LOIO CC C.) T LIBRARY IUHWWIWW“WWW Michigan State 3 1293 02106 1845 Unlverslty This is to certify that the thesis entitled Effect of Controlled Mixing 0n the Rheological Properties of Deep-Fat Frying Batters at Different Percent Solids presented by Sara S. Lee has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Science Food Science degree in New} J; W 57% Major professor Date gflL/z 000 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 1 l l l PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 11m chlRCIDabOmpfiS-p.“ EFFECT OF CONTROLLED MIXING ON THE RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF DEEP-FAT FRYING BATTERS AT DIFFERENT PERCENT SOLIDS BY Sara S. Lee A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition 2000 ABSTRACT EFFECT OF CONTROLLED MIXING ON THE RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF DEEP-EAT FRXING BATTERS.AT DIFFERENT PERCENT SOLIDS By Sara S. Lee Two types of deep-fat frying batters: adhesion and tempura batters were mixed under controlled conditions at different percent solids tx> study their rheological properties and coating characteristics. Optimum degree of mixing of a batter was defined as the conditions that gave the maximum amount of batter retention Cfll«a coated probe. Batters with higher percent solids needed more energy to achieve optimum mixing. In the case of batter retention, batters with higher percent solids required a longer period of time to stabilize dripping. Yield stress and thixotropic behavior were observed in both adhesion and tempura batters. Over time, changes in apparent viscosity and batter retention on the probe did not have practical relevance to the batter and breading industry. When relating batter rheology with fried food quality, it was found that under-mixing a batter had more detrimental effect on fried food quality then over-mixing a batter. DEDICATION To my parents, C.K. Li, v.5. Cheang-Li and my sister Ella for their endless support and encouragement. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest thanks to Dr. Perry K.W. Ng and Dr. James F. Steffe for their guidance during my master years. I have had a wonderful time in the world of cereal grain and rheology. Thanks are also expressed to my other committee member, Dr. Jerry Cash, for his advice and inspiration. Special acknowledgment is extended to Mr. Richard Wolthuis for constructing the experimental probe, sample preparation cup and helical ribbon. Appreciation is also extended to Newly Wed Foods Incorporated and Kikkoman International, Inc., for supplying their adhesion and/or tempura batters for this research. iv Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures Nomenclature l. 2. Introduction 1.1. Overview and Objectives 1.2. Definition and Types of Batters .2.1u Adhesion Batter .2.2. Tempura Batter Basic Ingredients of Batter Wheat Flour Corn Flour Leavening Agents Flavorants and Seasonings Other Specific Ingredients Water Oil and Shortening Effect of Temperature on Batter Coating Functions of Batter Coating Current Methods of Evaluating Batter Rheology .6.1. Zahn Cup and Stein Cup .6.2. Brookfield Viscometer .6L3. Bostwick Consistometer .6.4. Brabender Viscoamylograph Rheological Measurements and Techniques .7.1. Rheological Properties of Semi-fluid Food 7 2 Models for Shear-Thinning Fluids .7h3. Models for Time-Dependent Fluids 7 4 Yield Stress in Coating Batters wwwwwww ElmtfiwaH l—‘H HHHHT’HHHHanfib’r—IHHHHHHPHH 1.8 Importance of Controlled Mixing 1.9. Methods Used to Evaluate Deep Fried Food Materials and Methods 2.1. Batters Tested 2.2. Sample Preparation 2.3. Mixing Time and Impeller Speed 2.4. Batter Retention over Time Page vii xi xiii mxlmU‘UWububWI-JH NNNNI—‘l—‘HHHHl—‘l—‘l—JHHH oombpqmmmmbbwwmooxo 32 32 32 36 39 2.5. Steady Shear Rheological Testing 40 2.6. Influence of Holding Period on Batter Retention 41 2.7. Deep-Fat Frying 42 3.Results and Discussion 47 3.1. Optimum Mixing 47 3.2. Batter Retention over Time 51 3.3. Thixotropic Behavior and Power Law Fluid 56 3.4. Influence of Holding Period on Batter Retention 68 3.5. Relationship Between Batter Rheology and Fried Food Quality 79 3.6. Practical Applications 81 4.Conclusions and Recommendations A 85 4.1. Summary and Conclusions 85 4.2. Recommendations for Future Research 86 Appendix 87 Bibliography 122 vi Table 2.1. List of Tables Batter Compositions for the Six Different Brands of Batter Mix Constant Mixing Time with Four Different Impeller Mixing Speeds Constant Impeller Mixing Speed with Four Different Mixing Times Type of Food Substrate, Mixing Regime and Frying Time for Adhesion and Tempura Batters Calculated Yield Stress of Adhesion and Tempura Batters Power Law Properties of Adhesion and Tempura Batters Calculated from Ramping Up Steady Shear Rheological Testing Average Weight (g) (n=2) of Dorothy Dawson's Batter Retained on the Probe over a Three- Hour Period Average Weight (9) (n=2) of Drake's Batter and Golden Dipt Batter Retained on the Probe over a Three-Hour Period Average Weight (9) (n=2) of Kikkoman Tempura Batter Retained on the Probe over a Three- Hour Period Average Weight (g) (n=2) of Tung-I Tempura and Newly Wed Tempura Batter Retained on the Probe over a Three—Hour Period Apparent Viscosity (Pa 5) (n=3) for Dorothy Dawson’s Batters over a Three-Hour Period at 15 l/s Shear Rate vii Page 34 37 38 44 55 64 69 70 72 73 75 Apparent Viscosity (Pa 5) (n=3) for Drake's 76 Batters and Golden Dipt Batter over a Three- Hour Period at 15 1/s Shear Rate Apparent Viscosity (Pa 3) (n=3) for Kikkoman 77 Tempura Batters over a Three-Hour Period at 15 l/s Shear Rate Apparent Viscosity (Pa 5) (n=3) for Tung-I 78 Tempura and Newly Wed Tempura Batters over a Threewiour period at 15 l/s Shear Rate Amount of Dorothy Dawson’s Batter Picked up by 88 the Probe at Time Zero Against Amount of Energy Input into Mixing Amount of Kikkoman Tempura Batter Picked up by 89 the Probe at Time Zero Against Amount of Energy Input into Mixing Amount of Adhesion Batter Retained over a 90 5-minute Drip Period at 20°C Amount of Tempura Batter Retained over a 91 5-minute Drip Period at 10°C Steady Shear Data of Dorothy Dawson’s Batter 92-95 at 20°C Steady Shear Data of Drake’s Batter and Golden 96-98 Dipt Batter at 20%: Steady Shear Data of Kikkoman Tempura Batter 99 at 10°C Steady Shear Data of Newly Wed Tempura Batter 100 at 10%: Steady Shear Data of Tung-I Tempura Batter 101 at 10%: Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law 102 Properties for Dorothy Dawson’s Batter at 45.4% Solids viii .11. .12. .13. .14. .15. .16. .17. .18. .19. .20. .21. .22. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Dorothy Dawson’s Batter at 50.0% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Dorothy Dawson's Batter at 55.6% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Drake’s Batter at 50.0% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Drake’s Batter at 57.1% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Golden Dipt Batter at 50.0% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Kikkoman Tempura Batter at 45.4% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Kikkoman Tempura Batter at 50.0% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Kikkoman Tempura Batter at 55.6% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Tung-I Tempura Batter at 43.8% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Tung-I Tempura Batter at 50.0% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Newly Wed Tempura Batter at 43.6% Solids Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Newly Wed Tempura Batter at 50.0% Solids ix 103 104 105 106-107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 .23. .24. .25. .26. .27. .28. Weight (g) of Adhesion Batters Retained on the Probe over a Three-Hour Period Weight (g) of Tempura Batters Retained on the Probe over a Three-Hour Period Shear Stress Measurements of Adhesion Batters over a Three-Hour Period at 15 1/s Shear Rate Shear Stress Measurements of Tempura Batters over a Three-Hour Period at 15 1/s Shear Rate Weight (g) and Thickness (mm) Measurements of Food Substrates before and after Frying Weight (g) Measurements of Food Substrates before and after Frying 116 117 118 119 120 121 List of Figuros Rheogram for Shear—Thinning Fluid. Viscosity of Shear-Thinning Fluid. Hysteresis Loop. Helical Ribbon and Sample Cup. Evaluation Form for Deep-Fat Fried Food. Amount of Dorothy Dawson's Batter Picked up by the Probe at Time Zero in Relation to the Specific Mechanical Energy. Amount of Kikkoman Tempura Batter Picked up by the Probe at Time Zero in Relation to the Specific Mechanical Energy. Amount of Adhesion Batter Retained over a 5- minute Drip Period at 20°C. Amount of Tempura Batter Retained over a 5- minute Drip Period at 20°C. Thixotropic Loops of Dorothy Dawson’s Batter Samples at 20°C. Thixotropic Loops of Drake’s Batter Samples at 20°C. Thixotropic Loop of 50.0% Solids Golden Dipt Batter at 20°C. Thixotropic Loops of Kikkoman Tempura Batter Samples at 10°C. Thixotropic Loops of Newly Wed Tempura Batter Samples at 10°C. Thixotropic Loops of Tung-I Tempura Batter Samples at 10°C. xi Page 18 20 23 35 45 48 49 52 53 57 58 59 60 61 62 3. 3. 11. 12. Apparent Viscosity of Adhesion Batters. Apparent Viscosity of Tempura Batters. xii 66 67 Nomenclature p Density, kg nf3 7 Shear Rate, 5'1 7, Average shear rate, 3'1 00 Yield stress, Pa n Flow behavior index, dimensionless p Newtonian viscosity, Pa 5 ’L Apparent viscosity, Pa 3 m, Limiting viscosity at zero shear rate, Pa 5 fig Limiting viscosity at infinite shear rate, Pa 5 0 Angle of inclination, rad (2 Angular velocity [2 n (rpm)/60], rad s"1 A Area, m2 d Impeller blade diameter, m AF Weight percent of coating in final fried food AF; Percent increase in weight after coating F Weight of food coating, 9 F; Weight of food before coating, 9 p3 Weight of food after coating, g F; Weight of fried food, g xiii Gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m 3’1 Thickness of coating, m Consistency coefficient, Pa sn Mixer viscometer constant, rad'1 Average torque, N m Power input to a mixer [F152], N m 5'1 Thickness of coating, mm Thickness of food, mm Thickness of fried food, mm Time, 8 Volume of batter retained on the probe, m3 Mass of batter in the mixing cup, kg Weight of batter retained on the probe, kg Coating area of one side of the plate, m2 Total immersed surface area, m2 Distance perpendicular to the inclined plane, m xiv Chapter 1 Introduction lulu Ovorviow and Objectives Batter' coating is run: an ‘uncommon technique 1J1 the food industry; Many food items found (n1 today‘s :market, :mnfli as french fries, chicken nuggets, stuffed nmshrooms, fried cheese sticks, fried fish sticks and deep fried shrimp, have batter coatings on them. The practice of battering a food item and then deep-fat frying it was noted ages ago. When this food preparation method actually started is unknown, but it has been adopted by many different cultures. Dairy products, meats, seafood and vegetables can all be prepared with batter coating. Since the 1970s, researchers have been investigating the functionality of each ingredient in the dry batter mix. Several books (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983; Kulp and Loewe, 1990) have been published to document the role of each ingredient in the better system. However, the mixing techniques are still based on knowledge gathered with experience rather than hard core science. In addition, very few food scientists dedicate their effort solely to research batter mixing and the related rheological properties. Furthermore, no official methods are established to evaluate the degree of mixing a batter receives, or to measure the extent of batter dripping from the food after coating. Food rheology is the study of how food products flow and deform under applied stress or strain. Food rheological data are useful information to the batter and breading industry when dealing with process engineering calculations, monitoring product quality during and after production, tracking quality changes within target shelf life and relating food texture with sensory results. The objectives of this research were: 1. To examine the importance of controlled mixing during the preparation of coating batters, by investigating adhesion and tempura batters of three different commercial brands each. 2. To measure rheological properties of adhesion and tempura batters at different percent solids. 3. To correlate results from the batter stages with the final fried food quality of food items with different batter coatings. 1.2. Definition and Types of Batters “A semi-fluid substance, usually composed of flour and other ingredients, into which principal components of food are dipped or with which they are coated, or which may be used directly to form bakery foods” is the definition of batter according to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act part 110 (1986). In respect to the batter and breading industry, a more specific definition of deep-fat frying batter is “a liquid. mixture comprised of water, flour, starch and seasonings into which food products are dipped prior tx> cooking (Suderman anui Cunningham, 1983)”. Other related terms like coatings and pick-up can be described as “the batter and/or breading adhering to a food product after cooking” (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983) and “the amount of coating material adhering to the food product” (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983), respectively. Food products that are prepared with deep-fat frying batter include, but are not limited to, chicken pieces, pork chops, mushrooms, zucchini, cucumber, shrimps, fish sticks and cheese sticks. Generally, coating batter for deep-fat frying can be divided into two subgroups: adhesion batter and tempura batter (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983; Kulp and Loewe, 1990; and Shinsato et al., 1999). 1.2.1. .Adhcsion Batter Adhesion batter can be used in conjunction with breading or breadcrumbs. In this case, adhesion batter holds the food substrate and the outside breading together. Chemical leavening agents are usually not included in adhesion batter. Within the category of adhesion batters, there are wheat flour based, corn flour based, starch based and traditional (egg and milk based) batters (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). 1.2.2. Tempura Batter Tempura/puff batter has ea composition similar txb that of adhesion batter, but with the addition of chemical leavening agents. Breading or breadcrumbs may also be included in tempura coating applications. Food coated with tempura batter has a puffy, bulky and crispy appearance. On the industrial scale, handling tempura batter requires special care. Common pumping machines used to transfer adhesion batter are not used to transfer tempura batter because pumping may have a detrimental effect on the leavening system. Extra precautions are needed when handling tempura batter. 1.3. Basic Ingredients of Batter Basic ingredients of adhesion batter and tempura batter include wheat flour, corn flour, sodium bicarbonate, acid phosphate, salt, sugar, flavorings, seasonings and/or other specific ingredients tailored to specific food applications (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983). Functional behaviors of these ingredients have been widely researched and are briefly discussed in the following sections: 1.3.1. Wheat Flour Wheat flour furnishes both. protein and starch to aa batter system. Between soft wheat flour and hard wheat flour, a batter coating :made with soft wheat flour' has better color after frying and requires less water during mixing, because soft wheat flour generally contains a lower level of damaged starch and less protein (Hoseney, 1994). Damaged starch has fractured granules, which swell up more by absorbing more water than undamaged granules, resulting in elevated batter viscosity. Therefore, to maintain a uniform viscosity, more water is needed if hard wheat flour is used in the dry mix. The other main contribution to a batter system from wheat flour is protein. Commercial batter mixes can contain up to 15.75% of crude protein (Grodner et al., 1991). Protein functions as a water, fat and flavor binder; it contributes color and textural characteristics to the coating. Gluten proteins found in wheat flour will develop a protein matrix during mixing and maintain structure of the coating after deep-fat frying (Kulp and Loewe, 1990; Novak et al., 1987). This protein matrix is especially important for gas retention in tempura batter to achieve and maintain an aerated and porous texture. Gluten protein also has a high water binding capacity that may contribute to toughness in the fried coating (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). Hard wheat flour, although it contains more gluten protein, is not a preferred choice because it also results in excessive browning, rough coating surface and excessive oil absorption during the deep-fat frying process (Olewnik and Kulp, 1993). 1 . 3 . 2 . Corn‘ Flour Corn flour, the second major ingredient in dry batter mix, contains mainly starches and is used to fine-tune the batter viscosity. This in turn affects the pick-up and the amount of coating on the fried food (McGlinchey, 1994). Apart from adjusting the viscosity, corn flour also improves the flavor, color and -texture of the fried coating; It. is a carrier for spice blends and it also improves crispness and appearance of a fried food. The major component in corn flour is “starch”. When compared on a weight-to-weight basis, starch binds significantly less water than protein and therefore, reduces the total water holding capacity of the batter and nellows the toughening effect of tflua gluten protein. Carotene pigments 1J1 yellow corn flour give fried products a natural golden brown color. Corn flour also extends the holding time of the fried product under heat lamps, gives lower greasiness, and improves freeze/thaw stability (Shinsato, 1999). 1 . 3 . 3 . Leavening Agents Sodium bicarbonate and acid salts make up the chemical leavening system in batter. A wide selection exists for the acid—leavening agents: tartaric acid, potassium hydrogen tartrate, monocalcium phosphate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium aluminum phosphate, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate and sodium aluminum sulfate (Kulp and loewe, 1990). Their reaction rates, addition levels enui neutralization values determine the efficiency of the leavening systems. More than one acid salt is usually used to ensure carbon dioxide production throughout the lifetime of time batter; It is also important that the leavening system can withstand the temperature stress and agitation stress during the holding period. 1.3.4. Flavorants and Seasonings Sugar, salt and other seasonings add flavor and visual changes to the coating. Different food substrates need different taste profiles. The choice of flavorants ranges from spices and herbs to liquid/spice extracts to artificial flavors. When choosing what flavor system to use, one has to take into consideration the type of food substrate involved, whether pre-dusting will be used and the cooking temperature (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). Some flavors complement very well with the target food substrates, while others do not result in tasty products. In addition to incorporating flavorants and seasonings in the dry mix, pre-dusting the food with special mixes is another way to add flavor. Cooking temperature is another important aspect in overall flavor development. If the cooking temperature is too high, volatile flavors will flash off easily. Therefore, one needs to make sure the chosen flavor system can withstand the cooking conditions to successfully deliver taste and aroma to the consumers. Other flavor concerns over time include: flavor migration within the food; color leaching by some flavorants like paprika; and settling of larger particulate flavorants during the hydrated state (Suderman, 1993). 1.3.5. Other Specific Ingredients In commercial batter mixes, starches are modified in four different ways: oxidation, substitution, dextrinization and pre-gelatinizaiton (McGlinchey, 1994; Shinsato, 1999). Batters with oxidized and substituted starches adhere to the food substrates tighter. Dextrins increase crispness of the fried foods. High amylose starches give a more chewy and firm coating texture. Pre- gelatinized starches absorb more water and are used to fine-tune the batter viscosity. Hydrocolloids are another type of specialty ingredient used in batter mixes. They function similarly to modified starch: control viscosity, control water absorption, form gels/films with other ingredients to resist handling abuse, serve as an oil barrier, and prevent moisture migration (Suderman and Cunningham, 19883; Kulp and Loewe, 1990; Hsia et al. 1992; DOW’ Chemical, 1997; Balasubramanian1 et a1, 1997). Examples of hydrocolloids include gelatin, carboxymethylcellulose “EMU, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, guar gum, agar and xanthan. Hydrocolloids are sometimes preferred over modified starches because they perform well at much lower levels, resulting ixiea less diluting effect on the protein in the base batter. 1.3.6. water Water hydrates the ingredients and facilitates the development of a protein matrix in batter. Both amount and temperature of the water are important to the overall batter development. Batter is made up of one and a half to two {parts batter" mix. with. one part water (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983). The amount of water partially determines the viscosity of the batter; temperature of the water affects reaction rate of the leavening systems plus hydration degree of protein, starch and other. minor ingredients. Water temperature is recommended to be between 40°F - 60°F (4°C — 16%?) for optimum batter preparation (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). 1.3.7. Oil and Shortening Oil and shortening have two roles in batter-coated foods: they are ingredients in the coating, and they also are the heat transfer media during frying. As. an ingredient, oil or shortening helps to lubricate the batter and tenderize the fried coating texture. As a frying media, oil transfers heat to set the shape of the coating and cook 10 the food. Several types of oils or shortenings are usually used as frying media: soybean oil, cottonseed oil, corn oil, peanut oil, canola oil, palm oil and tallow (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). Each has its unique fatty acid composition and will produce different flavor, color, and texture characteristics in the final products. Therefore, an oil or shortening should be chosen to complement the target food system. The composition of fatty acids and degree of hydrogenation determine physical properties of an oil system. Oil with a low melting point and low solids content usually gives a cleaner, non-greasy' mouthfeel (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). During the frying process, three chemical reactions occur in oil: hydrolysis, oxidation and polymerization (Bennion et al., 1976; Fritsch, 1981; Suderman and Cunningham, 1983). These three reactions cause most of the degradation in oil. Hydrolysis and oxidation result in an off, rancid flavor and foaming of the oil. Polymerization will darken the oil, increase the viscosity, cause foaming and increase oil absorption of the fried food. Therefore, quality of frying oil and the frying conditions need ‘to ix: monitored. carefullyu Antioxidants, like polyphenolic compounds from defatted cottonseed flour, can be incorporated in the coating batter to slow down oil degradation (Rhee et al., 1992). As general guidelines, 11 frying temperature should be between 360°F - 380°F (182°C - 193°C), and depending on the food substrates, the frying time can range from one minute for vegetables to 10 minutes for chicken pieces (Flick et al., 1989; Suderman and Cunningham, 1983). 1u4. Effect of Temperature on Batter Coating In. both commercial and. household. environments, food substrates for deep-fat frying may be stored in a frozen or cooled state. Temperature of the food substrates is known to affect adhesion of the coating batter (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983; Kulp and Loewe, 1990). Frozen broiler drumsticks can improve batter adhesion slightly (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983; Kulp and Loewe, 1990), as a smaller amount of crumb is lost upon cooling of the fried poultry. In the batter and breading industry, it is well known that the layer of frozen water on the seafood surface, called “ice glaze”, will prevent good adhesion of coating batter (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). The smooth ice surface does not allow firm physical or chemical adhesion and results in extensive “blow off” during the frying process. Corrective measures like sprinkling salt onto the seafood surface or increasing the salt content in the predust can melt part of 12 the ice glaze and lower the incidence of “blow off” during deep-fat frying (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). 1.5. Functions of Batter Coating Coating is primarily used to enhance the appearance and taste profile of the food. It adds bulky appearance and color to the product. With flavors and spices, coating completes the flavor profile of the food. Batter coating gives a crispy texture and enhances the pleasure of eating. Batter coating also functions as a moisture barrier. Batter coating covers the entire food surface and absorbs the natural food juice that leaks out of the food. It also reduces oil uptake during frying (Nakai and Chen, 1986) and reduces dilution cm: loss of natural flavor volatiles from the food (Nawar et al., 1990). Depending on the choice of special ingredients, coating may also slow down the oxidation process in the frying oil. 1.6. Current Methods of Evaluating Batter Rheology The batter and breading industry, like many areas in the food science field, is still using empirical means to evaluate properties of their batters. Although these methods serve to characterize the batter, the collective results are not easily compared. The collected measurements 13 are unique to each nethod and each instrument. This makes cross comparison and transfer of knowledge quite difficult. Within the current batter and breading industry, there are five most commonly use instruments to measure batter viscosity: the Zahn cup, the Stein cup, the Brookfield viscometer, time Bostwick consistometer, and time Brabender Viscoamylograph (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). 1.6.1. Zahn Cup and.8tein Cup The Zahn cup and Stein cup are mostly used for on-line quality checks. The amount of time it takes to empty the batters through. a small hole at the bottcmt of the cup indicates the fluidity of the batter. For thin batters, Zahn cups are preferred because of their smaller hole size, while Stein cups are more suitable for thick batters (Kulp and Loewe, 1990; Steffe, 1996). 1 . 6 . 2 . Brookfield Viscometer The Brookfield. viscometer is another instrument commonly used to measure the viscosity of fluid naterial. The company manufactures quite a number of models that can operate with various spindles and revolution per minute (rpm) settings. Since batters exhibit non-Newtonian behavior (Hoseney, 1994), the properties measured by the Brookfield equipment are empirical. In addition, the 14 measurements collected from different spindles have no correlation with each other and therefore interchanging use of models is not advised (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). 1.6.3. Bostwick Consistameter The Bostwick consistometer is a trough type device. It has two compartments separated by a spring—loaded gate. On the floor of the inclined trough are markings that show the distance traveled by test material over time. When the gate is lowered to form a reservoir, batters are poured in until overflowing. Timing starts when the spring is released; the distance traveled by the batters after 30 seconds is recorded. Although the testing procedures seem simple, many factors exist that can invalidate the final readings. These include obtaining the consistometer level, timing, and reading the marking accurately. 1.6u4. Brabender Viscoamylograph Brabender Viscoamylograph is another example of an empirical instrument used in the batter and breading industry. It was initially designed to characterize starch solutions during gelatinization. But from.tjmma to time, it has also been used to evaluate viscosity of batters. The batter samples in the rotating bowl are heated, held and 15 cooled during the testing cycle. An amylogram with Brabender viscosity units are plotted against time to show the starch quality in the better samples (Kulp and Icewe, 1990; Steffe, 1996). 137. Rheological Measurements and Techniques 1.7.1. Rheological Properties of Semi-Fluid Food Eugene C. Bingham (1929) defines rheology as the study of flow and deformation. When force is applied, materials are deformed and exhibit either solid or fluid or both kinds of behaviors. Batters are one of ‘those food that exhibit both elastic (solid) and viscous (liquid) behaviors (Baird et al., 1981). Since many fluid foods, including batters, exhibit negligible elastic behavior; the rheological properties are dominated by viscous behavior. Cunningham and Tiede (1981), Hsia et al. (1992), and lane and Abdel-Ghany (1986) have reported a relationship between apparent viscosity' and. pick—up (percent coating weight). Hsia 6%: al. (1992) also found batters have time—dependent behavior with apparent viscosity decreasing over time upon continuous mixing. When examining the time-independent behavior of batters, Hsia et al., (1992) and Castell-Perez and Mishra (1995) found that batters have a flow behavior 16 index (n) of less than one and that they are shear-thinning materials. 1.7.2. Models for Shear-Thinning Fluids Fluid foods can be broadly classified as Newtonian and non-Newtonian. On a rheogram, Newtonian fluids have a linear relation between shear stress and shear rate. Examples of Newtonian fluids are water, glycerol and vegetable oil (Barnes et al. 1989). For non-Newtonian fluids, the relation between shear stress and shear rate is non-linear. When. the shear stress increases .en: an increasing rate with the shear rate, the fluid is known to exhibit shear-thickening or dilatant behavior. Examples for shear-thickening fluids are certain types of honey or a 40% corn starch slurry (Steffe, 1996). On the other hand, when the shear stress increases in a decreasing rate with the shear rate, the fluid is known to exhibit shear—thinning or pseudoplastit: behavior; Examples (Hf shear-thinning fluids are applesauce, fruit puree and orange juice concentrate (Steffe, 1996). It shear-thinning rheogranl can ix; divided into three sections (Figure 1.1.): a lower Newtonian region, a middle region and an upper Newtonian region. At very low shear rates, the apparent viscosity, also called the limiting viscosity at zero shear rate (no), is constant 17 Pa Shear Stress, Upper Newtonian Region IMiddle Region Lower Newtonian Region Shear Rate, 1/s Figure 1.1. Rheogram.for Shear Thinning Fluid. 18 against increasing shear rate (Figure 1.2.). The same phenomenon, but at much higher viscosity is observed again at very high shear rate. The limiting viscosity at infinite shear rate (as) again is constant against increasing shear rate. The middle region of the curve can be mathematically represented with the power law equation: 0=K(7)" [1] For shear-thinning fluids, n is between zero and one. The power law equation is a special case of the Herschel- Bulkley Model (Steffe, 1996) , which is able to represent many types of fluid behavior: 0=K(7)"+Uo [2] Rotational viscometers are very useful in studying shear-thinning properties of fluid food. These are fundamental testing instruments tflun: shear test materials either under controlled stress or under controlled rate conditions. When choosing the controlled rate method, rheograms with shear stress plotted against shear rate can be generated. If power law trend line is fitted to the 19 Pa s Viscosity, flo Shear Stress, Pa Figure 1.2.‘Viscosity of Shear-Thinning Fluid. 20 data, K and n values can then be determined. For batters, a parallel plate setting is preferred because undissolvable particles like spices may exist and generate too much interference when cone and plate sensors are used (Steffe, 1996). 1.7.3. Models for Time-Dependent Fluids Another type cflf rheological behavior that non- Newtonian fluids could have is time-dependency. This behavior is caused by changes in the fluid structure over time (Steffe, 1996). Since ideal time-dependent fluids are inelastic, the response to external stress is instantaneous. The observed behavioral changes are not caused by a delayed response as for elastic materials. Within non-Newtonian fluids, there are tn“) kinds of tine- dependent behavior: thixotropic and rheopectic (Steffe, 1996). For thixotropic materials, shear stress and apparent viscosity' decrease over' time at .fixed shear rates. This behavior is also described as time—dependent thinning. Rheopexy on the other hand, has increasing shear stress and apparent viscosity over time at constant shear rates, and is also known as time-dependent thickening. Examples of thixotropic fluids are baby food, yogurt and batters 21 (Steffe, 1996), and emu example (ME rheopectic material is modified waxy corn starch (Rao et al., 1997). Both thixotropic and rheopectic behaviors may be completely reversible, partially reversible or irreversible. Changes that thixotropic fluids undergo over time can be represented by the “sol-gel” transition as observed in baby food (Steffe, 1996). When the fluids are allowed to rest, they slowly develop three—dimensional networks that act like gel. When an external force, like shear, is applied, the three-dimensional networks are disturbed and the fluids exhibit minimum thickness. They are then referred to as being in the “sol” state. In the case (ME reversible thixotropic behavior, the three- dimensional network will rebuild and fluids will resume the “gel” state. Rotational viscometers are very useful for detecting time-dependent behavior. They have the ability to alternately shear then rest the test material at controlled settings. Or the viscometers can ramp shear rate up and down and record behaviors of the meteriaIs on a rheogram. If hysteresis loops are generated in rheograms, then the test material exhibits time—dependent behavior (Figure 1.3.). A bigger area between the up and down curves (shaded area in Figure 1.3.) indicates greater time-dependent 22 behavior (Steffe, 1996). 1.7.4. Yield Stress in Coating Batters Yield stress can be defined as the minimum amount of shear stress required to initiate flow. In fluid suspensions, the major factors causing yield stress are intermolecular hydrogen bonds and molecular entanglement (Heckman, 1977). There are many methods that can be used to evaluate the yield stress of fluid materials: Lang and Rha (1981) reported a comparison of some of them; others like Charm (1962) worked on Casson's equation; Churchill (1988) discussed measuring yield stress on an inclined plate; Kee et a1. (1980) mentioned a static technique to measure yield stress; and Kee et al. (1988) proposed a method to measure postwithdrawal drainage of different types of fluids. The method known as “vertical plate coating” measures the amount of fluid remaining on a plate after plate withdrawal from a sample (Lang and Rha 1981). In this technique, a test plate is fixed. to a support to ensure it remains vertical throughout the test period. The plate is then lowered into the sample and raised. up at jpreset rates. After dripping for a fixed period of time, the plate is weighed and the yield stress calculated as: 24 oo=2phg [3] To conduct this test, the surface of the plate needs to be slip proof and the minimum adhesive force between the plate and the coating material must be greater than the yield stress. Churchill (1998) modeled shear stress CHI an inclined plate. The author expressed shear stress as ea function of y: 0=f(y)=gp(h-y)sin0 [4] As y approaches zero, shear stress becomes maximum. If the maximum shear stress is greater than the yield stress, the coating material will flow down the plate due to gravitational pull. When the inclination angle is 90°, Churchill’s equation can provide a simplified expression for the maximum value of h: h =-—- [5] The above methods, although similar, do not result in identical yield stress values for the same material. Lang 25 and Rha (1981) have reported similar observations. Therefore, when reporting yield stress values, one needs to specify how the yield stress data were collected. 1.8. Importance of Controlled Mixing \\ Mixing can be defined as a unit operation that involves the intermingling of two or more dissimilar materials to obtain a desired degree of uniformity (Steffe, 1996)." In batter preparation, the main goal is to blend the dry powder with water until uniform and to keep the undissolved materials, like starch granules and spices, in suspension. The degree of mixing can affect batter performance. Batters run: adequately mdxed VUJJ. have lumps of powder within them. This has an adverse effect on the consistency of coating thickness, resulting in poor product quality (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983). One way to monitor the degree of mixing received by the batter is to calculate the amount of power consumed during mixing. Power consumption in mixing a power law fluid can be described with the following equation: A .p. = 2" I61 dSQ,o «ismo where : 77=K(}’a)"'l [7] 26 fa=k'Q [8] To apply these equations, a range of experiments need to be done to find the k’ value. One way is through the “Slope Method” (Steffe, 1996). The “Slope Method” requires power law fluid standards and is relatively simple. However, the disadvantage of the “Slope Method” is that small errors may become magnified into large errors as the power curve is plotted on a semi-log scale. The “Matching Viscosity Method” (Steffe, 1996) is another means to calculate k’. Fewer power law standard fluids are required but it is more labor intensive and there are more calculations involved. A simple parameter known as the “Specific Mechanical Energy Input (SME)” can be used to monitor energy input into batters. SME is a popular calculation in the extrusion industry for determining the amount of energy used to mix materials (Onwulata et al., 1998; Choudhury and Gautam, 1998; Gogoi et a1. 1996; Schwartzbeng et a1. 1995 and Ime et al. 1994). It relates energy input with time, speed, average torque, and mass of the test material: SME-.ew ‘ [9] W’ 27 The calculations involved are easier to carry out and the mixing time and mixer speed can be changed during testing. 1 . 9. Methods Used to Evaluate Deep Fried Food There are two :main ways to evaluate a fried food: subjective evaluations using sensory methods or objective evaluations measuring the chemical and physical properties of the fried food. For sensory methods, a three-point scale or a'nine-point hedonic scale is commonly used (Kulp and Loewe, 1990). Both require trained panelists and report results in average numbers. Many aspects of 51 fried food, like coating adhesion, presence of void, pillowing or blow- off during frying are concerns for evaluations (Suderman and Cunningham, 1983; Kulp and Loewe, 1990). Voids are bare areas on the food substrate not covered by the coating batter. This happens frequently when coating seafood. The problem can be caused by excessive line speed during commercial batter coating, unexposed areas (N1 the seafood substrates, excessive or absence of pre-dusting materials, smooth surface of ice cmystals outside the frozen seafood or air pockets trapped between seafood and batter during batter application. A second defect in fried products is called “blow— off”. Blow-off refers to pieces of batter that are ripped 28 off the food during the frying process. The initial contact of wet batter and hot frying oil has a shocking effect on the batter. If there is excessive batter on the food substrate, it will be forced away from the food and fried as a separate entity. These blow-off units sink: to the bottom of the fryer, clog the oil recycling systems, or float on the frying oil surface. Another defect associated with blow-off is presence of air pockets on the fried food surface, called “pillowing”. Pillowing is caused by water vaporizing during frying and is first noticed when food exits the fryer. Once cooled, the puffed pockets collapse and result in a wrinkled unappealing appearance. These puffed. pockets usually are darker in color than other areas of the food product and are easily broken off during storage and transportation. There are a number of objective evaluation methods widely used in the batter and breading industry. Each method tackles only a specific quality aspect of the fried products: Hunter and Agtron units measure the coating color; texture analyzer measures the coating compressibility; and specific .AOAC .methods (Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 2000) analyze different amounts of nutrients present in the food and/or coating. On the aspect of coating adhesion, Suderman and 29 Cunningham (1983) calculate the percentage breading loss to reflect the degree of adhesion: % breading loss - weight of lost breading crumb *1(70 drumstick weight with predip and breading - [1(7] towel-dried drumstick weight The US Government has regulations that the batter and breading industry must follow. Frozen battered and/or breaded seafood must meet the Code of Federal Regulations, title 21, chapter I, part 161, subpart B (CFR, 2000). This subpart specifies the minimum weight of seafood in each type of batter and/or breaded product. In addition, the United States Department of Commerce has outlined in its Seafood Inspection Program the standards for grading fishery products (USDC, 2000). The coated seafood products are to be graded in both frozen and cooked states. Final grade of the coated seafood is governed by a two-part inspection. The first part is 53 score deduction test and the second part is a subjective sensory evaluation. Appearance, uniformity, absence of defects and ease of separation in the frozen state are some areas of concern in the scoring deduction test. There are sub—areas within each area of concern for more detailed evaluation. The initial 30 score of coated seafood is 100; pre-assigned points are deducted from the base score if defects are found. In the subjective sensory evaluation, flavor and odor of the cooked seafood are the main concerns. Results from both parts are then combined and the coated seafood is graded into three different categories: U.S. Grade A, U.S. Grade B and Substandard. 31 Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2 .1. Batters Tested The three brand names for adhesion batter dry mixes used in this study were Dorothy Dawson’s Batter Mix, Drake’s Batter Mix, and Golden Dipt Batter Mix. The three brand names for tempura batter mix were Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix, Tung-I Tempura Batter Mix, and Newly Wed Tempura Batter Mix. These mixes were either bought from the grocery store or acquired directly from the manufacturer. Out of these six brand names, only Dorothy Dawson's Batter Mix and Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix were used in the mixing time and impeller speed test. For the frying test, Drake’s Batter Mix was chosen to represent the adhesion batter and Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix was chosen to represent the tempura batter. For the rest of the research, except the deep-fat frying test, all six brands of batter mix were evaluated. 2 - 2 . Sample Preparation Fresh batter at 45.4%, 50.0% or 55.6% solids was Prepared from Dorothy Dawson’s Batter Mix and from Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix. For both mixes, the manufacturers’ 32 recommended level was 50.0% solids. The remaining four brands of batter were prepared at two different levels of percent solids: the manufacturers’ recommended level and 50.0% solids. Preparing the batter at the manufacturers' recommended level ensured. batters were evaluated. at the expected consistency. Preparing the batters at 50.0% solids set a common ground for comparison. Table 2.1. provides a detailed breakdown of the batter mix solids and water amounts according to brand name. A fresh batter sample was mixed for each individual test to eliminate changes in batter properties over time. Batter was prepared by slowly adding mix powder to deionized water during the first two minutes of agitation. Agitation was accomplished with a helical ribbon. mixing system (Figure 2.1.). During mixing, the helical screw was turned in a clockwise direction, lifting particles from the side of the mixing cup and circulating them down at the center. A Servodyne mixer head (Cole-Parmer Instrument Company, Model 5000-20) was used to carry out the controlled mixing. Desired mixing time and speed were entered at the control panel to adjust the mixing regimes. Torque, measured by the Servodyne mixer head, was read from the Servodyne mixer head window, and used to calculate the specific mechanical energy input (SME): 33 Table 2.1. Batter Compositions for the Six Different Brands of Batter Mix Brand % Solids Water (g) Batter Mix' (g) 45.4 76.4 63.6 Dorothy Dawson’s 50.0 70.0 70.0 Batter Mix" 55.6 62.2 77.8 50.0 70.0 70.0 Drake’s Batter Mix" 57.1 60.0 80.0 Golden Dipt Batter 50.0 70.0 70.0 Mix“r 45.4 76.4 63.6 Kikkoman Tempura 50.0 70.0 70.0 Batter Mix." 55.6 62.2 77.8 Tung-I Tempura 43.8 78.75 61.3 Batter Mix“ 50.0 70.0 70.0 Newly wed Tempura 43.6 79.8 60.2 Batter Mix." 50.0 70.0 70.0 Assume percent.moisture in the batter mix is negligible to mimic the actual application. Adhesion Batter Tempura Batter it it. 34 where: C = 0.40 cm Cb: 0.25 cm Figure 2.1. Dimension for Helical Ribbon and Sample Cup . 35 A4 Cit SWflZ=__L:_;:_ [9] W’ 2.3. Mixing Time and Impeller Speed One type of adhesion batter mix (Dorothy Dawson’s Batter Mix) and one type of tempura batter mix (Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix) were chosen for this test. Results from this part of the experiment determined the mixing regimes for the remaining tests. Preliminary mixing tests were done on the batters to determine the mixing time and mixing speed used in this experiment. Both batters were mixed in two ways: 1) Constant mixing time with four different mixing speeds (Table 2.2.) and 2H Constant mixing speed with four different mixing times (Table 2.3.). For Dorothy Dawson’s Batter Mix, batter was pmepared by mixing at 300 rpm for 2, 3, 4, and 6 minutes. It was also mixed for 4 minutes at 100, 200, 300 and 600 rpm. For the Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix, batter was mixed at 270 rpm for 2, 2.5, 3 and 5 minutes. It was also mixed for 3 minutes at 70, 170, 270 and 470 rpm. Immediately after mixing, batters were evaluated with a TA-XTZ Texture Anaylzer (Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale, NY/Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, Surrey, UK). A rectangular Plexiglas probe, attached to the probe 36 Table 2.2. Constant Mixing Time with Four Different Impeller Mixing Speeds Type of Batter Time (min) Impeller Mixing Speed (rpm) 100 2 O O Adhesion' 4 300 600 7O l 7 0 Tempura“ 3 270 470 Three brands used as adhesion batter samples are Dorothy Dawson' s Batter Mix, Drake’ s Batter Mix and Golden Dipt Batter Mix. " Three brands used as tempura batter samples are Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix, Tung-I Tempura Batter Mix and Newly Wed Tempura Batter Mix. 37 Table 2.3. Constant Impeller Mixing Speed with Four Different Mixing Times Type of Batter Time (min) Impeller Mixing Speed (rpm) Adhesion. 300 Tempura“ 270 5 Three brands used as adhesion batter samples are Dorothy Dawson’ s Batter Mix, Drake’s Batter Mix and Golden Dipt Batter Mix. .9 Three brands used as tempura batter samples are Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix, Tung-I Tempura Batter Mix and Newly Wed Tempura Batter Mix. 38 KG ’0 I)! carrier of TA-XTZ, was lowered into the batter and then removed at a rate of 10mm/s for 100 mm. The plexiglas probe was taken down immediately after the probe carrier of the Texture Analyzer stopped moving (time zero) and the probe coated with batter was weighed on an analytical balance to determine the amount of batter picked up by the probe. The weight of batter picked up by the probe at time zero was plotted against the SME value for that particular batter. The mixing regime resulting in the highest amount of batter retained on the probe at time zero was used to mix that batter type for the remaining tests. 2.4. Batter Retention All six brands of batter mix were involved in this part of the research. Right after mixing, a fresh sample was evaluated with the Texture Analyzer. A known area of the Plexiglas probe was lowered into the batter and programmed to be withdrawn at a speed of 10 m/s for 100 mm. After that, the probe was held in position for up to 300 seconds. During this period, the weight of batter retained on the probe was measured and was plotted against time. Assuming a uniform coating on the Plexiglas probe, yield stress of a batter can be calculated as follows: 39 First, the volume of batter retained on the Plexiglas probe (V) is calculated by measuring the weight of batter retained on the probe (w) and dividing it by the density of the tested batter (p): [11] ‘olE From V, thickness of the coating on the probe (12) can be found with the total immersed surface area (x): [12] HIV Finally, I: can then be inputted to calculate yield stress (0'0) of the batter: oo=hpg [13] 2 . 5 . Steady Shear Rheological Testing All six brands of batter mixes were involved in this portion of the research. After mixing, steady shear properties of fresh samples were evaluated with a Haake RS- 100 rheometer (Haake Inc., Paramus, N.J.). Since adhesion batters may contain grainy particles, the parallel plate 40 geometry with a 12 mmi gap size was used. For tempura batters, gap size was reduced to 1 mm. For the adhesion batters, steady shear properties were tested by ramping shear rate between 0.16 s'1 and 50 54. Each test was run for 600 seconds with 50 mmmsurement points distributed evenly within the shear rate range. For tempura batters, the steady shear' properties between 0.16 54' and 1%) s’1 were studied. Each test lasted 120 seconds with 20 measurement points distributed evenly within the shear rate range. Rheogram data and power law properties of batters were 1 collected. Tempura. batter' was tested in) tc> 20 s' only, because edge failure was observed beyond 203'1. Tempura batter at mid-height of the gap started to recess then leak out from the top and bottom surfaces of the parallel plates. This caused a sharp drop in shear stress indicating maximum shear rate for tempura batter in this l-mm parallel plate setting had been reached. 2.6. Influence of Holding Period on Batter Retention The Texture Anaylzer and the Haake RS-lOO were both used to evaluate the batters during a three-hour holding period. Batter was allowed to rest fer (L 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 120, 150 and 180 minutes after preparation. At the designated time, a known area. of a 41 Plexiglas probe was lowered into, and removed from, the batter. The amount of batter picked up by the probe at time zero was then weighed. For the studies with the Haake RS- 100, steady shear testing, set as ramping up only, was done at O, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 ininutes to detect time-independent behavior. The collected shear stress at 15 s’1 shear rate is reported as apparent viscosity: r7=K(7')"" [141 2J7. Deep-Fat Frying Drake's Batter Mix and Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix were the two batters used in this test. They were mixed at the manufacturers’ recommended levels, 57.1% and 50.0% solids, respectively. Each type of batter was mixed at three different speeds of agitation, with a constant mixing time for each regime. Three kinds of food (Singleton brand frozen cocktail shrimp, Meijer brand string cheese and fresh cucumbers) were used as food substrates for coating. Shrimp were thawed overnight in the refrigerator and cucumbers were cut into % inch slices and blanched for one minute prior to the test. The food substrates were pre- dusted with Golden Dipt Predusts Mix before being dipped 42 into batters. Shrimp and string cheese were coated with adhesion batters while sliced cucumbers and shrimps were coated with tempura batters. All samples were dripped for two minutes before frying. Table 2.4. lists batter mixing and frying conditions. Before the coating was applied, groups of five shrimp or sliced cucumber pieces with similar size and shape were pre-picked. This ensured food substrates having similar weight and coating surface area. Each frying test was repeated three times. Two small deep- fat frying cookers were used to fry the coated food. The frying media was Meijer brand canola oil and the frying temperature was 360°F - 380°F (182°C - 193°C). New oil was used each day to avoid interference from oxidized oil. Finally, food products were evaluated according. to their weight change and appearance. An evaluation sheet (Figure 2.2.) was filled out after cooling to note the observations during coating and frying. The percent increase in weight (AFC) after coating was calculated as: =§i*100 [15] 43 Table 2.4. Type of Food Substrate, Maxing Regime and Frying Time for Adhesion and Tempura Batters Batter % Food Food Mixing Mixing Frying Solids Substrate Piece/ Time Speed. Time GrOuP (min) (rm) (min) 100 Shrimp 5 4 300 1.5 . 600 Adhesion 57.1 100 String 4 4 300 1.0 Cheese 600 70 Shrimp 5 3 270 1.5 .. 470 Tempura 50.0 70 Sliced 5 3 270 1.5 Cucumber 470 if Drake’s Batter Mix was used as the adhesion batter. Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix was used as the tempura batter. 44 r ' CIV‘IIK“JJ-K‘M_ Type of Batter: Solids Ratio: Mixing Time: Mixing Speed: Food Substrate: weight before Coating: weight after Coating: % Change in weight: Thickness of Food: Thickness of Fried Food: Thickness of Coating: During Coating: void: (If yes) Reason 1: Shape Reason 2: Air pocket Reason 3: Batter too thin During Frying: Blow off: Pillowing: Color: Texture: After Cooling: weight of Fried Food: weight of Coating: Figure 2.2. Evaluation Form.for Deep-Fat Fried Food. 45 Thickness of coating (T) is calculated as: Weight percent of coating in final fried food calculated as: .F AF=—*100 46 (AP’) [16] is [17] l i 1‘. Chapter 3 Results and Discussion 3.1. Optimum Mixing Optimum degree of mixing occurs when the maximum amount of batter is retained on the probe. The amount of batter retained is determined by the amount of energy input during mixing. It was found that batters with higher percent solids needed more energy to achieve optimum mixing. When plotting batter retention against specific mechanical energy input (Figure 3.1.), an optimum mixing curve was found. In this study, the part of the optimum mixing curve to the left of the peak was considered as the region of under-mixing while the part of the curve to the right of peak was considered as the region of over-mixing. As shown in Figure 3.1., Dorothy Dawson’s Batter at 55.6% solids received optimum mixing when the SME was between 2,500 and 3,500 N m/kg. For batter at 50.0% solids, optimum mixing occurred when SME was approximately 1,000 N m/kg, and at 45.4% solids, optimum mixing was achieved when SME was approximately 350 N Im/kg. Results from. Kikkoman Tempura Batter' Mix. were shown in Figure 3.2. Batter at 55.6% solids received. optimum inixing‘ when. SME ‘was approximately 1,600 N m/kg. When the batter was at 50.0% 47 10 Amount of Batter Picked up (9) tn +55.6% Solids, Constant speed, Variable time +50.0% Solids, Constant speed, Variable time ‘1] +45.4% Solids, I, Constant speed, m Variable time A U . I - 'A- 55.6% Solids, Constant time, Variable speed ' a- 50.0% Solidl, ' Constant time, Variable speed -’ - O- 45.4% Solids, Constant time, Variable speed 0 2000 4000 6000 Specific Mechanical Energy Input (N m/kg) Figure 3.1. Amount of Dorothy Dawson' s Batter Picked up by the Probe at Time Zero in Relation to the Specific Mechanical Energy. 48 8000 Amount of Batter Picked up (9) +5561: Solids, Constant speed, Variable time +50.0% Solids, Constant speed, Variable time +4541: Solids, Constant speed, Variable time - fi- 55.6% Solids, Constant time, Variable speed - 0- 50.0% Solids, Constant time, Variable speed - O- 45.4% Solids, Constant time, Variable speed . : .... v-i i ...- i - . - - . 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Specific Mechanical Energy Input (N m/kg) Figure 3.2. Amount of Kikkoman Tempura Batter Picked.up by the Probe at Time Zero in Relation to the Specific Mechanical Energy. 49 solids, Optimum mixing was found when SME was between 700 and 1,000 N m/kg; and when batter was at 45.4% solids, the optimum energy input was 600 N m/kg. This shows that for both brands of adhesion batter and tempura batter tested in this part of the studies, the amount of energy needed to obtain optimum-mixing increases with percent solids. Extra energy is needed to blend the additional solids to uniform consistency. Kikkoman Tempura Batters at different percent solids behaved differently when they were over-mixed. For the 45.4% solids and 50.0% solids batters, the batter amount retained on the probe decreased quickly after the SME exceeded the optimum level of 600 N m/kg and 1,000 N m/kg, respectively. But for batters with 55.6% solids, the batter amount retained on the probe remained fairly constant after the SME amount exceeded the 1,600 N m/kg optimum level. This shows that Kikkoman Tempura Batter at higher percent solids can withstand more over-mixing than batters at lower percent solids. Additional experiments need to be conducted to confirm this behavior. 50 n 'e-"..""1mm 3.2. Batter Retention over Time Dripping of most adhesion batters stabilized after two minutes (Figure 3.3.). Drake’s Batter Mix an: 57.1% solids was the only one that required more than two minutes to stabilize. Viscosity of this batter was so high that dripping did not stabilize within the five-minute test period. This high viscosity was caused by the large amount of solids in the batter. The large quantities of gluten proteins and starches formed more networks during mixing and resulted in a stringy batter. Golden Dipt Batter Mix at 50.0% solids showed a similar dripping curve as Drake’s Batter Mix at 57.1% in the beginning, but it quickly stabilized after 1205: with fewer solids in the batter, fewer networks were formed. during inixing resulting in aa less stringy batter. Generally, batters with lower percent solids need a shorter time period to stabilize dripping. Dorothy Dawson’s Batter at 55.6% solids took two minutes to stabilize dripping; at 50.0% solids, it took about one minute; and at 45.4% solids, it took only 40 seconds. The times required to stabilize dripping of the tempura batters were plotted in Figure 3.4. All tempura batters stopped dripping after three minutes. Kikkoman Tempura Batter at 55.6% solids took three minutes to stabilize dripping; at 50.0% solids, it took two minutes 51 Batter Retained (g) 11 10.5 +Dorothy Dawson's Batter Mix 55. 6% Solids +Dorothy Dawson's Batter Mix 50.0% Solids -O-Dorothy Dawson ' s Batter Mix 45.4% Solids +Drake's Batter Mix 57.1% Solids +Drake's Batter Mix 50.0% Solids -O-Golden Dipt Batter Mix 50.0% Solids h OUll-‘UINUIwUIfiUIUIUIOtUIQUINUI :1 1 150 200 250 300 350 Time (s) Figure 3.3. Amount of Adhesion Batter Retained over a 5-minute Drip Period at 52 Batter Retained (9) pa '0 O H - H O 01 H a r,’ +Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix 55.6% Solids I-II--Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix 50.0% Solids *Kikkoman Tempura Batter Mix 45.4% Solids +Newly Wed Tempura Batter Mix 50.0% Solids +Newly Wed Tempura Batter Mix 43.6% Solids *Tung-I Tempura Batter Mix 50.0% ‘fil III mussel—am"; HF... . ' OMHUIwaMthIUIOUIQIflOUIDUI Solids +Tung-I Tempura Batter Mix 43.8% Solids A l —<-> _ a fie. k~\--.k‘ ’ are an 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Time (s) Figure 3.4. Amount of Tempura Batter Retained over a 5-minute Drip Period at 20°C . 53 ..a. CC vi “we. .3 det thirty seconds; and at 45.4% solids, it took one minute to stabilize dripping. The same trend in dripping time relative to percent solids was observed for both Kikkoman Tempura Batter and Dorothy Dawson's Batter: the higher the percent solids, the longer the time needed to stabilize dripping. Another' phenomenon observed (Figures 3.3. and 3.4.) was that at the same percent solids, batter mixed from different brands did not result in similar levels of batter retention on the probe after drip stabilization. The greatest difference was noticed for adhesion batters. At 50.0% _solids, Dorothy Dawson’s Batter Mix and Drake’s Batter Mix had around 1.7g of batter retained on the probe. But at the same level, Golden Dipt Batter Mix had 5.4g of batter retained, which was three times more than the amount retained by the other two brands. This reflected the great influence batter ingredients had on the viscosity and adhesion characteristics of the hydrated batter mixes. Yield stress values of the batters were also determined in this part of the experiment and recorded in Table 3.1. Generally, density' of the Ibatters, amount of batter retained at time zero, and yield stress values all increased as percent solids in the batters increased. Dorothy Dawson’s Batter Mix at three different percent 54 Table 3.1. Calculated Yield Stress of Adhesion and Tempura Batters 8, Density Batter Yield Stress Brand . 3 Retained Solids (g/cm ) (Pa) (9) Dorothy 45.4 1.15 2.18 4.99 Dawson's 50.0 1.16 4.01 9.20 Batter Mix 55.6 1.19 7.98 18.31 Drake's 50.0 1.14 3.96 9.08 Batter Mix 57.1 1.20 9.32 21.39 Golden Dipt 6 2 08 Batter Mix 50.0 1.1 9.19 1. Kikkoman 45.4 1.10 3.60 8.26 map“. 50.0 1.14 6.54 15.01 Batter Mix 55.6 1.18 9.73 22.31 Tung'l 43.8 1.12 3.39 7.78 Tempura Bat“! Mix 50.0 1.15 6.99 16.03 ""13’ w“ 43.6 1.07 1.71 3.92 Tempura Batter Mix 50.0 1.11 4.96 11.37 55 solids batters had very close density readings, falling between 1.15 and 1.19 g/cm3. The amount of batter retained on the probe at time zero for these three different percent solids batters, on the other hand, had a wide range varying from 2.18 g to 7.98 g. This wide range of readings were magnified when the yield stress values were calculated. Hence, yield stress values for the Dorothy Dawson’s batter samples ranged from 4.99 to 18.31 Pa. Results similar to those found from the Dorothy Dawson's batter were also observed with the remaining brand batters. 3.3. Thixotropic Behavior and Power Law Fluid Thixotropic loops of all six brands were plotted in Figures 3.5. to 3.10. Among the three brands of adhesion batter mixes, batters made from Drake’s Batter Mix exhibited almost no thixotropic behavior. Batters made from Dorothy Dawson's Batter Mix and Golden Dipt Batter Mix showed some degree of thixotropic behavior. As the percent solids increased in Dorothy Dawson’s batter, thixotropic behavior increased. The tested shear rate range for Golden Dipt Batter was between 0.16 s”1 and 20 s"1 only because beyond this range, the rheometer started to show erratic results: shear stress values increased and decreased randomly and dramatically. Within the 0.16 s“1 to 20 s'1 56 Shear Stress (Pa) 500 055.6% Solids 450 ‘ A 50 . 0% Solids 045.4% Solids 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Shear Rate (1/8) Figure 3.5. Thixotropic Loops of Dorothy Dawson's Batter Samples at 20°C. 57 Shear Stress (Pa) 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 057.1% Solids 450.0% Solids a 1. a ‘3‘ “AMA“ 0 10 20 30 40 Shear Rate (1/s) Figure 3.6. Thixotropic Loops of Drake's Batter Samples at 20°C. 58 50 60 Shear Stress (Pa) 500 450 400 350 300 250 ’0 200 0 0 O 150 e a 100 ’. 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 Shear Rate (1/s) Figure 3.7. Thixotropic Loop of 50.0% Solids Golden Dipt Batter at 20°C. 59 Shear Stress (Pa) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 055.6% Solids n50.0% Solids ' e A45.4% Solids 7.. 1's e e e e . I . e 0' e e e e I e (. I..Il. ll '- e . II I g I I I I III I ‘AA I AA I A A‘éAAA A "' .A A Alefixdil—vr”' I {AA A A .‘4‘ 5 10 15 20 25 Shear Rate (1/s) Figure 3.8. Thixotropic Loops of Kikkoman Tempura Batter Samples at 10°C. 60 Shear Stress (Pa) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 050.0% Solids 643.6% Solids e 0.009099"’ eeOVOO 9000’ 0 5 10 . 15 20 Shear Rate (1/s) Figure 3.9. Thixotropic Loops of Newly wad Tempura Batter Samples at 10°C. 61 25 (Pa) Shear Stress 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 O 50 . 0% Solids O43 . 8% Solids 5 10 15 20 25 Shear Rate (1/s) Figure 3.10. Thixotropic Loops of Tung-I Tempura Batter Samples at 10°C. 62 shear rate range, all three tempura batter mix brands showed some degree of thixotropic behaviors. Like the Dorothy Dawson’s batters, degree of thixotropic behavior increased with increase in percent solids. Power law properties of the six adhesion and tempura batter mix brands are summarized in Table 3.2. All K values were greater than one and all n values were smaller than one. Low n values mean both adhesion and tempura batters exhibit shear-thinning behavior. The K values behaved in the same way for adhesion and tempura batters: increasing as percent solids increased. In Newtonian and Bingham plastic fluids, K is more commonly known as the viscosity (,u) and plastic viscosity (,up,), respectively. In shear- thinning fluids, although K does not represent the overall viscosity, it can be used to show relative thickness of different fluids. When comparing Figures 3.5. to 3.10., it can be noted that 50.0% solids batters with higher K values have higher rheograms, meaning thicker texture. Other evidence can also be seen in Figures 3.3. and 3.4. Among the 50.0% solids adhesion batters, Golden Dipt batter has the highest K value (44.38 Pa 5“) and the highest amount of batter retained over a 5-minute drip period (Figure 3.3.), followed by Dorothy Dawson’s Batter with a K value of 7.20 63 Table 3.2. Power Law Properties of Adhesion and Tempura Batters Calculated from Ramping Up Steady Shear Rheological Testing Brand % Solids 1: (Pa s") n (-) r2 Dorothy 45.4 2.88 0.61 0.99 Dawson's 50.0 7.20 0.62 0.99 Bet-“r Mix" 55.6 22.32 0.65 0.99 Drake's 50.0 6.67 0.63 0.99 But-r Mix* 57.1 31.14 0.66 0.99 sad“ Dipt 50 0 44 3 60 0 99 Batter Mix* ' ' 8 0' ' mum 45.4 7.71 0.61 0.99 Tap“. 50.0 20.40 0.59 0.99 Batter Mix** 55.6 68.09 0.56 0.99 ““9": 43.8 6.94 0.65 0.99 Tempura Bet“! Mix" 50.0 29.78 0.63 0.99 n l w a :"Y ' 43.6 1.71 0.75 0.99 empura Btu-r M18“ 50.0 14.44 0.54 0.99 * Shear Rate is between 0.16 sd'and 50 s-1 ** Shear Rate is between 0.16 s'1 and 20 s-1 64 Pa sn and medium amount of batter retained. Drake’s batter has the lowest Rf value (6.67 Pa 5“) and lowest amount of batter retained. The same conclusion can be drawn from the three 50.0% tempura batters in Figure 3.4. Tung-I Tempura Batter has the highest K value (29.78 Pa 5“) and highest amount of better retained. Kikkoman Tempura batter has an intermediate Rf value (20.40 Pa 5“) and a medium amount of batter retained. Newly Wed Tempura Batter has the lowest KT value (14.44 Pa 5“) and least amount of batter retained. Another important factor that is an indicator of overall viscosity is the flow behavior index, n. For shear- thinning fluids, the closer the flow behavior index is to 1, the straighter the rheogram curve. As mentioned before, all batters tested here had n values lower than one. Adhesion batters had‘ n values between 0.60 and 0.66. Tempura batters had n values between 0.54 and 0.75. Variations in these n values are relatively small. When fitting the K and n values from Table 3.2. into equation 14, apparent viscosity in relation to shear rate can be found. Figures 3.11. and 3.12. show apparent viscosity of adhesion and tempura batters at cflfferent percent solids. All batters exhibited very similar downward change in apparent viscosity against increasing shear rate. This means batters in this study exhibited similar degree of 65 7O eDorothy Dawson's Batter, 45 . 4% so IDorothy Dawson's Batter, 50.0% ADorothy Dawson's Batter, 55.6% XDrake ' s Batter , 50 . 0% XDrake's Batter, 57.1% OGolden Dipt Batter, 50.0% 50 O) ‘6‘ O 2‘. 40 b 1.. I § . g u 8: g 30 . O) 1* 4A ‘I X: ‘.., 20 ,. X e A x 0.. A xx .'e I! x Ce AA‘ x xxx Ooeeeea.... A Xxx ’OOeeea 10 AAAAA xx***xxxxxx ....."00eee AAAAA ***Xxxxxxxx I AAAAAAAAAAAAAA Xxxxxxxxx ' . AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA In". 0 "'lllllalal . lllllllllllllllllllllll o ’990009000000000.00000090009000000000055555555 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Shear Rate (1/s) 35 40 45 Figure 3.11. Apparent Viscosity of Adhesion Batters. 66 50 Apparent Viscosity (Pa s) 70 60« 50‘ 40 4 30 < 20 10 ~ o + x ++ exikkoman Tempura Batter, 45.4% IKikkoman Tempura Batter, 50.0% AKikkoman Tempura Batter, 55.6% XTung-I Tempura Batter, 43.8% XTung-I Tempura Batter, 50.0% A ONewly Wed Tempura Batter, 43.6% +Newly Wed Tempura Batter, 50.0% XI II x xx x + I xxx 4' I... xxxxxx I 2”, +++++++++++ *882sxr + RRIIIIII 0 20 30 4O Shear Rate (1/s) 10 Figure 3.12. Apparent Viscosity of Tempura Batters. 67 50 shear-thinning properties regardless as to the type of batter or the amount of solids in the batter. 3.4. Influence of Holding Period on Batter Retention One would expect the average weight of batter retained on the probe to increase over time because as starches and protein molecules hydrate, they swell in size and cause the batter 1x) increase 1J1 viscosity. However, an1 increase in average weight of batter retained on the probe over time is not observed for the three brands of adhesion batter tested. Tables 3.3. and 3.4. list the collected data. For Dorothy Dawson’s Batter at 45.4% solids, the maximum difference in the average weight of batter retained was 0.42g (2.23g - 1.81g). The data collected over the three- hour period were statistically different. At 50.0% solids, the maximum difference increased to 0.73g (4.29g - 3.569) and data also differed statistically. When Dorothy Dawson’s Batter was at 55.6% solids, the maximum difference was 1.22g (8.80g’ - 7.58g), but no statistically significant differences were found among readings. For Drake’s Batter prepared at 50.0% solids, the maximum difference between average batter weight retained on the probe was 0.63g (4.13g — 3.50g) with no significant differences among readings. But at 57.1% solids, the maximum difference 68 Table 3.3. Average weight (g) (n=2) of Dorothy Dawson's Batter Retained on the Probe over a Three-Hour Period Time 45.48 50.0% 55.6% (minutes) Solids Solids Solids 0 2.03c 3.56a 8.42 5 2.12“"e 3.78""b 8.64 10 2.22e 4.13""b 8.30 15 2.23e 4.29b 7.58 20 2.18%” 4.14“b 8.55 25 2.218 4.1Lb 8.80 30 2.18d 4.155"b 8.44 45 2.129e 4.09""b 8.50 60 2.11‘“e 4.049b 8.65 75 2.11"'e 4.11“” 8.56 90 1.813 4.23“” 8.40 120 1.89a'b 4.143'b 8.76 150 22° 4.14“” 8.52 180 2.07C'd 4.18""b 8.07 values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05). 69 . 33.0 V mv uaouommflo haugoemwnown owe unsaved vacuum-moo fie: gaou an on» as." wooded, 33.1w o3 .BK om.m o3 Homer oma 6.63;. mm.m one wearer one 6.6:..R Nor, ONH 625 om “Sammie 86 oo 106.585 2. cover 32m ma. owed oo gems 8.". oo .8685 mo ammo so; no .mss on .34. 84. on ammo mu gammé 3.4 mw “Emma ow 38.» «or. ow c.6635 ma 66:5 Nmé ma 362m on 86.6%.» 3.4 3 Emma m .3on 2... n time o vapor 32m o 630m 83:55 Sodom 8.30m 835685 so . om 059 3 . on so . on can. 70 up. 9393 boas 5308 was 9303 Boston powwow Hoomloouna e Ho>o snow.“ 05 do plowing refine Bean .8308 one neuron Parana mo 3!: in. 9:303 09.33. .v.m 033. increased to 1.01g (8.25g - 7.24g) and there were statistical differences among readings. For Golden Dipt Batter prepared at 50.0% solids, the maximum difference was 1.62g (9.37g - 7.75g) with statistical differences among readings. For tempura batters, the readings are listed in Tables 3.5. and 3.6. The expected trend, i.e., batter weight retained on the probe increasing over time, was also 'not observed with the tempura data. For Kikkoman Tempura Batter samples at 45.4% solids, there were no significant differences in average weights of batter retained on the probe over the three-hour test period. The maximum difference in the average weight was 0.56g (4.19g — 3.63g). When the percent solids increased to 50.0%, significant differences were found among readings and the maximum difference was 0.88g (7.23g - 6.35g). A similar observation was found when the percent solids were further increased to 55.6%. In -this case, statistical differences were found among readings and the maximum difference was 2.59g (10.73g - 8.14g). For Tung-I Tempura Batter samples at 43.8% solids and 50.0% solids, statistical differences were found among readings and the maximum differences in average weight were 1.07g (4.44g - 3.37g) and 2.01g (9.25g - 7.24g), 71 Table 3.5. Average weight (g) (n=2) of Kikkoman Tempura Batter Retained on the Probe over a Three-Hour Period Time 45.48 50.0% 55.6% (minutes) Solids Solids Solids 0 3,63 6.35a 10.36‘3'f 5 3,75 6.73°’° 9.61“"e 10 3,92 7.05989 8.69““ 15 3,74 6.97"""'’5 8.94““ 20 3,65 6.89C’d’e 8.80““ 25 4,01 7.04‘e'f’g 8.62a'b 30 4.06 6.72‘”C 8.14a 45 4,07 7.1415’g 10.2d'e’f 60 4,19 7.08‘”9 10.73f 75 3.66 7.209 10.2°’°'f 90 4,03 7.239 9.24””: 120 3,99 6.97““‘3'f 9.36°'°'° 150 3,97 6.84‘”‘1 8.51mb 190 3,87 6.55b 8.71”": values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05). 72 economuflo handsowuwnude ewe . 30.0 v 3 unsaved usewommflo sues nan—H00 lies on» as." «endear ..~... .m... 6.. ..mm.m .o>.v one 9.8.... .1.. . . 62 ..oa.m .ame.v oo ..ms.m .mo.m ms .vs.o .amo.s oo ..mm.m .ams.m mo ..mo.o .aom.~ on o..~m.m .Hm.m mu ..sm.m .mm.~ on ..ov.m .am.m ma ..sm.m .mm.s on .226 .2: m .84. .2; o reason reason incantaas oo.om ro.mo cane ..a.mo.m .Hm.m o3 .8825 2.3.1. o3 .mm.a .oa.m oua .8so.a .Na.m oo .amo.m .ms.s mp .32.Nm.m .amo.. oo “2.46s.s 945.4 mo ..mm.s .sos.s om .gt.vm.s .amo.o mu .2..vs.s .sos.s ou ..N.s .mm.m ma .2..mm.s .ams.m oH .1.mm.s .vm.m m ...m . a .2 . m o .38... 838 83538 ao.om ro.mo teas Me: unseen swans—GB v.3 hale—a powwow usomloownn. s H25 0395 on» do Dos—«30¢ MHZ Haven sun—mash. H1959 Heaven sun—mash. DOB hdlsz one sun—mash. Huang mo Amuse .3 unmade. Canasta .o.m OHAIB 73 respectively. For Newly Wed Tempura Batter samples at 43.6% solids and 50.0% solids, significant differences were also found among readings, and the maximum differences in average weight were 3.24g (4.94g - 1.70g) and 1.29g (6.14g — 4.85g), respectively. Tables 3.7. and 3.8. list the apparent viscosities of adhesion batters over a 'three-hour period. The apparent viscosity is expected to increase as time increases, but not all batters showed this trend. For Dorothy Dawson's Batter an: 45.4% solids, apparent viscosity increased from 0.98 Pa s to 1.49 Pa 5 over time. At 50.0% solids and 55.6% solids, the expected trend was not found. For Drake’s Batter, apparent viscosity increased over time when the batter was at 50.0% solids but the same trend was not observed with batter at 57.1% solids. For Golden Dipt Batter at 50.0% solids, apparent viscosity remained the same over the three-hour test period. For tempura batters, results are listed in Tables 3.9. and 3.10. Kikkoman. Tempura Batters at .all tested solids levels did not have apparent viscosity increases over time. For Tung-I Tempura Batter at 43.8% solids, apparent viscosity increased as holding time increased, but this trend was not found when the percent solids was increased to 50.0%. Results from Newly Wed Tempura Batters were very 74 Table 3.7. Apparent Viscosity (Pa s) (n=3) for Dorothy Dawson's Batters over a Three-Hour Period at 15 1/s Shear Rate Time 45.4% 50.0% 55.6% (minutes) Solids Solids Solids 0 0.98a 2.54 8.16 15 l 10“” 2.61 7.73 30 1 179° 2.70 7.55 45 120‘”c 2.73 7.50 60 1.24“° 2.85 7.42 90 1 31““ 2.86 7.71 120 1 48‘”e 2.86 7.75 150 1.498 2.80 8.16 180 1 46°e 2.92 8.05 values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05). 75 .Amo.o V.mv usewommep handsowmuauee one unsaved usuaommep and: BESHOO Case on» no nosas> mm.NH omH oJH>.> omm.m oma No.mH one oao>.> oJmN.N omH m>.mH ONH namo.> osioam.m oma oH.oH om oamm.> stooha.~ om mh.ma om otem.> .ioomm.m om No.mH me atom.> 965mH.N me Ho.MH on name.» nma.m on mH.oH ma omo.m odhfi.m mu 3.: o .SK .mo.~ o 630m 83.355 330m 830m 3395.: $0.0m GEAR wH.bm $0.0m GEAR was 9393 995 .8300 was 9393 Parana sued Hesse e\H me as powwow usomrsswna s u9>o 9393 99.6 .3308 our «9303 6.8.36 now 8...: 8 an. Faucet; vacuumed 6...” 031a 76 ..2.... . ....v .1.. ....lm.lrikwlih.umm . 33%in asserrié .. . Table 3.9. Apparent Viscosity (Pa s) (n=3) for Kikkoman Tempura Batters over a Three-Hour Period at 15 1/s Shear Rate Time 45.4% 50.0% 55.6% (minutes) Solids Solids Solids 0 2.70 6.87 20.80 15 2.96 6.51 22.31 30 2.80 6.68 21.68 45 2.97 6.74 21.52 60 2.87 6.35 20.11 90 2.80 6.53 20.06 120 2.76 6.54 20.26 150 2.84 6.06 19.99 180 2.59 5.94 19.20 values in the same column are not significantly different (P < 0.05). 77 uaowommwo handeowmwcuwe one ewouuoa usewommeo sues nasaoo case on» ad noodm> mm.v nmN.H om." oo.o oHN.H omH ha.o omH.H one oH.o ovN.H om mo.o omH.H oo om.o omH.H me om.m BHH.H om mo.o omN.H ma mo.o .om.o o nowaom nowdom AusoscHEv ao.om wo.me laws Mex Houudm nun—mach. DOB and-.02 . 30.0 v m. mm.oa omH.m can H>.oa odoo.m omH mm.oH oaho.m one so.HH “296mm.m om mm.HH 95mm.m om mm.HH “floabm.m no 2.: ...:.m on Hm.0H “366mm.m ma No.oH .Nm.m o nowaom 3.30.0. Assn—sway mo.om we.mv saws Mun: Heaven shaman. H1055. ovum weenm e\H ma us ooewom usomroouna e HO>O aulausm amnesia to! haloz_ods swamioa Hlucsa wow Amide .0 see huweooed>.udowsmm¢ .oa.m sands 78 similar to results from Tung-I Tempura Batters. At 43.6% solids, the apparent viscosity of Tung-I Tempura Batter increased over time but the same behavior was not found when the percent solids was increased to 50.0%. 3.5. Relationship Between Batter Rheology and Fried Food Quality When string cheese was coated with under-mixed adhesion batter, the percent increase in weight between uncoated and coated cheese varied from 0.13% to 8.25%. A very thin layer of coating, 0.05mm, was found on these products that tended to blow off and cause pillowing during frying. When string cheese was coated with batter that had received optimum mixing, the percent increase in weight between uncoated and coated products increased to 29.94%. Also, thicker coatings (0.23mm) were found on the product and no blow off or pillowing was observed during frying. When string cheese was coated with over-mixed batter, the percent increase in weight between uncoated and coated string cheese samples decreased to 28.25%. In this case, thickness of the coating was unchanged at 0.23mm and no blow off or pillowing was found during the frying process. When under-mixed adhesion batter was applied to shrimp, the percent increase in weight between uncoated and 79 coated shrimp varied from 4.78% to 12.67%. Thickness of the coating could not be measured because shrimp do not have a uniform shape like string cheese. But the under-mixed coating was found to constitute 41.27% of the fried food weight. When optimally mixed batter was applied to shrimp, weights increased by 31.90%. After frying, weight of the coating constituted 60.18% of the total food weight. When shrimp were coated with over-mixed batter, product weight increased by 32.84%, and after frying, 50.36% of the fried food weight was coating. Voids and pdllowings were consistently found on the food during and after frying. As for shrimp coated with under-mixed tempura batter, percent increase in weight before and after coating varied between 5.93% and 22.93%. Neither thickness of coating nor percent of coating in the final fried food product could be determined. That is because the coating was so thin that it could not be separated from the shrimp. But it was observed that shrimp decreased in size after frying. Without a thick layer of coating to absorb the natural juice from the shrimp, it migrated into the frying oil and thus shrimp shrank in size. When shrimp were coated with optimally mixed tempura batter, the percent increase in weight before and after coating was 37.25%. The final coating constituted 55.58% of the fried food product by weight. In the case of 80 over-mixed tempura batter, tflma coated shrimp increased in weight by .30.87% and, after frying, 41.89% CH? the final product was coating by weight. Voids were constantly observed in fried shrimp because they have bodies that curve inward and shield the abdomen from batter. As for cucumber slices coated with under-mixed tempura batter, the percent increase in weight before and after coating was between 7.01% and 11.29%. After frying, 24.28% of the fried food was coating. Excessive blow off was observed during frying mainly because the batter was thin and watery. When coated with optimally mixed batter, cucumber samples increased in weight by 33.14%. After frying, coating constituted 48.86% of the food weight. With over-mixed tempura batter, weight of the cucumber sample increased by 34.13%, and 50.37% of the fried product weight was coating. 3 . 6 . Practical Applications Every brand and every style of batter comes from a unique formula; it is unrealistic to come up with a universal mixing regime for all batters. It is more useful to provide a method to determine when the optimum mixing of batter is achieved. This is exactly what the optimum mixing test utilizing the Texture Analyzer is doing. By mixing a 81 any a... n batter at different speeds and durations while measuring torque, SME may be calculated. By relating SME to the amount of batter retained on a probe, an optimum mixing curve is found. Using this curve, batter mix manufacturers can provide better recommendations to their consumers on how to achieve maximum performance from their mixes. In addition, since the plexiglas probe with fixed dimensions is the customary test probe, characteristics of different brands of batter mix can be compared easily. Variations in formulation from the same brands can also be found without interference from irregular size, shape and varying moisture contents of food substrates. The batter retention experiments showed there was a batter dripping period after coating. This becomes important cost reduction information for the batter and breading industry. The industry can either design pipes or equipment to collect the drippings or formulate batters with shorter dripping periods to optimize through-put and batter consumption. Consistency coefficient (K) and flow behavior index (n) are also useful parameters for the batter and breading industry. The K value shows relative thickness of different batters while n reflects the degrees of shear-thinning behavior in a batter. When trying to maintain a constant 82 percent solids and constant viscosity for quality control purposes, steady shear tests can be run on sample batters to evaluate rheological behavior. This information is a good quality control indicator. Aging influence (N1 batter retention and better viscosity are not as extreme as one would expect. Over the three-hour test period, although some statistical differences are found in both adhesion and tempura batters, these differences are so small that they are not expected to be relevant in practical applications. As long as batters are kept at the recommended temperature and used within three hours, no practical differences in weight of batter retained on the probe or apparent viscosity of batters are expected. When relating batter rheology with quality of fried food, it is better to overmix a batter rather than to undermix it. When a batter is undermixed, it is not uniform and the amount of batter picked up by food substrates will vary widely. During frying, natural juice from food substrates will migrate outwards to the frying oil and cause blow off and pillowing. Over—mixing a batter, on the other hand, seems to have a less negative effect on the batter properties. The amount of cwer-mixed batter picked up by the food substrate does not deviate as much as when 83 the batter is undermixed, and the food has more batter coating to absorb the natural food juice and prevent oil absorption by the food. 84 Chapter 4 Conclusions and Recommendations 4.1. Summary and Conclusions For both adhesion and tempura batters, inputting the correct amount of energy during mixing results in maximum level of batter retained on a test probe. Maximum amount of batter retained on the probe was interpreted as optimum degree of mixing. Within the same brand, percent solids in batter had a major influence on the amount of batter retained on the probe, the length of time needed to stabilize dripping, thickness of the batters, and yield stress values of the batters. Both adhesion and tempura batters were found to be shear-thinning and exhibit thixotropic behavior. In terms of rheological properties, measuring different batters’ .K values assisted. in comparing their relative thicknesses. Double checking consistency of batter samples’ It values to 0.6 can serve as a quality control indicator for both adhesion and tempura batters. Increasing the holding period was hypothesized to increase the apparent viscosity and amount of batter retained on the probe. But the collected apparent viscosity data and batter retention weights did not confirm this 85 assumption. No practical changes in apparent viscosity and weight of batters retained on the probe were observed for adhesion or tempura batters over the three-hour test period. When string cheese, shrimm> and. cucumber' were coated with either adhesion or tempura batters with different degrees of mixing, it was found that the highest quality fried food were coated with batters that received optimum mixing. Food coated with under-mixed batter had lower quality attributes then those coated with over-mixed batter. Hence, under-mixing a batter had the greatest detrimental effect on final food quality. 4.2. Recommendations for Future Research Some areas for future research include the following: 1” Compare the industrial mixing system with the laboratory mixing system to determine the scale-up parameters. 2. Perform thorough sensory tests to characterize and distinguish among foods coated with batters that received different degrees of mixing. 86 Sign“ .Iu APPENDIX 87 Table A.1. Amount of Dorothy Dawson's Batter Picked up by the Probe at Time Zero Against Amount of Energy Input into Mixing lMixin Time Batter Batter (Minuges) SHE (N m/kg) Retained (9) rpm SME (N m/kg) Retained (9) WM. 2 1529.705 4.71 100 509.739 1.25 2 1147.279 7.65 100 382.305 3.47 2 1529.705 8.18 100 382.305 2.07 2 1529.705 8.63 100 382.305 4.67 3 2294.558 8.01 200 1274.349 6.35 3 2294.558 7.95 200 509.739 5.25 3 2294.558 7.49 200 1656.653 8.03 3 2294.558 7.97 200 1656.653 7.79 4 4015.476 7.92 300 4015.476 7.92 4 3059.410 8.07 300 3059.410 8.07 4 3441.837 7.87 300 3441.837 7.87 4 3250.623 8.06 300 3250.623 8.06 6 3728.656 7.15 600 7264.943 7.31 6 4302.296 7.40 600 7264.943 7.34 6 4302.296 7.32 600 7264.943 7.18 6 4302.296 7.41 600 7264.943 7.09 WW 2 478.033 3.67 100 127.435 1.22 2 382.426 3.84 100 127.435 1.63 2 382.426 3.60 100 127.435 1.73 2 478.033 3.63 100 127.435 1.06 3 573.639 4.15 200 509.739 2.64 3 573.639 3.70 200 509.739 3.86 3 573.639 3.86 200 509.739 3.51 3 717.049 3.97 200 254.870 2.44 4 956.066 4.01 300 956.066 4.01 4 956.066 4.06 300 956.066 4.06 4 956.066 4.13 300 956.066 4.13 4 956.066 3.84 300 956.066 3.84 6 1147.279 3.55 600 1911.827 3.47 6 1147.279 3.55 600 2294.193 3.44 6 1147.279 3.70 600 2294.193 3.66 6 1147.279 3.58 600 1191.827 3.50 WW 2 191.213 1.81 100 63.717 1.18 2 191.213 1.98 100 63.717 0.59 2 191.213 1.99 100 63.717 0.81 2 191.213 2.00 100 63.717 1.01 3 286.820 1.98 200 254.870 1.98 3 286.820 2.09 200 254.870 1.86 3 286.820 2.06 200 127.435 1.88 3 286.820 1.87 200 127.435 1.95 4 382.426 2.08 300 382.426 2.08 4 382.426 2.21 300 382.426 2.21 4 382.426 2.24 300 382.426 2.24 4 382.426 2.16 300 382.426 2.16 6 573.639 1.95 600 764.731 2.09 6 573.639 2.01 600 764.731 2.03 6 573.639 1.94 600 764.731 2.03 6 573.639 2.07 600 764.731 2.10 88 Table A.2. Amount of. Kikkoman Tempura Batter Picked up by the Probe at Time Zero Against Amount of Energy Input into Mixing IMixin Time Batter Batter (Minuges) SME (N m/kg) Retained gg) rpm SME (N m/kg) Retained (9) Percent Solids: 55.6% 2 1032.259 5.72 70 200.737 1.56 2 860.216 5.99 70 133.825 1.05 2 1032.256 6.30 70 133.825 1.44 2 860.216 5.18 70 133.825 1.31 2.5 1290.324 9.19 170 487.466 5.93 2.5 1290.324 7.22 170 487.466 3.92 2.5 1290.324 8.10 170 487.466 3.77 2.5 1290.324 9.53 170 487.466 3.92 3 1548.388 9.25 270 1290.324 10.14 3 1806.453 8.86 270 1290.324 8.67 3 1806.453 8.20 270 1290.324 8.76 3 2064.518 10.05 270 1290.324 9.46 5 3440.863 8.93 470 5391.699 9.39 5 3440.863 7.97 470 4493.083 9.71 5 3440.863 9.77 470 4493.083 9.20 5 3440.863 9.08 470 4493.083 9.64 570 6538.613 8.97 570 5993.729 9.15 570 5448.844 9.11 570 5448.844 8.90 Percent Solids: 50.0% 2 344.086 4.38 70 100.369 0.70 2 344.086 4.89 70 66.912 0.91 2 344.086 5.49 70 66.912 0.65 2 344.086 5.75 70 66.912 0.54 2.5 645.162 6.47 170 324.977 2.40 2.5 860.216 6.39 170 162.489 2.91 2.5 645.162 6.22 170 162.489 2.48 2.5 645.162 6.37 170 162.489 2.97 3 774.194 6.88 270 774.194 6.61 3 774.194 6.01 270 774.194 6.33 3 774.194 6.33 270 774.194 6.56 3 774.194 6.95 270 774.194 6.53 5 1290.324 5.71 470 1797.233 5.98 5 1290.324 5.86 470 1797.233 6.05 5 1290.324 6.17 470 1797.233 6.24 5 1290.324 6.05 470 1797.233 5.96 2 172.043 3.09 70 66.912 0.64 2 172.043 2.62 70 33.456 1.03 2 172.043 3.07 70 33.456 1.21 2 172.043 3.20 70 33.456 0.49 2.5 430.108 3.43 170 162.489 2.73 2.5 430.108 3.62 170 162.489 2.09 2.5 430.108 3.26 170 324.977 2.43 2.5 430.108 3.59 170 324.977 2.72 3 516.129 3.45 270 516.129 3.52 3 516.129 3.80 270 516.129 3.52 3 516.129 3.69 270 516.129 3.87 3 516.129 3.47 270 516.129 3.86 5 1290.324 2.83 470 1347.925 3.38 5 1290.324 2.45 470 1347.925 3.24 5 860.216 3.64 470 1347.925 3.59 5 860.216 3.77 470 1347.925 2.28 89 Table Au3. Amount of Adhesion Batter Retained over a 5-minute Drip Period at 20°C Batter % Solids Os 305 605 1205 3003 Dorothy Dawson's Batter 55.6 7.92 5.37 4.56 3.84 3.38 55.6 8.07 5.64 4.65 3.63 3.30 55.6 7.87 5.60 4.73 3.82 4.07 55.6 8.06 5.56 4.28 3.74 3.53 Dorothy Dawson's Batter 50.0 4.01 2.22 1.79 1.67 1.57 50.0 4.06 2.26 1.89 1.68 1.64 50.0 4.13 2.01 1.76 1.85 1.62 50.0 3.84 2.09 1.79 1.74 1.89 Dorothy Dawson's Batter 45.4 2.08 1.42 1.21 1.25 1.12 45.4 2.21 1.31 1.20 1.20 1.29 45.4 2.24 1.38 1.23 1.20 1.11 45.4 2.17 1.25 1.19 1.09 1.18 Drake's Batter 57.1 9.52 7.07 6.06 5.20 4.79 57.1 9.14 7.48 6.46 5.70 4.84 57.1 9.51 7.73 6.55 5.52 4.47 57.1 9.12 8.01 6.66 5.70 4.70 Drake's Batter 50.0 3.94 2.49 1.97 1.55 1.47 50.0 3.96 2.45 1.93 1.66 1.45 50.0 4.01 2.27 1.95 1.74 1.63 50.0 3.92 2.38 1.89 1.69 1.59 Golden Dipt Batter 50.0 9.20 7.08 6.18 5.39 5.28 50.0 9.38 6.23 6.38 5.39 5.55 50.0 9.05 6.74 5.57 5.49 5.19 50.0 9.13 7.21 6.26 5.50 5.38 9O Table A.4. Amount of Tempura Batter Retained over a 5-minute Drip Period at 10°C Batter % Solids Os 305 605 1205 3005 Kikkoman Tempura Batter 55.6 10.05 10.05 10.03 8.69 6.60 55.6 9.25 9.75 9.55 8.56 7.91 55.6 10.14 9.48 9.09 8.78 7.65 55.6 9.46 9.32 8.95 7.07 7.21 Kikkoman Tempura Batter 50.0 6.88 3.79 4.00 .3.09 3.13 50.0 6.01 4.37 3.47 3.48 2.48 50.0 6.33 4.45 3.43 3.24 3.08 50.0 6.95 4.26 3.90 3.15 2.83 Kikkoman Tempura Batter 45.4 3.45 2.07 1.45 1.56 1.25 45.4 3.80 1.97 1.50 1.38 1.32 45.4 3.69 1.22 1.64 1.40 1.26 45.4 3.47 1.97 1.53 1.27 1.29 Newly Wed Tempura Batter 50.0 4.65 3.23 2.66 2.81 3.08 50.0 5.07 3.01 2.90 2.52 2.90 50.0 5.22 3.34 2.85 2.78 1.90 50.0 4.88 3.20 3.08 2.72 2.87 Newly Wed Tempura Batter 43.6 1.65 0.82 0.89 0.84 0.81 43.6 1.71 1.67 0.91 0.82 0.82 43.6 1.75 0.81 0.89 0.86 0.8 43.6 1.73 0.76 0.89 0.73 0.81 Tung-I Tempura Batter 50.0 7.01 5.61 .3w46 4.22 3.32 50.0 7.42 5.43 5.09 4.13 4.26 50.0 6.49 5.32 4.54 4.3 3.01 50.0 7.03 5.15 4.49 4.05 5.13 Tung-I Tempura Batter 43.8 3.14 1.85 1.44 1.13 1.22 43.8 3.58 1.54 11.56 1.37 1.30 43.8 3.44 1.64 1.50 1.40 1.30 43.8 3.40 1.81 1.42 1.32 1.31 91 Table ANS. Steady Shear Data of Dorothy Dawson's Batter at 20°C 45.4% Solids 50.0% Solids 55.6% Solids Shear Shear Shear Shear Shear Shear Rate Stress Rate Stress Rate Stress [1/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 0.063 9.831 0.456 6.902 0.723 3.654 1.1 38.784 1.539 11.406 1.461 4.748 2.199 49.47 2.183 12.681 2.199 5.33 2.827 53.492 2.875 14.242 2.859 5.936 3.456 58.43 3.503 15.561 3.613 6.425 4.194 63.832 4.273 16.903 4.257 6.946 4.885 69.36 4.917 18.101 4.885 7.392 5.466 73.163 5.529 19.365 5.545 7.972 6.11 78.648 6.173 20.762 6.173 8.466 6.896 83.791 6.943 22.12 6.912 8.976 7.54 88.775 7.587 23.476 7.571 9.502 8.2 92.946 8.215 24.563 8.2 9.94 8.954 98.002 8.969 25.895 8.954 10.403 9.55 102.237 9.582 27.063 9.582 10.816 10.194 106.719 10.242 28.155 10.226 11.253 10.838 111.721 10.901 29.531 10.886 11.78 11.624 116.247 11.64 30.727 11.655 12.237 12.268 120.701 12.315 31.839 12.284 12.636 12.912 125.632 12.959 33.166 12.928 13.196 13.65 130.265 13.572 34.295 13.556 13.611 14.153 134.287 14.184 35.385 14.31 14.069 14.938 138.607 14.954 36.494 14.97 14.57 15.551 143.476 15.614 37.831 15.582 14.953 16.226 147.7 16.242 38.888 16.195 15.415 16.996 152.047 16.996 39.992 17.012 15.79 17.64 157.275 17.624 41.269 17.64 16.305 18.253 161.064 18.268 42.312 18.268 16.652 19.007 165.349 18.912 43.402 19.038 17.142 19.509 168.975 19.541 44.342 19.541 17.439 20.279 173.234 20.295 45.392 20.295 17.86 20.954 178.083 20.97 46.589 20.923 18.348 21.583 182.323 21.708 47.735 21.693 18.76 92 table 22 28 32 44 47 22. A.5. 305 .965 23. 24. 24. 25. 26. 26. 27. 562 206 976 667 279 939 646 .274 28. 29. 30. 30. 31. .248 33. 33. 34. 35. 35. 36. 36. 37. 38.28 39. 39. 40. 41. 41. 42. 43. 43. .344 45. 45. 46. .045 47. 918 704 316 976 777 002 631 322 092 736 317 914 699 019 553 432 061 689 317 056 637 098 773 386 736 (cont’d) 186. 189. 194. .449 202. 206. 210. 214. 218. 222. 227. 231. 235. 239. 243. 198 476 986 999 644 957 805 691 984 796 475 515 436 469 459 246.77 250. 254. 258. 262. 267. 270. 274. 277. 282. 285. 290. 293. 295. 301. 304. 307. 311. 315. 318. .279 325. 329. 333. 322 342 986 214 359 197 088 579 678 148 887 251 352 515 177 688 689 327 344 217 729 289 881 22.337 22.934 23.64 24.253 25.007 25.683 26.311 27.081 27.677 28.306 28.934 29.61 30.348 31.008 31.793 32.264 33.05 33.646 34.322 35.076 35.673 36.333 36.945 37.715 38.39 39.003 39.663 40.417 41.061 41.736 42.302 43.103 43.715 44.391 45.113 45.757 46.386 47.03 47.799 93 48.621 49.654 50.873 51.789 52.784 53.826 54.769 55.831 56.681 57.35 58.513 59.27 60.185 61.261 62.036 62.816 63.72 64.59 65.426 66.349 67.4 67.684 68.911 69.569 70.106 71.355 71.857 72.572 73.291 74.184 74.783 75.642 76.116 76.897 77.637 78.338 79.085 79.97 80.369 22.337 22.981 23.578 24.379 25.007 25.635 26.264 27.049 27.677 28.306 28.95 29.578 30.332 30.976 31.604 32.233 33.018 33.662 34.306 35.076 35.704 36.333 37.118 37.573 38.359 39.003 39.631 40.417 41.029 41.658 42.302 43.056 43.7 44.328 45.098 45.757 46.386 47.03 47.627 19.156 19.642 20.026 20.371 20.762 21.136 21.535 21.916 22.277 22.665 23.079 23.427 23.802 24.132 24.512 24.823 25.136 25.499 25.866 26.235 26.657 26.881 27.258 27.561 27.815 28.121 28.481 28.713 29.129 29.312 29.574 29.917 30.155 30.582 30.85 31.038 31.335 31.579 31.852 ”74:1. 1‘.- . 4 table A.5. 48.428 48.962 49.716 50.438 50.36 49.621 48.852 48.271 47.705 46.873 46.386 (cont’d) 336.189 340.829 342.32 345.312 343.066 338.875 334.064 328.19 322.005 316.417 312.214 48. 49. 49. 50. 50. 49. 48. 48. .595 46. 47 412 087 873 501 297 653 852 271 998 46.37 45. 44. 44. 43. 42. 42. 41. 40. 40. 39. 38. 38. 37. 36. 36. 35. 34.95 569 925 218 574 946 302 595 872 275 615 861 186 605 929 317 579 34.102 33.505 32.892 32.264 31.62 30.866 30.206 29.547 28.793 28.164 27.567 307. 302. 298. 294. 288. 285. .298 275. 270. 266. .273 258. 254. 249. 245. 241. 236. 232. 228. 224. 219. 215. 211. 207. 202. 199. 194. 190. 281 262 863 576 031 559 532 798 243 746 534 533 419 701 185 338 359 429 001 521 947 792 603 458 638 293 363 881 45.616 44.956 44.202 43.574 42.93 42. 41. 40. 40. 39. 38. .217 38 37. 36. 36. 35. 34. 317 658 888 244 631 861 668 961 317 579 872 34.133 33.505 32.94 32.264 31.62 30.819 30.222 29.562 28.824 28.149 27.536 94 81 .082 81. 82. 83. 82. 81. 80. 78. 77. 76. 75. 74. 73. 71. 70. 798 473 059 382 349 145 554 503 416 O35 094 075 684 682 48. 49. 49. 50. 50. 49. 48. 48. 47. 46. 396 056 684 454 297 669 899 271 627 998 46.37 45.6 44.956 44.171 43.542 32. 32. 32. 32. 32. 126 456 678 899 677 32.18 31. .224 30. 30. 29. 29. 28. 28. 28. 31 714 766 284 833 491 968 579 193 69.728 68.494 67.597 66.544 65.3 64.384 63.279 62.262 61.176 60.139 59.224 58.279 57.044 56.192 55.016 54.18 53.242 52.206 51.357 50.096 49.3 48.374 47.321 46.448 42.93 42 41. 40. 40. 39. .286 658 888 228 631 38.83 38 32 .202 37. 36. 36. 35. 34. 34. 33. 32. .233 31. 30. 30. 29. 28. 28. 27. 573 929 317 531 903 149 631 877 604 819 191 562 934 306 536 27.733 27.48 26.875 26.501 26.081 25.688 25.323 24.96 24.601 24.125 23.748 23.421 22.98 22. 22 612 .293 21. 21. 21. 20. 20. 19. 19. 19. 18. 864 573 063 734 277 933 592 254 816 Table 26 24 24 21 A.5. .861 26. 25. .834 .237 23. 22. 22. .536 20. 20. 19. 264 525 483 839 211 813 153 556 18.85 04 H H'FJF414 H H’FJFJIA H o H'kDDJLpob b UIO\O\~JCD OHNwabwmmqooooko .143 .467 .855 .211 .472 .844 .153 .446 .802 .142 .561 .116 .488 .844 .105 .461 .817 .173 .561 .775 .147 .534 .906 .199 .555 .927 (cont’d) 187.431 182.52 178.68 174.021 170.013 165.859 162.013 158.464 153.713 149.34 145.756 141.085 137.252 133.127 128.272 125.124 120.532 116.673 112.402 107.902 103.547 99.681 95.064 91.699 83.016 78.776 74.138 69.769 65.618 60.865 57.078 52.165 47.416 42.648 38.146 33.487 28.036 22.788 16.382 26.923 26.295 25.478 24.85 24.253 23.483 22.855 22.211 21.551 20.766 20.185 19.525 18.881 18.143 17.514 16.87 16.226 15.472 14.828 14.184 13.43 12.818 12.158 11.53 10.132 9.472 8.828 8.09 .446 .817 .189 .561 .822 .147 .519 2.78 2.121 1.539 0.895 (p a b Uloxox~J 45.55 44.465 43.588 42.464 41.513 40.605 39.738 38.881 37.764 36.842 35.843 34.745 33.919 32.909 31.805 31.072 30.027 28.872 27.919 26.857 25.841 24.845 23.658 22.685 20.67 19.657 18.486 17.353 16.355 15.055 14.025 12.863 11.706 10.591 .248 .909 .602 .362 .697 wmowxlxo 26.876 26.279 25.478 24.85 24.206 23.593 22.808 22.164 21.551 20.75 20.138 19.494 18.881 18.237 17.467 16.855 16.195 15.441 14.797 14.153 13.399 12.912 12.111 11.514 10.1 9.456 8.844 8.058 7.414 6.77 .189 .576 .775 .115 .487 .733 .121 Ol—‘NNUJA-bmm .848 .492 18.424 18.036 17.653 17.254 16.86 16.53 16.145 15.765 15.279 14.947 14.601 14.134 13.763 13.362 12.985 12.631 12.149 11.791 11.39 10.919 10.52 10.172 9.758 .339 .434 .994 .502 .076 .644 .134 5.69 .242 .764 .263 .782 .233 .722 .183 .482 mmqqqooko HNNWUJbuh-U" “K 95 Table.A.6. Steady Shear Data of Drake's Batter and Golden Dipt Batter at 20°C Wm: W 50.0% Solids 57.1% Solids 50.0% Solids Shear Shear Shear Shear Shear Shear Rate Stress Rate Stress Rate Stress [l/s] [Pa]; [1/s] [pawl [1/s] [Pa] 0.157 2.423 0 2.799 0 3.955 1.068 7.859 0.314 18.952 0.209 14.788 2.215 11.341 1.791 48.679 1.236 50.794 3.362 14.331 3.236 65.064 2.932 86.918 4.492 16.981 4.225 75.601 4.294 104.423 5.435 19.113 5.341 87.1 5.383 119.507 6.535 21.447 6.315 96.142 6.409 133.72 7.32 23.035 7.398 106.928 7.435 149.481 8.404 25.092 8.404 114.856 8.524 165.493 9.519 27.214 9.456 125.301 9.634 177.431 10.493 28.904 10.399 133.424 10.681 189.451 11.592 30.862 11.53 142.882 11.729 202.949 12.692 32.554 12.488 151.56 12.818 211.921 13.635 34.409 13.43 159.991 13.655 224.246 14.577 35.967 14.467 169.242 14.765 235.15 15.661 37.861 15.598 178.625 15.792 245.136 16.603 39.285 16.729 187.169 17.027 255.252 17.703 41.018 17.483 194.586 18.075 263.692 18.692 42.503 18.677 202.58 19.122 272.023 19.604 43.984 19.729 211.69 20.064 278.125 20.703 45.59 20.64 219.737 20.567 284.722 21.661 46.992 21.803 228.852 19.604 264.346 22.745 48.689 22.682 235.832 18.556 248.535 23.845 50.243 23.813 245.042 17.593 235.148 24.787 51.647 24.74 251.869 16.588 225.224 25.73 52.962 25.714 260.252 15.499 215.446 26.845 54.586 26.782 269.106 14.535 203.448 27.913 56.125 27.882 278.447 13.278 192.221 28.871 57.238 28.887 284.281 12.378 181.931 29.814 58.55 29.861 289.919 11.373 172.195 30.929 60.107 30.788 299.704 10.283 159.871 96 table A.6. 32.029 32.798 33.913 35.013 35.956 37.024 38.029 39.097 40.055 40.982 42.097 43.165 44.124 45.082 46.181 47.265 48.223 49.166 50.25 51.019 49.747 48.695 47.579 46.637 45.679 44.595 43.495 42.537 41.579 40.495 39.396 38.61 37.542 36.427 35.327 34.369 33.442 32.327 31.243 (cont’d) 61.492 62.503 63.876 65.466 66.63 68.173 69.321 70.812 71.857 73.037 74.526 75.814 77.027 78.163 79.528 81.084 82.114 83.242 84.789 85.798 83.741 81.979 80.147 78.997 77.549 75.813 74.353 73.035 71.603 70.021 68.497 67.356 65.904 64.309 62.813 61.49 60.105 58.698 57.086 31.887 32.861 33.788 35.013 35.94 36.992 38.013 39.019 40.165 40.998 42.003 43.197 44.061 45.019 46.166 47.265 48.051 49.197 50.093 51.538 49.841 48.6 47.564 46.527 45.632 44.579 43.448 42.584 41.705 40.574 39.286 38.437 37.589 36.49 35.327 34.51 33.411 32.311 31.4 97 308. 316. 324. 332. 339. 347. 355. 365. 373. 382. 388. 395. 405. 056 973 379 423 449 487 239 578 038 346 381 864 749 413.19 421. 429. 435. 441. 450. 468. 443. 438. .331 417. 413. 404. 394. 387. .261 371. 364. 356. 347. 341. 332. 324. 317. 309. 301. 427 381 109 416 173 919 746 331 826 118 191 804 735 762 983 093 711 571 769 216 055 288 871 208 803 9.236 8.189 7.288 6.22 .194 .231 .225 .283 .361 l—‘wam 148.076 136.215 123.856 110.414 97.369 83.705 68.459 ‘ 52.17 35.025 hable A.5. (cont'd) 30.458 56.011 30.285 293.537 29.342 54.329 29.311 285.217 28.259 52.852 28.29 275.76 27.3 51.467 27.3 269.023 26.389 50.066 26.421 261.065 25.274 48.446 25.306 252.188 24.19 47.123 24.159 244.018 23.216 45.521 23.138 235.599 22.148 43.948 22.29 229.003 21.174 42.5 21.221 219.364 20.075 40.859 20.059 210.959 19.132 39.343 19.148 203.438 18.237 37.978 18.253 195.707 17.106 36.169 17.169 185.935 16.179 34.72 16.038 177.087 15.08 32.913 15.095 169.697 13.964 31.129 14.169 160.751 13.163 29.819 13.069 151.744 12.095 27.973 11.954 142.344 10.996 26.115 11.027 134.291 10.053 24.489 10.116 125.804 8.954 22.504 9.032 116.196 8.011 20.782 7.917 105.797 6.959 18.674 7.1 98.548 5.953 16.823 6.032 88.029 5.058 14.983 4.995 77.379 3.958 12.747 3.974 67.113 2.875 10.259 3.126 57.567 1.932 7.937 2.058 44.69 0.927 4.99 1.21 32.817 )lthfi'» 98 Table A. 7 . Steady Shear Data of Kikkoman Tempura Batter at 10°C 45.42 Solids 50.0% Solids 55.§§ Solids Shear Shear Shear Shear Shear Shear Rate Stress Rate Stress Rate Stress [l/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 9.142 31.14 1.257 65.186 0.094 3.856 1.854 12.365 1.319 69.695 0.408 11.029 2.576 15.08 2.105 89.44 1.665 27.706 3.613 18.227 3.236 111.415 3.33 40.041 4.65 21.318 4.367 132.225 4.587 48.166 5.686 23.74 5.561 150.648 5.623 53.961 6.817 25.951 6.566 166.077 6.754 59.301 7.854 28.085 7.697 182.005 7.823 64.109 8.828 30.521 8.671 194.112 8.765 68.867 9.99 32.73 9.802 208.14 9.896 74.356 10.996 34.848 10.87 223.048 10.933 80.463 12.001 36.505 11.875 235.002 11.969 84.476 13.163 38.203 13.006 247.909 ' 13.132 88.215 14.074 39.788 14.043 259.381 14.074 92.804 15.142 41.88 15.017 271.532 15.111 97.266 16.305 43.092 16.211 281.592 16.085 100.834 17.342 44.879 17.09 292.009 17.216 104.926 18.315 46.169 18.158 302.794 18.284 109.155 19.478 47.715 19.384 312.972 19.446 112.673 20.483 48.944 20.483 325.044 20.483 116.249 21.174 50.224 21.174 333.096 21.143 119.609 19.886 47.275 20.043 314.401 19.918 112.355 18.912 45.273 18.944 301.391 18.944 107.908 17.781 43.123 17.938 287.032 17.75 102.995 16.776 41.374 16.87 276.454 16.839 98.991 15.802 39.203 15.896 261.331 15.802 93.86 14.828 37.243 14.954 250.772 14.828 89.762 13.509 34.76 13.729 233.999 13.635 83.882 12.598 33.062 12.692 223.122 12.661 79.885 11.624 31.193 11.875 210.392 11.812 75.427 10.524 28.806 10.65 194.25 10.556 69.566 9.488 26.693 9.739 182.342 9.456 65.142 8.325 24.687 8.545 168.603 8.419 60.369 7.383 22.671 7.603 155.663 7.508 55.711 6.377 20.287 6.597 140.748 6.472 50.058 5.435 18.185 5.623 126.935 5.498 44.886 4.335 15.751 4.587 111.257 4.398 39.302 3.362 13.381 3.613 95.125 3.424 33.32 2.419 10.534 2.702 78.786 2.513 27.073 1.351 7.41 1 60.258 1.508 19.795 99 Table A.8. Steady Shear Data of Newly fled Tempura Batter at 10°C mm 10.121.321.195; Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [l/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 12.975 9.373 5.812 37.487 1.759 2.542 2.011 17.661 2.608 3.576 2.513 20.311 3.738 4.629 3.613 25.051 4.681 5.404 4.65 28.576 5.843 6.218 5.812 32.372 6.817 7.156 6.88 36.067 7.791 7.869 8.042 39.238 9.016 8.618 8.985 42.011 10.022 9.49 10.022 45.609 10.964 10.166 10.996 48.333 11.781 10.929 12.127 51.351 13.132 11.624 13.1 53.812 14.169 12.408 14.169 56.742 15.08 13.048 15.205 59.638 16.273 13.67 16.273 61.598 17.31 14.343 17.247 64.223 18.253 15.052 18.41 66.904 19.446 15.704 19.352 68.573 20.389 16.313 20.263 71.096 21.017 16.778 21.08 72.988 19.792 15.629 19.855 67.715 18.818 14.905 18.818 64.499 17.656 14.146 17.719 61.171 16.682 13.408 16.745 57.673 15.708 12.591 15.708 55.083 14.514 11.849 14.577 51.915 13.666 11.225 13.697 49.051 12.598 10.315 12.629 45.839 11.655 9.62 11.655 43.095 10.493 8.72 10.619 40.098 9.519 8.238 9.582 37.216 8.482 7.393 8.545 34.107 7.54 6.683 7.603 31.303 6.409 5.903 6.472 28.112 5.372 5.029 5.435 24.593 4.21 4.2 4.492 21.675 3.299 3.448 3.393 18.105 2.293 2.506 2.388 14.226 1.351 1.698 1.508 10.703 100 Table A. 9. Steady Shear Data of Tung-I Tempura Batter at 10°C 4 id 5 lid Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [1/81 [Pa] 8.985 26.172 2.985 62.188 1.791 9.786 1.885 41.289 2.545 12.431 2.419 47.15 3.581 15.264 3.362 57.419 4.65 18.288 4.43 68.091 5.655 20.657 5.529 77.381 6.817 23.179 6.597 86.5 7.76 25.315 7.697 95.608 8.796 27.727 8.671 103.152 9.77 29.776 9.802 111.991 10.901 31.929 10.901 120.709 11.969 34.247 11.875 127.777 12.943 36.122 12.975 135.748 14.169 38.534 14.074 144.146 15.362 40.406 15.017 150.95 16.305 41.943 16.211 157.663 17.31 43.705 17.153 164.525 18.284 45.67 18.127 172.128 19.446 47.376 19.164 178.163 20.452 48.944 20.389 186.765 21.174 50.259 21.112 192.848 19.855 47.039 19.886 179.705 18.944 45.075 18.912 172.128 17.719 42.963 17.781 163.883 16.808 40.966 16.87 156.596 15.802 39.02 15.739 148.806 14.86 36.857 14.86 140.506 13.666 34.76 13.635 132.392 12.661 32.534 12.692 123.855 11.812 30.949 11.561 115.985 10.524 28.469 10.587 108.224 9.519 26.394 9.55 100.388 8.577 24.258 8.608 92.663 7.414 22.056 7.508 84.114 6.472 19.964 6.566 76.467 5.466 17.74 5.561 67.277 4.524 15.282 4.618 59.302 3.424 12.699 3.55 49.886 2.513 10.291 2.639 41.1 1.539 7.233 1.665 30.713 101 Table A.10. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Dorothy Dawson's Batter at 45.4% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/31 [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] [Us] [Pa] 0.487 2.198 0.456 2.165 0.628 1.624 1.398 4.332 1.319 4.798 1.304 3.17 2.435 5.351 2.388 6.117 2.325 4.397 3.534 6.172 3.503 7.218 3.456 5.552 4.65 6.922 4.602 8.158 4.571 6.576 5.592 7.544 5.545 8.95 5.529 7.366 6.566 8.103 6.519 9.619 6.613 8.29 7.634 8.752 7.603 10.465 7.587 9.017 8.592 9.314 8.545 11.145 8.498 9.719 9.692 9.968 9.66 11.96 9.598 10.554 10.493 10.371 10.587 12.638 10.571 11.284 11.718 11.141 11.702 13.422 11.53 11.844 12.661 11.633 12.629 14.071 12.598 12.619 13.76 12.267 13.713 14.827 13.697 13.367 14.687 12.768 14.828 15.585 14.797 14.086 15.645 13.227 15.629 16.058 15.582 14.606 16.745 13.871 16.713 16.849 16.698 15.359 17.86 14.459 17.829 17.541 17.797 16.055 18.802 14.931 18.787 18.126 18.881 16.769 19.745 15.392 19.713 18.742 19.682 17.24 20.829 16.033 20.797 19.453 20.782 17.961 21.944 16.57 21.928 20.135 21.897 18.636 22.902 17.039 22.839 20.677 22.824 19.198 23.829 17.534 23.798 21.249 23.782 19.811 24.929 18.099 24.881 21.941 24.866 20.457 26.028 18.631 25.997 22.645 25.981 21.113 26.955 19.13 26.939 23.174 26.751 21.557 27.913 19.572 27.866 23.757 27.85 22.209 28.997 20.084 28.981 24.372 28.95 22.848 30.112 20.647 30.081 24.994 30.049 23.52 31.055 21.085 30.992 25.551 30.992 24.084 32.013 21.506 31.981 26.041 31.919 24.583 33.097 22.067 33.081 26.685 33.002 25.184 34.023 22.475 34.165 27.236 33.976 25.695 35.139 22.956 34.966 27.666 35.076 26.334 36.081 23.397 36.065 28.227 36.018 26.781 37.181 23.935 37.134 28.873 37.118 27.41 38.265 24.385 38.108 29.316 38.233 27.994 39.066 24.719 39.05 29.736 39.003 28.404 40.165 25.2 40.118 30.346 40.134 28.974 41.108 25.613 41.233 30.881 41.202 29.496 42.207 26.128 42.192 31.394 42.144 30.024 43.307 26.523 43.118 31.775 43.071 30.503 44.265 26.972 44.218 32.324 44.186 31.04 45.365 27.425 45.302 32.822 45.286 31.554 46.307 27.831 46.26 33.212 46.244 31.854 47.25 28.24 47.202 33.717 47.202 32.431 48.318 28.678 48.302 34.283 48.271 32.985 49.433 29.146 49.402 34.71 49.354 33.545 50.203 29.407 50.344 35.112 50.171 33.855 Table A.11. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Dorothy Dawson's Batter at 50.08 Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] 0.251 3.131 0.314 5.795 0.581 4.849 1.21 8.229 1.272 10.918 1.225 8.636 2.309 11.042 2.34 13.398 2.278 12.281 3.44 13.588 3.471 15.674 3.424 15.561 4.398 15.673 4.43 17.517 4.54 18.45 5.498 17.979 5.529 19.598 5.498 20.763 6.613 20.175 6.629 21.402 6.597 23.198 7.556 21.759 7.414 23.058 7.43 24.9 8.482 23.663 8.529 24.971 8.514 27.115 9.598 25.723 9.629 26.937 9.613 29.375 10.54 27.415 10.571 28.567 10.556 31.241 11.655 29.425 11.671 30.459 11.655 33.392 12.739 31.13 12.613 32.085 12.598 35.127 13.666 32.886 13.713 33.925 13.729 37.235 14.624 34.436 14.656 35.472 14.813 39.195 15.739 36.317 15.755 37.322 15.582 40.614 16.698 37.89 16.698 38.796 16.698 42.537 17.781 39.59 17.797 40.674 17.797 44.377 18.724 41.111 18.928 42.439 18.865 46.257 19.651 42.502 19.698 43.659 19.682 47.534 20.782 44.308 20.782 45.359 20.782 49.31 21.693 45.788 21.865 47.025 21.865 51.086 22.824 47.429 22.839 48.517 22.839 52.608 23.782 48.791 23.782 49.826 23.766 53.973 24.881 50.416 24.881 51.47 24.866 55.613 25.981 52.07 25.965 53.07 25.965 57.353 26.892 53.464 26.798 54.223 26.923 58.705 27.85 54.84 27.897 55.683 27.882 60.035 28.965 56.309 28.965 57.275 28.934 61.729 30.034 57.835 30.081 58.777 30.049 63.133 30.992 59.079 31.023 60.222 30.992 64.514 31.919 60.49 32.123 61.608 31.934 65.589 33.018 61.957 33.065 62.815 33.018 67.282 34.102 63.482 33.992 63.995 34.133 68.463 34.919 64.311 35.092 65.506 34.935 69.325 36.003 65.946 36.034 66.63 36.003 70.941 37.118 67.277 37.134 67.969 37.149 72.155 38.029 68.622 38.092 69.238 38.06 72.998 39.019 69.857 39.034 70.105 39.16 74.401 40.102 71.228 40.134 71.815 40.087 75.645 41.061 72.15 41.092 72.91 41.233 76.77 42.113 73.8 42.144 74.269 42.302 78.078 43.213 74.996 43.244 75.469 43.087 78.736 44.202 75.986 44.186 76.462 44.249 79.751 45.302 77.2 45.302 77.899 45.317 80.818 46.213 78.557 46.276 79.085 46.213 81.892 47.171 79.748 47.218 80.059 47.14 82.882 48.255 81.038 48.333 81.172 48.192 83.834 49.386 82.338 49.449 82.338 49.244 85.111 50.124 82.924 50.344 83.332 50.344 86.26 103 Table A.12. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Dorothy Dawson's Batter at 55.6% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] 0.707 21.811 0.016 2.814 0.408 17.904 2.121 36.509 0.534 17.163 2.011 38.45 3.33 45.943 2.073 34.28 3.299 48.575 4.288 53.023 3.314 44.133 4.445 56.819 5.419 60.867 4.304 51.388 5.404 63.162 6.535 68.29 5.404 58.995 6.409 69.482 7.477 74.353 6.535 66.02 7.493 76.202 8.435 80.104 7.351 70.891 8.404 81.846 9.566 87.002 8.435 77.331 9.503 88.586 10.477 92.943 9.535 83.879 10.477 94.485 11.592 99.533 10.493 89.241 11.561 101.03 12.692 105.74 11.608 95.259 12.535 106.459 13.65 112.087 12.582 100.878 13.587 113.464 14.577 117.809 13.65 107.076 14.546 119.004 15.677 124.401 14.577 112.138 15.504 124.568 16.619 129.863 15.692 118.079 16.588 131.118 17.75 136.785 16.588 123.454 17.687 137.254 18.692 142.515 17.75 129.349 18.661 142.874 19.792 148.243 18.881 135.21 19.761 149.525 20.703 154.21 19.635 139.486 20.703 154.708 21.693 160.108 20.719 145.574 21.818 161.186 22.792 165.989 21.693 150.688 22.777 166.312 23.829 172.045 22.761 156.516 23.656 172.045 24.85 177.744 23.75 161.629 24.803 178.145 25.745 183.403 24.787 167.28 25.902 184.082 26.829 189.774 25.934 172.766 26.798 189.291 27.787 195.696 26.813 177.808 27.756 194.644 28.903 201.639 27.725 182.993 28.903 200.713 29.861 206.446 28.871 188.53 29.955 207.168 30.976 212.702 29.939 194.081 30.913 211.969 32.029 219.128 30.929 199.149 31.871 217.271 32.845 223.166 31.84 204.499 32.924 224.295 33.913 230.21 32.971 210.068 34.055 229.675 35.029 236.204 34.1 215.198 34.887 233.966 36.003 240.165 34.903 218.604 35.971 239.541 37.024 246.527 36.018 223.463 37.039 245.895 37.982 250.655 36.961 229.596 38.202 250.097 39.176 254.98 38.233 232.501 39.003 254.899 40.087 260.56 38.94 238.137 39.992 262.598 40.982 267.438 40.165 242.664 41.123 267.108 42.129 272.073 41.171 248.582 42.082 272.988 43.275 277.924 42.239 251.928 43.15 276.329 44.234 283.159 43.024 258.77 44.108 284.944 44.925 290.417 44.186 262.512 45.27 289.043 46.181 295.942 45.365 272.4 46.229 293.604 47.281 300.121 46.071 275.739 47.108 299.422 48.192 304.329 47.092 278.844 48.239 303.713 49.15 309.454 48.223 282.56 49.244 308.921 50.25 312.834 49.276 289.553 50.25 313.638 50.265 292.822 104 Table A313. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Drake's Batter at 50.0% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [l/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] 0.188 2.629 0.157 2.423 0.503 4.399 1.084 7.549 1.068 7.859 1.131 7.768 2.356 11.484 2.215 11.341 2.372 11.436 3.33 13.993 3.362 14.331 3.346 13.886 4.461 16.571 4.492 16.981 4.461 16.416 5.419 18.593 5.435 19.113 5.309 18.142 6.503 20.806 6.535 21.447 6.377 20.283 7.477 22.643 7.32 23.035 7.477 22.483 8.435 24.3 8.404 25.092 8.451 24.063 9.519 26.29 9.519 27.214 9.519 26.067 10.493 28.154 10.493 28.904 10.509 27.847 11.561 29.874 11.592 30.862 11.42 29.295 12.676 31.756 12.692 32.554 12.519 31.185 13.462 32.942 13.635 34.409 13.603 32.914 14.546 34.722 14.577 35.967 14.734 34.665 15.645 36.434 15.661 37.861 15.504 35.878 16.588 37.8 16.603 39.285 16.588 37.62 17.703 39.467 17.703 41.018 17.719 39.192 18.645 41.048 18.692 42.503 18.677 40.548 19.761 42.502 19.604 43.984 19.745 42.183 20.687 43.918 20.703 45.59 20.703 43.593 21.787 45.622 21.661 46.992 21.818 45.127 22.745 46.856 22.745 48.689 22.745 46.387 23.845 48.379 23.845 50.243 23.703 47.801 24.771 49.686 24.787 51.647 24.787 49.306 25.698 50.976 25.73 52.962 25.902 50.73 26.845 52.425 26.845 54.586 26.813 52.105 27.772 53.679 27.913 56.125 27.756 53.391 28.903 55.095 28.871 57.238 28.84 54.839 29.814 56.345 29.814 58.55 29.939 56.234 30.788 57.647 30.929 60.107 30.913 57.459 31.856 58.964 32.029 61.492 31.871 58.699 32.94 60.489 32.798 62.503 32.924 60.182 33.913 61.684 33.913 63.876 33.913 61.413 34.997 63.088 35.013 65.466 35.013 62.774 35.956 64.191 35.956 66.63 35.971 63.795 37.024 65.664 37.024 68.173 37.039 65.383 38.139 66.951 38.029 69.321 38.202 66.466 38.924 67.844 39.097 70.812 38.924 67.64 40.04 69.113 40.055 71.857 40.04 68.825 41.108 70.477 40.982 73.037 40.935 70.103 42.082 71.561 42.097 74.526 42.082 71.268 42.993 72.654 43.165 75.814 43.213 72.527 44.108 73.883 44.124 77.027 44.124 73.627 45.05 75.037 45.082 78.163 45.05 74.694 46.166 76.33 46.181 79.528 46.15 76.114 47.265 77.503 47.265 81.084 47.092 76.98 48.161 78.686 48.223 82.114 48.239 78.115 49.323 79.878 49.166 83.242 49.292 79.435 50.077 80.678 50.25 84.789 50.234 80.678 51.192 82.336 51.019 85.798 50.957 81.303 105 Table.A.14. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Drake's Batter at 57.1% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] 0.314 20.117 0.314 18.952 0.298 19.182 1.963 51.744 1.791 48.679 1.775 50.199 3.236 66.185 3.236 65.064 3.22 67.357 4.383 77.336 4.225 75.601 4.21 78.255 5.341 87.425 5.341 87.1 5.341 90.047 6.299 96.435 6.315 96.142 6.299 99.49 7.414 106.003 7.398 106.928 7.398 110.044 8.545 115.66 8.404 114.856 8.435 118.468 9.488 123.019 9.456 125.301 9.456 128.338 10.462 131.813 10.399 133.424 10.43 136.385 11.357 139.083 11.53 142.882 11.545 146.552 12.456 147.583 12.488 151.56 12.613 156.466 13.603 155.964 13.43 159.991 13.383 162.854 14.514 163.748 14.467 169.242 14.498 172.056 15.519 171.07 15.598 178.625 15.614 181.248 16.572 179.294 16.729 187.169 16.556 189.717 17.687 187.786 17.483 194.586 17.656 199.377 18.645 195.777 18.677 202.58 18.598 207.037 19.509 203.08 19.729 211.69 19.713 215.88 20.703 211.25 20.64 219.737 20.625 223.707 21.74 219.736 21.803 228.852 21.567 231.754 22.714 227.103 22.682 235.832 22.682 240.259 23.656 233.979 23.813 245.042 23.798 250.035 24.834 242.368 24.74 251.869 24.74 256.931 25.792 251.308 25.714 260.252 25.683 264.333 26.845 256.364 26.782 269.106 26.766 273.84 27.756 264.576 27.882 278.447 27.85 281.822 28.84 273.254 28.887 284.281 28.73 287.436 30.002 280.551 29.861 289.919 29.767 295.875 30.866 288.203 30.788 299.704 30.929 305.407 31.997 296.133 31.887 308.056 31.856 313.57 33.034 302.151 32.861 316.973 32.892 322.022 33.929 308.94 33.788 324.379 33.898 327.933 35.092 316.79 35.013 332.423 34.919 337.872 35.924 324.922 35.94 339.449 36.128 345.048 37.087 330.492 36.992 347.487 36.851 351.732 38.029 338.61 38.013 355.239 37.982 359.625 39.034 346.733 39.019 365.578 39.144 367.412 39.945 354.572 40.165 373.038 39.977 377.63 40.982 358.953 40.998 382.346 41.029 388.084 42.019 370.314 42.003 388.381 42.05 392.464 43.165 377.234 43.197 395.864 43.056 402.206 44.077 384.514 44.061 405.749 44.092 408.494 45.16 388.476 45.019 413.19 45.003 416.987 46.134 395.861 46.166 421.109 46.197 421.626 47.407 401.898 47.265 429.416 47.218 431.087 48.082 412.47 48.051 435.173 48.192 436.224 48.946 419.764 49.197 441.919 49.166 443.932 50.171 422.449 50.093 450.746 50.25 448.078 51.601 439.697 51.538 468.331 51.459 472.26 49.763 415.748 49.841 443.826 49.779 442.448 106 Table A.14. 48.522 47.595 46.621 45.679 44.658 43.48 42.584 41.563 40.589 39.411 38.642 37.479 36.458 35.327 34.448 33.489 32.39 31.29 30.473 29.39 28.321 27.316 26.389 25.321 24.222 23.232 22.18 21.206 20.075 19.117 18.253 17.106 16.022 15.048 14.169 13.053 12.142 11.153 10.069 .016 .027 .147 .048 .948 .021 .094 .042 .084 $0 HNQ-bbd‘dm (cont’ 411.14 400.787 391.261 387.284 378.801 371.283 364.129 357.425 349.555 342.519 334.907 328.02 318.948 312.138 303.818 297.609 288.973 281.226 275.339 268.442 259.356 252.426 245.276 236.99 228.849 222.277 213.74 206.456 198.453 191.099 183.208 174.891 167.226 158.725 150.758 142.343 134.696 127.151 118.303 108.79 100.684 92.516 82.931 72.403 63.675 54.287 41.95 28.733 dd 48.6 47.564 46.527 45.632 44.579 43.448 42.584 41.705 40.574 39.286 38.437 37.589 36.49 35.327 34.51 33.411 32.311 31.4 30.285 29.311 28.29 27.3 26.421 25.306 24.159 23.138 22.29 21.221 20.059 19.148 18.253 17.169 16.038 15.095 14.169 13.069 11.954 11.027 10.116 9.032 7.917 7.1 .032 .995 .974 .126 .058 1.21 [04.404.143.503 438.118 427.331 417.191 413.804 404.735 394.762 387.983 381.261 371.093 364.711 356.571 347.769 341.216 332.055 324.288 317.871 309.208 301.803 293.537 285.217 275.76 269.023 261.065 252.188 244.018 235.599 229.003 219.364 210.959 203.438 195.707 185.935 177.087 169.697 160.751 151.744 142.344 134.291 125.804 116.196 105.797 98.548 88.029 77.379 67.113 57.567 44.69 32.817 48.648 47.469 46.621 45.789 44.626 43.48 42.553 41.532 40.479 39.411 38.5 37.542 36.395 35.327 34.479 33.489 32.358 31.4 30.285 29.358 28.274 27.332 26.217 25.29 24.206 23.091 22.321 21.19 20.106 19.179 18.237 17.122 16.022 15.237 14.153 13.053 12.064 11.043 10.1 .001 .901 .147 .079 .964 .021 .126 .042 .225 Hmwebmqqm 435.908 429.938 420.799 413.394 403.013 395.563 389.275 384.121 371.968 363.075 355.714 351.258 341.123 332.607 327.567 318.321 309.829 302.943 294.142 287.008 277.773 270.098 262.206 253.791 244.806 236.837 229.613 220.782 211.982 204.012 196.762 187.512 178.156 171.53 162.214 152.917 144.14 134.755 126.308 116.519 106.207 98.993 88.216 77.03 67.804 57.604 44.461 32.679 2107 Table A415. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties tor Golden Dipt Batter at 50.0% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [l/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 0.209 18.414 0.021 3.856 0.272 17.542 1.424 56.009 0.209 14.733 1.361 56.935 3.142 84.298 1.026 55.311 3.079 92.092 4.335 99.842 2.932 96.293 4.377 110.311 5.424 113.529 4.273 114.649 5.508 125.028 6.472 126.034 5.362 129.252 6.576 136.625 .54 137.737 6.409 143.609 7.582 147.651 8.566 149.174 7.477 157.792 8.629 160.633 9.613 162.35 8.524 171.409 9.634 175.168 10.744 171.801 9.488 183.697 10.828 185.946 11.812 180.514 10.66 196.774 11.854 195.999 12.818 191.596 11.666 209.66 12.901 205.316 13.907 199.811 12.65 219.974 13.865 213.974 14.87 206.685 13.907 236.93 15.101 222.141 15.896 213.825 14.954 245.057 16.064 229.092 17.027 219.672 16.001 255.334 17.216 232.838 18.137 223.64 17.09 262.549 18.2 236.539 19.227 227.796 18.137 269.204 19.31 240.815 20.127 230.996 18.975 275.61 20.274 243.086 20.525 235.222 20.127 278.294 108 Table AH16. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Kikkoman Tempura Batter at 45.4% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 0.314 3.543 10.022 26.444 0.314 3.62 0.88 9.28 1.759 9.815 0.817 7.486 2.011 16.44 2.608 12.199 2.105 13.696 3.55 22.036 3.613 14.676 3.424 17.882 4.587 24.954 4.681 17.043 4.555 21.274 5.843 28.524 5.686 18.824 5.561 23.646 6.629 30.898 6.817 20.678 6.692 26 7.854 34.079 7.885 22.442 7.665 28.137 9.016 36.772 8.828 23.527 8.671 30.79 9.959 39.298 10.022 24.782 9.896 33.092 10.901 41.472 11.027 26.443 10.901 34.905 12.189 44.162 11.969 28.032 11.875 37.126 13.132 46.172 13.132 29.537 13.038 39.266 14.169 49.051 14.137 30.598 13.98 40.749 15.142 51.314 15.111 31.817 15.017 43.029 16.336 52.947 16.054 33.032 16.022 44.454 17.279 54.353 17.342 34.729 17.247 46.637 18.284 56.147 18.284 35.682 18.221 48.158 19.164 58.649 19.478 36.884 19.384 49.704 20.515 60.746 20.452 38.018 20.295 50.994 21.269 61.711 21.206 38.986 109 Table A.17. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Kikkoman Tempura Batter at 50.0% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] [1/3] [Pa] 4.178 48.064 1.979 34.025 0.126 3.874 1.854 28.037 1.571 29.072 0.314 10.796 2.482 32.651 2.388 36.216 1.382 28.915 3.487 39.21 3.456 44.102 3.142 44.461 4.587 45.744 4.587 51.673 4.461 53.709 5.623 51.425 5.718 58.431 5.466 59.72 6.723 57.081 6.723 63.873 6.597 66.105 7.791 62.654 7.791 70.147 7.603 71.313 8.796 66.184 8.796 75.3 8.671 76.987 9.896 70.81 9.896 80.464 9.833 82.075 10.996 76.551 10.996 86.359 10.776 86.452 11.969 79.929 12.158 90.993 11.844 91.516 13.1 83.974 13.069 94.974 13.038 95.8 14.137 87.842 14.137 100.236 13.949 99.589 15.111 91.752 15.111 103.858 15.017 104.112 16.273 95.312 16.273 108.117 15.991 107.444 17.185 98.694 17.216 111.249 17.216 111.829 18.441 102.894 18.473 116.358 18.19 115.123 19.415 106.462 19.415 119.774 19.289 119.173 20.452 110.146 20.483 123.628 20.326 122.576 21.3 113.255 21.269 127.264 110 Table A.18. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Kikkoman Tempura Batter at 55.6% Solids Shear Rate: Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [l/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 1.948 9.64 9.142 31.14 0.314 3.62 1.539 8.418 1.854 12.365 0.817 7.486 2.545 11.438 2.576 15.08 2.105 13.696 3.581 13.959 3.613 18.227 3.424 17.882 4.681 16.554 4.65 21.318 4.555 21.274 5.686 18.637 5.686 23.74 5.561 23.646 6.817 20.722 6.817 25.951 6.692 26 7.885 22.9 7.854 28.085 7.665 28.137 8.828 24.615 8.828 30.521 8.671 30.79 9.99 26.493 9.99 32.73 9.896 33.092 11.058 28.547 10.996 34.848 10.901 34.905 11.969 30.199 12.001 36.505 11.875 37.126 13.163 31.927 13.163 38.203 13.038 39.266 14.137 33.623 14.074 39.788 13.98 40.749 15.142 35.104 15.142 41.88 15.017 43.029 16.305 36.768 16.305 43.092 16.022 44.454 17.216 38.17 17.342 44.879 17.247 46.637 18.284 39.785 18.315 46.169 18.221 48.158 19.415 41.436 19.478 47.715 19.384 49.704 20.483 42.705 20.483 48.944 20.295 50.994 21.206 43.702 21.174 50.224 111 Table A.19. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Tung-I Tempura Batter at 43.8% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 1.759 10.052 1.791 9.786 1.665 10.473 2.576 12.8 2.545 12.431 2.513 13.486 3.613 15.563 3.581 15.264 3.581 16.555 4.681 18.473 4.65 18.288 4.65 19.794 5.655 20.832 5.655 20.657 5.686 22.375 6.817 23.248 6.817 23.179 6.786 24.929 7.76 25.339 7.76 25.315 7.854 27.702 8.828 27.829 8.796 27.727 8.796 29.909 9.99 30.041 9.77 29.776 9.99 32.314 10.933 31.956 10.901 31.929 10.996 34.848 11.969 34.218 11.969 34.247 11.969 36.829 13.163 36.298 12.943 36.122 13.132 38.93 14.106 38.051 14.169 38.534 14.074 40.718 15.142 40.158 15.362 40.406 15.111 42.772 16.242 41.848 16.305 41.943 16.116 44.258 17.373 43.899 17.31 43.705 17.247 46.003 18.284 45.405 18.284 45.67 18.535 48.158 19.446 47.174 19.446 47.376 19.478 49.531 20.452 48.703 20.452 48.944 20.452 51.029 21.143 49.911 21.174 50.259 21.174 52.337 112 Table A.20. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Tung-I Tempura Batter at 50.0% Solids Shear Rate: Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 2.231 50.934 2.482 65.746 5.372 85.717 2.45 53.927 1.885 48.509 2.231 45.812 3.33 64.231 2.388 55.237 2.293 47.827 4.461 76.252 3.393 66.671 3.424 60.065 5.498 86.501 4.43 78.565 4.43 70.855 6.597 95.95 5.655 89.862 5.623 81.539 7.665 105.494 6.66 99.096 6.629 90.144 8.671 114.487 7.697 109.369 7.697 99.741 9.802 123.08 8.671 118.201 8.671 107.707 10.87 132.049 9.802 127.948 9.833 116.309 11.844 139.325 10.901 137.678 10.901 125.585 12.975 147.955 12.064 146.68 11.938 132.795 14.043 155.347 13.006 154.538 13.006 140.567 14.985 163.244 14.074 163.821 14.043 148.015 16.116 170.098 15.048 170.949 15.048 156.034 17.122 176.696 16.211 178.366 16.211 163.18 18.41 185.534 17.185 184.92 17.122 169.053 19.321 191.18 18.19 192.849 18.378 177.428 20.452 199.102 19.384 199.67 19.321 183.014 21.112 205.748 20.42 207.264 20.358 190.624 113 Table A.21. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Newly wed Tempura Batter at 43.6% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] 1.602 2.542 1.445 2.015 1.225 2.272 2.639 3.576 2.608 2.996 2.545 3.662 3.676 4.738 3.738 3.908 3.581 4.958 4.712 5.64 4.618 4.678 4.869 5.948 5.906 6.461 5.906 5.456 5.781 6.815 6.88 7.406 6.849 6.275 6.786 7.817 8.137 8.146 7.823 6.947 7.823 8.605 8.828 8.798 9.079 7.583 8.922 9.433 10.022 9.563 9.99 8.171 9.927 10.242 10.933 10.422 10.996 8.964 10.933 11.07 12.189 11.179 12.252 9.619 12.127 11.85 13.132 11.915 13.195 10.376 13.1 12.575 14.043 12.592 14.074 10.85 14.106 13.306 15.048 13.357 15.08 11.51 15.048 14.165 16.273 13.987 16.242 12.044 16.211 14.724 17.279 14.687 17.247 12.657 17.185 15.611 18.19 15.442 18.158 13.442 18.158 16.238 19.446 16.122 19.478 13.932 19.384 16.936 20.389 16.72 20.389 14.486 20.326 17.57 20.923 17.211 21.017 14.849 114 Table A.22. Steady Shear Data for Calculating Power Law Properties for Newly Wed Tempura Batter at 50.0% Solids Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress Shear Rate Shear Stress [1/s] [Pa] [1/s] [Pa] [l/s] [Pa] 0.88 18.951 2.325 20.376 1.854 19.307 1.445 22.881 2.482 22.127 2.482 22.172 2.639 26.126 3.581 27.603 3.519 27.299 3.77 29.568 4.618 31.741 4.65 30.792 4.869 32.927 5.718 35.951 5.749 34.052 5.843 35.922 6.786 39.915 6.817 37.099 6.849 39.423 7.791 43.387 7.728 39.453 7.76 42.712 8.922 47.012 8.954 42.36 9.173 46.475 9.99 50.545 9.896 44.817 9.99 49.053 10.933 53.453 10.933 47.89 11.027 51.917 12.095 56.78 12.127 50.683 12.127 55.158 13.069 59.449 13.038 53.596 13.132 58.013 14.106 62.533 14.106 56.186 14.137 60.75 15.268 65.418 15.237 58.501 15.142 63.513 16.211 67.473 16.179 61.095 16.305 66.179 17.247 70.515 17.185 63.669 17.185 68.862 18.221 72.82 18.19 65.656 18.158 72.104 19.415 75.423 19.101 67.716 19.415 74.265 20.389 78.335 20.295 70.056 20.452 76.763 21.08 80.191 21.08 79.216 115 Table A.23. Weight (g) of Adhesion Batters Retained on the Probe over a Three-Hour Period Dorothy Dawson's Drake' s Golden Dipt Batter Batter' Batter on... 45.4% 50.0% 55.6% 50.0% 57.1% 50.0% (minutes) Solids Solids Solids Solids Solids Solids 0 2.01 3.74 8.78 3.03 8.00 9.05 2.04 3.37 8.06 2.65 8.13 9.69 5 2.15 3.73 9.15 3.27 8.14 8.76 2.09 3.82 8.12 2.21 8.06 9.00 10 2.17 4.15 8.71. 2.39 7.77 8.84 2.28 4.11 7.89 ‘1.50 7.91 9.07 15 2.20 4.20 7.56 1.16 8.10 8.70 2.26 4.38 7.59 0.95 8.12 8.91 20 2.14 4.14 9.31 3.03 7.63 8.47 2.22 4.13 7.79 1.44 7.57 8.65 25 2.18 4.12 9.84 3.54 7.55 8.27 2.24 4.08 7.75 1.43 7.55 8.49 30 2.20 4.18 8.65 2.27 7.15 7.79 2.16 4.12 8.22 1.94 7.32 7.71 45 2.10 3.99 8.90 2.81 7.92 8.23 2.13 4.18 8.09 1.78 8.58 9.11 60 2.06 .3.96 9.27 3.25 8.11 8.81 2.16 4.11 8.03 1.76 8.36 9.43 75 2.11 4.13 9.19 2.95 7.88 8.47 2.10 4.09 7.93 1.74 8.20 8.74 90 1.55 4.39 8.84 2.90 7.70 9.09 2.07 4.06 ‘7.95 1.82 8.01 9.17 120 1.67 4.13 9.15 3.35 7.63 8.71 2.10 4.14 8.37 2.13 7.79 8.64 150 1.99 4.14 9.14 3.01 7.40 8.70 f 2.00 4.13 7.89 1.76 8.04 8.27 180 2.11. 4.23 8.20 1.86 7.26 8.44 2.02 4.13 7.93 1.78 7.27 8.40 116 Table A424. weight (g) of Tempura Batters Retained on the Probe over a Three-Hour Period Kikkoman Tempura. Tung-I Tempura Newly‘wed. Batter Batter Tempura Batter n. 45.4% 50.0% 55.6% 43.8% 50.0% 43.6% 50.0% (minutes) Solids Solids Solids Solids Solids Solids Solidsfi 0 3.25 6.64 9.92 3.23 7.39 1.72 4.81 4.01 6.05 10.79 3.51 7.21 1.67 4.89 5 3.26 6.47 9.28 3.62 7.58 1.83 5.47 4.23 6.99 9.93 4.05 6.99 1.85 5.38 10 3.29 7.03 8.77 3.62 7.31 1.85 5.72 4.54 7.06 8.60 3.87 7.85 2.13 5.41 15 3.07 6.92 9.23 3.73 7.01 2.31 5.59 4.41 7.01 8.64 4.17 7.47 2.26 5.33 20 2.90 6.94 8.58 44.02 7.76 2.22 5.52 4.42 6.83 9.02 14.18 7.71 2.43 5.56 25 3.51 7.11 8.66 3.84 7.19 2.36 5.55 4.50 6.96 8.57 4.32 8.49 2.26 5.49 30 3.46 6.97 7.29 3.84 6.95 2.36 5.82 4.65 6.48 8.98 4.47 7.74 2.64 6.23 45 3.00 7.46 10.00 4.25 8.12 4.20 6.35 5.15 6.82 10.39 4.63 7.40 2.78 5.55 60 3.46 6.94 10.08 4.25 7.79 4.81 6.67 4.92 7.22 11.38 3.90 8.64 3.37 5.61 75 3.25 7.22 10.63 4.44 9.25 4.30 6.28 4.07 7.18 9.76 3.92 8.92 2.95 5.18 90 3.55 7.39 9.15 3.89 9.41 4.10 5.90 4.51 7.06 9.33 3.94 8.72 4.80 5.49 120 3.37 6.89 9.31 3.86 9.84 5.05 5.77 4.60 7.05 9.41 4.05 8.66 4.83 5.23 150 3.53 6.98 9.07 «4.00 8.50 4.64 5.50 '4.41 6.70 7.94 4.08 8.15 4.75 5.19 180 3.69 6.50 8.51 3.70 7.96 4.75 5.57 4.04 6.60 8.91 4.12 8.21 4.71 5.27 117 Table A125. Shear Stress Measurements of Adhesion Batters over a Three-Hour Period at 15 1/s Shear Rate Dorothy Dawson's Dralie's n lp Batter Batter Batter m. 45.4% 50.0% 55.6% 50.0% 57.1% 50.0% (minutes) Solids Solids Solids Solids Solids Solids 0 13.227 36.317 124.401 29.763 111.136 206.685 16.058 37.322 118.079 31.426 116.458 245.057 14.606 40.614 124.568 30.938 113.196 222.141 15 15.528 35.703 115.383 32.385 123.067 204.524 17.624 39.194 113.249 32.717 118.459 215.521 16.326 42.634 119.003 32.440 121.962 215.816 30 17.166 38.555 111.136 32.634 113.249 195.575 18.252 39.072 111.452 31.780 117.483 205.531 17.444 43.729 117.159 32.385 119.384 211.481 45 17.285 41.020 114.687 33.135 119.548 192.777 20.207 39.317 107.693 32.912 117.375 199.172 16.500 42.602 115.329 32.606 116.673 212.066 60 18.581 42.061 117.159 32.745 116.458 191.664 19.248 41.492 102.937 33.304 120.862 210.750 18.150 44.904 113.834 33.697 116.835 215.373 90 18.395 39.901 121.907 32.137 114.634 192.081 19.971 41.777 107.125 33.332 118.568 222.666 20.359 47.100 118.079 32.385 120.095 221.616 120 21.682 41.083 117.646 34.378 112.825 193.894 22.956 41.586 109.251 32.968 116.350 207.915 21.862 45.895 121.631 32.164 115.222 215.890 150 21.258 40.459 125.853 34.179 113.621 194.523 24.554 42.188 114.848 34.179 117.483 202.660 21.059 43.535 126.358 32.856 117.267 215.742 180 19.269 42.698 121.686 34.407 115.920 188.069 22.634 44.281 114.634 34.150 118.513 211.115 23.678 44.510 126.078 32.717 112.349 183.760 118 Table Am26. Shear Stress measurements of Tempura Batters over a Three-Hour Period at 15 l/s Shear Rate 15 30 45 60 90 120 150 180 Kikkoman Tempura Batter ‘hmq-IlhmmnmLEHmer New1y Ned T-pura Batter 45.4% Solids 43. 41. 36. 41. 48. 42. 40. 39. 45. 45. 42. 46. 47. 40. 42. 40. 39. 46. 39. 41. 43. 39. 48. 39. 39. 38. 39. 029 564 798 470 741 932 313 941 606 045 516 004 042 096 071 561 173 071 357 722 125 787 126 910 142 141 387 50.0% 55.6% Solids Solids 104.112 297.205 100.734 306.494 104.112 332.272 93.620 284.000 94.730 359.470 104.469 360.332 96.189 291.666 93.475 345.551 110.830 338.368 99.141 301.743 95.070 341.251 109.261 325.502 98.498 271.615 91.276 326.778 95.848 306.758 97.561 265.914 97.512 333.837 98.943 303.059 101.837 302.357 96.043 292.442 96.482 316.913 92.611 303.586 93.909 298.336 86.311 297.814 95.070 275.450 90.281 291.752 82.162 296.770 43.8% Solids 33.061 40.065 40.220 44.258 40.873 43.093 37.243 43.673 42.389 40.873 43.868 44.454 45.209 44.030 44.749 42.804 43.157 44.291 48.160 44.356 45.540 43.028 47.785 47.075 54.064 45.407 42.102 50.0% 43.6% 50.0% Solids Solids Solids ====.. 170.949 13.357 65.418 151.012 14.165 57.337 156.034 13.168 58.501 178.367 21.090 65.658 154.475 17.017 74.267 158.104 17.334 62.026 176.763 16.626 60.864 162.031 17.714 57.300 162.095 15.782 54.755 184.036 17.916 70.974 167.949 18.282 67.028 157.475 15.707 58.312 183.017 19.723 62.532 166.201 17.235 61.096 160.188 16.723 60.135 179.238 18.611 64.382 158.104 19.575 62.845 160.632 17.394 57.2637 172.986 17.613 62.532 154.475 19.090 60.864 164.526 16.743 64.422 175.433 16.645 65.658 150.152 19.809 57.674 156.221 17.956 58.501 167.754 19.300 65.400 157.161 18.756 61.560 166.718 18.283 63.198 119 Table A.27. Weight (g) and Thickness (mm) Measurements of Food Substrates before and after Frying Rmd String Cheese with Shrimp with adhesion Substrate: adhesion batter coating batter coating Optimum- Undermixed mixed Over-mixed Over-mixed Batter Batter F1(g) 29.82 28.68 258.12 32.94 36.23 34.85 26.96 31.72 28.62 34.74 37.04 36.04 27.69 28.52 28.70 33.93 39.43 36.30 F2 (0) 29.86 40.37 39.15 37.72 52.35 49.60 27.25 45.68 40.52 38.73 53.02 54.94 30.18 40.91 39.44 35.63 60.45 55.33 F3 (9) 37.72 53.02 49.60 38.73 52.35 54.94 35.63 60.45 55.33 F (g) 15.90 32.35 28.13 16.57 29.62 32.41 13.85 38.06 33.18 To (mm) 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 T1(mM) 1.866 2.25 2.23 1.878 2.22 2.22 1.846 2.41 2.19 F = Weight of Food Coating (g) F, = Weight of Food before Coating (g) "'.1 N H Weight of Food after Coating (9) Weight of Fried Food (9) "J m u To = Thickness of Food (mm) T1 = Thickness of Fried Food (mm) 120 Table.A.28. weight (g) Mbasurements of Food Substrates before and after Frying find Sliced Cucumber with Shrimp with tempura Sthnme= tempura batter coating batter coating Optimum- Over- Optimum- Over- Undermixed mixed mixed Undermixed mixed mixed Batter Batter Batter -- —-- -- ._ — - - — - -- -— E F1 (0) 47.31 48.07 47.57 29.47 31.52 30.98 50.64 49.05 46.75 30.34 31.41 31.19 49.18 47.64 47.66 30.13 31.94 30.61 F2(g) 41.97 75.91 70.60 27.82 50.48 47.07 47.09 70.02 70.35 24.68 49.56 45.77 44.20 70.89 74.71 51.17 41.69 F3 (0) 42.00 73.71 68.54 48.18 44.57 45.68 67.52 68.32 47.44 43.06 43.49 68.64 72.62 49.14 39.30 F (g) 10.31 38.24 34.57 26.39 22.70 9.58 30.86 35.28 26.44 23.83 11.87 33.63 35.61 27.65 18.90 F = Weight of Food Coating (g) F1 = Weight of Food before Coating (g) ”l M II Weight of Food after Coating (g) "1 06 ll Weight of Fried Food (9) 121 BIBLIOGRAPHY 122 BIBLIOGRAPHY Baird, D.G. 1981 Dynamic viscoelastic properties of soy isolate doughs. 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