
told of a student who came up to her crying because the boyfriend living with mother was
mistreating her mother. She wanted the teacher to help her. The teacher told the principal
who advised the teacher to stay clear of the situation. The teacher and the principal had
different values that led to different possible actions. Other teachers gave examples of
how their religious beliefs came in conflict with issues involving separation of church
and state. A teacher described a situation in which a child brought a Bible storybook to
show and tell. She felt awkward about how she should handle the situation given the
policy of the school. Joseph and Efron conclude, “this study indicates that these teachers
sense an inchoate form of suppression that may very well restrict their full actualising of
their moral roles and certainly creates confusion and discomfort” (p. 219).

The philosophical arguments about purposes of education, the structure and
nature of schooling, the limitations of teacher perspective, and the professional, cultural
and societal pressures placed on teachers are important factors that teacher educators
must consider in transforming the ideas and concepts of teaching’s moral dimension for

student learning.

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Representing Ideas and Concepts
Shulman contends that teachers need to take what they know and explore the
various ways those ideas and concepts could be presented. In the following section, I will
describe the ways that professors and other researchers have represented the subject
matter associated with teaching’s moral dimension for the purpose of transforming their
thoughts in ways that lead to student understanding. Unlike the studies describe in
Chapter One, these strategies were not connected with action research. They do describe

five different teaching strategies that may assist teacher educators to transform their ideas

and concepts.

Teaching Strategies
Strategy 1: Student Writings

In a previous section, I described Dewey’s contention that teacher educators must
access the student’s personal experience. Teachers must start by getting into the mind of
the students and find out how they are drinking about the moral dimension of teaching.
One straightforward way to do this involves having the students write down their
personal creeds (Clark, 1995; Nash, 1996). Clark suggests that preservice students and
teachers include the individual strengths they bring to the teaching process and a vision

for how they want to improve their practice in the next five years. Such a direct approach

should generate responses that will provide the basis for understanding student thinking,
but it does run the risk of having students write down what they think you want to hear.
Student ideas and beliefs have the potential for guiding teacher educators’ lessons.

Journal responses may indicate interest, depth of knowledge, and questions about the

90

topic. These journal responses could be used to transform what the professor knows in
ways that connect to student interest.
Strategy 2: Cases

Strike (1992) advises using cases as a way to reveal a student’s beliefs. He
presents cases containing dilemmas and asks students for written responses. By pushing
the students to explain their responses, Strike hopes to uncover the principles that guide
their actions. When students explain their reasoning, we get a clearer picture of what
motivates their actions. Hostetler, Noddings, Strom, Nash, and Clark all recommend
using cases for assessing student thinking. Strom and Clark add that role—playing may be
helpful in building student understanding.
My 3: Group Discussions

Strike, Hostetler, and Nash suggests group discussions serve two useful purposes:
they prompt a person to articulate personal beliefs while building awareness of other
students’ perspectives and viewpoints. Grappling with these other perspectives may help
in refining and shaping the personal beliefs of our students. For group discussions to
function effectively, Strike notes the importance of creating an environment of trust and
openness that will allow students genuine feelings and beliefs to come out. Georg Lind
(1997) provides concrete suggestions on making these conversations productive. To
access his work, visit his website at http://www.uni-konst2_mz.de/agmrl/dildisk-ehtm.

Clark offers another idea for group discussions. He contends that support groups
or “teaching circles” may provide other venues for teachers and teacher educators to
work through the complex, classroom situations. Clark makes the point that when

teachers engage in thoughtful teaching, their teaching becomes more interesting and

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complex. Teaching will not suddenly become easier and more effective because of a
moral outlook on the process. Instead, teachers may need to find sources of support to
talk through the difficulty in crafting an ethical practice. Support groups offer that
opportunity. “Teaching circles” may function in a variety of ways. A group of teachers
may get together to discuss a book, journal article, or movie to explore other topics that
helps the teachers reflect on their practice.

Like Clark, Buchmann (1993) argues that teachers need to belong to moral
communities. She contends that teachers must guard against making their personal
preferences a determining factor for classroom action. Teachers must take into account
student. and public expectations along with the demands of disciplinary knowledge.
Sorting through these expectations and demands will require dialogue with others. In a
telling quote, Buchmann cites,

Norms of collegiality can reduce work place isolation and help develop an

orientation toward the teaching role; norms of experimentation are based on a

conviction that teaching can always be better than it is. Norms of collegiality and

experimentation are moral demands with intellectual substance (p. 155).
Buchmann succinctly points out the moral obligation of working with others. Such
collegiality improves teaching.

Strategy 4: Readings

Readings play a key role in building understanding and awareness of the moral
dimension of teaching. Cases have been mentioned and many other resources do exist.
None of the philosophers or teacher educators that I read recommended a specific
textbook, rather all used a number of sources. Nash’s book, Real World Ethics suggests

helpful articles that generate discussion and force the students to address critical issues.

Strike’s The Ethics of Teaching contains thought provoking cases that force students to

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think carefully about their responses. His book also offers clear explanations of
consequentialist and nonconsequentialist perspectives. Using the original writings of
philosophers such as Mill and Kant is possible, but Strike’s attempt to synthesize their
writings does create bridges for students to cross in developing their understanding of this
complex area.

Strategy 5: Teach Ethically

One final theme appears in much of the literature: teacher educators need to teach
ethically. “I have learned that the best way to teach ethics is to teach ethically” (p. 15),
writes Nash. One practical way Nash teaches ethically is seen through his syllabus. His
syllabus outlines clearly the contract he creates with his students as he tries to explain the
expectations for the course and his method of teaching. He views his syllabus as a
beginning way to build trust required for effective teaching. As a result, his syllabus is
over 12 pages.

Noddings sees ethical teaching in this way, “When we act as models of caring, for
example, we may also model a host of other desirable qualities: meticulous preparation,
lively presentation, critical thinking, appreciative listening, constructive evaluation,
genuine curiosity” (p.503). Noddings list of what to model places high expectations for
teacher educators.

Discovering what students believe and why, discussing cases, participating in
role—plays, contributing to group discussions, joining support groups, reading
thought—provoking articles, participating in class where teacher educators model ethical
teaching—all these activities attempt to connect the learner to the principles that guide

his/her action. Each of these instructional strategies has value and merit, yet determining

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the validity of each is difficult. The articles and books cited do not have empirical studies
that support the instructional claims made.

Strom points out another factor that these references tend to avoid. While
instructional strategies may engage students, the strategies do not indicate how a student
applies the knowledge to life. Strom states,

Accordingly, another factor in developing responsibleness has two components:

(a) an attitudinal dimension related to selfless commitment to others when

engaged in professional work, and (b) the development of a set of skilled

intellectual and social processes (called practical moral reasoning) which are used

in judging what is best to do in a particular situation (p. 270).

If teacher educators take on the challenge of developing student understanding of
teaching’s moral dimension, they typically focus on the set of skilled intellectual and
social processes connected with crafting an ethical practice. The development of a
student’s attitude (or to put it another way, way of thinking) and teacher educators’
ability to assess that attitude presents a challenge that may require new types of pedagogy
and assessment.

Intentions for the Course

In Shulman’s model of pedagogical reasoning, a teacher moves from
comprehension and transformation to instruction. In the previous section, I described the
process of transforming content into ways that may create meaning for students. I have
explained the roadblocks that could hinder this process as well as the recommendations
for teaching strategies that could guide my own course design. In the following section, I
will describe my thinking in the design of the interim course. The description should

provide insight into my thinking as a teacher educator and provide the necessary

background for the analysis of the interim course that comes later in the study. This

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section will provide a rationale for the course goals, a brief description of my
assumptions concerning the learning process and an explanation of the pedagogy I
planned to use in achieving the goals.

I developed two main goals for the interim course influenced by my teaching
experience, the course work at M.S.U., and the expectations of Calvin College. Although
four goals are listed in the course syllabus (see Appendix A), I will only elaborate on the
two goals that drove my pedagogical decision—making.

Course Goals

First, I wanted my students to develop an understanding of the moral dimension
of teaching that would help them craft an ethical practice. In my nine years of elementary
teaching experience, I had not consciously thought about my practice in moral terms. The
experience with Tony, described in the introduction, demonstrated a lack of intentional
ethical teaching. My lack of intentionally was also seen in making cuniculum decisions
or responding to students from an ethical perspective. I would implement the lessons

‘ from curriculum guides or instinctively respond to students without consciously thinking
about the ethical implications of my lesson plans or comments. Jackson et al’s work
(1993) provides evidence that other teachers may not consciously think about the moral
dimension of teaching. Teachers do intend to do what is best for each child, but instinct
rather than a consciously crafted set of principles may guide their action. The interim
course was designed to assist preservice students in thinking about their practice in moral
terms, not just in terms of covering curriculum or overcoming learning obstacles.
Teaching with a moral lens would enable the teacher to take curriculum actions and

provide student assistance in more ethical ways.

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Second, I wanted my students to connect the moral dimension of teaching to
making manifest God’s Kingdom. The second goal connects directly to the mission of
Calvin College. The college’s foundational beliefs state that God sent the fulfillment of
His Kingdom in the form of Jesus Christ. Through Christ’s death on the cross and His
resurrection from the dead, God claimed that His Kingship is here and now and for
everyone. Calvin’s mission involves enabling its graduates to reveal God’s Kingship by
the way they engage the world. Calvin students need to understand that when they teach
in ethical ways, God’s Kingdom is made manifest. Achieving this goal would be difficult,
because it would require that students develop a deep understanding of God and how His
Kingdom is made manifest in a school setting. The students would also need to explore
their conception of God, and God’s possible conceptions of an ethical teaching practice.
Questions relating to these topics rarely have clear, easy to understand answers.
Understanding God and living in his Kingdom are difficult concepts, but in that process
of engaging these issues, God refines faith and deepens understanding. In the design of
the course, I worked on the assumption that reflecting on God and His Kingdom would
help students to develop a moral framework for their teaching practice.

The first goal for the course stemmed mainly from my elementary teaching
experience and graduate work at M.S.U. The second goal resulted from the expectations
of Calvin College. As I explained in the first chapter, Calvin College expects that my
teaching will help students think about and act on their transformative work. I wanted to
make clear to the students that teaching from a moral perspective would assist them in

redeeming the part of the Kingdom that they would work in—a classroom.

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The Learning Process

I have learned in 20 years of elementary and college teaching that transforming
material in ways that lead to student understanding is a complex and difficult endeavor.
When students do engage in the learning process, three important elements are evident.
First, students need to see the relevance and importance of the presented material, and
that if they see how lessons apply to their own life, they will stay motivated in the
learning process. I base my assumption on two factors. My own learning experiences tell
me that a practical application of the presented material assists in my ability to
understand and retain the concepts and ideas. Also, I have read many student journals that
describe the conditions that foster their learning. These journals indicate that students
believe that they benefit from seeing links between presented material and their lives.

Second; cognitive dissonance will go a long way in creating learning
opportunities. My experience in teaching indicates that most students want to resolve
issues or problems they do not understand. They do not like the feeling that something
does not add up and will work at making accommodations in their own thinking. In
teaching this course, creating dissonance for the student about his/her knowledge of
teaching’s moral dimension might lead the student to question and resolve the source of
the dissonance.

Finally, lessons involving active, student participation creates learning
opportunities. My assumption is based on my experience in drama and theater activities. I
have directed numerous children and adult theater productions. In addition, I teach a
course at Calvin that focuses on using creative drama to facilitate the learning process.

Further, our summer church program for the neighborhood children contains a drama

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element that I write and then put together with help from other members in the church.
My theatrical experiences reinforced my assertion that dramas can produce intense
feelings. My teaching experience reinforced the idea that intense feelings often lead to
learning. Because of my theatrical and teaching experience, drama games, role—plays and
improvisations became important pedagogical considerations.
Pedagogical Possibilities

In the following section, I will outline some of the pedagogical strategies used in
transforming the ideas and concepts of teaching’s moral dimension for student learning.
The strategies include: Role-plays and improvisations, the novel The Prime of Miss Jean
Brodie and the movie Dead Poets Society, the work of Philip Jackson and two
observation opportunities at Long School, Strike’s book The Ethics of Teaching and the
work of Nel Noddings, and the parables of Jesus Christ. These instructional strategies
could lead to student understanding of teaching’s moral dimension and the crafting of an
ethical teaching practice.
Role—plays and Improvisations

I planned on doing drama activities throughout the course because of the
contribution these activities can make to the learning process. To prepare the students for
the role—plays and improvisations, I planned on doing warm—up activities during the first
four days of class for about forty—five minutes each day. The students would do basic
pantomiming, unusual exercises, and mirror games. These activities focused on the
students becoming comfortable with themselves and with each other. The activities were
designed to move fi'om games that focused on individual activities to games that required

greater student vulnerability. For example, one of the planned activities asked the

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students to individually pick up a number of objects off the floor. After picking up a
number of different objects (a ball, telephone, garden hoe, etc.), the students would come
together as a group and guess what pantomimed object was being picked up by a student.
Having the group guess the student’s object would put that person in a more vulnerable
spot because the others in the class are evaluating the student’s ability to pantomime.

Later in the course, the students would participate in improvisational scenes,
which would require greater vulnerability with each other. During an improvisation, the
students’ personal beliefs may come out and be challenged during the scene. The students
would need to get to a point where they trusted each other with their beliefs and feelings.
Warm—up activities could create the safe environment needed for further improvisation.

I also planned to have these exercises become increasingly complex. For example,
one activity would have the students mime a common occurrence in their life. Some
students may select brushing their teeth, combing their hair, reading a paper, or making a
salad. They would be asked to pay attention to detail by making their movements as exact
as possible. After working on their daily routine, they would be asked to use that routine
to represent something else. A student may chose to comb her hair in such a way to show
sadness over losing a pet. The object of the exercise would center on students making
statements with their actions.

These activities could be helpful in reinforcing concepts that would appear later in
the course. For example, I planned on having the students observe the classroom
environment and the teaching of lessons at a local school. Part of their task would be to
ask how students might interpret the actions of teachers. For example, does a common,

daily activity like smiling or sighing take on added significance in certain situations? A

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warm—up activity, such as pantomirning a daily activity for the purpose of expressing an
unrelated emotion, could contribute to their ability to observe at a school. If they could
practice doing an action for the purpose of sending a non—verbal message, they might
find it easier to observe the effects of a teacher’s action in a school. If the students could
observe the effects of a teacher’s action in the classroom, then the students might transfer
that skill to their own practice. They might be able to think about and look for the effects
their actions have on their students. Drama exercises and games could contribute to their
ability to assess how their future students might interpret classroom actions.

These activities could send a clear message: pay attention. Imagine the amount of
concentration required to play a game called “Columbian hypnosis” where one student
keeps a hand in front of the face of another student, and then leads that student slowly
through a series of motions. The hand of the student acts as a hypnotiser for the partner
who tries to keep her face within inches of the hand. Now to complicate matters, while
the one student hypnotizes the partner, another student is hypnotizing the first student.
Such an activity requires almost as much concentration as it takes to read the explanation
of the activity and have it make sense.

“Paying attention” could be an important skill in determining a teacher’s effect
and influence on a student. A teacher’s ability to pay attention to a student’s body
language and inflection of voice could assist in accurately reading the effect of actions on
that student. Crafting an ethical practice depends in part on a teacher’s ability to pay
attention. i

Many of the planned activities came from Games for Actors and Non—Actors, by

Augusto Boal, a book that uses exercises and games to reveal how societies and cultures

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operate. Eventually these activities may lead to a type of street theater where the concerns
and needs of the less fortunate become the focus of the drama. Boal’s goal involves
creating a dramatic experience that causes people to question issues in society. Similar to
Boal, I wanted the dramatic activities planned for the course to assist students in
understanding the issues involved in teaching’s moral dimension.

Ruth Heinig’s book, Creative Drama for the Classroom Teacher (1993) helped
shaped my use of drama. Heinig suggests that by starting with simple drama activities,
the students will build confidence in themselves and trust for others. She argues that
drama activities allow each student to start with their own experience. A student does not
have to have years of experience in theater to do drama well. Instead, each student works
from where they are at and develops from that point. No one is being evaluated on how
well they do the activity. Instead, students are working together to carry out the various
drama activities. As a result, the drama activities potentially build community and
confidence in the students.

Dorothy Heathcote (1984), a leading educator in England, has also influenced my
thinking concerning drama. Heathcote argues,

Dramatizing makes it possible to isolate an event or to compare one event
with another, to look at events that have happened to other people in other places
and times perhaps, or to look at one’s own experience after the event, within the
safety of knowing that just at this moment it is not really happening (p. 78).

She concludes, “So drama can be a kind of playing at or practice of living, tuning
up those areas of feeling-capacity and expression—capacity as well as social—capacity” (p.

79). I wanted my students to isolate certain events that relate to teaching as a type of

practice that could contribute to their development of crafting an ethical practice. Their

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social—capacity, or their capacity to relate with others in school settings, could expand
through these activities.

Brian Way (1967), another one of England’s advocates of drama in education,
adds an important point about the potential drama may have for learning. He states that
drama “leads the inquirer to moments of direct experience, transcending mere
knowledge, enriching the imagination, possibly touching the heart and soul as well as the
mind” (p. l). I wanted my lessons to go beyond knowledge and touch students in ways
that might affect their future teaching. Using drama could potentially transform students’
understandings. Alternative pedagogy, such as lecturing to them, may not create the
emotion required for transcending knowledge.

By using drama activities, such as role—plays and improvising scenes, the students
might understand the moral dimension of teaching more deeply in two ways. First, I
could create situations that require an ethical response from the students. The students
could then discuss their responses to the situation, why they chose to act in that way and
' how the situation connects to classroom activity.

Second, to act in moral ways requires the ability to take on another’s perspective.
Both consequentialist and non—consequentialist thinkinginvolves thinking about others
who are involved with a situation and how they are affected by certain actions.
Role—plays could help students to take on another’s perspective. They would be asked to
think and act like another person. By taking on another character, the students might
develop skills that would help them think about other people’s view points, leading to the

students acting in more positive, ethical ways.

102

A list of the role—plays and improvisations used during the course is found in
Chapter Three along with an analysis of how these activities contributed to student
understanding of teaching’s moral dimension.

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie and Dead Poets Society

Before the interim class started, I had few clues to the students’ perceptions of the
moral dimension of teaching. Based on memories of college, I assumed that most
students would worry more about classroom management than about ethical teaching. I
also thought preservice students might assume that since they love children, they would
always act in a child’s best interest. I concluded that students would need to become
interested in the moral dimension of teaching and would need their teaching beliefs and
understandings challenged.

The pedagogical response to these two concerns came at the Association for
Moral Education’s conference at Emory University. I sat next to David Hansen, one of
the co—authors of The Moral Life of Schools, introduced myself, told him briefly about
my project, and asked him for sources that contained dilemmas. He provided a couple of
pieces to look at and suggested reading the novel, The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. He
remarked that his students responded positively to the reading and discussion of the book.
After reading through book, I realized the book could create student interest and provide
an entry point in unraveling the complex topic of ethics in education.

The book could set the foundation for the interim course in two important ways.
First, it could quickly get the class into some of the main issues and tensions surrounding
the purposes of teaching. The book discloses the differing philosophies of education of

Miss Brodie and Miss Mackay (the headmistress of the school) and their differing types

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of pedagogy. For example, in the book, Jeaanrodie summarizes her philosophy of
education as “putting old heads on your young shoulders” (p. 15). She tells her girls, “Art
and religion first; then philosophy; lastly science” (p. 39). Her prime method of teaching
involves telling personal stories, which romanticizes her experience. For example, she
tells the girls of her lover Hugh, who died on the battlefield, for the purpose of describing
love and the significance of war.

He fell like an autumn leaf, although he was only twenty-two years of age. When

, we go indoors we shall look on the map at Flanders, and the spot where my lover

was laid before you were born. He was poor. He came from Aryshire, a

countryman, but a hard-working and clever scholar. He said, when he asked me to

marry him, “We shall have to drink water and walk slow.” That was Hugh’s
country way of expressing that we would live quietly. We shall drink water and

walk slow. What does the saying signify, Rose? (p. 20)

Brodie uses personal stories because she wants her girls to live their lives fully. “You
little girls, when you grow up, must be on the alert to recognise your prime at whatever
time of your life it may occur. You must then live it to the full” (p. 18).

In contrast to Brodie’s focus on the arts and religion, Miss Mackay drives home
the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Her goal centers on her students being
prepared in a traditional sense. The discussion about the difference between Brodie and
Mackay might demonstrate how the purpose of education connects readily to the moral
dimension of teaching.

Second, the book reveals how Brodie’s actions for her students lead to unplanned
consequences for her students. I wanted my students to observe that what a teacher

intends is not always what happens. If the students could see the unintended results of

teacher action, they might begin to understand the moral complexity of teaching.

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While the book might create and maintain the students’ interest, I hoped it would
also cause a certain amount of cognitive disequilibrium. Reading a good book is
entertaining, but students would need to try and figure out what happened to Jean Brodie.
During the first few chapters of the book, Jean Brodie comes off as an innovative teacher.
By the end of the book, the students should comprehend why Brodie’s world collapses. If
I could create interest in the topic, and if the students sensed a problem that needed
addressing, they might be intrigued enough by teaching’s moral dimension to think about
its potential role in their own practice.

Another way of engaging my students involved watching the movie Dead Poet ’s
Society. While the idea of using The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie came less than two
months before the interim class, I first viewed Dead Poets Society when it was released in
1989. Impressed with the strong performances and the educational issues that the movie
creatively addressed, I had used scenes from the movie in other classes and believed that
the plot line provided opportunities to discuss the moral dimension of teaching. The
movie tells the captivating story of an innovative teacher, John Keating, played by Robin
Williams. By viewing Keating’s actions through a moral lens, the students might question
Keating’s intentions and the ethical implications of his methods. The movie portrays
Keating as a type of hero. Like Jean Brodie, John Keating’s actions could provide rich
discussion on how good intentions are not enough in preventing unethical possibilities.
The classroom discussion of his actions might cause the Calvin students to question his
practice and hero—status.

I planned to devote the first five class sessions to creating an awareness of the

moral dimension of teaching, wanting my students to understand that classroom activities

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have moral significance. I also wanted the students to see the importance of crafting an
ethical practice. Starting with a novel and showing a film within the five days might “set
the hook” in the sense of creating and maintaining their interest.

Ways of Thinking

After completing the book, I planned on introducing them to the complex
landscape of school and classroom moral dilemmas represented in Strike’s Ethics of
Teaching. Strike begins each chapter of his book with a hypothetical “case” followed by
an analysis of the case through consequentialist and non—consequentialist perspective.
Strike does not provide resolution to these dilemmas but instead points out how
consequentialist and non—consequentialist thinking might play out in each case. Strike
could do two important things for my class. He could highlight the moral dimension of
teaching dilemmas while providing two ways for dealing with each situation. The
students could glimpse ways of thinking about and resolving dilemmas.

I planned to supplement Strike’s book with lectures on Kant. Also, the students in
their research reports would apply Strike’s method of using consequential and
non—consequential thinking in resolving one of Strike’s dilemmas. I hoped that the
readings, lectures, group discussions, and practice at resolving a dilemma could create
thinking patterns that would contribute to the students’ ability to craft an ethical practice.

The work of Nel Noddings would serve as the third way to assist students in their
thinking about their own teaching practice. Noddings article, “Fidelity in Teaching,
Teacher Education, and Research for Teaching” (1986) and her book, Caring, (1984)
caused me to reflect on the purposes of my own elementary teaching while providing a

new perspective on education that could shape practice. The Calvin students would

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benefit from hearing Noddings’ view of care and how this perspective can affect teacher
thinking and action in a classroom.

I selected a chapter by Noddings for the students to read and planned for a Calvin
“expert” to lecture on care theory. Helen Sterk had done extensive work in care theory
and could knit together Noddings, care theory, and the students’ goal of becoming a
teacher. After reflecting on the class, I realize a significant omission on my part. Up to
this point, the designed activities followed the pattern of building awareness and
understanding of an issue, modeling a skill associated with that issue, and then providing
an opportunity of using that skill or thought process. For example, the students read about
consequentialist thinking, discussed how Strike used that perspective in resolving a
dilemma, and then were given opportunity to use Strike’s method in resolving another
dilemma. to build an understanding of Noddings’ work and care ethic, but I failed to
design activities that linked Noddings’ work with education. I also failed to provide my
students opportunities of applying her thought process to some dilemma or situation in
school.

Philip Jackson ad the Long School Observation

By this time in the course, the students could have a sense of teaching’s moral
dimension. I want the students to take their understanding and apply it in a school setting.
I planned on doing so at a Montessori public school that I had worked with before. The
open feel to the classroom environment could help in blending the sixteen students into
the walls of three different classrooms. The physical arrangement and teaching methods

of this Montessori school might make the students’ observation seem less intrusive.

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I did not want to outline the purpose of the observation for fear that the teachers
might be predisposed to act in certain ways knowing. Yet, teachers had the right to know
why we were going to be in their classrooms for three hours. I decided to call the
principal, explain our class, and let her tell the teachers whatever she felt was necessary.

The students prepared for this experience by reading about the eight categories
Jackson et a1 (1993) use to describe ways in which teachers and schools convey moral
messages. For example, one category called “Visual Displays with Moral Content”, such
as bulletin boards or posters, may indicate a moral stance or message. I wanted my
students to look around at how the classrooms were decorated and ask, “What does this
stand for or represent?” Another category called “Spontaneous Interjection of Moral
Commentary into Ongoing Activity” involves the moral commentary that teachers may
interject into lessons or dialogue with children. By discussing Jackson’s description of
this category, the students might be able to pick up on the potential moral messages of
teachers’ comments.

After discussing Jackson’s perspective, I planned on assigning one chapter from
his book that demonstrates how Jackson breaks down a classroom observation into small
chunks for analysis. Jackson describes in vivid detail the common, daily events in a
school, viewing them through a moral lens. He provides a unique perspective on the
moral dimension of teaching. Instead of getting into the head of the teachers and
questioning why the teachers do what they do, he takes on the student perspective and
analyzes how teacher actions affect them. For example, the chapter the students read
from his book carefully outlines the actions of Ms. Hamilton, a first grade teacher.

Jackson notices the seemingly insignificant things (the size of the teacher’s chair, the

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maintenance of the working environment, the sharing of computer resources) to the
pattern the teacher uses in addressing the behavior of the students (improper behavior,
teacher’s comment, compliance, approval sequence). By reading carefully his chapter and
then discussing Jackson’s techniques of observation, the students would understand more
deeply how virtually all activity in a classroom could be construed as moral activity.
Jackson’s work also could guide the Calvin students to learn how to observe and reflect
on school activities and teacher actions.

To give students practice in using Jackson’s observation techniques, I planned to
show two videos of award-winning teachers in action. Modeling the observation on
Jackson’s work, the students might question what the teachers’ actions symbolized and
the significance of those actions on children. I wanted our discussion to focus on three
areas: teacher actions, possible intent of those actions, and student perception of actions.
If the Calvin students could observe the actions of award—winning teachers through a
moral lens, they might detect an aspect of teaching’s moral dimension during our
' observation at Long School.

By having students read about the moral dimension of teaching, by having them
look for it on a video—tape of teachers in action, and by having them observe it in a
school, I hoped to convince the students of the pervasive nature of teaching’s moral
dimension and the importance of crafting an ethical practice.

The Parables of Jesus Christ

I wanted the students to connect the moral dimension of teaching to God’s

Kingdom. In order to achieve this goal, I planned on using two strategies. First, every

class session would begin with devotions. Robert Capon’s book, The Parables of the

109

10h

Kingdom (1985), offers a unique vision of Jesus’ parables. Capon interprets Jesus’
parables with a focus on God’s kingdom. His book makes four simple, yet profound
points. First, God’s Kingdom is at work in all places for everyone. The good news of
salvation is not limited to a certain type of people or for those who do certain things.
Second, God’s Kingdom works in mysterious ways. God often uses methods that people
would not consider effective. People tend to think power and force will get the job done.
God often uses a person’s weakness to accomplish His goals. Third, God’s Kingdom
exists now. It is actually present, not dependent on something that must be done. Capon
makes the point that once Christ died on the cross, God’s Kingdom was made manifest
for all to see and accept. The Kingdom no longer depends on a person’s good works or
some special revelation. Finally, God’s Kingdom, which operates within a hostile world,
demands a response from all. The Kingdom is here and now and mysteriously works out
God’s purpose. Each person needs to respond to Christ’s redemptive work.

Capon’s message fits well with teaching’s moral dimension. I wanted my students
to hear Capon’s message and be challenged by his interpretation of God’s Kingdom. The
rationale and motivation for my students to craft an ethical practice could be built on
Capon’s work. I wanted my students to look at each child as being part of God’s
Kingdom. Each child has moral integrity because each child is made in God’s image and
has the gift of salvation through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. I also want my
students to understand that in God’s Kingdom, He uses our weakness to reveal who He is
and how His Kingdom operates. Instead of operating out of a deficit model (Joey can’t do
math and I must save him), my students might look for ways that Joey’s weakness reveals

God and His Kingdom. The students might even be able to think of the weaknesses in

110

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their own practice as ways in which God reveals Himself. If the students would realize
that in their weakness or in their student’s weakness good things could happen, they
could have one component for crafting an ethical practice. A practice that starts with an
assumption that each child has value and worth because each child potentially has
citizenship in God’s Kingdom may lead to more positive, ethical actions.

Second, I planned to relate Capon’s thoughts to teaching during classroom
discussions. Although my comments were not planned for any particular time, the
discussions concerning teacher actions and intentions would provide opportunities to
refer to Capon’s perspective and how it relates to teaching.

While the rationale for incorporating devotions into the class stemmed from the
assumption that-students need to connect their actions to their spiritual beliefs, I realized
that Calvin College expects professors to integrate faith with teaching. Incorporating
devotions into the daily routine of the class could also address the college’s expectations
for integrating faith and teaching.

The following chart summarizes the parables I planned on using during the

interim, where they are found in the Bible, and the intended pedagogy for each parable.

111

Table 3.1 The Parables and Pedagogy of Devotions

 

 

Name of parable Reference in Type of pedagogy used
the Bible

Parable of the sower Matthew 13: Students would be assigned a role and
1-23 would act out the parable. A large

group discussion would follow.

 

Parable of the lamp on the Matthew 5: 15 I planned on reading the parable from
stand the Bible and having a large group
discussion

 

Parable of the growing seed Mark 4: 26—29 I planned on reading the parable from
the Bible and having a large group

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

discussion g
Parable of the weeds Matthew 13: I planned on reading the parable for
24—30 the Bible, having the students act it
out, and having a large group
discussion
Parable of the mustard seed Matthew I planned on reading the parable fiom
and yeast 13:31—33 the Bible and having a large group
discussion
Parable of the treasure and Matthew 13: I planned on reading the parable fiom
the pearl 44—46 the Bible and having a large group
discussion
Parable of the net Matthew 13: I planned on reading the parable from
47—50 the Bible and having a large group
discussion

 

While the description of what I intended to do during the interim class is not exhaustive,
it does provide a fairly complete rationale for my thinking before teaching the course.
Adapting the Material to Learners

Shulman argues that the instructional strategies created for the transforming work
in the educational process must be tailored to the learners. In this final section of Chapter
Three, I will first describe Calvin College’s Interim term. Having set the context of
interim, I will describe some general facts about the participants in the class. Finally, I
will explain why these students took the class, what they hoped to learn, and how they

were conceiving of the moral dimension of teaching.

112

C01

Interim

Calvin College divides the school year up into three terms: the Fall, Interim, and
Spring Term. The Fall and Spring Terms last fourteen weeks with students taking
traditional courses for their core requirements and majors. Interim, which meets during
the month of January, lasts only three weeks. Students select from a wide range of
courses that typically meet for three hours a day, five days a week. The courses range
from the study of witchcraft to the study of stagecraft. Professors are encouraged to
develop courses in their field of interest that would either not be covered in other courses
or explicated in much greater depth during the interim time. Calvin offered 138 Interim
courses of which 29 were off campus. Most courses are offered as electives, although
there are some that meet core or maj or/minor requirements.

The course I taught, EDUC W11, “The Drama of Teaching: Resolving Ethical
Dilemmas in the Classroom,” was an elective course for all students, although the
Education Department allowed the course as a substitute for a CAS (Communication,
Arts, and Science) elective. What follows is the course description found in the Interim
Catalog.

Joey, a third grader, works hard in school, but he struggles to understand the

concepts being taught. Should the teacher reward Joey’s efforts with a higher

grade than what his test results indicate? Is it fair for the teacher to grade Joey as
an individual or should Joey be graded according to a standard measurement?

Teachers face challenging moral dilemmas like this one every day. How do they

decide what to do? In the complex, fast-paced activity of a classroom, how do

teachers make choices that benefit their students? This class explores ethical
dilemmas in teaching through observation of teaching practices in local schools.

Students also participate in improvisational scenes that place them in the center of

such dilemmas. In addition, assigned readings and classroom discussions help

students formulate a moral approach to teaching. Students are evaluated on class
participation, journals, and short response papers.

113

I was concerned about education students becoming interested in my class for two
significant reasons. First, the variety and appeal of other interim courses offered
formidable competition. Calvin students have the opportunity of studying ecology on the
Galapagos Islands or witnessing the financial markets operate in New York. With such
appealing course offerings as these, taking a course in resolving ethical dilemmas may
not seem interesting enough.

Besides the competitive nature of interim course offerings, the incredibly tight
schedules of education students, due to State and Calvin requirements, posed possible
enrollment problems. The chairperson of the Education Department told me of another
education interim class scheduled for the previous year failed to enroll enough students.
Finishing in four years requires students to carefully select their courses fi'om their
freshman year through student teaching. Failure to do so will result in either summer
school or at least another semester of work. Given such a tight schedule, education
students try make their interim courses count toward their program.

Enrollment in the class was set at 15 students, yet despite these two significant
obstacles, 16 students selected this course as the one they wanted to take. Calvin registers
students based on the number of courses completed. By the time the seniors and juniors
registered, only three spots were left. The seniors and juniors have the best selection of
all students, but these students willingly chose this course. I interpreted the quickness of
the class being full to the interest in the topic (which is analyzed in more detail later).

Another factor reinforces my claim that students were interested in this topic. As
mentioned earlier, the Education Department would credit the course as a CAS elective in

a student’s program. Yet only three students took the course for this reason. For the rest

114

of the students, EDUC W11 was an elective—a course that did not contribute to their
program. Despite the number of requirements and the tight time frame for finishing an
education degree, the students seemed to have a strong interest in resolving ethical issues

in the classroom.

When the interim enrollment was completed, .16 students were registered with
three more on a waiting list.
The Students
The following table begins to describe characteristics of the students
Table 3.2: Student Characteristics

Number of students 16
Gender
Female 15
Male
Class ranking
Seniors 3
Juniors 9
Sophomores 3
Freshman 1
Education majors
Elementary 11
Secondary 1
Special Education 1
Other Majors
Communication Disorders
Business/CA8
Undecided
Ethnicity
White 1 15
Asian
Age
Range 19—22 years, one student—36

Fourteen of the students already had observation or teaching experiences through Calvin
at the time of the class. Their experiences range from one on one tutoring to student

aiding in an elementary classroom.

115

Calvin College’s enrollment at the time of the study was 3,978. Forty—eight
percent come from Dutch backgrounds, with 52% having membership in the Christian
Reformed Church, the denomination that sponsors the school. The average ACT
composite score for a Calvin student is 24. The average income for families is
$51,000.While I did not confirm how these general facts compared with the students in
the interim class, the statistics provide general characteristics of Calvin students.

The study lacks a sense of diversity. The students are basically young, white
females. When coupled with the fact they are attending a Christian liberal arts college,
the group seems even more homogenous. Three important points relate to the students’
background. First, in terms of teaching the class, I could assume the students understood
the Christian nature and mission of the college. Twelve of the students had spent two and
a half years at Calvin. They should have some understanding of the importance Calvin
College places on faith and learning. From admission brochures to course syllabi,
students are reminded of the Kingship of Christ and the privilege to serve and live for
' Him. The students would be open to hearing the moral dimension of teaching presented
from a Christian perspective. In fact, they would expect it.

Second, the students’ Biblical knowledge would contribute to understanding how
the parables of Jesus Christ provided a foundation for thinking about moral teaching. The
students would have some knowledge of Jesus Christ and the parables that He told. My
teaching experience at Calvin during the past nine years led me to make this assumption.
While the amount of knowledge concerning Jesus Christ may vary, I would not have to
explain the nature and teachings of Jesus. Immanuel Kant and Nel Noddings would need

a comprehensive introduction to build student understanding. Jesus Christ would not.

116

 

Finally, diversity in students has its rewards. The class did miss opportunities to
hear how an Afiican-American perspective could broaden their view of moral behavior.
Given the short three-week session of interim, I did not seek out ways to include cultural
or religious diversity in my teaching (which is an example of how the moral dimension
permeated my teaching). Reflecting back on the class, I am concerned that some students
may now think only one way exists to think about moral actions. The students may
narrowly define their actions based on material covered in class. While studying Christ,
Kant, and Noddings will provide a strong foundation in understanding the moral
dimension of teaching, other perspectives are valuable in helping preservice students
develop and craft a moral practice.

Reasons for Coming

I promoted the course in the interim catalog by exposing a potential problem that
teachers face. The description gave the impression that the course would assist students to
resolve dilemmas that occur in the classroom. Concerned that the topic would not
motivate students to enroll, I also had the course approved as an elective for Education
students with a Communication Arts and Science major or minor.

The students explained in the first journal why they took the course (see
Appendix B for the journal assignment). Given the tight schedules of Education students,
I expected that many students enrolled in the course to meet the CAS elective. The

following table summarizes the students’ reasons.

117

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Why did you take this course? Number of responses
I like the topic—it sounds interesting. 10
It seems like a practical course for teaching—it should help 4
me in my practice.
It will help me figure out if teaching is the right career for 4

me.

 

It satisfies the CAS elective

 

I’ve had the professor before

 

I like the idea of drama and acting

 

This sounds like a fun class

 

 

Hh-‘NUJUJ

 

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Based on their responses, the students took the course because they found the topic
interesting. The students’ responses pointed to some specific elements. Isaac wrote,

I took this course because the idea of ethics in the classroom interested me. I like

the idea of role—playing certain classroom situations as well. The interim catalog

write—up had a couple of scenarios of specific situations that made this class seem
interesting.

Renee echoed his comments. “I took this course because I am interested in
teaching. And the thing that makes me very nervous when I picture myself as a teacher is
the idea with making the wrong decision.” Chloe wrote, “I really wanted to take this
course because I think it’s a great idea for an interim course. I don’t think a lot of people
take the time to realize how much a teacher influences a child’s life.”

Shuhnan argues that in order to transform the material for students, the teacher
must adapt the material in ways that connect to the student. The Calvin students’ strong
interest in the topic sent a message that I would have to adapt my thinking based on their
interest and knowledge in teaching’s moral dimension. I assumed the students would not
be interested or know much about this area.

In analyzing why my preconceived notions on student interest were inaccurate,

one explanation seemed plausible. In my teaching, I sometimes assume that students’

118

 

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thinking or experience must be the same as mine. Because I rarely thought about my
practice in moral terms, I assumed that the students would not think about or be interested
in it either. Shulman might say that my lack of understanding of the learner could hinder
the process of transforming, or adapting, the material to the learner.

Before teaching the course, I should have carefully analyzed the basis for my
assumptions. Shulman might recommend that in the process of adapting the material for
the learner, I compare my assumptions with the information and characteristics of the
learner. I was looking at the moral dimension of teaching through nine years of
elementary teaching experience and eight years of higher learning teaching and learning
experiences. The Calvin students were looking at teaching’s moral dimension through the
eyes of being a recipient of about a 14-year education process. I did not account for these
differences in my teaching. In doing so, I would have realized that these students did
have an interest in the moral dimension of teaching for reasons that I did not consider.
There was something here that sparked an interest, or maybe a memory that said to them
they wanted to know more. 1

Reasons for Staying

The following table gives an indication of what the Calvin students wanted to

learn from the course. The categories summarize what the students wrote in their

journals.

119

 

 

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Table 3.4 Student Goals

 

What do you hope to learn?

# of
responses

 

How to handle and deal with ethical dilemmas

 

How to develop my role as a teacher

 

How to communicate with others in a school setting

 

To understand a different perspective of teaching

 

To prevent my teaching from hurting someone else

 

How to prevent dilemmas fi'om happening

 

To develop my creativifl and become more outgoing

 

How to rely on my thoughts and emotions

 

To be inspired to teach

 

To use my influence effectively

 

To further develop a Christian perspective for my teaching

 

 

To talk about and discuss ethical dilemmas

 

~—.—.—~.—.—ng.§\)

 

According to their journal responses, students wanted a practical outcome for the time

they were investing in the class. They wanted to know how to handle and deal with

ethical dilemmas (I will explore what they mean by “ethical dilemma” in the next

section). Erin’s quote connects her personal experience to the expectations of the class.

To think that I would be in control of the very impressionable lives of 25 children

for six hours a day is incredibly daunting. I know from personal experience how
much a teacher’s words and actions affect a student. . .. I would hope then, that
through this class I would gain a better understanding of how to react to students,
deal with ethical dilemmas, and how to use my influence for the positive.

Rebecca added, “I hope to learn how it is appropriate to handle situations that might arise

in the classroom. Anything can happen while teaching, and as teachers we need to know

how to handle the child without hurting anyone.”

These two responses reinforce a characteristic emerging from this journal

assignment and throughout the class. Preservice students worry about the influence and

effect they will have on students. They do not want to hurt the students they serve. Not

120

 

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only are the students interested in teaching’s moral dimension, they anticipate that their
practice may have negative effects on some students.

Joseph and Efron’s (1993) interviews with 26 teachers connect with what my
students were saying. “Also, this study portrays the vulnerability of teachers. Many
interviews reveal apprehension about offending pe0ple or fear of doing what is
forbidden” (p. 218). If teachers in the field express fear about offending people or doing
something wrong, preservice students must also feel some of this apprehension.

The idea of not offending students or doing things to hurt a child’s feelings came
out in other journals that connected moral teaching with classroom communication.
Kathryn writes, “I hope to learn how I can better communicate with others and children
so that there is not so much misunderstanding and more helpful feedback which is taken
as intended.” Allison adds, “I want to be able to tell astudent something without it being
interpreted wrong.”

ResolvingEthical Dilemmas

The final question of the first journal attempted to access their thinking
concerning ethical dilemmas. The students explained what the phrase “resolving ethical
dilemmas” meant to them and described a personal school experience involving an
ethical dilemma. The students offered a number of thoughts, but almost all agreed that
resolving ethical dilemmas involved the resolution of a problem. They brought up
situations of not knowing what to do and trying to figure out ways to keep everyone
happy. Lori wrote,

It’s many things. It’s making a right for someone who’s been wronged. It’s being

fair to everyone involved. It’s finding out all sides of the story and going from
there. It’s trying to understand kids better. It’s learning to deal with adults in an

121

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orderly fashion. It’s trying to make the right decision. It’s trying to make all sides
happy.

Rebecca echoes a similar theme.

Ethical dilemmas are situations that arise between a couple, or a few people. Each

person has his or her idea of what happened and what should happen as a result.

Sometimes the situations may be resolved with each person being happy,

however, there is the chance that someone feels hurt.

The students seemed to be thinking of ethical dilemmas in two different ways. While
their responses indicated the need for resolving something or reaching a conclusion in a
difficult situation, they were also describing the results of unethical action. Lori’s entry
states, “It’s making a right for someone who’s been wronged.” Rebecca brings up how
someone might feel hurt. Their comments indicate they are not talking about ethical
dilemmas but rather situations where a teacher may have mistreated a student.

The interim catalog description suggested that the class would focus on moral
dilemmas. In designing the course, I thought that was the appropriate direction. Reading
Kohlberg and Strike led me to think of the moral dimension of teaching in terms of
resolving complex, ethical dilemmas. Early in the project, I narrowly defined the moral
dimension of teaching as resolving these difficult dilemmas. As the interim course went
on, I realized the need for broadening my definition of teaching’s moral dimension. The
student journals started that process for me. Lori and Rebecca articulated the need for
resolving certain situations, but they also referred to situations where a person was hurt or
wronged by the actions of another. It was not a dilemma in the dictionary meaning of the

word—a situation where each action taken has negative consequences—but rather an

ethical situation involving issues of fairness or treatment of another person.

122

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F enstermacher’s (1990) definition of “human action undertaken in regard to other human
beings” (p. 133) connects with these student journals.

Understanding the different moral “dimensions” of teaching is difficult. One
moral dimension of teaching involves the process of resolving complex, seemingly
impossible teaching situations. For example, what should teachers do when a child in the
class complains that the person living with her mother is mean to her? A teacher is faced
with a number of options that all have potential negative consequences. The teacher could
do nothing and allow a potential abusive situation to go on. Or the teacher could try to get
more information and talk with the mother. This action could result with the child getting
in trouble with the mother. No matter what action the teacher takes, it involves negative
consequences. Based on my teaching experience, a difficult dilemma like this occurs
infrequently. Resolving such a problem is not an easy task for each solution has strengths
and weaknesses. Most preservice students (and many experienced teachers) would not
have a system for taking action. Having a way to think about the possible responses
' would be beneficial for teachers. The interim course certainly had this type of situation in
mind.

Another moral dimension to teaching appears subtly and unexpectedly in
classrooms. The situations involve issues of fairness and feelings of being hurt. The
Calvin students were attuned to this dimension of teaching, despite the hidden way that it
occurs in the classroom. When asked to give either a personal example or recount an
observed situation involving an ethical dilemma or an unethical situation, nine students
shared a personal story, five students offered an observed account, and two students did

not come up with an example. In every case the students describe situations involving

123

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issues of respect and justice, not a complex ethical dilemma. The students told of unfair
actions that were taken against them or someone that they knew. They did not tell stories
dealing with complex dilemmas. For example, Rebecca wrote,

When I was in middle school one of my teachers collected the notebooks of all his
students. Our final exam was in a few days but he promised to have them back.
The day he returned the notebooks, he told me he left mine at home by accident.
The next day, he came back to school without it again. I told him I needed my
notes to study but he said I could study from the handouts. For me, studying from
the handouts is not as good as studying from my notes. So my mom went to the
principal and told him what was going on. In the end, I had to take the exam at the
regular time without my notes. I don’t know what the principal said to the teacher,
but the teacher didn’t like me after that happened.

Rebecca is not involved with some complex dilemma. She wanted her notes back, and it
appears the only dilemma the teacher faced is whether to give them to her or not. Yet,
because the teacher took an action (or failed to take an action) with regard to another
human being, the situation had moral implications.

Chloe writes of an experience affecting on her.

In my fifth grade class, I believe I was treated unethically. My class was walking
down the hallway back to the classroom in a line. I was in the back, and my
teacher was behind me a few feet away talking with another teacher. I had
previously unwrapped a piece of bubble gum and placed the wrapper inside my
pocket. I had been walking with my hands in my pockets. Just before we reached
our room, I took my hands out of my pockets and without my knowing the
wrapper hit the floor. My teacher saw that wrapper fall and immediately
approached me and accused me of littering. He didn’t believe me when I told him
I didn’t mean for it to fall out. He made me stay in for recess that day and sweep
the classroom floor. All the kids had seen me and I felt awful. I can still remember
how upset I was that I was accused and punished for something I didn’t do.
Probably the thing that hurt me most was knowing the teacher was disappointed
in me. He was my favorite teachers, and I didn’t want him to think badly of me.

A minor occurrence—a wrapper falling out of a pocket—turns into an unforgettable

experience that has moral implications.

124

 

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These stories reinforce two important points. First, almost everyone had a moral
story to tell. They readily came up with personal examples affecting them. Second, the
incidents described seemed like minor events occurring during the course of a school day.
Getting a notebook back from a teacher or having a wrapper fall out of your pocket seems
like a trivial matter at first glance, but to these students, something else was going on.
Emily’s story follows along the same lines.

I once gave a pro—life speech in my speech class. The teacher I had was

pro—choice. In my speech I showed the precious feet pin that is the actual size of a

forming baby. When I was finished, the teacher ripped all of my arguments apart

in front of the class and told me that my “feet” visual was too small! It also
happened to be the best speech I gave, yet he was focused on his point of view
and trying to argue with me rather than complementing me on how far I had come
with my public speaking.

Two students wrote of more dramatic episodes. Isaac remembered a teacher
slapping a student for swearing and Judy recounted a teacher retaliating after being hit by
a student. Even in these more vivid events, the idea of a dilemma was lacking. Instead,
the students wrote of actions taken by others that were unjust or unfair from their
perspective.

The students wrote that they wanted to learn how to resolve ethical dilemmas,
although when providing an example of an ethical dilemma, they described situations
involving a teacher mistreating a student. Their responses also indicated the type of
thinking they were using to reach these conclusions. Three students, Ariana, Lori, and
Susan used consequentialist thinking in their rationale. Their decision making process
looked for ways to “make all sides happy,” as Lori put it, or “in a way that is the least

harmfirl to the people involved,” as defined by Susan. These three students were still in

the minority. Most of the students believed that moral decisions are based on who you are

125

and what you believe. Kathryn wrote concerning ethical dilemmas, “You have to make a
choice that is difficult based on your feeling and the information you know.” Judy added,

Not all of the decisions that I am going to have to make are going to be easy

decisions. I am going to have to solve problems based on my ethics, what I

believe to be right, and I am going to have to be able to back myself up and be

able to get my point across to parents and students.
Renee concurred,

Resolving an ethical dilemma means that based on your own personal morals,

certain dilemmas may have to be handled on your own. The answer to the

situation is not something that can be looked up in a book, it needs to‘be a

personal decision made by personal moral standards.

The students who cited their own personal feelings and beliefs as being key to resolving
ethical dilemmas lead to two important considerations. The first consideration involves
what the students did not say. The students, being at a Christian liberal arts college, did
not point to the golden rule or the teachings of Christ as guides to making decisions.
Based on their journal responses, the students did not readily connect their faith with
taking actions in resolving ethical dilemmas.

Second, the Calvin students pointed to their own feelings and beliefs in making
difficult ethical judgments. They did not refer to any specific process that would assist
them in taking ethical action. Relying on personal intuition in resolving problems will
provide the guidance required for some ethical actions, but a number of situations may
require more complex reasoning.

The work of Robert Nash (Real World Ethics, 1996) connects with the students’
first journal assignment. Nash argues for three moral languages (see Chapter One for an

explanation of Nash’s three languages) that factor in people’s moral actions. In the first

moral language, Nash addresses a person’s fundamental background beliefs and values.

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He wants his students to articulate and explain on what their actions are based. I was
attempting a similar thing in this first journal assignment by asking my students to define
and give an example of a moral dilemma that occurred in their educational experience.
Nash believes this first moral language reveals how students make sense out of the world.

The purpose of the First Language is not to “prove” or “justify” anything; it is to

“locate” ethical judgements, decisions, and actions in a Background Language

that deepens, explains, and reveals. This language helps students to understand

what is truly important to them... (p. 40).

The first language of the Calvin students did not seem to clearly describe their
fundamental beliefs and values. Nor did their responses reveal what is truly important to
them.

Two possible theories may explain the difficulty in analyzing the student journals.
First, the wording of the journal assignment may have left the students with little
opportunity to respond in a way that reveals their core, foundational beliefs. After all,
writing about a situation they observed or experienced in school does not necessary mean
they will also reveal how they make sense out of life. Granted, their responses may
provide clues as to how they are thinking or what” they believe, but the evidence is
anything but conclusive.

A second possibility exists. The assignment specifically required an educational
context that may have tempered student responses. The students may think of the role
they will play in the classroom as teacher and make decisions based on that role, not
necessarily based on their core beliefs. Joseph and Efron quote from a number of studies
(cf. Waller, 1932; Beale, 1936; Lortie, 1975) that “suggest that we cannot understand the

teacher’s experience as a moral agent without seeking societal influence—perhaps even

coercion—in determining the moral decisions and actions made by the educators” (p. 203).

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My goal for the class included making students aware of teaching’s moral
dimension for the purpose of helping them craft an ethical practice. In order to do so, I
agreed with Nash that determining how students were initially thinking about the topic
was critical. What I did not carefully think about was why they were thinking that way. If
the students responded to the journal questions based on what they think a teacher might
say, I would have to explore their conceptions of what it means to be a teacher. If,-on the
other hand, they were responding based on what they truly believed at the core of their
being, my focus would shift to exploring what gives meaning to their life and how they
might express those values in thought and action.

In the busyness of teaching three hours every day during the week, I did not
reflect on why the students responded in the way they did. A more thorough investigation
into these journals might have shown me why students believe what they do concerning
the moral dimension of teaching.

To develop a student’s ability to pedagogically reason, Shulman argues that the
material the teacher will present must be transformed by representing what the teacher
comprehends in varied ways. Instructional strategies are then developed that take into
account the varied ways of representing material and adapted to the students who need to
understand how to reason about their own practice. I have attempted to describe the steps
taken in the transformation process for the interim course. In the next chapter, I will

describe and analyze the next two stages in Shulman’s model: instruction and evaluation.

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THE DRAMA OF EDUCATION: CRAFTING AN ETHICAL PRACTICE
Volume II
By

Randall J. Buursma

A Dissertation
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of PhiIOSOphy
Department of Teacher Education

2000

Chapter Four

Instruction and Evaluation

Shulman lists “instruction” and “evaluation” as separate aspects in his model of
pedagogical reasoning. By “instruction, ” Shulman is referring to what takes place in the
classroom. He includes classroom management, presenting lessons, assigning work, and
assessing student progress as components of “instruction.” By “evaluation,” Shulman
refers to the methods teachers employ in checking their students’ understanding of
content. Some evaluation takes the form of testing, although Shulman points out that
evaluation of student understanding also occurs during teacher/ student interaction during
lessons. I have connected these two aspects to avoid repeating what was described in
Chapter Three concerning the design the rationale of the course and to provide for a clear
analysis of what happened during the interim class.

Chapter Four is divided into two sections. In the first section, I describe the
strategies used in making sense out of the data. The second section analyzes a number of
pedagogical strategies used during the interim class. The analysis focuses the
effectiveness of these strategies in deepening student understanding of teaching’s moral
dimension.

Methods of Inquiry: The Art of Making Meaning

Making sense out of what happens in a three-week period concerning a complex
and difficult topic creates unique problems. The purpose of the class focused on assisting
preservice students in understanding the moral dimension of teaching for the purpose of

crafting an ethical practice. The frrst part of the challenge, building student understanding

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of teaching’s moral dimension, seemed attainable given the varied instructional strategies
planned for the course. The second challenge, affecting a student’s future teaching
practice, is much more elusive. I would like to address those two concerns in this chapter
by outlining the various methods used to collect and analyze data. Then I will explain
why two moral development measurements were not used in the study.
The Data
In order to understand how students were thinking about the moral dimension of
teaching, they wrote down their thoughts and beliefs in a number of different forms
described below.

1. The students filled out a form (see Appendix C) on the first day providing
information like phone numbers, addresses, and classroom experiences. The form
asked about the students’ past and future teaching experiences. I wanted to know the
amount of teaching experience the students had and also discover what students
would be going into their student teaching experience the following semester.

' 2. The students were asked to complete a journal on the first day of class. I was
interested in four main areas: Why did the students take this course? What do they
hope to learn? How would the students define the moral dimension of teaching? Do
they have any examples that illustrate what they mean by the moral dimension of
teaching?

To analyze their responses, I created a table with their name and the three areas
listed. I summarized the main parts of each journal and made charts that tabulated student
responses. For example, when asked to define the moral dimension of teaching, eight

students believed it had something to do with reaching a conclusion or resolution with a

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diffith situation. Once the responses were categorized, I would look for patterns and

similarities among the student responses. Bogdan and Biklen’s work (1992) guided my

analysis. They outline ten different coding strategies that may provide clues and possible
evidence into what the students may be thinking. For example, the first journal
assignment provides a student perspective on the setting and context of the interim class.

I could use their responses for building the foundation of where the Calvin students

started from and compare it with where they ended three weeks later. Using Bogdan and

Biklen’s setting and context category proved essential in early analysis.

3. The students were asked to write daily in journals about an activity or experience in
class that arrested their attention in class. They were asked not to merely recap the
event, but to explain as best they could the effect the experience had an on them.

Daily journals could offer insight into revealing how students were thinking and the

effects of the pedagogy in developing their understanding of teaching’s moral dimension.

Making sense out of the vast sea of words proved challenging. I started summarizing

what the students wrote each day. Typically, students wrote about two or three things that

happened during the class period. Carefully reading through 115 journals took a fair
amount of time but proved valuable in accessing student thinking. After cutting and

pasting all 16 students’ responses on a piece of posterboard measuring 3 feet by 3 feet, I

looked for patterns by tabulating their responses into certain categories. The categories

were not predetermined, but came from their writing. For example, if they wrote about

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, I would mark that down and go the next item. By the

time the tabulation was done, 11 topics emerged. I made this determination by adding up

the number of times and the number of days that topic was written. For example, students

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wrote about The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie 22 times over a span of 6 days. By separating

the number of responses and the number of days students wrote about a particular topic, I

could begin to assess the effect an activity or experience had on the students based on

their writing. Bogdan and Biklen would define this system of analysis as using “situation

codes” (p. 167) because the information gleaned provided the student’s perspective on a

particular topic.

4. The students were given a pre and post—test case study. On the first day of class, they
were asked to respond to the case of Mr. Sheldon (see Appendix D), a 3rd grade
teacher who comes back from recess only to find his favorite vase given by his wife
in pieces on the floor. The students were asked to describe what Mr. Sheldon should
think about the situation, and what he would do to get to the bottom of what
happened. On the last day of class, students were asked to respond to the case of
Linda (see Appendix E), a first year teacher trying to resolve the problem of teaching
two chapters in Science with only three weeks left before summer break.

By comparing the pre and post—case responses, I might discover the development in
student thinking during the interim course. “Process codes” (Bogdan, p. 169) attempt to

categorize the changes that take place over time. The data was difficult to analyze for a

couple of unanticipated reasons. First, the two cases do not lend themselves to

comparison because of the types of problems that each addresses. Mr. Sheldon is trying
to figure out what happened to his beautiful vase and what role the students played in it.

Linda is trying to figure out how to cover curriculum without sacrificing how she

typically teaches. The nature of each case was too different to make any significant

comparison. Writing on the same case at the beginning and end of the class might have

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been a better way to learn about changes in students’ thinking. Second, I did not do an

adequate job of making sure the students gave equal attention to both cases. On the last

day of class, I gave them the Linda case and asked them to turn it in within a few days.

After spending three weeks of fairly intense study on the moral dimension of teaching,

assigning a reaction paper to a case during their three-day break before the start of second

was not appropriate. I did summarize the students’ reactions for each case and compared
the rationale and issues raised.

5. Students participated in group projects (see Appendix F) assigned during the interim
period. Each group of four students was asked to conduct research that analyzed four
components of the class.

First, each group was to explain the activities and experiences that contributed to their

understanding of the moral dimension of teaching. Students relied on their daily journals

as one source of information. They would reflect on their experiences and discuss as a

group what activities seemed to have an effect on their thinking. I wanted the students to

discuss in a small group what was happening in class. By placing their discussion in the
context of a research project, their discussion could take on a serious and thoughtful
nature.

The second part of the research project asked each group to report their findings
from the school observations. The students spent 1 1/2 hours observing in a local school
for two consecutive days. Jackson’s work (1993) guided the students’ observation. His
seven categories that describe aspects of the moral dimension in classrooms and the
techniques he uses in classroom observation prepared the Calvin students for their visit.

Jackson emphasizes the importance of looking for positive moral situations and being

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gracious in judging the moral worth of teachers’ actions. Students took individual field
notes and shared their findings with their research group.

The third part of the project asked each group to make recommendations that
would make the class more effective in developing teaching’s moral dimension. Students
’ usually will share their ideas of what does not work and offer ways to make something
better if given the chance. I stressed with the students that as researchers, they had an
obligation (yes, a moral obligation) to present findings that accurately reflect their
experience. I connected their research work with mine, stating the more honest and
sincere they would be with their recommendations, the more helpful and effective this
course would become for future students.

The final part of the report was an attempt see if the students could apply what
was learned in class by creating and acting out an improvised scene that demonstrated
their thinking on a moral situation.

Their research projects gave thoughtful, meaningful feedback. I combined
Bogdan and Biklen’s “event” (p. 170) and “methods” (p. 172) coding categories to
analyze their findings. In one sense, the students were involved in a specific activity or
event that provided one way of coding information. In another sense, the students were
part of a method that I devised to yield specific information about the course. I combined
the two categories by setting up a table that cross-referenced each group with the four
categories described. Next, I look for common themes, evidence that classroom activities
created feelings or emotions, and indications of changing thinking patterns in each of the
reports. In a later chapter I will explain in more detail how their research contributed to

the study.

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6. Audio—taping and videotaping classroom activities provided another source of data.
Almost all classroom discussions were audio—taped along with any lectures or special
speakers. Six tapes or about twelve hours of classroom material required analysis. I
videotaped improvisations or rolebplays and their research reports. At the end of the
class, five tapes totaling ten hours of data required analysis. I did not tape the
devotions that were done at the beginning of each class nor any of the classroom
observations done at the local school. Some discussions and classroom activities were
not electronically recorded. 1 relied on my personal journal to assist me in these
situations.

Since the analysis of the data began in May, three months after the study, I
recreated the interim class by breaking down what happened each day. I would first read
over my lesson plan and then listen to either the audio—tape or videotape for that day.
While either listening or watching, I would outline what was said in class. By
summarizing the proceedings, I could begin to see the type of topics that interested in
students and make comparisons to what they were writing intheir daily journals. In some
ways, I was using Glaser and Strauss’s (1967) constant comparative method.
Hammersley (1983) describes the purpose of this method is to find links between existing
and new concepts. 1 was linking my initial feelings and beliefs to the new concepts that
were emerging through the data in sequential fashion. After each day, I would read
through their daily journals and chart the students’ individual responses to classroom
experiences. Finally, I read through my own journal, comparing my thoughts and feelings
to student reactions.

7. I kept a journal throughout the interim class that provided another source of data.

135

During interim, I found myself barely one step ahead of the students. I taught from 8:30
to 12:00 every morning. In the afternoon, preparations would begin for the next day. I
usually finished up on the lesson plan that night after spending some time with my wife
and three children. The intense pace proved exciting, but also difficult. The personal
journal turned out to be a place where I could slow down and reflect on what was
happening. For a few moments after each teaching session, I would think about the
teacher and the researcher roles involved in the study. David Wong’s article (1995) on
the dual roles that a teacher/researcher undertakes outlines some of the tensions that I felt
with this type of research. I could remember times in class where I would listen to a
student’s response and wonder if that could be useful for the dissertation project. At other
times, I would be so engaged in what was happening with an activity, that the research
study was a non-factor. At times, I had trouble synthesizing the two roles. Wilson (in
press) suggests focusing on the teaching and the learning process rather than what a
teacher or researcher might be thinking. I struggled in doing that. The time spent in
writing my journals allowed that tension to be acknowledged in a quiet office rather than
the busyness of the classroom moment.

The previous sources of data do an adequate job of getting at how students are
thinking about the moral dimension of teaching. Sifting through daily journals, watching
videotapes of improvisations, listening to their research findings all help explain what
students know or are at least coming to understand about this complex area. But part of
my purpose was to do more than create awareness of how the moral dimension permeates
the classroom. I wanted them to act on their knowledge and have their actions influenced

by what happened during this three-week time. Ideally, I was hoping for 2—3 students

136

who would be doing their student teaching during the spring semester. After reading
through their student profiles, only one student would be going on into student teaching.
One other student would be taking EDUC 301—303, Calvin’s student aiding course. In
this class, students learn about the psychology of education along with an introduction to
teaching. Students spend significant time observing a classroom teacher, helping out with
small groups or individual tutoring, and leading a large class lesson. I decided to use
these two students as a follow—up to the study. One complicating factor with this student
was the fact that she was doing her aiding in Rehoboth, New Mexico through a special
off—campus program. I conducted her interviews via the phone.
8. Two interviews with each student provided feedback on the course’s effect on their
teaching.
The first interview occurred at the midpoint of their student teaching or aiding
experience. I wanted to get a sense for what they were doing in the classroom and if their
experience during interim influence how they were thinking about teaching. Both
' interviews were, taped and transcribed. A second interview transpired following their
teaching experience. The format and questions were the same for both interviews. In their
interviews, these two students told stories of what they had seen and done that reminded
them of the interim course. It was more than just hearing about what they knew or were
coming to understand about the moral dimension of teaching. They connected their
knowledge to actions that their teachers took or that they were taking while they taught.
Hearing their stories gave me a small glimpse into the effect of the course on student

action, not merely student knowledge.

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9. During the following semester, the remaining 14 students in the class emailed me
with any situations that reminded them of what happened during our time class.
This source of data did not ask them for what they knew or were conring to understand.
They were making their own connections based on their own constructions of teaching’s
moral dimension to personal experiences. Their stories could help me figure out how
their conceptions compared with the goals for the course.
The Road Not Traveled On

James Rest’s (1994) designed the Defining Inventory Test (DIT) to measure
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Rest expanded on Kohlberg’s work (1969) in
the sense of putting the focus on the cooperation required in each stage. Rest believed
people make sense out of social situations by utilizing their ability to cooperate. Each
stage requires more cooperation, not less. For example, at stage one a young person acts
in certain ways because someone else has power over her. The fear of punishment factors
into a choice of actions. In stage two, issues of fairness come up because a person begins
to strike up deals with others in order to get what she wants. The level of Cooperation
increases for each stage. In stage one, the c00peration is limited to staying out of trouble
with another person. In stage two, a person begins to figure out ways to cooperate with
someone else in order to get what she might want. Each stage requires more cooperation
from the people involved that result in higher levels of principled action.

The DIT’s ability to place people within the six stages is unquestioned. The test
yields consistent, valid results in any number of situations. Cross-cultural studies
reinforce the universality and effectiveness of measuring people’s moral judgment. The

test consists of a multiple choice, computer scored questions about moral dilemmas that

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people face. The most famous dilemma from the DIT involves a husband by the name of
Heinz who needs to get medicine for his ailing wife. Without the medicine, she dies. The
dilemma stems from his ability to pay for the treatment. Heinz does not have enough
money to pay for the medicine and the pharmacist will not give it to him. A person taking
the test answers questions about the possible actions taken, and in the process, reveals
that person’s level of moral development

I considered using this test at the beginning and end of the interim to evaluate any
changes in the students’ moral development, but decided against it, thinking that moral
development was not my focus. By Rest’s own admission, The DIT is a limited analysis.
“If a moral stage analysis represents a very broad characterization of cognition, it remains
for more fine—grained analysis to depict the intermediate level of concepts” (p. 9). Rest
further explains that moral behavior depends on four components:
moral sensitivity or the awareness of how our actions affect other people,
moral judgment or the ability to justify actions,

moral motivation or the ranking given to moral values,
moral character or the personal characteristics that contribute to moral action.

99°39!”

The DIT measures only moral judgment, an area that was not my focus. After studying
the DIT, I concluded that it could provide some information on how the students made
moral judgments, but it would miss out on a crucial area of concem—developing a moral
awareness of the teaching process that leads to crafting an ethical practice.

While Kohlberg’s work focused on the cognitive development of moral action
and an ethic of justice, Carol Gilligan (1982) asserted moral actions stem from the
relationships people have with each other. Gilligan’s ethic of care offered a different
perspective for analyzing the rationale people, especially women, used in moral action.

What Gilligan did not have during the beginning stages of her work was a way to

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measure her theory. Kohlberg could point to his own moral judgment interview or Rest’s
DIT, but Gilligan lacked a measure that would satisfy the scientific community. Eva Skoe
(1994) set out to rectify this situation. She designed the Ethic of Care Interview (ECI) to
measure a person’s ability to care for others. Like Rest, Skoe used‘dilemmas as a way of
discovering a person’s thought process. For example, her first dilemma involves either a
husband or a wife (depending on who you are interviewing) struggling with her marriage. .
The husband, self—centered and insensitive, shows little interest in the wife. Her attempts
to change the situation meet with no success. Time passes without any progress in their
marriage. Later, the wife becomes attracted to a single male who is considerate and
clearly loves her. What should she do? Why? Skoe would then listen to the responses and
make a judgment as to the level of care the interviewee exhibited. Her 5 levels indicate
increasing concern for others, moving from self—concem in the early stages to
other—concem in the later stages.

I was intrigued by the possibility of using Skoe’s measure to reinforce my
findings, but a couple of problems proved difficult to resolve. First, the ECI takes a fair
amount of time to administer. To validate the results, at least two raters would have to be
brought in to confirm my interviews and placements. Although I have had six hours of
practitioner training, I knew of no one else familiar with the EC] to assist in the rating
process. Second, the focus of the interim class was not on developing a care ethic within
my students. Although Gilligan and Noddings have significant contributions benefiting
teachers, I wanted students to also connect the ethic of care to the work of Jesus Christ
and Immanuel Kant. Using a measure that focused on one component of the class did not

seem worth the effort and time required for meaningful results.

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In designing the study, I was concerned with having results that would stand up to
the scrutiny of the educational community. Hammersley and Atkinson (1983) write of the
tension between rigorous testing of positivism and the discovery of facts found in
naturalism. I felt that tension. Initially, I thought my study should be filled with numbers.
But after looking at what was available for me to get “numbers” and understanding that
the study would gain integrity by demonstrating careful and thoughtful analysis, I
decided against these measures. As a result, I have nine sources of data providing
valuable information from which to make analysis and conjectures concerning ways of
influencing student thinking about the moral dimension of teaching.

Analyzing this type of data and developing ways that accurately reflect or even
measure student thinking poses problems. My strategy consisted of taking what the
students gave me and trying to make sense out of it. I could have transcribed what
everyone said and run it through computer programs that could pull out the frequency of
certain words and therefore allow me to make conclusions that might appear more
measurable or valid. I deliberately stayed away such a methodology. Understanding
student thinking is a complex problem. I let the students’ words form the basis of my
understanding. Through daily journals and classroom discussion, the student’s voice was
heard. I listened carefully to what they said. I looked for consistency in their journals and
classroom discussion. Categorizing issues and topics based on Bogdan and Biklen and
Hammersley and Atkinson’s advice was another way that I gave meaning to what was

being written or said. In all of this, I hope to tell the students’ story.

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Interpreting Instruction

In the following section, I will analyze material from student journals and
classroom activities and discussions in order to learn about the effect of the course
activities.

I will start with a chart that summarizes their daily journal entries. Each day the
students would reflect on what happened in class and pick one or two things that they
found interesting. I carefully read through all of their journals and tabulated the number
of responses for each topic and the number of days that topic was written about. For
example, twenty-two different journal entries were about the book, The Prime of Miss
Jean Brodie (PMJB). These twenty-two entries occurred over a span of six days. I
categorized students’ responses by classroom activity, and added two headings called
“Future Teaching” and “Personal.” The “Future Teaching” category connects a classroom
activity to the time when the students would have their own classroom. For example,
Rebecca wrote, “It makes me think about what I am going to someday do with my
students. Everyday I am going to have to prepare myself to think before I do or say
anything.” Her comment fits into the category of “Future Teaching.” The “Personal”
category includes journal entries that refer to a personal school experience. For example,
Anne wrote,

I had a professor at Calvin who sat me down and told me my paper was the worst

use of the English language he had ever seen. He said I needed to learn how to

write or I wouldn’t make it any further at Calvin. I was devastated to hear this.

Her comment fits in the “Personal” category. All but fourteen responses fit within one of

these categories. The following table summarizes my work.

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Table 4.1 Categorizing Student Journals

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Classroom Activity # of responses # of days
Future teaching 43 10
Long School observation 42 2
Helen Sterk 24 2
Devotions 22 8
PMJB 22 6
Improvisation (in general) 21 4
Personal 19 11
Dead Poets Society 16 2
School Board Scene (specific 8 1
role—play)

Shoe Sale Scene (specific 7 1
role—play)

Video of teachers 7 l

 

 

 

As the table indicates, the topic of a student’s future teaching came up 43 times in
journals during the interim class on at least 10 different days. Contrast those results with
the comments made concerning The Dead Poets Society. Sixteen people wrote about it,
but only for two days. This makes sense given that the movie was shown and discussed
on one day. Since it was the only topic for the day, almost everybody wrote about it.
Trying to make sense out of how often an activity or topic was written about in
comparison to the number of times the activity was done in class presents analytical
challenges. I struggled with how to weight the number of responses and the number of
days the topic was written about with the amount of time spent in class on that activity.
For example, the class spent only two days observing at Long School as compared to five
days reading and discussing The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. I had almost twice as many
responses to the Long School observation as to the book. Does that mean the students

found the observation twice as important as the book?

143

 

I did not have a magic formula that would resolve this problem. I decided to take
the frequency of responses to an activity or topic as a sign of something worth analyzing.
In the following sections, 1 would like to discuss the way students wrote and talked about
five major topics/activities: The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, drama activities, Long
School observations, devotions, and Helen Sterk’s visit. The results provide interesting
insights into the effective of the course on student understanding of the moral dimension
of teaching.

What students wrote about and what may have an effect on how they craft an
ethical practice could be two different things, but I have no way of measuring the effect
of an activity other than their words. It could be that when the students stand in front of a
class of 23 children, something they did not write about will become an important part of
their teaching. At this time, I am limited to what they say and do during the interim
course. I have tried to compensate for this shortcoming by tracking two students who
spent the following semester in a classroom. In Chapter Five, I will analyze the effect of
i the interim course on their teaching.

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie
Assertion/Intention: I believed that reading, discussing, and participating in activities
focused on The Prime of Miss Jean would effectively create interest and help students
build awareness of teaching’s moral dimension.

I set out to design a course that would assist preservice students to craft an ethical
practice. Getting the student’s attention and keeping their interest would be crucial in
order to build the awareness required in ethical teaching. I will use transcripts from

classroom discussions and student journals to build a case that using The Prime of Miss

Jean Brodie did created the interest and the understanding of teaching’s moral dimension.

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First, I will provide an overview of the pedagogical strategies used in my teaching
lessons for the book. Then I will build my case by beginning with a transcript from a
classroom discussion that provides evidence how the book prompted discussions
concerning the purposes of schools and the intentions of teachers. By discussing the
purposes of school, the students are in a better position to evaluate a teacher’s actions
against those purposes. Next, I will quote from a number of student journals that
demonstrate a shift in student thinking concerning Jean Brodie and her influence. The
shift in student thinking comes from a careful analysis of the effect of Brodie’s actions on
students.

The following table provides an overview of the activities that took place on the
five days the class worked on The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. The chart may help in

giving a context to the more specific data that follows.

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Table 4.2 Pedagogical Strategies for The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie

 

Day

Description of class

 

1/8/98

Introduced book, pass out information sheet on book (see Appendix G),
and assigned the first chapter

 

1/9/98

Discussed Brodie’s concept of education and her use of the word “prime.”
Listed and described the various characters of the book. Assigned chapter 2

 

l/12/98

Divided the class into four groups of four students. Each group was given a
specific question to discuss, reach a conclusion, and report back to the
group. Later, each student was assigned a role from a scene in the chapter,
and the class acted out this scene. Assigned chapter 3.

 

1/13/98

Divided the class into five groups. Each group had to pick out two
important incidents from the chapter and explain why the incident was
important. Assigned chapter four.

 

1/14/98

Divided the class in four groups and had them create “frozen pictures”
from a scene that occurred in chapter four. Each group then “thawed” to
reenact the scene. Discussed the various scenes. Assigned chapter five and
six.

 

 

1/15/98

 

Discussed the last two chapters of the book. Focused on the moral
effectiveness of Brodie as a teacher and the influence she had on her
students.

 

Given the overview of the teaching strategies, I will now describe and analyze

specific events that provide evidence of the effect of the book on student thinking. On the

third day of class, the following discussion occurred in response to the conflict between

Jean Brodie and Miss Mackay, the school’s headmistress, about Brodie’s use of telling

personal stories as classroom methodology.

RB (me): What do you think of that pedagogy? (in reference to Jean Brodie
telling personal stories about love and war.) What do you think of that?

Debra: We kinda of talked (earlier in small groups) about how she says Miss
Mackay’s philosophy is intrusive, forcing things into the children, but really hers
is more intrusive than Miss Mackay’s. She’s not just intruding with facts; she’s

intruding with her philosophy. She tells the story with the slant of this is how love
and war fit together from her perspective. So the children will think of it from her

‘ perspective. We felt that was more intrusive than what she said of Miss Mackay.

RB: That’s a great point. She is the one doing the selecting of what story will I tell
you and why will I tell you this story because I do want you to think about war in

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a certain way or love in a certain way. That’s fairly intrusive. In fact, she has a
great comment—Susan, are you on this page where she talks about this? Go on to
that page and read from the top of the page down.

Susan: (quoting) Mine is a leading out of knowledge, and that is true education as
is proved by the root meaning. Now Miss Mackay has accused me of putting
ideas into my girls’ head, but in fact that is her practice and mine is quite the
opposite. Never let it be said that I put ideas into your heads. What is the meaning
of education, Sandy?” (quote is from page 55).

RB: Isn’t that ironic? “I don’t put any ideas into your head. Never let that be said.
Now, what did I just say? What is the meaning of education?” She is trying to put '
her idea into their head. So this notion of what is in you I can draw out, is that true
or not, do you think? Is that valid or not? ‘

Kim: I think she does it in a way that might be intrusive, but that girls don’t see it
as that. So she really is, but because it’s such a real life teaching and such an

interesting teaching, the girls don’t see it as intrusive and therefore Miss Brodie
doesn’t think it is.

RB: I like that. It’s unclear what it is they actually get out of these stories. She
tells the story of Hugh and the reaction we get is that the girls start crying. It
effects them emotionally and they start crying, but what have they learned? What
did they get out of that? Werread about Eunice and Eunice says she told stories
about Egyptians, but we’re left wondering what did that do for Eunice.

Emily: What would it do if she went with Miss Mackay and did a bunch of dates
and a bunch of battles and things like that. We talked about that as how our
schooling went. We think back on our history tests where we pumped it into our
head, spit it up, and you’re done—can’t remember a thing. So is it more important
to remember the story of how she related to a person, which is something that she
has for the rest of her life? You can’t relate to facts.

Rebecca: We were saying that it has to be a combination of both. Both learning
styles and teaching styles need to be shown. You need to have the facts kinda of
presented to you, but you also need the stories to go along with it. You need to
give them some of the facts and have them draw knowledge fi'om it so they
remember the facts and use their own knowledge.

Emily: How do you determine what facts are important? How do you find that
balance then?

Debra: What they need to know for the MEAP tests (much laughter). I don’t think
it is fair that when it came to the part for her students to take that test—it was like a
hurry up thing where they had to scrape by and just get through the test. I just

don’t know that it’s fair.-I don’t even know the valid reasons for tests like that, but

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it’s part of life. I don’t know if it’s fair to have students be so unprepared for that.
So there needs to be a balance.

As evidenced by the discussion, the class was talking about the purpose of
education and issues of fairness within the first three days of class. The book presents two
contrasting perspectives on what a school should do. Brodie tells stories and wants to
prepare her students for their “prime.” Brodie tells her students,

One’s prime is elusive. You little girls, when you grow up, must be on the alert to

recognise your prime at whatever time of your life it may occur. You must then

live it to the full. . .. One’s prime is the moment on was born for. (p. 18, 19)
Brodie does not describe what it means to live life to the full or how the girls will know
when the moment occurs that they were born for, but based on Brodie’s actions, it has to
do with a person’s ability to lead a romanticize life.

Mackay believes traditional education is most efficient and effective. Learning to
read, write, and do arithmetic should be the focus of every student. The book prompted
debate among the Calvin students concerning what was worth teaching and how it should
be taught. They made connections to their own education and what they considered
valuable. Without discussing what a school ought to do, the students would have a
difficult time in exposing the moral dimension of teaching. The classroom discussion
suggests that the students are exploring this important issue.

Their concern over curriculum and philosophy spilled over into their journals. Of
the twenty-two journal entries, eleven of the responses focused on how Brodie taught the
curriculum. Allison, on the following day, writes,

I have changed my mind on Miss Brodie. I’ve decided that she is too extreme.

The facts have to be learned but at the same time those facts can be fun if

presented right. It’s a teacher’s decision if they want to make it fun or not. I still
think that telling stories is fine in a classroom as long as it doesn’t start taking

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over your class. I had teachers that would allow for ten minutes or so at either the

beginning or end of the day and I think that’s a good idea.

Allison is thinking about Brodie and the issues presented in the book. The appeal of
Brodie diminishes as the students read more about her philosophy of education and the
way she runs her classroom. The students read about Brodie’s reverence for Mussolini,
her love affair with another teacher, and her treatment of one of her students. Allison
changes her feelings about Brodie and then cites a personal example of how her teachers
prevented stories from “taking over your class.” Allison’s response connects with
Kohlberg’s work. Kohlberg asserted that moral development involves changes in a
person’s thinking. Allison provides evidence of a change in thinking about Brodie,
although it is unclear if Alison is also organizing her thoughts about what happens in
schools in a different way. While her response'is not conclusive, Allison’s response does
show a careful reflection on the issues the book brings out.

The class discussion and journals like Allison’s provide some evidence of the
book’s effect on the students. Ten students journaled about the connection between a
teacher’s purposes and her teaching. The students were questioning the value of
traditional curriculum and Brodie’s idea of preparing her students for their prime.

While curriculum issues proved an important point of interest for the students, the
discussions concerning Brodie’s influence allowed the class to see more clearly the
complex, moral nature of teaching. Muriel Sparks does a masterful job of creating a
character that cannot simply be dismissed as an eccentric person who does not know how
to teach. Jean Brodie loves teaching and building relationships with her students. She also

makes some choices that appear to hurt the children with whom she works. The positive

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or negative influence that she has over her students is debatable. Jean Brodie’s actions
created opportunity for analysis and discussion of the moral complexity in teaching.

Nine of the twenty-two journal entries discussed the effect Brodie’s teaching had
on her class. Students’ responses reveal a component of their thinking concerning
teaching’s moral dimension. Two students in particular articulated a change in attitude
toward Brodie. Kim wrote on the third day of class,

I like how the girls are getting comfortable with Miss Brodie. It’s like they are life

long friends with each other. They can converse and relate above a

teacher—student relationship. They share information on the same level.

By the end of the book, Kim has formed a different opinion. “I think Brodie’s intentions
were much more selfish. She wanted the girls to think like her, live like her, sleep with
the men she loved.”

What I find important about the two different journal entries involved not just a
change of opinion about Jean Brodie, but that Kim made a judgement about Jean
Brodie’s intentions. She analyzes Brodie’s intentions and criticizes them, although her
explanation is vague. She claims that Brodie is selfish and provides examples, but she
does not express her thinking in other ways that might reveal the principles from which
she operates.

Allison summarized her feelings in this way.

I liked the book that we read in class. I came to the conclusion that Miss Brodie

had a huge influence on her students. Even though she had a big influence, 1 think

the girls were able to weed out what was appropriate and what wasn’t. Some of
the things Miss B talked about were important to some girls and not to others. By
this occurring I think the girls had broadened their horizons and found their

different interests. I also think the book shows what an influence teachers do have
on their students. >

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I do not believe Allison would have analyzed Jean Brodie in this manner without the
discussions and role—plays about the book. Alison wrote in her first journal, “Resolving
ethical dilemmas means to me not offending anyone in the classroom and if it does
happen unintentionally how to deal with that problem.” Allison appears to be thinking
about teaching in a different way. She is thinking about both the positive and negative
influence teachers may have on their students.

While starting with The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie proved a valuable way to
engage students, the data indicates I may have spent too much time with it. Two out the
four research reports suggested going through the book more quickly. I spent five out of
13 days discussing the book. Given my intention of using the book as a way to engage the
students and create interest in teaching’s moral dimension, spending less time covering
the book may be appropriate.

Despite the shortcomings in allocating the proper amount of time to the book,
Sparks’ intriguing story and complex characters had the students thinking about the
purposes of education and the intentions of teachers. Her book provided a stimulus for
discussion concerning the moral dimension of teaching.

Ma Activities and Role—Plays
Assertion/Intention: I believed drama activities and role—plays would build classroom
community, produce student interest and focus for my lessons, create emotional
responses in students, and facilitate student understanding of teaching’s moral dimension.

In order to make sense out of data that refers to the use of drama activities in the
class, I will briefly describe the enacted drama curriculum. I used drama activities on

eleven of fifteen days the course met. I categorize “drama activities” into two main

sections: drama games/warm—up activities and role—plays/improvisation. The students

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participated in eleven different drama games during the first four teaching days. The
students also participated in eight role—plays or improvisations. Analyzing the effects of
the extended use of drama becomes challenging. I will use student journals, research
reports, classroom discussion, and audio and video—tape analysis to focus on the effects
of drama on student understanding of teaching’s moral dimension. I will start with my
analysis of the effect of the drama games on the students. Then I will describe two
improvisations that the students participated in and analyze the influence these
improvisations had on student understanding of the moral dimension of teaching.
Drama Activities and Warm-1g) Games

The students spent at least 45 minutes a day for four days participating in eleven
different activities. The following chart lists the day and the drama activities in which the

students participated.

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Table 4.2 List of Drama Games

 

Day

Description of drama activity

 

1/8/98

1.

Pantomime picking up objects-Students did a pantomime activity of
picking up a number of objects scattered on the floor. Later, each student
took turns pantomiming picking up an object while the other students
guessed the object being picked up.

Pantomime common activity-Students selected a common activity, like
brushing teeth, and pantomimed as accurately as possible that activity.
Next, they pantomimed the same activity with a specific purpose in mind.
For example, a student could pantomime brushing teeth with the intent of
showing anger at another sibling in the bathroom.

Partnered common activity with gibberish-Students pantomimed their
chosen activity and began to improvise a scene with a partner by using the
action of daily activiy and gibberish.

 

1/9/98

The students were divided in four groups. Each group created an image that
represented a problem in a particular setting. For example, a group of
students could form a visual image of a family struggling with the
communication process. Each group was also asked to include a series of
“fi‘eeze frames” that moved the group from the problem image to an ideal
image.

Colombian hypnosis-an activity where one person “hypnotizes” a partner
by guiding the partner through a series of motion. The partner must follow
the movement of the leader’s hand.

 

1/12/98

Colombian hypnosis as a group-each student was hypnotizing and being
hypnotized at the same time.

Circle in a knot-group members hold hands and weave between each other
to create a knot. When the not is significantly tight, the group untwists the
knot. Students also did the activity with eyes closed.

Animal walks-students are given specific instructions in walking like a
crab, camel, elephant, and kangaroo

Pushing against each other-partners face each other, holding each other by
the shoulders. An imaginary line separates the partners. The partners push
each other with all their strength without pushing their themselves pass the
imaginary line. The object is to use all your strength without pushing the
other person over.

 

 

1/13/98

 

10.

11.

Mirror game-a student mirrors the action of a partner. The actions are done
slowly and precisely. Students take turn in leading the other partner with
the action.

Mirror game in a line-Two lines are formed facing each other. Members in
each line hold hands. One line begins to do actions that the other line
mirrors.

 

 

153

 

 

Only one journal entry made reference to these activities. Renee wrote,
It’s all a lot of fun, but I’m not sure exactly what I’m supposed to be learning. I
am anxious to continue this class, because I feel as though the results will be
beneficial. I also enjoy the exercises to help get to know each other. Everyone’s
personalities are beginning to shine through. It’s helpful and I am becoming more
comfortable with the class.
Two out the four reports recommended keeping the warm—-up activities. Renee’s
group was one of them, but the other group offered this insight,
The activities we did to warm up in class, such as following the hands
activity(Colombian hypnosis), was great. It taught us to follow directions and pay
attention to the other person. This activity also taught us to be leaders because we
all took a turn at being the hands. When we did the activity as a whole class it
showed us that we need to learn to be a leader and a follower at the same time.
One journal entry and two recommendations fi'om student research groups do not
provide much evidence for the value of using warm—up activities in class. It is possible
. the students believed they had little value. In reviewing the videotape during these
activities, I did not give the students my rationale for the activity. One day, I did explain
the activities were helpful in “getting in touch with your body.” My explanation had
nothing to do with teaching’ 8 moral dimension but instead centered on becoming more
aware of their senses. The purposes of the activities were not explained, which could
have limited the effect the activities on students.
Role—plays
The students participated in eight different role—plays during the interim. Some of
the role—plays were quite simple. For example, each student secretly picked out a famous
character and then began explaining with each other what schools should do based on

what they knew about that character. One student took on the character of Smokey the

Bear and pushed for environmental issues in schools and the proper usage for fires. The

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students continued to discuss these issues, providing clues that would slowly reveal their
character. After about ten minutes of discussion, everyone determined each other’s
character.

If the Shoe Fits...

Instead of describing each role—play performed, I will explain two of the more
complex scenes that, based on the students’ concentration level and journal response,
created an intensity of feeling that seemed to connect to their learning. On the fourth day
of class, the students participated in a series of role—plays involving a shoe sales person. I
assigned one student the part of a clerk in a shoe store. Three other students played the
parts of customers coming into the store for various reasons at separate times. The three
scenarios were different in important ways. In scene one, the store manager told the clerk
that her commission would dramatically go up with each pair of shoes sold. The more she
sells, the more money she makes. A customer walks in who is playing the role of
someone with limited income needing a pair of inexpensive shoes. The clerk and
customer then begin a dialogue where the clerk tries to convince the customer to buy as
many shoes as possible. The students playing these roles are given a sheet that explains
their character and the parameters of the scene (see Appendix H for the various
instructions). What happens after the scene begins is unrehearsed and spontaneous.

The second scene involves the same clerk now intent on pushing a special Italian
designer shoe purchased at a low price. Because of the high mark—up on the shoe, the
clerk will earn a higher commission for every pair of this stylish shoe sold. This time a

recent college graduate walks in having just entered the job force and needs a pair of

155

comfortable, durable shoes at an affordable price. The resulting dialogue highlights the
different objectives of the clerk and customer.

In the final scene, the manager announces a new way of doing business.
According to the latest research, sales increase when the clerk hears the customer’s needs
and tries matching the right shoes to meet those needs. Armed with this new knowledge,
the clerk listens carefully to the next customer, a retired schoolteacher, to ascertain what
shoes she might need.

The students enacted the scenes but initially had trouble making a connection
between selling shoes and the moral dimension of teaching. Judy’s response was typical.

When I began to act out my scene I saw no real reason that it was important. I just

thought we were doing Improv for the fun of it. But to my surprise, I learned more

than I thought I would.
Judy does not elaborate on what she learned fi'om the activities, but other students were
providing evidence that the scenes were creating feeling for them. Chloe wrote, “What I
felt during this was pressured too much. I didn’t mind her trying to convince me for
awhile, but after awhile it began to get annoying and frustrating.” Emily shared similar
feelings.

At first the sales woman was helpful and tried to see if she could help, I felt that

there was no pressure. Then when I finally refused she started begging and tried

to make me feel sorry for her and her situation. This made me want to leave, so I

would not buy something just to make her feel better. I felt it was more about

them than me, she all of a sudden became more important than my needs.
The “customers” experienced a negative response to the attempted sale. Words like

“annoying” and “frustrating” and the feeling of not having needs considered came up in

their written responses. The sellers also wrote in terms of the feelings generated by the

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improvisation. Isaac worked hard at meeting the manager’s objectives, but it came at a
cost. He writes in regards to the first scene,

Some ways I tried to manipulate the customer, Susan, was to ask about different

style of shoes that she might need. I also asked about her family and other

members of her family if they needed any shoes. I used some high pressure to try
to accomplish this. I asked if they had “happy feet.” I felt a bit manipulative while
using these techniques.

The second scene also created a negative feeling in Isaac.

In this scene, I strongly recommended the Italian shoe even though it wasn’t the

best match of shoe for the customer. I talked her into buying the shoes by

reassuring her that they were comfortable and durable. After selling her the shoes,

I felt guilty that I sold her these shoes that weren’t the best for her. By making

these Italian shoes sound as if they were the greatest pair available, I was able to

make the sale.
Isaac’s response connects to ethical situations that come up in teaching. For example, I
remember from my own teaching the times that I manipulated children or pressured them
in certain ways to conform to my way of teaching. My lessons did not always connect
with each student. Sometimes I would know that my actions were not beneficial for
everyone in the classroom, but given time constraints, lack of creativity, laziness, or
ignorance, I did not change my plans. Other times, I would force my methods of teaching
on students believing that I knew what was best for them.

The shoe sales scenes did put these students in the position of manipulating or
pressuring customers for the purpose of a “sale.” In the discussion after the scenes, the
students began to make connections between teaching and selling shoes. I explained in
the classroom discussion that followed the scenes how trying to sell multiple pairs of
shoes is like teaching for the purpose of covering curriculum. In teaching, students may

feel annoyed and frustrated if the teacher’s goal of covering material comes at the

expense of knowing the student. The class also discussed how pushing a certain pair of

157

shoes because of the high mark—up is some ways like a teacher believing there is only
one right way to explain a procedure or a method. Narrowly defining how to think about
a situation (or students) will limit a teacher’s ability to make a “sale” or to help the
student understand what is important to learn. Not only will the outcome be
unsatisfactory, negative feelings are generated in both teacher and student.

Contrasted with the tension of the first two scenes, the final episode attempted to
create quite a different mood. The clerk asked questions and listened carefirlly to the
customers for the purpose of selling them the right pair of shoes. Debra felt the difference
in the last scene.

I actually thought the last scene was easiest, or maybe I was a little more

comfortable by the point, but it was easier for me just to try and figure out what

the person wanted without focusing on selling a shoe.
Isaac, who in early scenes struggled with feelings of manipulating customers and feeling
guilty, felt much differently about the final scene. “The scene was different because I felt
the customer came first and not myself. I listened to her to match her needs with a good
' Shoe to help herout.”

Anne echoed these sentiments in an interesting way. “I felt like I had a more
influential position in this scene. I could convince and persuade more easily.” Ironically,
Anne felt by trying to figure out the needs of the customer, she had more influence in the
scene.

1 divided the students into four groups and worked through each scene with each
group. As a result, four students played the role of the teacher. Each “salesperson” wrote

in their journals about the difference between the first two scenes and the last scene.

These students indicated that trying to meet the needs of the customer made them feel

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better about selling shoes. It is impossible to know if these future teachers would feel the
same way about the needs of their student as they “sell” their curriculum and lessons to
them.

The journals indicate that the shoe clerk scenes created definite feeling within the
students. Thirteen students wrote about the shoe selling scenes and ten of those responses
used the word “felt” in them. Their responses indicate a wide range of emotion. The
following words are quotes from their journals: confident, uneasy, overwhelmed,
compulsive, manipulative, guilty, frustrated, pressured, failure, good.

Feelings may form the basis for significant learning if those feeling are discussed
and explored. Heathcote states it succinctly,

Drama is about filling the spaces between people with meaningful experiences.

This means that emotion is at the heart of drama experience but it is tempered

with thought and planning. The first is experienced through the tension and the

elements; the second, through the reviewing process. Out of these we build

reflective processes, which in the end are what we are trying to develop in all our
teaching. Without the development of the power of reflection, what have we? It is
reflection that permits the storing of knowledge, the recalling of power of feeling,

and memory of past feelings. (p. 85)

Ten students used their journals to reflect on the scenes and the class’ discussion about
the experience. Two themes emerged from these responses. First, four students wrote
about feeling overwhelmed or concerned about trying to keep track of each student in the
classroom. Anne commented,

It kinda of overwhelms me to think about being the “salesclerk” in the classroom

as I seek to meet the needs of all my students. As a teacher I need to connect with

each child and engage them in learning through introduction and encouragement.

Just as this improv required concentration, so will teaching as I seek to provide
the appropriate setting for each child to engage in learning.

159

The second theme from these responses came out of seven students’ journals. These .
students wrote on the importance of trying to meet each child’s needs. Judy made these
connections to teaching.

I guess I never really thought about how hard it is truly going to be in the

classroom. Every single student is different. Everyone will handle situations in

their own way. Everyone will learn in different ways. Everyone will have
different difficulties or an area where they will excel. How is a teacher suppose to
be able to deal with this? Meeting the needs of every child is going to be
impossible, but it needs to be done.

Debra approached it this way.

Let’s see, what struck me today? I’m having a little trouble seeing the connection

between a shoe salesman and a teacher. I think I get it, but it’s a little vague. I get

what it means to avoid trying to put each child into the same mold. I have that
with my own kids. They are completely different people and therefore require
different things from me. I can’t even begin to comprehend the magnitude of
dealing with that in a classroom of 25 plus students. Maybe just being aware of it
and thinking about the possibilities BEFORE I hit the classroom is enough to start
with, kind of like thinking of the different ways you could approach selling shoes,
but then taking one customer at a time. I think I’m getting it. I’m a little slow, but
it’s coming. -

Three out of the sixteen students (19%) did not write about the shoe selling
experience. I checked through these three students’ journals and noticed that they did
write positively on other role—plays, so the lack of response may not have to do with the
use of improvisation as a teaching tool. It could be this particular improvisation did not
connect with these students at this time. Another possibility exists: these students may
have benefited from the shoe selling scenes, but chose not to write about it in their
journals.

Making the Grade

The class did a fairly complex improvisation (see Appendix 1) directly connected

to teaching on day 13 of the interim. Three students were selected to play the part of a

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teacher. Each teacher participated in three separate scenes involving the other students. I
gave the “teachers” background information required for the scene. They were playing
the role of a third grade teacher, Ms. Green, who was working with Joey, a student
struggling in math. Joey wanted to do well in math and stayed in at recess to work with
Ms. Green. He seemed to be picking up on the concepts and understanding how to solve
the problems. Joey took the math test and struggled again with getting the right answer.
Ms. Green noticed that most of Joey’s errors involved computation. He was at least
approaching the problem correctly. As a result, she decided to mark his paper in a slightly
different manner than usual. She would give him credit for some of his “wrong” answers
because Joey used the correct process. Normally, Ms. Green gave full credit only for
correct answers, regardless of the process used. Given Joey’s hard work and obvious
progress in math, the teacher believed this to be a fair thing to do.

In the first scene, one of Joey’s classmates, Sally, comes up to Ms. Green upset
that Joey’s paper was marked differently from hers. She leaned over and noticed that on a
couple of problems, Joey earned full credit for wrong answers. She knew this because her
answers were the same as Joey’s, yet her answer was marked wrong. Seeking justice or a
change in her grade, Sally charges up to Ms. Green for an explanation. Ms. Green does
not have a clue as to why Sally is upset. Their spontaneous dialogue results in some
wonderful improvisation.

In the second scene, Ms. Green goes out on a fact—finding mission. She looks up
Joey’s record and notices that he earned “8+” for second grade math. Curious how this is
possible given his ability in math, she decides to ask Joey’s second grade teacher, Ms.

Smiley, her impressions of Joey and how he was able to perform at such a high level for

161

her. The student playing Ms. Smiley understands that she is playing a role of a teacher
who is adamant about improving student self—esteem. She rewards student effort. The
conversation between these teachers with different philosophical perspectives outlines
some of the tensions involved in assessment.

The final scene occurs between Ms. Green and Joey’s mom. Joey came home
from school in tears because someiof the children in school were teasing him for getting
credit on his math test for wrong answers. They convinced Joey that Ms. Green gave him
these grades because she wanted to make sure he passed third grade and she would not
have to teach him again. Joey sobbed to his mother that he never wanted to go back to
school. Joey’s mom got in the car and went to see Ms. Green hoping to understand what
happened and what could be done about it.

Issues of evaluating students confront teachers daily. These three scenes expose
some of the issues of assessment in a subtle way. Each scene points to another person
affected by Ms. Green’s decision to grade Joey in a slightly different way. The role—play
was placed at the end of the interim to see if the students would respond in more ethical
ways, given the experiences and activities completed in the previous 12 days.

Asking students to take on a role with limited information and then improvise
dialogue with another student who has a different agenda creates opportunity for intense
feeling. To illustrate the effects of all three scenes on one student, I will take Anne’s
experience of playing the teacher and walk through her reactions and feelings for each of
the scenes. While each student who played the part of the teacher had slightly different
reactions to the scenes, Anne provides a typical reaction in trying to make sense out of

this grading situation. In the first scene, Ariana plays Sally, a student who after seeing

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Joey’s test wants Ms. Green to mark her paper in the same way. After Ariana explains to
Ms. Green why she is there, the following dialogue occurs.

MG (Ms. Green): Well, I know your ability for the rest of the test—you were able
to get the right answers. I was looking at how you did them. You had the correct
process but the answers were wrong. I know you can do better.

S (Sally): But why did Joey get credit when his answers were the same as mine
and they were wrong. It doesn’t make any sense. It isn’t fair, Ms. Green.

MG: Well for Joey, I’ve been helping him understand the process. He doesn’t
understand the process very well, and so, because he was able to get the process
right for most of those, then the answer. . .the answer was still wrong. . .(getting
interrupted by the student)

S: That is not fair. I should get partial credit for at least getting the process right.

MG: How about I give you a second chance and you can see if you get the right
answer, but I know you are able to do better and the rest of the test shows me that.
You were able to use the right process and got the right answer.

S: But maybe it would be more fair if you only gave Joey partial credit since he
got the same answer. Maybe that would be more fair.

MG: I see your point but I already graded his paper and so. . .(getting interrupted
by the student)

S: Maybe you need to give him a second chance too then. It’s not fair to make me
take another test and not him.

MG: I’m proud of you getting the rest of the test right and so I look at those three
and said that I could challenge you because they are incorrect but I could
challenge you to do better next time.

S: If you’re going to give me no credit, you must give everybody no credit. You
need to be fair with everybody, and not just give me no credit for getting the
answer wrong and give them credit for getting the process right and not the
answer. You need to do the same for everybody.

MG: I understand your point. It’s just because he was working at a different level
and so I’m rewarding him for the things he learned.

S: But you don’t have to reward him about the points—give him partial credit.
Make it more fair to the rest of us who did the process right but not the answer.

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MG: Thanks for you concern Sally. I’ll give you a second chance on these three
problems and next time I’ll try to keep in mind what you had to share with me.

S: OK.

I distinctly remember feeling a sense of tension and awkwardness in my stomach
while watching this scene being played out. I wanted to rush in and rescue Anne from the
relentless pursuit of justice by Sally. If I was feeling ”that way as an observer, I wondered
what Anne was feeling during this time. Her voice remained steady when replying to
Sally’s concerns. Her body posture indicated some tenseness—she was leaning over the
table toward Sally and her leg continually moved. Given the intenseness of Sally, Anne
explain her rationale in a calm manner.

Anne documented her reaction in her journal.

Today I really felt challenged as I was the teacher involved in an ethical dilemma.

As the first student came out, I had to defend myself and my reasoning for the

grade I gave Joey. This was one of the toughest scenarios because the student felt

very strongly about her grade and how I graded the whole class. She was very
adamant about fairness in grading. It was hard to be the teacher defending my
unfair actions. She couldn’t really see things from my perspective of how Joey
needs this encouragement. I felt at this point that my actions were faulty.

The improvisation also provides a glimpse into Anne’s thinking. Her effort to
resolve the situation focused on giving Sally another chance. Sally stuck to her claim that
Ms. Green was not being fair. Anne treats Sally with respect and integrity and promises
to take her beliefs into consideration for the next test. Determining why Anne treats Sally
in this way is difficult to determine. Anne’s journal indicates that she is trying to reason
carefully about assessing students. Does her thinking result from the previous activities of
the course? The limits of the study also limit my ability to make any claims about Anne’s

actions and thinking. I would like to claim that Anne treats Sally with respect because of

the devotions that pointed out how everyone has the Kingdom of God within him or her.

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Or that Anne is treating Sally as an end and not a means in the educational process
because of classroom discussions on Kant. Anne does not explain why she acted in the
way she did, nor does she mention the devotions, Kant, or Noddings in her response.
Anne, playing the part of teacher, had much to think about from this first scene.
Ariana, playing the part of the student, also wrote about the scene in her journal. Her
concluding paragraph stated,
I think that it is important to be very careful when grading and correcting papers
because of the fairness needed, especially in lower grades. I know that I do not

want to be confronted by students for being unfair (especially if they are like I
was with Anne).

In the next scene, Anne discusses Joey’s situation with his second grade teacher, a
Ms. Smiley,'who gave Joey a “8+” for second grade math. The scene begins with some
small talk about their classes and then Ms. Green begins to probe Ms. Smiley’s
philosophy on grading. We will pick up the conversation midway through the scene as
both teachers explain their perspective.

MG: How does your grading work?

MS: In all of our subjects, I look a lot at their attitude and how hard the kids are
working. Some children have more aptitude in certain areas, but I think that
attitude and hard work is also worth getting a good grade for. At this age, kids are
still really impressionable, and I don’t want to do anything that will set them back

and hate a subject just because it is a little bit more hard for them and so that’s
why I think they deserve the good grade they got.

MG: Right now, that’s why I’m struggling because I think we’re coming from
two different perspectives, which are both valuable perspectives. But for me he is
not earning anything near to a “8+” in the class, so I’m kinda struggling with how
it looks to have a “8+” one grade and the next year be a lot further down, like
barely passing. I don’t want it to look bad on his record, but it also doesn’t seem
like it matches up.

MS: I think you have to remember the kid’s perspective that the children when

they get bad grades it does effect how they think about school and third
grade. . .do you want to be scaring them off already? There’s kids in high school

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who absolutely hate math because something happened when they were younger
and their attitude got changed about it and they gave up trying. I think Joey is one
of those kids who needs extra attention and needs to be encouraged because he
really is such a hard worker and I think it will come with time, but I don’t want to
have anything set him back-he needs to be confident in what he can do.

MG: 1 think there are ways to help him become confident but when a child is
totally supported throughout his days without really achieving what he could, I
don’t think it is helping him to strive to do better. I think that for him to get really
high grades just encourages him. . .it’s like a false encouragement, like he’s not
really earning those. Granted, he’s trying hard and he has a great attitude but if
he’s not achieving. . .I don’t know. . .I don’t know if it matches up. Like the work
he’s putting into it, I mean is a great amount, but if the outcome is not great, I
think he is being falsely informed about things.

(At this point, Ms. Smiley changed her position in her chair. She looked
uncomfortable with the way the conversation was going.)

MS: Well, are test scores the most important thing here? (Ms. Smiley now broke
character, looked at the camera and apologized stating that she was tired and
having a hard time thinking. After an awkward pause, Ms. Green continued.)

MG: Well, I’m not putting all the strength in testing, but I still value working hard
and striving for things, but the outcome needs to reflect what the child is doing
and in the real world it’s not going. .. it’s not going to matter how much you put
into it or what your attitude is. It’s important, but there also needs to be
achievement there in outcome. It’s kinda of been a struggle because I see how
hard he is working and I want to reward him for the parts he gets right, but in my
mind it is a struggle because it’s not really fair to the rest of the class right now
and I’m sorry to see that, and the kids are starting to notice that. ‘

MS: Well, you’re his teacher and that’s your prerogative. (Ms. Smiley shrugged
her shoulders, looked at the camera, and the scene ended.)

The challenge of doing improvisation came through during this scene. When the

scene began, Ms. Green seemed to be in character. She looked straight at Ms. Smiley and

talked to her in a realistic way. Ms. Smiley took longer to get into the scene. She moved

her hands nervously, made a face that indicated she felt awkward, and glanced at the

camera. As the scene continued, Ms. Smiley settled into her role and seemed to engage

Ms. Green in a realistic dialogue. Toward the end of the scene, Ms. Smiley lost her

concentration and the scene limped to a conclusion.

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Despite the lack of consistency throughout the scene, the improvisations
contributed to student understanding of teaching’s moral dimension. For much of the
scene, the characters focused on each other and engaged in thoughtful dialogue. They
responded to each other’s comments and did try to resolve the issue of assessing Joey in
math. Granted, Ms. Smiley broke character that lessened the effect of the scene, but the
role—play did have enough realism to create an impression. Anne described the effect in
this way,

When I conversed with the other teacher, I found myself feeling frustrated. Her

methods of teaching seemed beneficial in some ways—the kids need to feel

confident and full of self—esteem. But I also saw a big problem with her lack of
comprehensive grading. It fiustrated me that Joey scored so high in her class
mainly because he tried hard and needed to feel good about himself. What kind of

message does this give him in his academic areas? Now I have him in class and I

can’t see myself scoring him as high. Yet I am inching toward this other teacher’s

philosophy when I give him credit for parts of a test that are incorrect. In this
circumstance, I put her on the defensive by almost accusing her philosophy. I can
see this as a realistic dilemma, where a teacher wants to encourage a student’s
hard work but also help him understand the importance of “the right answer.”

Anne’s remarks connect her feelings with a situation that she views as plausible in
education. Anne feelings of frustration connect with how another teacher’s methods goes
against her philosophy. I noticed that Anne remains consistent with her interactions with
others. As with Ariana, she treats Ms. Smiley with respect and values her opinion. Anne
does try to advocate for Joey by pointing out how misleading him about his progress
could backfire later on when Joey realizes his belief about his ability does not match up
with reality.

Erin’s reaction to the scene also connected her feelings to what she believes about

teaching.

I felt a bit defensive when Ms. Green began questioning my grading techniques. I
hadn’t really thought about how to defend my stance. As much as I believe in that

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philosophy, it was hard to defend it against the more traditional approach. I really
feel for Joey in this situation-he doesn’t seem to be getting the attention and
support he needs, but it also seems unfair to just give him a good grade. This is a
situation that will happen someday. Now I realize that I will have to have some
good defense for my methods.

While the scenes caused the both Anne and Erin to think about grading issues in a
classroom setting, both fail to connect their feelings to other course material. Neither
Anne nor Erin refer to Kant’s principles or connect their feelings to Noddings emphasis
on caring for students. The scenes created tension and feeling for both Anne and Erin, but
analyzing what they learned from the experience is more difficult to ascertain. Erin says
she understands the need for a good defense for her methods, but 1 have no idea what that
means to her or how it will translate into her own teaching experience.

In the final scene, Anne must respond to Joey’s mother, played by Kim. The
resulting conversation helped identify some important lessons Ms. Green was learning
through out all of this.

JM (Joey’s mom): I have some questions about a math test Joey came home with.
He was real upset about it. Apparently he got a really high grade for a really bad
test and it turns out that all the kids are teasing him about it and he came home
crying and doesn’t understand and doesn’t want to come back to school anymore
and I was just wondering how the test was graded.

MG: Wow, I didn’t realize the test impacted him that way. Well, Joey’s been
coming in for help at recess and after school and I’ve been so proud of his hard
work and I’ve really seen improvement, vast improvement. When I gave him the
test, I was hoping it would show how much he’s improved. I could see that he had
the right concepts—I was so proud of him because he knew what he was doing but
he had little bitty mistakes, tiny little things that made his answers off. And so
when I saw that, I considered all the hard work he put into it and saw that he was
doing the right concept. I didn’t want him to feel totally ...I didn’t want him to
feel bad about how much he worked and then come back with a bad grade. He has
achieved so much, of course it isn’t at the highest level yet, but he’s achieved a lot
and I wanted to encourage him to achieve more. And so, that’s my reasoning
behind it. Usually when I grade I’m looking for the right answer for everything,
but because Joey is in a specific situation, I wanted him to get the concepts and
reward him fbr the hard work he is doing.

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JM: So did you take points off for the wrong answer but give him partial credit for
the right way to get there?

MG: I gave him more then partial credit because I know how hard he worked,
because I know the concepts were right but little things made it off.

JM: Do you do that with a lot of kids?

MG: Usually I don’t, that might be part of the reason the kids are teasing him. I
didn’t even consider that to be a possibility. So I apologize for that, but for me to
see Joey working hard is valuable and that’s why I was more apt to grade him
higher to encourage him.

JM: What shall we do about him coming back? He was teased so much he doesn’t
want to come back to school tomorrow. He’s probably going to get it on the bus
tomorrow, what can you do to encourage him to come back?

MG: I could spend more time one on one with him either before school tomorrow
or during the day-just to see what he’s thinking. But 1 would like to talk to the
class before he comes back into the classroom, because I’m not impressed with
how they handled the situation. Does he feel like, before the test, that he is doing
better?

JM: He said that he was starting to understand it and it was coming along pretty
well. When I worked with him, I still had to show him how to get the final
answer, but he knew a lot more than what he did. I’m not going to tell you how to
grade your tests or anything...

MG: I’ll definitely take that into consideration. It’s just hard because the rest of
the class, I knew that they had those concepts down a while ago, I wasmore apt to
look for every part with them. With Joey, I was so proud of him for getting that
concept down that I was able to look past the answer.

JM: Do you think that it is going to happen again in the next test?

MG: From what I learned from this experience, I would like to try to grade them
all the same, because I see that my verbal encouragement is helping him out—more
due to the circumstance of what happened in the classroom and how they are
treating him. And while I want to support him throughout, I want him to feel
confident. He might not feel confident if he gets the honest grade, and that can be
another set back and maybe more teasing so it kinda goes both ways.

JM: Do‘ you spend more time with him than with any other kid?

MG: With one on one time? Yes, he’s given up a lot of recess time.

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JM: Maybe that’s why the other kids tease him a bit. They feel like he’s teacher’s
pet, so he gets a good grade for a bad test.

MG: That’s true. I hadn’t considered that. And I need to talk to the classroom
about that too and help them understand that he’s working hard and wanted the
extra help and he’s not. . .I can see why the kids might think that. I’m really proud

of his effort and that’s part of the reason behind it, I just wanted him to feel
confident. Yet, at the same time, it’s hard because last year his grades were very
high based on other things so its hard for me to want to be totally honest or totally

straightforward and how I am going to grade him because it is so different from
last year. I want him to feel like he is achieving. Our plan of action will be that I’ll

definitely talk to the class to see what they’re thinking and help them to
understand Joey’s perspective and then I’ll talk to Joey when he comes in
tomorrow and encourage him to try again. The next test I will. . .do you think it’s

best to grade it straightforward?

JM: 1 think so. I mean I don’t know how you do it, but I can see in doing one
problem you can get credit for using the right steps—if he gets the wrong answer,
break down points of the problem and give him credit for the procedure and not
the answer, so that at least he’s getting credit for doing the right process.

MG: All right—thanks a lot.
Ms. Green realizes two unintended outcomes of her good intentions. First,
marking Joey’s paper differently resulted in other students teasing him on the bus.
. Second, all the special help at recess and after school may lead some students to believe
that Joey is a “teacher’s pet.” Anne experienced the feeling that her actions may have

negative consequences. Anne expressed her feelings this way.

The third scene was a challenge as Joey’s mom was upset about her son’s reaction
to the test. I felt bad, as I hadn’t considered the outcome to this situation and its
effects on Joey. Because I had treated him differently, the class noticed and
treated him differently. My efforts to encourage him had instead caused him to
feel inadequate and unconfident. It was helpful to talk it through with her and

come up with a plan of action.

Anne does not respond defensively to questions about her teaching. She listens

carefully to a student, a teacher, and a parent in trying to figure out what to do next. Anne

treats each person involved in the situation with respect and dignity. Kant might say

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Anne is treating these people as an end and not a means during their interactions. Would
Anne say that the course material on Kant influenced how she acted in these scenes?

How would Anne have improvised the scene if she did not have this course? Anne’s
actions in each scene provide evidence of responding in an ethical way, but her journals
do not go reveal the thinking behind the action. Therefore, making claims about the
course’s influence on Anne’s ability to craft an ethical practice remains inappropriate.

Anne admits she did not have a strong rationale for giving Joey a different grade,

did not foresee any problems with her actions, and may have made a mistake in grading
Joey differently. What becomes confusing is distinguishing between Anne and the
character that she played, Ms. Green. Anne can see how her character, Ms. Green, made
mistakes. But Anne does not describe Ms. Green’s mistakes in terms of principled
reasoning or out of care for Joey. I see that the grading role—play engaged students, but
not in ways that connect the improvised scenes to the other course material.

Two other groups participate in the grading improvisational scenes at different
times. Each group responded in ways similar to Anne. Both Isaac and Susan, who played
the parts of the teacher, described feelings of being challenged and frustrated by the
situation these scenes put them in. They also acknowledged not thinking about the
possible negative effects of their actions while realizing the importance of having
well—thought out positions on issues like grading policies.

Before leaving the topic of using role—plays or improvisational scenes, I will
briefly examine other outcomes of using this strategy in teaching. My observations may
assist other professors who might attempt using drama in their teaching. Both students

and teacher must overcome two specific problems inherent in using this type of drama.

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III-‘—

Some participants may feel inadequate in their ability to do drama. Other students will
quickly rise from their seats and get ready to participate. Most students tend to hang back
on the outer edges of the playing area, waiting to see what they might have to do before
committing to the activity. Three people journal about their concerns with using drama.
Lori admitted,

I’ve never been one to do anything in front of people, let alone a class of people.

I’ve taken speech and that wasn’t bad because I was prepared to do it. In this

class, nothing done in front of class is prepared, it’s all impromptu, and it’s
something to get use to. I know I’ll be a better person for it and I’m glad it’s

something that I have to do because I wouldn’t do it otherwise.

Renee echoed her sentiments,

Today I was thinking about the improvisation that we do. When I read about the
description of the class in the Interim book I was very hesitant at taking the class

because of the role—playing. I admit that I have a shy personality and the idea of
“dramas” is not too appealing. But I am enjoying the things that we do in class.
Jumping over the first hurdle of self—doubt may take a few days of using
warm—up activities with students in an encouraging, supportive environment, but my
. experience indicates students quickly get over their lack of confidence. I also find that
when I participate in the activities and show my vulnerability, the students tend to follow
along and attempt doing the activities. For example, I would participate in

warm—activities with the students. If that meant doing the crab or camel walk, I would do

it with them.
One other problem often comes up during the initial scenes using improvisation.

Students are given a role to play and will engage with other characters. They may find it

difficult to separate who they are from the role they are playing. Susan participated in a

role—play involving Miss Jean Brodie and wrote,

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ii

 

 

It was interesting today when we were doing the final role—play of the parents
against Miss Brodie to see how some people were taking their positions very
personally. It was difficult to try and be just in a role because it felt like some

people were speaking seriously as themselves. I’m interested to see how and if
that will change as we do more role—playing.

The flip side to this problem is when students are asked to play characters that go against
their own beliefs. Allison remarked, “It was hard for me to state my arguments because
personally I didn’t feel the way my character did.”

Each participant in an improvisational scene must deal with the tension between
playing a role and allowing part of himself or herself to come out through the role. I try to
ease this tension by leaving enough time after the scene for discussion. By asking

questions, reconstructing dialogue, and providing other possible reactions to a scene, the
students will start the process of sorting out the importance of what was said and the
connection to what they believe.
After overcoming these potential roadblocks, the benefit of drama may occur. I
find that students become motivated and energized during these activities. I notice a
difference when comparing student engagement during lectures and drama activities. I
consider myself a decent lecturer, presenting my material with a high energy level and
significant vocal expression. Despite my best efforts, some students will nod off and have
a hard time staying focused. That does not happen when students are asked to take on a
role and improvise their way out of a difficult situation.

Every student journaled at least once about the drama activities. One consistent
theme surfaced. Of the forty responses analyzed, twenty-two referred to how the drama

activity helped them to either think, understand, realize, or learn about an issue. For

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example, Emily responded to acting out a scene from one of the parables of Jesus in this
way.

I think that acting out the parable today was one of the most helpful and creative

things that is applicable in any classroom. It makes evident the different points of

views that exist, and helps to draw questions that expand our understanding.
After doing a scene from The Prime of Jean Brodie, Susan writes,

I like acting out the scenes from the book because it helps me understand the book

a lot more. It’s quite different from other classes. We do much more group work

and acting. I love it, we always have to bounce ideas off of each other and it

generates more ideas.

Anne participated in the town meeting improvisation and reflected on her
experience.

I’m sorry to say that today I was incredibly tired and didn’t grasp a whole lot of

the discussion. When we moved on to the improv, the teacher’s meeting really got

me thinking. It was helpful to be assigned a role rather than sharing our own
opinions. Being given a role forced me to consider how some people think and
why they hold those opinions. It was a tough discussion because there doesn’t
seem to be a way to resolve it totally. It’s also tough because there are so many
student’s needs to consider. When we engaged in the improv, it’s interesting how
it becomes so real, it really seemed like each person held that opinion.

Students also found other benefits for drama. Three students wrote how they had
fun doing the activities. Two students noticed the activities help bring about cooperation
among the students in the class. Their responses indicate using improvisations makes
pedagogical sense. Although creating scenes for students requires careful preparation
time, an adequate space for movement, and presents assessment problems, it does engage
students in the presented material. The final research projects reinforced what value
students placed on the use of improvisations and role—plays. Each of the four groups

recommended the continued use of these activities in the course. The groups reasoned

that the dramas helped them understand more clearly educational issues like assessment.

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Classroom Observations

Assertion/ intention: I intended for my students to observe the moral dimension of

teaching at Long School. I believed that my students would be able to observe and then
discuss the potential moral situations that occurred in the classroom.

The students spent approximately an hour and a half on two days observing at
Long School. To prepare for the observation, the class read and discussed a chapter from
Jackson’ 8 book, The Moral Life of Schools (1993). Jackson provides strategies for
observing classrooms with a moral lens. After discussing his method of observing in
classrooms, the students viewed a tape of two exemplary teachers that use unusual
methods in their classroom. One teacher taught math by setting her explanation of the
lesson to rap music, giving out prizes for correct answers, and telling the students they
could do anything they put their mind to. The other teacher used his high energy with a
number of competitive games to get across his English lessons. After viewing the tapes,
the class analyzed the teachers’ actions with Jackson’s perspective as a guide. The
students seemed to understand how the moral dimension of teaching potentially comes
into play in classrooms. For example, the teachers on tape had high enthusiasm and an
engaging style that their students seemed to appreciate. Yet despite these two teachers’
enthusiasm and positive response from their students, seven of the students raised
concerns during our classroom discussion and six others wrote in their journals about the
two teachers’ methods. Two themes emerged from the classroom discussion and the
journal responses.
First, the students questioned the moral significance of consistently using rewards
and competition to motivate students to accomplish tasks. Second, students questioned

the teachers’ message that their students could do anything they put their mind to. The

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V"

Calvin students thought these two teachers sent the message that their students could
solve any academic problem that they consistently tried to solve. The Calvin students
wondered about students who exhibited effort but still struggled in understanding
material, especially in math.
I will argue that the Long school observation did demonstrate the students’ ability
to observe and comment on teaching’s moral dimension, but that students rationale for
their observations indicate a limited, moral perspective. I will demonstrate that students
limited their view of moral situations by taking the perspective of the children in the
school. A majority of the journal responses indicated that a moral situation has something
to do with the effect of a teacher’s comment or action on a student. I will also describe
the wide range of situations that students observed in their short time of about three
hours. The students came up with vivid examples of situations with potential moral
significance as well as subtle situations that demonstrated thoughtful observation.
Nine out of the sixteen students wrote about the music and the physical education
teacher (I am not sure if all students observed in these rooms). In music, a couple of
incidents caught the students’ attention. Judy summarized the events succinctly,

From the classroom we went to music. As I walked into the
art/music/kitchen room a very intimidating teacher stood at the front of the room.
Her arms crossed and a serious look on her face seemed to portray a negative
feeling. If I was a student, I surely wouldn’t have looked forward to this class. A
few incidences occurred in music that I was quite surprised to see. Everyone
stands and sings do—ray—mi. Well, one child in the back doesn’t sing. I noticed
that he looked as if had something better to do—almost like he was bored. Well,
the teacher had everyone sit and he had to sing it alone. I could tell he was
extremely embarrassed. For some, this wouldn’t of been a big deal at all, but for a
shy child this would have been devastating. The student handled it rather well, but
lcouldn’t believe she would single out like that.

At another point a child had a little recorder. He recorded the music they
had just played and when it was quiet he played it. It made me giggle because it
was fimny—but the teacher disagreed. She pointed at him and yelled, “In the

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hall—no, better yet, to the office.” Perhaps this child had a reputation for being bad

or a past of misbehaving, but in my mind the teacher overreacted. I think if she

would have simply taken the toy away that would have been beneficial, but than I

think she wants the students to know she means business.

And finally, a last instance was the fact she said, “Jill, you’re really
bugging me.” Now to a sensitive child this could completely crush an entire day,
perhaps even more. I didn’t think this was proper to say to a child, perhaps if she
took her to the side when everyone was singing, but no—it was in front of
everyone.

When reading through Judy’s account, two thoughts came to me. First, I was
reminded of Christopher Clark’s belief that, “Really bad teaching is ‘had” in a moral
sense; really good teaching is “good” in a moral sense” (p. 263, 264). I interpret Clark to
mean that teaching, at its core, is a moral activity. The reason for when the teaching
process breaks down, can be thought of in moral terms. Given Judy’s report, Clark might
say that the teacher’s action does not take into account the moral integrity of the boy
forced to sing alone, the boy with the recorder, or the girl who was “bugging” the teacher.
Each of these situations requires a teacher’s response. The challenge in teaching involves
responding in a way that addresses the situation in a morally worthy way. Telling a
student that she is “bugging” you may stop an inappropriate action of a student but that
comment may also affect the student’s self—esteem. Good teaching addresses the
student’s action as well as the student’ moral integrity. Judy picked up on that potential
negative influence. She could hear and see it happening in the class.

Second, Judy’s response is fairly judgmental. She did write that the child with the
tape recorder could have been a student with a record of bad behavior, which may explain
the teacher’s reaction. Other students offered similar versions of what took place in the

music room, so Judy was not alone in her feelings. But if that is what Judy was seeing

and hearing, what was she learning from all of this? Listening to another teacher and

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thinking the teacher could have sounded nicer to the student does not necessarily create
the conditions for crafting an ethical practice. Judy observed the music teacher and saw
and heard things that did not look right to her, but when she wrote about it, Judy could
only describe what happened. She did not go any deeper into explaining why the
teacher’s actions were troublesome. Was the teacher violating some principle that leads
to good teaching? If more complex thinking would be one piece of evidence that the
students were deepening their understanding of teaching’s moral dimension, I did not
find it in this response.

Six students made comments concerning the physical education instructor. Two
students mentioned her warm—up activities done to a rap song. The song she picked,
entitled “Hey Boom Boom,” sings out “Girl your booty is so round/Let me lick you up
and down.” Given the sexual explicit nature of the lyrics, the two students objected to this
song as a thoughtless choice that degrades women’s figures and reinforces sexual
activity. Three other students noticed the demeanor of the physical education instructor.
One called her “grumpy” and another wrote that she “did not look enthusiastic.”

Susan wrote of another incident involving this teacher.

In gym there was a group of guys that were a “team” and they appeared to be

excellent basketball players. At one point the boys were laughing at another boy

who dropped the ball. The teacher came over and told them not to laugh. Shortly
after that the same boy was unable to guard one of these better boys and the
teacher was laughing and clapping for this kid. She really seemed to be sending
mixed messages in this situation.

Susan noticed what appears to be a simple event and wondered about the significance of

it. She thought about a teacher’s action from the perspective ofthe child and realized that

it could have a negative effect.

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The Calvin students were quick to point out the questionable practices of the
music and the physical education teacher, but they also demonstrated a high degree of
sensitivity in subtle situations. Emily picked up on another teacher’s comment that was
said in passing.

The one comment that bothered our group was when she told them to be careful

of spelling, because that reflects who you are. I am the worst speller in the world!

So this comment hit hard, yet I knew her intention.

Emily’s journal entry implies that the teacher was not out to demoralize those who cannot
spell, but to offer a reason to work at spelling. Jackson might say Emily’s comment
indicates that she had a sense for observing with a moral lens. Emily is noticing the moral
dimension of teaching, although I wonder if Emily will be able to reflect on what she
says in her own classroom with the same degree of sensitivity as she did during this
observation.

Ariana wrote of another minor event.

The aide was working with 3 students in a reading group. They were discussing

yards and feet. The aide then asked if any of them knew how many yards were in

a football field. No one answered right away so the teacher asked the only boy in

the group if he knew. I do not know that this is immoral, it just goes along with

the stereotype that sports are a guy thing. I think that girls easily know this
information too.
Ariana’s concern of whether or not this small event was immoral indicates some
confusion over teachings’ moral dimension. Ariana’s example qualifies as a moral
situation because the aide’s comment could possibly affect students in a number of ways,
including their view of gender roles. While the aide’s comment may not have a

significant moral effect on the students, the situation is worthy of consideration and

reflection.

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A vast majority of the students’ reflections were critical of what took place during
our two observations. Twenty-nine comments questioned everything from management
issues to the philosophy of the Montessori program. Five students wrote of positive
experiences (although each of these five included some critical comments) they
witnessed, while six other students wrote descriptive and neutral cements. Jackson
warns of the tendency to be judgmental and critical in his book. Human nature tends to
judge others quickly, and the Calvin students were not any different. Part of their reaction
may have stemmed from spending ten three-hour class sessions immersed in the moral
dimension of teaching. They may have been predisposed to look for certain things that
led them to find negative moral experiences.

The purpose of the observation was to see the moral dimension of teaching in
action. Based on their journal responses and the discussion back at Calvin, the students
witnessed the complexity and difficulty of teaching in a moral way. Susan put it this way,

I noticed things that I am sure I would not have noticed had I not taken this class.

I am so much more aware of what the teachers said or did or how they stood.

Teachers have to be very aware of what they do and how they act.

At the beginning of interim, the students often defined the moral dimension of
teaching in terms of students being treated unfairly by teachers. Now, some eleven days
into the class, they have not moved far from that definition. It seems the students
continue to think of the moral dimension of teaching in terms of teachers failing to take
into consideration student needs. Granted, this is one aspect of teaching’s moral
dimension, but if students were to deepen their thinking on how teaching is a moral

endeavor, classroom discussion and journals should have brought up issues concerning

the philosophy of the Montessori program and the positive outcomes it tries to achieve

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for students. The Calvin students might have reflected on why parents send their children
to this school and what they wanted out of this type of education. They might also have
spent more time constructing scenarios that would explain the teacher actions observed.
The students do not seem prepared to engage in this type of thinking.

Devotions
Assertion/Intention: Reading, acting out, and discussing the parables of Jesus Christ
during devotion time would provide the students with a foundation to craft an ethical
practice. The students would understand that everyone has moral integrity because the
Kingdom of God is within them, and that God mysteriously brings about His Kingdom
by using our weakness rather than our strength.

In order to understand the analysis provided in this section, it might be helpful to
visualize what happened during the devotional time. I will describe a devotion that took
place on January 9, 1998. (For a list of the parables covered in class, refer back to Table
3.1, p. 112.) I Selected this devotional period because of the role—play used to build
understanding for the Parable of the Sower—the topic for that day. The purpose of the
following description is not analyze in depth what took place during this devotion, but to
provide the reader with a description of what the devotions looked like in class.

Typically, each morning began with a time of devotions that usually lasted about

twenty minutes. I started this devotion by reading the Parable of the Sower from the Bible
and then dividing the class up into the various roles found in the parable. The parable
found in Matthew 13: 1—9 tells of a sower who scatters his seed throughout the land.

That same day Jesus went out of the house and sat by the lake. Such large crowds

gatheredaround him that he got into a boat and sat in it, while all the people stood

on the shore. Then he told them many things in parables, saying: "A farmer went
out to sow his seed. As he was scattering the seed, some fell along the path, and
the birds came and ate it up. Some fell on rocky places, where it did not have
much soil. It sprang up quickly, because the soil was shallow. But when the sun

came up, the plants were scorched, and they withered because they had no root.
Other seed fell among thorns, which grew up and choked the plants. Still other

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seed fell on good soil, where it produced a crop--a hundred, sixty or thirty times
what was sown. He who has ears, let him hear."

The students played the parts of the sower, seed, a bird, road, gravel, weed patch,
and good earth. After assigning the various roles, I asked the students to create a dialogue
that might occur if the road, gravel, weed patch, and good earth could talk as the sower
goes along his way scattering the seed. The students then tried to tell the story through
the dialogue that they created with their various roles. I wrote in the my notes that the
first run through “lacked movement and depth.” The students stayed stationary, not
allowing their bodies to become involved with the story. Their dialogue was limited to
one-line statements to each other. i

For the second attempt, I challenged them to interact with the farmer and to
assume body positions that represented the roles they were playing. The students did add
more dialogue and a bit more movement to the improvisation. In the final run—through, I
asked all of them to play the role of the seed and to create a dialogue that demonstrate
their feeling based on where the seed landed. The students then told this parable a third
time, from the perspective of the seed.

In the discussion that followed the three improvisations, I asked the students to
determine who was the sower and what the seed represented. The students agreed that the
sower was Jesus and that the seed is the Word of God. I asked them to consider another
interpretation by explaining Capon’s (1985) perspective. Capon argues that the sower is
God and that what God sows is His Son, Jesus Christ. Capon uses a number of references
from both the Old and New Testament to support his claim that the parable depicts the
nature of God and His Kingdom. Based on Capon’s interpretation, the parable takes on an

inclusive nature. God comes and sows His Son to every part of the world. Jesus is there

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for all people to accept and believe. The parable points out that not everybody believes in
the redemptive work of God, but that does not mean that Christ is not already there, ready
for all people, in all kinds of conditions, to accept Him as their Savior.

I finished the devotion by trying to connect this parable to teaching. I said,

We have God the Father and He goes to every place He can find. The places that

make sense, the good soil, and He goes to all kinds of places that don’t make any

sense at all. He distributes freely, everywhere Jesus. It’s already there. It’s not like
we come and bring Jesus to these places. Jesus is there already. Now I’m going to
belabor this a little bit, because I’m convinced that your perceptions of the

Kingdom or of God or your relationship with Christ influences how you act-

justifies the actions that you take. My sense is, based on personal experience, is

that I think we limit our God and that our perception of the Kingdom gives us too
much responsibility and does not allow God to do His own work. In fact, often
times, in our attempts to make things happen, we muddle the picture. We make it
almost worse.
The quote from the classroom devotional time does provide some evidence of my
intention for the devotions. I wanted my students to understand that each child they will
teach will have Jesus Christ within them, because Jesus has been sown everywhere. If the
Calvin students could think of their future students as having Christ within them, the
relationship they develop with these children would not be limited to the role of teacher
and student. The Calvin students may become less likely to react negatively to students
knowing the gift of salvation is within each child.

I will demonstrate through student journals and the reports of each research group
that the students could articulate one concept of my intention for the devotions—that each
child has the Kingdom of God within him/her. I will also provide evidence that my
students did not connect with my second intention of understanding how God uses

weakness to bring about His Kingdom. Further, while the students could articulate that a

child does have the Kingdom of God, they only connected this basic belief to teaching in

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a limited way. I will frame my case with an overview of the student journals that related
to the devotions. Next, I will describe a common theme expressed in the journals and
how it connects with my intention of having students understand the inclusive nature of
God’s Kingdom. I will also point out what the students did not write about and what that
might say about the effect of devotions on students. Finally, I will use the students’
research reports as a way to reinforce the finding that I only partially accomplished the
intention I had for the devotions used during the interim class.

Of the sixteen people in the class, all but one include references to devotions in
their journals. Fifteen students found something worth discussing from the devotional
time that started each class. While the number of students writing about devotions is
impressive, the number of times students wrote about the devotions is not. Twenty-six
responses out of a possible 148 journals, or 17.57% of the journal entries, related to the
activity that I wanted to serve as the foundation of the course. The range of the number of
times a student respond to the devotions was 0—4. The average number of times a student
wrote about devotions during the thirteen-day span was 1.62. I have included a table that
categorizes the journal responses.

Table 4.4 Categories of Student Journals Responding to Devotions

 

Number of j oumal responses Theme of journal

 

11 Students are part of God’s Kingdom; God’s grace is for
everyone, treat children as children of God

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3 The parables present different perspectives and point of views
2 Questions about the meaning of a parable
2 The student wants to be like Jesus when he/she teaches
2 Jean Brodie and Jesus -
6 individual responses Each response had a different theme

 

I concluded from the numerical analysis of student journals that the devotions

engaged the students at various levels and at various times throughout the interim. The

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fact those twenty-six journal entries referred to the devotions and that all but one student
wrote about the devotions indicates some effect. I hesitate to conjecture on the effect. The
fi‘equency of the journal responses may indicate the effect of devotions was limited,
although it is possible that students would have written more about the devotions had
they come at the end of morning session rather than the beginning of a 9:00 am. class. It
is possible students found the devotions meaningful, but after a three—hour class that
involved discussion and a drama activity, the devotions may have seemed more like a
distant event that occurred while they were slowly becoming engaged with the classroom
material.

While the analysis of the numbers involving student journals is inconclusive, the
content of the journals may demonstrate what the students were getting from the
activities and discussion of Jesus’ parables. One theme definitely came through in
categorizing student journals on devotions. Eleven responses connected with the idea that
the Kingdom of God is for everybody and that each child has the Kingdom of God within
him/her. One day in particular seemed to prompt this response with the students. On the
fifth day of class, I told the parable of the growing seed found in Mark 4: 26—29. This
was the third parable discussed in class. Analyzing the ten previous journals written
before the telling of this parable revealed no dominant theme. Student responses to the
first two parables ranged from 'Debra’s confusion that; “The parable’s interpretation
doesn’t make sense. Are we suppose to do something? Shouldn’t we lead souls to
Christ?” to Ariana’s conviction that, “The parable reminds me to be the sun or the water

that will help these children of God to grow.”

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The parable of the growing seed seemed to focus the student’s writing on how the
Kingdom of God is for everybody. I did not record the devotions that day, but I did have
a copy of my lesson plan notes on which I based my devotional lesson. I wrote in my
lesson plan:

Devotions: The growing seed. The Kingdom of God is as if a man should cast
seed onto the ground. The Kingdom is present, the very thing sown, in this world,
in the midst of every human and even every earthly condition (including every
possible school condition). By Christ’s death and resurrection, He reconciles
everything, everywhere to Himself—whether things on heaven or things on earth.
Just put the Kingdom into the world, including the world of sinners, deadbeats,
and other poor excuses of humanity, and it will come up a perfect Kingdom all by
itself. A catholic sowing that mysteriously but effectively results in a catholic
growth toward a catholic harvest. The temptation is for us to make the Kingdom
come, and to pronounce judgement on those that don’t bear the fruit of Christ’s
forgiveness. So we grade and judge and track kids and place them into
compartments. Jesus had another idea. The Kingdom comes and we do not know
how. If it came with our great ideas, it would be springing up all over the place. It
remains a mystery beyond our moralizing, score—evening comprehension.

I did not tape—record the devotions for that day, although my daily journal indicated that
the devotions seemingly had little effect. I wrote in my journal:

The parable of the growing seed allowed me to connect to teaching in a more
direct manner. I tried to use concrete examples, such as tracking, or students who
hit other students, or students who don’t get the material or don’t care about it. All
of these students have the same gift that I do—the Kingdom of God. I look at them
with God-blessed eyes. They are a part of the Kingdom and I must be carefirl of
regulating them to a certain status within His Kingdom. My class did not respond
with any questions or comments when asked. I asked if they understood I what I
was talking about and Debra shrugged her shoulders, as if to say, “I’m not quite

”

sure.
The lack of response during class leads me to believe the five student journals written in
response to the growing seed parable are significant. All five journals echoed the same
theme. As evidence, I will quote from three journals. Rebecca wrote:

Something said in devotions carried throughout the class and then the whole day.

God has given his Kingdom to everyone, and we should treat everyone like they
have the Kingdom. I know that 1 get caught up in things of my life, that I don’t

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treat everyone as I should. It scares me very much that I am going to treat students
differently.

Judy responded,
Another image that struck me was that every child is a part of Jesus’ Kingdom. I
hope that I can take this with me. I truly think that this will really change how I
look at people. Those children who will cause problems and waste time and
become nuisances don’t have to be looked at as bad or wrong—Jesus created them
and that child is as much part of Jesus’ plan as I am. 1 am no more special than
that kid. I think that this idea really humbles me. It is so easy to judge, but I have
no right.
Renee echoed Judy’s sentiments.
That is really something that I want to prepare myself for. As a teacher I want to
be able to see the Kingdom in every child. I want to strive not to be judgmental
and to see different qualities in every child. I also want to be compassionate to the
way each child learns. I hope to accommodate children if they learn in different
ways than what I may be used to. Many ethical decisions will have to be made
when I deal with my students in this way. It is my goal to make no children feel
stupid in any way.
These three student responses, along with two other journals written on this day and the
six other responses written in reaction to later devotionals, provide some evidence that
the students were thinking that the Kingdom of God is for everybody. The content of the
journals seems important for two reasons. First, understanding that each child has
integrity and worth because each child is part of God’s Kingdom may have implications
for teaching. Rebecca sees an application in how she hopes to not treat her children
differently, but to treat everyone like they have the Kingdom of God. Judy hopes to
remember that she is no more special than her students. Renee does not want to be
judgmental, but rather to look for the positive differences in her students. Crafting an
ethical practice based on the belief that each child has the Kingdom of God within

him/her may lead to an ethical way of thinking and acting on a child’s behalf.

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Second, the students ability to connect with understanding that each child has the
kingdom of God within them may stem from Calvin College’s mission to develop
graduates who can transform the culture around them. It is possible that the students have
heard this type of message before and can readily connect with it. The context of Calvin
College should benefit my intention of helping preservice students understand how they
can think about the children they will teach. It is possible that the Calvin students have
heard in other classes that transformative work requires an attitude that does not seek to
condemn the lost, but rather to reveal the Kingdom of God within each person.

While student journals offer some evidence that they can articulate the importance
of seeing each child as potentially having God’s Kingdom, I cannot conclude the
reasoning stemmed from the devotionals done in class. If I went to each of the students
and asked if they believed that each child belongs in the Kingdom of God or that if in
their teaching they should be slow to judge and quick to praise students, most students
would agree. Did the students have these beliefs and feelings about God’s Kingdom and
how they might teach because of their spiritual upbringing in their family, church, or
other school experiences? Or did Christ’s parables cause them to think about their beliefs
in a new way or apply their beliefs in a different context—a classroom? I do not have the
data that would allow me to answer those two important questions.

I also question the lasting significance of the students’ responses. After hearing
the same basic message preached at them for four days, I could conclude that Calvin
students now have some of the language and ideas associated with Kingdom work, but I
am not sure how these ideas will enter into the classroom. The purpose of the class was to

help students understand the moral dimension of teaching for the purpose of crafting an

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ethical practice. How would the devotions help students craft an ethical practice? The
students can discuss these parables and possibly have new insight into their
interpretation, but I cannot see how in the activity or in the discussion surrounding the
parables that the students could transfer their words of good intention into practical
action.

One way to analyze the student jomnals is to think carefully about what would
count as evidence that indicated the students could apply their strong statements to
educational settings. Two opportunities existed for students to connect their beliefs about
God’s Kingdom to the educational process. The class participated in a series of three
improvisational scenes about a teacher who graded Joey’s math work based more on
effort than on correct answers. These scenes were described in detail earlier in this
chapter. In carefully reading through the journal responses and listening to classroom
discussion about the improvisations, not one student brought up Joey’s place in the
Kingdom or the teacher’s responsibility in balancing judgment and encouragement. The
students played out the scene, wrote in their journals, discussed in class their feelings
about the activity and never brought up how Joey’s place in the Kingdom could shape the
teacher’s action.

A second opportunity for connecting the students’ spiritual beliefs occurred at
Long School. The students pointed out a number of incidents where they thought a
teacher mistreated a student. The students were quick to write about the actions of the PE
and music teacher, but they did not use the child’s place in God’s Kingdom as a way to
point out the problem in the teachers’ actions. Instead, the students relied on the feelings

of the child being hurt or the possible diminishing of the child’s self—esteem as the

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rationale for criticizing the PE or music teacher’s action. The fact the students failed to
say that the PE or music teacher lost sight of a child’s moral integrity because of that
child’s place in God’s Kingdom demonstrates the difficulty in having the students apply
what they heard in devotions to concrete teaching situations. If students could not make
these connections during the interim class, I doubt they will make the connections in their
own practice.

The final research projects reinforced the content of the nine student journals
concerning the relationship between children and the Kingdom of God. Each research
group analyzed what aspects of the course contributed to their understanding of
teaching’s moral dimension. Each group included the devotions as a contributing factor. 1
will quote from three of the research reports that indicate the value the students derived
from the devotions.

Research Group #1: The parables helped us to see that all of our students that we

will have are God’s children and that they deserve equal attention and respect

from us.

Research Group #2: When we started the class we reflected on what it means to

be Christians in God’s Kingdom and how that affects the way that we treat people

as well as how we look at the world. After doing this we realized the importance
of accepting all students as God’s creation.

Research Group #3: Though we were hearing familiar parables, we were able to

gain a new understanding of how they related to our lives and the lives of our

students. It was meaningful to look at stories of the Kingdom and learn how our
students are a part of that kingdom. We began to see our teaching position as an
opportunity to give each student an equal chance by planting seeds and letting

God take control.

The research reports were completed during the last week of class. Students wrote

that the devotions did have a positive effect on their understanding of teaching’s moral

dimension. The students seemed to grasp that each child is a child of God. They also have

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some idea of what that means for them in a teaching practice. They used phrases like .

,9 “

“deserve equal attention and respect, accepting all students,” and “give each student an
equal chance.”

At the beginning of this section, I asserted that the parables of Jesus Christ could
provide the foundation from which to craft an ethical practice. I intended that the students
would understand each child has the Kingdom of God within them, which gives these
children moral integrity, and that God mysteriously brings about His Kingdom by using
our weakness rather than our strength. I only partially succeeded in obtaining what I
intended. The evidence indicates students do have an understanding that each child has
the Kingdom of God within them, but the mysterious process of how God brings about
His Kingdom by using our weakness did not connect with students. They did not write
about God using people’s weakness in their journals. .

I also question the students’ ability to crafi an ethical practice using the concepts
of God’s Kingdom as a foundation from which to build. The students’ lack of connection
with the improvisations and the Long School observation leads me to believe that the
students may not be able to craft their practice from a Kingdom—vision perspective.

Making spiritual beliefs an integral part of a teaching practice may prove difficult.
The students seem quick to departrnentalize the various aspects of their life. They are
able to write about their spiritual beliefs as it regards the devotions done in class, but they
do not connect their spiritual beliefs with a school observation. The students appear to
assume a “teacher role” when participating in improvisations or analyzing classroom

behavior. What guides their actions and their thinking seem to be their notion of what a

teacher is suppose to say or do. My intent was to have the concept of God’s Kingdom

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guide their thinking and action. Given the data I analyzed, this did not happen in any
significant way.
Nel Noddings or Was It Helen Sterk?

Assertion/intention: I intended for Helen Sterk to describe and explain Noddings
philosophy of care and how it connects to educational settings.

Kenneth Strike’s book, The Ethics of Teaching, clearly distinguishes between
Consequentialists and Nonconsequentialists’ perspectives. He does a careful job of
demonstrating the differences between these two pillars of ethical thought. I used his
book as the textbook for the class because of his clear distinctions and use of cases. But I
also believed that his explanation of teaching’s ethical terrain lacks consideration of
another important perspective. Nel Noddings’ philosophy of education stems from a Care
Ethic. I wanted to include her beliefs in the class because her work offers a unique way of
making classroom decisions. The students read a chapter written by Noddings in Ethics
for Professionals in Education (1993) called “Caring: A Feminist Perspective”. I asked
Helen Sterk, a colleague at Calvin College, to analyze and explain Noddings’ position.
Sterk’s research involves developing a communication theory based on care rather than
power. Her hour-long presentation connected Noddings’ philosophy to Sterks’
experiences as a high school teacher and Sterk’s own spiritual beliefs. Student journals
indicated that her expertise proved valuable in making Noddings work accessible to the
students. .

I had hesitated to include Helen’s presentation in the analysis because Helen only
talked for an hour about her perspective on Nodding’s work. Coupled with the limited
reading of one chapter written by Noddings, I did not predict the students would respond

in a significant way. Yet, based on the analysis of the students’ responses, I will argue

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that Sterk’s presentation and the Noddings’ reading connected readily to students. Eleven
of my students wrote about the presentation in their journals and three out of the four
research groups either recommended keeping Sterk’s presentation as part of the class or
listed her presentation as having an effect on their understanding of teaching’s moral
dimension. The students appreciated her presentation.

Sterk has a gift of engaging an audience by her knowledge of the topic and her
presentational skills. Sterk’s ability to maintain eye contact, use variety of expression in
her speaking voice, and incorporating her hands and body in reinforcing what she is
saying makes for a solid presentation. She is also an expressive storyteller. She started
her presentation with a short story about Helen Westra, her junior high teacher.

Throughout my life, I’ve been very fortunate to have caring teachers.
Probably seventh grade was the grade I remember best. That’s a hard time to
teach. How many of you are going to be teaching middle school? (Sterk waits for
response.) A few of you brave souls—that’s good. It’s a hard grade to teach
because everything is changing in the bodies of your students. Trying to get
through their minds while their bodies are going through these incredible changes
is something else. '

We had a teacher named Helen Westra who was actually my cousin, so
it’s interesting that we’re talking about my cousin. What Helen did was that she
designed hands—on activities for every single thing that we did. When we studied
geography, she separated us into groups and made papier-mache relief maps of
the different parts of the world. I remember I did China. I can see where the
mountains are in China. I remember that. When we studied civics, and we studied
how economies worked, we made this huge mural that stretched across the whole
side of the room. It was a mural of lumber that goes from being trees to being
paper to being different products. We had every step along the way that we made.
I remember we did a radio play for Christmas. I remember she brought in seafood.
I grew up in a small town in Wisconsin, Waupan, Wisconsin and I never had
seafood beyond fish sticks. She brought in scallops and shrimp. She fried them up
in a frying pan. We ate them. It was like the most exotic experience in my life.

But probably the high point of that year for me was in science we were
learning how engines work and she had us separated into groups again. I was with
my best friend, Linda, and we were trying to make a little machine that would run
by itself, that would operate off of traction-propulsion principles or magnetic
principles. We were next to Randy and Tom who thought that they were the
smartest guys in the class. Linda and I knew much better than that. But we were

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competing with Randy and Tom to see who could get the machine to work first
and we beat them. That was a great moment for me of success and victory that felt
just wonderful.

I remember that year we took a lot of field trips. In Waupan there is not
that many places to go, but we went wherever we could. We went to the library
often. We went to a foundry and we walked through the foundry and were shown
how things worked. The thing about Helen Westra as a teacher was that everyday
she would think, “What do these kids need? What do these kids need?” She
wouldn’t necessarily think, “What do these kids want?” We didn’t know what we
wanted. We were still seventh graders. But she thought what do we need. And we
needed to succeed and we needed to do. We didn’t need to listen so much. We
didn’t need someone to lecture to us. That wasn’t the appropriate way to go either.
She thought of ways, it must have consumed her whole life, she thought of ways
to do it. I appreciated that so much. To me that was a great outpouring of a
gracious kind of care. Ever since then, I’ve been thinking to myself of ways to
help students learn. Ways that are caring, and loving, and relational, and decent,
but ways that have a certain rigor to them.

Analyzing what the students learned from Sterk’s presentation was difficult. Two
ideas came out in student responses. First, Sterk contrasted the ideas of justice and mercy
as ways of making moral decisions. Five different student journals discussed Sterk’s
ideas involving the balance of justice and mercy in teaching. Their responses did not go
into great detail or explanation about Sterk’s presentation. The students wrote that they
could see the importance of balancing justice and mercy when difficult situations would
come up in school. Isaac wrote a thoughtful response.

She brought up the idea of balancing justice and mercy. I thought that was a very

good way of describing how to approach discipline in the classroom. I have

thought about if this is a continuum or if it is two opposite approaches that we
have to choose from. I think in the classroom we can sort of balance these two
ideas by being just and being merciful at the same time. We need to teach the
students the correct behavior, but we also can teach them proper response
behavior by how we treat them.

The balance between justice and mercy may have resonated with students for two

possible reasons. First, up to this point, the students had concentrated on the

consequences of actions or Kantian ideas of duty. Noddings’ ideas may have felt like a

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breath of fresh air. Instead of thinking about making an action a universal law, Noddings
suggest thinking about building community and caring for the students in your class.
Students can relate to the language that Noddings uses in her writing. Kant, although
having valuable ways for teachers to make decisions, may be intimidating to students
because of the complexity of his theory. Noddings speaks in the language that students
understand.

Second, Noddings ideas on caring for students align with how the students are
thinking about the process of education. From the first student journals that defined the
moral dimension of teaching to the observation at Long School, the Calvin students focus
on the negative consequences teacher actions may have on students. Noddings articulates
their thinking by connecting teacher action to the effect that it has on community in the
classroom and the relationship it has on a child. The Calvin students found that type of
thinking reinforcing their own concepts of teacher/student relationships.

A second idea stemmed from Sterk’s success in tying Noddings’ perspective with
Christ’s commandment to love your God with all your heart, soul, and mind, and to love
your neighbor as yourself. Sterk provided an eternal dimension to Noddings’ beliefs.

In every kind of context, care theory has helped me to be grounded as a teacher. I

am particularly indebted to Nel Noddings book on caring. If you want to read a

really good book on caring, that’s the one. . .. She has a certain view of humanity

that is a little bit lesser than maybe a view of humanity that understands human
beings as created in God’s image and therefore have a kind of connection with the
divine that I think really demands honor and respect. On the whole what she does
is quite wonderful because it balances a sense of justice. . .with a need for
connection, with a need for mercy. Justice balanced out with mercy. And for me
what it boils down to in terms of my teaching and the way I think people in
general should approach teaching is Jesus’ two commandments: you should love
the Lord your God, and you should love your neighbor as yourself. For me, to

love God above all keeps me constant. It’s my long term vision and goal. So I

think in terms of what does God require of me. What does God ask of me as a
teacher? What does God require and ask of these people in front of me as

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students? So that’s my long term kind of consistency reality check. But the second
commandment is the one that really helps me figure out how I approach my
discipline. How do I approach my students? How do I balance out justice and
mercy? There is a creative tension in here. It doesn’t say give up yourself for
your neighbor. If doesn’t say relieve yourself of yourself for your neighbor and
just exist for other people. Jesus commandment says that you have to love
yourself in order to love others. If you don’t take adequate care of yourself, if you
don’t protect yourself as a teacher you are not fulfilling this commandment.
You must take care of yourself in order to have the resources to love others.

Three students related to these ideas. Erin wrote,

This concept of the tension between justice and caring (mercy) strikes me as
being a pivotal issue in education as well as our Christian lives. I appreciated how
Helen Sterk brought that out through her discussion of the 2 great commandments
to love the Lord, and to love self and others. The Caring Ethic appeals to me in
that it focuses on the needs of an individual. I don’t think that decisions that
involve a person should have to be looked at by asking, “Would you do this for
every case?” because a person has individual needs and baggage they bring into
each situation. I really appreciate Helen’s words of wisdom concerning loving
oneself and trying to avoid burnout!

Sarah had these reflections.
Helen Sterk came and lefi a great impression in my mind. She spoke about how
teachers are the ones that are going to show them God’s love. It is the first
commandment, ”Love God above all,” and it’s true. It’s not about what they
(teachers) want to do. It’s about, “What do these kids needs?” And we as
Christians and as Christian teachers are supposed to expand God’s kingdom. We
need to set appropriate limits and boundaries and with that comes balancing out
justice and mercy.
Sarah summarizes the key elements of Noddings’ perspective and aligns them with her
personal faith commitments. That type of thinking may lead to learning that may
“transcend mere knowledge” (Way).
Two possibilities exist for why the students connected with Helen’s presentation.
First, Helen’s speaking style and enthusiasm for Noddings’ work is contagious. She

draws you into her presentation by using eye contact, varied vocal expression, and telling

interesting stories. Rose wrote, “Helen was very motivational and informative. . .. She

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made me want to start teaching immediately.” One factor that may have influenced the
student’s feelings involved Sterk’s ability to motivate and engage an audience.

But the second factor involves something more enduring. Based on the eleven
journal responses and the four group projects, students connect with the educational
issues brought up in Sterk’s presentation and Noddings’ writing. I will quote from the
group projects to provide evidence of how the students connected Sterk and Noddings to
teaching. Rebecca, Isaac, Susan, and Anne wrote:

Our group feels Helen Sterk provided a crucial element to moral teaching. We

grasped the Biblical idea of “loving your neighbor as yourself” and saw how that

fits into classroom situations. Loving the student as yourself involves considering
the need of the student and not necessarily what you want for them as the teacher.

We noticed that the situations Helen Sterk described were closely related to things

we have experienced. We are now able to see the moral implications of these

situations and how students are impacted. Sterk focused a great deal on caring for
the child. This is also a concept we hope to take with us to the classroom. We feel
caring should be a vital part of the classroom environment as we help our students
to learn.

Judy, Kathryn, Renee, and Emily wrote:

Another wonderful part of the class was when Helen Sterk came to visit. She was

incredibly motivational and inspirational. She also brought the piece by Nel

Noddings down to our level, and made it applicable to our lives. It would be great

to add more guests like her to lecture in the future.

The context of Calvin College enabled Sterk to connect with the students. Sterk
was able to bring in the spiritual dimension in a concrete, specific way. The Calvin
students appreciated the connection between their love for God and how that shows itself
in a classroom. I discussed earlier the tendency for students to departmentalize the

various roles they have in life. They end up putting on the different hats of a Christian, or

a prospective schoolteacher, or a student. Calvin College tries to combine these various

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hats into one hat whose goal is to live all of life as a child of God. Sterk provided a way

for students to unify their various roles under one hat.

Summary

What is significant about reading The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, doing drama
activities, observing at a local school, devotions, or listening to a gifted lecturer unravel
Nel Noddings’ work? The Calvin students believed these experiences contributed to their
understanding of teaching’s moral dimension. The evidence indicates these activities
created greater student awareness of teaching’s moral dimension. But the question
remained: Would this understanding or increased awareness lead to preservice students
becoming teachers capable of crafting an ethical practice? The next two chapters explore

that question.

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Chapter Five

Reflection

Shulman argues that professionals need to reflect on their own teaching for the
purpose of the professionals’ development and learning. In Chapter Four, I began that
process of reflection by analyzing the effects the instruction had on student understanding
of teaching’s moral dimension. In describing how professionals can reflect on their work,
Shulman suggests, “Central to this process will be a review of the teaching in comparison
to the ends that were sought” (p. 19). The “end” that I wanted to accomplish focused on
students understanding the moral dimension of teaching for the purpose of crafting an
ethical practice. But because the students were not yet teaching, I knew it would be
difficult to assess the effect of the course on their practice.

Two students did register for spring—term field placements. In the following two
sections, I trace their stories from the interim class to the conclusion of their field
placement. In ChapterFour, I examined students’ responses to certain course
components. Now I will analyze the influence of the interim class on these two students.

To understand what these students were thinking, I relied on a number of sources.
First, the students’ daily” journals provided insight into what they found interesting about
their interim experience. I also video—taped and audio—taped our class sessions. Their
comments during discussions and their actions during activities gave an indication of
their thinking. The students completed assignments and participated in a research project.
I used these sources as ways to assess consistency with their journals and classroom

comments. I interviewed both students during their field placements. These interviews

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helped me to evaluate the effect of the interim class on their teaching. Unless specified,
the quotes from these students come from their journal entries.
Erin’s Story

Erin, a twenty-year old junior majoring in elementary education, selected
Communication Arts and Sciences (CAS) and History as minors for her program. Her
current 3.71 GPA at Calvin and 28 composite score on the ACT indicates Erin’s
competency in educational settings. In comparison, the Calvin graduates from 1990—1998
have an average ACT score of 24.1 and an average GPA of 3.10. Calvin students who
graduate with a BA in elementary education during the same time period have an average
ACT of 22.9 and an average GPA of 3.12. Erin described a number of teaching
experienceslon her profile sheet. She worked as a toddler teacher at a day care facility,
taught Sunday school at church, tutored at a local school, and volunteered at a school for
children with special needs. Her range of teaching experiences provided evidence that
Erin had some understanding of the educational process.

Erin noted on her profile sheet that she was scheduled for EDUC 301—303 in the
spring semester. The purpose of EDUC 301—303 focuses on the psychology of education
by studying the learner and the learning process. Students observe and participate in
school activities throughout the semester. Since Erin would have opportunity of
observing and working with children after the interim class, she was a logical choice for
this case study.

The Before Picture
On the first day of class, the students received a journal assignment that asked

them about their interest in the class. In her response to this assignment, Erin admitted

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taking the class for practical reasons—it satisfied one of her CAS minor requirements. But
she also remarked,

Being an educator is one of the most important jobs in the world, wielding an

incredible amount of influence. I think that it is important for teachers to

understand this moral and ethical power they hold and learn how to use it for the
positive.
Erin’s initial comments indicated some understanding of the moral dimension of
teaching. She realizes the influence and ethical power teachers have, but she does not
explain how that influence is seen in the classroom. Later in the journal, she develops her
ideas further when explaining what she hoped to learn from the class.

I will be honest. The very thought of being a teacher scares me to death. To think

that I would be in control of the very impressionable lives of 25 children for six

hours a day is incredibly daunting. I know from personal experience how much a

teacher’s words and actions effect students. Even the subtleties of tone of voice,

eye contact, and body language are crucial to how a child will be impacted. I

would hope then, that through this class I would gain a better understanding of

how to react to students, deal with ethical dilemmas, and how to use my influence
for the positive.

Erin’s responses bring up two points concerning her thinking. First, Erin’s
conception of the moral dimension of teaching focused on the subtle influence teachers
have over students. The course description in the interim catalogue centered on resolving
ethical dilemmas, but Erin’s response did not indicate that was her primary interest. Her
comment concerning the effect of a teacher’s subtle action on students indicated a
different direction in her thinking. Second, her perception created a feeling of worry and
concern about the influence that she might have on her students. Erin’s anxiety of

negatively affecting her classroom children is a theme that came up throughout the

COUTSC.

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Erin provided some clues as to the source of her thinking in her answer regarding
her experiences involving an ethical dilemma. “I have witnessed male teachers losing
their tempers and physically roughing up boys, female teachers who have pinched, and a
host of seemingly comical comments that had just that opposite effect on students.”
Again, Erin describes moral situations in Fenstermacher’s terms—situations involving
“human action undertaken in regard to other human beings” (p. 133). She does not
describe an experience resolving a difficult, complex dilemma.

The first journal assignment also asked Erin to explain the phrase “resolving
ethical dilemmas.” Erin wrote,

I think that it is a situation in which an educator is faced with having to make a

decision, either consciously or unconsciously, or act in a way which has possible

favorable or unfavorable results on or to another person. The teacher or

administrator must weigh the consequences and try to decide which is best for

that situation and person.
Her definition provided some insight into her thinking on resolving ethical dilemmas. She
noted that these dilemmas include decisions made in regards to another person. I
interpreted her words to mean decisions that affect students. She had previously
described teachers whose action negatively influenced students. Her concept of resolving
an ethical dilemma coincided with her examples. She includes in her explanation that
resolving ethical dilemmas may include teacher actions having either favorable or
unfavorable results—in terms of the student’s feelings.

Erin’s explanation never used the word dilemma. So far, Erin has defined and
described situations with a moral dimension, but not necessarily ethical dilemmas. If I

pressed Erin on defining dilemma, I am not sure she would describe a complex situation

that has no easy solution or favorable results. It is possible Erin thought the teachers in

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her examples faced the dilemma of choosing the best response to the students, but her
initial responses indicate a rather narrow explanation of resolving ethical situations.

One other important consideration emerges from Erin’s first journal. Erin writes
that teachers and administrators should weigh the consequences and decide on what is
best for the situation and person. Her consequentialist tendency seems to shape her
thinking about resolving ethical dilemmas.

At the risk of being simplistic, Erin struck me as a student who had done some
thinking about her school experiences. These experiences made her aware of the negative
effect teachers could have on students. She also appears to have some apprehension
concerning the possible negative effect she might have on children. Finally, Erin’s
responses suggest the use of consequentialist reasoning when resolving ethical situations.
The Case of Mr. Sheldon

On the first day of class, the students responded to a case study. Briefly, the
students determined a course of action for Mr. Sheldon who walked into his room and
discovered his favorite vase, made by his wife, broken on the-floor. Three suspect
students, one who was a known trouble—maker, were around the vase and quickly
scattered backed to their seats when Mr. Sheldon walked in. How should Mr. Sheldon
proceed? What should he think before taking action? Erin advised that Mr. Sheldon
control his temper, not jump to conclusions, and not take a rash action such as punishing
the whole class. She remarked that it was probably an accident and offered the following
advice.

Mr. Sheldon needs to provide a warm and forgiving environment. . .. The point of

finding out the truth is not to find out who to punish, but rather to help the guilty
realize that they have to take responsibility for their actions.

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Erin does not elaborate on how the guilty students would take responsibility for the
broken vase.

In analyzing Erin’s responses, I looked for evidence of complex thinking, such as
her ability to take into account a number of different perspectives or evaluating the
possible negative effects of actions taken by Mr. Sheldon. Both consequentialist and
nonconsequentialist thinking, as interpreted by Strike (1992), requires careful analysis of
the feelings of others affected by a particular situation. Oser (1994) considers a teacher’s
ability to anticipate the results of action as a key factor in avoiding unethical actions.

Erin’s strategy of downplaying the significance of the broken vase and implying
that punishing the students would not serve a useful purpose provides a small clue into
thinking about teaching. In effect, she sides with the students and minimizes the feelings
of Mr. Sheldon. She is not interested in finding out who is responsible and creating a
consequence for the broken vase. I connect Erin’s negative educational experiences to her
reaction to this scenario. Her first instinct is to side with the students. She has seen
situations where the teacher has lost his temper and acted in inappropriate ways and may
feel this accident will lead to the same result. Her reaction does not take into account the
feelings of Mr. Sheldon, student responsibility, or consequences for inappropriate
behavior. Also, Erin’s reaction did not include more than one possible course” of action.
She came up with a proposed solution and did not indicate the shortcomings of her
approach. It is possible that Erin considered other possibilities, but her journal response

did not indicate this.

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Cgssroom Experiences

During the interim course, a number of classroom experiences seemed to have an
effect on Erin’s understanding of teaching’s moral dimension. What follows is my
analysis of these experiences.
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie

The first few days of the interim class focused on The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie.
The book brought out important aspects of Erin’s perspective on teaching. Miss Jean
Brodie loved telling stories and using atypical pedagogy for preparing students for their
“prime”. Erin believed Brodie emphasized her stories at the expense of curriculum. The
class had read three out of the six chapters when Erin made the following observation.

She (Brodie) lacks a balance of teaching “real life” and the more traditional.

There has to be some of that tangible learning. Curriculum is not the most

important, but it’s the best way we have of making sure some form of learning

goes on.

A person’s perspective on the purpose of school helps determine the way she will
think about moral considerations in teaching. Erin may be saying that teaching involves a
balance in the types of pedagogy used in the classroom. She also indicates that measuring
a student’s progress is important. What is unclear in Erin’s response is her definition of
learning and what she considers to be the most important part of school. The actions of
Brodie would seem offensive, if notimmoral, to someone who believed that the basics
should compose a significant part of the curriculum. I would need further evidence from
other journals and classroom discussion to have a clearer understanding of Erin’s
thinking.

One other aspect of Erin’s thinking emerged in her journals. She reacted strongly

to the book’s use of the word “prime”. Jean Brodie was preparing her students for their

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prime and defines it as “the moment one was born for” (p. 19). Erin resented Brodie’s
efforts because Erin felt like it diminished the value of a person’s life not in her prime.
She concludes, “So my theory is if I have a prime, it should be the period from birth to
death. But that’s just an earthly prime—there’s much more (and better!) to come afier that
life.”

Here was the first comment (made on January 12, after the third day of class)
referring to Erin’s spiritual beliefs. I wanted to trace the connection between Erin’s
spiritual faith and beliefs and her view of the moral dimension of teaching. McNeel
(1994) claims that students in Christian colleges reason at lower levels on Kohlberg’s
scale of moral reasoning. Determining Erin’s moral reasoning ability from these
comments is difficult, but her first comment provides a small insight into her thinking.
Brodie trained her students for their prime—the special time in their lives when they
would instinctively know what to do and how to act. Erin reacts strongly against Brodie’s
notion of valuing a certain time in one’s life over another.

I connected Erin’s rationale to her spiritual beliefs. I interpreted Erin as saying
that the best part of her life will take place after her existence on earth. Erin plans on
spending eternity in heaven, so to ready a young child for her prime runs counter to the
belief that all of life is a preparation for the life that comes after death. Nash (1996) might
say that Erin is using the first moral language—the language of background beliefs. If this
is a core belief for Erin, it should have implications for her in practice. McNeel would
look for evidence of whether her Christian beliefs limit her moral reasoning or cause her

to reason more deeply about the actions she‘would take in a classroom. I will analyze

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Erin’s actions throughout the interim course and her field experience to assess the effects
of her beliefs on the process she uses to reason about her actions.
Devotions

Erin’s spiritual and core beliefs could come out in her response to the daily
devotions presented in class. Erin chose to write about the parable of the sower (see page
181 for a description of the parable) on the 14th (day 5), two days after her first reference
to her spiritual beliefs.
Our discussion of parables has had me thinking about the fact that in each
story, the seed (Jesus/salvation) is meant for all people. Each person has the gift
of grace available to them, they just have to accept it. More specifically, I have
been struggling with the aspect of seeing that gift, and Christ’s image, in every
person. That is the thing that will be hard for me when I am teaching—finding the
good in that child who is a constant thorn in my side.
That whole patience thing will be a source of much prayer and petition for
me. (Well, I guess it should be now too!) I think this moral dilemma will be one
that, though seemingly small, needs to be dealt with. It affects ones whole attitude
in dealing with children, seeing their value and potential, and encouraging their
abilities and talents. ‘
Erin’s initial comments in her journal from the 12th referred to the life—after. The parables
' have brought her back down to earth in the sense that God’s Kingdom is not something
looked for in the clouds when Christ returns or that is received after death. The Kingdom
is here and now and exists within each person. Erin interprets that to mean each child has
the gift of Christ within him or her. She realizes that discounting a difficult child is not an
option because that child embodies the Kingship of Jesus Christ.

But Erin takes her thought process one step further. She concludes that if her
premise begins with each child being created in image of Christ, that belief influences her

whole perspective in dealing with children. Her response connects with Nash’s

framework of moral language. In this journal entry, Erin seems to use the third language

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of moral principle. She is willing to act on the principle that because each child has
Christ’s image, teachers should encourage their students. She also understands that acting
on such a principle will be hard. She will need patience to see Christ’s image in some of
her students.

Her entry also used the word “dilemma” that indicates a broad definition. Erin
may think that a teacher is constantly faced with a dilemma of how to treat students or
what attitude to take with students. She is not conceiving of the word dilemma in the
sense of resolving a difficult situation that does not have a clear answer. Her sense of
dilemma involves having patience and providing encouragement for students.

Erin’s thinking takes a turn from the more typical rationale that young preservice
students give for their actions—“I love children.” Here, the reasoning goes beyond that
inconclusive sentiment. Erin loves children, but she will also tell you why—each child
represents Jesus Christ. Her rationale has the potential to deeply affect her practice,
although without specific experiences to analyze, it is difficult to tell the significance of
her comments.

Erin came into the class with experiences that told her not all of her teachers acted
in moral ways. Some teachers take actions that hurt students. Erin seems quick to side
with students, and as a result, is wary of her own teaching having a negative effect on
students. I have also discovered, after five days of class, that Erin’s spiritual side has
some influence in shaping her teaching conceptions.

On the sixth day of interim, January 15, Erin’s journal indicated a breakthrough in
her thinking. The class started with devotions that focused on Jesus Christ’s

transfiguration described in Matthew 17: 1—13. The story tells of Jesus leading three of

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his disciples up a high mountain. While on the mountain, Jesus’ appearance changed—his
face shone like the sun. For the disciples, their friend Jesus was transfigured from the
everyday, temporal, commonplace appearance into an eternal dimension. Seeing Jesus in
His eternal glory confirmed in the disciples a vision of their own future. They would no
longer see the world from a temporal point of view, but the world would take on an
eternal perspective. Knowing of the greater glory in store for them, the disciples
understood their lives as having a spiritual and moral dimension.

I noted the difference between the disciples’ realizations and Jean Brodie’s focus
on preparing students for their earthly prime. As I interpreted it, her vision of eduCation is
rooted in the here and now, concerning itself with the moment. Brodie tries to transfigure
the commonplace into something that will satisfy the emptiness she feels. Her
transfiguration' fails because it is based on a belief that her human knowledge and power
can take the ordinary and make it into something extraordinary. The lack of an eternal
dimension leaves open Brodie’s ability to articulate why a person’s prime matters. She
builds her vision for education on shaky ground.

After devotions, the class discussed the last two chapters of The Prime of Miss
Jean Brodie. In these chapters, Jean Brodie’s world begins to crurnple. Brodie’s political
beliefs contribute to her eventual dismissal from her school. The class discussed Jean
Brodie’s effect on her students. Erin did not contribute during the twenty—five minute
discussion of these chapters. Erin can be quiet during large group discussions so her lack
of verbal participation was not unusual. The class took a break, came back and did three

role—plays. The role—plays went well in terms of the group participation. The students

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stayed focused on the character they were playing and the interaction between characters
demonstrated a high level of concentration.

One scene did stand out. Each student played a character that wanted the school to
focus on a particular objective. At the town meeting, these characters had to reach some
consensus on which three objectives the school should adopt. The students’ dialogue with
each other became fairly intense because a number of the characters strongly advocated
their position. The dialogue between these characters demonstrated the challenge of
meeting people’s differing expectations for schools. When I analyzed the video of these
activities, I did not notice any particular reaction or comment from Erin that stood out. I
concluded the class had a good session, but it was difficult to tell based on Erin’s
participation during the class if anything in particular prompted this response.

Eureka! My thought pattern is evolving! (I think). When I began this class,
I had done like (if any) thinking about the moral dimension of education. My
response to the first journal questions were vague, my definition even vaguer, and
my examples were extremist. We have been talking about ethical dilemmas—some
of them obvious, others more subtle, and thought—provoking. I am beginning to
realize how complex this aspect of teaching really is. ' ,

The topic of consequences has been bothering me. We looked a lot at what
consequences of Miss Brodie’s actions were in future actions of her students, and
we have also been discussing some possible consequences in regard to the book
on improvisational scenes and scenarios. What’s has struck me is that we take the
time to think of these possible consequences, but in actual situations we won’t
always have that privilege of time. Events happen too fast; we will rarely
understand the impact at the time. Teachers must also realize that all 25 children
may react or be impacted differently. That’s a lot of pressure.

Erin says she is beginning to recognize the complexity involved in teaching. I am
assuming that The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, our morning devotion time, and the
role—plays contributed to her understanding. I also must remember that Erin came into the

class with a fairly high degree of sensitivity to a teacher’s immoral actions. Perhaps the

class was legitimizing and giving language to something she had experienced. Maybe her

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thought pattern is evolving in the sense that she is now redefining her conception of what
happens in schools. Erin experienced good and bad teachers. She witnessed the negative
effect teachers could have on students and vowed not to repeat their actions with her
students. But then she read about Jean Brodie who exemplified a teacher with good
intentions and an exciting vision for education, and commented in an earlier journal,
“Miss Brodie has a fascinating philosophy of education. The whole idea of education
meaning “to lead out” appeals to me.” Yet, despite Brodie’s positive attributes, she leaves
a legacy involving hurt and betrayal causing Erin to question the consequences of
Brodie’s teaching. Erin may beginning to think that wanting to be a good teacher and not
wanting to hurt students is not be enough.

I see further grth in Erin’s thinking in her last paragraph. Erin fears “scarring”
children when she teaches. In this journal, she begins isolating factors contributing to her
fear. First, the pace of the educational process forces teachers to make decisions quickly.
They do not have the luxury of thinking methodically through possible consequences for
each action. To complicate matters, teachers must multiply their deliberations by the
number of students they teach, because children’s responses will vary. The book
demonstrated that Jean Brodie effectively helped some students and clearly hurt others.
Erin seems to be asking, “How can you begin to predict how your actions will affect each
child?”

Improvisations

One important component of the interim class involved the use of drama. On the

5th day of class, the class began a three—part scene between a shoe clerk and three

customers. Erin played a shoe clerk in the three scenes.

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The effect of the shoe selling scenes on Erin seemed negligible. Two sources of
evidence lead me to this conclusion. First, when I replayed the videotape, Erin looks
uncomfortable at times. Instead of staying fully involved in the scene, she glances away
from the scene back toward the camera and shrugs her shoulders or rolls her eyes. Also,
Erin struggled with the miming part of the scenes. When asked to get shoes for a
customer, she would mime going to the back room and would appear to grab a box and
bring it to the customer. She would also vaguely point to shoes in the store when
interacting with customers. Her lack of precision and visualization may indicate a lack of
concentration during the scene.

Part of the problem could be that Erin did not believe in what she was doing. Her
dialogue with customers was forced and unnatural. Erin told one character she owned six
pair of the shoes she wanted the customer to purchase. Another customer was literally
grabbed by the hand and pushed toward another section of the store. Her voice took on a
condescending tone at one point during a sale scene. These observations convinced me
that Erin felt uncomfortable with the improvisational activity. Her scene was not
authentic in terms of creating a believable character or situation.

An addition to Erin’s awkward performance during the shoe selling scenes, Erin
did not comment on the scenes during classroom discussion nor write about them in her
journal. I had her answer questions about the activity (see Appendix H), but she never
wrote about the experience on her own. When I read through her responses from the
questions, she never made any connections to the shoe selling scenes and teaching. Her

final comment from her sheet read, “A good shoe salesman has to be very sensitive to the

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customer; read their body language, style, listen carefully. No one likes a pushy
salesman, better to give people what they want!”

Given Erin’s engagement in the improvisations and her sparse reactions in class
and in her journals, the “selling shoes” scenes did not contributed to Erin’s understanding
of teaching’s moral dimension.

Bead Poet’s Society

The movie Dead Poet ’s Society contributed in Erin’s understanding of teaching’s
moral dimension. Erin had never seen the movie before and stated that she enjoyed the
story. Her journal focused on the classroom discussion that compared the teaching ethics
of Jean Brodie and the hero of the movie, John Keating. Erin’s written response
reinforced a theme from earlier journals.

Who is more moral? I don’t think that question is answerable. Neither teacher had

good enough backing for their philosophy, nor the best backing—God. There has

to be a balance of life knowledge and self—knowledge rooted on the foundation of
the best morality—the pillars of Christ.

Here was another reference to Erin’s spiritual dimension. I interpret Erin as
saying Brodie and Keating lack a key element in making their actions defensible—a
connection to Christ. Erin seems to believe that acting in moral ways requires a religious
conviction and that a person’s good will is not enough without a commitment to Christ.
She implies life—knowledge and self-knowledge need the moral basis of Jesus Christ.
What becomes unclear is how being based or rooted in Christ shapes actions that have
“the best backing.” Erin does not explain how faith will mold her actions. If Brodie or
Keating had the backing of God, what would they have done differently? Erin believes in

eternity and that each person possesses Christ’s Kingship. Now she reaffirms the

importance of living a life rooted in Christ. While her strong faith statements are

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commendable, I am not sure that her faith will push her to think deeply about crafting an

ethical practice.

Philip Jackson
I introduced Philip Jackson’s book, The Moral Life of Schools, to the class on the

following Monday. The class talked about the categories he used in observing teachers
during his study (see Chapter Three). The students read a chapter that described the
expressive (what the teacher did and said) and symbolic (what the teacher’s actions might
mean for students) actions of a teacher. I wanted the students prepared for their classroom
observations later in the week. Erin’s response to Jackson brought back a familiar theme.

Those unintentional things really do have an impact. That scares me. To have 25
impressionable youths looking up to me for guidance, observing every move I
make. These morality questions will become automatic and part of my teaching
style with time. At this point though, it’s quite daunting.

Erin’s concerns about her possible negative effect on children continue. She hopes that
experience might ease her concerns, although her statement lacks conviction. The next

. (day in class, Erin’s apprehension surfaced again. What follows is an excerpt from a class
discussion. I asked for comments and questions after a large group discussion about
Strike’s code of ethics and the consequentialist perspective.

Erin: I think what you said about the intuition, we were talking about it yesterday
in my research group, I think it was Kim that brought it up, it’s like you’re in the
classroom and you don’t have time to think about these things because they
happen so fast. I mean it’s one thing that started with a professor with a basketball
player in class who plagiarized. She had time to think about that, and even though
there were rules, she had time to stew it over, but when something happens in
your class and you have to react immediately, you don’t have time to think about
those things. When can we talk about all these ideas that we should have in our
head, but it has to become part of us before it’s going to happen spontaneously in
the classroom. How do you make it part of you? To me, those examples we had in
the Jackson essay, I was thinking, you know, that sounds like my style with
kids—that’s how I would have reacted. And I don’t think it would change—I’m
sorry-but I don’t think it would have changed had I not taken this class. I think I

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would have responded in the same way. So, it’s kinda of like, where does the
intuition fit in here? And what if you don’t have good intuition in moral stuff?
How do you respond to kids when moral situations come up?

RB: Jean Brodie wouldn’t use the word intuition, would she? She would use the
word instinct. Who’s got a response for her? Because basically, that’s what this
course is about-it’s trying to answer that question.

Debra: I don’t think you can expect yourself to get your first classroom and
automatically do everything correctly the first time. I think the important thing is
that you go through your day and look back at your day. You think about how you
handled things and could I have done that. I think that it is like a process over
time. But the thing is don’t just drift through your career without ever reflecting
on what you do. But I don’t think intuition or instinct or whatever— I don’t think
that’s going to come in a week. I think that’s something that takes a long time, but
I think that it’s important that you are sensitive to it.

Erin: I agree, but in the meanwhile, you’re doing harm or you could be-possibly.
You look back over your day and go, “Great, I just scarred that kid for life.”

Erin consistently argued her position. As in her journals, Erin brings up the issue
of making morally sound decisions given the little time to respond” reflectively in the
classroom. The Jackson piece confirmed Erin’s worry of unintentionally hurting a child.

Erin’s classmates provided thoughtful responses. Debra, whom we will track in
the next section, suggested experience and time would improve their ability to act in
moral ways. Her response does not satisfy Erin. Debra’s solution of apologizing and
Kim’s assessment that years of teaching will make them better moral teachers provide
Erin with a way of thinking about her concerns. Erin did not respond to their comments. I
could not discern the significance of their reactions on Erin.

At this point in the course, Erin was becoming more aware and sensitive to
teaching’s moral dimension. The classroom experiences, role—plays, and outside readings

contributed to her awareness, causing her to think about the effect she would have in the

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classroom. But in order to craft a conscious, ethical practice, Erin would need more than
a heightened sensitivity to teaching’s moral dimension.
Long School
The class spent two days observing at Long School. Each day the students spent
an hour and a half trying to figure out the expressive and symbolic meaning of anything
that caught their attention. Some students noticed items on classroom walls. Other
students observed student interactions with each other. A majority of the students focused
on the relationships between teachers and children. Erin commented on the Montessori
program philosophy.
I am, in theory, okay with the philosophy of encouraging students to develop at
their own pace, being responsible for themselves, and to be actively engaged in
their lean'ning. However (and I realize this is partially due to my traditional
background) I also see that this system doesn’t encourage the social interaction or
accountability of other more traditional classrooms. The example of having to
teach the kids how to take the MEAP is telling—not that I think the MEAP is an
end all, but this world runs on “test” like things, and if they aren’t prepared for
that too, they’re in trouble. There has to be some kind of balance!
Erin used the word “balance” when describing Jean Brodie’s problems in the classroom
and in her comments comparing Brodie and Keating’s teaching style. Erin seemed to
make the point that Brodie and Keating lacked a balance between life lessons and the
learning that occurs with a traditional curriculum. Erin believes some of the same
problems exist in the Montessori program. One of the teachers at the school mentioned
that the students would attend a test—taking workshop in the afternoon. The students of
the school were scheduled to take the MEAP in a few weeks and the workshop was to
prepare them for the test. Erin found it hard to believe they would only spend one

afternoon preparing students for the MEAP. Erin feels the school does not adequately

prepare students for the reality of the world, which includes the MEAP test. In the three-

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hour observation, Erin apparently did not witness lessons that reinforce her vision for
education. Her overall impression is negative.

Erin provides some clues into her thinking. She admits having a traditional
learning background. When Erin runs into something quite different from what she has
experienced and observed, she tends to be more judgmental. Lortie (1975) pointed out
that teachers must deal with “the apprenticeship of observation” bias in their own
teaching. Lortie argues that teachers often emulate the teaching methods they have
observed during their own school experience. Erin’s response relates to Lortie’s findings.
She is uncomfortable with what she sees in the classrooms, assumes her observation
accurately reflects what must always take place in the school, and reaches opinionated
conclusions. Yet, based on her time in the school, Erin could not accurately assess the
amount of social interaction or the evaluation process occurring in the school. Instead of
withholding judgement, Erin allows her previous school experiences to influence her
conclusions about the Montessori program.

Chang (1994) claims that most teachers reason at the conventional ~level. McNeel
(1994) adds the Christian College students tend to focus on right and wrong answers
rather than principled responses. Erin’s reaction to the Long School observation may
demonstrate reasoning at the conventional level. It could also indicate someone who is
focusing on the “right” way to do school. Erin has been in a school setting for about 16
years. If her experience consistently reinforced that schools are places where children
learn from a teacher’s curriculum, anything different would feel “wrong”. When Erin
finds herself reading about Jean Brodie or observing in a Montessori program, it could be

that her feeling of something not being “right” also translate into reactions that

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demonstrate lower reasoning skills. Jackson (1986) might say that Erin is treating
knowledge as a product that students acquire. Mimetic teaching follows from that
perspective. Is that the balance that Erin wants in her teaching?

Erin sees Jean Brodie, John Keating, and the Montessori program as having
characteristics that do not match up to her conception of the teaching process. As a result,
they are each “wrong” in some sense. What makes them right or wrong depends on Erin’s
conception of what education should do. Erin needs to understand how her purposes for
education will lead to certain pedagogical decisions that provide the moral context of
their practice. To complicate or deepen Erin’s thinking, she will need to be challenged on
her philosophy of education and how that philosophy leads to a-type of thinking and
action that has moral worth.
new

Helen Sterk talked with the class on the 1 1th day of interim. To prepare for her
visit, the students read Nel Noddings short article entitled, “Caring: A Feminist
Perspective” (1993). Sterk discussed Nodding’s ethic of caring in connection to her own
teaching. From the evidence in Erin’s journal, I concluded that Sterk’s talk had a
significant effect on Erin. Sterk connected Noddings’ focus of helping students learn
through caring, loving, and relational ways with her own teaching and faith. Care theory
helped Sterk process decisions by asking, “What do these kidsneed?” But Sterk
combined Noddings approach to education with Jesus’ two great commandments that ask
people to love God and love their neighbor. For Sterk, loving God creates an eternal
perspective and a high standard for providing a child’s education. For Sterk, loving God

meant being the best teacher possibly by continually developing her knowledge of the

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teaching process. Loving her neighbor as herself reminded Sterk to take care of herself so
that she would have the resources to care for others. Her ideas resonated with Erin.

This concept of the tension between justice and caring (mercy) strikes me
as being a pivotal issue in education as well as our Christian lives. I appreciated
how Helen Sterk brought that out through her discussion of the 2 great
commandments to love the Lord, and to love self and others.

The caring ethic appeals to me in that it focuses on the needs of an
individual. I don’t think that decision that involves a person should have to be
looked at by asking, “Would you do this for every case?” because a person has
individual needs and baggage they bring into each situation.

I really appreciated Helen’s words of wisdom concerning loving oneself
and trying to avoid burnout! I think lately I have been getting really down on
myself and worrying too much about scarring people for life. I feel a bit more at
ease now and I am trying to find some more confidence. Practice will make that
easier no doubt.

Many of Erin’s concerns came together in Sterk’s presentation. Erin identifies
with the individual students and their needs. Noddings’ perspective affirrns the value of
each individual child. Erin’s faith plays an important role in how she views teacher
actions. Sterk provided a way for Erin to make sense out of how loving God and loving
neighbor connect with teaching. The connection gave Erin a new way of thinking about
her possible negative effects on the children she would teach.

Erin was in the process of sorting out her confusing thoughts about education, but
here was a way of thinking about the process that might provide a framework for crafting
an ethical practice. Two days ago, Erin voiced concerns over her ability in making ethical
decisions while teaching. Today, Sterk gave her greater confidence in her teaching
ability. Based on her journal entries, Erin’s thinking is becoming clearer on some of these
issues. She now has a tie that deals with her concerns of negatively affecting students and

her faith that shapes her core values. Loving God and loving her neighbor (student) as

herself makes her feel more at ease with her ability as a teacher.

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The Ethics of Teaching

During the last few days of class, student groups selected a case study from
Strike’s book and presented a role—play depicting how consequentialists and
nonconsequentialists would resolve the situation. I had difficulty in interpreting Erin’s
actions during these improvisational scenes. As in the shoe selling improvisation, Erin
appeared uncomfortable doing the scenes. She would break character by making a
humorous remark or have trouble responding to another character. Her eyes would shift
from her scene to the camera. I thought her limited involvement in the scenes would
hamper the value of the activity. Her last journal told a different story.

I enjoyed doing these scenes today. I think that by having to act them out and

present them we were forced to think more about the alternatives and

consequences in each case. Simply reading them and the questions at the end of

the chapter does little to engage you. I appreciated getting the different point of

views from group members as well as the discussion/reaction afterwards. I think

this is a valuable way to interplay the situations.

From my observation, I thought the improvisation activities had little effect on
Erin. She did not seem to engage in the activities fully and even appeared uncomfortable
at times. Yet, her writing indicates she finds this type of pedagogy useful. The I
improvisations forced her to think more about the alternatives and consequences involved
with these situations. Assessing whether the role—plays will contribute to Erin’s ability to
craft an ethical practice is more difficult to determine.
Last Call

Erin’s last journal contained an important paragraph providing evidence of her
perspective on the moral dimension of teaching.

Morality is not a bunch of black and white decisions. Educational settings are full

of gray areas. Teachers must constantly be weighing options, assessing what is
best. Sometimes they have to make a decision, which is best for the group as a

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whole. Other times their responsibility to the individual stands in priority. It is a
constant “dilemma” which time, practice, and prayer can help make intuition and
instinct work together for good.

Erin realizes moral decisions permeate the educational process. Making these
decisions involves tensions that create dilemmas for the teacher. Resolving the dilemmas
will require time, practice, and prayer. Erin reinforces in this last journal the educational
issues that concerned her throughout the course. At the beginning of the interim term,
Erin worried about scarring children and being unable to make the “right” decisions
given the pace found in classrooms. Her attitude now demonstrates an awareness of the
problem without a paralyzing fear of not knowing how to act in certain situations. Time
and practice will improve her intuition and instinct in teaching. The worries and concerns
seem to be placed in a positive perspective.

Erin also makes a connection with her spiritual side. She maintains prayer will be
a resource for her practice. Her comment reminded me of Nash’s (1996) contention.

I believe that religion and spirituality are an integral part of ethical

investigation. . .. Without an understanding of what they (students) consider to be

of spiritual significance, I do not think that students will ever be able to dig deeply

enough in the metaphysical world in order to discover what gives ultimate moral

meaning and purpose to their lives (p. 43).

I interpret Nash as saying people need a grounding in their life that gives a purpose for
their actions. Without a reference point, people will not be able to take consistent, moral
action. Erin’s reference point centers on her relationship with her God and His son Jesus
Christ. What becomes difficult to analyze and track is how that core value will be seen in

educational settings. How Erin plans on using prayer as a resource or how her faith will

shape her thinking and help resolve ethical dilemmas remains ambiguous at this point.

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Final Projects

I divided the students into research groups, and each group presented their
findings at the end of the interim term. At the conclusion of Erin’s group presentation,
Erin said a few final words that were caught on videotape. Her comments appear
impromptu, since they are not written down in the report and she seemed to speaking
from her experience in the class.

I think what you were really pushing for is to get us in a mindset. Some of us are

doing student aiding or student teaching and some of us in this class aren’t even

an Ed major. The one thing I got out of this class is that you have to consciously
be thinking about what you are doing. You don’t have to worry about every
second of your life, but you need to be remembering like Helen Sterk said about
the two greatest commandments: Love yourself and love God and to love other
people. You have to have a backing for why you’re doing things whether that is in
education or if in business or in communication disorders. The experiences that
we’re going to be having in class, lots of time you’ll just go with instinct, but the

instinct hopefully is based on something you’re consciously thinking what I

should be doing, what would Christ be doing in this situation. We can talk about

all the moral methods, the nonconsequentialists and everything, but that’s what’s
really at the root of everything.

Erin understands choosing curriculum, selecting teaching methods, and
responding to students requires constant thought. She realizes that teachers need reasons
for the actions taken in the educational process. For Erin, these reasons stem from her
spiritual values. In making her decisions, she says that she will process her actions by
predicting what Jesus would do in her situation. How Erin plans on implementing her
process in an educational setting is difficult to determine. I find knowing what Jesus
would do in a situation problematic, because Jesus often did just the opposite of what I

would have done. Jesus told his followers to love their enemies. That advice runs counter

to my natural inclination.

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Analyzing a person’s thought process is a difficult task. I have attempted to read
Erin’s journals carefully, listen to her classroom comments, and analyze her actions
during the interim. She came into the class with experiences that warned her of the
negative influence teachers could have on students. She worried she might do the same
thing when she had her own classroom. Throughout the course, she found a way to deal
with her fears. Erin connected her concerns to her spiritual beliefs in a God who asks Erin
to love Him and to love her neighbor as herself. Erin believes God is gracious and gives
salvation to all people. His kingdom does not depend on her teaching ability nor will the
Kingdom be thwarted if she takes an action that has a negative effect on a student. Erin
finds her belief comforting, because her teaching happens within a context of God’s
grace.

The last part of this chapter chronicles Erin’s experience student aiding in a 5th
grade classroom. I interviewed Erin on two occasions: April 1 and June 15. The purpose
of the interviews was to determine the interim’s course influence on her thinking during
her teaching experience.

Student Aiding

All Calvin education students take Education 301—303. The course provides an
orientation to the field of educational psychology through observation and participation
in a school setting. Erin opted to do her student aiding in Rehoboth, New Mexico through
one of Calvin’s off—campus programs. Her fifth grade class was made up of 21 children,
17 from Navajo families. The school offers a Christ-centered education. Some of the

children live in Rehoboth or in nearby Gallup. Many of the students stay during the week

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in the school’s dormitories. Erin had spent about seven weeks in Rehoboth at the time of
the first interview.
Egars of Teaching

Throughout the interim class, Erin mentioned her concern over negatively
affecting her students. After spending a few minutes describing the school and her duties,
Erin talked about the issue again.

Question: Have you found anything from the interim class that seems useful given
the experience you are in now?

Erin: I would say the interim class has made me more conscious of what I was
saying, what I was doing, and how I was interacting with the students. I don’t sit
there and worry about every word I say, but it’s become part of me to be really
careful, especially in this situation where I’m working with kids from a totally
different background and culture from me. I have to be careful because I can’t
point at these childan because in the Navajo beliefs pointing at a person is like
putting a curse on them or something like that. So I have to be careful with how I
move my body and be really sensitive to what they are saying. Like if it doesn’t
make sense to me, rather than saying “That’s not what I meant,” I have to listen
and understand where they are coming fiom which has helped me learn a lot more
about where they are coming from and what kinds of beliefs their families have. I
would say that in the past I was a bit more flippant and would make jokes with the
kids without thinking about it. In this situation, all of the kids in the class have
unique senses of humor and find different things funny, and I’ve had to get to
know where they are at before I can start joking around with them. I think too that
your class has helped me think about the transformation of the individual and that
the whole purpose of school isn’t just to push curriculum on kids but that you are
also helping build them to be a good person. This is an extreme case because I
have to work on study skills to teaching kids to have empathy for other people or
to understand things. I’m trying to draw from their experiences.

Two months earlier, Erin completed the interim class. One of the last things she
stated in class dealt with “consciously be thinking about what you are doing. You don’t
have to worry about every second of your life. ...” Now, two months later she echoes the
same sentiment. Her consistency lends credence to the claim that Erin’s thinking has been

shaped by the interim class. The degree to which I can make this claim is inconclusive.

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Erin probably received in—servicing on the culture of the Navajos. That training may have
also had an effect on her sensitivity with students.

Erin’s vision of education seemed to be shifting from an emphasis on academic
curriculum to other purposes. Erin was fairly critical of Jean Brodie, John Keating, and
the Montessori program, in part, because they failed to teach students the types of things
that might show up on a MEAP test. After experiencing the wide range of student ability
and diversity, Erin seems to place less emphasis on academic cuniculum. While the seeds
of such thinking may have been planted during the interim class, Erin’s field experience
seems to be making it grow.

Dilemmas

Erin experienced a difficult dilemma within the first seven weeks of her aiding.
The teacher allowed Erin to work with 2 boys struggling with reading. Erin spent hours
trying to develop their reading ability and get the boys caught up with the “low” reading
group. After a few weeks of tutoring these boys, the teacher asked Erin to think about
working with a group of six children at the lower end of the 5th grade reading level. That
meant the two boys Erin was working with would instead use an individualized computer
tutorial program. The teacher left the decision up to Erin. Her response provides further
insight into her thinking.

Erin: When we had to make that decision on whether I was going to tutor those

two boys anymore or if I was going to take on the reading groups instead, I really

had to think about and weigh the two sides. On the one hand, I felt like I was
letting down those boys because we had built up a relationship and I was willing
to keep trying. It’s one of those things you face in teaching—these kids at that

point don’t seem to have the potential to be able to move as far as these other 6

kids could. Me working with them would have more of an impact and these kids

would be better equipped to move on to 6Lh grade. I’m weighing these 2

things—she left the decision up to me—it was my final decision as to what I wanted
to do. I had to make myself think as to the good of the large group. For me that

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meant working with these 6 kids because they’re kids that are a little bit behind

but intensive help could push them ahead. They have potential to do that. They

just have transferred in from different schools and so on. They are not kids that
really should be held back a grade because they are doing fine in everything else.

Their parents don’t want them to be held back. So that’s one situation that I really

thought about it, how is this going to impact the kids but how is this going to

impact the whole class.

I was surprised the teacher allowed Erin to make such a difficult decision
(although grateful as a researcher because it provides us with insight into Erin’s
thinking). Erin relied on consequentialist thinking. Erin measured the utility of working
with the two boys struggling in reading and compared that with the potential good of
working with 6 higher achieving students. Her telling remark of, “I had to make myself
think as to the good of the large group,” provides strong evidence of her thinking in
resolving this dilemma. Erin also brings in the parent’s wishes citing their desire not to
hold their children back a grade. She does not'tell us the wishes of the parents of the two
boys.

I tried to imagine what it would have been like to predict what Erin would do
based on the journals and comments she made in class. Three points come to mind. First,
Erin throughout the interim took the side of the student. Her personal experience and
reaction to different cases (see her reaction to the broken vase incident) indicates she
thinks about the feelings of the individual students. Her response to Helen Sterk’s
presentation reinforced her concern “on the needs of the individual.” She does
aclmowledge that she felt like she was letting these two boys down, but she does not

address their individual needs. It could be that Erin spent many hours thinking about the

various needs for these two boys, but she did not articulate it in the interview.

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A second point needs addressing. Erin often mentioned the importance of her
spiritual beliefs as a resource for resolving dilemmas. In her description of the situation,
she never mentioned how her beliefs factored in the decision—making process. I did not
ask her what role her faith played in resolving this dilemma. It is quite possible Erin spent
time in prayer before making her decision, but if she did, it did not come up in the
interview.

I also wondered if Erin and her teacher discussed other alternatives. In many of
the cases discussed during the interim class, the class spent time thinking about how to
creatively solve some of the dilemmas. Could Erin have spent time with these boys
during a different part of the day? Could she have split her time between the two groups
during the week? What other resource help was available for either group? Maybe Erin
and her teacher thought of these possibilities and others in an attempt to figure out a
solution, but there was nothing in the interview indicating this type of thinking.

It seemed like Erin limited her thinking to only the consequentialist perspective.
She does not mention nonconsequentialist thinking or Noddings’ care ethic during the
interview. Her response to the dilemma of providing educational resources indicates that
the course may have had limited effect on her thinking in resolving complex situations.
Subtle Moll Situations

I asked Erin if she felt like she acted immorally during her teaching experiences.
Her response demonstrated sensitivity to teaching’s moral dimension.

Erin: I do have times when I’m working in small group and the kids are supposed

to be working on a project like a worksheet or something that we aren’t doing

together. There have times where one of the students has asked me for help and

I’m helping someone else and I blow them off without meaning to. I’ll forget that

this girl asked me a question. “Sally, you had a question.” You know sometimes I
think it is one of those things that happens because you’re working with a group,

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and they don’t really seem to understand that when you’re working with another
student they have to wait until you’re done before asking for help. I can’t hold
that against them. I’m supposed to be trying to help all of them. Small things like
that I find myself doing sometimes and afterwards saying, “oh, that was dumb.”
There have been some days when I’m been in a bad mood and it shows in what
I’m doing. If an activity is going badly, I’ll just let them finish it in a slipshod way
and don’t take the time to give it the time and effort it really needed. I don’t make
it real obvious why they had to do the activity. It was like busy work. So I feel
bad about things like that too. Jenna says that’s normal.

Question: Do you make the connection between your reflection and the interim
class?

Erin: I know there is a connection there. I don’t sit there reflecting saying, “Oh, I
remember this from interim,” I think part of it is myself—I am a fairly reflective
person and often do dumb things and have to stop and think about it. I would say
it is an unconscious connection. Like I said at the beginning, I thought the class
most impacted me by making me more conscious of what I was doing. I don’t
make explicit connections, but it did wake me up and open my eyes as to what is
my job and how I’m suppose to be working with these kids. Who knows if I
hadn’t taken the class before how I would be responding to these types of
situations. Knowing me, I might be a little more frustrated and not know how to
deal with it. Now I’m trying the strategy, “I did this yesterday, how am I not
going to muff it today?” So I don’t make this girl feel like she’s not important
because you know I have a group with 4 big talkers and 2 really quiet kids and
I’m trying—it’s like pulling nails to get them involved with what is going on. It’s
seems like I’m trying to get the other 4 to calm down and do their stuff.

' I appreciated Erin’s willingness to point out some of her weaker moments. Her
realizations that verbal responses to a student or her standards for completing
assignments are moral issues provide evidence of her sensitivity and thinking.

Jenna’s response to Erin’s concerns, “That’s normal,” does raise issues. Erin
could conclude that it is normal to give busy work and to simply accept whatever the
children complete. Erin did not explain the context of Jenna’s comment. It is possible that
Jenna explained busy work should be avoided at all costs but that the temptation to give it

is normal. My failure in probing further on this issue prevents me from reaching

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defensible conclusions, although it may point out the important role supervisor teachers
can have in assisting preservice students develop their ability to craft an ethical practice.
Making sense out of the interim course’s effect on Erin’s student aiding
experience is difficult. Erin articulates and describes a number of experiences
highlighting teaching’s moral dimension. Her language convinces me that some of her
awareness and sensitivity stems from the activities completed during interim. What is less
definitive is analyzing Erin’s thinking process while resolving ethical dilemmas.
Consequentialist rationale comes out clearly during the interview, but the incompleteness
of my questioning prevents me from understanding more accurately the process Erin used
in making decisions.
The Final Interview
After Erin completed her student aiding experience, I interviewed her one last
time, trying to make connections between her thinking and actions in the classroom and
her learning from the interim class. The second interview reinforced many of the ideas
that were brought up during the first conversation, along with one other unexpected
outcome. I asked Erin if there were any activities from the interim class that helped her in
her own teaching.
Erin: First of all, the drama activities we did in class did a lot for me to encourage
me to be aware of what other people are thinking, to put myself in their shoes. I
could tell sometimes when I was talking to them trying to explain something, and
I was listening to myself realizing that it didn’t make any sense to me. If I was a
5th grader, it wouldn’t make any sense to me. It helped me try to find another
track to go on to see if made things clearer for them. I did try to do some kind of
creative drama activities with the math lesson and the literature because I feel that
it makes them become more involved with it instead of me preaching at them. I
can’t think of a specific activity. . .I did do something when we talked about the
atomic bomb. I had the kids try to put themselves into positions of different

people. Like one of them was supposed to be an American citizen and another
. was an American politician and a Japanese politician and a soldier and Japanese

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peasants and so on, and we talked about how that would make each of them feel.
But it wasn’t like each of them were acting out things.

When she began to talk about the benefits of drama exercises from the interim class, I
anticipated she might mention feeling more comfortable in front of a group and that her
voice and body expression helped her present classroom material. Erin instead made the
connection between the drama activities and her ability to empathize with her students.
Ruth Heinig (1993) advocates using creative drama with children because it develops
empathy—the ability to see, understand, and tolerate other perspectives. During the
interim class, creative drama activities were designed to help students feel more
comfortable with themselves and with others. The idea that creative drama may help
develop empathy for others was not emphasized. Erin was using creative drama to help
her teach her lessons—an unintended outcome from the class. Erin’s experience as a
student in the class may have influenced her decision to incorporate drama into teaching
situations.

Throughout the rest of the interview, Erin explained what she did in class and
made some connections to the interim class. Her response smnmarizes the significant,
lasting impression on Erin that originates from her interim encounter.

Erin: In my reading group, there were 4 girls and 2 boys. The 2 boys were both

quiet in the way that they wouldn’t be the first person to blurt out an answer to a

question. One of the boys was a bit mischievous and was always quick to come up

with some scheme to get out of work. The other boy had a good sense of humor

and was real laid back, but he didn’t assert himself very much. I found myself a

lot of times not purposely ignoring them, but because girls are more assertive, and

when I asked a question, they would be first to be reacting to me. They would go,

“I know the answer, I know the answer.” There were times when I suddenly

realized that I hadn’t paid any attention to these boys for the last 10 minutes. I

wasn’t paying attention to see if they were really following if they knew what was

going on. Usually I would check myself the first few times it would go on for

most of the group time. I became more conscious of it. I was checking myself
more often. There were some days I was overly attentive to them which of course

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can be a bad thing too. It makes the others notice that I’m paying more attention
to them and you never know how kids are going to interpret things like that. One
of the girls talked too much and I would get on her tail and it would like, “The
other kids need a turn now. You need to sit back and wait your turn and” I was
saying this to her over and over and over again. Obviously not being sensitive to
the fact that she had other needs that were coming through the class and at the
point I didn’t know how to deal with them. It would just seem to me like she was
babbling and trying to get everyone’s attention. But there is a reason why she is
trying to get everyone’s attention. Obviously.

I guess one example that I can think of where I took the time to think
before I opened my mouth. I was teaching one of those large group lessons and
we were doing an activity. It was like an imaging activity where I had given them ‘
these flash cards and it was to show the parallels between characters and events
that happened in The Lion, The Witch, and the Wardrobe and the Bible, matching
Jesus and Aslan, God and the King over the sea. One of the kids had match two
things together that I hadn’t originally hadn’t meant to be match together. I think
it was Edmund and Peter. I had meant it to be Peter in the book, but he interpreted
as meaning Peter the Apostle, and he had matched the two together because
Edmund had betrayed his brothers and sisters and had betrayed Aslan. But he was
thinking how Peter had betrayed Jesus by saying he didn’t know him. I saw that
and was about to say, “You need to think about this one again,” because I had the
kids working in groups of 2 and I was walking about the room, and I was about to
say, “Let’s think about this one again.” Then I stopped myself, and I asked him
why he had those 2 matched together. I asked him to explain it to me and when he
explained it to me, it made perfect sense. I could totally see his thinking pattern
and why he did that. I thanked him for it and ask him if when we went over the
cards together as a class, if he would share that with the rest of the group. He got a
big grin on his face and said sure he would do that. Then I explained to him how I
had been thinking about it and then it made sense to him why the ones he had left
over didn’t fit together. When we went over the cards in class I asked him to
explain it, and the other kids said “Oh, that’s a good idea.” I said, “I wasn’t
thinking about it that why but thank you Glenn.” There’s a good example of me
thinking, checking out my ethical stuff.

Summag
Erin’s story illustrates her sensitivity to teaching’s moral dimension. I realize Erin
came into the class aware of the negative effect a teacher could have on a student. She
witnessed it happening in classrooms and believed that she could also have a negative
effect on students. After these two interviews, Erin’s worry about scarring children with

her actions seems diminished because it does not come up in the interviews. Erin

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understands more clearly how negative situations occur and what she can do to prevent
them. Erin’s ability to recognize moral situations in her teaching provides some evidence
of this. Her decision of how to handle reading groups, the issue of giving busy work or
setting standards, her responses to students—all come up in the context of moral choices.
Erin sees these situations as having moral significance and consciously thinks about her
actions. As a result, she feels that she diminishes the chances of negatively affecting a
child. The words to Erin from Debra during the interim class seem prophetic at this time.

I think the important thing is that you go through your day and look back at your

day. You think about how you handled things and could I have done that. I think

that it is like a process over time. But the thing is don’t just drift through your
career without ever reflecting on what you do. But I don’t think intuition or
instinct or whatever— I don’t think that’s going to come in a week. I think that’s
something that takes a long time, but I think that it’s important that you are
sensitive to it.

Erin’s awareness of teaching’s moral dimension is significant. Without her ability
to recognize that allocating teaching resources, responding to student comments or
questions, choosing curriculum, or setting standards for assignments all have moral
dimensions, Erin runs the risk of acting in unethical ways. Her sensitivity to situations
like this increases her chances of crafting an ethical practice.

While Erin seems aware and sensitive to teaching’s moral dimension, it is
difficult to determine how the knowledge of consequentialist, Kantian, and Care Ethic
theory along with her spiritual beliefs will influence her practice. I read a number of
journals and heard classroom comments indicating the importance of Erin’s spiritual
beliefs in the teaching process. She wrote and spoke approvingly of caring for individual

students. But when it came down to observing how her interim comments and writing

connected with what happened in Rehoboth, I was not able to forge a convincing link.

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Her seemingly strong reliance on consequentialist thinking in resolving the reading group
dilemma raised questions concerning the course’s effect on Erin.

Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) offer possible explanations for Erin’s
apparent lack of applied learning. The authors contend learning depends on the learner
understanding the culture and activities of the community from which the learning stems.
They contend learning is a process of enculturation. Erin may not have been
“enculturated” into the community of Mills, Kant, and Noddings so that she more clearly
understood the activity these philosopherstengaged in and how it could influence her
practice. Erin may have left the class with knowledge that may end up as a
“self—sufficient substance” (p. 32), rather than knowledge seen as a tool apprentices use
in crafting their practice.

Erin’s experiences also indicate that she was not enculturated into the teaching
world she would encounter. It is one thing to have Erin participate in activities of the
moral philosophers, but she would also have to use those activities and apply her learning
in a community that does not consciously recognize the moral dimension of teaching.
Even if Erin understood and could engage in the activity of morally processing her
actions, she lacked the resources that would assist her in the context of a classroom. Erin
could think about the moral dimension of teaching, but she was limited in her ability to
apply her knowledge in the education community.

Drawing conclusions from Erin’s experience requires care. Some of the findings
are based on the interviews conducted during her field placement. The interviews do not
provide the evidence required to reach the conclusions I seek. If time had allowed, video-

taping Erin in the classroom, interviewing her cooperating teacher, and spending time

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with Erin’s students would have provided a clearer picture of how Erin’s thinking and
actions were connecting with the interim class. Given the parameters of the study, I have
to be content with the available data.

Erin told one story. Debra will now tell her story in the following section.

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Debra’s Study

Debra mirrored the typical student at Calvin College in many ways. She enjoyed
her classes, worked hard at understanding and retaining course content, and envisioned a
career goal after completing her schoolwork. But Debra brought to the classroom the
unique characteristics of being a 36-year-old married mother of two teenage daughters.
Her “life experiences” set her apart from the typical 18—21 year old student that normally
sit in my classes. Debra could possibly share insights with the class from a different
perspective. Not only had she been an active participant of an educational system, she
was observing her own daughters going through the process. Her experiences may point
out aspects of teaching’s moral dimension ignored by the rest of the class.

Focusing on Debra’s journey during the interim class comes with a price. The
types of activities and readings influencing a 36-year-old mother may prove different
than a 21-year-old student, but I feel compelled to share her account, because Debra
would be doing her student teaching after the interim course. She would spend 14 weeks
' in a classroom setting observing, planning, and teaching third grade children. Of the 16
students in the interim course, she was the only one doing the final requirement for the
education program during the next semester. Given the time constraints of the project, it
would not be possible to collect data on the other students when they did their student
teaching. If I wanted to observe and analyze the effect of the interim course on assisting
preservice students in crafting an ethical practice, Debra was clearly the best student to
follow. Her immersion into the educational process could indicate the course’s effect on

helping students craft an ethical practice.

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The Before Picture

Debra came into the class with a number of educational experiences. She had
completed her student-aiding requirement in a 4m grade at a Catholic school. She
previously observed and tutored children in elementary and middle school situations. Her
work as a camp counselor, AWANA (Approved Workmen Are Not Ashamed) Sparks
Director, Christmas program director, and Sunday School teacher suggest a commitment
for working with children. Debra’s 3.642 college GPA indicates a person capable of
handling the higher level thinking involved in principled reasoning.

Debra took the interim class as an elective. She needed the credit to count toward
graduation but not as a requirement for either a major or minor. Given the wide range of
interim offerings, I assumed she took the course because the course description interested
her and because it related to her teaching career. I regret not having Debra’s first journal
entry that asked for her definition of a moral dilemma and a personal experience
involving an ethical situation. Debra did the assignment (I have it marked down as
completed in my record book), but I did not get it back from her at the end of the course.
I handed the journals back to the students so they could see my responses and use the
journals a source of data for their research projects. At the end of the class, the students
handed their journals back to me, but Debra’s first journal was missing. I called her to see
if she had it at home, but the entry could not be found. While I regret the missing
document, it provided a valuable research lesson for me; always photocopy documents

needed in research.

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The Case of Mr. Sheldon
Debra’s reaction to Mr. Sheldon discovering his broken vase in the classroom
demonstrated careful thinking about Mr. Sheldon’s situation. Debra writes,

Couldn’t you have come up with an easier case? My first reaction would
be to flip out and comer the poor kid who has been labeled a hyper—active
troublemaker. I have a nephew like him who is blamed for everything, even when
he is completely innocent.

I think the first thing to do is to back up and see where Mr. Sheldon might
have made a mistake or two. He should never have left a classroom of fourth
graders unsupervised for an entire recess period, though I realize that the vase
could have been broken even if he had been absent for only two minutes. Mr.
Sheldon should also refrain from making a hasty judgment call directed towards
Mr. Hyperactive.

Debra’s comments demonstrate both the “knee—j erk” reaction and a more thought—out
action plan. Her first instinct blames the prime suspect, but she realizes the injustice of
blaming Glenn.” She instead recommends Mr. Sheldon take time in determining who to
blame for the broken vase. Later in her journal, Debra concludes the class‘will need some
sort of punishment, such as the elimination of a privilege like free time. She states in her
last two paragraphs,

Let your class know that since they can’t be trusted to behave in an
appropriate manner when they are left alone, it will be necessary to eliminate
some type of privilege (i.e. Friday afternoon free time, pizza party, etc.).

This all sounds well and good, But I think the real issue here is to have a
game plan that will help to eliminate events like the broken vase. For example,

. Mr. Sheldon should have some kinds of activities prepared for days when the
children will be forced to spend recess indoors, specifically some kinds of
physical activities so the students can get rid of a little excess energy. I also think
it’s important to build a relationship with your students that will make confessing
to mistakes an every day norm. That means that the teacher will have to be willing
to admit mistakes. If the students and teacher share this kind of reciprocal
relationship, the broken vase situation doesn’t have to be a huge deal. The child
will probably feel a true repentance and have a real desire to confess and wipe the
slate clean, unless he intentionally broke the vase and then your talking about a
completely different situation, one that would require another two pages of
writing.

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Only one other student journal focused on Mr. Sheldon’s role in the broken vase.
Debra takes the adage that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. It could be
her parenting experiences played into her reaction to Mr. Sheldon. Her response does
raise an interesting point concerning Mr. Sheldon’s role with the broken vase. If Mr.
Sheldon is partially responsible for the broken vase, that has implications for how he will
morally respond to the students’ actions. Debra does not delve deeper into these issues
but instead points out another action Mr. Sheldon could take in resolving his‘problem.
Debra implies a resolution to the dilemma depends on Mr. Sheldon’s relationship with his
students. The students will tell the truth if they feel comfortable with and trust Mr.
Sheldon. Debra believes the students will if Mr. Sheldon has demonstrated his own
willingness to admit mistakes.

In her response to Mr. Sheldon, Debra demonstrates a deeper level of thinking
then the other students. All but one of the other students focused on Mr. Sheldon’s
reaction to his students. They did not want Mr. Sheldon losing his temper and blaming
innocent students. The students offered the advice of staying calm and expressing his
disappointment and hurt to the students with the hopes that whoever broke the vase
would confess. Debra’s rationale goes beyond issues of who is right and who is wrong.
She takes a close look at Mr. Sheldon’s role in the broken vase and questions what he
could have done to avoid the situation. Understanding the perspectives of those involved
in situation is crucial for ethical action. Kohlberg might agree that by shifting the focus
from the rules that govern the classroom to the people involved with the situation and
their perspective, Debra reasons at the fourth stage of the conventional level. By setting

high expectations for the role of the teacher, she extends her reasoning beyond the issue

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of who broke the vase. Noddings might also approve of Debra’s response given the
importance Debra places on the relationship between Mr. Sheldon and the students.
Debra states Mr. Sheldon must willingly admit his own mistakes if he expects students to
do the same. Noddings’ ideas of developing relationships and building community in a
classroom would require that type of vulnerability.

One part of Debra’s response does not connect with her sensitivity to the teacher’s
role in the incident. Debra is willing to take a privilege away from the whole class for
what could be the actions of a few students, which brings up issues of what is just and
fair. Punishing the whole class would not build the community Noddings looks for in
schools, nor would it score high on Kohlberg’s scale of moral reasoning. It could be
Debra made these comments without much thinking, but it does call into question the
consistency in which Debra reasons about moral matters.

Three important themes emerge from Debra’s reaction to the first case. First,
would Debra search for ways to prevent moral predicarnents from occurring? Second,
would she stress the relationship between student and teacher in resolving other case
studies and classroom activities? Third, will Debra consistently exhibit higher level
thinking that takes other perspectives into consideration and demonstrates principled
reasoning as she resolves cases or participates in improvisational scenes?

fissroom Experiences

I analyzed Debra’s thinking sequentially by watching and listening to video and
audio—tape and reading her journals in chronological order. After the third day, Debra
wrote her first journal in reaction to classroom activities. She chose to write on the

devotions that began each day.

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Devotions

It’s hard to focus in on one thought long enough to write anything coherent. My

mind keeps jumping from one thing to another so let me apologize beforehand if

this seems disjointed. That’s what happens when I’m forced to think too hard! I

keep thinking about yesterday and today’s devotional on the parable of the sower.

It’s difficult to rethink something when you’ve grown up reading and rereading,

hearing and rehearing a scripture text from basically the same point of view. I just

can’t make it fit in my mind the way you present it.

For devotions that day, the class read the parable of the sower (see page 181 for
account of devotional). Debra continues in her journal describing what she does not
understand.

I just can’t make it fit in my mind the way you present it. If God is the sower and

Jesus is the seed (which makes sense at some levels) and as a result Jesus is

everywhere, so we are not responsible to spread the gospel, which is how I

understood the devotional. Then what do you do with the Great Commission, “Go

ye into all the world and preach the Gospel?” Or is preaching really just watering

a seed that is already there? *

Debra’s journal centers on the conflict between the concept of God’s Kingdom being
sown everywhere and the evangelistic responsibility in bringing others to Christ. Her

- response brings up two points that may give an indication of how Debra thinks about the
moral dimension of teaching. First, Debra’s response focuses on her interpretation of the
Parable of the Sower. She admits that thinking about the parable in a new way is difficult.
Her response calls into question Debra’s ability to think about issues in a variety of ways.
Her difficulty in thinking about the parable in a different way seems at odds with her
response in the case of Mr. Sheldon. Debra demonstrated the ability to think about the
situation in a different way than the other students in responding to Mr. Sheldon, but in
this parable, she struggles.

Second, Debra does not tie her comments to an educational setting. The purpose

of using the parables centers on assisting students to build a foundation from which to

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craft an ethical practice. During devotions, I did link the parable to a teaching context.
Debra makes no mention of how the parable may connect to the educational process.
Debra did make her response on the third day of class, so it is possible that she needs
more time in integrating the parables with the purposes of the class. Her response does
indicate the devotions up to this part are not generating the intended result.
Jean Brodie
Debra wrote about Jean Brodie only once in her journal. Her comments do shed
some light on Debra’s thinking process.
It struck me today, again, the awesome responsibility that teachers have in light of
the impact that they can have on children. Miss Brodie keeps blatantly teaching
the girls to be deceitful, but for “a higher cause” of course. I was listening to the
radio on the way home and I heard a program about how children learn much
more by what they see than what theyare told. You can tell them over and over
how it is wrong to do something, but if you behave that way in front of them, you
can talk till your blue in the face and it won’t usually make any difference. Think
of how often that could happen in a classroom? I wonder if we’ll find out how
Miss Brodie’s promotion of deceit effected her students. I can’t think of any
specific examples in my own life, but I wonder if I have any behaviors or thought
patterns that resulted from a teacher’s example, good or bad. It makes me think of
that verse in the Bible about teachers being judged to a greater extent. I’ll have to
look that up when I have more time.
Debra’s comments refer to Brodie giving the appearance of teaching arithmetic or history
in case the headmistress, Miss Mackay walked in. Brodie would have a long division sum
on the backboard during arithmetic time, just in case she was not teaching arithmetic. She
also had her students keep their history book open while she told the students stories of
the time she spent in Italy. In effect, Brodie wanted her students to help deceive Miss
Mackay, but Brodie does not find this wrong. Brodie believes her stories will give
students “the fi'uits of my prime” (p. 69), which is of more value than teaching subjects

like arithmetic and history. Debra finds Brodie’s actions disturbing because of the

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possible negative effects Brodie’s actions could have on a child. One of Brodie’s students
may now believe deceiving another person is acceptable. Debra then wonders if her
thinking has been influence by the actions of her teachers. After raising the question, she
concludes her journal with a Biblical reference to James 3: 1 that states, “Not many of
you should presume to be teachers, my brothers, because you know that we who teach
will be judged more strictly.”

Debra clearly is disenchanted with Brodie’s actions of using the students to
deceive Miss Mackay. Her reasoning is difficult to follow. Debra gives an illustration of a
person telling a child not to do something, but if that person does it, the child will do the
same. Brodie tells the students where to look and how to act when Miss Mackay walks in,
and she tells them why. That is different than telling the students not to lie and then doing
the very action you told the students not to do. Brodie does not do that and so Debra’s
example does not seem to fit well here. Her point of a teacher being consistent with what
the teacher says and does is important, but that does not connect well with Brodie’s
' actions.

Debra does seem aware of the potential for having a negative effect on students.
Her comment concerning the awesome responsibility teachers have connects to her
reference in the Bible. She seems to be saying that teachers must be careful with their
actions because of the influence those actions have on a child. Debra’s response links
with Erin’s worry that she might scar a child. Debra’s reaction does not go to Erin’s
extreme, but does indicate Debra’s thinking about a teacher’s role. She tries making sense
out a teacher’s effect on students by reflecting on her own school experience. She does

not reach any definite conclusions on how her teachers influenced her own thinking.

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At this time, I cannot reach definite conclusions concerning Debra’s thinking
about teaching’s moral dimension or what will guide her actions in a classroom. It does
appear Debra is concerned about the effect she will have on children, but she probably
had that concern before the interim class began. Debra is trying to connect what is being
discussed in class to her own experience and that may prove beneficial throughout the
rest of the course. Debra’s journal entry did contain a reference to the Bible. Given her
journal response to the devotional time in class, it appears Debra takes her faith seriously.
Sellingfihoes

Debra played the part of the salesperson selling shoes. Her level of concentration
was high. She focused on the customer and offered convincing arguments for purchasing
shoes. She did break character once during the first scene. The customer was not
interested in buying shoes despite Debra’s best efforts. Exasperated, Debra looked at the
camera and said, “She’s impossible,” and proceeded to tell the customer that she had
starving children at home, a husband who left her, and therefore, needed the sale. The
customer left without buying. Debra responded to the improvisational experience in the
following way:

Let’s see, what struck me today? I’m having a little trouble seeing the connection

between a shoe salesman and a teacher. I think I get it, but it’s a little vague. I get

what it means to avoid trying to put each child into the same mold. I have that
with my own kids. They are completely different people and therefore require
different things from me. I can’t even begin to comprehend the magnitude of
dealing with that in a classroom of 25 plus students. Maybe just being aware of it
and thinking about the possibilities BEFORE I hit the classroom is enough to start
with, kind of like thinking of the different way you could approach selling shoes,
but then taking one customer at a time. I think I’m getting it. I’m a little slow, but
it’s coming.

Debra’s journal entry indicates she questioned the purpose of the activity. Something did

not quite fit into her schema and she wondered why. She then offered up a possible

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answer to her question, relating her thoughts to past experiences (her own children) and a
future context (dealing with 25 plus kids). She concludes that awareness and thinking
about the possibilities BEFORE (her use of capitalization) she hits the classroom will be
a place to start. In Debra’s earlier journal concerning Jean Brodie, Debra discussed the
effect teachers could have on students. In this journal, she articulates how teachers can
have a positive outcome: treat children as individuals. Her comments feel like a step
forward in understanding the moral dimension of teaching. Earlier she talked about a
teacher’s awesome responsibility. She now includes the action of treating each child as an
individual as a way to take on that responsibility. She is finding words and actions to help
her understand her own practice, although it is difficult to determine if her thinking is
deepening or showing evidence of principled thinking. Treating a child as an individual
can be thought of as a principle from which to act, but her journal entry does not describe
what that means to her. As a result, there is not enough evidence to support the claim
Debra’s thinking is becoming more complex.

Debra reinforced a concept exposed in her reaction to Mr. Sheldon and the broken
vase. She again stresses (notice the capitals) the need to think about possibilities before
you walk into the classroom. Debra does not articulate what possibilities a teacher should
think about, but her comments do connect to the case of Mr. Sheldon. Debra claims that
if Mr. Sheldon would have taken preventive action, he might have averted the accident.
Now, a week later, Debra remains consistent to her initial assertions.

Debra may be in the initial stages of outlining how she will craft an ethical

practice. The idea of thinking ahead or making predictions on what might happen connect

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with the work of Oser (1994) and his contention that teachers need a procedure to gauge
the negative effect of their work.
In other words, professional morality does not ask how moral a teacher “is”—the
respective competencies are a desideratum for each person in a society—but how
much he or she knows about procedures that help to solve moral conflicts in a

just, caring, and truthfirl way and how he or she can combine effectiveness with a
concrete evaluation of possible negative consequences for the people concerned

(p.111).

Debra believes Mr. Sheldon should have evaluated the negative consequences of ‘
leaving his room unattended. In doing so, he might have prevented his situation. Debra’s
emphasis of anticipating classroom situations seems like a part of a process that may lead
to professional morality. While Oser’s professional morality focuses on solving moral
conflicts, Debra’s process includes actions that may prevent moral conflicts from
occurring.

Debra wrote this after the fifth day of class. She has a sense for the moral
dimension of teaching, believing preventive action eliminates a number of potential
moral conflicts. The relationships developed between teacher‘and student also plays a key
role in resolving dilemmas or problems that come up in teaching. What remains unclear
concerns Debra’s thinking process in becoming aware of teaching’s moral dimension.
Her framework for taking preventive action in a classroom is not apparent.

Role—Plays

One role-play engaged the students in a spirited debate with each other. A town
meeting was called to determine the three most important objectives for the town’s
school. Each student was assigned a character with a purpose for the school. For

example, one person advocated for more of the arts in education while another pushed for

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higher test results. The resulting conversation created a number of thoughtful
interchanges between the various viewpoints. Debra chose to write about her experience.

It seems to me that the role playing that we do in class is most beneficial in

helping me to think about moral issues in the classroom. I don’t know that I’m

coming up with any concrete answers, but at least I’m thinking. Today’s

discussion of the most important curriculum concerns was really good. How do
you maintain the balance between the 3 Rs and everything else that kids need in
order to not only succeed in life, but function as well? Talk about feeling
inadequate!! '

Debra wrote this on sixth day of class. I see some similarities between her
responses and Erin’s. Both of them caught on quickly to the subtle and pervasive nature
of teaching’s moral dimension. Their sensitivity and awareness acutely recognized moral
situations. Both of them also struggled with knowing what actions they should take in
complex situations. At this point in the class, they both needed a framework or support
structure that would guide their thinking about educational issues. Debra writes that she is
thinking about moral issues in the classroom, but appears to have no “concrete answers”
to assist her practice.

The use of role—plays appears to have value in creating thinking opportunities for
students, but it needs to be supplemented with educational experiences that connect the
“theory” or knowledge of teaching’s moral dimension with the feelings generated in” the
role—play. Debra’s response does demonstrate that role—plays do engage the students. Her
response also indicates that more educational experiences may be needed to guide her
thinking.

_I_)_e_ad Poet’s Society

The next day featured Robin Williams’ powerful performance in Dead Poet ’s

Society. Debra’s reaction tied the events of the movie to her personal faith in Jesus Christ.

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I have included her entire journal entry for it does provide further evidence of Debra’s
thinking. First, she analyzes the problem in the movie in terms of her spiritual values.
Then Debra takes classroom content and links it to her own personal life. She anticipates
a tension between raising a family and her calling to teach. The final part of her journal
reinforces her earlier comments that she hopes her ability to think and reflect will help
her achieve the balance required in teaching. Note Debra’s use of the word “think” and
what she hopes happens in her own life.

The movie The Dead Poet 's Society was definitely a good way to provoke
thoughts concerning education. I still feel sad and it’s been 3 hours since it ended.
Why was it so sad to me besides the fact that Neil committed suicide? Seize the
day. The futility of life. Without Christ. I see that every day. So many people are
rushing to catch up with something, their vision of happiness or success, but they
are neither happy nor successful. I struggle with that. Especially now that the end
of my college career is near. I can’t wait to have a career. I want to teach, I think
it’s what I was born to do. But can I do. that full time and be the kind of mom I
should be to my girls? Mr. Keating would tell me to seize the day. But my calling
comes from a higher source. My fullness and Satisfaction has to come from Him.
“What does it profit a man if he gains the whole world and yet loses his own
soul?” If I seized the day for my own selfish desires, what would be the expense?
Would I sacrifice the last few years I have living in the same house with my kids?
I won’t do that. I think that balancing act is similar to teaching a classroom of
students. What do I have to sacrifice to give them what they need? It might
require more of me that I want to give sometimes. But doesn’t everything worth
anything cost something? Dead Poet ’s Society showed two extremes, the school’s
philosophy and John Keating’s. There has to be balance, maybe I don’t need to
have a concrete plan, but rather an intuitive sense to think things through and then
a willingness to reflect and revise as needs be. Sometimes I wish that God would
send me a neat little package with exact steps of how I should do things. But then
I wouldn’t need to think. And how full would life be if I didn’t think?

Debra’s journal entry is critical in understanding the tensions involved in her thinking. It
goes directly to Nash’s (1996) argument that people should understand their first moral
language in order to understand the language of moral character that eventually leads to
the language of moral principle. Debra’s first moral language proclaims that life without

Christ is futile. This belief provides the foundation for her actions so that when she is

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face with the decision of completing her coursework and embarking on her career, she
hesitates. Debra feels called to be a mom first and that pursuing career dreams would
come with a cost to her family. Jesus Christ says to serve others. Debra hears that
message and realizes life without Christ lacks meaning. Now she is faced with a dilemma
of acting on her core beliefs and the possibility of pursing a teaching career full—time.
The struggle in the movie between Keating and the philosophy of the school prompted
her thinking on the tension between career and family. Debra understands resolving these
types of tensions involve a balance. At this point, Debra is not sure how to achieve that
balance except thinking through, reflecting, and revising are key elements. She then
admits life with Christ does not offer any neat answers to her perplexing problems.
Instead, Debra concludes that for her life to be full, she will need to think carefully about
these issues and decisions she will make.

Debra’s response connects to McNeel’s (1994) findings that students in Christian
colleges may struggle with their ability to morally reason. For some people, saying, “Life
without Christ is futile,” would be a creed espoused but not reflected on. Living a life
with Christ enriches a person, but it does not make that person’s decisions or thinking
process any easier. In some ways it complicates a person’s life because it forces a person
to consider who Christ is and how He makes himself manifest in everyday life.
Answering these questions requires careful thought and constant reflection, which might
be the reason why many Christians choose not to engage in this process. It is easier to
assume that because a person loves Jesus, his/her actions are ethical. Debra has a deeper
sense for what this means, yet she is still at the point where she hopes the process of

reflection and revising will contribute to taking ethical action.

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How Debra becomes aware of moral situations and what she does to develop an
“intuitive sense” to think through her actions remains uncertain. Intuition develops
through practice, which calls into question what Debra will practice that will lead to
intuition. She will use some process to think through her actions. This course should
provide ways for Debra to practice thinking about the moral dimension of teaching. Up to
this point, the course does not seem to provide the necessary guidance for Debra to
construct a process or way of thinking about teaching’s moral dimension.

Classroom Discussion

Debra’s journal articles reveal a portion of her thinking about the issues brought
up in class. When analyzing the video and audio—tape, Debra during the first days of
class was quiet. She would occasionally respond to questions or other student comments.
She did not raise any new issues or ask questions during classroom discussions. After
seven days of class, Debra’s degree of participation began to change. The class was
discussing The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie and the effects Brodie had on the children she
° taught. Debra volunteered this insight to our classroom discussion.

I was thinking about how many ways I was influenced in ways I don’t

remember—you know what I mean? Like how many teachers that I had that I don’t

remember anymore, I don’t remember specific lessons, but because I was in their
class for a whole year, I left thinking in a certain way—influenced in a way I didn’t
realize I was. Sometimes I think that’s what’s more of an issue than the planned

things-not that we shouldn’t intentionally plan to reach them in certain ways. I

think that’s why you have to be careful about the things that you do when you’re

not teaching. That’s just what I’ve been thinking about.

Her comment echoed her journal entry back on day four when she voiced
concerns over Jean Brodie’s teaching. Debra wondered if her thinking had been influence

by any of her former teachers. The same thought now comes up during a classroom

discussion. Debra seems to say in this journal that her teachers did influence her thinking

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in ways she did not even realize, but she does not articulate how her thinking was
influenced. Debra is struggling with an important issue. If Debra concludes that her
teachers had little or no effect on her thinking, this interim course may have limited value
for her. Debra could decide crafting an ethical practice does not matter because teachers
do not significantly influence students. If Debra concludes that teachers do influence
students, she will need to specifically describe how that influence occurs or what it looks
like. At this point, Debra seems to be saying that teachers do have a significant influence
in the lives of children, but it is unclear how that influence occurs or is seen in the
thinking of those children.

Jackson (1993) offers a context for Debra’s comment. He concluded some
teachers and administrators lack awareness and thoughtful engagement of the moral
significance of what they say and do. Jackson suggests that teacher actions have a
symbolic meaning for the student whether the teachers are aware of it or not. Debra’s
comment speaks to the symbolic meaning of teacher action. She understands teachers
intentionally try to influence their students in certain ways, but she is concerned about the
unintentional lessons students glean from their teachers.

Debra’s understanding of the moral dimension of teaching may be deepening. She
clearly has awareness and sensitivity toward teacher actions that influence students. She
deduces teachers must limit the negative consequences of their actions on students in
hopes of acting in moral ways. Thinking, reflecting, and revising should describe how
teachers work through the learning process. But her classroom comment seems to go
beyond the things a teacher can do in controlling the moral significance of what happens

in a classroom. Debra is sorting out a teacher’s intention and the influence that actually

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occurs with students. A teacher consciously creates lessons plans and intentionally
responds to students in certain ways for the purpose of achieving a desired outcome.
Debra may be thinking despite a teacher’s deliberate plans, students may or may not
leave with what the teacher intended. She seems to be struggling with the influence
teachers had on her. If her teachers did influence her, can she point to certain things they
did which would provide evidence of that influence? Based on her comments, she
believes her teachers did have an effect on who she is today, but she cannot point to
specific lessons or classroom situations that lead her to this conclusion. But instead of
throwing up her hands in despair and concluding it therefore does not matter, she reasons
all of her actions, even non—teaching moments, become sources of influence.
Teachers on Video

The class watched two video—clips of teachers engaging their students in the
learning process. Their methods of using rap music and competition prompted lively
discussion among the students. One teacher used rewards to motivate her students in
math. Her students received prizes if they completed their problems correctly. The class
discussed the moral implications of rewarding students for their schoolwork and that led
to concerns for those students who struggle with math and would rarely get a prize. Debra
then told a story of the algebra teacher pulling her aside and telling her she lacked the
ability to do the math work

I had a teacher in high school who was my algebra teacher and when I was in 10th

grade, she pulled me aside and she said, “You just are not capable of doing things

in here.” I was failing. It wasn’t that I couldn’t do it. I didn’t get the way she

taught it, so I went back to a different track. That fear—I almost didn’t come back

to Calvin because I was so afraid of a math class. I’m sure that wasn’t her

intention, but that is exactly how she affected me. And I came here and took the
ASC math course and I did great in it. I got an “A” and that spurred me to finish.

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That made all the difference between finishing my degree and not. So I think that
part of teaching is just as important as making sure they do the multiplication.

Debra’s story sparked a heated debate centering on what a teacher should tell
students about their ability. Some students believed teachers should be as honest as
possible when assessing the capabilities of their students. Other students contended
teachers should not limit students by discouraging them from certain courses or by telling
these students they may not have the ability in certain areas. Debra added,

I don’t think it’s right to make that kind of judgement because that math teacher

didn’t know what I was capable of. She made a blanket statement, she didn’t see

the whole picture and I think that’s wrong. I think that if you see an area that they
are obviously weak in, then I think you need to be honest, but give them the extra
help they need. They may need tutoring, they may need one on one, or they need
to do work at home. But just to say across the board you can’t do this is wrong.

Debra’s comments spoke of the complexity of teaching. She sat in an algebra
class and struggled with the work. Her teacher, sensing the struggle and degree of
difficulty Debra experienced, suggested an alternative plan. The teacher’s intent of easing
Debra’s problems devastated Debra’ s confidence in doing math. Debra concludes that
teachers should never tell students they do not have the ability to do something, but
instead, teachers need to look for alternatives to help the struggling students succeed.

Debra’s experience points out the difficulty of knowing how to interact in moral
ways with children. Erin experienced the dilemma when she had to decide whether to
tutor the two boys who were failing in reading or work with a higher achieving group. In
effect, Erin said to these two boys that she did not think she could help them any more.

This is similar to what the math teacher said to Debra. These two situations demonstrate

the difficult and complex issues that confront teachers on a daily basis. Debra’s

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perspective comes across clearly; teachers must do whatever it takes to facilitate the
learning process for the student
One more important issue came up on this day. Erin brought up her concerns
about the pace of teaching and the possibilities of scarring a student for life. Debra
responded to Erin with proactive advice.
Debra: I don’t think you can expect yourself to get your first classroom and
automatically do everything correctly the first time. I think the important thing is
that you go through your day and look back at your day. You think about how you
handledthings and could I have done that. I think that it is like a process over
time. But the thing is don’t just drift through your career without ever reflecting
on what you do. But I don’t think intuition or instinct or whatever— I don’t think
that’s going to come in a week. I think that’s something that takes a long time, but
I think that it’s important that you are sensitive to it.

Erin: I agree, but in the meanwhile, you’re doing harm or you could be-possibly.
You look back over your day and go, “Great, I just scarred that kid for life.”

Debra: You know, then go back to the kid—be big enough to say, “You know

what? I made a mistake. I’m really sorry.” If you’re willing to do that, what more

can you do?
Debra points out the value of time and experience in developing effective teachers. But
she also adds a crucial component—teachers need to reflect on what they have done in
class and possibly make amends the following day. Her comment connects with her
earlier journal concerning The Dead Poet’s Society where she hopes that she has “an
intuitive sense to think things through and then a willingness to reflect and revise as
needs be.” Her classroom comments echo what she previously had written. Simply
having experience will not be enough. You need to think carefully about that experience.
Dewey’s words (1933) ring clear here, “By putting the consequences of different ways

and lines of action before the mind, it enables us to know what we are about when we act.

It converts action that is merely appetitive, blind, and impulsive into intelligent action”

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(p.212). What is still unclear is how Debra will reflect on her past experiences and the
questions that she will she ask at the end of the day.
Debra wrote in her journal after this class,
The thing that keeps coming back to me in just about everything we talk about is
finding a balance. I only wish there were an easy solution to find that balance. I
think the thing that is most important for me thus far is to make sure that I don’t
allow myself to get so caught up in the busyness of teaching that I forget about the
moral part of being a teacher. That is tough. I don’t think it is even something that
most teachers think about. I know I didn’t realize the significance of ethics in a
classroom before this course. I think it would be a good idea for all prospective
teachers to take a class like this one.
Debra wrote her journal after the 10th day of class. Her response indicates an
understanding of the importance and complexity involved in teaching’s moral dimension
and the ironic problem of many teachers not thinking about the moral significance of
their actions. Her solution remains consistent. She will have to guard against the busyness
of teaching and think about the moral component of teaching. With only a third of the
course to go, Debra’s thinking about teaching’s moral dimension is taking shape.
Unspoken Events
During the last few days of class, the class observed at Long School and listened
to Helen Sterk’s presentation on Nel Noddings. Debra did not journal about these two
events nor did she respond much in class discussions. Her journal entry on day 11 spoke
about the parables and how they remind her “to quit trying so hard and start trusting
more. There’s that balance thing again.” I am not sure why Debra choose not to write
about the school observation or Helen’s talk. The rest of the students in the class found
these events important enough to write about, but Debra opted for a different direction.

On day 12, Debra wrote about one of the case studies that a research group

presented to class. A student wrote a story based on a seduction/rape that took place in

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the school between another student and a teacher (see Chapter 3 in Strike’s The Ethics of
Teaching). The student author described the characters in such a way that it was clear
whom the characters represented in the school. Should the faculty advisor allow the story
to be published? The student’s story was extremely well written, but it would also be
hurtful to the people involved. Debra wrote,
Freedom of speech is a privilege that needs to be exercised responsibly, not for
our own selfish needs. . .. What will it profit the student to vent his anger towards
the teacher in a public manner? It might get him a few accolades from his peers,
but in the long run, I bet he would look back and cringe at his own immaturity. I
had a situation where that happened. There was a girl in my high school who was
a year younger that me. I thought she was snooty and I did not like her. When I
was a senior, it was the custom to “will” something to a younger classmate and
then the “wills” were read at the Senior Assembly. I actually willed and they
actually read it, a Superman cape to this girl so that she could fly as high as she
thought she was. I can’t even write it now without feeling a sense of shame at my
insensitivity. How I wish that a wise teacher would have counseled me over that
one.
Here was another example of a personal experience influencing Debra’s thinking on an
educational issue. Earlier Debra react strongly when teachers gave their opinion on
students’ ability to do subjects like math. Her reaction stemmed from a math teacher
telling her she did not have the ability to do algebra. Now she discusses an ethical
dilemma involving the freedom of speech by bringing up a painful memory from high
school. The classroom discussions and activities triggered memories and stories for
Debra. These memories provide the connection point for her learning.
Debra’s response points to a concern for others. She is willing to forego the
freedom of speech if it means someone will not suffer emotional hurt. Nash might assert
that is a principle she is willing to act on. Determining whether Debra’s thinking is

becoming more complex is ambiguous. Certainly Debra has concerns for the feelings of

others. She is hesitant of taking actions that could cause hurt feelings. Yet it does not

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require a high degree of complex thinking to realize that the action she describes—willing
a Superman’s cape to another student—would be hurtful to the student involved.
Research Projects

At the end of the interim class, each research group presented their findings.
Erin’s group split up the research assignments and put their individual findings together
at the end. Debra’s group worked on each part of the assignment together. It is impossible
to tell how Debra’s thinking influenced her group’s final report, but it appears the issues
she wrote about and discussed during the interim class do appear one final time in the
research project. Instead of going through their entire report, I will quote from the last
paragraph of their report and the comments made in class during their presentation.

In conclusion, we are all glad that we took this class. We decided that we have

learned a lot and will hopefully be better equipped to deal with different situations

in our classrooms. The conclusion we came to is that there has to be a balance in
the classroom. Reading and writing are not the only important parts of school. In

order to bring out other important parts of education there needs to be a

relationship with students so that they can provide cooperation to make learning

both interesting and fun. When we have built a relationship with our students
based on trust and communication, we can prevent and be better prepared for
moral and ethical situations. We also need to think through the “what ifs” for each
situation and look for ways to prevent moral problems from occurring. By
thinking through our actions before hand, we will be able to take better action for
our students.

I cannot break apart their conclusions and attribute certain ideas to Debra’s
influence on the group, but I did find it interesting that many of the issues Debra wrote
about appeared in the group’s final report. First, the idea of balance in the classroom was
a concern for their group. Debra wrote about balance in her journals on January 16, 21,
and 22. Teaching is filled with balancing acts and their group articulated one; the balance

between curriculum and the relationships formed with students. It is difficult to ascertain

what Debra’s group is thinking about achieving a balance in the classroom, but the notion

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of not being too far on one side or another does come through. Their response connects
with Debra’s journal that criticized John Keating for lacking a balance in his teaching.

Successful teaching does require relationships with students. Debra’s first journal
with Mr. Sheldon argued that positive relationships with his students would create the
conditions necessary to figure out who broke the vase. Debra’s stories about her
daughters and her personal stories from school experiences all reinforced the idea that the
relationships with others prescribe the quality of the interaction.

Their final thought of taking preventive action was a theme that concerned Debra
throughout the course. Debra’s first journal gave Mr. Sheldon some advice on preventing
the broken vase problem from happening. She reinforced the concept of taking preventive
action in her journals on January l4, l6, and 23. It is unclear what process Debra or her
group would take in preventing negative actions. Based on Debra’s comments, I know it
involves thinking, but I am not sure what she will be thinking about.

The interim course tried to create awareness of the moral dimension of teaching.
Based on Erin and Debra’s stories, that has happened. But it is indeterminate how their
thinking goes beyond this awareness. It may have something to do with the fear of
hurting students emotionally by something Debra or Erin might do or say. Debra was told
that she could not handle algebra. That comment, said only once, negatively effected her
until she completed her math course at Calvin College. Erin and Debra are aware that
what you say and do may have long-lasting effects on students. What they have not
articulated is the thinking process they will use to prevent negative consequences from

occurring with their students. I know Debra says you have to think about your actions

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before they occur, but I am not sure what she is asking herself to ensure she is acting in
an ethical way.
Iaachirpg Experiences
Debra spent the semester after the interim class student teaching in a rural public
school with 28 third grade children. Most of the children came from two parent homes
that actively supported the school. Since she would not be on campus, she emailed me
whenever she had an experience that reminded her of the interim class. Debra emailed on
six different occasions. I will briefly summarize and/or quote from her messages. The
interim class ended on January 28.
m:
February 10
It seems that I have been paired with a teacher who is morally sensitive. She
doesn’t write kids names on the board, even though the rest of the school follows
that policy. She feels it causes unnecessary embarrassment to the offender. I really
don’t have much else to report, but I’ll keep you posted on any new
developments.
Within the first week of student teaching, Debra notices the moral choice teachers make
in responding to misbehaving children. Apparently, the teachers in Debra’s school write
the names of the offenders on the board. Her teacher chooses not to engage in this
practice because of the possible negative effects on the child. Debra does not describe
what her teacher does, but she seems impressed with her teacher’s action. Debra’s
journals from the interim course demonstrated a concern for the students’ feelings, which
connects well with her written observation of her teacher.
Febru_agr l9

Debra told a story she heard in church. Her pastor was teaching a class at a local

college and wrote on a student’s test that he considered one of the student’s incorrect

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answers a “gimmy” for everyone. The student was offended by the comment and
confronted the pastor/professor. He apologized, realizing the unintentional results of his
thoughtless comment. Debra thought about the moral dimension of teaching in
church—outside of a school setting. She wrote, “I’m not sure what this means, but it was
encouraging to hear that even a teacher of 30 some years makes mistakes.”

Febgtm 28

There are so many moral dilemmas this past week that I don’t know where

to start. The school I’m at is looking for new math material. Should they go with

. the new process focused math or stay with a more traditional math? The parents
will flip out if they choose the process math because it doesn’t emphasize drilling,
but the high school and middle school already have the new math (for which they
have taken much flak I might add) and they want the elementary school to follow
suit. But some of the teachers are very uncomfortable with the new math, but they
are really being pressured. Do they follow their own instinct or do they give in to
the administration? I don’t think it will matter in the end—the administration
already knows what it wants. This is just a formality.

My supervising teacher told her class when I was out of the room with my
professor that they had to be on their best behavior whenever my Prof. was
around or I would get a bad grade. I can’t go behind her back and tell the kids not
to do that, but was it moral for her to put that kind of pressure on the kids? They
are well behaved when he is around, and since I can’t undo it, I guess I will just
enjoy the results as long as they will last. ~

First, Debra recognizes the selection of math programs as being a moral choice. She
points out some of the participants involved in the situation: the administrators, the
parents, and the teachers. She states some of the concerns for each group. But Debra does
not go deeper in explaining the moral complexity of selecting a math program. For
example, Debra did not mention the student perspective. The new math program should
benefit the students but Debra does not include them in this moral dilemma. Also,
selecting a curriculum involves moral choices of stating what students need to learn in
math, knowing which textbook best conveys the discipline of mathematics, and

understanding how each textbook engages and motivates students in the learning process.

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Debra has beliefs about these issues, but her email message failed to articulate these
beliefs.

The second dilemma was subtler. Debra felt uncomfortable with the pressure her
teacher put on children to behave in class when the professor was there. It does not
appear the teacher threatened the children with punishment if they did not behave. She
did point out their behavior would affect Debra’s grade, but that is true to a certain extent.
I will agree the teacher’s comments potentially sent the message to children that “in
particular situations, you are allowed to possibly deceive someone else.” But another
subtle moral issue emerges from this situation. The teacher has a responsibility to the
professor and the teaching profession for the accurate assessment of Debra’s classroom
management. The teacher has a moral obligation in allowing the student teaching process
to work. Debra’s teacher may have short-circuited that process.

Debra’s teacher’s comments do connect to something Jean Brodie did in class.
Brodie would have a math problem on the board at all times. She would tell her students
that if the headmistress walked in, the class would immediately begin discussing that
problem, but until that time, she would continue to teach them by telling stories of her
personal adventures. It could be Debra’s sensitivity to her supervising teacher telling the
children to behave in a certain way when the professor came into the room was
influenced by reading and discussing Jean Brodie’s actions.

March 10

It has been an extremely busy 2 weeks. I have to admit that the things we

discussed in class come back to me at least once if not more times a day. I just

went to the Firehup conference yesterday. One of the sessions dealt with handling

ADD kids in a classroom. I wonder how many teachers out there are mistreating

these kids out of ignorance of ADD? I know that the teacher I’m with doesn’t

really seem to understand what ADD kids need. It seems to me that it is a
teacher’s moral responsibility to accommodate them as much as you would a

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child with a physical disability. . .. What does all this mean? I don’t know, except

that I know that I am far more sensitive to things like this than I was a couple

months ago. I would probably be impatient with the 4 kids in my class. Maybe I

wouldn’t have been, but it is food for thought.

Debra has been student teaching for about a month and states she thinks about the
interim class at least once a day. She notices moral situations happening around her. Her
awareness and sensitivity indicate an understanding of teaching’s moral dimension.
Despite being sensitive to these situations, her response also indicates some confusion as
to how to deal with situations like ADD students. The interim class apparently did not
provide her with a way to think about these issues that lead to actions taken in the
classroom. For example, Debra does not refer to the work of Kant and Noddings as a
resource for guiding her actions. Kant may suggest treating ADD students as an end and
not a means, and that ADD students have giftsthat meet the needs of the classroom.
Noddings might advise on the importance of caring for each child, maintaining the
relationships with these students, and including them in the classroom community.

‘ Debra’s email message reinforces a concern from her classroom work. Debra clearly has
a heart and sensitivity to teaching’s moral dimension, but she does not have a solid
framework for processing and thinking about the actions she will take in the classroom.
F_ir_st Interview: March 18. 1998

At this point in Debra’s student teaching experience, she came in for an interview.
After briefly explaining some of the activities she was involved with, Debra launched
into a story with a familiar ring to it. The three third grade teachers were dividing the
children in math groups and Debra made this observation.

But when they were going to re—manuever their groups, two of the teachers just

real firmly and stemly told the kids, “You’re doing terrible. We need to redo
this.” There was one little boy that got a really low score, I want to say a 54 on a

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math test. The one teacher, and she talked about this in the teacher’s lounge,
hauled the kid aside and said “I want you to know that you got as bad of grade as
so and so who everybody in the whole school knows is dumb.” She didn’t tell him
that so and so was dumb, but everybody knows that if you’re compared to this
other kid then that means you’re way down here on the totem pole. It just
devastated the poor kid. And they did everything with all the kids in front of the
whole class.
Debra’s story connects with her own emotional experience of having a teacher tell her
that she could not do algebra. Here in the third grade, Debra was seeing it happen again.
Debra did not explain how she would have handled the situation, but it was clear from
her comments that she was uncomfortable with the circumstances.
Debra discussed two events that reminded her of the interim class.
A lot of things she does is mostly dittoes. She reads the textbook and does
a ditto. I don’t like, that but I do it because that is what she does. The things I’ve
taken over I don’t do that anymore. I hope she is not offended by that. To me,
that’s almost immoral just to have kids sit around and do ditto sheets all day.
There have been a couple times when she has to go to seminars and
conferences and they haven’t hired a sub and I’ve been in there. I don’t have a
problem with that—in fact that was the first week I was there. It gave me a chance
to get comfortable with the kids without her sitting there. That’s probably not
legal. She did it again and I wasn’t real comfortable with it but I did it. I did say
something and tomorrow they are going to have a sub come in.
Debra described two distinctly different situations. She believes that continually giving
students ditto work is immoral. Debra believes pedagogical choices come with moral
implications. What she does not explain is why giving dittoes is immoral. Is it because
dittoes do not take into account the individual learner? Does it have something to do with
Debra’s view of learning? Does she feel it wastes the students’ time and is not fair to
them? All of these are possible responses, but I am not sure of Debra’s thinking.
She also describes the school taking advantage of her availability to teach when

the regular teacher is gone. Debra has not yet earned her degree and feels uncomfortable

being in charge of the classroom. She wonders about the legality of teaching the class

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unsupervised. She does not give an explanation for her uneasiness. If Debra’s uneasiness
results from an obligation to rule adherence, Kohlberg might place her at a level 2 or 3 on
his moral judgement scale. If Debra believes that children deserve qualified, certified
substitute teachers, her moral judgement would be at a higher level. Debra does not
provide the thinking behind her response, so drawing conclusions from her email is
arduous. While Debra finds this a moral situation, it is interesting to note that the school
apparently does not.

Debra then described another event related directly to her teaching.

It just came to me today and I don’t even know that I would have been aware that

I do this if it hadn’t been for that class. I was doing a lesson comparing the Arctic

and Antarctic and there is one little girl in there who—there is always a kid in

every class who rubs you the wrong way and you have to really work—Lord help
me love this kid. There is a little girl named Mary who just drives me up the wall.

I noticed I did it a couple of times today, and she wasn’t even doing anything that

anybody else wasn’t doing, and I said, “Mary, that’s enough.” The minute I said it

I thought I shouldn’t have done that and she turned around and looked at me and

said, “I didn’t even say it.” It wasn’t her that had said it. It was another kid that

had said it. I don’t know if I would have even thought about that except that we
talked about that in class and how hard that can be when you pull a kid out and
they’re not even guilty and here you’re yelling their name for the whole class to
hear. That part of it I’ve caught myself a few times and it’s always with Mary. But
you know how many teachers do things like that and don’t even think about
it—they just do it.

Debra’s willingness to discuss her own teaching provides some evidence into her
thinking. She describes a situation in which she admits blaming Mary for actions that the
other students were doing. She conjectures she would not have thought this a moral
situation had she not taken the class. Her comment raises some interesting questions. Was
Debra saying that an experience like Mary happens in schools quite often? It comes with

the process of teaching and there is not much a teacher can do about it—unless the teacher

sees it as a moral event. Did the interim class help Debra see the moral dimension of her

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relationship with Mary? What is clear is that Debra realizes what she says to Mary has
moral significance. What is unclear is the relationship between Debra’s observation and
the interim class.

Debra was quick to realize the moral implications of reprimanding Mary in front
of the class. She claims that she has caught herself doing this more than once, pointing
out many teachers do the same thing without thinking anything about it. Based on
Debra’s own elementary teaching and classroom observation, she asserts that many
teachers would not consider her response to Mary a moral event. Debra may be thinking
that some teachers would argue that in the frantic pace of teaching and the pressure of
maintaining a learning environment, a teacher might not respond to students
appropriately. Mistakes may happen, but that is expected given the demands of teaching.
Debra’s comment seems to relate to Erin’s uneasiness in giving busy work. Erin’s teacher
told her that it was normal—possibly giving the impression that busy work is part of the
educational process. Debra’s story has a certain similarity to it. A teacher may not have
the right response for each student—it is normal that mistakes may happen. To her credit,
Debra is unwilling to accept behavior that some consider the norm.

Debra is in the process of crafting an ethical practice. She begins with an
awareness of teaching’s moral dimension and uses reflection as a means of evaluating her
actions. When asked if she thought about what to do or say before she took action. She
admitted that she reacts to situations and then reflects on what she has done. Her
comments echo a classroom response to Erin during the interim term. Debra advised

Erin, “I think the important thing is that you go through your day and look back at your

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day. . .. But the thing is don’t just drift through your career without ever reflecting on I
what you do.” It sounds like Debra is practicing what she was preaching.

Debra concluded the interview on an ominous note. She affirmed the value of the
interim class on her teaching but noticed how the educational process may undermine the
moral dimension of teaching.

Going into a profession where a majority of teachers humiliate students into
obedience doesn’t help. Most teachers out of frustration, out of bum—out,
whatever the reason—that’s how they teach—that’s what they do. You can come out
of college and have a million and one good ideas and think you are going to be
this change the world, touch a life kind of teacher, but teach your four or five
years, get burned out and then see. But if you go through a class that makes you
think about it, maybe it won’t be with me in 5 years, I ’11 let you know. But
especially when you are around teachers and you’re in that teacher’s lounge and
you hear that cynical negative talk—it’s tough not to get sucked into that mindset,
it’s really tough, you know. I don’t even like to go to the teacher’s lounge
sometimes because negative to me makes more negative, and why you get young
teachers and teachers’ aides in there and they’re just going to absorb that attitude
and I dOn’t see anything good coming out of that.

Debra was articulating a problem of how a school’s culture and practice can make it
difficult to teach in a different way. Debra suggests that teaching’s nature and culture
does not foster the crafting of an ethical practice. Debra’s comments connect with Joseph
and Efron’s (1993) findings that teachers often feel trapped and vulnerable by the role
community and society plays in teachers’ ability to make moral choices. Debra was
sensing that in her student teaching experience, but apparently lacks the resources to deal
with these pressures and to continue to craft an ethical practice. The last six weeks of her
teaching may provide evidence as to how she would respond to the school’s context.
March 28

My teacher was sick for a few days, so I was left with a sub and very sketchy

plans, so I winged it. In retrospect, when I think of my behavior over the past few

days, I am a failure. Not once did I consciously think about seeing God’s kingdom

in any of my students. Quite the opposite, in fact. Not only did I pick on Ann, but
I also chose several other students to be irritated with as well. Can I chalk it up to

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the beautiful weather, antsy kids and call it a learning experience? Moral or not

that is what I am going to do. Actually I did briefly think about it after one of the

students whose name is Lori (and well known for her extremely competitive
nature), asked me for the umpteenth time if she could play with a classmate,
because miracle of all miracles she again completed her assignment first in record

time. After I glared at her and told her emphatically “NO”, -it occurred to me that I

hadn’t done a whole lot to nurture any seeds. You will be happy to know that I

haven’t glared at Lori since. That should count for something.

By the time Debra sent her email response, she had spent close to two months in
her student teaching placement. Her cooperating teacher is sick and Debra finds herself
much more busy than usual. As a result, Debra notices that she does not spend much time
thinking about the moral dimension of teaching. Debra connects her lack of awareness to
the parable of the sower and the seed discussed during interim. She was disappointed in
how she viewed and treated the children. She did not see them in terms of God’s
kingdom. They were children at school who needed to be taught. She then describes a
couple of occasions where she thought she mistreated her children.

Debra articulates the source of her immoral action. Debra could have simply told
the story of Ann and Lori and promised to do better next time. Instead, Debra realizes the
cause of her action stemmed from her view of the children. She started to see them as
obstacles in what she was trying to accomplish, rather than children touched by the love
and Kingship of Christ. Her comments connect to Kant’s challenge to think of people as
the end and not the means of interactions. Given Debra never chose to write about Kant
in her journals, claiming that he influenced her thinking lacks evidence.

Debra’s thought process does seem to be evolving. The story of Lori indicates the
moral sensitivity Debra is approaching her practice. Debra’s ability to admit and discuss

her actions, both positive and negative, demonstrates her willingness to reflect on her

practice. I also sense a maturing thought pattern in Debra. Earlier, Debra had an acute

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awareness and sensitivity to teaching’s moral dimension, but not a solid structure from
which to take action. I now see her framework emerging. She builds her thought process
on a critical assumption that her children have the kingdom of God within them. Her
thought process and actions stem from that core belief. She also realizes the difficulty of
maintaining that basic belief when teaching’s busyness forces you to survive rather than
sustain the ideals of crafting an ethical practice.
April 28
It has been a month since Debra emailed any responses. Her student teaching load picked
up dramatically, possibly limiting her opportunity to write. Her last email message did
contain a powerful message.
I have had a wonderful couple of weeks with my class. Note how they have
become mine and no one else’s?! ! !! I only have 8 days left and I don’t want to
leave. Believe it or not I do try to think about the interim class occasionally and
what it means and how it impacts what I do. I have discovered the power of
encouragement in the last week or so. I have made a point of commenting on
things that are done well and effort that is truly put forth, and I am amazed at their
eagerness to please me. They actually ask for constructive criticism and eagerly
make corrections. One of the LD kids actually got 100% on a math test and she
usually does her math in the SPED room. I called her up to my desk, and showed
her the paper and her response brought tears to my eyes. She wrapped her arms
around my neck and told me thank you. I couldn’t even talk. I felt so unworthy. I
hadn’t done much except to occasionally tell her how well she was doing. It made
me realize how much power rests on a teacher’s shoulders. Power I didn’t even
know I had. Lord, help me to use it for your glory. Somehow this has gone from
an update to a prayer! Anyway, I have realized time and again that I love the field
the Lord has chosen for me.
Debra’s story, in some ways, completes the circle of her own educational
experience. Debra’s algebra experience almost prevented her from entering the teaching
profession. Now she recounts a story of a student in her class that, like her, struggles with

math. But in Debra’s story, this girl succeeds because of the encouragement she received.

Debra’s reaction is noteworthy. She feels unworthy. I would have predicted that Debra

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would have felt happy, proud, and excited over the girl’s accomplishments. Instead,
Debra understands and realizes the power a teacher can have on students and is humbled
by it. I was moved by Debra’s reaction to this little girl.
The Fig] Interview: June 12

Debra touched on some of the issues from her email messages and told student
teaching stories during our last interview. She described the teachers’ vote for the more
traditional math program over the problem solving math program, despite the
recommendation of the curriculum director and the math committee. She told stories of a
student who had a brain tumor removed which affected her ability to distinguish between
right and wrong. Debra described a situation that occurred where she yelled at her
children to appease the gym teacher, even though she felt the gym teacher was at fault.
She mentioned her subbing experiences and the reactions students had to her stemness.
Some students even said that Debra was mean. Debra told her stories in the context of
describing moral situations. During the last part of the interview, Debra spoke at length
about the influence of the interim course on her teaching.

Question: Can you think of anything else that impacted you from the interim
class?

Debra: I did think of the overall impact a teacher can have. I thought about that a
lot. Just because I know that I have had teachers that have impacted me in
negative ways, and I don’t want to be guilty of that. I’m sure I’ve done things that
have been negative. Just like giving the picture of being a mean teacher and not
intending to do that. Kids read things so much differently than we intend them to.
But I do think about that. I think about that every day-the impact I’m going to
have on those kids, positive or negative.

Question: When does that thinking occur?
Debra: I think that it is just an overall type of attitude I’m trying to develop. Do

you know what I’m saying? Not that I start my math lesson'and say, “This is how
this is going to impact these kids today.” But just an overall way I am. I don’t

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specifically think, “I did this. How will it impact this kid? What can I do
differently?” Except in instances where I made this glaring error. I think I’m
trying to keep a positive, upbeat atmosphere going and drinking that in doing so, it
will impact the kids more positively than negatively. ...There is another girl
named Jill that I didn’t tell you about. ...One day I had this schoolhouse rock that
teaches you how a bill is made—it was on TV. Sara, the teacher I was subbing for,
had a tape. She said, “Just for grins, plug this in and watch the kids. It’s like a
cult. They’ll be all busy and it’s like all the students are drawn to the TV.” Well, I
had 10 minutes one day, so I plugged that tape in. So I’m holding the tape and Jill
comes up to me and says, “Mrs. Dyke, are you going to play that tape?” “I’m like,
“Yes, Jill, I’m going to.” She took 3 steps back from me, threw her head back up
into the sky, and she starts singing the Preamble to the Constitution. Chaos goes
on around her, noise—it did not phase her, she was in her own world. She sang the
whole preamble. But she drove me nuts. That was one I would just have to say,
“Look past the irritating, find a positive thing in this kid, she’s a great writer, she
can sing, but that was a tough one because she was constantly there, “Mrs. Dyke,
Mrs. Dyke, Mrs. Dyke. . .” You just want to go, “WHAT?” It was worse than my
kids going, “Mom, mom, mom”. And you do crack occasionally and go, “What?”
But that was one too where I think the parables helped me with. ...I think that
class made me aware of things that I don’t know I would have been aware of if I
hadn’t taken that class. That’s why I think it’s so important, I really do, because
when you’re in that classroom, your social studies theory class and your math
theory class and all those other classes you’re required to take—forget it. I haven’t
consulted any of that since I’ve been in teaching. You have curriculum guides that
spell it out for you step 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. There is a 1000 different things out there that
any Joe Blow off the street can go into a classroom, pick up a curriculum guide
and teach a lesson, because it’s so spelled out for you. It doesn’t tell me in that
teacher’s manual when Jill comes up to you today and is driving you crazy, stop a
minute and think. Those things aren’t in all of the stuff that teachers have. I really,
even though I think am pretty sensitive, I think am the kind of person that would
always want to have a positive impact on kids. I don’t know I would have
consciously thought about it as much as I did if I hadn’t gone through that interim
class. I think I would have gotten so wrapped up into covering this, this, and that
in math, and this, this, and that in language arts, because you know in teaching,
there is just no end. They just keep throwing stuff—you have to do this and this
and this. It is so easy to get caught up in the busyness that pretty soon you’re a
teacher at the desk with papers shouting out lessons, and there’s kids and there’s a
crowd of kids, there not little people, you know what I mean? It’s hard, it’s really
hard. Even in 301—303 they touched on you teach the whole child. And you hear
that all the time here. Your class is the only class that told me how to do that.
Seriously. I got a lot of teaching the academic side of the kid, a lot of the whole
side of it, but I honestly can’t think of one other class, that said—except for lip
service to teach the whole child—that gave me the practical. That’s the kind of
person I am. Give me something in me hands that I can use. Don’t give me all this
theory. Give me things I can chew on and I can use in my classroom. Your class
did that for that side of working with kids. That’s why I mean I think it should be

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required, I really do. I think it should be a required interim or required part of
some Ed class that they spend time on just this, just this part of it. To me, that’s
the biggest part of teaching. When I look back to when I was a‘kid, I don’t
remember math lessons. I don’t remember the books I read, except in junior high
and high school, I remember those teachers who told me that told me I could do it.
That’s what I remember.

Comment: Or told you that you couldn’t do it.

Debra: Or told me you just don’t have the brain to do advance math. Well, yes I
do, dog—gone it, and don’t you tell me I don’t. Soto spend all this time, and I
know its necessary, all these classes on teaching social studies and

teaching. . .they’re great and I did get things out of them, but there’s no balance
there. It’s all one—sided and they tell you, “Don’t be one—sided, don’t teach just
the academic, do the whole thing.” Well then give me something to use to do the
whole thing, you know. So that’s just my personal Opinion and I’d be interested to
hear what the other kids who went through that interim would say, after being in a
teaching experience.

Comment: I do wonder what the impact will be on those going into teaching next
semester.

Debra: . . .(I think) that seed was planted in that interim class and maybe they’re
going to come across a Jill or a Lori. “Wait a minute, there’s something in the
back of my mind that’s ringing a bell. I’m going to dig up that stuff from interim.”
So even though you can’t possibly track everybody, I do think there’s going to be
positive stuff from that.

Debra’s comments summarize the influence of the interim course on her. First,

she realizes that teaching is a moral endeavor. Debra understands the teaching process,

from choosing curriculum to calling on children, contains moral significance. Debra

would probably have been a sensitive teacher without the interim course, but the interim

course gave her a perspective she did not have before. Debra has a moral lens from which

to view her practice, and it holds her accountable for her actions. She now speaks of

choosing math curriculum, listening to a student sing out loud in class, and offering

encouragement to 3 LD child in math as moral activities. These are common events that

happen in anybody’s classroom throughout a school year, but she has a different

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perspective on them now because of the interim class. She sees these events as having
moral significance. I would argue that Debra would not talk about these experiences as
moral events without having participating in the class.

Debra describes in the interview her attempts at having a positive effect on her
students. By creating a positive, upbeat atmosphere in her class, Debra believes she will
have a beneficial influence on students. Debra even describes the way of developing that
atmosphere in class. The story of Jill points out the importance of valuing children and
the gifts that they have. Failure to do so may result in teachers treating students in
unethical ways. The interim course did seem to influence Debra because she connects her
actions to the parables of Christ. Debra identifies with Christ’s emphasis on including
everyone in the kingdom and being slow to judge those that do not fit into our notion of
the kingdom. Debra’s remarks indicate a willingness to think of her students in a broader
context than that of learners. She also views them as having Christ’s seed within them.

Based on Debra’s journals and comments in class, Debra appears to be a spiritual
person. Of her nine journal entries, five of them made references to the devotions in class.
The parables and the ideas of Christ’s kingdom continually were a topic that interested
Debra. She took the imagery of Christ’s seed within each child to the field placement. In
her story of Jill and Lori, Debra uses the parable of the seed to create meaning from her
experience. While it is difficult to make conclusive claims on the course’s effect on
Debra, it does appear the devotions and parables of Christ influence Debra’s thinking
about teaching.

Debra’s thoughts also show her emerging perspective on teaching and the

educational process. She does so in an interesting way. She reflects on her education

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courses at Calvin and wonders about their value. The teacher education program
emphasized teaching to the whole child but offered classes that focused on specific issues
like social studies and math theory. The tension of knowing how to teach reading, math,
and social studies and reaching the whole child are not resolved in her education classes.
Apparently, the classes advocated teaching to the whole child but did not provide Debra
practical ways of dealing with a student like Jill singing out the preamble in class. In
order to effectively deal with that event, Debra found the interim class helpful.

Debra comments on the difference from her “theoretical” methods courses and the
interim course. My first reaction was to say, “Wait a minute, the moral dimension of
teaching is very theoretical.” Yet, for some reason, Debra also found it practical. She
claims the class gave her something she can use, “things I can chew on and I can use in
my classroom.” She does not describe a specific skill or a technique that she uses from
the course. Instead, it may go back to a way of thinking about teaching. Debra now has a
way to view interactions with her students and the curriculum. She thinks about her
practice in moral terms, a theoretical perspective, but it allows her to take practical
actions. When Jill sings out the preamble in class, the theoretical perspective that Jill is a
child of Christ guides Debra’s response to her. Debra does not tell Jill to sit down and not
disturb the class, but allows her to continue singing realizing it is one of Jill’s gifts. That
type of theoretical perspective (although Debra might not view it that way) feels practical
to Debra.

Dewey’s (1904) describes two purposes of practical work: giving teachers
working command of the tools of teaching, and to make real and vital theoretical

instruction. Debra has the tools of teaching. She knows how to prepare lessons and

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manage a classroom. But Dewey argues something more is needed. He describes good
teaching as a process providing “insight into the soul—action” (p. 319) of the child. He
challenges teachers to be students of subject—matter and mind—activity for the purpose of
growing as “a teacher, an inspirer and director of soul—life” (p. 321). Dewey contends the
habits teachers develop for effective teaching

may be formed under the inspiration and constant criticism of intelligence,

applying the best that is available. This is possible only where the would—be

teacher has become fairly saturated with his subject—matter and ethical philosophy
of education. Only when such things have become incorporated in mental habit,
have become part of the working tendencies of observation, insight, and
reflection, will these principles work automatically, unconsciously, and hence

promptly and effectively”(p. 320).

Dewey might say Debra is developing the habits required for good teaching. Her insight
into the ethical philosophy of education and ability to reflect on her actions lead to
growth as a teacher and a director of soul—action for children.

Debra’s final comments reinforced an earlier email message concerning the
difficulty of being intentional about the moral dimension of teaching given the nature of
what happens in classrooms. She aptly describes the paperwork and the pressures of
meeting children’s needs. In that confusing and demanding environment, crafting an
ethical practice becomes challenging. The interim course did not give her the resources
and thought process to overcome the obstacles presented in teaching. Debra demonstrates
sensitivity to the moral dimension of teaching, but she also admits to the difficulty of
being aware and then acting on her awareness given the pace of teaching. While the
activities and experiences of the interim class lead to increased awareness of teaching’s

moral dimension, the pedagogy used did not provide the resources required for preservice

students to craft an ethical practice.

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Summm

Analyzing Debra’s comments present some difficult problems for me. As the
instructor of the course, I admit to immense gratification for her comments that praise the
course and her recommendation that all education students take it. When I hear praise, I
am tempted to take it and run. But the researcher role requires deeper probing into
Debra’s feelings and beliefs. I have outlined ways in which Debra has been influenced by
the interim course, but I am left with some questions. First, how do the perspectives of
consequentialists, Kant, and Noddings effect Debra’s thoughts and actions in the
classroom? Her stories center on relationships with students and the importance of
encouraging them to do their best work. Her comments echo some of the classroom
discussions on Noddings’ philosophy of education, but Debra never mentions Noddings
in interviews or email messages. Does her emphasis on relationships come from
classroom discussions on Noddings, does it stem from a personal experience in school
with an algebra teacher, or does it come from her experiences with her own children? I
noticed in Debra’s journals, she often connects classroom material to her educational
experiences or family situations. The material serves as a reminder of events that have
occurred in her life and help explain why they may have happened. From that connection,
Debra may form her own perspective on teaching that relates indirectly to what happened
in class. For example, the class talked about the intentional effects teachers have on
students. That discussion triggers a memory of her algebra teacher. She concludes fiom
the classroom discussion and experience in math that teachers need to encourage children

as much as possible. The writings of Kant and Noddings seem to have little influence on

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how her perspective evolved. As a result, I question how the interim course shaped
Debra’s thinking on teaching’s moral dimension.

One other concern arises from tracing Debra’s joumeyduring the interim class
and her student teaching experience. How will Debra resolve dilemmas that occur in her
classrooms? Her stories from student teaching describe situations that indicate moral
action taken, but not for the purpose of resolving a dilemma. Debra describes her -
interaction with Lori and how she glared at her and treated her curtly as a moral situation.
But Debra did not tell me about a situation. that had the characteristics of a dilemma in
which her choices involved negative consequences. What would Debra think and how
would she act given the dilemma Erin had to resolve? I cannot answer that question with

any degree of certainty.

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Chapter Six

New Comprehension

Thus we arrive at the new beginning, the expectation that through acts of teaching
that are “reasoned” and “reasonable” the teacher achieves new comprehension,
both of purposes and of the subjects to be taught, and also of the students and of

the pedagogy themselves (p. 19).

Shulman comes full circle by including an aspect of pedagogical reasoning called
“new comprehension.” In Chapter Six, I will describe the new comprehension I achieved
by creating, implementing, and analyzing a course that focused on building student
awareness of teaching’s moral dimension for the purpose of crafting an ethical practice.
In the first section, I will outline the pedagogy that the evidence indicates had the greatest
effect in building this awareness.

But I also wanted my students to craft an ethical practice. In the second section, I
will discuss evidence that affirms limited achievement of this objective. I will describe
my failure in taking into account the various conditions that impede a preservice
student’s ability to craft an ethical practice. By not designing educational experiences that
would assist students in overcoming these obstacles, the interim course would have
limited success in helping preservice students craft an ethical practice.

In the final section, I extend these findings to other settings by suggesting possible
ways to more effectively teach a course that assists students in crafting an ethical
practice. I will also point to other areas that require further research in this challenging

and complex endeavor of building awareness of the moral dimension of teaching for the

purpose of crafting an ethical practice.

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Pedagogical Considerations

I set out to design a course that would build awareness of teaching’s moral
dimension for the purpose of crafting an ethical practice. When I teach this course again,
I conclude there are four crucial components that must form the basis for the course. In
the following section, I will briefly recount the importance of building fi'om the parables
of Jesus Christ, incorporating improvisations in classroom activity, using Jackson’s book
as a way to think about how the moral dimension of teaching is seen in the classroom,
and allowing students to observe in a school.

BuildingaFouthion

The context of Calvin College played a significant role in the creating of the
interim course, because it allowed me to teach from my core values. The college’s
mission statement places a premium on connecting faith in Jesus Christ with teaching. I
considered it an important advantage to talk about faith in Jesus as a way to build an
' ethical practice. Nash (1996) asserts that students must ground their ethics in the
language of background beliefs—the beliefs that provide a way of making sense out of the
world. At Calvin (and for me), Jesus’ life, death on the cross, and resurrection provides a
way to make sense out of who I am and how I will live. The context of Calvin provided a
venue to explore with the students how faith in Jesus connects with an ethical teaching
practice.

The parables of Jesus Christ did help the students understand how each child has
the Kingdom of God within him/her. But the students seemed to have difficulty in taking

this concept and applying it in educational settings. The students did not refer to the

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“a

parables or their core beliefs in resolving cases or in discussing the moral situations that
occurred at Long School. In Chapter 5, the stories of Erin and Debra indicate that relying
on core values, or a relationship with Jesus Christ, in a school setting presents difficult
challenges. The lack of reference to prayer and faith in resolving ethical situations Erin’s
teaching experience may indicate a potential problem in crafting an ethical practice. It is
possible that when a student assumes a teacher’s role, the student may also assume a way
of thinking that does not necessarily reflect the core values of the student. Erin could be
thinking that based on what she knows about teachers and teaching, she ought to resolve
a dilemma in a particular “teacher” way. The idea of allowing her core values or faith
beliefs to guide her decision-making process may not readily come to mind.

I taught the parables of Christ and made connections between them and teaching
situations. Some students left with a different and possibly deeper understanding of
God’s Kingdom, but I am not sure if the students know how to use their deeper
understanding of God in school settings. Erin’s teaching experience indicates that she did
not use her knowledge of Christ’s parables in ways that would affect her teaching.

Kessels and Korthagen (1996) provide a way of thinking about why Erin (and
possibly the other students in the class) had difficulty in using her spiritual beliefs to
inform her practice. Kessels and Korthagen argue that the gap between theory and
practice depends on the view of knowledge that is held by the teacher. Teachers may
present to their students knowledge as “episteme” (p. 18), or knowledge that relies on
scientific understanding and is considered theoretical in nature. The knowledge is seen as

propositional in the sense that logic and order characterize the material. Transforming

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this type of knowledge in ways that are useful in practice requires intentional pedagogical
strategies.

Leinhardt, Young, and Merriman (1995) reinforce Kessels and Korthagen
perspective. Their study traces the changes that have occurred in how professional
knowledge is presented. They argue that a shift in knowledge acquisition has occurred in
some professions, like teaching, from procedural knowledge that is situational pragmatic
to a more formal type of professional learning as seen in higher education.

Thus, learning professional knowledge at the university has come to mean

acquiring declarative knowledge and conceptual aspects of professional practice,

and is demonstrated by reasoning processes such as labeling, codifying,
describing, analyzing and justifying. This knowledge is universal, formal, and
explicit—universal, in that it is general enough to apply across schools and
settings; formal, in that it is consistent and available to all; explicit, in that
articulation of professional knowledge (rather than performance of practice) is the

target activity. (p. 402).

The presentations on the parables of Christ certainly could be characterized in this
way. I explained how Christ’s parables could reveal what the Kingdom of God means for
us. The information could be thought of as universal, formal, and explicit. The students
seemed to follow the arguments and could see the consistency in the evidence provided.

But knowledge can also be presented in ways that are less structured. Kessels and
Korthagen also describe knowledge as “phronesis” (p. 19) or an understanding that is
indefinite and imprecise but leads to practical wisdom. The knowledge does not rely on
rules, principles, or universals, but instead develops perceptual knowledge. “For to be
able to choose a form of behavior appropriate for the situation, one must above all be able

to perceive and discriminate the relevant details” (p. 19). Erin’s difficulty in using her

spiritual beliefs come not fiom her epistemic understanding of Christ’s parables, but

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rather relate to her ability to perceive the relevant context and concrete details of a
situation that would guide her practical wisdom in resolving ethical situations.

Kessels and Korthagen do offer some advice on deve10ping practical wisdom or
phronesis. They suggest that teacher educators continually question students of their
awareness of the concrete details of teaching experiences. “This asks for well-organized
arrangements in which student teachers get the opportunity to reflect systematically on
the details of their practical experiences, under the guidance of the teacher educator-both
in group seminars and in individual supervision” (p. 21).

In order to make the parables of Christ the foundation from which students could
craft an ethical practice, I may have to devote less time to the structure and logic
associated with Christ’s parables. Becoming more intentional in structuring ways in
which students perceive and reflect on how the parables of Christ affect their classroom
experiences might help them to develop the practical wisdom that could inform their
teaching practice.

Discussing the importance of Calvin College and the parables of Jesus requires a
certain degree of sensitivity. I am not claiming that the course I taught depends on a
section devoted to the parables of Christ. If I taught this course at a university or college
where starting each class with devotions would not be appropriate, I would need to think
of other ways to engage students in determining their core beliefs. But it seems
imperative to me that if I want students to understand the complex and encompassing
ethical nature of teaching, I will need to create space for students to articulate their core

values. Without a solid rationale from which to explain actions and make judgments on

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teaching situations, students may have little guidance for managing what happens in their
classrooms.
Role-plays and Improvisation

In Chapter Four, I outlined the effects of using role—plays and improvisations to
create awareness of teaching’s moral dimension. To summarize the classroom
discussions, student journals, and analysis of audio and video recordings, some students
developed a clearer understanding of the moral dimension of teaching through the use of
role—plays and improvisation. Their responses indicated that these experiences got them
activity involved, created interest and motivation for them, and often engaged them in
thinking about and discussing how the moral dimension can be seen in activities like
selling shoes and grading a math test. While I conclude that role—plays and
improvisations were an important part of teaching this class, it may be for more
significant reasons than student responses. Role-plays and improvisations offer the
possibility of connecting a professor’s classroom presentations with a preservice
student’s teaching practice. These activities may create opportunities to develop the
knowledge of “phronesis” that, according to Kessels and Korthagen, leads to practical
wisdom. In the following section, I will broaden Kessels and Korthagen’s conception of
practical wisdom by connecting it with Dewey’s (1904) emphasis of developing mental
habits in teachers that join theory and practice. I contend that role—plays and
improvisation may provide a pathway for students as they travel from the mental habits
that are built from mastery of the educational principles (theory) to the daily concerns of

a classroom.

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Dewey describes the problem of theory and practice and a possible solution to
consider.

When I said above that schools for training teachers have here an opporttmity to
react favorably upon general education, I meant that no instruction in subj ect-
matter (wherever it is given) is adequate if it leaves the student with just
acquisition of certain information about external facts and laws, or even a certain
facility in the intellectual manipulation of this material. It is the business of our
higher schools in all lines, and not simply of our normal schools, to firrnish the
student with the realization that, after all, it is the human mind, trained to effective
control of its natural attitudes, impulses, and responses, that is the significant
thing in all science and history and art so far as these are formulated for purposes
of study. (p. 330-331)

Dewey’s comments speak clearly to what I was attempting to do in this course. I wanted
to train the students’ mind in the effective control of its natural attitudes, impulses, and
responses. Dewey argued that teachers needed mastery of the principles developed from
the inquiry into science, history, and art. The principles provide the foundation for the
subject matter taught in school. Effective teaching structures experiences that allow the

child’s natural attitudes, impulses, and responses that are also found in the subject matter

- to come out. Teaching then, is a drawing out of knowledge, not a pouring in of

knowledge.

For Dewey, the child’s experience becomes critical in the learning process.
Instead of teaching in the abstract, teachers use the child’s own direct and personal
experiences to make sense of the principles found in subject matter. Dewey challenges
educators to first master and understand the principles and intellectual methods that make
up the subject matter of teaching’s moral dimension and then design experiences that
allow these principles to come from the student. My response to Dewey’s challenge

would point to the use of role-plays and improvisation.

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Role-plays and improvisations fit Dewey’s concept of teaching in two important
ways. First, these activities rely on the students’ experience. When a student must
improvise on selling shoes to a window-shopping customer, that student relies on his/her
own personal experience in working through the improvisation. The resources that allow
the student to complete the activity stem from whom. that person is—not some external
source of knowledge. This becomes a crucial point for a second reason. Dewey asserted
that educational experiences should reveal the student’s natural attitudes, impulses, and
responses. Role—plays and improvisation, because it relies on the student’s experience,
may also reveal the student’s attitudes, impulses, and responses. A student may take on
the role of a shoe salesperson, but in acting out the scene, the student may reveal his/her
own character.

Revealing a student’s attitudes, impulses, and responses is important in
developing a habit of the mind required in ethical teaching. It is not a natural attitude or
impulse to consciously teach in an ethical way. While I concede that teachers love
children and want what is best for them, that attitude may not lead to the crafting of an
ethical practice. The role—plays and improvisation were designed to bring out that ethical
action may require a carefully thought—out process of taking into account those affected
by the possible action taken, the principles and core values that guided the person taking
the action, and the effects on the relationships between the people in the community
where the action was taken. Such a process does not ensure that the action taken will be
the right or best ethical action possible, but the intentionally of the process creates

opportunity for a well—reasoned response to a particular situation. Relying on instinct or a

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personal love for children lacks the habit of the mind that Dewey found crucial to
develop in teachers.

Using Dewey to defend the use of role—plays in the class lends credibility to this
pedagogy, but based on the experiences of Erin and Debra, I am still missing an
important link in preparing students to craft an ethical practice. I never seriously
considered the obstacles the students would have in using their knowledge of teaching’s
moral dimension in their own classroom. I did not consider the potential problems my
students would need to overcome to craft an ethical practice. I did not structure activities
that would allow them to apply their developing knowledge of the moral dimension of
teaching, so that the knowledge would help them take reasoned, ethical action in the
context of the classroom.

My journal from December 9, 1997, about three weeks prior to the first day of
class, offered some clues as to why I had not been more intentional about affecting the
students’ teaching practice.

A number of thoughts run through my head that both excite and worry me to

death. I’m excited about teaching the class but worry that I do not know enough to

make it work. I feel like I need to be an expert in the moral dimension of teaching,
improvisation, studying my own teaching, knowing my students and
understanding what they want and expect, and how to do research on your own
teaching. In all of these areas, I feel like I lack knowledge. Am I smart enough to
pull this off?
My lack of confidence may have limited my teaching in ways that could have affected
the students’ future teaching practice. I settled for designing a course that would engage

the students in the complex topic of teaching’s moral dimension. Given the variety of

pedagogical strategies I used, the students did engage with the material and did become

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more aware of the moral dimension in teaching. When I reflect on the work and effort I
put in the course, I conclude that building awareness is not enough.

At the risk of discussing conclusions that lack evidence, it seems rather important
to explore this topic further. I consider myself a good teacher. In this course, I worked
hard at creatively presenting what I learned about the moral dimension of teaching. But
after analyzing and reflecting on the class and my attempts to engage students, I realize
that my teaching focused on engaging students for a day, not a teaching career. My
rationale went something like this. If I can get students to interact with the activities and
educational experiences I have planned for the course, they will come to see the
importance of teaching’s moral dimension. Once they realize what a great benefit it is to
craft an ethical practice, they will naturally go forth and lead ethically enhanced teaching
lives. What bothers me about my faulty thinking is that I know better than that. I have sat
in too many classes where the content of the course quickly became forgettable after the
last assessment procedure. I did not want that to happen with this course. I wanted my
students to craft an ethical practice. The stories of Erin and Debra indicate that my goal
may have only meet with partial success.

I have stated earlier that part of the problem may have to do with my lack of
confidence from feeling overwhehned with what I should know and how I should go
about teaching it. Ironically, another possible reason stems from my own apprenticeship
of observation. I cannot recall classes where the teacher or professor structured the course
in ways that would bridge what I was learning in class with the reality of how I would use

the knowledge in life. While I tried to be creative with my use of pedagogy, I replicated

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how I was taught in many of my own courses. Was I a victim of my own apprenticeship
of observation? (see Lortie, 1975)

My disappointment in not having a greater effect on Erin and Debra’s teaching
experience is not a new problem in teacher education. Zeichner and Liston (1987) studied
Wisconsin’s teacher education program that emphasizes

the preparation of teachers who are both willing and able to reflect on the origins,

purposes, and consequences of their actions, as well as on the material and

ideological constraints and encouragements embedded in the classroom, school,

and societal contexts in which they work. (p. 23)

One aspect of the Wisconsin program intrigued me. The program was designed to
develop preservice students who would view their role of teacher as a moral craftsperson
and not simply a technician. That connected readily with what I was trying to do during
the interim course. Zeichner and Liston report that studies done to assess the attainment
of developing students who view their role of teacher as a moral craftsperson indicated
limited achievement of this goal.

Generally, it can be said that if students entered the program with what we would

consider a technical- or moral—craft outlook toward the teacher’s role, they left at

the end of their student teaching experience with essentially the same perspective,

albeit a more refined one. (p. 36)

If a teaching program focused on developing teachers who can craft a moral practice
meets with limited success, I should not be surprised that my three—week course did not
have a bigger effect on Erin and Debra’s teaching practice. I do conclude that the students
left the interim class with a more refined view of teaching’s moral dimension, but I lack

the data that would indicate that their refined view would affect their own teaching

practice.

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IT.-

The _Gajfi3etween Theory and Practice
Calderhead (1991) offers some reasons why the knowledge developed in
education programs seems to have little carryover to the classroom. His work has
implications for this study. He describes nine factors gleaned from research studies that

affect how preservice students learn the craft of teaching. For example, Calderhead

discusses the knowledge, impressions, and beliefs that students come with to their teacher

education programs. Yet despite having a substantial amount of knowledge concerning
the teaching process, students struggle with applying this knowledge to the act of
teaching. Knowledge acquired as a student does not seem to bridge to knowledge that can
be used as a teacher. Calderhead sees this problem connecting to the theory that is taught
in the education program.
Links between thought and practice are problematic. The relationship between
teachers’ thought and knowledge and their practice is neither straightforward nor
well understood. It has been well recognised that teachers can espouse particular
knowledge and beliefs which conflict with those implicit in their practices (e. g.,
Woods, 1979), and it has for a long time been acknowledged that one of the great
difficulties of teacher education has been the theory/practice divide (e.g., Lanier
& Little, 1986) where theoretical propositional knowledge derived from the
disciplines of social science appears to have little interaction with teachers’
practice. Changing teachers’ knowledge and understanding does not necessarily
result in changes in their practice. (p. 532, 533)
Calderhead aptly describes my feeling about the effectiveness of the interim course. The
link between the theory (e.g., Kant and Noddings) will have little effect on my students’
practice (e. g., Erin determining who should receive supplemental reading instruction).
While I conclude that the teaching of the course lacked a structure that focused on
assisting students to craft an ethical practice, part of the problem also deals with the

context of teacher education programs and the schools that the students will teach in. For

example, Zeichner and Liston (1987), in analyzing the effectiveness of the Wisconsin

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program, found a lack of unity among the faculty as to the interpretation and priority of
the goals. One teaching supervisor may emphasize the importance of a teacher becoming
a moral craftsperson, while another supervisor may focus on classroom management
issues. Zeichner and Liston also observed that while the Wisconsin program may
emphasize developing students who craft a moral practice, the preservice students may
end up student teaching in places where the school focuses on teachers who assist
students in scoring well on a standardize test. The lack of consistency between a teaching
program and a school placement will impede the progress of attaining the program’s
goals.

These two factors may have influenced the results of the study to a certain degree,
although my evidence is anecdotal. Based on conversations with some of the students
from the class, I have concluded that the topic of teaching’s moral dimension is not
emphasized in Calvin’s education program. In the students’ other education courses, they
said they did not discuss how the knowledge presented in the course contributes to the
crafting of an ethical practice. If this is true, it calls into question the Education
Department’s ability to contribute to the mission of Calvin College. The College’s
mission of promoting lifelong Christian service without the Education Department
promoting the thinking processes required in this service will limit the achievement of
this goal. The apparent lack of reinforcement in other education courses of teaching’s
moral dimension does connect to McNeel’s (1992) findings that education students tend
to morally reason at lower stages than students from other departments. Determining

whether that is a result of the types of students or in the way the students are taught in

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these programs is not the focus of this study, yet must be addressed if teacher educators
are committed to assist students in crafting an ethical practice.

The second external factor that plays a critical role in having students apply
theory to practice depends on the support given at the placement school. Both Erin and
Debra taught at solid, respected schools. The support from the cooperating teachers
seemed positive and helpful for Erin and Debra. Both teachers seemed to have good
intentions for the children and wanted what was best for them. Yet given Erin and
Debra’s description of their cooperating teachers and the interactions that took place with
them, I doubt that either teacher thought intentionally about assisting Erin and Debra to
develop into a moral craftsperson. I would also claim, again on circumstantial evidence,
that if either teacher had a clear process or way of thinking about the moral actions they
take in the classroom, they did not make Erin or Debra privy to that process.

To summarize, I conclude that building awareness of teaching’s moral dimension
is possible during an interim class at Calvin. For that awareness to develop, engaging
students to think carefully about their core values and spiritual beliefs is imperative. To
motivate and engage students in the topic of the moral dimension of teaching, a varied
pedagogical approach offers the students a solid chance of grasping the complexity of
crafting an ethical practice. In particular, the use of improvisation may not only engage
students in the topic, but also may provide ways to bridge the gap that exists between the
theory and practice.

I also conclude from my research, that unless the instructor designs strategies that
take into account the difficulty of applying the knowledge learned about the moral

dimension of teaching in a practical way, the goal of assisting students to craft an ethical

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practice will be achieved only to a limited degree. Teaching strategies must take into
account the internal obstacles that preservice students must contend with (a limited
teaching orientation or perspective, degree of prior knowledge, limited analytical skills),
as well as external factors (lack of consistency in teacher education programs, political
influences on school outcomes, the nature and culture of teaching). How a teacher
education program and each course within the program address these concerns will
determine the effectiveness of efforts to provide an educational experience that links the
college classroom and the elementary classroom. How that may be possible is the topic of
the next section.

Crafting an Ethical Practice

In doing this course again, I will need to creatively address the issue of bridging
the gap between the theoretical perspectives that provide the foundation of teaching’s
moral dimension and the reality of using that knowledge to craft an ethical practice. In
this final section, I will explore how other researchers have addressed this complex and
difficult problem and how their findings could guide my practice.

Livingston and Borko (1989) studied expert and novice teachers to deterrrrine the
differences in pedagogical reasoning and the use of improvisation in their teaching. The
Calvin students were novices in their thinking about pedagogical reasoning in moral
ways. Livingston and Borko’s work connected with the course’s goals for developing the
students’ ability to pedagogically reason about their practice. As a result of their study,
Livingston and Borko recommended that teacher education programs offer “simulated
field experiences provided through written or videotaped cases” (p.41). I concur,

although would add that improvisations also offer a simulated field experience for the

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benefit of students. These experiences could provide ways to discuss and analyze a
number of teaching topics, including the moral dimension of teaching. Simulated field
experiences could then lead into focused observation in experts’ classrooms. The Calvin
students did focused observation at Long School, although I would not say the teachers
were experts at crafting an ethical practice.

Livingston and Borko add a feature to their suggestion that could help students
deepen their understanding of what happens in schools. After an observation, they
propose the students discuss the results of the observation with the expert teacher.
Students could observe a teacher who intentionally attempts to craft an ethical practice
and then discuss the observations together. Students may get insight to the thinking and
reasoning that the teacher uses in taking ethical action. Such discussion rrright also reveal
both the internal and external obstacles that students must overcome in order to
consciously craft an ethical practice. By listening carefirlly to the expert’s thought
process, the students may come to understand more clearly how they might go about
' teaching from a moral perspective.

Livingston and Borko’s ideas could be expanded to include teacher forums.
Teachers could tell stories during these forums that would help define what is moral
about teaching and describe the ways in which they dealt with various situations. Hearing
about the moral dimension of teaching from those who deal with it every day could
provide a powerful strategy that further increases student awareness.

I could take Livingston and Borko’s suggestion one step further by including
expert teachers in the improvisations that are planned in the various sessions. Having a

teacher participate with the preservice students in the grading of the math test

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improvisation could provide new insights in resolving the ethical issues of assessing
students. I could also compare my students’ responses in the grading improvisations with
the responses from teachers in the field. Discussing the similarities and differences for the
improvisations could shed light on how to take theory and make it work in practice.
Leinhardt, Young and Merriman (1995) suggest bridging the gap between theory
and practice in a similar way. Earlier, I explained that their perspective on professional
knowledge at the university level tends to focus on the formal and abstract. In order for
students to apply this knowledge in meaningful ways in practice, they will have to
understand how this knowledge is seen in the daily classroom situations. They claim that
by carefully observing and analyzing the procedural knowledge that is used daily in the
classroom, students can make connections to the theory that often is the basis for the
procedural classroom actions.
Student teachers can be guided through actions, which would include the
systematic observation of accomplished practice and planned modification of
such practice. Student teachers would be encouraged to learn to observe, predict,
critique, generate, and analyze component practices in the teaching performance
of excellent mentor teachers, of their colleagues, and of themselves. Systematic
observation is designed to ensure that student teachers attend to a comprehensive
set of the components of teaching rather than dwelling on what may be more
obvious such as—what they liked, what is trendy, or what went wrong. (p. 405)
Like Livingston and Borko, Leinhardt places a premium on carefully observing and
analyzing the practice of other teachers. They advocate the use of videotape to enable
students to break down a common occurrence in the classroom and to unpack the various
elements within the teaching and learning process. Their suggestions could alter the Long
School observation. Instead of observing at the school and then discussing what the

students liked and what went wrong, Leinhardt might suggest taking a particular event,

like a small group reading lesson, and break down the specific activity that takes place

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during the lesson. By carefully analyzing issues like the content taught, teacher
engagement of students, interactions between students and the teacher, and the
organization of classroom space, the students may begin to see how each of these issues
contributes to the complex topic of teaching’s moral dimension. During these
discussions, the teacher/professor must provide opportunities for the students to assess
the results of particular actions as well as offer other possible actions to take and the
predicted effects of those actions. I listened to the litany of shortcomings that occurred at
Long School without pushing the students to offer other possible actions and to make
predications on what would happen if those actions were taken.

Livingston and Borko, Calderhead, and Zeichner and Liston all point out the

importance of supervision and of the cooperating teacher during the student teaching

.. experience. Although I had no control over these factors, they do point out a painful

reality for professors who desire to assist preservice students in the crafting of an ethical
practice. Students will need the continual reinforcement that can occur in other classes,
through university—directed teaching experiences, and support given during the first year
of teaching. If a teacher education program is serious about developing moral
craftspeople, aligning the various components of the students’ educational experiences
becomes imperative. Students need continual reinforcement in recognizing and
processing ethical situations in the classroom. Developing the ability to craft such a
practice is virtually impossible without the support and structure that other courses and
teaching experiences can afford. A mentoring program for the first—year teachers could
provide the type of support that would allow the theory of undergraduate work to make a

difference in the classroom. First—year teachers who are given the time and support to

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reflect on the ethical development of their practice could develop patterns that allow them
advancement in crafting their practice in the subsequent years.

While some instructional strategies may influence a preservice student’s teaching
practice, Lave (1996) argues that the relationship between teaching and learning will
constrain teacher educators’ ability to effect practice. Lave claims that “teaching is
neither necessary nor sufficient to produce learning, and that the social-cultural categories
that divide teachers from learners in schools mystify the crucial ways in which learning is
fundamental to all participation and all participants in social practice” (p. 157). Instead,
Lave argues that “learning is an aspect of changing participation in changing
communities of practice everywhere. . .. learning is a facet of the communities of practice
of which they are composed” (p. 150).

I take Lave’s assertions as important considerations in working with preservice
students. If learning is socially situated and not dependent on teaching, a preservice
student will learn (or has previously learned) in the community called the classroom the
acceptable practices of teaching. If those practices did not make evident the moral
dimension of teaching, the preservice student may find it difficult to understand how to
craft an ethical practice. If the community of practice, that being the faculty, staff,
administrators, parents, and students involved with the school, do not make a moral
teaching practice part of the changing participation in the community, the preservice
teacher may not find the support to craft an ethical practice.

Lave contends that it is challenging, but possible, to create educational
experiences that allow students to learn. In order to do so, teachers will have to think of

ways in which to make the subject matter a part of a student’s identity-changing life. She

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cites an example of a chemistry teacher who created a community of learners by allowing

the students to help shape laboratory and class work and to organize the social

interactions of teacher and students.
But instead of “teaching chemistry” she engaged in a different kind of “learning
practice,” making it possible for chemistry to become part of the hard work of
learners who were becoming gendered, racialized, classed adults—in this case
adults with an impressive interest in chemistry. (p. 161)

Instead of “teaching the moral dimension of teaching,” Lave contends that I will have to

think of ways to allow the issues of the moral dimension of teaching to become a part of

these learners and their situation.
Unanswered Questions
At the conclusion of this study, some questions remain whose answers could
assist teacher educators in preparing students to craft an ethical practice.

1. When a preservice student decides to become a teacher, what does that student think
it means to be a teacher? Where does that conception of teaching come from? How
many preservice students think of themselves as a moral craftsperson? What does that
student think it means to craft an ethical practice?

2. How do teachers conceive of their role in teaching? Where do these conceptions
come from? How many teachers in the field actually consider themselves a moral
craftsperson? How many teachers have a conscious process, or way of thinking that
they use in taking ethical action in the classroom? If they do, what is it?

3. How many parents, politicians, and school administrators believe that having a
teacher who can craft an ethical practice is more important than teacher who can

teach students to pass state—sponsored tests? How important is parental, political, and

administrative support in assisting teachers to craft an ethical practice?

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I‘—

4. How can teacher educators incorporate instructional strategies that provide a
preservice student the opportunity to practice crafting an ethical practice? How much
practice does a preservice student require before what is practice becomes intuitive?

5. How can colleges and universities build consensus among the faculty of education
departments concerning the importance of assisting preservice students in crafting an
ethical practice? If such consensus develops, how can education departments connect
with schools to facilitate the development of both preservice students and teachers in
crafting an ethical practice?

The challenge of assisting preservice students to become aware of teaching’s
moral dimension for the purpose of crafting an ethical practice is complex and
difficult—like a good drama ought to be. The response of teacher educators to this
challenge will determine the role future teachers will play in creating schools where the
moral integrity of each child becomes a priority in the educational process.

The night before the last class, I tried to summarize what I learned during the
interim course. It may be fitting to conclude this dissertation with the last thing we read
together as a class.

“The grey you will have with you always, even unto the ends of the earth.”
OK, you won’t find that quote in the Bible, but it does point out
something about the complexity of the moral dimension of teaching. If you were
looking for some formula or recipe that could clearly point out how to resolve
ethical dilemmas, you will leave unfilled. Sorry. I wish I had more answers than
questions. It must have something to do with my prime. Instead, I’ll reiterate
some of the instinct that borders on insight that we have explored together.
Crafting an ethical practice must be based on something. Beauty, truth,
goodness, art, sucking the marrow out of life are fine places to look. In most cases
they’ll work quite effectively. But they are not enough. There are connected to
temporal things and concern themselves with the present. You want your temporal

activities to connect to the divine. You need the eternal dimension. Ah, here is the
mystery. Our actions, thoughts, feelings, lesson plans—whatever—are rooted in

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Christ’s redemptive work. His gift of salvation allows our actions to have moral
significance. Our actions transcend the ordinariness of mundane daily living.
They speak of heavenly things.

Accepting the gift of forgiveness comes with responsibility. We seek to
know and understand God and the workings of His Kingdom. Our perception of
his Kingdom will guide how we will live. Christ’s parables offer some specific
ways to think about it. First, His Kingdom encompasses everyone. Jesus Christ’s
redemptive work wraps itself within and around every person on this planet.
Unrelentingly, Christ offers Himself to all. All we must do is accept. We need to
remember the grandeur of our God’s grace.

The Kingdom works in mysterious ways. Instead of pulling out the evil,
God allows the evil to grow right along side of the good. Instead of expecting us
to make manifest the mystery of his Kingdom, God assures us the growth of the
Kingdom occurs with or without us. Instead of demanding that we live a perfect
life, God asks us to meet him in his Son’s death. That type of grace, tolerance, and
mystery should reflect our own teaching practices. We have a sense for the big
picture—the humanness of a child and the mystery of eternal life.

But there will be times when the wonder of all this may not guide our
actions. During those times, you may need a way of thinking to guide your
thought process. Immanuel Kant and Nel Noddings offer some pertinent advice.

First, think about your actions becoming a universal law. What if everyone
would have to follow your decree in regards to the situation? Before you take
action, remove yourself from the situation and think about your action fiom the
perspective of anyone touched by it. Does it still make sense to do?

Second, ask yourself if you are treating others as a means or an end. Each
person has a God-given image and sense of moral integrity. Respect them for it.
Does your action treat others as an end and not a means to something you need
done?

Third, we live in a Kingdom of needs and gifts. Your students will have
many gifts to help you with your needs. Seek them out. Ask yourself how you can
use their gifts in helping you craft an ethical practice.

Fourth, shape your actions with the attitude of care for your students. Ask
if your actions stem from wanting what is best for the student. Think of what your
students need and how you best may provide for it.

Fifth, find ways to prevent moral dilemmas from occurring. Giving
choices and options to your students and seeking advice from teachers and parents
are ways that may help. you avoid that sickening feeling from unresolved ethical
problems. We don’t know the future, but you must develop the gift of predicting
what may happen if certain actions are taken.

Carefully analyzing your possible actions by thinking through these
questions will not lead to one right answer. You may struggle long and hard in
determining what course of action to take. By going through the process of
thinking through these questions, you will be crafting a moral practice. Your
thoughts and actions will take on an ethical vitality that should positively effect
your students and the educational process.

297

 

APPENDIX A
Course Syllabus

The Drama of Teaching:
Resolving Ethical Dilemmas in the Classroom

 

EDUC W11
January, 1998
Instructor: Randall Buursma
Office: Hiemenga Hall 448
Phone: x6074
Home: x942-5066
Email: buurra@calvin.edu
Goals of Course

10. Develop an understanding of the moral dimension of teaching for the purpose of
crafting an ethical practice.

11. Connect the moral dimension of teaching to God’s kingdom. How does this
subject matter help us make manifest God’s kingdom?

12. Understand the role of research in teaching and learning.

13. Cultivate verbal and nonverbal expression.

Textbooks
Strike, Kenneth A. &Jonas F. Soltis. (1992). The Ethics of Teaching. New York, New York: '1
Spark, Muriel. (1961). The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. New York, New York:
Harper Perennial.

‘ Course requirements
The course makes few formal requirements. There will not be any quizzes, tests,
or final exams. You will not have to write a research paper, although you will engage in
the act of research. You will be asked to...
1. Keep up with the readings and think carefully about your learning and thinking
concerning the moral dimension of teaching.
2. Chronicle your thoughts, questions, surprises, and annoyances in a daily journal that
provide the data you need for your research (as well as mine).
3. Present research findings at a special seminar towards the end of the interim.
4. Participate fully in the classroom activities

Grading
Most interim courses are graded on a “pass/fail” basis. So is this one.

Attendance policy

Given the type of pedagogy used in the class, your presence is vital. Please make
every attempt to make it to class. When you know that you are unable to attend, please
call ahead of your absence—that will help me in the planning of the day’s activities.

298

 

Schedule
Every class will begin with devotions. We’ll be looking at the parables of Jesus

and trying to connect them to what happens in schools. We’ll even use some

improvisation scenes to help us make sense out of the kingdom of God.
We will also spend time (15-30 rrrinutes a day) doing games and activities that

should help us come together as a group and improve out ability to do improvisational

scenes.

January 8

Getting to know you-please fill in your personal profile

Sign your life away

What is the moral dimension of teaching?

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie: Chapter 1

Reaction to Case

9th

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie: Chapter 2

12th

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie: Chapter 3

The Ethics of Teaching: Chapter 1

13th

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie: Chapter 4

Movie TimezDead Poets Society

14th

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie: Chapters 5 and 6

Jackson’s The Moral Life of Schools

15th

The Ethics of Teaching: Chapter 2

16th

Video of classrooms

The Ethics of Teaching: Chapter 3

19th

Immanuel Kant

The Ethics of Teaching: Chapter 4

20th

The Ethics of Teaching: Chapter 5

21st

Classroom observation

Immanuel Kant

Nel Noddings

22nd

Classroom observation

23rd

Nel Noddings and Helen Sterk

26th

Kant and Noddings: How do they go into the classroom?

27th and 28th: Presentations

299

 

‘7‘“
't

APPENDIX B
Journal Response #1

EDUC W11 The drama of teaching: Resolving ethical dilemmas in the classroom
Journal Response #1

Help! I need to know a few things about you and your expectations for this course. Please
answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper—typed responses are
appreciated, but not mandatory. Some of the questions may require you to think back on
your school experience. Take your time and try to come up with an answer for each
question. Write as much as you need to answer the question and make your point.
Thanks!

1. Why did you take this course?

2. What do you hope to learn during our time together?

3. The title of the course indicates we will learn about “resolving ethical dilemmas.”
What does this phrase mean to you? Have you ever been involved in a classroom
situation where an ethical dilemma existed? Can you relate any school experience
where you felt you (or a friend or fellow classmate) were treated in an unethical

way? Describe what happened.

300

APPENDIX C
Student Information Sheet

Student Profile
Getting to Know You

Name

 

Address

 

Phone

 

Email

 

Age and
Year at Calvin

 

Major

 

Educational Experiences at Calvin and Aboard

 

 

 

 

Are You Student Teaching this Spring?

 

Anything else you think I should know?

 

 

 

301

APPENDIX D
The Case of Mr. Sheldon
A Case

Mr. Sheldon walked from the teachers’ lounge into his fourth grade classroom
only to find it in complete disarray. The rainy weather forced the children inside and
apparently they took advantage of the absence of an authority figure. As Mr. Sheldon
settled the class back down, he noticed a group of students around his desk. When he
approached, they quickly went back to their seats. That is when Mr. Sheldon saw that the
pottery vase his wife made for him lay in pieces around his desk. Incensed, Mr. Sheldon
decided to take action. He knew the three students who were around his desk were
involved with the broken vase. He also suspected that Glenn, a hyper active child with a
reputation for being at the center of such trouble, undoubtedly played a part.

What should Mr. Sheldon do? What types of things should he think about as he
decides what action to take? What should Mr. Sheldon consider as he works with his
class on this matter? Take some time and type out a course of action for Mr. Sheldon.
What types of things should he be thinking about?

302

APPENDIX E
The Case of Linda

Please carefully read the following case and describe the thought process you would use
to resolve the situation.

A Case

Linda enjoyed her first year of teaching fourth grade. She could hardly believe
that there were only three weeks left in the school year. Her students loved how Linda
utilized group projects, field trips, and role plays and simulations when presenting-
material. Anyone could see that learning was happening in Linda’s room!

But Linda had a problem she didn’t know how to resolve. The other fourth grade
teacher, Mrs. Right, asked Linda what chapter in science Linda was on. When Linda told
her, Mrs. Right reminded Linda that she still must cover the final two chapters before the
school year was out. Linda remarked that covering two chapters during the final three
weeks of school would be impossible. Mrs. Right pointed out that Linda should have
budgeted her time more wisely, but that she better do something to cover this material
because the fifth grade teachers were expecting these students to know what was in those
chapters.

What should Linda do? Trying to cover two chapters in such a short time would
not allow for the type of teaching or learning that Linda found so effective in her earlier
units. Yet, not exposing her class to the required material may mean her students would
be at a disadvantage next year. Should she teach only'one of the chapters in the way she
believes to be the best for learning, or should she try to handle both chapters in a brief,
streamlined manner?

What types of things should Linda think about as she decides what action to take?
What should Linda consider as she works in resolving this matter? Take some time and
type out a course of action for Linda. What type of things should she think about?

303

APPENDIX F

Research Group Requirements

Your Research Project

Effective educators develop the gift of researching their own teaching. They
carefully reflect on what happens in the classroom. They analyze what works and what
needs improvement in their own teaching. We are going to get a taste of that by having
you engage in researching your own learning.

To make this more enjoyable for you and to benefit from the knowledge of others,
we will work in groups of three. Each group will make a short presentation at the end of
the interim term. Your group will present findings on the following topics.

1. What activities and experiences contribute to a preservice student’s understanding of
the moral dimension of teaching? You will use your personal journals as data and
evidence to support your findings. This means that your group must discuss what
happens in the classroom and gauge the effect on your learning. I know that you will
have different reactions to what happens, but together, you should be able to make
some generalizations about the effectiveness of the various activities you participated
in.

2. We plan on doing some observing at a local school. Your group will describe what
they considered to be moral situations during this time of observation. Jackson’s
piece will help us as to what to look for and how to interpret what we see.

3. Each group will lead a short activity, such as an improvisational scene, that would
contribute to our understanding of the moral dimension of teaching. You can use
your personal experience in classrooms or fabricate an incident that illustrates a
particular point you would like to reinforce or make.

4. Finally, each group will be asked to make recommendations concerning the future
teaching of this course. What activities would you keep? Which should be thrown
out or adapted? Can you think of any new experiences that would add to student
understanding of the moral dimension of teaching? This is your chance to help in the
future design of EDUC W11.

That’s it. You have as much time as you need to present your findings. Your presentation
will be video-taped, although I will still need a copy of your final report. Does this seem
reasonable? I am most interested in how your thinking begins to evolve during our time
together. I believe this group project will help bring out some of these issues. If you have
other suggestions, let me know and we’ll improve on this pr0posal.

304

APPENDIX G
Student Information Sheet on The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie
by Muriel Spark

Is this a good book? Will I like it?

Yes, this book is good—receiving critical acclaim when published in 1961.

You may like this book, although I will admit it does get confusing at times. Sparks uses
11 flashforwards and 11 fantasies throughout the book. You may want to try and keep
track of what happens to which character. You’ll find out important information before
the end of the novel. It may be helpful to make a list of the characters and jot down what
happens to each. These notes will be helpful when trying to analyze the effect Miss Jean
Brodie had on her students.

Are there any pictures?
No.

Is it long? '
Only six chapters with less than 200 hundred pages. It took Sparks eight weeks to write
the book. We’ll read it in about a week.

What is the book about?

Miss Jean Brodie teaches at the Marcia Blaine School for Girls in Edinburgh, Scotland
during the 19305. Sparks weaves an interesting story of a teacher who tries to influence
the girls she instructs by using unusual teaching pedagogy. Miss Jean Brodie exhibits

. rather eccentric behavior. You should focus on the effect it has on these girls.

What themes should I look for?

The first theme deals with Brodie’s influence on these girls. Take careful note of her
actions, intent, and consequences. You’ll want to figure out why Brodie acts in the way
she does. Hey, this lady is a teacher, and she may have something to share with us about
being an educator. Let’s observe what she does and try to make some sense out of it.

A second theme involves sex. Yes, now I know you’ll read the book. Although sexual
situations come up throughout the book, we won’t spend much time analyzing how
Sparks uses it in her book. You may want to ask yourself if the sexual content of the book
represents something else for Sparks.

A third theme contrasts Calvinism with Roman Catholicism. You may find interesting
how people perceive of Calvinism and compare it to your own perspective. Religion
often provides a motivator for people to act in certain ways. You’ll want to explore which
characters use their faith in religion to booster their action.

A fourth theme untangles the difference between life and art, or between reality and
fantasy. Some of the characters seem to be living in a dream world. Why?

305

I.-
a

 

A fifth theme demonstrates the changes that occurs in one the students, Sandy Strange.
Pay close attention to how she is described and what she does. She provides a strong
character to compare to Miss Jean Brodie.

Will there be a test on the book?
No. But in the game of life, there will be something about this book that you will take

with you for the rest of your life. Your job focuses on finding out what in this book will
make a difference to you.

To help you think about what happens in the novel for the purposes of this course, use the
following chart as a guide for reading. Describe what Miss Jean Brodie says or does, her
intention as best you can tell, the result of her action (usually done from the perspective
of the receiver of the action), and give her a moral ranking.

 

Page Description of Intent Result Moral ranking
# action 1=saintly
5=immoral

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

306

 

APPENDIX H
Shoe Salesperson Improvisation

Some Basic Details that Need Explaining

This is improvisation! Have fun with what will take place. There is no right or
wrong answers so don’t worry about what happens. Simply try to stay in the character
that has been described for you and go from there.

Coming up with a number of different shoes would be very difficult. Therefore,
we will be using socks to take the place of shoes. Each pair of socks has a unique quality
that the sales person will know about. Ask any questions you would like about the shoes,
their features, and the prices.

Scene One

You have a brand new job as a shoe salesperson at the local shoe store. Having
just finished college, this wasn’t your first choice, but it does provide you with a way to
start paying off your college loans. Your manager explained that your pay is determined
by the different specials that are run in the store. This week, the manager has a
tremendous amount of inventory that must be moved before the arrivals of the new spring
fashions. If you sell one pair of shoes to a customer, you will receive 10% of the sale. But
if you are able to convince the customer to buy more than one pair, your percentage will
increase. If the customer buys 2 pair, you will receive 20% of the total sale. For a third
pair, the percentage goes to 30% for the total sale!

Before you begin, the manager asks you to think of ways to increase your sales.
What types of things might you say to customers to get them to purchase more shoes and
increase your profit? Take a few minutes to write down your ideas before the first
customer comes in.
Scene Two

Having cleaned out much of the inventory from last week’s special, the manager
has received shipment from a very prominent shoe line in Italy. The manager was able to
purchase the shoes at a low cost, and because of the shoe’s reputation, is able to charge a
higher price and thereby increase profits. Because of the high markup, the manager is
passing on some of profit to you. Normally, you would receive 10% of the total sales as
your commission, but because of the high mark-up, you will be able to receive 35% of
the sales from this line of shoes. Your job is to sell as many of these shoes as possible to
increase your take-home pay. This may not be easy, so take a few minutes to come up
with some ways in which you can convince the customers that these particular shoes are
the ones for them. Please list your comments and strategies below.
Scene Three

Your manager has just come back from a shoe convention all excited about a new
technique in selling shoes. According to the latest research, the salespeople who are best
able to hear the needs and want of the customer and match them up with the product in
the store are able to sell the most shoes. The manager wants you to use this technique in
your selling. How can you go about determining what each customer may need? What
questions can you ask to make sure that what you are selling matches with what is most
useful for the customer? Please take a few minutes to list your ideas below.

307

Scene Que for customer

Seeing how your children are in elementary school, you have decided to window
shop for most of the morning. You don’t have a lot of money to spend so you have to be
careful with your purchases. The window display in the shoe store interests you, so you
decide to go inside to have a look at the selection of shoes available. You do need a pair
of shoes, and who knows-this may be the place to buy them.

Scene Two for customer

Having just completed college and enter the job force, you realize the importance
of proper footwear. The job you have requires comfortable shoes. Your feet have been
aching for some time and you have finally decided to break down and buy a proper pair
of shoes. Unfortunately, you don’t have much money to spend, so you want to make sure ‘
you purchase a pair that will be comfortable and affordable.

Scene Three for customer

The retirement life is such a treat for you, having taught for 30 years in one of the
local schools! On a whim, you decide to spend the afternoon shopping at the local mall.
You decide look around and see if there might be anything that interests you in any of the
stores. The shoe store has an attractive display in the window so you decide to stop in
there and see what they might have.

Some final thoughts...
Well, the scenes are over, but before you forget what happened, would you be willing to

take a few nrinutes to reflect on any feelings or thoughts that you had while during this
time?

$315.99;

Did any of your attempts to have the customer purchase more shoes meet with any
success? ' - _

Where there any things you said that seemed to help or hurt your chances of the sale?
Would you do anything differently after having gone through it once? If so, what?
Any other comments?

Scene Two

Was this harder or easier than the first scene? Any ideas why or why not?

Where there any things you said that seemed to help or hurt your chances of the sale?
Would you do anything differently after having gone through it once? If so, what?
Any other comments?

Scene Three

How was this scene alike and different from the other two scenes?

Where there any things you said that seemed to help or hurt your chances of the sale?
Would you do anything differently after having gone through it once? If so, what?
Any other comments?

Other considerations
Any remarks or thoughts or feelings that you might have would be appreciated...

308

APPENDIX I
Grading Scenes with Teacher Green

Scene #1
Character 1

You are Mr./Mrs. Green, a third grade teacher at a local school. Being
imaginative and creative, you have a reputation for being one of the better teachers at the
school. Part of your philosophy involves expecting the best from your students. You have
set standards for the different subjects you teach, and the students understand what they
have to do to achieve a good score in that area. You believe that if you give students the
opportunity, they will learn. If students work hard in your class, they will achieve and be
academically successful. The test results of your class reflect your philosophy. Your
classes typically score high on state tests. The principal contributes this to your creative,
yet no-nonsense type of teaching.

One student in your class, Joey, struggles with the academic material. Joey works
harder than any one else in the class, yet his test results indicate someone of mediocre
ability. Joey, well liked by his classmates and the other teachers in the school, has never
had a year where he has done so poorly. You figure that Joey will catch on to your
system and will soon start improving on his test results.

An important math test was coming up for the marking period. Knowing Joey’s
struggles with math test, you took extra care in helping Joey through the review process.
Joey stayed in recesses (at his request!) to do extra problems, and you carefully explained
the processes of the math concepts he was struggling with. Joey seemed to be catching
on. He was doing a great job on the problems that would on be the test.

The day of test came and Joey was excited and confident of doing a good job. He
cheerfully turned in his paper, gave you a wink, and thanked you for all the extra work
you put in with him. You gave Joey a hug and told him how proud you were of his
attitude and work ethic. Unfortunately, Joey’s confidence did not change the results of
Joey’s test. He still could not get the right answer for many of the problems. There was
one positive sign; Joey was doing the process right! His mistakes were minor
computation errors. But this presented a problem. You believe that students should _
receive credit only when the problem is correct. The students understand your
expectation and seem to work more carefully on their work. But this situation was
slightly different. You could see that Joey knew what to do and how to do it. Sirnple
errors prevented him from obtaining full credit. So, given Joey’s hard work and type of
errors on his test, you gave him credit for many of the problems on his test. Joey’s faced
beamed when he received his test back. He vowed to work harder and do even better on
the next one! You were thrilled and feeling great about the whole process, that is until
Sally, one of class’ brightest students, came up to your desk.

309

Scene #1
Character 2

You are Sally, a bright, high achieving third grader in Mr. Green’s class. You love
school and the work comes easily to you. You also love being in Mr. Green’s class. He is
a imaginative and creative teacher who expects a lot out of his students. He rewards those
who work hard and do well on his tests. He carefully explains what he wants the students
to know, and then tests them on it. This is especially seen in math. You have never had a
teacher so thoroughly go through the concepts in math. As a trade-off for such a good
explanation, Mr. Green expects you to work carefully to the end of the problem and reach
the right answer. Mr. Green was a stickler when it came to details, but you didn’t mind
since everyone played by the same rules. -

That is what made the last math test so difficult to accept. For some reason (being
overconfident?), you got three wrong on the last math test. Normally an “A” student, you
could not believe the silly mistakes you made on those three problems. You were upset
with yourself for being careless-to the point of almost crying. Joey, a boy in your class,
noticed that you were upset and asked if everything was alright. You explained what
happened on your test. Joey nodded sympathetically and complimented you on how
smart you are. You asked Joey how he did and found out he did extremely well. This
surprised you, since Joey usually did not do that well in math. You asked to see his test
and noticed that the same three problems that you got wrong, Joey did too. The only
problem was that Joey received credit for his problems. No wonder Joey did so well!
Many of the problems he got wrong, he received credit for!

Mr. Green doesn’t operate this way. You get credit when you get the problem
right. Have the rules changed? You decide to go ask Mr. Green about the latest math test
and receiving credit for problems that are almost all right.

310

Scene #2
Character 1

You are Mr./Mrs. Green. After having a long talk with Sally about Joey’s test
results, you decide to do some investigative work. Feeling a bit unsure about your math
policy of giving credit only for correct answers, you decide to talk with Joey’s second
grade teacher, Teacher McSmith. Joey received an “S+” in math during second grade, so
you want to find out what happened during that grade and why Joey did so well given his
struggles in the third grade right now. Teacher McSmith does have a reputation for giving
out high grades, so you want to find out what is going on.

Scene #2
Character 2

You are Teacher McSmith of the second grade. You are a sensitive, caring teacher
whose main goal is to build up the self-esteem of all of your students. You believe that at
the second grade level, how the students view themselves is more important than what
they learn. You understand that the students are there to learn, and you work extremely
hard at making the subject matter come alive for them. But ultimately, you believe that
each student needs to feel confident about his/her abilities to do school work. Joey was a
good case in point. He was one of the hardest workers in the class. You rewarded his hard
work and positive attitude by giving him high marks on his report card. You wanted Joey
to enjoy school and to continue to feel like it was worth the effort of doing it. Joey did
make careless mistakes at time, but you could see that he understood the main concepts
and was constantly working at getting better. Given his work ethic and attitude, you
wanted to send a clear message to Joey that he was a good student. If Joey truly believed
that, he would be successful in school.

311

Scene #3
Character 1

As Joey’s parent, you worry about how well Joey is doing in school. Today, Joey
came home upset over an incident involving a math test. It turns out, Joey received a
fairly high grade for a test that he didn’t get many of the answers right. Once Joey found
out from other students that his grade really wasn’t based on having the right answers, he
felt stupid. In fact, a couple of students told him the teacher had to give him credit for
wrong answers, otherwise he would never make it out of third grade. Now Joey doesn’t
want to go back to school. You feel like the teacher made some poor judgements and you
want some answers. You tell Joey what a hard worker he is and of all the things he
already knows, but it doesn’t seem to help. Joey is upset, and nothing you say makes a
difference. Wanting to help, yet not knowing what to do, you call Joey’s teacher to get
his/her perspective on what happened in class and what can be done in the future to make
Joey feel good about being at school.

Scene #3
Character 2

Being a teacher sure hasn’t been easy of late. There is a message in your mailbox at
school to call Joey’s parents. They want to talk about the math test and the reaction Joey
is getting from others about it. You are not excited about making this call, because you
know Joey’s parents are rather influential at the school. In past years, both the mother and
the father have served on the school board. They are both college educated people who
have visions for their son to go onto college. Not knowing how they are going to react to
the latest incident at school, you make the phone call to the parents.

312

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