3

. . :21 ,
zw~+l.,< .... ....
7.
3.329....
‘ 3 i .l . c
hid. , iv
. ... . ...ﬁ
v . lat—‘-
, . .

I.

.J.. ...... u. .
..._ .5 your? . . _ . . 1w“.
r. ‘ ‘ mm. a. . 1
. . A . ‘ ,. , awn.“

....M

I.

L.

M

, 32....1‘.
n K L ..z ..n _
.... .i «m.

Eh. _
. ...mw
3w... ,i 3w». . , . , , AWN...

V ...

:r ...,»
2%.? .9.
y . .. a

a. ﬁg

It

«a:
1:7

1; p
I. 5.9,,
d ..

5”"!

 

fruwdwyh
. . m
. . ‘ . qt?“

L51? ..Ki #1 .~ ‘
. ...}. 17.1.3 ‘ . ,
‘ .A V 0:! .
w . . % am“:

3 ‘ . aﬂnuﬂadn
:: . a;
.7. a

h a: .,
. ~ 3101..
x

2-1.

...:-

, .t—‘blv:
9::

‘52 .
L .3.
H1 ~ .... H. .
. .
RWTN: ﬁml ‘

{it

hr,
3: .

uh. ..nhnajrrttrﬁ. ,

.

h 531:! s.»

.... ... g. . ‘
:2...

.3211...
...}... t
. s,

...: 5.1,.
‘ .
A14. ..
s. Thu

.8!»

. a},

‘ . ,. .
:....u....))i.

..
1T1“:
‘ h»

 

l— lIBRARY “I
M Michigan State [e
University L

 

 

 

 

 

This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

THE EFFECTS OF INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA
IN GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION FOR DYSLEXIC' STUDENTS

presented by

Alison E. Philpotts

has been accepted towards fulﬁllment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. Geography

degree in

 

 

K" ‘

x . D; -’
1-7 1 06/4 3/7/7 / 42571)

/ ‘Major professor

.___../‘

Date 5// 0/0/

MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-1277 1

 

I ,1) :r. .I \ ' 2 —. ‘ 9 I'V - ‘ . l t

A :1 l: . . ‘ ' i _ .
.5‘ I. a, ..3‘ ' ’f' .4 ; _,‘.. L I' I -. . ' ’ 7 ,
“R g ' ‘5"! ' it .4; L~
9"“; t-‘l t'i'nhl U 1 .3 .HI U r s .. I:

n I i A i . is? "i Vii/$6.
iiﬁATERlHL 313:0?“ M.“

 

PLACE IN RETURN Box to remove this checkout from your record.
To AVOID FINES return on or before date due.
MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

.DATElDdEZUOE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

_ ‘1) i?

c

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

am cJCIncxomeDmpes-ms

THE EFFECTS OF INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA
IN GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION
FOR DYSLEXIC STUDENTS
By

Alison E. Philpotts

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Geography

2001

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTS OF INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA IN
GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION FOR DYSLEXIC STUDENTS
By

Alison E. Philpotts

To evaluate the effectiveness of interactive multimedia as a teaching device to
help dyslexic students and to narrow the learning gap between dyslexic and non-dyslexic
students, an eighth-grade geography lesson was created in both a traditional-text and
interactive-multimedia format. The content was guided by the National Geography
Standards and focused on Michigan's coastal dunes. The lesson was divided into four
sections, and half of each group of students (dyslexic, non-dyslexic) saw a traditional,
multimedia, traditional, multimedia sequence and the other half multimedia, traditional,
multimedia, traditional. The accuracy and response times of subjects were recorded.
Attitude questions aimed at measuring level of enthusiasm were also asked. Test design
enabled comparison of the performance and attitudes between dyslexic vs. non-dyslexic
students and between traditional vs. multimedia format.

A total of forty-six eighth grade students participated in the testing. They ﬁrst
answered pretest questions and then proceeded through the four sections of the lesson.
At the end of each section, they answered multiple-choice content questions. At the end
of all four sections, the students answered on-screen attitude questions and were asked

open-ended questions.

Accuracy improved signiﬁcantly between the pretest and the four section
posttests. A logit analysis showed that both dyslexic and non-dyslexic students answered
more questions accurately with the multimedia format, and they learned more when the
same information was presented to them in a combination of different ways (text,
graphics and sound, for example). They were also more likely to answer correctly if they
had seen the same question on the pretest. Statistically, dyslexics improved signiﬁcantly
more than non-dyslexics when using multimedia, but the difference was very small. The
higher level of correct answers for the entire set of subjects did mean, however, that the
accuracy ratio between non-dyslexics and dyslexics decreased with multimedia (odds
ratio of 1.07 vs. 1.15; full closing of the gap would have resulted in an odds ratio of
1.00). An analysis of variance on reaction times showed that multimedia and the
increased number of ways the same information was presented were associated with
improved (decreased) response time for both groups; dyslexics improved more with
multimedia; and both groups did better with multimedia, especially when the question
had not appeared on the pretest. Answers to attitude questions indicated overwhelmingly
that students in both groups were more enthusiastic about the multimedia materials than
the traditional text.

Although the decrease in the gap between the two groups was limited, the
message is clear that multimedia can be a very effective tool for teaching geography to all

students, whether they are dyslexic or non-dyslexic.

Copynghtby
Alison E. Philpotts

2001

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many professors, friends, colleagues, and family have helped me develop,
implement, support, and produce this dissertation. To them I owe an overwhelming debt
of gratitude. First, I would like to thank my doctoral committee, particularly my advisor
Dr. Judy M. Olson, who spent many long days and nights providing endless guidance.
To Dr. Richard Groop who provided me with excellent opportunities through teaching,
research, and map production, and did so with a friendly smile. Dr. Gary Manson and
Dr. Alan Arbogast provided scholarly growth and intellectual stimulation that aided in
the content and methodological development of this dissertation. Second, I must thank
Dr. Rene Hinoj osa and Dr. Randy Schaetzl for providing me with assistantships and
fellowships that were ﬁnancially invaluable.

Third, my peers and colleagues have constantly encouraged and provided
feedback for developing and carrying through this research. Particularly, Jessica
Dolanski and Amy Lobben were there from the beginning. Mr. and Mrs. Dolanski
welcomed me into their home, not to mention Mrs. Dolanski was incredibly helpful with
linking me with dyslexic students. My colleagues in my new home, Shippensburg
University, are more than supportive and encouraging, and have helped me to ﬁnish.

Finally, I must thank my family. My parents and sisters who have always been a
source of inspiration, an amazing Grandmother who is always striving to learn more, and
a set of adorable nephews and nieces who remind me to enjoy life. And last, there is Dr.
Thomas P. Feeney, who will soon be family. He has my heart and provides no

altemative than to ﬁnish.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ . x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................ . .......................... 1

Technology, Society, Maps and Dyslexia ..................................................... 1

The Research Objective and General Expectations 3

Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................. . 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ . 6

Interactive Multimedia 7

Geographic Education ........................................................................ . 12
Interactive Multimedia in Education ............................................. 14
Mapping for Special Needs ........................................................................ 18
Dyslexia ................................................................................................... . 22
General Characteristics .................................................................. . 22
Historic Overview of Identiﬁcation and Provisions .................. 24
Summary ...................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 3: METHODS AND PROCEDURES ................................................... 29
Research Questions and Speciﬁc Expectations ................................. 29
The Geographic Materials .......................................................... 32
Evaluation of the Number of Information Presentation Types .................. 33

StudentTestIng 39
Analyzing the Results ............................................................ 42

Summary ..................................................................................................... 42

vi

CHAPTER 4: THE GEOGRAPHY LESSON 44
Data Collection for the Lesson ................................................ 45
Curriculum Justiﬁcation for the Lesson ....................................... 46

Characteristics ofthe Formats 47

Format of Test Questions and Response Recording ........................ 49
Evaluations and Revisions to the Lesson ..................................... 50
Evaluation of Lesson from Teachers and Tutors ........................ 50
The Revisions ........................................................... 55

Summary ..................................................................................................... 56

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
OF STUDENT TESTING ................................................ 57
Pre-test Versus Sectional Posttests ............................................................... 57

Accuracy and Response Times of Dyslexic and Non-dyslexic Students 58

Accuracy ................................................................ 59
Response Times ................................................................................ 66
Attitude Questions ............................................................... 7]
Student Comments on Testing Materials ..................................... 74
Discussion ......................................................................... 78
Summary ....................................................................................................... 81

CHAPTER 6: REFLECTIONS ON THE EXPERIMENT AND CONCLUSIONS . 83

Testing Considerations .............................................................................. 83
Conclusions and Signiﬁcance ................................................................. 85
LIST OF REFERENCES ......................................................................................... . 89

vii

APPENDIX A

The Geographic Lesson ........................................................ 96
APPENDIX B
Test Questions ........................................................................................ 124
APPENDIX C
Student Testing Results ........................................................ 140
APPENDIX D
Consent Forms
Focus Group .................................................................................... 169
Parent/ Student ............................................................................... 1 7 1

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Numbers and combinations of presentation types .......................
Table 3.2 Combination codes for the test questions in each of the four
sections ..................................................................

Table 3.3 Number of questions, by format, of the combination of presentation
types .................................................................

Table 4.1 List of geography standards and the sections(s) reﬂecting them in
the Michigan dunes geography lesson ..........................

Table 4.2 Main questions asked by the facilitator during the focus group

evaluation ...........................................................
Table 5.1 Results from the logit log-linear analysis on student accuracy.
Table 5.2 Detailed examination of the logit log-linear analysis

{ASM} {AMP} {AB} ..............................................
Table 5.3 ANOVA results on variables inﬂuencing response times. Those

variables and their interactions that signiﬁcantly affect the

response time in the four section tests are highlighted

ix

35

36

38

46

52

65

68

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Screen capture from Section 1 of the multimedia format ............... 48
Expected improvements between dyslexic and non-dyslexic groups. 60
Observed accuracy odds for the best ﬁt model {ASM} {AMP} {AB} 67
Observed average response times of signiﬁcant variables

from the ANOVA ........................................................ 70
Histogram of dyslexic and non-dyslexic accuracy performance

per lesson section ........................................................ 76

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Technology, Society, Maps and Dyslexia

Mapmaking constantly adapts to both technological and social changes. With the
transition into the new millennium, we ﬁnd digital products inﬁltrating all aspects of life.
In residential homes to cyber cafes to school classrooms, the personal computer has
become commonplace, and such multimedia devices as sound cards, scanners, CD-
ROMs, DVDs, and digital cameras are gaining in popularity. "Web" and "Internet" have
become household terms, and one can locate information on virtually any topic by
"surﬁng the ne ." Mapmaking, like so many other endeavors at this stage in history, has
come to depend on digital technology, and it is increasingly common to ﬁnd new map
products in a multimedia milieu or on the Internet.

Technology, in itself, is a social change as well as an engineering feat. Other
social changes, including commonly held beliefs and viewpoints, are affecting
cartography as well. In the last several decades, there has been a more compassionate
approach to understanding and accommodating populations with disabilities.
Geographers have begun to react to this social change and, as chapter 2 will show, a few
isolated studies have focused on geography for, and by, disabled people. In cartography,
we ﬁnd the notion of the "average map reader" to have lost its emphasis not just because
the psychology of maps has lost some of its centrality in cartographic research but
because cartographers are part of this social trend toward accommodation, a notion

antithetical to that of "average map reader" or "best map for the majority of people."

The topical roots for this dissertation research come ﬁom living with and
embracing these changes in technology and society. Combining the requirement of a
dissertation with a lifetime passion for geography, maps, and art, this project started out
as a vague notion about looking at the presence of multimedia in geography and assessing
the effectiveness of multimedia in teaching. Many young scholars have been attempting
to assess the same general phenomenon. One must look no further than the papers given
at a national geography meeting or at the titles of graduate theses and dissertations to ﬁnd
the evidence. The numbers of studies suggest that the topic indeed has currency; on the
other hand, they suggest that such studies may become as endless as the investigations of
circle sizes and gray tones in the 1960s and 19705.

Another event inﬂuenced the choice of topic, however. While engaged in
identifying and investigating the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of
cartography during my doctoral studies, I found myself winding down varying paths and
delving into a variety of geographic literature. Surviving lessons on radical geography
and post-modem thought, my essentially positivist attitude caused my attention to focus
on the emerging literature on geography for and by disabled populations. It is the
interesting dynamic between multimedia and maps for disabled populations that separates
this dissertation ﬁom other studies of geographic multimedia.

Wonderﬁrl opportunities arose with the Grand Traverse Dyslexia Association
where I observed tutors using multisensory techniques and accommodating different
cognitive learning styles to help students with learning disabilities. Two things became
apparent. First, the students with learning disabilities often complained about how

difﬁcult and boring they found geography (a disheartening blow to someone so

passionate about the subject). Second, for other subjects that students generally found
difﬁcult, there were technical aids such as audiotapes (for reading and phonics) and
interactive computer programs (for math). It was noticeable that there were no technical
devices or software in use to support students with dyslexia in learning geography.

This absence of geography-oriented technical support for students with learning
disabilities clinched my resolve to look into multimedia for dyslexics. Computers and
maps are important tools in geography. The recent ﬂood of computers and the dispersion
of their use allow geographers and cartographers to create, relatively easily and cheaply,
products speciﬁcally targeted to help particular populations. My underlying general
hypothesis, of course, was that multimedia would be helpful to the dyslexic population

attempting to learn geography. The challenge was to see if the hypothesis was correct.

The Research Objective and General Expectations

The objective of this study, then, was to assess the usefulness of interactive
multimedia in teaching geography to dyslexic students. Since dyslexia is a learning
disorder that limits people's ability to process written language, and since dyslexic
learning strategies include multisensory techniques to stimulate multiple or alternative
pathways to the brain, it seemed reasonable to ask whether presenting geographic
information in the combination of different formats made possible by multimedia might
be helpful for dyslexics.

The experiment involved a geography lesson that was developed in two formats:
traditional text and interactive multimedia. Both formats relied heavily on graphic

information such as maps, graphs, and diagrams. In the two formats, students

encountered information in a variety of presentation types, including static maps,
animation, text, and sound. They could also encounter combinations of presentation
types. For example, in the text format a static map could be accompanied by a
description in written text. In the multimedia format, a map might be animated, with
sound supplementing the written description. Presentation types were identiﬁed and
cataloged to evaluate learning differences between dyslexic and non-dyslexic students.

Comparison of the effectiveness of the two formats was based on accuracy and
response times. 1 evaluated the overall effectiveness of the two lesson formats as well as
the effectiveness of combining information presentation types. Attitudes of both dyslexic
and non-dyslexic students to the two formats were also assessed.

The results ﬁ'om this study should identify potential beneﬁts of utilizing
multimedia to help students, in general, and dyslexics in particular, learn important
geographic concepts. It was expected that the two methods of instruction would produce
few differences for non-dyslexic students but the multimedia approach would ease
frustration for dyslexic students and allow them to gain a knowledge base competitive
with that of non-dyslexic students. It was also expected that as the number of combined
information presentation types increased, the response times and accuracy would improve
in both dyslexic and non-dyslexic students. On a more general level, this study should
contribute to the growing knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of interactive

multimedia tools in geographic education.

Organization of the Dissertation

Having established the overall objective in this chapter (Chapter 1), Chapter 2
reviews several threads of literature ﬁom which the research has drawn. Chapter 3 lists
the speciﬁc research questions along with the methods and procedures used in the
experiment. Chapter 4 describes the geographic lesson used in this experiment, including
how the information was compiled, the use of the geography standards, the creation of
the text and multimedia format, and the revision of the lesson after a focus group
evaluation. Chapter 5 presents the results from the student testing. A logit analysis was
used on students' accuracy and response times to a posttest following the geographic
lesson. Student attitudes toward the two formats are compared using results of the
preference questions. Chapter 6 concludes by examining the testing considerations,
recommending possible testing alternatives and ﬁrture applications of the ﬁndings, and

the signiﬁcance of the results.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Technological and philosophical developments have led to changes in the way
cartographers create, utilize, and evaluate map products. Interactive multimedia, the
increased priority given to geographic education in recent years, and the desire to create
products for disabled populations are the three areas of change that I will review from the
cartographic literature.

The array of articles pertaining to the potential teaching capabilities of interactive
multimedia ﬁom diverse disciplines is overwhehning. Little research has been conducted
on how interactive multimedia affects the learning of geography by dyslexic populations,
but an extensive collection of literature from both applied and theory-oriented research in
education, geography, psychology, and medicine has been compiled.

A review of recent trends in geographic education was necessary as one of the
ﬁrst steps in evaluating interactive multimedia as a geographic educational tool for
today's goals and objectives. Several steps have been taken in the last two decades to
enhance geographic education. This chapter will review developments in the importance
of geographic education and in the prevalence of geographic teaching in the American
school system. I will also discuss the educational support for utilizing interactive
multimedia in the classroom.

It is important in this research to examine how geographers are beginning to
extend the discipline to populations outside the usual able-bodied majority, and how

maps have the potential to help some populations with disabilities overcome their

impairments. There is evidence in the literature that there is a growing concern for a
broader population.

I will ﬁnish this chapter deﬁning dyslexia, reviewing some of the general
characteristics of dyslexia, and reviewing some of the research oriented toward learning
strategies for people with dyslexia. Studies of the effectiveness of multimedia for

learning geography can draw upon a range of general research on dyslexia.

Interactive Multimedia

New cartographic products have developed over the last several decades as
computer technology has become more prevalent and affordable. One example of a new
type of cartographic product is interactive multimedia. Multimedia refers to information
products that include a variety of forms, such as text, static images, animations, video,
and sound. Interactive indicates that on-screen buttons and "hot text" are programmed to
link information in a non-linear fashion such that the user can move from one set of
information to another.

Numerous types of interactive multimedia products are commercially and
academically available. Many are for pure entertaimnent while others are for leaming.
The availability of software for producing interactive multimedia has resulted in a
proliferation of electronic atlases (Rystedt, 1995), which oﬁen combine textual materials
with photographs, video and audio clips, animated illustrations and reference maps.
Olson (1997) refers to multimedia as one of the most pervasive computer-related

developments in contemporary cartography.

Krygier (1994) discusses improvements in personal computers that have made the
memory requirements sufﬁcient to create and run interactive multimedia products, and
observes that the number of high-quality software packages for creating such products is
increasing. Specialty books such as Peterson's Interactive and Animated Cartography
(1995) have been appearing, and commercial software packages that can create
interactive products (maps as well as others) and run animations are now available
(Campbell and Egbert, 1990). Many of these programs can import images from both
Macintosh and PC platforms and the programming in most of these packages is relatively
easy to learn, yet it is sophisticated enough to create impressive interactive multimedia
products (DesRoches, 1994). Currently, several available software packages, such as
Macromedia DIRECTOR and CorelMOVE, can easily incorporate interactive slider bars,
graphs, maps, and model simulations that respond to the actions of the user (Krygier,
1994)

Of the array of capabilities that interactive multimedia include, three are often
considered by geographers because of their potential ability to transcend the traditional
static map: sound, interactivity, and animation. DiBiase et a1 (1992) and Krygier (1994)
argue that sound is a useful dynamic variable because it can be used to enhance the
viewer's experience and provide proper pronunciation of unfamiliar words. Sound would
decrease the need for written explanatory text, allowing the viewer to concentrate on
graphic elements (Des Roches, 1994). Often in multimedia, sound is used to indicate a
change between maps or graphs. MacEachren and DiBiase (1991) compare the

introduction of sound into maps to the introduction of sound into the silent movie

industry, and they state that the ability to talk viewers through spatial displays could have
profound challenges to the visual imagination and technical adaptability of cartographers.

Interactive buttons allow one to use the map to access more information. Many
geographers have commented on the importance and usefulness of interactivity. Carter
(1988), MacEachren and DiBiase (1991), and Weber and Buttenﬁeld (1993) claim that
the ideal dynamic sequence should be truly interactive and allow the viewer to modify the
speed of the animation, as well as to stop, back up, or replay sequences. Buttenﬁeld and
Weber (1994) believe the key to successful learning is in the viewer's ability to explore
and engage spatial data, while Monmonier (1990) states that interactive maps allow the
user to search for what they ﬁnd interesting.

Animation is an interesting component to interactive multimedia because it allows
the portrayal of changes over time of attributes on a map. Animation depends on the
human ability to retain an image of an object shortly after it has been removed from the
ﬁeld of view. If a series of static frames is shown in rapid succession, approximately 30
per second, with each image changing slightly from the preceding one, the brain creates
the illusion of a ﬂuid-like motion (Campbell and Egbert, 1990). Successive versions of a
map, like any other slightly changing object, appear to transform smoothly.

Although the literature on interactive multimedia comes predominantly from the
1990s, discussions of cartographic animation date back nearly forty years. The
development of animation is often associated with Norman Thrower, who in 1959
published an article entitled "Animated Cartography." He explained in detail the

procedure for constructing an animated ﬁlm with the use of celluloid technology.

The introduction of computers in the following decades helped facilitate the
production of animated maps and several noteworthy examples arose. Tobler (1970)
designed a computer simulation of urban grth in Detroit, Michigan. More recently,
just to mention two examples, MacEachren and DiBiase (1991) produced an animated
map of the spread of AIDS in Pennsylvania, and Weber and Buttenﬁeld (1993) animated
surface temperatures for the United States.

The interest and success of the previously listed examples helped to promote the
growing awareness and potential contribution of animation and interactive multimedia
among geographers. One of the main display arguments for cartographic animation is
that it presents information in a "natural" way. We are accustomed to seeing things move
and change in space and time and thus for decades cartographers have considered
animation a viable and useful technique for the detection of spatial patterns and temporal
trends (Campbell and Egbert, 1990). Thrower (1959) felt that topics such as the spread
of population, the development of transportation lines, the removal of forests, the
modiﬁcations of political boundaries, the growth of urban areas, and seasonal changes in
climate variables were particularly well suited for animation. MacEachren (1992) argues
that animation is useful for showing relationships especially for those studying earth
sciences where events occurring over time are critical to their exploration. Koussoulakou
and Kraak (1992) also argue for its usefulness and state that animation is widely used in
the Netherlands in the monitoring of water bodies.

The types of animated maps are numerous. Peterson (1995) classiﬁes animations
into two broad categories: temporal and non-temporal. The ﬁrst type of animation,

temporal, expresses the change in location of attributes over time. A few examples could

lO

 

include the spread of Lyme disease in Connecticut, the transport of hazardous waste
along the Columbia River, or the migration of Aﬁican swallows. In these animations the
base map remains ﬁxed and the locations or attributes of symbols move or change over
time.

The second type of animation is non-temporal change. A common, non-temporal
change is the viewer's position in an animated ﬂy-by where the animation displays an
image that gives the illusion of ﬂying in an airplane over an area. Other non-temporal
changes include viewer position with respect to a three dimensional object, such as the
globe or a block diagram of a landforrn. Simple changes in scale created by zooming in
or out on a map are a very commonly used form of non-temporal animation. These
changes in zoom level, von Wyss (1996) claims, are particularly useful in the social
sciences where it is important to look at information at many different scales.

In addition to Peterson's (1995) two broad categories of animations is a third type
which uses movement to draw attention to an item whether or not any mapped feature
changes temporally or non-temporally. Blinking symbols or ﬂashing arrows that are
superﬁcial to the map help draw the viewer's attention to particular items that may be
obscured, appear infrequently, or are not particularly large in size but still deserve notice.

With the variety of types and uses, and with the increasing availability of software
to create animations, it is little wonder that animated mapping has become widespread in
the 19903. We are ready to put it to use in a variety of contexts and to test its potential as

a tool to help teach geographic concepts.

11

Geographic Education

Changes in cartographic products and the increase in distribution of computers
have occurred simultaneously with a resurgence in geographic education. Scholars,
including Bednarz and Peterson (1994), have called this resurgence a reform movement
and a time of great opportunity. Pivotal steps have been taken to increase the quality and
quantity of geographic education and to develop successful curricula in the United States.
A signiﬁcant contribution of geography to education is the promotion of interesting,
innovative teaching methods that motivate students, and many researchers have looked at
the potential contribution of interactive multimedia as a potential educational tool.

Geography is an investigative and integrative discipline that brings together
physical and human features and processes that shape the earth. Preston J arnes (1969), in
writing about the signiﬁcance of geography in American education, stressed that for the
young to become educated citizens in a democracy, they need skills to grasp concepts and
knowledge to seek solutions to social problems. The important part of geography is not
to learn the names and locations of places on the earth, but rather to learn why these
places exist and the basics of how humans use, interact with, and affect their different
environments. Geographic education should teach students to think spatially, to integrate
different types of information and to express effectively their ideas to others.

Alarming reports about the low level of geographic knowledge by United States
students gives ample evidence that geographic education in the past has been less than
adequate (Bednarz and Petersen, 1994). Many geographers and educators have a
growing awareness that a fresh, new approach to geography is needed to inform, inspire,

motivate, and encourage students (Dymon, 1995).

12

Several notable steps have been taken to help bridge the gap between K-12
education, university geography, and employer needs and to educate today's youth for
future success (Bednarz and Petersen, 1994). One of the most commonly-noted steps is
the development of the guidelines established in Geography for Life: The National
Geography Standards 1994 (NGSP, 1994). Although the standards are followed on a
volunteer basis, they provide teachers a foundation on which to plan curriculum and to
measure their students' geographical performance (Bednarz and Petersen, 1994).

Other steps to improve the quality of geographic education have been taken by the
National Geographic Society which has supported educational alliance networks across
the United States (Dulli, 1994). Many K-l2 teachers have little or no training in
geography and have difﬁculty developing their own geography teaching materials.
Geographical alliances provide workshops and curriculum materials to aid those
educators teaching geography. The National Geographic Society also supports and
promotes Geography Awareness Week to help give momentum to the efforts to improve
geographic education.

Maps are fundamental in geography and should be a central element in
geographic education. Downs et a1. (1988) recommends that maps be integrated
throughout K—12 education because they are central to the way people think and make
decisions about their surroundings. Robinson (1967) discusses how a map can help guide
individuals in understanding their environment. He says that geographic education must
include map reading skills to create graphically literate citizens. Rice (1990) claims that
the aim of social studies should be to train students to think critically, and having students

analyze and critique maps will help the students become more discriminating individuals.

13

The empirical research on the effects of maps on student learning of geography
spans over thirty years (Ramirez and Gihnartin, 1996). Gihnartin (1982) found that
college students who read text material and view maps score signiﬁcantly higher on test
questions than those students who only read the text. In another study, Ramirez and
Gilmartin (1996) found a similar pattern in scores on tests taken by seventh grade
students. Although their results were not statistically signiﬁcant, they felt that a distinct
trend was present, with students who viewed maps along with text scoring higher than

those students who read text only.

’v . . . E i

Many researchers, including Rieber (1990) and Krygier et a1 (1997) have looked
at the potential contribution of interactive multimedia as a potential educational tool. The
importance of interactive multimedia packages as a potential learning tool in the 19805
and 19903 has increased as technology has become more affordable and accessible to
both cartographers and students. As it has become more prevalent in classrooms, the
question arises as to the educational beneﬁts of interactive multimedia. Geographers and
educators have discussed what is appropriate media to represent different types of
information. They have hypothesized about how people learn and retain information and
have studied empirical evidence from tests evaluating the educational potential of
interactive multimedia.

Geography is an interdisciplinary subject that examines spatial relationships, and
many geographers and cartographers have argued that interactive multimedia is a good

medium to present spatial information. Since theme, location, and time are the three

14

components of geographical data (Sinton, 1978), the capabilities of multimedia offer
appropriate representational dimensions for all three components. Monmonier (1990),
Dorling (1992), Karl (1992), and Koussoulakou and Kraak (1992) believe that packages
that include animated maps provide a logical means for visual communication of
geographical data.

Interactive multimedia products may also facilitate learning because they
stimulate multiple cognitive processes. Berger, Pezdek and Banks (1987) argue that the
integration of both verbal and pictorial information increases comprehension of
information. They found that the combination of an audio track along with visual
information improves viewers' comprehension and retention of information better than
either mode (audio or visual) individually. This theory, Rieber (1990) explains, is often
termed dual coding and is the idea that words and pictures activate independent verbal
and visual codes for memory storage. A learner can encode the information into long-
terrn memory using both verbal and visual channels, and the redundancy increases the
probability of memory retrieval.

The ﬁndings of Amlund, Gaffney, and Kulhavy (1985) support this dual—coding
cognitive system for the storage and retrieval of information. They believe that the
human brain has one system for visual information and another system for verbal
information and thus the dual coding of visual and verbal information enhances memory
recall. Buttenﬁeld and Weber (1994) state that multimedia expands the memory channels
available to viewers for information processing. They feel that because the human
sensory systems excel at speciﬁc tasks, dividing information among several sensory

modalities may reduce the complexity of the overall message. Lanca and Kirby (1995)

15

agree with the dual coding hypothesis and recognize the importance of verbal information
with reference maps, but they do suggest that it may not be beneﬁcial for all types of
maps. Ramirez and Gilmartin (1996) point out that even if dual coding is not occurring
in the brain, it may still be important to accompany text with graphics for the purpose of
repetition. By displaying the information in both map and text form it provides the
learner with more opportunities to understand and retain the information.

Another consideration for cognition and multimedia is the time involved in
processing and storing information. Information processing is not instantaneous, but
rather it goes through stages of presemantic memory, short-term memory, transient
memory, and ﬁnally long-term memory with different levels of comprehension and
retention at each stage (Monmonier, 1992). Interactive multimedia has the ﬂexibility to
include summary graphics that could refresh previously viewed information. Carter
(1988), MacEachren and DiBiase (1991), and Weber and Buttenﬁeld (1993) feel that
increased retention of information would come from allowing the viewer to control the
speed of the animation with the ability to ﬂip back and forth between frames. They claim
that the ideal dynamic sequence would allow the viewer to choose the speed of the
animation, as well as be able to stop, back up, or replay the sequence.

Interactive multimedia has also been discussed as a potentially useful educational
tool because of its ability to allow the students to direct their studies and explore
geographic data sets using graphical observation (Buttenﬁeld and Weber, 1994). Dymon
(1995) states that electronic atlases, with their interactive capabilities, allow students to

select, build, and design their own maps. Krygier et a1. (1997) claim that multimedia is

16

much more than just a new technology; it is an opportunity to change the way students
think and learn.

With the increase in availability of personal computers and the prevalence of
multimedia products, what are the actual empirical results of multimedia's effectiveness
in the classroom? Several tests have been conducted on whether or not interactive
multimedia products do indeed increase understanding and retention of geographic
information.

Several studies found that student learning improved with the use of interactive
multimedia. Collins, Adams, and Pew (1978) found that students learned signiﬁcantly
more with an interactive map display than with a static map. Rieber (1990) created
lessons for fourth- and ﬁfth-grade students and found that interactive maps are important
in helping students visualize motion and changing spatial information. Proctor, Sutton,
and Michaels (1995) also found that interactive multimedia improved student learning in
an introductory human geography course. They felt that the student essays written aﬁer
viewing the interactive multimedia modules demonstrated an advanced level of mastery
of geographical concepts and skills.

Several studies found that there was no difference in student learning with the use
of interactive multimedia. Koussoulakou and Kraak (1992) conducted a test comparing
animated and static maps. The results showed no differences in correctness of answers
between the two groups but the response time for animated maps was about half that for
static maps. Millreim (1993) found that some animation had no positive effects over text

or still graphics and in some cases it was seen as distracting.

l7

The one consistent ﬁnding in almost all studies is the reported enthusiasm of
students toward multimedia. Milheim (1993) provides a summary of studies focusing on
computer lessons that include animation and multimedia. He recognizes that although
there have been conﬂicting results relative to its effectiveness, the majority of studies
comment on the technology's ability to motivate students. Edgeman (1994) supports this
ﬁnding, as well. In her study there were no signiﬁcant differences in the information

retained by her subjects but users viewing the animated display were more receptive and

 

enthusiastic than those viewing the static display. Buttenﬁeld and Weber (1994) feel that

“if—rim? ar—

the interactive component of multimedia brings out the natural curiosity of the user. Karl
(1992) also comments on the enthusiasm component of interactive multimedia. She
believes that people will ﬁnd interactive multimedia packages exciting and dynamic,

which in turn may rouse children's interest in geography.

Mapping for Special Needs

For centuries, mapping had a place at the forefront of exploration and
geographical knowledge. Maps also show technical expertise on the part of the map
maker and the society in which it was produced. Maps imply power and knowledge, act
as data storage, and are a means of communication. This milieu for maps in which they
affect and are affected by general human endeavors is most easily identiﬁed in the
Renaissance period where new ship building techniques, tide tables, and almanacs
facilitated exploration, which in turn resulted in circurnnavigation of the world, charting
new bays and territories, empirically mapping the coastlines of the world (Johnston,

1997), and in general facilitating the colonial era that would follow. The new technology

18

 

and knowledge of the Renaissance spurred philosophical changes in economies,
administration, and moral beliefs about peoples' places in the world. In the second half of
the twentieth century, technological and philosophical developments also changed the
way in which cartographers produce, study, and think about maps (Morrison, 1989).

Maps, most commonly, have been made for and by those in power. Some of the
philosophical changes in the twentieth century have questioned the status quo and have
looked at using geography and cartography to promote disempowered populations and
utilize alternative methodological approaches. Behavioral and Marxist geographers,
including Peet (1977) and Harvey (1973) urged the development of methods other than
traditional mathematics and inferential statistics. Further, dissatisﬁed geographers in the
late 19805 offered postmodernism, feminism, and more recently positionality, a
philosophical approach that stresses local differences (Johnston, 1997). These
philosophical trends attempt to promote the appreciation of uniqueness, while often
examining the ftmdamental inequalities of race, gender, and class. Cartography is being
inﬂuenced by these changing philosophies.

A major inequality that geography and society has begun to explore is that
between people with some physical or mental disability and the general population. The
treatment of disabilities has changed drastically in the course of human history. In a
hunting-and-gathering or pastoral society, the old, weak, or handicapped person was a
burden to society. Even more recently, throughout the industrial age, handicapped people
were often excluded and separated from ordinary populations. Only in the last several
decades has there been a different, more integrative approach to disabled populations, and

indeed they are now acknowledged and even celebrated. Recognizing the United States

19

as being an information-age society, there is little reason for disabilities to disempower
people. Physical prowess is hardly required for economic and social success, and even
cognitive impairments are understood as limits that can be overcome by use of human
ingenuity.

Golledge (1993) deﬁnes a disability as a physical impairment that limits a
person's ability to perform a speciﬁc task. A disadvantage, on the other hand, is when
someone is unable to complete a task because of physical, cultural, ethnic, political,
religious, or other social constraints. Many services and products are available so people
with disabilities are not disadvantaged. Whether or not a disability becomes a
disadvantage depends upon the individual's desires and society's actions including
making available the assistance to overcome barriers.

The disciple of geography may be able to assist populations with disabilities. In
the past, maps were generally created for the "average" map-reader with little
consideration for those with disabilities (Golledge, 1993). Most studies of people's
cognitive map reading abilities assumed a population with average cognitive
development and processing abilities. Golledge (1993) urges geographers to use their
expertise to identify similarities and differences between an average population and a
disabled population. A general shift away from the focus on the average map reader
should open the door to assistance rather than lack of attention. F urtherrnore, the tools
and knowledge of geography may be especially useful to some people with disabilities.

A map is a useﬁrl tool for communication in geography, and it may be an even
more powerful tool to someone with disabilities. Cartographic alternatives with

disabilities in mind may enhance their abilities and prevent disadvantages. One

20

successful example is the study by Olson and Brewer (1997) that looked at maps for
people with impaired color vision. They found that by designing maps with
accommodating colors they could greatly reduce, if not eliminate, the problems of people
with red-green vision impairment. With appropriately designed maps, subjects could
identify mapped colors and answer map questions with as much accuracy as those with
normal color vision, and the response-time gap between the two groups was greatly
reduced.

Ungar et al. (1997) looked at the spatial knowledge of blind and visually-impaired
people. In their study, they worked with thirty visually-impaired adults who were blind
from birth or were blind before the age of six. Participants were introduced to an urban
environment in one of three ways: by direct experience, by studying a tactile map, or by
hearing a verbal description. The three introduction methods did not affect the
participants' overall representation of space, but the tactile map users were signiﬁcantly
more proﬁcient at following and walking complex routes. The results may be no
different than they would have been for sighted participants, but it illustrates the
importance of the map as a medimn for enabling blind persons to navigate.

Maps may also be useful for disabled people who have learning disabilities that
make it difﬁcult to study geography through formal written language. Amlund, Gaffney,
and Kulhavy (1985) found that maps facilitate poor readers' recall of spatial information
found in text. Birley and Tasker (1995) examined ﬁve different learning disabilities and
found that maps can serve as a graphic translation of spatial information for those with
difﬁculty in reading and writing. In addition to just maps and text, multisensory

approaches that include sound have been successfully implemented in the public schools

21

to help students with learning disabilities to improve their reading and writing skills

(V ickery and Reynolds, 1987). Sound can potentially alleviate problems of
understanding text and also supplement visually difﬁcult words found in graphics. Such
potential makes multimedia a plausible education tool that should be explored to help

those with learning disabilities to acquire new knowledge and skills.

Dyslexia

It is generally agreed that many school children are not reading, writing and
spelling as well as they should (Critchley, 1981). Some children, however, are not just
developmentally slow or uninterested, but actually have a learning disability that inhibits

their skills. Dyslexia is one such learning disability.

3 l :1 . .

Dyslexia is characterized by speciﬁc difﬁculties with written language, including
reading, writing, and spelling (Catts, 1989). People with dyslexia typically have
difﬁculty processing language into thought (reading or listening) and conversely,
translating thoughts into language (writing or speaking).

The earliest symptoms of dyslexia are when children begin lagging behind peers
during early reading lessons and when they are late in learning to name the letters of the
alphabet. Reversals and inversions of letters are common characteristics. For example a

p may be reversed and written as a "q" or inverted and written as a "b" or even reversed

and inverted and written as a "d." Critchley (1981) points out that reversals, inversions,

22

and rotations of individual letters and numbers persist long aﬁer other children have
corrected these mistakes.

Throughout schooling, students with dyslexia have difﬁculty linking up familiar
combinations of letters, such as th and ight. They tend to be reluctant to read aloud, and
they avoid reading, writing, and spelling assignments. When dyslexic students do engage
in a language assignment it generally takes longer, and, if pressured to speed up, they will
tend to become less accurate. It is important to note that studies show no difference in
the mean or variance of IQs between dyslexic and non-dyslexic students, nor do the
students differ with respect to performance on visual, vocabulary, or memory measures
(Critchley, 1 98 1).

Critchley (1981) points out a few other symptoms that are commonly associated
with dyslexia. One is the tendency to use incorrect words, such as ofﬁcer for ofﬁcial,
approximate for appropriate, and ﬁngers for fringe. Another symptom is the substitution
of synonymous or near synonymous words such as beer instead of ale and buy instead of
bought. A symptom commonly found in older people with dyslexia is the tendency not to
detect misspelled words. Even when the dyslexic reader is capable of spelling the word
correctly, the mistake often goes unnoticed.

In most individuals, both spoken and written language is processed in the left
hemisphere of the brain while the right henrisphere processes spatial activities and tactile
recognition (Masland, 1981). Moats and Lyons (1993) report that the difference between
dyslexics and non-dyslexics appears to be in the activated left- and right- brain regions
during tasks related to reading. Students with dyslexia tend to process language in their

right hemisphere. Critchley (1981) also notes that ambidexterity seems to be more

23

common in dyslexics than non-dyslexics, which again is attributed to the difference in
cerebral brain activity.

Dyslexia is found more or less equally among race, gender, ethnic, and economic
groups, and is present from birth to adulthood. Increase in public awareness has resulted
in more people being properly diagnosed (Moats and Lyon, 1993). Academic difﬁculties
experienced by students with dyslexia in elementary and secondary settings persist into
adulthood (Catts, 1989). Dyslexia does seem to be hereditary and there is usually a

family history of similar problems with reading, writing, and spelling (Critchley, 1981).

' w ' i . vi io

Dyslexia is often termed an "invisible disability" because it is not easily detected
and many of those who are dyslexic learn to compensate for their deﬁciencies by
promoting their strengths in other skills. Only with the basic understandings of cognitive
properties and some inferences on the workings of the human brain has treatment of
dyslexia been possible. Previously, people with dyslexia were viewed as less intelligent,
mentally slower, and often unmotivated. Only in the last two decades have they been
recognized as equally intelligent with only a mental-processing difference. The
identiﬁcation and treatment of dyslexia has changed as knowledge of the inner-workings
of the human brain has become more scientiﬁc and reliable. Current learning strategies
for dyslexic students are founded on this growing knowledge of the human brain.

As early as 440 BC. Hippocrates wrote that diseases such as epilepsy and stroke
were products of disorders in the brain (Levinthal, 1990). With little empirical research

and difﬁculty visualizing the brain's activities, Hippocrates' ideas were seldom

24

acknowledged. It was not until the middle of the 18003 that researchers began to
systematically examine the brain as the main organ responsible for physical
characteristics and disorders.

In 1861, Broca established that aphasia, a language disorder, was the result of
deterioration in the frontal lobe of the brain's left hemisphere. This discovery started the
modern era of neuroanatomy and provided the physical basis for language (Levinthal,
1990). The origins of identiﬁcation and treatment of dyslexia is attributed to Dr. Samuel
T. Orton, who in 1925 integrated neurological and psychological research from stroke
patients and those with reading difﬁculties (Rawson, 1981). He began multidisciplinary
work collaborating with schools, clinics, and private practices. After his death in 1948,
his work was continued by his wife, Jane Orton, psychologist Anna Gillingharn, and
teacher, Bessie Stillman. The Orton Dyslexia Society was founded in 1949. At the time
it was the only open-membership, professional association devoted exclusively to
problems of language-based learning disorders (Rawson, 1981).

Although research was being conducted on dyslexia, the condition was largely
ignored in the late 19603 and 19703 by educators in both the United States and Great
Britain (Miles and Miles, 1990). Even as late as 1975, a report aimed for British civil
servants dismissed dyslexia and stated that it was incapable of a precise deﬁnition; rather,
symptoms should be referred to as "speciﬁc reading retardation" (Critchley, 1981). Miles
and Miles (1990) suggest that educators tended to be cautious about labeling a child
dyslexic because it could imply a permanent stigma on the student.

Twenty-ﬁve years ago there were few alternative learning strategies, and dyslexic

students had difﬁculties succeeding. Laws now mandate that K-12 children with learning

25

disabilities have accommodations in every aspect of the regular education experience and
have the opportunity to beneﬁt equally from education. The Orton Dyslexia Society
stresses a multisensory learning approach that stimulates all sensory pathways to the
brain to enhance memory and to help the dyslexic student succeed.

Today, many students with dyslexia receive assistance from tutors and/or
computer programs, always with a multisensory approach. Computer-assisted devices
provide a liberating effect for dyslexic students and generally increase their productivity.
Rather than the students falling behind because they are entangled with reading the
materials, computer devices help build their knowledge and vocabulary (Moats and Lyon,
1993). If programs or trained tutors are not available, Rawson (1981) urges that parents
and teachers read to dyslexic students to insure that they keep up with information that
their peers are receiving. Alternative learning styles will, of course, not cure any
disabilities, but they can enhance dyslexic student's knowledge and make their learning a
less stressful experience. As they succeed in learning with alternative styles they will
become more conﬁdent as students. As students gain skills, their tendency is to liberate
themselves from aides and tutoring devices. Students with dyslexia share the same
interests, desires, and capacities as their peers and generally want freedom from such
encumbrances.

In 1995, Higgins and Zvi reported that over 100,000 learning disabled students
graduate from high school every year and 67% of them plan to attend postsecondary
institutions. These ﬁgures are evidence that students with dyslexia want to, and can,

succeed in school. The numbers of students with dyslexia in the K-12 schools, and their

26

aspirations for higher education, puts pressure on the public school system to provide
them with a fulﬁlling education.

Interactive multimedia packages may be able to offer a number of potential
beneﬁts to dyslexic students that may facilitate their learning (Steeves, 1990). Interactive
programs with hypertext allow the student to click on a word to get not only the
pronunciation but also an explanation of its meaning in spoken language. CD-ROMs as
well as the World Wide Web and other on-line educational services can provide vast
amounts of graphics and sound that can enhance creative and investigative learning
without the ﬁ'ustration of having to read large amounts of text. In this process, students
utilize a variety of cognitive processes and acquire useful knowledge and skills.

Undoubtedly, several factors will determine the success of students with dyslexia.
With all things being equal, the dyslexic with the higher IQ will have a greater chance of
succeeding. Also, early diagnosis is useﬁrl, and a sympathetic and encouraging attitude
by the parents and the teachers will most likely help. As in all educational success,
personality traits on the part of the students with dyslexia and their determination to

succeed and master difﬁcult tasks will affect their degree of success.

Summary

In the last several decades, there have been overwhelming technological changes,
which have led to changes in all scientiﬁc disciplines. This chapter reviewed the
development of interactive multimedia in cartography and in education curriculum, along
with its potential learning beneﬁts for dyslexic students. Powerful personal computers

and an array of software programs have made interactive multimedia readily available to

27

cartographers. Interactive multimedia is an appropriate medium to represent spatial
information and it seems to evoke enthusiasm on the part of students; thus it seems
plausible that it would be a good educational tool to help teach geography.

The technical changes coincided with a resurgence in geographic education.
Teaching aides and geographic standards have been prepared and suggested, helping
educators improve the quality and quantity of geographic education. Maps, in particular,
have been noted as fundamental, and particularly useful, in teaching K-12 student about
their environment. Recent studies have begun to look at the importance of bringing
interactive multimedia into the classroom to facilitate learning.

Developments in psychological and medical research on the human brain have
aided geographers in understanding how people read maps and learn geographic
concepts. Many of these developments can target speciﬁc populations. Dyslexic
students, research has shown, beneﬁt from learning in a multisensory fashion. By
presenting information in a variety of formats (text, sound, and graphics) it stimulates
multiple learning pathways to the brain and enhances memory. Interactive multimedia
has capabilities for presenting information in a multisensory way and therefore may be a

beneﬁcial tool for teaching geography to students with dyslexia.

28

CHAPTER 3: METHODS AND PROCEDURES

This study was undertaken to test the usefulness of multimedia as an educational
tool for presenting geographic material to eighth grade students with dyslexia The same
material was presented to non-dyslexic eighth grade students to compare effects.
Utilizing a geography lesson that was developed in two formats (traditional text and
interactive multimedia) the assessment of the effectiveness of the two formats was based
on accuracy, response times, and attitudinal reactions of both the dyslexic and non—
dyslexic students. This chapter outlines the research questions posed and describes the
methods and procedures used in the study. A brief description of the materials (the
development of materials is covered in detail in chapter 4) is followed by the methods
used to categorize the information presented to the students. The chapter will conclude

with a description of the student testing procedures and methods of analysis.

Research Questions and Specific Expectations
Five main sets of questions were posed in the research and each was associated
with a speciﬁc expectation:
1. Accuracy
1a. Does the multimedia format help a dyslexic student answer test questions
with greater accuracy than the traditional text format?
1b. Does the multimedia format help a non-dyslexic student answer test questions
with greater accuracy than the traditional text format?

1c. Does it help the students with dyslexia more than the non-dyslexic students?

29

Expectation: Multimedia will help dyslexics. If it helps non-dyslexics as well, the
effect will be less than for dyslexics.
2. Response Time

2a. Does a dyslexic student respond to test questions more quickly after using the
multimedia format rather than the traditional text format?

2b. Does a non-dyslexic student respond to test questions more quickly after
using the multimedia format than after the traditional text format?

2c. Does the response time improve more for the dyslexics than for the non-
dyslexics?

Expectation: Multirnedia will help dyslexics respond to questions more quickly

than traditional text. If it helps non-dyslexics as well, the effect will be less than

for dyslexics.

3. Presentation Types and Accuracy

3a. Does the accuracy of responses from a dyslexic student increase as the
number of combined information presentation types increases?

3b. Does the accuracy of responses from a non-dyslexic student increase as the
number of combined information presentation types increases?

30. Does the increased number of presentation types increase the accuracy of
dyslexic students more than the accuracy of non-dyslexic students?

Expectation: A higher number of presentation types will increase the accuracy of

dyslexic students and non-dyslexic students. The effect, however, will be greater

for the dyslexic students.

30

4. Presentation Types and Response Times

4a. Do response times increase for dyslexic students as the number of combined
information presentation types increase?

4b. Do response times increase for non-dyslexic students as the number of
combined information presentation types increase?

4c. Do response times increase more for a dyslexic student than for a non-
dyslexic student as the number of combined information presentation types
increase?

Expectations: The increased number of combined information presentation types

will help dyslexic students and non-dyslexic students increase their response

times. The effect is expected to be greater for the dyslexic students.

5. Preference and Overall Enthusiasm

5a. Do dyslexic students prefer or express enthusiasm about one format over
another?

5b. Do non-dyslexic students prefer or express enthusiasm about one format over
another?

So. Is there a difference in enthusiasm between dyslexic and non—dyslexic
students toward one format over another?

Expectations: While it is expected that all students will express preference for the

multimedia format over traditional text, it is expected that there will be greater

enthusiasm ﬁ'om the dyslexic students than the non-dyslexic students toward the

multimedia format.

31

The Geographic Materials

A geography lesson created both in a traditional text format and in a multimedia
format focused on Michigan’s coastal dunes. Both formats included graphics such as
maps, pictures, and diagrams. The content of the lesson was divided into four sections,
of roughly equal length, allowing an experimental design in which each student was
exposed to two sections in the traditional text format and two in the multimedia format.
The completion of the four sections exposed the student to the holistic nature of
geography rather than to a narrow sub-area such as dune geomorphology. The geography
education standards were considered in compiling the material, and the lesson addressed
several of the standards.

The traditional text format was printed on 8.5 x 11 inch paper. Each section was
approximately 6-8 pages in length including text, maps, and pictures. Due to the high
costs of printing and copying color maps and photographs, the number of images in the
traditional text format was limited, which is typical of the format. In this format, most of
the information was encoded in the text.

Students were to proceed through this format the way they would normally read a
textbook. They were to read each section, page by page, and examine the graphic
images. Although individual students would have different reading skills, each section
was designed to take approximately 15-20 minutes.

The interactive multimedia format was presented on a seventeen-inch computer
monitor with an 800- by 600-pixel resolution. Students were to proceed through the
lesson by selecting on-screen buttons. In addition to static maps, graphs, images, and text

there were animated maps and audio sound bites. The number of images was more

32

generous than in the text format, as is typical with interactive multimedia. Again,
individual times would differ, but each section was designed to take 15-20 minutes.
The multimedia format was created using a program called Macromedia
DIRECTOR for a PC Windows environment and the ﬁnal product was stored on a CD-
ROM. The lesson was stored as Projector ﬁles, as they could then be distributed and
played on any Windows machine, regardless of whether or not the computer had the

DIRECTOR program.

Evaluation of the Number of Information Presentation Types

Students viewing either format of the lesson were exposed to information
displayed in a variety of presentation types, such as text, maps, diagrams, and pictures,
and only animation and sound were unique to the computer format. The information
students could attain from the geography lesson, therefore, needed to be placed into
categories, and the four used were text, graphics, audio, and process.

Text, or written presentation, includes three subtypes that differ in appearance and
content. The ﬁrst is key words, such as map titles and place names, graph axes, and
major section headings. The second is explanatory notes such as image captions or
legend captions. The third type of text information is the narrative, or the main body of
written material.

Graphic presentation includes two main subtypes, spatial and non-spatial. This
division isolates information that varies conceptually as well as in selection, abstraction,
and generalization. The spatial graphics include maps (selective representation of spatial

features) and pictures (analogic representation of spatial features), whereas the non-

33

spatial graphics include graphs and diagrams (the space within the graphic is used to
represent non-spatial information).

Audio presentation includes three main subtypes. The ﬁrst is audio explanation,
which includes oral descriptions of the information that may range from one or two
sentences to entire paragraphs. The second is oral key words or phases, including titles,
headings and unusual or difﬁcult names that appear in text, maps, graphs, or diagrams.
The third is supplemental sounds, such as birds chirping, wind howling or waves crashing
on the shore, which may allow the viewer to make inferences or to create associations
that may enhance the retention of other information, or they may simply inﬂuence overall
enthusiasm.

Process presentation is that which represents an action or changes over time and
space. It is divided into two subtypes. The ﬁrst, the static form, is composed of
successive snapshots of different stages of a process. The second, motion, is either an
animated map or video clip.

The inherent limitations of the two formats, traditional text versus multimedia,
determines the way information can be presented. The traditional text contains the three
variations of text, the two types of graphics, and the static form of process presentation.
The interactive multimedia contain all types: text, graphics, audio, and process.

In addition to these four main categories, information in the lesson was often
presented in a combination of two or more. The four single category types can be
combined into six pairs, three triplets, and one set of four. Table 3.1 lists the possible

numbers and types of possible combinations.

34

 

1.1. Text only
1.2. Graphics only
1.3. Audio only
1.4. Process only

2) Two types 2.1 Text and graphics
2.2 Text and audio

2.3 Text and process

2.4 Graphics and audio
2.5 Graphics and process
2.6 Audio and process

3) Three types 3.1 Text, graphics, and audio
3.2 Text, graphics, and process
3.3 Graphics, audio, and process

 

 

 

4) Four types 4.1 Text, graphics, audio, and process

 

Table 3.1: Numbers and combinations of presentation types.

The number of presentation types received may affect a person’s ability to gain
and retain information. It was recognized that the results of a test given to the students to
determine the effectiveness of the traditional text versus the multimedia must take into
consideration the number of presentation types. It was necessary therefore, to evaluate
the questions for the number of presentation types by which the information might have
been received. It was hypothesized that number of presentation types would have an
effect on the student’s scores on the test. Test questions given to students were identiﬁed
and recorded with the combination code (e.g., 1.2 or 3.4) of ways in which they might
have learned the answer. The test questions are listed in Appendix B and the list of

identiﬁed combination codes for the test questions is displayed in Table 3.2.

35

Section 1

I :3.1‘Tex_t,Grap'hIcs and :Audio

 

  
 
       
  
  

1.1 Text only
2.1 T§xt and Graphics
.2 .71 Textand Graphics
2.1 Tait and Graphics
1.1 Text Only
, 7 2.1 Text and

   
 

   

Lin-Dru

'hicsf

hi9 ,

 

1.4 Process Only

 

1.4 Process Only
:33” hi ‘

‘ly

 

3.3 :Graphics, Audio, and Process , Q
3. 2 Text, Graphics, and Process
33 Graphics, Audio, and Process 3
2. 2 Text and Audio
3.1 Text, Graphics, and Audio ' %

    
   

 

 

   
   
  
     

l. I Text Only0
1.1 TeXCOnly
2.1 Text and Graphics
71.1 Text Only
1.1 Text_Only
1.1 TextQIrly
2.1 Textgand Graphics
7 1.1 TextDnl .

 

   

1.1 Text only
2. 2 Text and Audio 3
3.1 Text, Graphics, and Audio >
1.1 Text Only, 2
3.1 Text, Graphics, and Audio
1.1 Text Only I
3.1 Text and Graphics

 

Table 3.2: Combination codes for the test questions in each of the four sections.

36

An example of separating test questions by combinations can be seen in the ﬁrst
section of the Michigan dunes lesson. In the traditional text, the student reads that
Michigan has over 3,200 miles of coastline. This information is presented in text only
(1.1). In the multimedia format, the student views a tape measure animated around the
Upper and Lower Peninsula of Michigan measuring out 3,200 miles. Once it is
measured, the student views the written text giving the length of the coastline and a voice
emphasizes the number 3,200. In this format, this particular piece of information is
presented in text, audio, and process animation (3 .4). In the evaluation of information
gained and retained, test questions were separated to reﬂect the number of combinations
and the speciﬁc presentation types.

A compilation of the number of questions by combinations of presentation types
appears in Table 3.3. While the number of presentation types is relatively well
distributed within each format, it becomes obvious in the table that speciﬁc combinations
were not sufﬁciently represented and some combinations were not represented at all. For
example, text only was represented by 15 questions while audio only was never
represented in the text version.

Although it would be desirable to include both the number of presentation types
and speciﬁc combinations in the analysis, it was recognized that the proposed testing
methods would not accommodate that level of detail. The number of questions needed to
sufﬁciently separate out speciﬁc combinations, such as text and graphics vs. text and
sound, would have been overwhelming to the students taking the test. It would also have

been difﬁcult to build the geography lesson to cover all possible combinations, and hence

37

only the number of presentation types, not the combinations, was retained as a variable in

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

the study.
Presentation Type Traditional Text Multimedia
1.1 (text only) 15 6
1.2 (graphics only) 0 0
1.3 (audio only) 0 0
1.4 (process only) 0 1
Total: 1 Presentation Type 15 7
2.1 (text and graphics) 17 8
2.2 (text and audio) 0 3
2.3 (text and process) 0 0
2.4 (graphics and audio) 0 0
2.5 (graphics and process) 0 0
2.6 (audio and process) 0 0
Total: 2 Presentation Types l7 1 1
3.1 (text, graphics, and audio) 0 7
3.2 (text, graphics, and process) 0 l
3.3 (graphic, audio, and process) 0 3
Total: 3 Presentation Types 0 11
4.1 (text, graphics, audio, and process) 0 2
Total: 4 Presentation Types 0 2

 

 

 

 

 

Table 3.3: Number of questions, by format, of the combination of presentation types.

38

Student Testing

Twenty-four dyslexic and twenty-two non-dyslexic eighth grade students studied
the Michigan dunes geography lesson and were tested on its content. The students
answered multiple choice questions in a pretest and on four section tests. Both accuracy
and response times were recorded. All questions and multiple choice answers were given
orally as well as visually by the computer in an attempt to minimize any reading
disparities between subjects on the tests; any differences then, should be attributable to
the nature of the lessons and not the delivery of test questions. All four multiple choice
answers were displayed on the screen before the students could select a button. This
prohibited students from answering questions before all four choices were given. The
appearance of the text on the screen may still favor those who excel in reading skills but
it does not favor them to the degree that a read-only test would.

To gauge the prior level of knowledge about the subject material, the students
were given a pretest prior to the start of the lessons. Two different pretests were given,
one to half the dyslexic students and half the non-dyslexic students and the second to the
remaining half of each group. The test questions were divided into two tests so that any
one student would not be overwhehned at the start of this study by having to answer so
many questions on a potentially unfamiliar topic. Each pretest consisted of sixteen
lesson-related items and four more geography items, such as "The foreign country
bordering Michigan is. . ." and "The capitol of Michigan is. . ." These latter items were
included to make the pretest easier and to keep students from feeling discouraged, since

many of the dune questions were likely to be on unfamiliar material.

39

Each student then completed two sections of the lessons in each format (four
sections in all). The order in which they proceeded through the lesson was as folloWs:
half the dyslexic and half of the non-dyslexic students completed Section 1 in the
traditional text format, Section 2 in the multimedia formation, Section 3 in the traditional
text, and Section 4 in the multimedia format. The other half of each group completed
Section 1 in the multimedia format, Section 2 in the traditional text format, Section 3 in
the multimedia format, and Section 4 in the traditional text format. The alternating
design for the two groups was to eliminate any potential learning or familiarity
improvements with the two formats, and the order of viewing the two formats was not
expected to affect the results.

A test consisting of eight questions was administered after each of the four
sections. The eight questions were identical to eight questions given in the two pretests.
Since any given student only completed half the pretest questions, four of the questions in
each section were repetitive and four were new to that individual. The questions were in
a different order from those in the pretest.

Due to the nature of a multiple choice test, the answers to questions were limited.
Questions did not have the student recall information, such as "Draw a picture of a
parabolic dune." Instead, recognition questions were used, such as "Which picture below
represents a parabolic dune?" In Section 1 and Section 2, two of the eight questions were
what Manson (1973) refers to as remembering questions. In these four questions, the
student was presented the information in the section and had to remember facts or ideas.

The remainder of the four questions engaged the students in processing the information.

40

The students were asked questions that required them to synthesize or to understand the
information in a context different from the one in which they had learned it.

The student testing ended with a list of on-screen preference questions. A series
of adjectives, such as interesting, boring, and trustworthy, appeared one at a time on the
screen. Students were asked to select which format they felt the word best described.
They had four choices: the traditional text, the multimedia, both, or neither. After
completing these preference questions, the student was also encouraged to speak ﬁ'eely
about their reactions to the two formats and to comment on the overall testing procedure.
This discussion was taped to avoid hindering the conversations by having to take written
notes.

The dyslexic and non-dyslexic eighth grade students were recruited on a volunteer
basis ﬁ‘om the Grand Traverse Dyslexia Association (GTDA) in conjunction with the
Traverse City, Michigan, public schools. GTDA was chosen for this study because it is a
member of the Orton Dyslexia Association and it is the only dyslexic program
incorporated into a public school system in the state of Michigan. Testing materials were
given to the students in consultation with their teachers to best ﬁt the curriculum and
cause minimum disruption to classes. Teachers as well as students were cooperating on a
volunteer basis.

The student testing was completed individually in a separate testing room to avoid
distraction to students being tested or to the other students. The test administrator
remained present in the room in case technical problems arose but did not provide any
other forms of support. The students proceeded at their own speeds and could take as

long as needed to complete each section.

41

Analyzing the Results

Results included the accuracy, response times, and attitudes of dyslexic and non-
dyslexic students who completed the geography lesson in the two formats. The pretest
and posttest questions were to be analyzed using a paired T-test to see if there was
improvement aﬁer proceeding through the lessons. The accuracy results were to be
subjected to logit analysis and the response times to analysis of variance (AN OVA).
Logit modeling allows determination of which variables have a strong inﬂuence on
right/wrong answers. Expected results were that, beyond pretest-posttest improvement,
the presentation type, lesson format and the dyslexic/non-dyslexic status and the
interaction between them would be the strongest inﬂuences. Because of the large data set
(over 1300 answers in all) the Bayesian information content (BIC) statistic was applied to
evaluate ﬁt of the models. The same variables were expected to show an inﬂuence in the

ANOVA. Chapter 5 describes the data set, variables, and statistical analyses.

Summary

A geography lesson was created in two formats: traditional text and interactive
multimedia. It was to be tested on dyslexic and non-dyslexic students to identify
potential beneﬁts of multimedia as a learning device to help students, especially those
with dyslexia, to learn geographic concepts.

The students' accuracy, response times, and attitudes were to be recorded to
evaluate the effects of the variables in helping students gain and retain information. The

inclusion of a multisensory approach, combining two or more presentation types, was

42

expected to be particularly important for students with dyslexia. It was expected that the

two formats would produce weaker, if any, differences for non-dyslexic students.

43

CHAPTER 4: THE GEOGRAPHY LESSON

The four sections of the eighth grade sand dune lesson created for this research
project contained a variety of information. Considerable time and effort went into the
product to make it a potentially worthy expenditure of time on the part of the students
participating and exemplary of what students should be learning. A secondary goal was
to have the product used after the research testing was completed. The entire lesson is
included in Appendix A in both formats.

The four sections of the lesson covered four logical themes. Section 1, Location
of Michigan Dunes, covered basic deﬁnitions and dune locations within the state.

Special attention was given to dunes in state parks and designated national lakeshores. In
this section, the general characteristics of the dunes located on the different Great Lakes
were explained. Section 2, Geology and Geomorphology of Coastal Dunes, discussed the
formation, geology, geomorphology, and succession of the dunes. The concepts of
glaciation and lake level changes were explained. Section 3, Plant and Animal Life on
the Dunes, explained the plant, animal, and bird inhabitants. Native species as well as
introduced species and their destructive effects on the native ecosystem were included in
this part. Section 4, Dune Protection and Sustainable Maintenance, explained the
importance of dune protection and the need for sustainable use of dunes in the Great
Lakes region, an important industrial hub and recreational area. The need to balance
current and future societal demands while protecting the environment is a general theme

in modern society and it was applied to dunes in this section.

44

Data Collection for the Lesson

The data for the development of materials came from course work
completed at Michigan State University, from on-site ﬁeldwork, and from additional
textbooks, journals, and newspaper articles. The on-site ﬁeldwork involved sketching
diagrams, taking pictures, observing visitors, and walking around the State Parks. On-
site data collection occurred between October 1996 and January 1998, with the majority
occurring in the summer months of June-August 1997.

Most of the data were collected in State Parks and National Lakeshores for
several reasons. First, Michigan has 96 State Parks, of which 20 are dedicated to
protecting the coastal dune environment, and two National Lakeshores, which make up
most of the environment about which the lessons were being written. Second, many of
the State Parks and National Lakeshores have posters, brochures, and learning centers
explaining dune characteristics and history of the area. These materials are substantial
sources of information about what one is observing in the environment. Third, the State
Parks and National Lakeshores have public access with only a minimal entrance fee.
This not only allowed for data collection for the lesson but featuring public parks also
teaches the students the location of good places to observe dunes if they are inspired to
visit and learn more.

In some instances, surrogate measures were used to collect data. For example,
collecting data on the animal population often came from observing footprints and tracks
on the ground, claw marks on trees, or nesting sites. Many of the animals, because of
fear of people or nocturnal habits, are not observable directly. Park rangers were
especially helpful in pointing out evidence of animal life and explaining daily and

seasonal behaviors.

45

Curriculum Justiﬁcation for the Lesson

The dunes lesson was designed around a selection of national geography
standards (Geography Education Standards Project, 1994). Eighteen standards that fall
within ﬁve themes are described in the Standard Project. They include geographic
knowledge and skills that students should have acquired by the end of the fourth, eighth,
and twelfth grades.

The content of the Michigan dunes geography lesson exposes the students to
material reﬂecting all eighteen of the standards. Table 4.1 lists the eighteen and indicates

which sections of the geography lesson relate to each. For example, the ﬁrst three

9. Distribution and Migration of
Populations

18. Interpreting the Present and
Planning the Future

.1 Standard Section ' Standard Section
7 1. Maps, Tools, and Technology I, 2. 3. 4 10. Cultural Patterns and Mosaics 4
2. Mental Maps '9 2. 3, 4 11. Networks of Economic 4
- . A Interdependence
3. Spatial Information 1, 2, 3, 4 12. Settlement Patterns and Processes 3, 4
4. Characteristics of Place L 2, 3: 4 13. Geopolitical Cooperation and 4
'. Conﬂict
5. Regional Patterns 1, 4 14. Human Modiﬁcation of the 3’ 4
Environment
6. Culture, Experience, and Perception 3, 4 15. Physical Systems Affecting Human 2. 3, 4
-... -_ -H, . sttenrs
7. Physical Processes 2. 3, 4 16. Use, Distribution, and Importance 3. 4
of Resources
8. Ecosystems 3, 4 17. Applying Geography to Interpret 2, 4
the Past
3, 4 2, 3, 4

Table 4.1: List of geography standards and the section(s) reﬂecting them in the Michigan
dunes geography lesson.

46

standards, which examine the world in spatial terms with maps, tools and technologies
are reﬂected in all four sections of the lesson. Standard #7, physical processes, is
included in three of the four sections, as is Standard #8, ecosystems. Standards #17 and
#18, applying geography to interpret the past and plan for the future, are reﬂected in

sections two and four, and two, three, and four respectively.

Characteristics of the Formats

The traditional text format was printed on 8.5 x 11-inch paper. Each section was
6-8 pages in length including title page, text, maps, and pictures. An attempt was made
to keep the four sections as consistent in style as possible. The title page of all four
sections includes, in addition to the title itself, a large picture and a list of 3-5 main topics
that are included in that section. In the traditional text format, the students received most
of their information by reading the text, but almost every page had a color photograph,
map, or diagram. Although individual students had different reading skills, each section
was designed to take approximately 15-20 minutes, on average.

The multimedia format, as in the traditional text format, maintained a stylistic
consistency between the four sections and within each section. The movie size ﬁlled
most of the seventeen-inch monitor. The graphical user interface (GUI) for all four
sections was the same. A top and bottom bar bordered the entire presentation. These
bars were ﬁlled with an image related to the topic of that section. For example, in the
plant and animal section, the bar was ﬁlled with dark green foliage with pale yellow
ﬂowers. Within the top bar, the title of the section appeared in the same place and in the

same font for each section.

47

The main portion of the GUI was reserved for graphic images, and the section on
the right-hand side was reserved for text, as shown in Figure 4.1. If text appeared in the
graphics portion of the GUI, it was always placed in a gray box to ensure that it would
stand out ﬁ‘om the images. With the exception of main headings and text on images, all

the descriptive text was displayed in the same font and size.

 

 

 

 

 

I 3
l :
This area for llnformotiont
mops, graphics 1
gtext here
and text
r . ..... e:

 

Figure 4.1: Generalized model of the multimedia format.

Similar to the traditional text, the ﬁrst page of each section in the multimedia
format consisted of a large picture, the heading, and a list of main topics covered in that
section. Students were informed on this ﬁrst page that they were to view everything on
the screen and then proceed to the next screen by selecting the "next" button. The "next"
button always appeared in the same place throughout all four sections. In a few cases,
students were asked to select buttons other than the "next" button. In these instances, a
red animated arrow traveled across the screen and indicated to the student the button they

were to select.

48

Headings and color were used to indicate to the student where they were within
each section. A heading for each of the main topics, such as "Origins of the Sand" or
"How Dunes Form," was always displayed above the text to let the student know the
current section. In addition, the background color remained the same in each of the
screens within a main topic. For example, the background color for all pages pertaining
to "Origins of the Sand" had a background color of pale blue, whereas the pages that

discussed "How Dunes Form" had a background color of pale yellow.

Format of Test Questions and Response Recording

The test questions were also created using Macromedia DIRECTOR because of
questions could be posed visually and orally, and student answers could be recorded
along with the time required to answer each question. The recording of answers and time
was accomplished by using the scripting language Lingo. During a DIRECTOR movie,
all events, such as mouse clicks, are sent to the non-visible message window and are
recorded using a Lingo command. When that Lingo command is scripted into objects
and they are selected by the student by clicking on the mouse button, the hour, minutes,
and seconds that correspond to the computer system's internal clock are recorded. During
the four section posttests, Lingo was used to record the time the question was posted on
the screen and the time of the student's answer. The subtraction of the latter time from
the ﬁrst time equaled the student's response time.

The subject's answers to the test items were also recorded in the message window
by the same scripting language. The answer buttons were labeled by commands such a

"put 'answer 1'". Different objects have different scripting codes, and thus it was easy to

49

identify and record the answers for each subject. At the end of the test, the message
window containing the student's times and answers was selected and imported into a

word processing and spreadsheet program.

Evaluations and Revisions to the Lesson

A full draft of the geography lesson was evaluated by teachers and tutors of
students with dyslexia. Evaluation comments were valuable in revising and reﬁning
materials. Not all of the suggestions could be utilized, but a number of comments are
insightful into the analysis of the test responses and will be useful for future lesson

development.

t' L T h rs

A focus group of four teachers and tutors of dyslexic students was used in this
study for evaluation of the draﬁ of the lessons prior to student testing. Focus group
participants were solicited from the Grand Traverse Dyslexia Association in Traverse
City, Michigan. All participants were paid $25 and were given a set of the educational
materials in both formats. The small number of participants was deemed adequate for the
intended purpose.

The comments elicited from the teachers and tutors were to reveal areas, tasks, or
concepts that might give students difﬁculty in ways unrelated to the goals of the research.
For example, if a deﬁnition in the lesson used a word unfamiliar to students at the eighth
grade level it might prevent everyone from understanding the content, thus masking any

differences between groups. Participants of the focus group did not need to be familiar

50

with geography, coastal dunes, computers, or interactive multimedia, but rather I needed
input from people with a grasp of the level of knowledge, development, and capacity of
eighth grade students, both dyslexic and non-dyslexic.

The focus group was a one-session event that took two and a half hours. The
participants viewed the Michigan coastal dunes geography lesson in both formats, and
they looked at all the test questions. This study of the materials was completed
individually and took approximately one hour. All participants then engaged in a
discussion for approximately an hour and a half. The participants requested that they
have both formats in front of them during the discussion. The group sat around one
computer and had Section 1 in front of them in both formats, and thus, although the
discussion was generally about the two formats, speciﬁc details focused on Section 1.

I served as the facilitator and attempted to keep discussion going among
participants and made sure everyone had the opportunity to express thoughts about the
two lessons. The conversation was directed, but not limited, to a few main questions
given to the participants after viewing the two formats (Table 4.2). The discussion was
tape recorded and transcribed to help me evaluate the discussion afterward.

Participants were allowed to speak freely and answer the questions in any order.
The overwhehning majority of discussion was directed toward question three: "What is
your opinion of the multimedia approach to re-enforcing concepts by combining
presentation types, such as graphics, sound, and text?" All the participants agreed that
the maps and pictures in the multimedia would really help students, particularly those
with dyslexia, leam the concepts. One example to which they reacted positively was

Section 1's description of the general characteristics of the Great Lakes. They felt that

51

having a Great Lake blink and then move to one of the comers, accompanied by three
pictures of its coastline, would reinforce the learning of the place's characteristics. They
felt that the students would not learn this concept as well in the traditional text format.
One participant said, "For both dyslexic and non-dyslexic students, the visual aspects of
the multimedia should really help them learn it." Another participant agreed and said "I

love the moving arrow in the state park tour, this is much better than in the text part."

 

Focus Group Questions

 

1. Do you feel some students may have difﬁculty understanding the content of the

lesson in:
a. Section 1
b. Section 2
c. Section 3
(1. Section 4

2. Do you feel some students may have difﬁculty understanding the:
3. Static maps and diagrams
b. Animated maps and diagrams

3. What is your opinion of the multimedia approach to re-enforcing concepts by
combining presentation types, such as graphics, sound, and text?

4. What questions, or what type of test questions do you feel will give students the
most difﬁculty?

5. What would be your biggest concem with dyslexic students viewing this
material?

6. What changes would you make within each format?

Table 4. 2: Main questions asked by the facilitator during the focus group evaluation.

 

 

 

The inclusion of sound in the multimedia also elicited comments. All the
participants were enthusiastic about having the text read aloud. They felt this approach
would be a way for the students with dyslexia to grasp major concepts, rather than
become stuck on particular words and then not understand what they were reading. One

participant strongly urged that the entire lesson be read aloud.

52

While all the participants liked the inclusion of sound bites narrating the text in
the multimedia format, they were concerned with ensuring that it could also be muted. In
a classroom with twenty to thirty students, they felt that the verbal text might be
distracting to other students. In addition, the tutors were particularly concerned that
attention deﬁcit disorder students would learn less because they might be distracted by
the sound while they were trying to read. All four participants agreed that information
should never be presented by sound only, but always in conjunction with text. They felt
it would help reinforce reading skills.

The participants felt that the content of the lesson was appropriate for eighth
graders, and they thought that eighth grade students would enjoy learning about dunes.
They thought each of the four sections would be a nice lesson or module for a teacher to
cover in a classroom. They also thought that the lesson could be more inclusive. For
example, they wanted to learn about all the state parks, not just a few (an example of a
suggestion that could not be implemented in this lesson). In addition, they wanted to go
back and re-visit the parks and compare their characteristics. They did not want the
lesson to follow such a linear path.

The time required to go through all four sections of the lesson was noted by all
participants. They showed concern for the length and thought that it was too much
material for any one student to learn at one time. A participant said, "You might ﬁnd
students will get bored and distracted toward the end. The dyslexic students particularly
might start to slow down."

One suggestion that was given to alleviate the problems with too much

information was to interj ect questions from time to time. It was noted that another

53

program, Accelerated Readers, has the student read a passage and then answer questions.
This was viewed as beneﬁcial from a teaching perspective because the computer could
then record answers and assign grades. As to student's skill with reading graphics, the
participants felt that there would be no problem with the students understanding the
maps, graphs, or diagrams. It was suggested that the one graph in Section 1, describing
the number of visitors annually, use the same number system for all values (an example
of one of the suggestions that was implemented in the ﬁnal draft). The graph had the
numbers 100,000 and 1.25 million, and the tutors thought that this might give the
dyslexics some difﬁculty and might even lead some students to thinking that 1.25 is the
smaller number.

The focus group participants had viewed the test questions after looking over all
four sections. While they felt they were good questions, they thought that the
synthesizing ones might give the students some difﬁculty. The participants were not
informed as to which questions were the "remembering" questions and which were the
"synthesizing" questions, but, not surprisingly, they noticed the difference. They
suggested that the synthesizing questions be placed last with the words "bonus question"
indicating that the student may need to think a bit harder.

All the participants liked the way the questions were read to the student by the
computer and thought this would help to eliminate any reading problems during testing.
They also commented on the way that the student moved the mouse to select an answer.
They felt this would help to eliminate problems of confusion between choosing an

incorrect answer and merely marking down the answer incorrectly. Dyslexic students

54

often mix up their letters when taking multiple choice exams and write down "b," for

example, when they mean to write down "d."

Iheﬁsxisiens

The suggestions and comments given by the participants of the focus group were
insightful and helpful, and some revisions were made to the lessons based upon them.
The teachers found a few editorial mistakes that were immediately corrected. Based on
their recommendations, the tempo of the multimedia was slowed down slightly and a few
extra seconds were added between the time that the text appeared and the time that the
photographs appeared on the screen.

Many of the comments made during the focus group will be useful for someone
creating future interactive multimedia for eighth grade students, and most would probably
have improved the multimedia format of the Michigan dunes lesson. Many of the
suggestions, however, could not be incorporated at this time due to the constraints of the
testing design. Having sound throughout the lesson was suggested, for example, and the
participants thought it would be more interesting and beneﬁcial to the students. The test
questions, however, were created to distinguish information gained by the student
through text, graphic, sounds, and process; thus, it could not be changed. The length of
the test was also not possible to change. Scheduling students to take the test was difﬁcult
and time consuming. Asking students to take one section one day and return another day
to take another section was not feasible. It was also important that one student complete
all four sections to analyze how any individual student performed. Although the testing

strategy remained the same, it was noted that students may get tired and bored toward the

55

end. Finally, their suggestion of making the multimedia less linear was also good. If this
lesson had been truly interactive, it would have allowed the student to investigate the
topic on their own and select what they thought was interesting. Due to the constraints of
the testing method, it was necessary to make sure the students using the two formats

viewed the same information.

Summary

Information on Michigan's coastal dunes was gathered mostly by visits to the state
parks and national lakeshores. Guided by the National Geography Standards, the content
of the lesson was created. The text and accompanying graphics were placed into the two
formats, traditional text and interactive multimedia. The test questions were programmed
into the computer to record how long students took to answer multiple choice questions.
The accuracy and response times were to be determined whether the combined
information presentation types affected student learning. A small focus group, with
teachers and tutors of dyslexic students as the participants, was used to evaluate the two
formats and obtain suggestions for revisions. Some of these suggestions were used;
others, while insightful and potentially helpful for designing future multimedia, could not

be incorporated due to the constraints of the testing design.

56

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

OF STUDENT TESTING

The responses from the forty-six participating students were recorded and
analyzed. The results fall into four categories: the pre-test versus the sectional posttest
questions, the accuracy and response times of dyslexic and non-dyslexic students to the
four section posttests, attitudes toward the two formats as revealed in answers to
questions posed to the student at the end of the procedure, and the students' verbal

comments after completing the test.

Protest Versus Sectional Posttests

Prior to viewing any lesson materials, the students were given a pretest to gauge
their level of knowledge. The pretest served as a check on whether or not they already
knew the information before proceeding through the sections. As stated in chapter 3,
several easier questions were included in the pretest in an attempt to keep students ﬁom
feeling discouraged. These questions were also useﬁrl in determining whether they were
following directions. The easier questions were answered correctly, and thus all students
were considered to be taking the testing seriously and the scores for all were used in the
analysis.

By the completion of the testing, the forty-six students each answered twenty
pretest questions (16 on dunes, 4 on basic geography) and thirty-two section questions
(all 32 on dunes). A difference-of-proportions test was used to see if the pretest accuracy

was signiﬁcantly different from the accuracy on the section tests. The difference of

57

proportions test provides a means of determining if a signiﬁcant difference exists when
the data are dichotomous (correct/incorrect and pretest/posttest). The resulting
difference-of-proportions Z value is 3.125 and the corresponding p-value is0.000,
indicating that number of correct responses differed signiﬁcantly in the pretest versus the
four section tests. Both the dyslexic and non-dyslexic students improved. The dyslexic
students improved 22.3% (from 29.3% correct in the pretest to 51.6% correct in the four
section tests). The non-dyslexic group improved 24.3% (from 32.4% correct in the
pretest to 56.7% correct in the four section tests). The low percentages of correct
answers are not surprising. The test questions were purposely made difﬁcult in order to
detect any inﬂuence of the different variables. With knowledge that students did perform
signiﬁcantly better after viewing the materials than they did before, the focus of the

analysis can shift to investigating what aspects of the lesson helped them learn.

Accuracy and Response Times of Dyslexic and Non-dyslexic Students

The questions ﬁ‘om the four section tests generated a large data set with 147 2
entries and nine variables. The entire data set can been seen in Appendix D. The six of
the nine variables that were used in analyzing the results are represented in the analysis as
a single capitalized letter (denoted here in bold). The nine variables include (1) student
ID # (1-46), (2) question ID # (1-40), (3) student group (dyslexic, non-dyslexic) (S), (4)
testing order (order in which they used the two formats, i.e., multimedia ﬁrst, text second,
multimedia third and text fourth, or vice versa (T), (5) media type, or format, for the
section in which the question appeared (multimedia, text) (M), (6) number of

presentation types (1, 2, 3, or 4; only the ﬁrst digit in table 3.1 was used) (P), (7) whether

58

the question had been seen before in the pretest (yes, no) (B), (8) accuracy of response
(Y=yes, correct; N=no, incorrect) (A), and (9) response times (seconds) (R).

Accuracy (variable 8) and response times (variable 9) are the two dependent
variables. The independent variables that were expected to have the greatest effect on
accuracy and response time are the media type (variable 5) and the number of
presentation types (variable 6). It was expected that the use of multimedia would
improve the student’s accuracy and response times, with dyslexics improving more than
non-dyslexics (Figure 5.1a and b) and that dyslexics would answer almost if not just as
accurately as non-dyslexics. It was also expected that the student’s accuracy and
response times would improve more on the questions that they had already seen in the
pretest (Figure 5.1c) but the amount of improvement would be roughly equal for the two
groups. While the testing order (variable 4) was not expected to alter the results, it was
considered as an additional independent variable that needed to be included to assure that
there were no unexpected inﬂuences caused by inadvertent differences in difﬁculty or
quality of one set of sections over the other. For example, if the text versions of sections
1 and 3 were better than 2 and 4 and the multimedia version of section 2 and 4 were
better than 1 and 3, the multimedia/text/multimedia/text group would have an unintended

advantage.

Amuse!

To analyze the inﬂuence of the independent variables on accuracy, a logit log linear
analysis was used. This statistical technique is used for determining the inﬂuence of

categorized variables on a dichotomous dependent variable (right or wrong answers in

59

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Non-dYS‘e’ch
Accuracy g—r ‘ a Response Time
(% correct) . '
. r ’ 'cs
0 ' m4“
Low High
Trad. Text Multimedia

a. Expected improvements based on media type

 

High Low
(ﬁx/6:33:30 ‘. — ‘ Response Time
0 e ‘
a . '
I ‘ 015%.,ch
Low High

 

 

 

1 2 3 4
#of presentation types

b. Expected improvements based on the
increase number of presentation types

 

 

 

 

Hi h , Low
9 Non-di/S‘GX‘cs
Accuracy .
(% correct) _ _ . - -0 Response Time
Dyslexics
Low High
No Yes
Seen Before

c. Expected improvements based on the questions
previously seen in the pretest.

 

 

Figure 5.1: Expected improvements for dyslexic and non-dyslexic groups.

this case), and it can help determine whether one condition has a signiﬁcantly different

effect than another condition (Bohmstedt and Knoke, 1994). For example, a log linear

6O

analysis can identify whether the odds of a dyslexic student having a correct answer after
using interactive multimedia, with text, sound, and graphics and having seen the
question during the pretest are signiﬁcantly greater than the odds of the same student’s
answer being correct after using the traditional text version, viewing text and graphics,
and not having seen the question during the pretest.

The nested nature of the logit log linear model uses the notation of the bracket, {},
with the combination of capital letters representing the variables whose interactions are
hypothesized to be important plus all lower-order effects. To translate the expectations of
the previous section into the notation of log-linear analysis, the expected best-ﬁt model
would be {ASM} {ASP} {AB}, or because M and P are not independent, it could be
{ASM} {AB} or {ASP} {AB}.

The Bayesian information content (BIC) statistic was used to rank the models and
select the best ﬁt (Bohmstedt and Knoke, 1994). The BIC statistic is the most negative
with the best ﬁt of variable combinations. The BIC statistic is useful for assessing logit
log-linear models with large data sets, and it has been used in analyzing cartographic data
(Olson and Brewer, 1997). When the number of observations is so large, ordinary
signiﬁcance tests often result in rejection of null hypotheses even when differences are
very small. The BIC statistic separates out the model with best overall ﬁt.

The results of the logit log-linear analysis are summarized in Table 5.1. The ﬁrst
model is the fully saturated one (including all interactions), followed by increasingly
more simple models. The second model, for example, separated test order and accuracy
from the rest of the variables. The third combination leaves out test order. The next sets

of combinations include the interaction between accuracy, student group, media type, and

61

presentation type {ASMP}; accuracy, student group, media type, and seen before
{ASMB}; accuracy, student group, presentation type, and seen before {ASPB}; and
accuracy, media type, presentation type, and seen before {AMPB}. The next
combinations are three sets of three variables.

In Table 5.1, L2 is the likelihood ratio chi square and df is the degrees of freedom.
The BIC statistic is calculated as the likelihood ratio minus the degrees of freedom times
the natural log of the sample size (1472). The equation is therefore BIC= L2 -(df)(ln N).
The lowest BIC value indicates the best ﬁt, and, thus, {ASM} {AMP} {AB} is the best
model. That means that the interaction between accuracy, student group, and media type;
between accuracy, media type, and number of presentation types; and between accuracy
and seen before are most important.

The results of the BIC statistic were not altogether surprising but showed an
interesting unexpected interaction. It was expected that there would be an interaction
between accuracy, student group and media type, and/or between accuracy, student
group, and number of presentation types. The explicit appearance in the model of
interaction among accuracy, media type, and presentation types is a logical outcome
simply overlooked in anticipating outcomes. The resulting model supports the
expectations but reminds us that the number of presentation types differs for the two
media formats; multimedia has more presentation types than text.

To examine the results of the log-linear analysis, Table 5.2 lists the odds of a
correct answer by component, in the {ASM} {AMP} {AB} model. In this table, the
coefﬁcients for variables in the model are listed. The coefﬁcients with higher absolute

values have the stronger effects on accuracy. The table also lists the associated Z

62

 

Combinations L2 (ii In N (df)(lnN) BIC

{ASMPBT} 0.00 0.00 7.29 0.00 0.00
{ASMPB}{AT} 1527.20 116.00 7.29 660.69 666.51
{ASMPB} 0.00 0.00 7.29 0.00 0.00
{ASMP} 761.32 25.00 7.29 162.35 596.97
{ASMB} 91.16 11.00 7.29 80.23 10.95
{ASPB} 359.54 25.00 7.29 162.35 177.19
{AMPB} 956.66 25.00 7.29 162.35 776.51
{ASP}{APB}{ASB} 0.66 6.00 7.29 43.76 42.66
{ASM}{ASP}{ASB} 124.65 6.00 7.29 43.76 60.69
{ASP}{ASB}{AMP} 76.96 14.00 7.29 102.12 -23.16
{AMP}{AMB}{APB} 109.01 14.00 7.29 102.12 6.69
{ASM}{ASP}{AB} 162.63 14.00 7.29 102.12 60.71
{ASMHAMPHAB} 209.00 42.00 7.29 306.35 -97.35
{AMP}{AS}{AB} 316.46 42.00 7.29 306.35 12.11
{AMPHAMB} 145.97 12.00 7.29 67.53 56.44
{AMP}{APB) 65.73 8.00 7.29 56.35 27.36
{ASM}{AMP} 12.34 12.00 7.29 67.53 -75.19
{ASM}{AMB} 1.35 4.00 7.29 29.16 -27.83
{ASM}{ASP} 492.79 12.00 7.29 67.53 405.26
{ASP}{AB} 110.70 14.00 7.29 102.12 6.56
{ASPHAM} 497.13 14.00 7.29 102.12 395.01
{ASM}{AB} 47.95 6.00 7.29 43.76 4.19
{ASM} 41.50 4.00 7.29 29.16 12.32
{ASP} 247.11 10.00 7.29 72.94 174.17
{ASB} 2.69 4.00 7.29 29.18 -26.49
{AMP} 764.56 10.00 7.29 72.94 691.62
{AMB} 65.41 4.00 7.29 29.16 56.23
{APB} 341.37 10.00 7.29 72.94 266.43
{AS}{AM}{AP} 511.39 20.00 7.29 145.66 365.51
{AS}{AM}{AB} 52.30 6.00 7.29 56.35 -6.05
{AS}{AP}{AB} 124.94 20.00 7.29 145.66 -20.94
{AM}{AP}{AB} 667.25 20.00 7.29 145.66 541.37
[AS}{AM} 4.35 2.00 7.29 14.59 -10.24
[AS}{AP} 14.24 6.00 7.29 43.76 -2952
[AS}{AB} 0.69 2.00 7.29 14.59 -13.70
[AM}{AP} 494.66 6.00 7.29 43.76 450.92
[AM}{AB} 46.60 2.00 7.29 14.59 32.01
{AP}AB} 106.64 6.00 7.29 43.76 63.06
{A8} 0.07 1.00 7.29 7.29 -722
{AM} 37.06 1.00 7.29 7.29 29.79
{AP} 232.60 3.00 7.29 21.66 210.92
{AB} 1.73 1.00 7.29 7.29 -5.57

 

Sample Size N=l472

Dependent dichotomous variable-A, accuracy (right, wrong)

1ndependent variables-S, student group (dyslexic, non-dyslexic)
M, media type (multimedia, traditional text)
P, number of presentation type (1 , 2, 3, 4)
B, seen before (yes, no)
T, test version (1, 2)

 

Table 5.1: Results from the logit log-linear analysis on student accuracy

63

scores, which measure the signiﬁcance. Those listed in bold text are signiﬁcant at the
0.05 level and have absolute Z-scores greater than 1.96.

The ﬁrst line of Table 5.2 shows that there were less correct than incorrect
responses, or more precisely, an odds ratio of 0.82:1 of being correct. As stated
previously, the test had to be difﬁcult in order to detect any differences in the inﬂuence of
different variables. The second group, {AS}, compares a dyslexic student's odds (0.80:1)
to a non-dyslexic student's odds (0.83: 1) of responding to questions accurately. Next, we
see the odds for {AM}, accuracy and media type. The odds of a student getting the
answer correct in the text format are 0.54:1 and 1.13:1 in the multimedia format.

The next set {ASM} looks at the odds of a correct answer for dyslexic and non-
dyslexic students using the text versus the multimedia format. Both groups of students
increase in odds of responding correctly to questions for which answers came from
information gained from the multimedia format over the text format. Dyslexic students
increase from 0.52:1 to 1.04:1 and non-dyslexic students increase from 0.60:1 to 1.11:1.
While the increase is relatively close for the two groups of students (a 0.52 increase for
dyslexic students and a 0.51 increase for non-dyslexic students), the interaction term is
signiﬁcant (dyslexics did improve slightly more and the effect is statistically signiﬁcant).
Also, the odds ratio suggests a more important effect for the dyslexic students. The odds
ratio for dyslexic students is 1.04 /0.52 or 2.00, and for non-dyslexic students it is
1.11/O.51 or 1.85. This difference suggests that dyslexic students had greater relative
improvement.

The next set of odds looks at {AP}, accuracy and presentation type. While only

two, three, and four presentation types are signiﬁcant, there is a deﬁnite trend in the

increasing odds of getting an answer correct: 0.85: 1, 2.55:1 and 44.0011 respectively.
The following set examines the odds of a correct answer by media type and presentation
types, {AMP}. In this set, only three and four presentation types are signiﬁcant. In both
the two and three presentation types, the odds of getting the answer correct are greater for
the multimedia format than for text format for any given number of presentation types
(0.92:1 vs. 0.81 :1 for two presentation types and 2.58:1 vs. 0.00:1 for three presentation

types). It is important to note that while the odds for three presentations are signiﬁcant,

 

Model T ems Coefficient Z-Score Odds
{A} Accuracy

Correct/incorrect -1.96 -3.75 0.82
{AS} Accuracy and Student Group

Dyslexic 0.63 2.69 0.80

Non-dyslexics 0.76 2.79 0.83
{AM} Accuracy and Media Type

using text -0.77 -4.56 0.54

using multimedia -0.89 -4.78 1.13
{ASM} Accuracy, Student Group, and Media Type

Dyslexic using text 0.01 2.26 0.52

Dyslexic using multimedia 0.01 2.28 1.04

Non-dyslexics using text 0.04 2.24 0.60

Non»dyslexics using multimedia 0.06 2.30 1.11
{AP} Accuracy and Number of Presentation Types

1 presentation type -0.12 0.30 0.36

2 presentation types -0.01 0.31 0.85

3 presentation types 0.24 2.41 2.55

4 presentation types 0.98 4.76 44.00
{AMP} Accuracy, Media Type, and Number of Presentation Types

using text and 1 presentation type -0.21 -O.l7 0.42

using multimedia and 1 presentation type 0.11 0.12 0.24

using text and 2 presentation types 0.01 0.24 0.81

using multimedia and 2 presentation types 0.01 0.35 0.92

using text and 3 presentation types 0.00 4.76 0.00

using multimedia and 3 presentation types 0.84 8.88 2.58

using text and 4 presentation types ------- —— -----

using multimedia and 4 presentation types 0.98 17.45 44.00
{AB} Accuracy and Seen Before

yes 0.88 13.98 0.88

no 0.67 12.73 0.77

 

Table 5.2: Detailed examination of the logit log linear analysis {ASM} {AMP} {AB}.

65

there was only one question in the text format that used three presentation types. The
odds for four presentation types are the same as in the {AP} section because of the nature
of the two formats. The text format did not contain four presentation types for any
question.

The next set of odds compares correct answers and whether or not the student had
seen the question in the pretest. The results indicate that students have a signiﬁcantly
better chance of answering the question correctly if they had seen the question before.
The odds decrease from a 0.88:1 ratio if they had, to a 0.77:1 ratio if they had not seen

the question before. Figure 5.2 displays the accuracy odds for the best ﬁt model.

Mammalian:

The time it took students to respond to each question in the four section tests was
recorded in seconds. Times ranged from one second to 57 seconds. The response time is
a quantitative measure rather than a categorical one, and thus an analysis of variance
(AN OVA) was used to analyze the data. The AN OVA used times for correct responses
only. Table 5.3 lists the individual variables along with the two-way, three-way, four-
way, and even ﬁve-way interactions, and the F-value, degrees of freedom (df), and the
probability (p) for each. The variable(s) that have a signiﬁcant effect on reaction time,

within the 0.05 signiﬁcance level, are in hold.

66

 

1.25

Accuracy 1.00
(Odds of being correct) 0.75
0.50

0.25

0.00

 

 

 

 

Text Multimedia

3. Observed improvements between student group and media type {ASM}

 

(44.00).
1.25

1.00

0.75
0. 50

0.25
0.00

Accuracy
(Odds of being correct)

 

 

 

 

1 2 3 4
# of presentation types

b. Observed improvements between media type and number of presentations {AMP}

 

1.25

Accuracy 0.75

(Odds of being correct) 0 50

0.25
0.00

 

 

 

No Yes
Seen Before

c. Observed improvements between questions previously seen in the pretest {AB}

 

 

 

Figure 5.2 Observed accuracy odds for the best ﬁt model {ASM} {AMP} {AB}

67

 

 

Variables F d’ P
M 6.88 1 0.01
S 0.47 1 0.32
B 0.22 1 0.61
P 8.78 3 0.00
M " 3 10.45 1 0.00
M * B 6.01 1 0.01
S ‘ B 1.99 1 0.19
M * S * B 12.34 1 0.00
M * P 2.56 2 0.01
S * P 2.22 3 0.09
M * S * P 1.10 1 0.67
B * P 4.56 3 0.01
M " B * P 1.65 1 0.23
S ' B * P 3.46 3 0.09
M’S'B’P 2.48 1 0.14

Sample Size N=664

Variables-

8, student group (dyslexic, non-dyslexic)
M, media type (multimedia, traditional text)
P, number of presentation types (1, 2, 3, 4)
B, seen before (yes, no)

 

Table 5.3: ANOVA results on variables inﬂuencing response times. Those variables and
their interactions that signiﬁcantly affect the response time in the four section
tests are highlighted.

Figure 5.3 displays the average observed response times for signiﬁcant variables
and interactions. Media type and presentation type as individual variables affect reaction
time, and media type appears in two-way interactions with student group, seen before,
and presentation types. Seen before and presentation types is another signiﬁcant two-
way interaction. Media type, student group, and seen before is the signiﬁcant three-way
interaction. Text with only 1 and 2 presentation types among the questions answered

correctly, shows no improvement with the greater number of types, whereas multimedia

68

does (Figure 5.3c). Seen before shows overall lower reaction times but noticeably lower
times for 1 and 4 presentation types (Figure 5.30). Except for non-dyslexic, seen before,
response times for the two student groups are lower for multimedia and drop more for not
seen before than for seen before (the three-way interaction in Figure 5.3d). Apparently
seeing the question on the pretest primes the subject and takes away some of the
differences between text and multimedia. It was expected that response time would be
inﬂuenced by student group, media type, number of presentation types, and whether the
student had seen the question before. It was not surprising that response time would be

inﬂuenced by a combination of these variables.

69

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10 10
Average 8 Average 8
Response Time 6 \\ Response Time 5
in Seconds in Seconds
4 4
2 2
0 0
Text Multimedia 1 2 3 4

# of presentation types
a. Observed response times of 311919 variables: media type and number of presentation types

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10 1 0
8 D 8
Average 6 g, ‘ ~i‘SIexic Ave rage 6 Not Se en 8
Response Time ‘ ~ ~ .. Response Time '\ef0r:
in Seconds 4 0‘. 'n Seconds 4 .869 - - - .
NOD-dyslexic n BSfOre
2 2
0 0
Text Multimedia Text Multimedia

0. Observed response tines with two interacting variables: media type and student grow
and media type and seen before

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10 10
8 9 8
Average 6 ‘ , Average 6 9 , Not Seen Before
Response Time Text ~ . . Response Time \H'N
- o—o , Multimedia . . ..
in Seconds 4 . -.. _ ‘ n Seconds 4 SeenBefore
2 2
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
# of presentation types # of presentation types

c. Observed response times with two interact'ng variables: media type and the number of presentation
types and seen bebre and number of presentations

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10 Non-dyslexic, seen before
Non-dyslexic, not seen before
8 — — - - Dyslexic, seen before
----- Dyslexic, not seen before
Average Response Time 6 ’1 . ,
in Seconds .‘ - -' 4 a-
“ e
4 >‘
2
0
Text Multimedia

 

 

d. Observed response tines between three varidiles: meda type, studentgroup, and seen before

 

Figure 5.3: Observed average response times associated with signiﬁcant variables from

the ANOVA

70

Attitude Questions

After the students completed all four sections of the geographic lesson and the

multiple choice questions, they were asked eight attitude questions. In this segment, the

student saw the same question stem, "Which do you ﬁnd the most. . .", but in each case

the adjective changed. The following tables list the results for both dyslexic and non-

dyslexic students.

1.Which do you ﬁnd the most Interesting?

 

 

 

Dyslexic Non-Dyslexic
Text 0 1
Multimedia 20 19
Both 2 2
Neither 2 0

2. Which do you ﬁnd the most Fun?

Dyslexic Non-Dyslexic
Text 0 0
Multimedia 22 21
Both 1 0
Neither 1 1

 

3. Which do you ﬁnd the most Difficult?

 

 

Dyslexic Non-Dyslexic
Text 15 6
Multimedia 0 0
Both 4 0
Neither 5 16

71

4. Which do you ﬁnd the most Confusing?

 

 

Dyslexic Non-Dyslexic
Text 14 4
Multimedia 0 0
Both 0 0
Neither 10 18

5. Which do you ﬁnd the most Boring?

 

 

Dyslexic Non-Dyslexic
Text 19 16
Multimedia 0 0
Both 0 1
Neither 5 5

6. Which do you ﬁnd the most Cool?

 

 

Dyslexic Non-Dyslexic
Text 0 0
Multimedia 22 20
Both 2 1
Neither 0 1

7. Which do you ﬁnd the most Truthful?

 

Dyslexic Non-Dyslexic
Text 0 0
Multimedia 6 4
Both 1 8 1 7
Neither 0 1

 

72

After completing the testing, it was noted that the third and fourth options are
technically the same. While the two options have different connotations, if both formats
are "..the most. . ." then neither is ". . .the most. . .", and thus those answers were
considered the same in the analysis. The students' attitudes are evident, without
performing signiﬁcance tests. Almost every student found the multimedia sections of the
lesson to be more interesting, fun, and cool, while most students found the text sections to
be boring. No students found the multimedia sections to be the most boring. Likewise,
no students found the text to be the most fun or to be the most cool. Only one student
found the text format to be more interesting.

A discrepancy between the attitudes of dyslexic and non-dyslexic students arose
on the questions on which format they found the most difﬁcult and confusing. Sixty
percent of the dyslexic students found the text formats to be more difﬁcult. The
remaining forty percent was split relatively equally among ﬁnding both most difﬁcult and
ﬁnding neither most difﬁcult which suggests the wording problem led them to choose
randomly between the two answers. However, 71 percent of non—dyslexic students found
neither format most difﬁcult. No one answered "multimedia" as the more difﬁcult of the
two formats. A similar pattern emerges with the attitude question of which format they
found to be the most confusing. Sixty-six percent of the dyslexic students found the text
formats to be confusing, whereas the remaining forty percent found neither to be
confusing. Eighty percent of the non-dyslexic students, on the other hand, found neither
format "most confusing". Again, no one answered "multimedia" as the more confusing

of the two formats.

73

The majority of both dyslexic and non-dyslexic students (76% for both groups)
answered that they found both formats truthful. The remaining students answered that
they found the multimedia sections more truthful. No student found the text formats to
be more truthful. Since both formats contained the same information, it is interesting that
some students might question the truthfulness of written text but not of a computer
presentation.

The student responses to the attitude questions can be used to answer the question
of preference and overall enthusiasm for the two formats. The answers to the questions
clearly show that both dyslexic and non-dyslexic students are more favorably inclined
toward interactive multimedia than text format. The Difﬁcult and Confusing items show
that while a large number of dyslexics ﬁnd a multisensory format less difﬁcult, some

non-dyslexic students also found it so. These responses support the original expectations.

Student Comments on Testing Materials

After the students answered all the questions given on the computer, I asked them
open-ended questions (see follow-up questions in Appendix B) and allowed them to give
any comments or criticisms they wished to offer about either format or the test. Given
the age of the participants I was not surprised to get mostly shoulder shrugs and nods of
approval. The dyslexic students gave more feedback than non-dyslexics. They have
undergone more testing than the non-dyslexic students, and are more accustomed to
discussing their learning preferences.

Overall, most students making comments said they liked participating in the

study, and they liked learning about dunes. Several students commented on the timing

74

 

(this experiment was done near the end of the school year) and said they wanted to visit
the dunes during the summer. Many of the students told me about summer vacation plans
which included camping, hiking, and boating near the dunes.

One of the criticisms that arose about participating in the study was the length of
time. Several students said that it was too long and that they were getting tired by the end
of the four sections. The focus group had commented that the length of time and the
amount of information might be too much for some students. Figure 5.2 charts the
number of correct answers per lesson section. Indeed, the percent correct decreases in the
third and fourth sections compared to the ﬁrst and second sections; however, the third
and fourth remain approximately the same (43% and 42% respectively for dyslexics and
49% and 48% for non-dyslexics). It is quite possible, however, that the last two lessons
were harder. The experiment would have had to present each section equally in each slot
in the time sequence to separate clearly the effects of fatigue.

Most of the students said that they liked learning on the computer better. They
said they liked the pictures and maps, and they liked being able to move at their own
speed. Many of the dyslexic students noted that they are visual learners and thus the
graphics helped them learn. It is amusing to have eighth grade students say that they are
"visual learners", and granted a teacher, parent, or tutor has probably told them that; but it
still seems that they have a preference and can identify how they like to learn. The
accuracy results suggest that using multiple presentation types increases learning. While
multiple presentation types can be incorporated into both formats, multimedia lends itself
better to incorporating three or four media types, and graphical information in particular

is easier to include for those who are visual learners.

75

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O
2
E Dyslexic

.. Lo 7
8 '\ - Non-dyslexic
5
U
3:, 8
Q
83

LO

(\1

O _

l 2 3 4
Lesson Section

 

 

 

Figure 5.4: Histogram of dyslexic and non-dyslexic accuracy performance per lesson
section.

Several students commented on the computer reading several of the text passages,
and many students wished the computer read all of it aloud. One dyslexic student even
stopped during the ﬁrst section to say the program wasn't working. He had heard the
computer read the ﬁrst text passage and assumed the program stopped working when it

didn't read the second one. He was disappointed when he was informed that he had to

76

read on his own. All dyslexic students stated that they appreciated the test questions read
to them. Many commented on their difﬁculty with tests and believed that this really
helped them.

When asked how the geographic lesson could be improved, many of the students
said skip the text formats and do all sections on the computer. A few students said that it
might be more interesting if it were turned into a game. One boy suggested having a
dune treasure hunt with clues that could be solved only if you knew the information ﬁ'om

the previous screens. While this sounds like one of the well-known interactive programs,

‘31:. '.TH' and r‘xA-a wu—

Where in the World is Carmen San Diego, it is a sound pedagogical approach to
immediately question what the student has learned.

A few additional comments were recorded during and after the testing sessions
that should be noted. First, the body language of the students suggested they were more
distracted during the traditional text format sections. Many of the students would rock
back in their chairs, lay their heads on the desk, and look around the room while
proceeding through the text formats. One student even asked to leave to go to the
bathroom. During the multimedia sections the students seemed to be more attentive, sat
up straight in their chairs and had to keep looking at the computer screen. By having to
continually click with the mouse, it forced the students to take a more physically active
approach.

Second, appreciation was expressed by dyslexic students and their parents. I
thanked every student for participating in the study, and every dyslexic student thanked
me for conducting it. One dyslexic girl said that she ﬁnds school frustrating and she's

been asking her parents for home-schooling. She thought that if there were more

77

programs such as this one, her parents would agree to teach her at home. Many parents
of the dyslexic students made a special trip to come and pick up their child and to
personally thank me for working on this topic. I was surprised at the willingness and
eagerness of the parents of the dyslexic students to help me collect the data.

In summary, the open-ended questions and additional comments I received from
students certainly reinforced the interactive multimedia preference reported in the attitude
questions. There was a strong preference for the interactive multimedia by both dyslexic
and non-dyslexic students. While both types of students were more enthusiastic about the
computer, the dyslexic students stressed that it was easier to learn, and they were

appreciative of potential new tools for their learning.

Discussion

The results of this experiment can now help to answer the initial ﬁve questions
posed in Chapter 3. The results indicate that interactive multimedia, with its ability to
incorporate multisensory learning pathways, helps dyslexic and non-dyslexic students in
terms of accuracy, response times, and enthusiasm.

The results of the logit log-linear analysis helps to answer two of the initial ﬁve
questions posed at the onset of this study. The two questions focused on whether or not
interactive multimedia and the increase in the number of presentation types would help
dyslexic and non-dyslexic students recall information accurately. While it was expected
that multimedia and an increased number of presentation types would have a positive
effect on dyslexic students, it was expected to have little or no effect on non-dyslexic

students.

78

The best-ﬁt model in the log-linear analysis indicated an interaction among
accuracy, student groups (dyslexic/non-dyslexic), and media type (multimedia/text), and
between accuracy, student group, and the number of presentation types (1, 2, 3, or 4).
The detailed examination of the best-ﬁt model revealed signiﬁcant odds of a student
answering a question correctly under given conditions. When comparing only media
type, all students have better odds of answering questions correctly when using the
multimedia format. Although the interaction between student group and media type was
signiﬁcant (i.e., the improvement was not quite parallel), the coefﬁcient, or the strength
of the interaction, was slight. On the other hand, if we look at the odds ratios for the two
groups (2.00 for dyslexics and 1.85 for non~dyslexics) the dyslexic students did improve
with a greater ratio. The expectation of non-dyslexic students not improving, or not
improving as much, was only weakly supported.

The higher accuracy by the students when using multimedia is interesting because
it is a different result from many of the studies previously mentioned in Chapter 2. Many
studies show that students are enthusiastic about learning on the computer, but they do
not actually perform signiﬁcantly better than with traditional methods. However, it is not
unrealistic to expect students to learn more if they are more interested in learning.

During the testing period it was evident that students were more engaged with the
sections completed on the computer versus those completed in the text format. The large
number of questions answered may have allowed the achievement of signiﬁcance in this
study. On the other hand, the use of the BIC statistic assures that only the most important

variables remain in the model. Also, the overall percent correct for the text sections was

79

37.19% and the for multimedia 52.93% which is surely signiﬁcant educationally as well
as statistically.

The interaction between accuracy and the number of presentation types, and
accuracy, media type, and number of presentation types also appeared in the best-ﬁt lo git
log-linear model. These results indicate that an increased number of presentation types
increased the odds of a student answering a question correctly, but the number of
questions with three or four presentation types in the text format is extremely limited (one
and zero, respectively), causing the {AMP} interaction to appear in the model.

One of the implicit goals of this study was to assess whether multimedia could
potentially help dyslexic students learn and perform just as well as non-dyslexic students.
The results indicate that there still remains the discrepancy gap with dyslexic students
performing less well than non-dyslexic students and that both sets of students learned
more using the multimedia format than they did using the text format.

The results of the AN OVA help to answer two of the initial ﬁve questions posed
at the onset of this study that pertain to response times. It was expected that information
learned from multimedia and/or an increased number of presentation types would help
dyslexic students respond to questions more quickly than information learned in a text
format with fewer numbers of presentation types. Again, little or no difference was
expected amongst response times of non-dyslexic students.

The AN OVA indicated that response times were inﬂuenced by media type and
number of presentation types, along with a variety of combined interactions. The
multimedia format and the increased number of presentation types decreased the response

times for both dyslexic and non-dyslexic students (7.89 seconds with 1 presentation type

80

vs. 4.01 seconds with 4 presentation types). The average response times with text were
6.42 for dyslexic students and 4.78 for non-dyslexics, 5.01 and 4.09 respectively with the
multimedia format. While a gap still exists between dyslexic and non-dyslexic students’
response times, the dyslexic students have a greater decrease in average response times
(1.67 vs. 1.41).

The on-screen attitude tests and the post-testing interview helped answer the ﬁfth
and ﬁnal question posed at the beginning of the study: Do students prefer or express
enthusiasm for one format over another. The answer here is overwhelmingly "yes." In
both the onscreen adjective questions and the open-ended questions at the end, the
students preferred to learn using the interactive multimedia. As expected, the dyslexic
students reported more often that traditional text gave them problems than did the non-
dyslexic students, as indicated in reactions to the "difﬁcult" and "confusing" adjectives,
but both groups found the interactive multimedia to be more "interesting", "fun", and

"C001."

Summary

The results of this experiment were analyzed in four parts. First, the pretest
versus the post section tests indicated that students did indeed learn something from the
geography lesson. Once this was established, analysis of the effects of the variables
could proceed.

The accuracy and response time results from the four sections showed an
interaction between media type and the number of presentation types by which a student

receives information, along with whether or not they had seen the question before. Both

81

dyslexic and non-dyslexic students answered with greater accuracy when using the
multimedia format rather than the text format. They also showed greater accuracy when
they learned with an increased number of presentation types. With more than two
presentation types, a trend of signiﬁcant odds indicates that while keeping the number of
presentation types constant, both groups of students were more accurate with the
multimedia format than they were with the text format. The multimedia and the
increased number of presentation types also proved to be important variables for
improving response times. Although the students with dyslexia still do not perform at the
same level as the non-dyslexic students, as originally hoped for, they have a signiﬁcant
learning improvement.

The third and fourth part of the analysis focused on student learning preferences.
Both the student comments completed on the computer and the open-ended questions and
comments were overwhehningly in favor of learning by interactive multimedia. The
dyslexic students found the interactive multimedia less frustrating than the traditional text
and particularly seemed to like the addition of sound. While the non-dyslexic students
did not ﬁnd the text frustrating, they expressed more enthusiasm for learning with the
interactive multimedia. In conclusion, the results ﬁ‘om this study suggest that
multimedia, and the increase in the number of presentation types that can easily be
included in an interactive multimedia module, will improve both dyslexic and non-
dyslexic students’ accuracy and response time while increasing their enthusiasm for the

mode of presentation.

82

 

CHAPTER 6: REFLECTIONS ON THE EXPERIMENT AND CONCLUSIONS

In this study I attempted to assess the usefulness of multimedia as an educational
tool for presenting geographic material to dyslexic and non-dyslexic eighth grade
students. As with any experiment there are elements that could have been improved. It is
important to reﬂect on the methods used to conduct this experiment and assess how
possible variations may have altered the results and how future testing could be better.
After discussing these matters, the signiﬁcance of this research, ﬂawless or not, and a

summary of its place in current cartography will be presented.

Testing Considerations

One variation on the study could have been the lesson content. The geographic
lesson was created with eighth grade students and the geographic standards in mind. The
topic of dunes was chosen because it was believed to be a topic that would interest most
eighth graders but about which most would not have learned in a formal setting. Of the
four sections, it was evident that the students were most interested in the animals and
environmental issues (section 3 and 4). One student suggested creating a lesson on
dinosaurs, and another student suggested creating a lesson on astronomy. Obviously, the
more student-oriented the topic the more enthusiasm would be created for the lesson,
although what students gram to learn and what they M learn is not always the same.
Whether more enthusiasm would have affected the test results, however, is questionable.
It is conceivable, but not necessarily probable, that it would have led to more uniform

scores across groups. That possibility does seem more likely than an increased

83

c"—

 

“TWP-173‘ n

differentiation, and from an experimental point of view, we need to be working where the
differences are the most likely to be observed.

A second variation in the methods that may affect the results is the time required
of the students. The length of the test may have been too long for a one-day session. The
teachers and tutors in the focus group evaluation warned that the four sections would be a
lot of material for one session. They also suggested that some students may become
restless and distracted toward the end, and several students commented on the length. A
possible alternative for future studies may be to have students complete one section a
day, or have one student complete only one section in each format, although that is a
weaker research design.

Third, a stronger research design would involve paired comparisons in which each
individual participant answers the same question or one directly comparable after using
each version of the material. Such a design is extremely difﬁcult to devise but would be
far more powerful in detecting any differences between the groups in the amount of
improvement using one medium over the other.

A fourth consideration of the methodology that should be addressed is the
structured nature of the test. Interactive multimedia should be exploratory; students
should presumably direct their learning based on their personal interests and lines of
thinking. In order to compare test scores between formats, the interactive multimedia
sections had to be fairly linear to ensure that students viewed the same information. How

to truly test the effectiveness of the multimedia format is an open issue.

84

“Inna-.mu ‘-__

Conclusions and Significance

The results of this experiment helped to answer the initial ﬁve questions posed in
Chapter 3. Equally important, however, is that this study ﬁts within a body of literature,
and its results can be generalized to broaden the knowledge of interactive multimedia for
geographic education as well as add to the growing interest in geography for, and by,
disabled populations.

The results indicate that interactive multimedia with its incorporation of
multisensory learning possibilities helps dyslexic and non-dyslexic students in terms of
accuracy, response times, and enthusiasm. Unquestionably, the number of presentation
types affects all students’ accuracy and response times. Even though the numbers of
questions allowing for comparison of the same number of presentation types between
formats is limited, and thus may be of concern, multimedia positively inﬂuenced
accuracy and response times. In addition, the inherent nature of multimedia lends it to
easier incorporation of information in more presentation types than does the traditional

text format.

The results were conclusive on student learning preferences and attitudes about
interactive multimedia. As in many other studies, students overwhelmingly preferred to
learn on the computer using interactive multimedia for this lesson. While the education
system's goal is not strictly to be "fun," if students are enthusiastic about the media they
are using to learn, they may be more willing and eager to learn. Geography, with its
disciplinary roots in explaining spatial patterns and processes, is an ideal subject to be

taught with interactive multimedia.

85

W‘_-un_
. . ‘

The results of this experiment identiﬁed learning beneﬁts of utilizing multiple
presentation types, which can easily be incorporated into interactive multimedia to help
students learn important geographic concepts. It was found particularly useful for
dyslexic students to gain information with less frustration. These results are not only
beneﬁcial to those dyslexic students who participated in this study, but to all dyslexic
students who are eager to learn, to their teachers, and to society at large. Further
investigation into interactive multimedia and multiple presentation types, such as text,
graphics, and sound to teach important geographic concepts could aid in future
developments for students with other learning disabilities as well. Although this study
focused on dyslexics, it is important to remember that all students learned more with
multiple presentation types and preferred learning on the computer. On a more general
level, therefore, this study contributes to the growing interest and knowledge of the
effectiveness and potential contributions of interactive multimedia as tools in geography
education.

In conclusion, the fundamental themes and concepts in this research are a product
of current trends in cartography. The maps in this study were embedded within a
geography lesson based on the current geography education standards, and the study was
aimed at assisting a population group, dyslexics, that society now understands as simply
having difﬁculty with a particular learning mode. On the technological side, the study
used multimedia, a tool that has become routine in in mapping at this stage in
cartographic history. As a product of current societal and technological trends, then, the
study has the potential to be outdated as those trends change. On the other hand, the need

to understand how people read and gain information from maps is both timely and

86

timeless. Further understanding of dyslexia may reﬁne our approach to helping dyslexics
learn, but it is unlikely that numbers of presentation types, for example, will cease to have
an inﬂuence on both dyslexics and non-dyslexics. The form of multimedia used in the
study is already becoming quaint as virtual reality and Internet multimedia with their far
greatly ﬂexibility are taking over. But those changes will simply make it all the more
possible to incorporate ways to help students learn.

As this project started, its distinction from other multimedia effectiveness studies
was its emphasis on maps and improved learning of geography by dyslexics. What has

emerged is a clearer idea of what helps everyone learn.

87

BIBLIOGRAPHY

88

 

Bibliography

Amlund, Jeanne T., Janet Gaffney, and Raymond W. Kulhavy. 1985. "Map feature
content and text recall of good and poor readers," Journal of Reading Behavior,
vol. 17, no. 4, p. 317-330.

Anastasi Anne. 1988. Psychological Testing, (6th editions). New York, NY: Macmillan
Publishing Company.

Andrews, Sona Karentz. 1994. "Creating and interactive media on CD-ROM,"
Cartographic Perspectives, no. 19, Fall, p. 31-39.

Bednarz, Robert S. and James Petersen. 1994. "The reform movement in geographic
education: A view from the summit," in RS. Bednarz and J .F. Peterson (eds) A
Decade of Reform in Geographic Education: Inventory and Prospect, Indiana,
PA: National Council for Geographic Education.

Berger, Dale, Kathy Pezdek, and William Banks (eds). 1987. Applications of Cognitive
Psychology: Problem Solving, Education and Computing. New Jersey: Lawrence
Eribaum Associates.

Birley, Rose and Nick Tasker. 1995. "Dyscover- A world of special maps for special
people," SUC Bulletin, vol. 29, no. 1, p. 9-12.

Bohmstedt, George and David Knoke. 1994. Statistics for Social Data Analysis, 3rd ed.
Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers.

Borchert, John R. 1961. "The twin cities urbanized area: Past, present, future," The
Geographical Review, vol. 51, p. 47-70.

Brennan, Nicole G. and Robert Lloyd. 1993. "Searching for Boundaries on Maps:

Cognitive Processes." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems, vol. 20,
no. 4, p. 222-236.

Buttenﬁeld, Barbara. P. and Christopher R. Weber. 1994. "Proactive graphics for
exploratory visualization of biogeographical data," Cartographic Perspectives,
no. 19, Fall, p. 8-18.

Campbell, Craig and Stephen Egbert. 1990. "Animated Cartography/Thirty Years of
Scratching the Surface." Cartographica, vol. 27, p. 24-46.

Carter, James R. 1988. "The Map Viewing Environment: A Signiﬁcant Factor in
Cartographic Design." American Cartographer, vol. 15, p. 379-385.

89

Castner, Henry W, and Denis W Lywood. 1978. "Eye Movement Recording/Some
Approaches to the Study of Map Perception." The Canadian Cartographer, vol.
15, no. 2, p. 142-150.

Catts, Hugh W. 1989. "Deﬁning dyslexia as a developmental language disorder," Annals
of Dyslexia, vol. 39, p. 50-64.

Collins, Allan, Marilyn J ager Adams, and Richard Pew. 1978. "Effectiveness of an
interactive map display in tutoring geography," Journal of Educational
Psychology, vol. 70, no. 1, p. 1-7.

Critchley, MacDonald. 1981. "Dyslexia: An Overview" in G.T. Pavlidis and TR. Miles
(eds) Dyslexia Research and its Applications to Education, New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons Ltd.

Des Roches, Shannon. 1994. "The armchair traveler plugs in: Multimedia cartography as
a visual supplement to travel writing," Cartographic Perspectives, no. 19, Fall, p.
20-25, 38-39.

DiBiase, David. 1994. "Designing animated maps for a multimedia encyclopedia,"
Cartographic Perspectives, no. 19, Fall, p. 3-7 and 19.

DiBiase, D., A.M. MacEachren, J .B. Krygier and C. Reeves. 1992. "Animation and the
Role of Map Design in Scientiﬁc Visualization." Cartography and Geographic
Information Systems, vol. 19, no. 4, p. 201-214.

Dobson, Michael W. 1977. "Eye movement parameters and map reading," The American
Cartographer, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 39-58.

Dorling, Daniel. 1992. "Stretching space and splicing time: From Cartographic animation
to interactive visualization," Cartography and Geographic Information Systems,
vol. 19, no. 4, p. 215-227, 267-270.

Downs, Roger M. 1994. "The need for research in geography education: It would be nice
to have some data," Journal of Geography, vol. 93, no. 1, p. 57-60.

Downs, Roger M. Lynn S. Liben, and Debra G. Daggs. 1988. "On education and
geographers: The role of cognitive developmental theory in geographic

education," Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 78, no. 4, p.
680-700.

Dulli, E. Robert. 1994. "improving geography learning in the schools: efforts by the
National Geographic Society," in RS. Bednarz and J .F . Peterson (eds) A Decade
of Reform in Geographic Education: Inventory and Prospect, Indiana, PA:
National Council for Geographic Education.

90

 

Dymon, Ute J. 1995. "The potential of electronic atlases for geographic education,"
Cartographic Perspectives, no. 20, Winter, p. 29-34.

Edgeman, Laura. 1994. "Teaching successional vegetation dynamics: A comparison of
the effectiveness of animated and static graphics," Paper give and the Annual
Meeting of the Canadian Cartographic Association and the North American
Cartographic Information Society, Ottawa.

Eyton, Ronald J. 1991. "Rate-of-change maps," Cartography and Geographic
Information Systems, vol. 18, no. 2, p. 87-103.

Gersmehl, Philip J. 1990. "Choosing tools: Nine metaphors of four-dimensional
cartography," Cartographic Perspectives, no. 5, Spring, p. 3-17.

Gilmartin, Patricia P. 1981. "The interface of cognitive and psychophysical research in
cartography," Cartographica, vol. 18, no. 3, p. 9-20.

What; .11.: Man: 1.“

Gihnartin, Patricia. 1982. "The instructional efﬁcacy of maps in geographic text,"
Journal of Geography, vol. 41, p. 145-150.

Gihnartin, Patricia. 1992. "Twenty-ﬁve years of cartographic research: A content
analysis," Cartography and Geographic Information systems, vol. 19, no. 1, p.
37-47.

Golledge R. 1993. "Geography and the disabled: a survey with special references to
vision impaired and blind populations." Transaction of the Institute for British
Geographers, vol. 18, no. 1, p. 63-85.

Harley, J. B. 1989. "Deconstructing the Map." Cartographica, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 1-20.

Harley, J. B. 1991 . "Can There Be a Cartographic Ethics?" Cartographic Perspectives,
no. 10, p. 9-16.

Higgins, Eleanor L. and Jennifer C. Zvi. 1995. "Assistive technology for postsecondary
students with learning disabilities: From research to practice," Annals of Dyslexia,
vol. 15, p. 123-142.

James, Preston E. 1969. "The signiﬁcance of geography in American education," Journal
of Geography, vol. 68, no. 8, p. 473-483.

Jenks, George F. 1970. "Conceptual and perceptual error in thematic mapping."
Technical Papers from the 30th Annual Meeting, ACSM, March 1-6, p. 174-188.

Johnston, R. J. 1991. Geography and Geographers: Angola-American Human
Geography since 1945, (4th ed) Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc: New York.

91

Johnston, R. J. 1997. Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography
since 1945, (5th ed) Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc: New York.

Karl, Doris. 1992. "Cartographic animation: Potential and research issues," Cartographic
Perspectives, no. 13, p. 3-9.

Koussoulakou A. and M.J. Kraak. 1992. "Spatio-temporal maps and cartographic
communication," The Cartographic Journal, vol. 29, p. 101-108.

Krygier, J .B. 1994. "Sound Variables, Sound Maps and Cartographic Design" in A.M.
MacEachren and D.R.F. Taylor (eds) Visualization in Modern Cartography,
Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.

Krygier, John. 1994. "Macromedia DIRECTOR 4.0: An Overview," Cartographic
Perspectives, no. 19. Fall, p. 42.

Krygier, J. B, Catherine Reeves, David DiBiase, and Jason Cupp. 1997. "Design,
implementation, and evaluation of multimedia resources for geography and earth
science education," Journal of Geography in Higher Education, vol. 21, no. 1, p.
1 7-3 8.

Lanca, Margaret and John R. Kirby. 1995. "The beneﬁts of verbal and spatial tasks in
contour map learning," Cartographic Perspectives, no. 21 , Spring, p. 3-15.

Levinthal, Charles F. 1990. Introduction to Physiological Psychology (third edition),
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Linn, Sophia. 1996. "The effectiveness of interactive maps in the classroom," MS under
consideration for publication, 17 pages.

Livingstone, David N. 1992. The Geographic Tradition, Blackwell Publishers: Oxford.

Lloyd, Robert. 1988. "Searching for map symbols: The cognitive process," The American
Cartographer, vol. 15, no. 4, p. 363-377.

Lloyd, Robert and Theodore Steinke. 1984. "Recognition of disoriented maps: The
cognitive process," The Cartographic Journal, vol. 21, p. 55-59.

MacEachren, A.M. 1992. "Visualizing Uncertain Information," Cartographic
Perspectives, no. 13, p. 10-19.

MacEachren, A. M. 1994. - - wi _
Washington, DC: Association of American Geographers.

 

92

“a“ "mu-me—

MacEachren, A.M. and David DiBiase. 1991. "Animated Maps of Aggregate Data:
Conceptual and Practical Problems." Cartography and Geographic Information
Systems, vol. 18, no. 4, p. 221-229.

Manson, Gary. 1973. "Classroom questioning for geography teachers," Journal of
Geography, vol. 72, no. 4, p. 24-30.

Masland, Richard L. 1981. "Neurological aspects of dyslexia"" in G.T. Pavlidis and T.R.
Miles (eds) Dyslexia Research and its Applications to Education, New York, NY:
John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

McCleary, George F. 1970. "Beyond simple psychophysics: Approaches to the
understanding of map perception," Technical Paper from the 3 0th Annual
Meeting, ACSM. March 1-6, p. 189-209.

Milheim, William. 1993. "How to use animation in computer assisted learning," British
Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 24, no. 3, p. 171-178.

Miles, T.R. and Elaine Miles. 1990. Dyslexia: A Hundred Years On, Milton Keynes,
Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Mindscapes. 1995. Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? Classic Edition. Mattel,
Inc.

Moats, Louisa Cook, and G. Reid Lyon. 1993. "Learning disabilities in the United States:
Advocacy, science, and the future of the ﬁeld," Journal of Learning Disabilities,
vol. 26, no. 5, p. 282-294.

Monmonier, Mark 1990. "Strategies for the visualization of geographic time series data,"
Cartographica, vol. 27, no. 1, p. 30-45.

Monmonier, Mark. 1991. "Ethics and map design: Six strategies for confronting the
traditional one-map solution," Cartographic Perspectives, no. 10, p. 3-8.

Monmonier, Mark. 1991. How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press.

Monmonier, Mark. 1992. "Summary Graphics for integrated visualization in dynamic
cartography," Cartography and Geographical Information Systems, vol. 19, no. 9,
p. 23-36.

Monmonier, Mark and Myke Gluck. 1994. "Focus Groups for design improvement in

dynamic cartography," Cartography and Geographic Information Systems, vol.
21, no. 1, p. 37-47.

93

 

Morrill, Richard L. 1970. "The shape of diffusion in space and time," Economic
Geographer, vol. 26, no. 2 (supplement), p. 259-268.

Morrison, Joel. 1989. "The Revolution in Cartography in the 19808." Cartography Past,
Present, and Future. D.W. Rhind and D.R.F. Taylor editors. New York: Elsevier
Applied Science Publishers, p. 169-185.

National Geography Standards Project (NGSP). 1994. Geography for Life: National
geography standards, Washington DC: National Geographic Research and
Exploration.

Olson, Judy M. 1979. "Cognitive cartographic experimentation," The Canadian
Cartographer, vol. 16, no. 1, p. 34-44.

Olson, Judy M. 1997. "Presidential Address. Multimedia in geography: Good, bad, ugly,
or cool?" Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 87, no. 4, p.
571-578.

Olson, Judy M. and Cynthia A. Brewer. 1997. "An Evaluation of color selections to
accommodate map users with color-vision impairments," Annals of the
Association of American Geographers, vol. 87, no. 1, p. 103-134.

Peterson, Michael P. 1995. Interactive and Animated Cartography. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.

Proctor, James D. Paul C. Sutton, and George H. Michaels. 1995. "Multimedia guided
writing modules for introductory human geography," Journal of Geography, vol.
94, no. 6, p. 571-577.

Ramirez, Alisa D. and Patricia Gilmartin. 1996. "Maps, text, and seventh-graders: A
study of spatial learning," Cartographic Perspectives, no. 24, Spring, p. 3-12.

Rawson, Margaret B. 1981. "A diversity model for dyslexia" in G.T. Pavlidis and T.R.
Miles (eds) Dyslexia Research and its Applications to Education, New York, NY:
John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

Rice, Gwenda H. 1990. "Teaching students to become discriminating map users," Social
Education, vol. 49, no. 1, p. 44-46.

Rieber, Lloyd P. 1990. "Using computer animated graphics in science instruction with
children," Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 82, no. 1, p. 135-140.

Robinson, A. H. 1952. The Look of Maps. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin
Press.

94

 

Robinson, A. H. 1967. "The Potential Contribution of Cartography in Liberal Education "
in PE. Dohrs and L. M. Sommers (eds) Introduction to Geography: Selected
Readings, New York: Cromwell.

Robinson, Arthur H. and Barbara Bartz Petchenik. 1975. "The map as a communication
system," The Cartographic Journal, vol. 12, no. 1, p. 7-15.

Rystedt Bengt. 1995. "Current trends in electronic atlas production," Cartographic
Perspectives, no. 20, Winter, p. 5-11.

Sinton, D. 1978. "The Inherent Structure of Information as a Constraint to Analysis:

Mapped Thematic Data as a case Study" in G. Dutton (ed) Harvard Papers on
GIS., vol. 7.

Steeves, Joyce. 1990. "Here's to the future," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 40, p. 39-50.

Thrower, N. J. W. 1959. "Animated cartography," The Professional Geographer, vol. 11,
no. 6, p. 9-12.

Tobler, W. R. 1970. "A computer movie simulating urban growth in the Detroit region."
Economic Geography, vol. 26, no. 2 (supplement), p. 234-240.

Ungar, Simon, Angeles Espinosa Baya, Mark Blades, Espemaza Ochaita, and
Christopher Spencer. 1997 . "Use of tactile maps by blind and visually impaired
people," Cartographic Perspectives, no. 28, Fall, p. 4-12.

Vickery, Karen S., Valarie A. Reynolds, and Samuel W. Cochran. 1987. "Multisensory
teaching approach for reading, spelling, and handwriting, Orton-Gillingham based
curriculum, in a public school setting," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 37, p. 189-200

von Wyss, Maritn. 1996. "The production of smooth scale changes in an animated map
proj ect," Cartographic Perspectives, no. 23, Winter, p. 12-20.

Weber, Christopher R. and Barbara P. Buttenﬁeld. 1993. "A Cartographic Animation of
Average Yearly Surface Temperatures for the 48 Contiguous United States: 1897-
1986." Cartography and Geographic Information Systems, vol. 20, no. 3, p.141-

1 50.
Wright, J. K. 1966. Human Nature in Geography. Cambridge: Harvard Unversity Press.

Wood, Denis and John Fels. 1986. "Designs on Signs/Myth and Meaning in Maps."
Cartographica, vol. 23, no. 3, p. 54-103.

95

 

lidsiss Pth'

APPENDIX A

‘96

Section 1:
Location of Michigan's Coastal Dunes

   

Section 1: Dune Locations

1. Introduction
2. Characteristics of Dunes on different coasts
3. Location of Speciﬁc dunes

97

Introduction

The location of the Great Lakes relative to the state of Michigan gives the state a
unique physical and cultural geography. It is reﬂected in the state's motto "If you seek a
pleasant peninsula then look around you." A peninsula is a relatively narrow piece of
land extending out into a body of water. The lakes provide a means of transportation,
support a vital ﬁshing industry, balance a diverse ﬂora and fauna ecosystem, and provide
scenic areas for recreation purposes. With so many opportunities, you can see why the
Michigan Tourism Association changed its slogan in 1998 to "Great Lakes. Great
Times."

With over 3,200 miles of coastline, of which a good portion is sandy, Michigan
contains the largest expanse of freshwater dunes in the world. Over 1,000 miles of these
dunes are public beaches. The dunes are often the main feature in many of Michigan's 96
State Parks and in Michigan's two National Lakeshores. The Parks and Lakeshores are
open year round and are great places to study and enjoy the dunes.

Characteristics of Dunes on Different Coasts
The dunes on the Michigan shoreline differ from place to place because of

differences in prevailing winds and availability of sand. Lets look at some of these
differences.

 

.,._ uperior

. '.'.
I 5‘1

view/t ~ V.

Lake ..

Miehig

 

’ .
'15:»:

-251 “A?
I

a:

ne

 

 

98

 

1. The dunes found along Lake Michigan's shoreline tend to consist of soft, white sand.
Of the four Great Lakes, Michigan, Huron, Superior, and Eric, Lake Michigan has the
most abundant sand and dunes that extend for miles and often rise hundreds of feet above
the shoreline. In fact, Michigan's western Lower Peninsula is the longest freshwater
beach in the world, extending for 200 miles. Fourteen State Parks, dedicated to
protecting Michigan's coastal dunes, are located along Lake Michigan's shores. Here are
three photographs from along this coast. Notice the abundance of sand.

 

 

 

 

 

2.Lake Superior is the largest freshwater body in the world; however, it does not have as
many sandy beaches as Lake Michigan. Much of the coastline is wilderness with
steep rock cliffs and forested shores. Here are three photographs of Michigan's Lake

Superior shoreline.

 

 

 

99

 

4.

The Lake Huron shoreline ranges from rocky coasts to sandy beaches. Here the
dunes have a much lower relief than those along the Lake Michigan shoreline. In
addition, the dunes do not stretch for any great length. The four State Parks on Lake
Huron extend for only a mile or two. This is much shorter then the coastlines of the
State Parks on Lake Michigan that have 10, 15, and even 35 miles of sandy beaches.
In the three photographs of Lake Huron beaches, notice the combination of sand and
rocky shorelines.

 

Lake Eric is the Great Lake most used for transportation and it is home to many
boaters and ﬁshermen. - It does not however contain many sandy deposits that form
dunes. Most of Michigan's border with Lake Erie consists of marshes and bogs.
Although it may not attract those seeking high dune bluffs and long stretches of
beach, it does attract many bird watchers and hunters. These three photographs
characterize much of Michigan's Lake Erie shoreline.

 

100

Location of Speciﬁc Dunes

Michigan has almost 100 state parks and two national lakeshores. All of
Michigan's Parks aim to preserve the state's natural features and historical sites. The
parks preserve inland waterways, waterfalls, old-growth forest, and particularly
freshwater coastal sand dunes.

Twenty of Michigan's State Parks are devoted to protecting coastal sand dunes. You can
see where these twenty are located on the Coastal Dunes map. All of these parks have a
unique setting or history of how and why the land became a State Park. Lets look at a 1
few of these parks. When you read about each one, ﬁnd where it is located on the map.

A. Warren Dunes State Park is located on Lake Michigan. It is a large park of about
2,000 acres and 2 miles of shoreline. One of its spectacular features is the dune that *
rise 240 feet above Lake Michigan. The park offers several nature trails that wind
between dune environments that range from both barren and forest-cover to winding
streams and wildﬂowers.

 

B. Saugatuck State Park is located on Lake Michigan and has about 300 acres of land,
much of which is preserved natural area with coastal dunes. The park offers an
extensive 14-mile nature trail through the dunes. This park is one of the more remote
state parks in Michigan. One must walk over a mile from the car park to reach it.
This remoteness limits the number of visitors each year. In 1996, Saugatuck State
Park had 71,000 visitors. The more easily accessible, neighboring Holland State Park
had over 1.25 million visitors.

C. PJ. Hoffmaster State Park has over two and a half miles of ﬁne, sandy beach along
Lake Michigan. It also has towering sand dunes and stairs leading to the top of a high
dune overlook. The Gillette Sand Dune Visitor Center is located here. It has hands-
on exhibits and is a great place to learn about Michigan dunes.

D. Silverlake State Park is on Lake Michigan and has over 1,500 acres of "Sahara
Desert-like dunes" that can be explored by foot or by vehicle. This is one of the few
dune areas that allow off-road vehicles.

E. Leelanau State Park has over 1300 acres located at the "Tip of the Little Finger" as
the Leelanau Peninsula is sometimes called. The word Leelanau is the Native
American word for "A Land of Delight" which is a phrase that certainly suits this
park. It features the Grand Traverse Lighthouse and Museum, eight and one half
miles of trails, and sandy beaches.

F. Brimley State Park is a 151-acre park located on Lake Superior's Whiteﬁsh Bay. It
is one of the Upper Peninsula's oldest state parks with the initial 38 acres established
in 1923, donated by the Village of Brimley. This park is an excellent example of
Lake Superior dunes.

101

G.

P.H. Hoeft State Park is a 301-acre park on the Shores of Lake Huron. It is a
heavily wooded park with over one mile of sandy shoreline. This was one of the ﬁrst
14 Michigan State Parks. The original property was donated by lumber baron Paul H.
Hoeft in 1922.

. Alber E. Sleeper State Park features a half-mile beach of ﬁne sand along Lake

Huron. It also has a four-mile nature trail that runs through old dune ridges where
vegetation changes from wetland to forest.

Sterling State Park is Michigan's only state park on Lake Erie. Here the dunes are
small and most of the shoreline is wooded. Many naturalists enjoy this park because
of the abundant birds and wildlife that live amongst the bogs and marshes.

There are two National Lakeshores in Michigan where you can also enjoy and study
dunes.

1.

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore is most famous for its massive coastal
sand dunes, with bluffs towering 460 feet above Lake Michigan. The park also has a
diverse landscape of smaller inland lakes, streams, and forests, and it is home to
numerous plant and animal Species. The entire park stretches for 35 miles along Lake
Michigan.

”‘.‘

greater.“ «an «arm-W '

 

A Chippewa Indian legend relays the history of the dunes in a story about a mother
bear and her two cubs who tried to swim across Lake Michigan. The mother bear
ﬁnally reached the shore and climbed to the top of a bluff to wait for her cubs who
had unfortunately drowned on the way. The dune is the sleeping mother bear and the
Manitou Islands represent the cubs.

102

Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore has received outstanding recognition in
the last several years. Consumer Reports ranked the park second among the best
lakeshore and seashore parks in the country (Point Reyes National Seashore in
California was ranked ﬁrst). In addition National Geographic Traveler called M-22,
the road that winds through Sleeping Bear, one of the best scenic drives in the nation.

2. Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore is a 73,000-acre park that stretches along
42 miles of the Lake Superior shoreline. This was the country's ﬁrst National
Lakeshore, authorized in 1966. It is open year round. In 1996 over half a million
people visited the park.

Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore features multicolored sandstone cliffs, beaches,
sand dunes, waterfalls, inland lakes, wildlife and hardwood forests. The rocks for
which the park is named rise 50 to 200 feet above Lake Superior and many have been
eroded into caves and arches and other shapes that resemble castles and fortresses.

Most of the shoreline is characterized by these cliffs; however there are also 12 miles
of sandy beach known as the Grand Sable Dunes.

Credits:

Data was collected by site visits to the Michigan dunes in 1997-1998; ﬁeldwork was
conducted by Alison E. Philpotts. Additional information was gathered from the
following sources.

Consumer Reports. 1997. "Rating the parks" June.

Delorme Mapping. 1991. Michigan Atlas and Gazetteer. Maine: DeLorme Mapping.

Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Parks and Recreation Division

Lansing State Journal. June 24, 1997.

103

”...—..-”...—

Section 2: Geology and Geomorphology
of Coastal Dunes

   

Section 2: Geology and Geomorphology of Coastal Dunes
. Origin of the sand

. How dunes form

. The anatomy of a coastal dune environment

. Types of dunes in Michigan

. Dunes over time

Ut-hbJN—t

Origins of the Sand

In the history of the earth, there have been periods known as "ice ages" that have
had extremely cold temperatures. When the temperatures remain colder than normal, ice
and snow build up in the polar regions and form glaciers. The glaciers eventually spread
southward over Canada.

Michigan was directly in the path of these glaciers during the last ice age and was
repeatedly buried under sheets of ice. The Pleistocene epoch is the term for this last ice
age period and it occurred from 2 million to 10,000 years ago. Scientists use carbon and
oxygen dating techniques to determine when the ice advanced. They have recorded 11
separate ice advances. The last glacial period, dating to 21,000 years ago, extended as far
south as southern Ohio. By 15,500 years ago the ice extended only as far south as
northern Ohio and by 13,000 the glacier extended only to the northern potion of
Michigan's Lower Peninsula. By 11,000 years ago temperatures continued to warm and
the glacier reached only to the tip of the Michigan's Lower Peninsula and continued to
recede north in the following years.

As glaciers spread south, they moved with a very slow grinding motion similar to
that of a huge bulldozer. They enlarged the paths they followed and carved out wide
deep basins. When the glaciers receded, water ﬁlled these basins and formed the Great
Lakes. Looking at the shape of the Great Lakes you can almost imagine them as
remnants of huge lobes of glacial ice over the area.

The sediment that the glaciers bulldozed was deposited as large piles of sand and
rock debris. Much of this debris is still visible, for it forms the hills in the northern
portion of the Lower Peninsula and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The remaining
sediment was left in the basin to be further ground up by wind and wave action in the
Great Lakes. This debris created the sand for Michigan's dunes.

How Dunes Form

The coastal sand dunes of Michigan are formed by the prevailing westerly winds
that blow across the Great Lakes. The water and waves in the Lakes erode and carry new
sediment. Once this sediment is on land, the wind moves the sand particles and forms
dunes.

The way in which sand is moved by the wind depends on the size of the sand
particles and the wind velocity.

1. The smallest particles are usually transported in suspension. These particles are so
small and light that the wind can carry them along and they do not touch the ground
surface until they have been carried a fairly long distance.

2. The medium size sand particles travel by saltation. This is an asymmetrical, or
uneven, path. First, the particle is lifted off the ground in a steep upward direction.

105

 

Then, gravity pulls the particle down, decreasing its velocity and the sand grains fall
in a less-steep arc toward the ground. On impact of landing, the moving sand
particles transfer momentum and energy to dislodge other stationary sand particles
and the movement is continued in the direction of the wind.

3. The largest sand particles are transported by creep. This occurs with sand grains that
are too heavy to be lifted from the surface. Instead, the sand particles may be pushed
along by the wind.

In any case, the wind moves the particles until there is no longer enough energy to

overcome gravity. The sand is then deposited. This usually occurs in areas where the
wind is blocked, such as behind a tree or log, in a grassy area, or over the crest of a hill.
It is in these areas that deposits of sand grow into dunes. Once a dune begins to form it
provides its own barrier to the wind. The downwind side of the dune is protected from
the wind. Sand particles on the upwind side are transported by the wind and deposited.
As long as the wind is carrying sand, the dune continues to move.

The Anatomy of a Coastal Dune Environment

Coastal sand dunes are created when sand particles are eroded and deposited by
water and carried by wind. They are closely associated with the shoreline of a body of
water. It is important to know the different parts of a coastal environment to understand
the dune's physical relationship to the water.

The coastal environment is divided into three main parts: the offshore, foreshore,

and backshore. The offshore is the part located beneath the water. In this part of the
coastal environment, only water is carrying and depositing the sand particles.

106

The foreshore is the area that ranges between the minimum and maximum water
level. The sand particles in this area are carried and deposited by both wind and water.
The "berm" is the farthest point inland that waves reach during high tide and is relatively
steep. Usually the berm appears as a linear ridge running parallel to the shoreline. It is
formed by the waves and is not a dune. Some sand from the foreshore, however, will be
dry enough to be blown inland and provide new sediment for dune formation.

The area inland from the berm is called the backshore. Here, wind is the only
dynamic agent carrying and depositing sand particles. It is in the backshore that dunes
are formed.

All dunes are shaped with a less-steep slope in the windward direction (the
direction the wind is coming hem) and a steeper slope in the leeward direction (the
opposite direction). The gentle windward slope is usually less than 10 degrees and is
continually being reshaped with sand grains moving up the slope. The leeward side of
the dune is steeper because once the sand grains reach the top, or crest, of the dune, the
wind cannot carry them and they drop. The leeward side usually has an angle between 30
and 40 degrees.

Types of Dunes

Dunes are classiﬁed into types depending on their overall shape or pattern. Dunes
can form many different shapes based on environmental conditions. Some of the
conditions include the amount of available sand, wind direction, wind velocity, and the
distribution of vegetation and past climate environments. In Michigan you will ﬁnd three

types.

1. Beach Ridges are found perpendicular to the shoreline and are directly related to the
offshore, foreshore, and backshore parts of the coastal environment. Some beach
ridges are found very high above the water and they may be a long way from today's
coastline. This distance occurs because water level has changed over the years. In
the past, water level was higher; today's coastline would have been under water in the
past. What we see today is a series of giant steps, like a staircase, moving down from
the higher backshore to the lower water level. Each step represents a distinct time
period.

2. Parabolic Dunes develop from constant wind erosion. Parabolic dunes are found
along Michigan's western coastline. The environmental conditions of wind coming
ﬁom the direction of Lake Michigan combined with abundant vegetation to trap sand
results in the formation of large dunes. Many of these dunes reach a height of 50 feet
or more. The abundant sand and vegetation help form these dunes into a distinct
shape. The shape is that of a crescent, or a parabola, hence the name "parabolic

107

dune." The tips or horns of the dunes are located upwind and the main body of the
dune is located downwind. The vegetation helps to stabilize the dune and hold the
tips upwind.

3. Perched Dunes are the extremely high, impressive dunes found at places like
Sleeping Bear National Lakeshore and at Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore's Grand
Sable dunes. Perched dunes form in two steps. First the water level lowers and the
waves from the Great Lakes erode the freshly exposed shoreline, making a steep bank
and producing abundant sand. This sand is then moved by the strong winds that blow
across the Lakes. The wind moves the sand particles high up the steep bank face and
deposits it on a high bluff.

Dunes Change Over Time

Geological changes often occur slowly over millions of years, but many sand
dunes change quickly. In fact, dunes are constantly changing. By studying both younger
active dunes and older, stable dunes, scientists can learn about past environments.

Changes in water level results in changes in the position of the offshore,
foreshore, and backshore. Remember that waves in the lake carry sand to the shoreline
and that wind moves the particles to form dunes in the backshore. In times of high water
levels, new backshores are created. Today, water level is lower than in the past and the
old backshores are now higher than the newer, younger dunes that are forming along the
coastline.

Glaciation has changed water levels. The enormous weight of the ice in a glacier
presses the land down and submerges it below the water. When the glaciers melt, the
weight is lifted and the land re—emerges from the water.

In other words, water level rises during glaciation and lowers when the glaciers
recede. This changes the location of dunes on the land and is the reason that Michigan
has a series of beach ridges along many of its coasts.

Vegetation is important for studying the development and change in dunes and for
estimating the ages of the different water levels. As dunes are pushed by the wind they
migrate and often bury objects in their path. Trees are often covered and killed by
shifting sands. Many years later, as the dunes continue to migrate, dead trees are exposed
leaving behind ghost forests as stark reminders of the past presence of dunes.
Radiocarbon dating can be used on the dead trees to determine when the dune migrated
over the trees. Scientists can use radiocarbon dates to estimate the chronological history
of the dunes and can infer about past environments.

108

Credits:

Data was collected by site visits to the Michigan dunes in 1997-1998; ﬁeldwork by
Alison E. Philpotts. Additional information was gathered ﬁ'om the following sources.

Anderton, J. B., and Loope, W. L., 1995. "Buried soils in a perched dune ﬁelds as
indicators of Late Holocene lake-level change in the Lake Superior basin."
Quaternary Research, vol. 44, p. 190-199.

Arbogast, A. F. 1996. Lectures given in Regional Geomorphology course, Michigan State
University.

Bloom, Arthur L. 1991. Geomorphology. A systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic
Landforms. (2nd ed). Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

Christopherson, Robert W. 1995. Elemental Geosystems: A Foundation in Physical
Geography, Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

Olson, J erry S. 1958. "Lake Michigan dune development. Lake-level, beach, and dune
oscillations. Journal of Geology, vol. 66, no. 5, p. 245-263.

Thompson, Todd A. 1992. "Beach-ridge development and lake-level variation in southern
Lake Michigan." Sedimentary Geology, vol. 80, p. 305-318.

109

 

Section 3: Plant and Animal Life on the
Dunes

   

Section 3: Plant and Animal life on the dunes
l. Dune Ecosystems
2 Native Plants
3. Native Birds and Animals
4. Introduced Species
5. Studying the Dune Ecosystem

110

Dune Ecosystems

The coastal dunes in Michigan are part of the Great Lakes Ecosystem. An
ecosystem consists of the plant and animal life living in a stable community that interacts
with the air, land, and water. It also includes the people who live there. It is essential to
understand the interrelationships between these components to ensure a high quality of
life, a healthy environment and a productive, sustainable economy.

The Great Lakes ecosystem extends outside of Michigan's borders to include eight
US. states and two Canadian provinces. Although the international border separates
distinct political boundaries, a rich, integrated resource base and manufacturing region
has developed. The Great Lakes contain one-ﬁfth of all the fresh water in the world with
hundreds of tributaries and thousands of smaller lakes surrounding them. The ecosystem
contains rich forests and wilderness areas that are home to an abundant and diverse
wildlife. It is a region of productive agricultural land and mineral deposits, and it is
North America's industrial heartland. Over 32.4 million people live in the area, and the
region supports a multi-billion dollar recreation and tourism industry.

The Great Lakes and its encompassing ecosystem are so large that it is even
visible to the naked eye from the moon. It greatly affects our way of life, as well as all
aspects of the natural environment, from weather and climate to wildlife and habitat.
Despite their size and power, the lakes are fragile. Industrial practices, resource
extraction, urbanization, de-forestation, introductions of exotic species, destruction of
natural areas, and the contamination of the air, water and soil all affect and stress the
ecosystem.

The coastal dunes are vital parts of that interdependent ecosystem. The plants and
animals that live in and around the dunes are all intertwined within the larger system.

You will learn about human involvement in the ecosystem in Section 4: Dune protection
and sustainable maintenance. In this section we will look at the plants and animals.

Native Plants
Plant life changes and becomes more abundant on the dunes as you go inland.
Only the most hardy plants reside in the foreshore area. Despite the occasional

wave, this mid-beach section has a hot, dry, windy surface. The plants that live here have
small nondescript ﬂowers and small seeds.

lll

Permanent plant life is found inland from the backshore. Beach grass is one of
the more common plants found along Michigan's dunes and it plays an important role in
young, active dune development. The grass builds dunes by acting as obstacles and
creating protective areas downwind where sand particles can no longer be carried. The
roots also hold sand in place, stabilizing the dunes. The underground roots of beach grass
sprout offshoots that grow off in all directions and form new grass. One plant may
eventually spread over twenty feet.

“Eur-ﬁrm?“—

 

Once the beach grass has stabilized the dune, cherry bushes, junipers, prickly pear
cacti, evening primroses, and thistles inhabit the area. Each plant community in turn
creates a new environment that is conducive to the succession of new plants.

Cottonwood trees are usually the ﬁrst trees to survive moving sands and dune building. It
is a highly adaptable tree, relatively drought resistant and tolerant to dry sands, yet it can
endure moist soils. Jack pine, followed by red pine and aspen trees are the next to
colonize. Farthest inland is a mix of hardwood trees including oak, maple, and beech
trees. The Paw Paw tree is a unique native tree in North America. It grows only in the
southern third of Michigan's Lower Peninsula and is the only member of the "tropical
custard apple" family that lives outside of the tropics.

112

Amongst the bushes and trees of the backshore grows a variety of plant life
including ﬂowering plants, ivy, and mushrooms. Irises, orchids, and lady slippers make
the dunes a rainbow of colors in the spring and summer. Berries and fruit provide food
for birds, animals, and people. Poison Ivy is abundant throughout the ecosystem and
should be avoided, for it often causes irritation to the human skin.

In areas where the vegetation roots have been disturbed, either by natural or
human causes, the wind carries away the protective vegetation. As root disturbance
continues, a large horseshoe-shaped basin develops. These rounded pits are commonly
called blowouts. As the sands migrate, the blowout areas becomes deeper and larger.
Blowouts are prominent features along the shores.

 

Native Birds and Animals

Michigan's coastal dunes are home to a vast number of native birds and animals.
The foredune is a harsh environment for plants, and only a few animals live here.
Sandpipers, plovers, and sanderlings dart back and forth between waves. Tiger beetles,
burrowing spiders, and ants can also be seen just out of reach of the waves. In the fall,
ladybird beetles inhabit the driftwood deposited in the sand.

In the more vegetated areas
inland from the backshore one ﬁnds
most of the dune's wildlife. The
bushes and trees provide food,
protection and nesting sites for
many of the birds and animals that
frequently visit the water and
foredune area. Loons, deer,
raccoons, black bear, gray wolves,
fox, opossums, and squirrels are
common residents to the forested
areas.

 

113

Let's take a closer look at a few of Michigan's dune residents.

Loons can be seen in the numerous lakes, bogs, and marshes found amongst the
dunes. Both the male and female adult loons have black and white bodies with a white
breast, while younger birds have gray backs with a white breast. Their eyes are
characteristically red. Loons are oﬁen found breeding in the coastal dune environment
because of its abundant ﬁsh, undeveloped shoreline, and inland lakes. They prefer either
lakes with small islands or bog mats that are inaccessible to egg-eating predators.

On average, loons weigh around nine pounds, and reach three feet in length with a
ﬁve-foot wingspan. Their webbed feet are located at the back of their bodies instead of
underneath which makes them extremely powerful swimmers. They are skillful at
catching their diet of ﬁsh, frogs, crayﬁsh, leeches and aquatic insects, and they are able to
dive to 200 feet and stay underwater for up to ﬁve minutes. Unlike most birds, which
have hollow bones, loons have solid bones, reducing their buoyancy. When they
compress their feathers, and force the air from their lungs, loons are able to move through
the water with only their heads showing above the surface.

Easily disturbed and stressed, adult loons may desert their nest if approached too
closely by a human being or water vehicle. As settlement in Michigan has increased, the
loon's breeding range has decreased. The Icon was added to Michigan's threatened
species list in 1987. A loon recovery plan was created that includes measures such as
protection of current and potential breeding lakes, reduction of causes of mortality, and
public educational programs. Everyone can help to protect the loon by giving them the
seclusion they need, and letting others know if there is a nest nearby so it can be avoided.

Raccoons are the most common four
legged creatures in the coastal dune
forest. Raccoons have distinct markings,
including a ringed tail and black spots
over the eyes that look like a mask.
Mostly active at night, raccoons are
usually seen close to water. The ﬁngers
on the front paws are highly sensitive
and raccoons use them underwater to
search and catch food. A typical
raccoon diet includes wild berries, eggs,
crayﬁsh, and frogs; and, they are
notorious for raiding campsites and
taking human food.

 

ll4

Another dune resident is the black bear. An estimated 12,000 black bears,
including cubs live in Michigan. Most are found in the Upper Peninsula, but 15 percent
of the population is in the northern Lower Peninsula. Many of these bears make their
homes in the thicker forests of the coastal dunes. Generally, black bears are not
dangerous, but they can be aggressive in their search for food during years when supplies
are scarce. In the state parks campgrounds they can sometimes cause disturbances
because they are attracted to garbage cans, food stored in outbuildings or tents, pet food,
and backpacks containing food. They often leave the area once the food that has attracted
them is removed. There are few records of bears injuring or killing people in Michigan.

A returned species to the dune ecosystem is the gray wolf (Canis lupus). Gray
wolves are the largest member of the canid family (wild dogs), which also includes
coyotes, and red and gray foxes. Adult gray wolves average 30 inches in height at the
shoulder and weigh 65 pounds. Their feet are generally 3 1/2 inches wide and 4 1/2
inches long, which provides an easy way of differentiating them from coyotes, whose feet
are only 1 1/2 inches wide and 2 1/2 inches long.

Michigan wolves generally eat deer, beaver, hare, and rodents and other small
mammals, but may also eat woodchuck, muskrat, coyote, raccoon, insects, nuts, berries
and grasses. This diet is plentiﬁrl in the dune ecosystem. While wolves can go for a
week without eating, when they do eat a meal, it can contain up to 20 pounds of meat.

Wolves once resided in all 83 Michigan counties, but the loss of habitat and the
direct extermination through hunting caused the gray wolf to be virtually eliminated from
the state. By 1840 they could no longer be found in the southern portion of the Lower
Peninsula. By 1910 they had completely disappeared ﬁ'om the Lower Peninsula, and by
1960 they had nearly vanished from the Upper Peninsula. The last known new pups
before the 19908 reintroduction of wolves in the state, were born in the Pictured Rocks
National Lakeshore in the mid-1950s.

Gray wolves have been protected in Michigan since 1965 and have been listed on
the Federal endangered species list since 1974. Several attempts were made to
reintroduce gray wolves into Michigan. One attempt in 1974 relocated four wolves ﬁom
Minnesota to northern Marquette county, Michigan but it failed.

In the 19808 more wolves were relocated, but they did not form packs or birth
pups. The only veriﬁed sightings of wolves, other than on Isle Royale, were of individual
animals, but in 1989, the tracks of two wolves traveling together were seen. In the spring
of 1991, this pair produced pups, the ﬁrst to be documented on the mainland of Michigan
in 35 years. In 1997, a winter survey reported 112 wolves.

Introduced Species

Introducing non-native plant and animal species into a stable ecosystem can be
potentially dangerous and disruptive. Sometimes species are introduced intentionally to

115

help cure a problem. Although an introduction may have good intentions, the result may
be negative. For example, black pines are not native to the dunes but were introduced to
help stabilize them. Dunes are suppose to move around and plants should adapt to the
shifting sands, so stabilizing the dunes was not a good idea in the ﬁrst place. Today the
pines are taking over and spreading quickly.

Another example of a disruptive non-native species is the garlic mustard plant.
Garlic mustard is a European species that invades shady areas. The plant produces white
ﬂowers that can yield between 300 to 1,000 seeds per plant. The ﬂowers are self-
pollinating allowing the population to boom. If it is not eradicated, garlic mustard
threatens to destroy this fragile ecosystem.

New species can also enter a stable ecosystem by unintentional transportation.
With all the industrial trading and transporting that occurs in the Great Lakes, it is not
surprising that some boats might also be carrying new animal species, insects, or plant
seeds. These new species may destroy the delicate ecosystem.

Studying the Dune Ecosystem

The dune ecosystem is an exciting and changing environment. Lets look at what
you might see if you visited the dunes throughout the year.

 

In January and February, only a few animals wander far from their nests, trees, holes, or
dens. Raccoons, skunks, and mice are the most commonly seen. Young owls and bear
cubs are born, but they do not venture out into the cold.

116

In March and April migrating birds, such as seagulls return to the dunes, and sap can be
collected from maple trees. Migrating ﬁsh, including smelt, trout, and salmon, provide
interesting viewing and ﬁshing.

By May and June wild ﬂowers and trees have bloomed. Aspen trees are the ﬁrst to turn
bright green, and migratory birds return from winter stays in warmer climates. Deer
fawns are born in early May and black ﬂies hatch by mid-May.

In July and August blueberries and huckleberries ripen in pine forests along the
lakeshore, and thimbleberries and raspberries ripen along roadsides and forest clearings.

By September and October, many birds begin to migrate south. Black ﬂies are gone and
mosquitoes are fewer, but horse, deer, and stable ﬂies are numerous. The leaves change
colors, and beechnuts ripen. Black bears climb trees to feed on these nuts, and often you
can see their claw marks on the smooth beech bark.

In November and December, snow usually covers the ground. Loons congregate on bays
in large groups as they migrate south. The snowshoe hare changes its fur color ﬁ'om gray
to white, and bears begin to hibernate.

Michigan dunes are a fun place to study plant and animal life throughout the year. In the
spring and summer, the ﬂowering plants are at their peak. The fall is an ideal time to go
leaf collecting, and in the winter, fresh snowfalls provide an ideal way to study animal
tracks. Most of the State Parks have posters or bulletin boards to help visitors identify
the plants and animals throughout the year.

Credits:

Data was collected by site visits to the Michigan dunes in 1997 -1998; ﬁeldwork
conducted by Alison E. Philpotts. Additional information was gathered from the

following sources.

Bloom, Arthur L. 1991. Geomorphology. A systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic
Landforms. (2nd ed). Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

The Detroit News. 1997. "Nature lovers delight in dunes," Wednesday October 29, p. 6C.

http;//www.d_n_r,§tate.mi,us/depypress/mustardzmtm
Mahan, John and Ann. 1991. Wild Lake Michigan, Voyageur Press: Minnesota.

117

Section 4: Dune Protection and
Sustainable Maintenance

 

Section 4: Dune protection and sustainable maintenance
1. Land use activities
2. Protection measures

118

Land Use Activities

The coastal dunes of Michigan are a vital component to the health of the Great
Lakes. The richness of the Great Lakes and the land around them has attracted people to
this area since the glaciers retreated northward. Numerous Native American tribes relied
on the resources in the region to survive. During white settlement, the land was used
heavily for logging, ﬁshing, fur trapping, and mining. Today the region is North
America's industrial hub and remains a center for tourism and recreation. Human land
use is directly connected to the Great Lakes ecosystem. This is a fragile system and
protective measures are necessary to ensure the current and future health of the region.

The Great Lakes region was inhabited by Native Americans as early as 11,000
BC. Dietary subsistence depended upon hunting, ﬁshing, trapping, gathering seeds, nuts,
berries, and roots, and eventually included some agriculture. Archeological remains
indicate that stone, wood, and copper was used to create tools, weapons, and boats.
Periods of distinct cultures and tribes have been studied and recorded. Today, there are
several Native American reservations located in Michigan, and numerous museums and
cultural events give insights into how early inhabitants utilized the Great Lakes and the
coastal dune system.

In the 16005 and 1700s French and English explorers came searching for furs and
minerals. In the 18005, the demand for timber attracted lumber barons who bought vast
forests of white pine, beech, and maple. By the 1890s, boomtowns located along the
shoreline supported sawmills that produced millions of board feet of lumber yearly.
Other businesses and industries began to ﬂourish in the region as well. Wooden-hulled
freighters and side-wheelers transported lumber and iron to distant markets. To help
ships navigate, the US. Life Saving Service (later to become the US. Coast Guard) built
lighthouses along the lakeshore. By the early 1900s deforestation was a problem and
many forest barons moved elsewhere.

Although forests were in decline, Michigan remained rich in other resources.
Sand and gravel are found throughout the state, and limestone is common in the Upper
Peninsula and the northern portion of the Lower Peninsula. Other resources found in the
Upper Peninsula include iron ore and marble.

Petroleum and natural gas are important minerals found in the Lower Peninsula. The
state's numerous bogs contain abundant resources of peat. In addition, other mineral
deposits include copper, clay, coal, gypsum, magnesium, shale, and silver. Most of these
products are transported in the Great Lakes.

119

One example of the importance of mining today can be seen in the production of
limestone, where Michigan ranks fourth in the nation. In fact, the Calcite Quarry at
Rogers City, which produces limestone and dolomite, is the largest stone quarry in the
world. Limestone and dolomite are used in steel, sewage treatment plants, and in
everyday products such as paper, glass, paint, varnish, soap, detergents, baking powder,
and beet sugar. The proximity to the Great Lakes makes it easy to transport the ﬁnished
product to distant markets. Many quarries such as the one in Rogers City are shipping
between 1/2 to 1 billion tons of material a year.

Calcite Mine:
Rogers City

 

‘.i".

 

The Great Lakes are vital to Michigan's economy. Michigan's ports are actively
shipping raw materials, such as iron ore and limestone, and receive products such as coal.
Michigan is one of the leading states in manufacturing, which accounts for about 27
percent of the state's gross annual production and it provides over 968,000 jobs to state
residents. Manufactured goods must be transported, usually on the Great Lakes, to
national and international markets. The extraction, production and transportation of
minerals and the manufacturing of goods produces garbage, pollution, acid rain, and oil
slicks that have harmful impacts on the dune ecosystem. The impacts are most noticeable
when schools of ﬁsh digest pollutants, become ill, and are washed upon the shore. The
health of the Great Lakes is important to the plant and animal life that reside in the dune
ecosystem.

Another major land use activity in the dune area is recreation. The State Parks

offer a variety of day and night activities. In the summer, picnicking, swimming, hiking,
canoeing, boating, hang gliding, and camping are just a few of the activities offered at

120

most of the State Parks. Many of these parks have concession stands, cabins, and toilet
facilities. In the winter months, dune activities include snow shoeing, cross-country
skiing, and ice ﬁshing. Millions of visitors utilize the parks throughout the year, which in
turn brings pollution and vegetation disruption to the dunes. Remember that vegetation
helps stabilize the dune, so if it is destroyed the dunes will migrate at a faster than normal
rate. Most State Parks have erosion control areas or fences to protect the vegetation. Not
everyone, however, obeys the signs.

_‘

l

 

One activity that is extremely harmful to the dune environment is the use of off-
road vehicles. In a few areas around the state, off-road vehicles, such as dune buggies
and jeeps, are allowed on the dunes. Tire tracks destroy dune vegetation and can leave
scars that last many years. The state does have an additional tax placed on off-road
vehicle licenses. This tax is used to help re-vegetate areas, but a little damage can ruin
years of dune building.

New housing development is another land use activity that is currently affecting
the coastal dune ecosystem. Expensive housing units are being constructed along all four
coasts of the Great Lakes. These properties are being used for both year-round residency
and for vacation homes. Talks are currently underway to exchange 204 acres of Sleeping
Bear National Lakeshore with 160 acres of wetlands along the Crystal River. The
National Lakeshore property is estimated to be worth over $4 million and the land is
adequate for residential building structures. The wetlands area, however, is estimated to
be worth only $500,000 and it can not support any development. It must remain as a

121

New housing development is another land use activity that is currently affecting
the coastal dune ecosystem. Expensive housing units are being constructed along all four
coasts of the Great Lakes. These properties are being used for both year-round residency
and for vacation homes. Talks are currently underway to exchange 204 acres of Sleeping
Bear National Lakeshore with 160 acres of wetlands along the Crystal River. The
National Lakeshore property is estimated to be worth over $4 million and the land is
adequate for residential building structures. The wetlands area, however, is estimated to
be worth only $500,000 and it can not support any development. It must remain as a
wetland. Environmental groups, including the Michigan Environmental Action Council,
the Sierra Club, and the National Parks and Conservation Association, are trying to stop
this land exchange, but developers and many new prospective home owners are in favor
of it.

Despite the increasing number of coastal homeowners, it is important to recognize
the power of a dynamic system, such as coastal dunes. Similar to the difﬁculties in
protecting people and property in ﬂood zones or near active volcanoes, there are
difﬁculties protecting people and property in coastal dunes areas. Lake level changes are
a great concern to property owners. If the lake level rises, waves can erode away
properties and even destroy entire houses. Even in times of constant lake levels,
properties are still at risk because coastal dunes are active and always migrating.
Structurally sound buildings can not always escape the inﬂuences of windblown sand.
The US. Coast Guard building is now located in Glen Haven after it was moved from
Sleeping Bear Point in 1931 because migrating dunes threatened to cover it.

"We .W‘: a V ‘.‘.» .

Protection measures

The industrial growth in Michigan and the rest of the United States and the
increase in tourism have had negative impacts on the environment. Again, the ecosystem
of the Great Lakes is fragile and human disruption to the air, water, land, plant, and
wildlife by the 19608 was noticeable. Environmental laws were needed. The United
States Clean Water Act of 1970 was seen as an initial starting point for environmental
improvements. The goal of the Act is to make the nation's lakes, rivers, and streams safe
for ﬁsh, shellﬁsh, wildlife, and people.

In Michigan, several steps were initiated to protect the coastal dune environment.
The Land Resource Program and the Coastal Zone Management Program were
established. The goal is to protect sensitive coastal resources such as wetlands and sand
dunes and regulate development in erosion-hazard areas. It also aims to help improve
public access to the dunes, enhance waterfront revitalization and increase public
awareness of coastal resources and issues. The United States Coast Guard also patrols
and monitors the Great Lakes environment.

In 1976, Michigan passed the "Sand Dune Protection and Management Act" to

provide for the study, protection, management, regulation, and reclamation of sand dunes.
In addition, the act provides penrrits for local zoning and mining. In this Act dunes are

122

recognized as a unique, irreplaceable, and fragile resource that provides signiﬁcant
recreational, economic, scientiﬁc, geological, scenic, botanical, educational, agricultural,
and ecological beneﬁts. These beneﬁts are to be shared by Michigan residents, visitors
and future generations.

Another protective measure is to increase the number and the size of State Parks
in Michigan. The mission of the State Parks is to acquire, protect and preserve the
natural, historic, and cultural features of Michigan's unique resources and provide public
recreation and educational opportunities. Michigan has many State Parks and two
National Lakeshores dedicated to protecting the coastal dunes.

Not all protective measures have to be large projects or government acts.
Everyone can help make a difference by studying the environment, learning about the
coastal dune ecosystem, and respecting nature when we visit the dunes. Remember to
look and observe the native plants and animals without destroying their habitat.
Remember to walk only in designated areas to avoid destablizing the vegetation. And
please remember to always pick up any garbage you may have created or that others have
left behind.

Credits:
Data was collected by site visits to the Michigan dunes in 1997-1998; ﬁeldwork was
conducted by Alison E. Philpotts. Additional information was gathered from the

following sources.

Arbogast, A. F. 1996. Lectures given in Regional Geomorphology course, Michigan State
University.

Eblen, Ruth and William Eblen. 1994. "Clean water act" in Ruth Eblen and William
Eblen (eds) Encyclopedia of the environment, Houghton Mifﬂin Company:
Boston, Massachusetts.

' /www . i /www/ i x h

v/ e /cs 01] 'n/' h

Winckler, Suzanne.1989. The Smithsonian Guide to Historic America: The Great Lakes
States, Stewart, Tabori, and Chang: New York.

123

APPENDIX B

124

Test Questions:

Group 1 Pretest Questions given to half of the dyslexic students and half the non-
dyslexic students.

1.

Michigan has about how many miles of coastline?

a. 1,000

b. 2,300

c. 3,200

(I. 5,000

The only State Parks listed here that allows off-road vehicles is:
a. Ludington State Park

b. Silverlake State Park

c. Harrisville State Park

d. Port Crescent State Park

The Capitol of Michigan is

a. Lansing

b. Detroit

c. Ann Arbor

d. Grand Rapids

If you were a contractor in Michigan looking for bogs and peat you would ﬁrst look
along the coast of Lake

a. Huron

b. Superior

c. Michigan

(1. Erie

If you were going to make a State Park in Michigan dedicated to rock climbing you
would look for land along Lake

a. Huron

b. Superior

0. Michigan

(1. Erie

The glacial ice of the last Ice Age retreated north from Michigan's Lower Peninsula
as late as

a. 5,000 years ago

b. 11,000 years ago

c. 21,000 years ago

d. 600,000 years ago

Between 15,00 and 11,00 years ago the glaciers moved

north

south

east

west

99 9'!»

125

8. When a dune is at a lake's edge, the portion of the coastal environment where sand
movement is occurring by the force of water only is called the

a. offshore
b. foreshore
c. backshore

d. middleshore
9. If there was a high wind velocity you would expect a small sand particle to get
transported by
a. suspension
b. saltation
c. creep
d. pull
10. At what degree Fahrenheit does water freeze?
a. 40
b. 32
c. 23
d. 0
11. More permanent vegetation is found in the
a. offshore
b. foreshore
c. backshore
d. middleshore
12. The Paw Paw tree is native to
a. All of Michigan
b. Michigan's Lower Peninsula
c. Michigan's Upper Peninsula
(1. All of North America
13. Michigan is in which direction from Ohio
a. north
b. south
c. east
(1. west
14. The introduced black pine species has negative effects on Michigan's dunes because
a. the dunes tend to migrate faster
b. the dunes should migrate but instead remain stationary
c. the black pines yield too many seeds and over-populate the rest of the dunes
d. the black pines provide too much shade
15. In November and December snowshoe hares change fur color from
gray to white
white to gray
black to white
gray to black

53-.“ F"?

126

16. People have lived in the Great Lakes region for the last
a. 250,000 years
b. 25,000 years
c. 11,000 years
d. 2,300 years
17. The foreign country bordering Michigan is
a. England
b. Mexico
c. Cuba
d. Canada
18. In Michigan, manufacturing accounts for what percent of the state's gross annual
production?
a. 10
b. 27
c. 54
d. 72
19. In 1976 Michigan passed what act to provide for the study, protection, and
management of the sand dunes
a. Clean Water Act
b. Coastal Zone Study Act
c. Sand Dune Protection and Management Act
d. Research and Endeavors Act
20. Talks are underway about exchanging land in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National
Lakeshore because the land is
a. not worth much
b. all wetlands
c. too big
(1. a place to build expensive houses

Group 1 Posttest Questions given to half of the dyslexics and half of the non-dyslexic
subjects, given after all sections and section tests.

1. The only State Park listed here that allows off-road vehicles is:
a. Ludington State Park
b. Silverlake State Park
c. Harrisville State Park
(1. Port Crescent State Park
2. The glacial ice of the last Ice Age retreated north from Michigan's Lower Peninsula
as late as
a. 5,000 years ago
b. 11,000 years ago
c. 21,000 years ago
(1. 600,000 years ago

127

3. If you were a contractor in Michigan looking for bogs and peat you would ﬁrst look
along the coast of Lake
a. Huron
b. Superior
c. Michigan
d. Eric
4. Michigan has about how many miles of coastline?
a. 1,000
b. 2,300
c. 3,200
(1. 5,000
5. In November and December snowshoe hares change fur color from
a. gray to white
b. white to gray
0. black to white
(1. gray to black
6. When a dune is at a lake's edge, the portion of the coastal environment where sand
movement is occurring by the force of water only is called the
a. offshore
b. foreshore
c. backshore
d. middleshore
7. If you were going to make a State Park in Michigan dedicated to rock climbing you
would look for land along Lake
a. Huron
b. Superior
c. Michigan
(1. Erie
8. If there was a high wind velocity you would expect a small sand particle to get
transported by
a. suspension
b. saltation
c. creep
d. pull
9. The Paw Paw tree is native to
a. All of Michigan
b. Michigan's Lower Peninsula
c. Michigan's Upper Peninsula
d. All of North America
10. More permanent vegetation is found in the
offshore
foreshore
backshore
middleshore

9.0 9‘?

128

l 1. Between 15,000 and 11,000 years ago the glaciers moved
a. north
b. south
c. east
d. west
12. In Michigan, manufacturing accounts for what percent of the state's gross annual
production?
a. 10
b. 27
c. 54
d. 72
13. The introduced black pine species has negative effects on Michigan's dunes because
a. the dunes tend to migrate faster
b. the dunes should migrate but instead remain stationary
c. the black pines yield too many seeds and over-populate the rest of the dunes
d. the black pines provide too much shade
14. People have lived in the Great Lakes region for the last
a. 250,000 years
b. 25,000 years
c. 11,000 years
d. 2,300 years
15. In 1976 Michigan passed what act to provide for the study, protection, and
management of the sand dunes
a. Clean Water Act
b. Coastal Zone Study Act
c. Sand Dune Protection and Management Act
(1. Research and Endeavors Act
16. Talks are underway about exchanging land in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National
Lakeshore because the land is
a. not worth much
b. all wetlands
0. too big
(1. a place to build expensive houses

Group 2 Pretest Questions given to half of the dyslexic students and half the non-
dyslexic students.
1. The park that receives less visitors because it is remote and hard to get to is
a. Warren Dunes State Park
b. Saugatuck State Park
c. Brimley State Park
(1. Sterling State Park
2. Leelanau is a Native American word for
Grand dune
Large water
Little ﬁnger
Land of delight

999‘?

129

. The Grand Sable dunes are locate in what direction ﬁom Sleeping Bear Dunes
National Lakeshore

a. north

b. south

c. east

(1. west

. If prevailing winds came from the east rather than the west you might expect to ﬁnd
the most dunes in Michigan along Lake

a. Huron

b. Superior

c. Michigan

(1. Erie

. The Capitol of Michigan is

a. Lansing

b. Detroit

0. Ann Arbor

(1. Grand Rapids

. If water level did not change over time we would not see this type of dune in
Michigan

a. beach ridges

b. parabolic dunes

c. perched dunes

d. stable dunes

. The motion that carries sand particles along in the wind in an arc shaped motion is
called

a. suspension

b. saltation

c. creep

d. pull

. The windward slope of a dune is often at an angle of about

a. 0

b. 10

c. 30

d. 60

. The impressive dunes found at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore are
a. beach ridges

b. parabolic dunes

c. perched dunes

d. stable dunes

10. What degree Fahrenheit does water freeze

a. 40
b. 32
c. 23
d. O

130

11. One of the ﬁrst plants to inhabit the backshore is
a. cottonwood trees
b. jack pine
c. junipers
d. beach grass
12. Rounded pits where vegetation has been disturbed and removed are called
a. Horseshoes
b. Sand basins
c. Blowouts
d. Bowls
13. Until the recent effort to return gray wolves back to Michigan, the last known wolves
were born in
a. Traverse City
b. The thumb
c. Sleeping Bear National Lakeshore
d. Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore
14. Michigan is what direction from of Ohio
e. north
f. south
g. east
h. west
15. Normally, migratory birds return to the dunes around these months
a. March and April
b. May and June
c. July and August
(1. September and October
16. In the 16008 and 17008 people exploited from the region
a. Lumber and steel
b. Furs and Minerals
c. Archeological remains
d. Sand
17. The foreign country bordering Michigan is
a. England
b. Mexico
c. Cuba
d. Canada
18. At Rogers City, Michigan, one ﬁnds the world's largest
a. Calcite mine
b. sand dune
c. petroleum reserve
d. gypsum mine
19. Housing for both vacation and year-round residency is being built along
Lake Michigan
Lake Huron
Lake Superior
All four Great Lakes

9.0.0:»

131

20. One of the most harmful recreation activities to the dunes is

999‘!”

bathing
camping
hang gliding
dune bugging

Group 2 Posttest Questions given to half of the dyslexic students and half the non-
dyslexic students, given after all four sections and section tests.

1.

Leelanau is a Native American word for

a. Grand dune

b. Large water

c. Little ﬁnger

d. Land of delight

If water level did not change over time we would not see this type of dune in
Michigan

a. beach ridges

b. parabolic dunes

c. perched dunes

d. stable dunes

At Rogers City, Michigan, one ﬁnds the world's largest
a. calcite mine

b. sand dune

c. petroleum reserve

(1. gypsum mine

If prevailing winds came from the east rather than the west you might expect to ﬁnd
the most dunes in Michigan along Lake

a. Michigan

b. Superior

c. Huron

(1. Erie

. The park that receives less visitors because it is remote and hard to get to is

a. Warren Dunes State Park

b. Saugatuck State Park

c. Brimley State Park

d. Sterling State Park

The impressive dunes found at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore are
a. beach ridges

b. parabolic dunes

c. perched dunes

d. stable dunes

The motion that carries sand particles along in the wind in an are shaped motion is
called

a. suspension

b. saltation

c. creep

d. pull

132

8. The windward slope of a dune is often at an angle of about
a. 0
b. 10
c. 30
d. 60
9. Rounded pits where vegetation has been disturbed and removed are called
a. Horseshoes
b. Sand basins
c. Blowouts
(1. Bowls
10. The Grand Sable dunes are located in what direction from Sleeping Bear Dunes
National Lakeshore
a. north
b. south
c. east
d. west
11. One of the ﬁrst plants to inhabit the backshore is
a. cottonwood trees
b. jack pine
c. junipers
(1. beach grass
12. Until the recent effort to return gray wolves back to Michigan, the last known wolves
were born in
a. Traverse City
b. The thumb
0. Sleeping Bear National Lakeshore
d. Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore
13. One of the most harmful recreation activities to the dunes is
a. bathing
b. camping
c. hang gliding
d. dune bugging
14. Normally, migratory birds return to the dunes around these months
a. March and April
b. May and June
c. July and August
(1. September and October
15. In the 16008 and 17008 people exploited from the region
a. Lumber and steel
b. Furs and Minerals
c. Archeological remains
(1. Sand

133

16. Housing for both vacation and year-round residency is being built along

Lake Michigan
Lake Huron

Lake Superior
All four Great Lakes

9‘? 9‘!”

Section 1 given to all test subjects

1.

Michigan has about how many miles of coastline?

a. 1,000

b. 2,300

c. 3,200

(1. 5,000

The park that receives the less visitors because it is remote and hard to get to is
a. Warren Dunes State Park

b. Saugatuck State Park

c. Brimley State Park

d. Sterling State Park

The only State Park listed here that allows off-road vehicles is:
a. Ludington State Park

b. Silverlake State Park

c. Harrisville State Park

d. Port Crescent State Park

Leelanau is a Native American word for

a. Grand dune
b. Large water
c. Little ﬁnger

(1. Land of delight

If prevailing winds came ﬁ'om the east rather than the west you might expect to ﬁnd
the most dunes in Michigan along Lake

a. Michigan

b. Superior

c. Huron

(1. Erie

If you were a contractor in Michigan looking for bogs and peat you would ﬁrst look
along the coast of Lake

a. Huron

b. Superior

c. Michigan

d. Erie

If you were going to make a State Park in Michigan dedicated to rock climbing you
would look for land along Lake

Huron

Superior

Michigan

Erie

9—9 9‘5»

134

8. The Grand Sable dunes are located in what direction from Sleeping Bear Dunes
National Lakeshore

north

south

east

west

F“? 9‘!”

Section 2 given to all test subjects

1. The glacial ice of the last Ice Age retreated north from Michigan's Lower Peninsula
as late as
a. 5,000 years ago
b. 11,000 years ago
c. 21,000 years ago
(1. 600,000 years ago
2. If water level did not change over time we would not see this type of dune in
Michigan
a. beach ridges
b. parabolic dunes
c. perched dunes
d. stable dunes
3. If there was a high wind velocity you would expect a small sand particle to get
transported by
a. suspension
b. saltation
c. creep
d. pull
4. The motion that carries sand particles along in the wind in an are shaped motion is
called
a. suspension
b. saltation
c. creep
d. pull
5. When a dune is at a lake's edge, the portion of the coastal environment where sand
movement is occurring by the force of water only is called the
a. offshore
b. foreshore
c. backshore
d. middleshore
6. The windward slope of a dune is often at an angle of about
a. 0
b. 10
c. 30
d. 60

135

7. Between 15,000 and 11,000 years ago the glaciers moved
a. north
b. south
c. east
(1. west
8. The impressive dunes found at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore are
a. beach ridges
b. parabolic dunes
c. perched dunes
d. stable dunes

Section 3 given to all test subjects

1. More permanent vegetation is found in the

a. offshore
b. foreshore
c. backshore

d. middleshore
2. One of the ﬁrst plants to inhabit the backshore is
a. cottonwood trees
b. jack pine
c. junipers
(1. beach grass
3. The Paw Paw tree is native to
a. all of Michigan
b. Michigan's Lower Peninsula
c. Michigan's Upper Peninsula
(1. all of North America
4. Rounded pits where vegetation has been disturbed and removed are called
a. horseshoes
b. sand basins
c. blowouts
d. bowls
5. Until the recent effort to return gray wolves back to Michigan, the last known wolves
were born in
a. Traverse City
b. The thumb
c. Sleeping Bear National Lakeshore
d. Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore
6. The introduced black pine species has negative effects on Michigan's dunes because
a. the dunes tend to migrate faster
b. the dunes should migrate but instead remain stationary
c. black pines yield too many seeds and over-populate the rest of the dunes
(1. black pines provide too much shade

136

7.

8.

Normally, migratory birds return to the dunes around these months
a. March and April

b. May and June

c. July and August

d. September and October

In November and December snowshoe hares change fur color from
gray to white

white to gray

black to white

gray to black

9‘? 9'!”

Section 4 given to all the test subjects

1.

People have lived in the Great Lakes region for the last

a. 250,000 years

b. 25,000 years

c. 11,000 years

(1. 2,300 years

In the 16008 and 17008 people exploited from the region
a. Lumber and steel

b. Furs and minerals

c. Archeological remains

(1. Sand

At Rogers city, Michigan, one ﬁnds the world's largest

a. Calcite mine

b. sand dune

c. petroleum reserve

(1. gypsum mine

In Michigan, manufacturing accounts for what percent of the state's gross annual
production

a. 10

b. 27

c. 54

d. 72

Housing for both vacation and year-round residency is being built along
a. Lake Michigan

b. Lake Huron

c. Lake Superior

(1. all four Great Lakes

In 1976 Michigan passed what act to provide for the study, protection, and
management of the sand dunes

Clean Water Act

Coastal Zone Study Act

Sand Dune Protection and Management Act

Research and Endeavors Act

9.0 9‘s»

137

. One of the most harmful recreation activities to the dunes is

a. bathing

b. camping

c. hang gliding

d. dune bugging

. Talks are underway about exchanging land in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National
Lakeshore because the land is

not worth much

all wetlands

too big

a place to build expensive houses

999‘!”

138

Attitude Adjectives
The list of words that appear one at a time along with the instructions are as follows:
1. Which do you think was the most Interesting ?

[Paper Sectionsl [Multimedia Sections] [Neither were]

2. Which do you think was the most Fun ?

[Paper Sectionsl [Multimedia Sectionsl m [Neither were]

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. Which do you think was the most Difficult?

 

 

 

[Paper Sections] [Multimedia Sections] I: -. [Neither were]

 

 

 

4. Which do you think was the most Confusing?

 

 

 

[Paper Sectionsl [Multimedia Sectioﬂ I: -. [Neither were]

 

 

 

5. Which do you think was the most Boring?

[Paper Sections] [Multimedia Sectiorfsj m [Neither were]

6. Which do you think was the most Cool?

 

 

 

 

 

 

[Paper Sections] [Multimedia Sections] I: - [Neither wegrel

 

 

 

7. Which do you think was the most Truthful?

 

 

 

[PQer Sectionsl [Multimedia Sectiora I: -. [Neither were]

 

 

 

Follow-up Questions

1. Did you like participating in this study?

2. What did you think about learning the lessons on the computer?

3. What did you think about learning the lessons from the paper sections?

4. Did you ﬁnd the questions hard?

5. Do you think you learned more from the paper sections or the computer sections?

6. If you were to do this on another topic (other than coastal dunes) which type of lesson
would you prefer to use, paper or computer?

7. Would you like to make any other comments or suggestions about the test or any of

the materials you saw?

139

APPENDIX C

140

Pres. Seen Correct Response

Media

Test
Group Version Type

Student Question Student

Before Response Time (sec.)

Type

101!

YYYYNYYNNYNYNYNNYYNNYNYYNYYNYNYNYYNNYYNYYNNYNNYNYN

yyynnyynyn ynynyn ynynn yn yynn ynynyynynnyyn yn ynyn ynyn

Ann/.2222.3.1.1.1.1.225412331221221”1211121432222311112221233

mmmmmmmmnmmmﬂﬂnmmmmmmmmmmmnmnnﬁnmmmmmmmmmmnmmnﬂmmm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

5 3 709 2658709 5
12348796H“In.”“1mﬁwﬂﬂZﬂ$2323333334312348796HQWMlﬁﬁmmﬂﬂ

11111111111111111111111111111111222222222222222222

141

mm45ﬁ487544447$226285223735622334316332463261263432562W5M

NNYNNYNNYNYYYNv-YYYV-NNV.NNNNNYNNYYYV-YYNYNNYYNNYYYNYYYNNNNN

ynn yn yynnyn yn yynynn yyn V.” Y" V)" Y" Y" ynn ynyynn ynyn yynynnyynyn

12212211211.12143222231111222123312212?—11211121432229.3111
mmmmmmtmmmmmtnmmmmmmmmtnmmmmnnmmmmmmmmnmnnnmnmmmmmmmmmnn
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

5 70 2745638123467091265 709 2

22222222222222333333333333333333333333333333334444444444

142

23ﬁm83M34223241M2ﬁ222225333115m2259981364m53624118283322

YNNNNNNNYYYNNYYNYYYNYYYNYYNNNNNNYNNNYNNNNNYNNYNYNNNYYNYY

ynyn yn ynynnynyynnyn ynu yyn ynnyyn ynynyn ynynynnyn yynnynynyyn

. I O I O C C

1222123312212211211LZL¢322223111LZZZLZ&&LZZLZZLLZlLLZL&Z

amass“mmmmmmmmkkkkkkkkmmmmmmmmkhkkﬂhhkmmmmmmmmWMMMMMMMMM

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

7 5 3 3 67 912 5 709 12745638123467091265 7 9
1M1W1W%ﬂ2%22&233w3w3431234879611111111222222323333ﬂ3m312

44444444444444444444445555555555555555555555555555555566

1B

33242m7243272212712254&222%4343H3331490””ﬁﬂm112ﬂ33634368

YYNNNYYYYYNNYNYNYYYNNYNv.YYNNYYYYYNNYNNNNNNNYNNYNNYNNNYNN

ynnyynynyn ynynynynnynyynnynynyynynnyynynynynynynynnynyyn

I I I I I I I I I I U I

2223111122212331221221124|14|21243222231111222123312212211

mmmmmmmmnmﬁmnnmmmmmmmmmnnmnmnﬂmmmm mmmmmnnnnmmmmmmmmmmﬁm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

12745638123467 91265 7 9 127456381234670912
348796111111111222222m23333ﬂ3w312348796111111112222223233

66666666666666666666666666666677777777777777777777777777

144

M64mm1M5NMMHM49Hﬂ8u67WQW67H685286774434232242223342H643232

NYYYYNYYYNNYNYNNNYNYYNYNYYNNYYNYNNNNYNYYYYNYNYYYYYNNNNYN

nynynyynynnyynynynynynynynn ynyynnynynyynynnyynynynynynyn

2

I O I O C I

1.1. ........1.1.1u
221121119-14.322223111122241233

mmmmmmMmmmmmmmkkMWWMMMmmmmmmmmMMMMMWMMMMmmmmmmmmmmmmmamm

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

57
wwmwww12348796nmﬂMwmuwmnuamﬂwmmnm3m3mw12348796nmnmwmmwmn

77.7777.88888888888888888888888888888888999999999999999999

145

44232Q3625443246346833642“H556“4MﬁﬂﬁWMH4QHWH802455753385

1

NYNv-YNv-YNNV-YNNYYNNNNNYNNNNNNNNNNYNNNYYNYNNYYNNYYNYYYNYYN

ynnynyynnynynyynynnyynynyn yn ynynynn ynyynnynynyynynnyynyn

1
22311112221233122122112111214322223111

al.2212214h2111241.

41
31
21

mmmmmmﬂmmmﬁnmmmmmmmmmmnnmmmmmﬁmmmmmmmmmﬂnmﬂﬂmmmmm mmmmmm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmbm

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

7 5638123467091265 7 9 12
%%%ﬂ%%M&%%%me12348796“W1M1111222222323333ﬂ3m31234879611
99999999999999mmmwmwwmwwwwwmmwmwwmmwmwwwwmwwmmnHHHﬁHHHﬂH

1%

565M7423w22ﬁ482524427325333115m2259981364m53624118283322

YYNNYNYYNNYYNYNNNNYNYNYYYYYYNV.YNNNNNYNYNNNNNNYNYNNNYV-NYY

ynyn yn ynynnynyynnynynyynynnyyn ynyn ynynyn ynnynyynnynynyyn

1222123312212211211121432222311112221233122122112LL12143

mammamMmmmmmmmMWMMMWMMmmmmmmmmMMMMMMMMMmmmmmmmMMWMWMMMmm

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYNN

7 5638123 67091265 709 12745638123467091265 7 9

1M1111222ﬂ22323333$3431234879611111111222222323333m3w312
11111111111111111111112222222222222222222222222222222233
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

1U

322211334553322353324243222464233675539366543324u5593845

YYNYNNNNNNNYYNYYNNYNYYNNYNNYYYYYYNYYYNYNNYNNYNYYNNYNNYNN

ynnyynynynynynynynnyn yynnynynyynynnyynynynynynynynnynyyn

22223111122212331221221.1.2.1112143222231.111222123312212211
mmmmmmmmmnnnmnmmmmmmmmmnnmnmmmmmmmmmmmmnmmnmmmmmmmmmmmnn
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmMmmmmmmmmmm

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

148

454ﬂr4um63635744525324q2325456778446754325858545752896865W54

NNNNV-NV-V-NNNNYYNNNNNNNNYYNYv-NNYNNYNNNYNYYYV-YNYNNNNYYYNNYY

n V." ynyynynnyynynynynynynynnynyynnynynyynynnyynynynynynyn

I I I

211121432222311"1122212331221221.121.1121432222311112221233

mammmmMmmmmmmmMMMWWWMMMmmmmmmmMWMMWMMMmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

149

9742233331332485ﬁ636W76843546532553636363737242845463822

NYYNNYNNYNYNYNYNYYYNYNNNYNNNYNNNNNYNNNNYNNNYYNYYYYNNYYYY

ynnynyynnynyn yynynn yyn ynynyn ynynynnynyynnynynyynynnyynyn

11111111141111111121141214|11.111111111111111111111112111211
O C C I I I C . .

1221221121112143222231111222123312212211211121432222311L

mmmmmmmnnﬂﬂmnnmmmmmmmmmﬂnnﬂnnﬂmmmmmmmmmmmmmﬂmnmmmmmmmmﬂm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmEMMEEMmmmmmmmmmm

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

B
N
N
n
W
M
w
w
W
m
H
ﬂ
%
E
m
N

M
a
m
M
m

”12348796HW

m
E
w
M
m
w
M
W
m
w
ﬂ

12348796“

N
m

m
m
w
w
m
m
m
w
m
w
w
m
m
w
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
m
w
w
w
w
w
m
m
m
w

1%

5474M352343214253742655322“46474421363213mw32865443263253

YYNNNNYNYYYNNYNYYNNNYNYYYNNYYNNNNNNYNNYYNNNNNNNNNYYNYNYY

ynyn yn ynynnynyynnyn ynyynynn yynynyn ynynynynnynyynnynynyyn

1222123312212211211.1214322223111122212331221221.121.112143

mammmmMmmmmmmMuhammmammmmmmmmmkMWMWMWMmmmmmmmmMMMWWMMMmm

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

1 7
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 3
1 8
22
23
24
26
30
29
31
32
36
35
38
37
40
39
1 2
1 7
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 3
1 8
22
23
24
26
27
30
29
31
32
36
35
38
37
40
39
1
2

12348796..”

21
27
21

18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20

151

NNNYYYNNNYNYYNYYYYYNYYNNNNNNYNYYYYNYYYYYYYNNNNYYNYNNNNNY

ynnyynynyn yn ynyn ynnynyynnynynyyn ynnyynynynynyn ynynn ynyyn

I

11
223thL12221233122122L12111214322223LLL12221233122122L1

mmmmmmnﬂnmnﬂﬂnmmmmmmmmnmnmﬂmnﬂmmmmmmmmﬂﬂmmmmnmmmmmmmmmmﬁ
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

7 587 9 7 5 38 3 7
34avgenunmwmnmmumamzmamamaaama1za4evgsnu1m1m11mnzum2wmmn
00000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111
22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

lﬁ

25463244332535364446325466335“H536443746H673563978653353

NNYNNNYYNNNNYYNNNNNNNNYNYNNNYNNYNNYYNNYYNYYYYYNNYYNNNNYY

nynyn yynynnyynynynynynynynnynyynnynynyynynnyynynynynynyn

24l.al.
21112143 222231111222123312212211211121432222311112221233

ammmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmammmmmmmmammmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmammmmm

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

12348796

H
H
H
w
H
W
W
M
w
m
m
w
H
H
H
H
H
H
M
H
H
H
H
N
w
H
H
W
W
M
w
m
w
m
H
H

12348796“

W
H
H

m
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
23
23
H
23
23

lﬂ

622H4525243275743588729268333437244442782224643435214242

NNYYNYNNNNYNV.NNNNNYYYNNNYv-NYNNYYNNYNNNNNNNYNNYNNNYYYYNNY

ynnynyynnynynynynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnyny

12212211211121112122211333231322122122123131341121222113
mmmmmmammmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmammmmmmmmmmmmmmMMMMMMkam

11111111111111222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNYYYYYYYYYYYv.YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

154

48338435247445758225646486812252463564342474457572266434

YYNNNYYYNNNNNYNNNNYNYYYNNNYYYNYYYYNNNYYYNNNYNYNYYNYNYYYN

yynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynny

4.311111111121411141111114J4J124323
33

1
31322122122123131341121222113

31431111111112111111141.
2313221221221231313411

mmmmmmmnmmﬁnmmmmmmmmmmnﬂmnnﬂﬂmmmmmmmmmnnnﬁnmnmmmmmmmmmnﬂ
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmbmmmmmmmmmm

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

7 5638123467091265 709 1274563812346709126587 9

1M1111222222323333H343123487961111111122222232333333w312
555555555555555555555566666666666666666666 6666666666677
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222H2222222222222

155

27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27

27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28

wwNwNNNNNN-t—b-s—s-t-AA-s whwwwwwwNQNNNNNN—deA—LAAA
Naoowmth-sanwarcnc-NM4‘30““““N‘oowmmmN-sceoumewM-soowmmequao’mVQJ‘O-l

<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNMNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
text
text
text
text
text
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
text
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm

1%

P’r‘r‘NNNr‘N

wwww
dwwNw#N-b-b-b—b—L

..L
h

:‘PNr‘NNr‘NNr‘NN9’
d—bN—t-h-L-A-L-A-L-L-Lw

w-i-INNN-‘N

dwwNw-bN-t-A-A-t-I

0).;
00-5

.‘NN
—l—L—L

Nﬁb’Nr‘NN
Nd—L—de.‘

<33<3<<3<333<3‘<"<‘<3‘<33‘<‘<3‘<33‘<3‘<3‘<‘<33‘<D‘<‘<3‘<333‘<3‘<‘<‘<3‘<33'~<‘<3

z<zzzzzz<<<z<z<<<zz<<<<z<<<<zzz<zz<zzzzz<<<z<<<<<zz<z<<z

mwoeewmmwhrunawa-enwambmawmuamwnmwmzahmehaowanmwwenmwmmmwe

324423Q99371876445333468269Q4H74235231879W76944243353645

NNYNYYNYNYYYYNNYYYNNNNYYNNYNNYNNYNYNYYYNNYNYNNNYYYYYNYYY

ynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnny

1111111111111243
I
3

313134112122211

1.4

e
3

32212212212313134112122211

mmmmmmmmﬂmmﬂmnmmmmmmmmﬂmnmmmmnmmmmmmmmmnﬂmmmmnmmmmmmmmnﬁ
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

H
H
H
H
W
W
M
w
w
n
m
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
W
M
m
m
m
w

H
H
H
H
H
w
H

12348796 12348796

H
H
M
H
H

N
H

H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
29
H
H
30
H
H
H

o:mwmw wmwmo

IV

 

87967 225223464m76857284248338464643462772224543453272542

NNNNV.v.NNV.NV.NV.YNNNYNNYNNYYYNYNYNNYYNNNNNNYNYNNYYNNNNYNNNN

nyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnyny

.2331.
12212212313134.112122211339023

I

2212212212313134L121222113

ammmmmmmmmmmmmammmmmmmmmmmmmmmMMMWMMMMmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmamm

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

W
W
M
w
m
w
w

3 67091265 7 9 1
2H22323333H3H3123487961

m

H

HHHH12348796112

H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H

mwmmwwmwmwwmwwmmmmma

H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H

1%

68372793273446757244675443312754485735332748428427544435

YYNYNYYNNNNNYYNNNNNNYYYYNYYYNNNYYYNNNYNYNNYNNNNNNNYNYYYN

yynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynny

111111112111111111111124

1
2212212212313134112122211

h22t22t23131341t

3.2
3.3
2.3
33
32

21
21

mmmmmmﬂnmmnnmmmmmmmmmmnﬂmﬂmnmnmmmmmmmmmmnnmnnﬂmmmmmmmmmn
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H

19

3521M253483374342H34427523247476334164828853843354646975

NYNYYNNYYNNNNNYNNNYNNYYNNNNNNv-v-NNNV.NYNNYYYNNNNYYNNNNNYNN

nyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynny

21222113332313221221221231313411212221133323132212212212
mammmmMmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmMMMWMMMMmmmmmmmmMMMMMMMMMM

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY

5 3 7 5 7 9 7 5 3
348796HQWM1mmwm22ﬂwzwmmumama 312348796HQ1M1W1wmﬂﬂﬂmﬂwwmn

mummyuuuuuuuuuauuuuuuuuuMMuuuuwwmwwwwwﬁwmwwwwwwﬁwuwwwwﬁw

160

52276435366652454837253374374278252865353528824298982463

NNYNNYYNNYY.YNNNV.V.YNNNNYYNNNNNYNNNNYYYYNNNNNYYNNYYNNNNYNN

ynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnny

31313411212221133323132212212212313134112122211333231322
mmmmmmﬂmﬂnmmmﬂmmmmmmmmnmmmmnmﬂmmmmmmmmmmnmﬂmmmmmmmmmmmmn
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmbbbbhbbmmmmmmmmmmm

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

Yv-YV.YYNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

161

64384285622664343324264446342734273448756225643534262455

NNNYNYNNNNYNYYYNNYYNNNYYYNNNYYNYNNNNNYNNNNYNYYNNNNYNNNNY

nyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnyny

AAJJAAJZJAJJAJAJAJJJJ2A323314311J11AJAJ2AAAAJJAJAAJJJ243
12212212313134112122211333231322122122123131341121222113
aamammMmmmmmmmmmmmmmmammmmmmmmmmmmmmmammmmmmmmMMMWMMMMmm

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

1H

8888838

40

8

41

ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNMNNMNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
text
text
text
text
text
text
text
text
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
text
text
text
text
text
text
text
text
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
text
text
text
text
text
text
text
text
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
text
text

163

3.3

r‘r‘Pwr‘P’r‘S’NfNNf‘NNT‘NN
‘Ad—L—l—L—L—lw—Ld—L—Ldé—L—I—L

<33‘<3‘<3‘<‘<33‘<3‘<‘<3<333<3‘<‘<‘<3‘<33‘<‘<3‘<33‘<3‘<D‘<‘<33‘<3‘<‘<3‘<333‘<3‘<‘<

-<Z-<-<Z-<Z-<ZZ-<ZZZZZ-<-<-<Z-<Z-<-<-<ZZ-<-<<ZZZ-<-<-<Z-<ZZZZ-<ZZ<ZZ<Z<<ZZ<-<

awﬁmhnmwmwNNANhanwnwwmgch-‘QANKamcemearwormtsna‘rmmmhmewwwbwwumg

NNNYYNNYYYNYNYYYNNNNNYNNYNYNYYNNNNYYNNNYYYNNNYYYNNNNNYNN

nyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynny

212221133323132212212212313134112122211333231{221.221.2212
mmmmmﬁmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm.mmmmmmmmmﬂmmmmmmmmmmmmmmﬂm

22222222222222222229.222222222222222222222222222222222222

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

5 7 5
348796..”mWM1wmwmnaumzwmmumamﬂmw123487eeﬁnﬂuwwnmmnnawﬂmmmw
1111111111111111111111111111112222222222222222222

164

22446444837125424633233344374244742484845321324748332333

NNYNV.YNNNYNNYNNYYYYNNYYYNNNYNYNNNNNNYYNYYYYYYNNYYYNNNYYN

ynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnny

114l.11...1-.11u.11114l.24”
I I I

32331
31313411212221133323

e e e
1 3

32212212212313134112122211

mmmmmmnﬂnmnﬂtnmmmmmmmmmmﬂﬁnmﬂnmmmmmmmmmmnﬂmﬁﬂﬂmmmmmmmmmn
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmbmmmmmmmmmm

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

mammmw1234a7genunuwmmwmnmammmmmamammwai23487genunummnwmn
weenaneeeannenneeeneneeenenaneweneneueuManna“«uuuuuunuuu

165

34384365522462675325278533339338285452732529715876355n62

YYNNNYNNYNYNYYNYYNYNNYYYYYYNYYYNNNNNNYNNNNNNYYNNYYYYYNYY

nyynynnyynynynnynyynnynyyynynnnynyynynnyynynynnynyynnyny

12212212313134119.122211333231322122122123131341121222113
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmﬁmmmmmmmmmmmmmmﬂmmmmmmmmmmmmmmﬁm

22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

3 6709 265 709 127456381234670912 5 709 12
2H2232H333H34312348796111111112222223233H3H3431 12348796

1

166

4331248355373277255832

YYYYNYYYNYNNNYNYYNYNYY

yyn yn nn ynyyn ynn yyn ynyn

2331A311AJJJJJA2JJJJJJ
3323132212212212313134
mmmmmmnmmmmmﬁmmmmmmmmm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

2222222222222222222222

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

7456381234670912H5w709
1111112222223233 3 343
666666666666666666%666
444444444444444444 444

IN

. . ......
ill. 7.. 13‘ al. furrﬂf En. Praia 2.4.”

APPENDIX D

168

Focus Group Consent Form

1. You are being asked for your consent to participate in a focus group study. This
study is being conducted by Alison E. Philpotts under the direction of Dr. Judy M.
Olson of the Geography Department at Michigan State University.

2. The objective of this study is to assess the potential beneﬁts of multimedia as an
educational device for learning geography, especially by dyslexic students.

3. You have been selected to help evaluate the materials created for this study. You will
view four sections of a geography lesson created in two formats, traditional text and
interactive multimedia, with assistance as needed. A group discussion will then take
place.

4. The length of time for participation is approximately 2-2.5 hours. There will be
approximately one hour allotted to viewing the educational materials, followed by a
break and approximately one hour of discussion.

5. There are no foreseeable risks to you if you participate in this study.

6. Participation in this study is voluntary. You may discontinue participation at any
time without penalty.

7. For participating, you will receive $25 and a copy of the lesson materials.

8. You are assured that participants will remain anonymous in any reports of this
research. Speciﬁc statements may be used in the ﬁnal report but they will not be tied
to any individual. Within these restrictions you may receive a copy of results upon
request.

9. An assistant will be taking notes during the session. The session will also be recorded
on video tape. ONLY the researchers and note taker will have access to the video
tapes, and the tapes will be erased at the conclusion of the study.

10. You may receive ﬁrrther information about the study following this session if you

wish. On the following page is the name, address, and phone information for you to
keep in case you wish to contact the researchers later.

I understand the above statements and freely consent to participate in this study.

 

 

Signature Date

169

Contact information for the focus group discussion on evaluation of multimedia as an

educational device for geography, especially for dyslexic students.

Alison E. Philpotts voice: (517) 332-5377
Department of Geography fax: (517) 432-1671

Natural Science Building email: W
Michigan State University

East Lansing, MI 48824

Professor Judy M. Olson voice: (517) 353-8757
Department of Geography fax: (517) 432-1671

Natural Science Building email: olsonj@pilot.msu.edu
Michigan State University

East Lansing MI 48824

Thank you for your participation.

170

 

Requesting participation by teachers/tutors in a focus group discussion to evaluate
multimedia materials.

Dear

 

I am requesting your participation in a focus group discussion on (date, time, and place).
I have created a geography lesson in two formats: traditional text and interactive
multimedia. The lesson focuses on Michigan coastal dunes and encompasses themes
listed in the eighth grade geography standards. I will be testing this lesson on both
dyslexic and non-dyslexic eighth grade students. I would appreciate your expertise and
opinions on improving my lesson and pointing out areas, tasks, or concepts that may need
attention before students work with the materials.

Knowledge of Michigan dunes 18 NOT needed to participate, nor do you need to be
familiar with geography, computers or interactive multimedia. W

WM 18 the reason I am asking for your participation.

I expect the entire event to take roughly 2-2.5 hours. Approximately one hour will be
allotted to viewing the educational material. The remainder of the time will be devoted to
discussion.

You will be paid $25 as a token of appreciation for your participation. Refreshments will
be provided. Also, everyone participating may keep a set of the educational materials.

I would greatly appreciate your participation in this study. The beneﬁts of this study may
be insights into the usefulness of interactive multimedia as an educational device for
learning geography, especially for those with dyslexia.

Sincerely,

Alison E. Philpotts,

Ph.D. Candidate

If you have any questions please contact one of the following researchers:

Alison E. Philpotts, voice: (517) 332-5377 email:
philpotl@pilot.msu.edu

Professor Judy M. Olson voice: (517) 353-8757 email:
olsonj @pilot.msu.edu

Mailing Address: Department of Geography, Natural Science Building
Michigan State University, East Lansing MI 4882

171

Dear Parent or guardian:

I am conducting a study on the potential beneﬁts of interactive multimedia in education
and am asking permission for your child to participate.

I will ask students to study a four-part geography lesson. The lesson will use both
traditional materials such as text and maps and graphs on paper and also computer
presented materials. At the end of each part and at the end of all four parts students will
be asked questions.

Your child's name will remain conﬁdential. Reports will NOT link any names with any
speciﬁc results. Performance on the lesson will also have no direct bearing on your
child's grades.

Several beneﬁts may occur from participating in this study. Students will learn
something about a geographical environment in Michigan. Additional beneﬁts to the
student may include an improved understanding of reading graphic materials such as
maps and diagrams and an increased comfort in using computers and multimedia. The
entire study in general should give some insights into the useﬁrlness of multimedia as an
educational device.

I hope you will sign the attached consent form allowing your child to participate. Your
child will also be asked verbally if he/she is willing to participate at the time of the study.

If you have any questions please feel free to contact:

Professor Judy M. Olson voice: (517) 353-8757
Department of Geography fax: (517) 432-1671
Natural Science Building email: olsonj @pilot.msu.edu
Michigan State University East Lansing MI 48824
Or
Alison E. Philpotts voice: (517) 332-5377
Department of Geography fax: (517) 432-1671
Natural Science Building email: philpotl @pilot.msu.edu
Michigan State University East Lansing MI 48824

Thank you,

Alison E. Philpotts

172

Parental Consent Form

. You are being asked consent for your child's participation in an educational study.

This study is being conducted by Alison E. Philpotts under the direction of Dr. Judy
M. Olson of the Geography Department at Michigan State University.

The objective of this study is to assess the potential beneﬁts of multimedia for
learning geography lessons.

Students will ﬁrst take a pre-test and then proceed through a four-part geography
lesson. Students will be asked questions at the end of each part and at the end of all
parts.

The total length of time for participation is approximately 1.5-2 hours, although times
may vary for individual students. Each section takes approximately 15-20 minutes
with an additional 5 minutes for questions. Follow-up questions at the completion of
the four sections are estimated to take 10-15 minutes.

There are no foreseeable risks to your child if he/she participates in this study.

Participation in this study is purely voluntary, and your child may discontinue
participation at any time without penalty.

Participants will remain anonymous in any reports of this research, and scores will
NOT be calculated into your child's school grades.

You may receive further information about the study at any time following this
session. The names, addresses, and phone numbers of the researchers are given in the
cover letter.

Please sign one of two options.

 

 

I understand the above statements and freely consent to my child's participation in this
study.

 

 

 

Child's Name Parent or Guardian Signature Date

 

 

 

 

I do not want my child to participate

 

 

 

Child's Name Parent or Guardian Signature Date

 

173