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thesis entitled

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SUCCESS FOR CRM CAMPAIGNS:
ATTITUDES OF GENDERS TOWARD DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAUSES
AND CORPORATIONS

presented by

Alexandra Magalhges Vilela

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Master of Arts degree in Public Relations

 

 

  

 

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FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SUCCESS FOR CRM CAMPAIGNS: ATTITUDES
OF GENDERS TOWARD DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAUSES AND CORPORATIONS

By

Alexandra Magalhaes Vilela

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Advertising

2001

ABSTRACT

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SUCCESS FOR CRM CAMPAIGNS: ATTITUDES
OF GENDERS TOWARD DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAUSES AND CORPORATIONS

By

Alexandra Magalhaes Vilela

Cause-related marketing is a strategy that became popular during the 19803 to
support worthwhile causes and help companies to improve their image while increasing
purchase intentions among their target market.

The social issues with which women and men are more concerned, and the
attitudes of genders toward different types of causes (local and national) and companies
(local and national) which support social causes are investigated in this quantitative
study. After a pretest, where respondents were exposed to 16 different issues, eight
different questionnaires were built and administered to 208 respondents.

The ﬁndings failed to support the three hypotheses of this research, but indicated
other interesting results, such as: 1) Women care more than men about some social
issues; 2) No differences between genders were found in issues that men care more about;
3) Respondents have more positive attitudes toward a national company sponsoring a
local cause than a national company sponsoring a national cause; 4) Respondents also
more highly favored a national company sponsoring a local cause than a local company
sponsoring a local cause; 5) Finally, respondents are more supportive toward a local
company sponsoring a national cause than a national company sponsoring a national

cause.

Copyﬁghtby
ALEXANDRA MAGALHAES VILELA

2001

To my parents, Wanderly and J 050, the

people whom I love most in the world.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am very thankful to my adviser, Dr. Brenda J. Wrigley, whose comments,
incentive, guidance and insight were invaluable. I feel that my knowledge and skills
improved immensely during these last months.

I am also indebted to Dr. Steven M. Edwards for his extraordinary patience and
help in the analysis of my results. I am really convinced, I would not be able to go
through this part without his generous assistance.

I would like to thank Dr. Nora J. Rifon for her comments and for sharing with me
her articles of the same topic, which contributed to my better understanding.

All my Committee members made a great favor to me by being available for my
defense at the time that they are not committed to the University.

My deep gratitude is extended to my parents, for their emotional and ﬁnancial
support, and to my great friends in Michigan: Veronica J. Berrocal and Prof. Vladimir G.
Zelevinsky, who stood and supported me in good and bad times of this period.

In addition, I am grateful to Prof. Linda M. Hagan, Jae-Hong Park, Assaf Avni,
Maria da Conceicao de M. Torres, Maria da Gracia D. Carrion, Sejung Marina Choi,
Ki-Young Lee, Carrie S. Trimble, Jonathan J. Newell and Terry M. Daugherty for their

readiness to help.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. viii

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
Relevance................................, .................................................... 3

CHAPTER ONE

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................ 5
Background of basic terms .................................................................. 5
CRM: deﬁnition and goals .................................................................. 10
Corporate social responsibility ............................................................. 15
Purchase intention and brand affinity ...................................................... 19
Congruency ................................................................................... 24
Gender roles .................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER TWO

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................. 42

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 44
Methodological approach .................................................................... 44
Study design ................................................................................... 46
Target population ............................................................................ 50
Sampling frame ............................................................................... 50
Procedures ..................................................................................... 50
Measuring instrument ........................................................................ 52
Data analysis .................................................................................. 54
Hypotheses .................................................................................... 56

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS ......................................................................................... 62
Pretest results .................................................................................. 62
Survey results ................................................................................. 66

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 76
Summary of the problem .................................................................... 76
Theoretical implications ..................................................................... 76
Final thoughts ................................................................................. 85
Limitations .................................................................................... 86
Future research ............................................................................... 88

vi

APPENDICES .................................................................................... 90

Appendix A: Pretest ......................................................................... 91
Appendix B: Questionnaire # l ............................................................ 93
Appendix C: Questionnaire # 2 ............................................................ 95
Appendix D: Questionnaire # 3 ............................................................ 97
Appendix E: Questionnaire # 4 ............................................................ 99
Appendix F: Questionnaire # 5 ............................................................. 101
Appendix G: Questionnaire # 6 ............................................................ 103
Appendix H: Questionnaire # 7 ............................................................ 105
Appendix I: Questionnaire # 8 ............................................................ 107
REFERENCES ................................................................................... 109

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Tables

1. Pretest issues ..............................................................................
2. Questionnaire distribution ...............................................................
3. Issues that genders care more about ....................................................
4. Factor loadings of the seven items of question 4 — scale of attitudes ..............
5. Previous behavior toward local versus national company ...........................
6. Previous behavior toward local versus national cause ...............................

7. Previous behavior toward match versus no match between
genders and causes ........................................................................

8. Factorial AN OVA summary for the main effects of the three
independent variables ....................................................................

9. Match and no match between attitudes of genders toward
company and cause .....................................................................................

10. Interactions between company and cause ............................................

11. Conﬁdence interval of each mean from table 10 ....................................

viii

47

49

64

66

68

68

69

7O

71

72

72

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures
1. Issues that genders care more about .................................................... 65
2. Interaction between company and cause .............................................. 74

INTRODUCTION

Although cause-related marketing (CRM) is an old marketing strategy (Kelley,
1991; Adkins, 1999a), it became popular in the beginning of the 19805, with the
American Express campaign to raise funds to restore the Statue of Liberty (Ross, Stutts &
Patterson, 1990-1991; Kelley, 1991; Shargorodski, 1992; Webb & Mohr, 1998; Akins,
1999a; Welsh, 1999). A penny from each transaction using the American Express card
was donated to the restoration fund (Shargorodski, 1992). The campaign also included a
donation of $1 for every new account approved by the company, and raised over $1.7
million for restoring the Statue of Liberty. The credit card’s use was increased by 28
percent in the ﬁrst month of the promotion, compared with the previous year, and the
company raised the number of new card applications by 45 percent (Adkins, 1999a).

The expression CRM was created by American Express, although it was not the
ﬁrst company to use the Statue of Liberty for marketing purposes. Caesar reports that
Joseph Pulitzer asked for the public’s contribution to build the Statue’s pedestal, as soon
as it arrived in New York from France. The donor would have the right to have her/his
name in print. As a result, Pulitzer increased the circulation of his newspaper, and at the
same time raised the money for the Statue’s pedestal (Caesar, 1986; Caesar, 1987).

There is little empirical research that has studied the effectiveness of CRM, which
can be deﬁned as a marketing strategy focused on helping worthy causes, enhancing
corporate external image, improving purchase intentions, achieving free publicity

(Varadarajan & Menon, 1988; Webb & Mohr, 1998; Meyer, 1999) and differentiating a

company from competitors (Meyer, 1999). It is also a good way to raise money for social
causes (Ross, Stutts '& Patterson, 1990-1991; Ross, Patterson & Stutts, 1992).
CRM EXAMPLES

Ben & Jerry’s, a distinguished nationwide company which cares about social
issues, is another good example of success in CRM development. As a Vermont-based
manufacturer of ice cream, frozen yogurt and sorbet, founded in 1978 by childhood
friends Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenﬁeld, the company started with a $12,000 investment.
The corporation soon became popular not only for its innovative ﬂavors, but also for its
social mission (Ben & Jerry’s, 2000).

Cohen and Greenﬁeld have lobbied against federal military spending and in favor
of “federally-backed” social programs. The organization is very innovative in working to
improve the quality of life of a broad community -— local, regional, national and
international. The company contributes 7.5 percent or more of its pre-tax proﬁts to social
change, disadvantaged groups, proposals relating to children and families, as well as
trade and environmental practices that reduce economic inequities and help restore the
environment and the earth (Ben & Jerry’s, 2000; PR Newswire, 2000).

Among other companies currently sponsoring social issues, there are Avon with
the Breast Cancer Awareness Crusade; Tesco, which sponsors computers for schools;
Reebok, promoting the 16-county tour of Human Rights Now; Kellogg’s with Kids Help
Line; and many other corporations around the world supporting a cause with the purpose

of promoting themselves at the same time (Adkins, 1999b).

Relevance

CRM is an important strategy adopted by companies. The practice is not rare, and
many companies are involved in these types of programs (Kelley, 1991). Some articles
report that several companies accomplished many of their objectives adopting CRM as a
strategy. Ross, Stutts and Patterson suggest that CRM is an adequate strategy to raise
money for philanthropic organizations, considering that half of their respondents stated
that they have bought products/services from organizations sponsoring CRM because
they wanted to support the cause (Ross, Stutts & Patterson, 1990-1991).

Oldenberg (1992) conﬁrms that more than 4,000 companies were involved with
such programs in the early 1990s. Organizations of all sizes are increasing their
investments in CRM. The adoption rate of such programs is around 40 percent, and the
primary beneﬁts sought are company image enhancement and product marketing support
(File & Prince, 1998). In 1996, American corporations invested approximately $600
million on this activity — twice the amount invested in 1993 (Cone Communications,
1997).

From the point of view of consumers, CRM is also an important activity
sponsored by companies. As a strategic marketing practice, which links company and
social issue, the 1997 New Cone/Roper CRM Trend Report found that 76 percent of
consumers would change to brands associated with CRM if price and quality of
product/service were equal (Business Wire, 1997). Ross, Stutts and Patterson
(1990-1991) also found that 54 percent of their respondents would try a new brand

Sponsoring CRM if they consume the product category.

Consumers are willing to pay more for a product/service that has a long-term
commitment to make the world a better place to live (Business Wire, 1997; Webb &
Mohr, 1998), especially when the causes match their expectations. In addition, Barnes
(1991) reports that 58 percent of consumers think that it is important to buy from
companies which sponsor a charitable cause.

Consumers are more inquisitive about the behavior of private corporations, and
their concerns can signiﬁcantly inﬂuence their purchase intentions. Webb and Mohr
(1998) report that CRM campaigns can induce consumers to perceive the sponsoring
company more favorably and affect their purchase behavior. Therefore, companies
should be careful that their images are compatible with the causes they support and that
the same causes are meaningful to their target group.

This study will provide some insights about the relationship among genders, types
of social causes and sizes of corporations sponsoring CRM to a new level that can beneﬁt

consumers, nonproﬁt organizations, corporations and the public in general.

CHAPTER ONE

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This review of the literature examines several key concepts, including some
primary background of basic terms, such as marketing, advertising, promotion and public
relations; and other relevant topics, as well as, CRM, corporate social responsibility,
purchase intention and brand afﬁnity, congruency and gender roles.

Background of basic terms

This section deﬁnes some basic terms related to CRM. Because different authors
outline CRM in distinct programs or strategies, it is necessary to explain the precise
meaning.

MARKETING

Marketing can be deﬁned as “a human activity directed at satisfying needs and
wants through exchange processes,” (Kotler & Armstrong, 1987, p. 4). The authors
explain “needs” in three levels: 1) physical, such as clothes, food and protection;

2) social, such as ﬁiendship and fondness; and 3) individual, in terms of receiving
information and communicating ideas. Related to “wants,” Kotler and Armstrong suggest
that the word is adapted to the culture and characteristics of each person and the
environment where someone is situated. In addition, “demands” means the process of
buying products in the marketplace to satisfy a necessity, and “products” can be
described as everything available in the market which can satisfy the “needs” and
“wants.” “Exchange” is explained as a process to give and receive “products” that can

fulﬁll the “needs” and “wants” of an individual, and “transaction” is basically the same

idea of value or measurement of the “exchange.” Finally, they deﬁned “market” as a
group of consumers or potential consumers for a “product” (Kotler & Armstrong, 1987).
Marketing is mainly an activity based on research, product, packaging,
distribution, price and promotion. Sometimes, people have trouble distinguishing
marketing from public relations activities. However, they have different functions. While
marketing develops the relationship between the company and consumers, in terms of
transactions, public relations extends this relationship among stakeholders — consumers,
employees, investors, neighborhood, government and other types of publics (Cutlip,

Center & Broom, 2000).

Marketing, then, is an activity that promotes exchange transactions, in terms of
value, between consmners and identities, which provides the product/service, with the
purpose of satisfying “needs and wants” of groups involved.

ADVERTISING

The American Marketing Association’s deﬁnition for advertising, commonly
used, is: “any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or
services by an identiﬁed sponsor,” (Jugenheimer & White, 1980, p. 10; Kotler &
Armstrong, 1987, p. 418).

Peter and Olson (1999) add that this nonpersonal presentation also includes
information which is communicated to the public through mass media vehicles, such as
TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, outdoor advertising and other types of vehicles. As
Cutlip, Center and Broom pointed out, advertising is “a controlled method of placing

messages in the media.” This is unlike publicity, where there is no control and

corporations do not pay for time and space (Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2000, p. 11).
Furthermore, advertising is an “indirect” instrument of persuasion to create a positive
attitude toward a product/service and induce purchase intention (Rossiter & Percy, 1997).
As an instrument of the marketing mix, advertising is used to build brand awareness,
brand equity or value, and to increase popularity of the product/service (Anschuetz,

1997; Rice & Bennett, 1998).

In summary, advertising is a nonpersonal activity with the purpose of
communicating ideas and information about a company and/or product/ service (and
consequently creating favorable attitudes toward them) through a controlled form in mass
media vehicles.

PROMOTION

Some authors deﬁne promotion as the marketing communication mix including
four categories: 1) advertising; 2) sales promotion — to increase sales for a short period by
offering some incentives; 3) personal selling — direct selling with one or more potential
buyers; and 4) publicity — free advertising or unpaid form of promoting a product/service,
company or brand where the company does not buy/sponsor any time or space in the
media to promote its product/service or ﬁrm (Kotler & Armstrong, 1987; Peter & Olson,
1999). Rossiter and Percy (1987) describe promotion as a “direct” instrument of
persuasion for consumers to buy products/services.

*
The essence of the deﬁnition is that promotion is a program adopted by a

company with the purpose of persuading a group of people to consume its

product/service. This program can involve four types of activities: 1) advertising; 2) sales
promotion; 3) personal selling; and 4) publicity.
PUBLIC RELATIONS

Cutlip, Center and Broom deﬁne public relations as “the management function
that establishes and maintains mutually beneﬁcial relationships between an organization
and the publics on whom its success or failure depends,” (Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2000,
p. 6).

The International Public Relations Association, since 1978, has adopted the
deﬁnition of public relations as “the art and science of analyzing trends, predicting their
consequences, counseling organization leaders, and implementing planned programs of
action which will serve both the organization’s and public’s interest,” (Grunig & Hunt,
1984, p. 7-8).

The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) describes public relations as a
“means for the public to have its desires and interests felt by the institutions in our
society. It interprets and speaks for the public to otherwise unresponsive organizations, as
well as speaking for those organizations to the public,” (L. Etang, 1994, p. 114). It has the
“means to achieve mutual adjustment between institutions and groups establishing
smoother relationships that beneﬁt the public,” (L. Etang, 1994, p. 114).

The British Institute of Public Relations has another concept of public relations:
“the deliberate, planned, and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual
understanding between an organization and its public,” (Grunig & Hunt, 1984, p. 7).
There are many other distinct or similar deﬁnitions of the same practice, and for this

reason many books address more than one concept.

L. Etang (1994) added that public relations can be considered a planned activity,
which interacts through corporations, consumers and the public with the goal of reaching
mutual understanding. However, sometimes public relations is viewed from outside as a
“manipulative” and “exploitative” activity of some corporations.

Some authors consider publicity as part of this practice. Kotler and Armstrong
(1987), for example, list three main objectives for public relations: 1) develop positive
publicity for the corporation; 2) enhance its image; and 3) deal with negative rumors and
crises inside the company.

There are also ﬁve important tools in public relations: a) press relations —
information to be placed in the mass media about the product/service, corporation, event
and person; b) publicity — unpaid article in the media about the product/service of the
ﬁrm; c) corporate communications — internal or external information about the
corporation; (1) lobbying — relationship with legislators and government to deal with
regulations related to the company, product or service; and e) counseling —- advising
company staff about public issues and image (Kotler & Armstrong, 1987).

Grunig and Hunt (1984), on the other hand, explained public relations in four
different models: 1) press agentry/publicity — one-way communication, with propaganda
purposes when promoting some beliefs (mix of truth and exaggeration); 2) public
information — propagation of information in the corporation, government or nonproﬁt
organization, also in a one-way communication; 3) two-way asymmetrical model —
keeping communication with the public, adjusting the message to the company’s purpose;
4) two-way symmetrical model — the so-called perfect form of communication, keeping

communication between the corporation and the public with the purpose of mutual

understanding. Corporate social responsibility is a good example of the two-way

symmetrical model.

Deﬁnitions vary, but the core meaning of the concept of public relations is similar
in most texts. Ideal public relations would be an activity to maintain two-way
symmetrical communication among organizations and groups of interest with the purpose
of reaching mutual understanding and beneﬁts. However, it is very hard for companies to
perform this ideal public relations model, considering that sometimes their main interests
do not ﬁt this process.

CRM: deﬁnition and goals

Cause-related marketing (CRM), a strategy that has been used for many years,
became a larger trend in the beginning of the 19805, and has become popular among
organizations, employees and consumers (Kelley, 1991). CRM is basically a marketing
process focused on some objectives, such as helping worthy causes, improving corporate
external image, giving free publicity for the sponsor, differentiating the company from
competitors (V aradarajan & Menon, 1988), increasing purchase intention and word-of-
mouth (File & Prince, 1998), creating loyal customers, and especially, improving sales
(Gifford, 1999).

Although Ross, Patterson and Stutts (1992) deﬁne the term as having almost the
same goals as the authors above, they consider CRM as an advertising campaign, and not
a marketing strategy, to support worthy causes. Adkins also deﬁnes CRM based on the
concept of business in the community as “a commercial activity by which business and

charities or causes form partnership with each other to market an image, product or

10

service for mutual objectives,” (Adkins, 1999a, p. 20). For Campbell, Gulas and Gruca '
(1999), CRM is a process which links the purchase of a product by consumers and the
company’s philanthropy to a nonproﬁt organization, in a “win-win-win” situation.
Therefore, the company increases sales, the charity receives its donation, and consumers
have some advantages, such as contributing to a worthy cause through buying products
with low prices or some other rewards.

There are also professionals who explain CRM as a strategic public relations
program adopted by companies to donate money to nonproﬁt organizations focused on
their own (corporate) objectives (Mullen, 1997).

Shell (1989), Kelley (1991) and Welsh (1999), on the other hand, view CRM as a
promotion program with the purpose of making money for the business. Based on their
concepts, in this promotion strategy, companies donate a percentage of their sales to a
cause. However, Varadarajan and Menon (1988) afﬁrmed that CRM is not only
promotion, charity, sponsorship and public relations activities, but a mix of all of them.

In addition, Mendleson and Polonsky (1995) emphasize that the term CRM
should not be mistakenly used as “green marketing,” which is related to environmental
issues. Kelley (1991) also believes that these differences in CRM concepts occur because
this “promotional vehicle” is relatively new in the market.

a:

The expression CRM became known in business and industry in 1981, when the
American Express Co. launched a three-month-long campaign to raise funds to restore
the Statue of Liberty (Ross, Stutts & Patterson, 1990-1991; Kelley, 1991; Shargorodski,

1992; Webb & Mohr, 1998).

ll

PUBLIC OPINION

Since that time, despite little empirical research discussing the effectiveness of
CRM, academic and trade research mention that consumers have supported this type of
program when it is sponsored by corporations (Varadarajan & Menon, 1988; Webb &
Mohr, 1998). The public (67.6 percent) normally thinks that CRM is a good way to
increase money for social causes (Ross, Stutts & Patterson, 1990-1991; Ross, Patterson &
Stutts, 1992).

The ﬁrst Benchmark Survey on Consumer Attitudes toward CRM (the
Cone/Roper Benchmark Survey on Cause-Related Marketing) indicated that the majority
of Americans (66 percent) believe that CRM is a very effective strategy to help the
country solve social problems. In addition, 64 percent of consumers believe that CRM
should be part of a company strategy, and 84 percent of adults believe that CRM is
responsible for the positive external image of a company (PR Newswire, 1993).

EXPLOITATIVE

Rifon, Choi and Trimble challenge the implicit assumption that corporate alliance
with social issues or events always develops a favorable attitude toward the company,
and creates positive brand perceptions in consumers’ minds. The ﬁndings support their
contention that consumers actively judge the motives of the sponsoring company. Those
judgments, in turn, affect consumers’ responses and attitudes to the strategy (Rifon, Choi
& Trimble, 2001).

Furthermore, companies should ensure that their product/service and cause match
the same “territory” in consumers’ minds (Pringle & Thompson, 1999). Companies can

be viewed by the public as exploitative when they donate money to help worthy causes,

12

especially if their product/service is unrelated to the cause or what their target audience
was expecting (Webb & Mohr, 1998; Pringle & Thompson, 1999; Rifon, Choi &
Trimble, 2001). Rifon, Choi and Trimble (2001), for instance, found that congruency or
compatibility led to attitude enhancement for moderately liked companies, with
benchmark attitudes being an important factor. For well-liked companies with moderate
credibility, they lost credibility when there was a lack of “ﬁt,” but attitudes toward the
company remained the same.

These authors noticed that this incompatibility could affect the attitudes of
consumers toward the ad and purchase intentions. Therefore, the core of attention of
every corporation should be to develop a social issue campaign that ﬁts well with the
expectations of its target audience and its product/service.

Ross, Stutts and Patterson (1990-1991) and Webb and Mohr (1998) also believe
that sometimes consumers do not trust that the organizations will use the money raised in
the way that they promise in their campaigns, indicating an uncertainty about honesty,
fairness and trust in the promotion. Webb and Mohr indicate that consumers perceive
“inequity” in the amount donated to charity and the real gain for the organization. There
is the concern that CRM campaigns induce consumers to buy products/services that are
not needed, more expensive, or of inferior quality (Webb & Mohr, 1998).

TYPES OF CAUSES SUPPORTED

Mack highlights an interesting tendency in the market: the relationship between
types of events and the characteristics of the companies sponsoring them. F amily-owned
businesses tend to sponsor more health related events. Mack also found that when the

number of employees increases, organizations are more likely to support educational

13

events. Respondents with higher education are more sensitive to cultural sponsorship
(Mack, 1999).

Ross, Stutts and Patterson (1990-1991) indicate that causes aimed at curing a
disease (cancer, muscular dystrophy, and birth defects), supporting disaster relief,
providing shelter for the homeless, and protecting the environment are more popular
among the public, receiving high ratings. Consultant Jerry C. Welsh, president of Welsh
Marketing Association, who participated in the American Express campaign for the
restoration of the Statue of Liberty, thinks that companies should not sponsor causes
related to illness, even if they can be successful. Welsh thinks that companies should not
build strategies on “tragedy or sickness” (Kelley, 1991 , p. 60).

The Pew Internet (2000) reports that more than 57 percent of Internet users search
for health or medical information every week. Because of the relevance that this health
information may evoke to these consumers, this procedure might be classiﬁed as a high
involvement search experience, and consequently, the sponsorship messages linked to
those Web sites would be of a high involvement as well, especially when the sponsor
matches the health information.

AMOUNT OF THE CONTRIBUTION

Ross, Stutts and Patterson (1990-1991) found that the amount of the contribution
would inﬂuence consumers’ purchase intention, although it is not a crucial factor in their
decision. Consequently, as much as the company donates to a cause, more believable for
consumers is the intention of this company to support that cause. When the amount of
contribution is small, consumers may be concerned about the real intention of the

company (e. g. self-promotion as the main purpose).

l4

SUMMARY

CRM is a strategy with the purpose of helping worthy causes, enhancing
corporate image, increasing sales, creating favorable attitudes toward the company and
getting free publicity from the media. The strategy became popular with the American
Express campaign to raise funds to restore the Statue of Liberty (Ross, Stutts & Patterson,
1990-1991; Kelley, 1991; Shargorodski, 1992; Webb & Mohr, 1998).

Although some people view the company as exploitative when it sponsors a social
cause, the majority of Americans believe that CRM is an effective strategy to help worthy
causes and to build a positive image of a company (PR Newswire, 1993).

Some studies report that the size of company sometimes determines the type of
causes supported by the organization. For instance, family-owned businesses tend to
sponsor more health events, while companies with large numbers of employees are more
likely to support educational programs (Kelley, 1991; Mack, 1999).

Corporate social responsibility

Corporate social responsibility is the behavior adopted by companies with the
purpose of sponsoring a positive issue in society. Companies enhance their image by
propagating their help to the community through publicity. It beneﬁts both the
corporation and community (L. Etang, 1994). It demonstrates a sense of altruism,
courtesy, civic virtue, sympathy or empathy (Mullen, 1997; Campbell, Gulas & Gruca,
1999; Menon, Menon, Chowdhury & Jankovich, 1999). Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000)
say that corporations have responsibilities to the community. They should provide jobs,
pay taxes, sponsor nonproﬁt health, environmental, cultural, social and educational

programs.

In addition, studies suggest that some companies donate to charity when they feel
some social obligation or pressures from consumers, communities, media and the public
in general to behave in that way. Sometimes, companies do not perceive the larger
beneﬁts of this program for everyone involved, such as companies, stakeholders and
communities (L. Etang, 1994; Campbell, Gulas & Gruca, 1999).

GOALS AND PURPOSE

There are four goals for companies to act with social responsibility: 1) to improve
the community relationship with philanthropic programs; 2) to participate with
humanitarian efforts in the community; 3) to contribute to environmental responsibility;
4) to respect their consumers, offering low price and caring about social issues (Mullen,
1997)

Corporate social responsibility has become an important activity because it helps
the company to build and enhance good image and reputation to the external public and
stakeholders, and communicates to the community which type of company is in the
market. It is also considered an investment against any type of crisis that the company
may have in the future (L. Etang, 1994).

A study conducted by AIESEC (the International Association of Students in
Economics and Management) and The Prince of Wales Business Leaders Forum found
that 50 percent of respondents felt that companies have social responsibility to their
customers (Adkins, 1999b). The ﬁrst Benchmark Survey on Consumer Attitudes toward
Cause-Related Marketing (PR Newswire, 1993) indicated that one-third of Americans
think that company responsibility is the third most important reason in choosing a brand

or product/service — after price and quality. On the other hand, companies also are

16

recognizing that their success depends on their investment in the entire community
(Adkins, 1999b).
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY, PHILANTHROPY AND CHARITY

L. Etang, contrary to some other authors, makes a distinction between “corporate
social responsibility” and “corporate charity or philanthropy.” Corporate social
responsibility is based on activities planned for duties and obligations of the company
toward its public and community. Corporate charity or philanthropy is an activity with
the purpose of generosity, benevolence and altruism (L. Etang, 1994). “Corporate leaders
view philanthropy as a way of giving something back into local communities, improving
the quality of life for employees, and practicing corporate citizenship,” (Cutlip, Center &
Broom, 2000, p. 470). However, both corporate social responsibility and corporate
charity or philanthropy strengthen relations between the company and community (L.
Etang, 1994).

Corporate social responsibility is often organized by the public relations
department of a company, or practitioners responsible for that task. Therefore, the
practice is considered an instrument to develop the relationships among the company,
consumers and the public in general (L. Etang, 1994).

FEEDBACK

When consumers perceive a corporation as socially responsible, they react more
favorably toward the company (Mullen, 1997). Shaw and Post (1993) found that among
the advantages that the companies can receive by sponsoring social causes, corporate
social responsibility ranks ﬁrst, followed by increasing corporate image, and free

publicity, and in the last stage, increasing sales.

17

One of the most effective strategies to demonstrate corporate social responsibility
is sponsoring CRM, which allows the company to support a worthy cause and at the same
time position its product/service in a positive way in the market. Now and in the future,
companies cannot focus only on proﬁts and sales. They also need to work in projects for
the community and the publics who sustain their business. As Mack (1999) reported, the
objective of company sponsorships is to give back to the communities by which the
organization is supported, when consumers buy a product/service. Mutual partnerships
between companies and communities bring beneﬁcial results for both.

Barone (2000) and Mullen (1997) believe that when a company sponsors a social
cause, consumers’ choices can be affected depending on how consumers perceive the
motivation of the company toward charity. Consequently, a company’s support of a
social issue determines the responses to CRM efforts.

*

Responsible companies really care about investors, employees, customers, trading
partners and especially communities where their businesses are located. Therefore, the
solution is to build a social campaign that easily matches all interests: companies,
community, consumers, nonproﬁt organization (depending on the cause), and employees.
In addition, they should try to create this strategy in a less exploitative way.

SUMMARY

Because some companies suffer external pressures or believe they have
responsibilities or obligations to the community, in addition to providing jobs and paying
taxes, they sponsor nonproﬁt programs in health, environmental, cultural and educational

ﬁelds (L. Etang, 1994; Campbell, Gulas & Gruca, 1999; Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2000).

18

Through socially responsible behavior, companies can improve community
relationships, participate in the community, contribute to environmental responsibility,
and ﬁnally respect their consumers by offering some social beneﬁts (Mullen, 1997).
Companies can also enhance image, build a positive relationship with stakeholders,
increase sales, and obtain free publicity (Shaw & Post, 1993; L. Etang, 1994). One way to
perform this behavior is sponsoring CRM.

L. Etang (1994) distinguishes corporate social responsibility from corporate
philanthropy by explaining that the ﬁrst is based on activities planned for duties and
obligations of the company toward its public; the second is an activity with the purpose
of generosity, benevolence and courtesy.

Purchase intention and brand affinity

Purchase intention and brand afﬁnity are extremely broad subjects. Because they
are attitudes, they depend on individual characteristics, such as personality, cultural and
social experiences, levels of education, marital status, age, employment, economic
situation, place of residence, ethnicity and other variables (Schaffer, 1981). Sometimes,
purchase intention and brand afﬁnity are mutually connected, especially when consumers
buy a product/service. However, there are not many detailed studies of CRM linked to
purchase intention and brand afﬁnity.

Purchase intention is “a decision plan or intention to buy a particular product or
brand,” (Peter & Olson, 1999, p. 519). “Intentions are produced when beliefs about the
behavioral consequences of the action and social normative beliefs are considered and

integrated to evaluate alternative behaviors and select among them,” (Peter & Olson,

1999, p. 512). Brand afﬁnity, preference or choice can also be deﬁned as “the selection of
one brand from a consideration set of alternative brands,” (Peter & Olson, 1999,
p.512)

CRM ASSOCIATION

Purchase intention and brand preference are associated with CRM, and are
designed to enhance the external image of the company and increase sales, not
necessarily in that order. When companies plan to engage in a CRM process, they will
already have an advertising campaign strategy to inform consumers and promote this new
sponsoring event using an adequate media program.

In the ﬁrst Benchmark Survey on Consumer Attitudes toward Cause-Related
Marketing, 78 percent of adults conﬁrmed they would purchase a product/service of a
company sponsoring a cause that they are more concerned with. In the same survey, 66
percent of adults added that they would switch brands or choose one where a worthy
cause could receive some beneﬁts. Furthermore, 54 percent of adults said they would pay
more for a product/service when the company sponsors issues really important for them
(PR Newswire, 1993).

Some studies indicate that both purchase intention and brand choice can be
inﬂuenced, especially by low price of the product/service, high quality, time of the brand
in the marketplace, display of the product, word-of-mouth, distribution and advertising
and promotion campaigns (Chintagunta & Prasad, 1998). Anschuetz (1997) also believes
that to increase brand loyalty, the product/service should become more popular among

consumers.

20

ADVERTISING AND BRAND AWARENESS

Therefore, advertising is an instrument of the marketing mix used to build brand
awareness and increase popularity for the product/service — consequently increasing
purchase intention and brand preference (Cobb-Walgren, Rubble & Donthu, 1995;
Anschuetz, 1997; Rice & Bennett, 1998). Because normally advertising informs about the
product/service and/or company, it brings more knowledge to consumers. This
knowledge becomes the link of consumers to the product/ service or company.

Certainly, the effectiveness of the advertising to create favorable attitudes and
behaviors toward the brand and product/service depends on many factors, such as the
quality of its content and on consumers’ perceptions (Cobb-Walgren, Rubble & Donthu,
1995). Although price is a relevant element in a consumer’s choice and purchase
behaviors, for some products this might be relative, according to the low or high
involvement of an individual with the product/service and her/his ﬁnancial situation.

Purchase behavior and brand preference also happen after consumers are
inﬂuenced by the usage experience of the brand promoted by advertising. Some studies
show that previous experience with a product/service is proportionally linked with the
repurchase intention. It is easy to understand that consumers make decisions based on
their prior satisfaction with the product/service, brand and company. At the same time,
they compare what a company has to offer relative to competitors (Bolton, Kannan &
Bramlett, 2000).

Proﬁts originated from purchase behavior and brand afﬁnity come not only from
“heavy brand buyers,” but also from the prolonged process of buying (Anschuetz, 1997),

maintained by advertising campaigns. While some of these campaigns have the purpose

21

of strengthening brand image, others are directed to improve favorable attitudes toward
the product/service, such as purchase of the brand (Rice & Bennett, 1998). For that
reason, when companies do not support their strategies with advertising campaigns, sales
and brand loyalty consequently decrease.
BRAND EQUITY

“Brand equity concerns the value of a brand to the marketer and to the consumer.
From the marketers’ perspective, brand equity implies greater proﬁts, more cash ﬂow,
and greater market share. From the consumer’s perspective, brand equity involves a
strong, positive brand attitude (favorable evaluation of the brand) based on favorable
meanings and beliefs that are accessible in memory (easily activated),” (Peter & Olson,
1999, p. 123-124).

Related to brand value or brand equity, Cobb-Walgren, Ruble and Donthu (1995)
explain that a consumer’s perception is based on what are called ideas, classiﬁed as
rational and emotional. These ideas are built by advertising, which can inﬂuence the way
consumers perceive the quality of a brand (as cited in Ryan, 1991, p. 19).

It cannot be afﬁrmed that low advertising investment by companies will generate
a decrease in brand equity or even the opposite process. However, it is known that high
advertising investment can produce a high level of brand value, increasing consequently
brand choice and purchase intention (Cobb-Walgren, Ruble & Donthu, 1995).
LOYALTY REWARDS PROGRAM
Another way to increase purchase intention and brand preference is through

loyalty rewards programs. Bolton, Kannan and Brarnlett (2000) deﬁne a loyalty program

22

as a rewards-for-usage of the product/service. In this program, consumers accumulate
points, which are redeemed for different types of awards.

Although it is not common, sometimes companies have two different strategies
for their product/service or image working simultaneously. For instance, some companies
launch a CRM campaign and work at the same time with a loyalty rewards program. In
this situation, when both programs are used, the probability that consumers will have
higher brand afﬁnity and purchase intention is very signiﬁcant. Rewards programs also
increase the likelihood of building strong and long-term relationships between companies
and customers (Bolton, Kannan & Brarnlett, 2000).

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Nevertheless, if consumers get negative perceptions of a company’s reputation,
brand or product/service for any reason, it will affect their probability of not repurchasing
or recommending them. It means that the effects of unfavorable perceptions have much
greater weight in consumers’ future behavior toward the company than do favorable
impressions (Bolton, Kannan & Bramlett, 2000).

SUMMARY

Purchase intention and brand afﬁnity are extremely broad subjects. They depend
on individual characteristics, such as personality, cultural and social experiences, level of
education, economic situation, place of residence, ethnicity and other variables. There are
few studies of CRM linked to purchase intention and brand afﬁnity. The ﬁrst Benchmark
Survey on Consumer Attitudes toward CRM reports that the majority of adults would
purchase a product/service and choose a brand based on the social cause sponsored by a

company (PR Newswire, 1993).

23

Purchase intention and brand afﬁnity can be inﬂuenced by dependent and
independent controls, such as advertising and promotion campaigns, price, quality of the
product/service, distribution, usage experience, word-of-mouth, and other factors
(Chintagunta & Prasad, 1998).

Because advertising informs the public about the product/service, brand and
company, it is considered an important instrument for consumers to perform purchase
and brand choice behavior. Advertising campaigns also build brand awareness, increase
popularity of the product/service and company, and prolong the process of buying and
repurchasing (Anschuetz, 1997).

To increase purchase intention and brand afﬁnity, companies should create brand
equity among consumers. Peter and Olson (1997) explain brand equity as the value of a
brand, which involves a strong and positive brand attitude by consumers.

Another way to increase purchase intention and brand affinity is through a loyalty
rewards program, which is a rewards-for-usage for the product/service (Bolton, Kannan
& Bramlett, 2000).

Companies should work hard to ensure that consumers do not have negative
perceptions and do not see negative publicity regarding their products/services and brand.
It can affect consumers’ behaviors in terms of repurchasing and having a positive attitude
toward the brand (Bolton, Kannan & Bramlett, 2000).

Congruency

To understand the relationship among customers, corporations and their

products/services, it is necessary to explain the theory of congruency. Webster’s New

World Dictionary of Media and Communications deﬁnes congruency as an approval by

24

“members of special-interest groups that generally support themes and issues reﬂecting
their own beliefs and interests” (Weiner, 1996, p.140).

Sirgy (1982) and Metha (1999) explain congruency as the “convergence” of
consumers’ self-image and how they understand a product/service, brand and
corporation. The authors named this theory as “self-image/product image congruence
models,” which have the purpose of explaining the matching process of consumer self-
image and perceived product image. For the term “self-image,” Ericksen called it “self-
concept,” and he emphasized that if the self-concept is important for someone, this
person will try to keep and enhance this characteristic. In the process of purchase
behavior and brand afﬁnity, a product/service will have value to a consumer, when it
matches her/his own self-concepts and beliefs. Therefore, self-concept will also be
related to the purchase process of an individual (Ericksen, 1996).

PRODUCT/SERVICE

A product/service is often related to something about the lifestyle of a person who
is consuming it. For that reason, consumers look for products/services which have the
image congruent with consumers’ self-concept (Levy, 1981). Because purchase is an
activity of public “self-expression,” consumers like buying products that match how they
think, believe and behave (Hong & Zinkhan, 1995).

Sirgy also afﬁrrns that a product/service expresses personal images and
characteristics, such as being “friendly, modern, youthful, and traditional,” (Sirgy, 1997,
p. 229). Therefore, consumers will be classiﬁed according to the features of the

product/service purchased.

25

CRM, CONSUMERS AND COMPANIES

Corporations build their public image based at least in part, on the social causes
that they sponsor. Therefore, the associations that consumers perceive from the way a
company behaves in its community directly affect their purchase intentions. Ericksen
(1996) believes that the product/service, company and cause should match the ideal
congruency of consumers’ expectations. When this happens, consumers are more
favorably disposed toward the company and brand.

Companies looking for a cause to support should match the issue sponsored with
their products and the expectations of their target audience. To ﬁt consumers’ perceptions
when positioning a product using social issues, they should be congruent with the types
of issues that consumers feel more favorable toward (Osterhus, 1997). For instance,
consumers might be predisposed to support a toy company that sponsors prevention of
cruelty to children.

The beneﬁt congruency theory implies that, adjusting in terms of different types
of CRM, consumers will have more positive attitudes toward a company or brand (such
as purchase behavior or brand choice), when the organization sponsors a cause that has a
strong weight in the evaluation of the public and target (Tversky, Sattath & Slovic, 1988;
Chandon, Wansink & Laurent, 2000).

CONGRUENCY'AN D EFFECTIVENESS

Sirgy (1982) suggests that self-image congruency explains the relationship (for
instance, “purchase motivation and intention,” “brand attitude choice, and adoption,”
“store preference and loyalty”) between product/service and consumers. Hong and

Zinkhan (1995) support this idea of congruency with viewers’ self—concept and

26

effectiveness. They state that positive attitudes toward companies were found when
consumers and ﬁrms’ interests and objectives matched.

For instance, self—image congruency and consumer attitudes are based on
“product-user image” and the “consumer’s self-concept” (“actual self-imagel,” “ideal
self-imagez” and “social self-image3”) (Sirgy, 1982; Sirgy et. a1, 1997; Sirgy & Su,
2000). The greater the congruency between the product/service image and consumers’
self-concept, the more consumers will have positive attitudes toward the product/service,
brand and company (Sirgy & Su, 2000).

Congruency also can be operationalized by measuring purchase intention and
attitudes toward companies and causes (Hong & Zinkhan, 1995). Adapting empirical
ﬁndings of LaBarbera, Weingard and Yorkston (1998), by using social issues that are
consistent with “consumers’ personality-type processing styles,” companies can generate
positive attitudes toward themselves and increase purchase intention.

Chandon, Wansink and Laurent (2000) suggest that the effectiveness of the
congruency strategy is determined by the “utilitarian or hedonic nature” of beneﬁts that
this sponsoring can bring to consumers and the congruency of these beneﬁts for the
company and consumers. Strahilevitz and Myers ﬁnd that attitudes of consumers toward
a utilitarian product (e. g. TV, reﬁigerator, or microwave) are more strongly inﬂuenced by
an advertisement than toward a hedonic product (e. g. food, books or cosmetics).

Therefore, donations through CRM have more effective results for a hedonic product

than for a utilitarian product (Strahilevitz & Myers, 1998). Consequently, companies

 

1 “Actual self-image” is deﬁned based on the way consumers perceive themselves (Sirgy and Su, 2000).
2 “Ideal self-image” means the way consumers would like to perceive themselves (Sirgy and Su, 2000).
3 “Social self-image” is the way consumers think they are perceived by others (Sirgy and Su, 2000).

27

should evaluate this point of view, related to their type of product/service with the
strategy that they plan to use. Depending on their product, CRM is not the right strategy
if their goals are just to increase purchase intention or proﬁt for the company.

In addition, consumers purchase or have favorable attitudes toward companies or
causes that support issues which match consumers’ concerns. This is the theory of self-
coneept, deﬁned by Metha as “the person’s perception of oneself,” (Metha, 1999, p. 81).
When this congruency does not exist, consumers are indifferent or present negative
attitudes toward the cause or company. Then, it can be inferred that symbolism and image
are relevant instruments that can affect purchase intention (Hong & Zinkhan, 1995), and
consumers would be more favorable toward a company or a cause that can enhance
consumers’ self-esteem (Metha, 1999). If a cause is meaningful for a person, she/he will
be proud and satisﬁed to consume a product of a company which is sponsoring this cause.
This person will feel better contributing to or helping with an important social issue.

DECISION-MAKING

Of course, the process of purchasing is associated not only with product image,
but also with advertising messages, price of the product/service and other factors (Sirgy,
1982; Sirgy et. a1, 1997, Sirgy & Su, 2000). Chandon, Wansink and Laurent emphasize
that consumers make their decisions based on the beneﬁts that the companies can offer to
them, or how important these beneﬁts are for their values. Consequently, the
effectiveness of this strategy depends on the congruency that these beneﬁts have with the
product, company, consumer, purchase occasion, performance, price, emotional

attachment, social norms and advantages sought (Chandon, Wansink & Laurent, 2000).

28

SUMMARY

Sirgy (1982) and Metha (1999) explain congruency as the matching process of
consumer self-image and perceived product image. It means the value to a consumer of a
product/service, when it matches her/his own self-concept and beliefs (Eriksen, 1996).

A product/service expresses personal images and characteristics, such as being
“friendly, modern, youthful, and traditional,” (Sirgy, 1997, p. 229). In the same way,
companies build and express images through CRM. Ericksen (1996), for example,
believes that when product/service, company and cause match the ideal congruency of
consumers’ expectations, they will create a positive attitude toward the company and
brand. When this congruency does not exist, consumers are indifferent or present
unfavorable attitudes toward the cause or company (Metha, 1999).

Self-image congruency and consumer attitudes are based on “product-user image”
and the “consumer self-concept” (Sirgy, 1982; Sirgy et.al, 1997; Sirgy & Su, 2000). The
greater the congruency between the product/service image and consumers’ self-concept,
the more consumers will have a positive attitude toward the product/service, brand and
company (Sirgy & Su, 2000).

Some authors suggest that the effectiveness of the congruency strategy is
determined by the “utilitarian or hedonic nature” of beneﬁts that this sponsoring can
bring to consumers and the congruency of these beneﬁts for the company and consumers
(Chandon, Wansink & Laurent, 2000). Therefore, companies should evaluate, for

instance, if CRM is the right strategy to use for their products/services to increase

purchase intention or proﬁt.

29

Purchase intention and brand choice are not only associated with product image,
but also with the beneﬁts that the product/service, brand and company can offer to
consumers. Consequently, consumers make their decisions based on how important these
beneﬁts are for their values (Sirgy, 1982; Sirgy et. a1, 1997; Sirgy & Su, 2000; Chandon,
Wansink & Laurent, 2000).

Gender roles

Bern (1993) deﬁnes gender roles as social experiences which are programmed
differently for each gender in the society. This author believes that women and men are
socialized in a different way to play distinct roles within the society. Eagly also deﬁnes
gender roles as “those shared expectations (about appropriate qualities and behaviors)
that apply to individuals on the basis of their socially identiﬁed gender,” (Eagly, 1987,

p. 12).
GENDER DIFFERENCES AND CRM

Some researchers believe that women and men have different attitudes, behaviors
and opinions toward companies, products/services and social issues based on their own
characteristics. Ross, Stutts and Patterson, for instance, suggest that women are more
sensitive to CRM than are men (Ross, Stutts & Patterson, 1990-1991; Ross, Patterson &
Stutts, 1992). As a result, for these authors, women have more favorable attitudes toward
companies and causes than do men (Ross, Patterson & Stutts, 1992).

These characteristics were also observed by Carol Cone, Cone Communications
CEO, who reports that women and parents — normally the decision-makers in a purchase
process — support CRM (Business Wire, 1997). McDaniel and Kinney (1998) mention the

signiﬁcant difference between genders in purchase intentions, when women react more

30

positively to companies sponsoring social causes than do men. Hence, companies,
planning to sponsor a social issue with a target audience of women should be careful in
choosing a cause that ﬁts women’s concerns. The same is also true for companies which
have men as their main target audience.

CULTURE AND POLARIZATION

Some differences in behaviors between women and men can be explained by sex
roles. The genders have been studied by many authors from varied perspectives. Bem
(1993), for example, suggests that these differences can be attributed to variances in
cultural values and socialization. Cultures make distinctions in what can be considered
more appropriate for women and men related to their attitudes and behaviors, such as
way of dressing, expressing emotion, sexual options and social roles (Bern, 1995).

In addition, LaBarbera, Weingard and Yorkston (1998) explained people’s
attitudes based on Jung’s theory,4 which approached the polarization of each person’s
behavior during different periods of her/his life, such as rational versus emotional, happy
versus sad, attentive versus non-attentive, courteous versus rude and other opposite types
of dichotomies. In Jung’s theory, people behave using one of these polar opposite
“types.” There are some people able to use either pole, or others who demonstrate some
preference for just one pole. For example, there are people who make decisions for
everything concerning their lives, such as their own shopping, schedules, where to go or

what to eat or how to dress. Others prefer to have somebody else make decisions for

 

4 Jung’s theory “assumes that individuals are born with a preference for some ﬁrnctions over others and,
together with their environments, preferences are established” (LaBarbera, Weingard & Yorkston, 1998,
p. 32).

31

them, such as a husband or wife, parents and subordinates because they do not like these
tasks or have other priorities.

Bern implies that in society, people should not be classiﬁed in categories, and
culture should not be organized based upon the differences between women and men,
although there are biological distinctions. The author also believes that distinctions
between femininity and masculinity, heterosexuality and homosexuality should be
reduced to a minimum, in a point that these two poles will not exist anymore. However,
she acknowledges it is hard to achieve this absence of polarization (Bern, 1995).

SOCIAL EXPERIENCES

Deaux (1976), Golombok and Fivush (1994) also suggest that women and men
have different concerns because they are treated differently from birth. For instance,
Deaux afﬁrms that parents are more ﬂexible and tolerant with boys, and stimulate certain
dependency in girls. Although parents punish boys more frequently with physical force,
Deaux indicates that they praise boys more often when they behave in an expected way.
In addition, while girls and boys may learn the same behaviors, Deaux believes that
probably they learn in different situations, which allow children to have different
attitudes when they become adults (Deaux, 1976).

Golombok and F ivush contend that the genders have basically no differences in
cognitive skills, abilities and sensory systems. However, they explain that women and
men learn behaviors that are typically female and male. They believe that this difference
of gender behaviors can be attributed to variances in cultural values and socialization that
happens not only at home, but also through social experiences (Golombok & Fivush,

1994). Social experiences are essentially practices and activities that a group of people

32

share and gain during the process of their lives. For instance, occupations, schools, jobs,
church or religious ceremonies, clubs, ﬁiendships, parties, and organizations to which
people belong are places where someone develops social practices.

Deaux explains that children imitate behaviors that they see in everyday life.
Therefore, they learn that women and men are different. Just by observing women’s and
men’s behaviors (by reading books and magazines or watching television), Deaux
believes that children learn what is considered the appropriate attitude for each gender.
This author also emphasizes the importance of the media in developing behaviors for
each gender. For example, Deaux afﬁrms that television programs and commercials
present a relevant stereotypical behavior for the genders (Deaux, 1976).

Golombok and Fivush (1994) also suggest that the type of human a person
becomes in the future, her/his social behaviors, attitudes and judgments depend basically
on her/his social experiences during an entire lifetime. Eagly (1987) indicates that
socialization pressures inﬂuence adult social behavior in the process of everyday life.
Schaffer (1981) conﬁrms the same idea saying that many of the characteristics of women
and men are the Stun of socialization practices.

Schaffer (1981) highlights that variables associated with attitudes, such as levels
of education, marital status, race, age and employment inﬂuence the behaviors of women
and men. For this author, liberal attitudes are more frequently observed by both women
and men when their levels of education increase. Schaffer ﬁnds that younger women and
men are generally more liberal. On the other hand, this author indicates that married and
widowed people are more conservative and traditional than single or divorced people (as

cited in Chandler, 1972; Tavris, 1973).

33

BODY MOVEMENTS AND POSITIONS
Hall (1984) explains that differences in behaviors, personalities and
characteristics between the genders are built based on cultural inheritances. Therefore,
women and men will approach issues in life, give more attention to some circumstances,
and be more careful about details according to their cultural environment and education
received.
For instance, Hall suggests that women and men receive information about

appropriate body movements and postures through cultural and social habits acquired

9’ ‘6

since childhood. Hall says that women learn to avoid being “crude, sloppy,” or

“overbearing” in their physical movements. Men, on the other hand, are taught to avoid
“delicate” and “small movements”, and to restrain gestures that can put in doubt their
masculinity (Hall, 1984, p. 119). Both genders receive female and male models of
behaviors, and can be criticized if they choose the opposite pattern.

Almost two decades ago, Hall believed that women’s absence of free movements
could be justiﬁed by their types of clothes (e. g. long or short skirts, tight clothes, clothes
made by fragile fabrics, and high heels) and grooming (makeup, hair arrangements,
necklace, bracelets and earrings), characteristics reinforced by the society. To illustrate,
women’s movements tried to prevent displaying their underwear or some private part of
their bodies, and they exhibited more frequent self-touching and hand movements. In
contrast, Hall mentioned that men were more relaxed in their movements because of their
clothing differences (men’s clothing allows broad and expansive movements) as well as

behavioral norms in the society (Hall, 1984).

34

Eagly (1987) says that in social situations (e.g. social meetings and parties),
women use their faces and bodies more expressively, showing more body involvement
with others, approaching them more closely. .

WOMEN AND MEN

Anastasi (1958) earlier defended the same point of view that sex differences were
established under cultural and experiential environment, where each gender’s learning
took place. Consequently, each gender would emphasize and value certain issues more
than others. For instance, related to intellectual abilities, Anastasi (1958), Bakan (1966)
and Hall (1984) indicated that men have more accomplishment and comprehension in
quantitative and mechanical skills, and better physical performance of movements, speed
and force. A

In the same authors’ point of view, women, on the other hand, are more verbal,
language and communication oriented. Deaux (1976) states that while girls receive more
vocal stimulation, boys receive physical stimulation. Related to voice, Hall (1984) and
Eagly (1987) add that women’s voices are soﬁer, slower, more ﬂuent, higher pitched and
more variable in pitch. Hall (1984) asserts that female voices are more pleasant. This
author emphasizes that women are less talkative in mixed groups of both sexes. In a
conversation, Hall (1984) and Eagly (1987) suggest that women are less likely to
interrupt other people than are men.

Anastasi (1958) and Bakan (1966) believed that women have more accurate
manual abilities, perceptions and memory. Eagly suggests that women are more skilled
than men to decode and send nonverbal messages. In addition, Eagly indicates that

relative to men, women have a tendency to smile and laugh more in social situations, to

35

act more friendly, and to approach other people more closely and consequently, they are
also approached more closely by others (Eagly, 1987).

Golombok & F ivush (1994) also state that women are more relational and care-
oriented. Hall (1984) believes that this happens because of women’s universal
responsibility for child rearing. Eagly (1987) and Meyers-Levy (1988) suggest that
women care more about “communal concerns,” and have more positive attitudes toward
“other-oriented” appeals than do men because of women’s tendency of “nurturance” and
“care.” For instance, some researchers’ ﬁndings support the notion that women devote
themselves completely to others, are helpful, kind, love children, and soothe hurt feelings
— afﬁliation orientation characteristics (Bakan, 1966; Schaffer, 1981; Hall, 1984; Eagly,
1987; Meyers-Levy, 1988).

Meyers-Levy (1988) indicates that women process information comprehensively,
seek approval from family and friends, and are concerned with social acceptance. This
author explains that women care more about quality of life, modesty and preference for
relationships. Bakan (1966) and McClelland (1975) contended that women do not expose
their anger and hostility publicly, and are more sensitive of the behaviors of others
toward themselves. Hall agrees that women are more likely to see the good in others, be
emotionally closer to them, and are more conforming in difﬁcult and unchangeable
situations. This author also suggests that women are more liberal in their sex-role
attitudes, more anxious and neurotic and less psychotic (Hall, 1984).

Furthermore, Deaux (1976), Schaffer (1981), Hall (1984) and Eagly (1987)
believe that women are more passive, subjective, dependent, romantic, emotional,

submissive, gentle, oppressed, (socially) sensitive, expressive, neat, tactful, selﬂess,

36

interpersonally oriented, less aggressive, easily inﬂuenced, and more concerned about
economic and social status than are men. These female features result in a tendency for
women to change their opinions or to agree more easily with others (Eagly, 1987).

at:

These are characteristics attributed to each gender by some researchers in studies
conducted decades ago. It is important to highlight that there are other authors and
especially many women who do not agree with this type of stereotyping. Lifestyle has
changed signiﬁcantly from the 19603 to this new century.

a:

From Schaffer’s point of view, women become aggressive only in response to
another aggressive behavior from someone else. He states that normally women show
more nonverbal aggression. Schaffer also explains that while women are more likely to
receive help, men are more likely to offer help to another person. Therefore, this author
suggests that women are helped more and banned less than are men (Schaffer, 1981 ).

Another characteristic that Deaux (1976) and Schaffer (1981) emphasize about
women is that they tend to identify with other people, especially in critical situations (e.g.
mother and wife roles). Schaffer (1981) also adds that some women try to behave in a
way that they believe meets others’ expectations.

Hall contends that women are better than men at decoding emotional expressions
and recognizing faces. Additionally, this author suggests that women are expected to be
pleasant and for that reason they smile more than men — an active strategy of
appeasement. For Hall, this is also a signal of displaying a female role of submission,

nervousness, anxiety and weakness (Hall, 1984).

37

Some other researchers indicate that men think about moral subjects related to

9’ 66'

“heroism, individual rights,

99 6‘

principles of justice,” and are more concerned with
personal consequences (Golombok & Fivush, 1994). Anastasi (1958), Bakan (1966), Hall
(1984) and Eagly (1987) afﬁrmed that instead of being afﬁliation-oriented, men are more
task, instrumental and achievement-oriented. They posit that men are more dominant,
forceful, active, self-conﬁdent, aggressive, independent, outgoing, competitive, objective,
adventurous, ambitious, self-centered, less likely to be inﬂuenced, feel superior, make
decisions easily and have as main goals material success and assertiveness (Anastasi,
1958; Bakan, 1966; Deaux, 1976; Schaffer, 1981; Eagly, 1987). These perceptions of
men’s characteristics result in a tendency of people to pay more attention to male
comments and opinions (Eagly, 1987).

Schaffer (1981) believes that men are physically stronger and more aggressive
(verbally) than are women. Because of these features, men tend to have more initiative in
complex situations and are expected to offer more help to others.

Schaffer (1981) also states that men identify themselves with their occupations,
educational levels, and life achievements. This author afﬁrms that men prefer personal
space and do not like crowded places — situations when they become more aggressive and
hostile.

Bakan classiﬁed males’ behavior as agentic-oriented,5 and suggested that this is

the reason for a higher level of suicide among men. In addition, he indicated that men

 

5According to Bakan (1966), agentic-oriented means to be smarter, aggressive, destructive, achievement-
oriented, self-centered, successful in the job, and a leader among others.

38

have an “egocentric”6 personality, while women have an “alterocentric feature”7 (Bakan
1 966).
CONSIDERATIONS

The ﬁndings of some researchers about these traits and characteristics of women
and men are controversial. Critics charge they are inaccurate and do not account for
individual differences in people. There is lack of certainty about these sex differences
(Hall, 1984). Generally, more recent research has acknowledged this. Deaux (1976) and
Schaffer (1981) mention that many conclusions related to gender differences
are erroneous. For some cases they are biased stereotypes, especially when women and
men are expected to behave in a certain way or have different characteristics assigned to
their sex categories.

Schaffer (1981) also contends that there are always serious problems in research
studies of sex differences and sex roles because the results in data cannot be generalized
to the population as a whole. He afﬁrms that there is a tendency for this kind of research
to focus only on the differences between genders, but not on their similarities. Sometimes
individual differences inside members of the same category have been disregarded in
favor of the entire behavior of a group — “all men” versus “all women” (Schaffer, 1981,
p. 40).

Schaffer (1981) reinforces another relevant tendency in the academic ﬁeld. This

author suggests that studies which show differences between women and men are much

 

6 Egocentric is a self-centered person, focused on her/his own interest.

7 Someone alterocentric is deﬁned as focusing her/his feelings, ambitions and goals on something external
from herself/himself (Bakan, 1966).

39

more likely to be published in professional journals than studies which do not present
differences in behaviors.

In addition, Deaux (1976) indicates that there is little evidence about the
difference in behaviors of women and men. Deaux posits that this small difference does
not justify these stereotyped generalizations. This author believes that human behaviors
are more common than sex differences, and social experiences are the main factor to
justify attitude distinctions between genders (Deaux, 1976). Eagly (1987) also mentions
that psychologists sustain that the genders’ similarities are more common than
differences. “The similarities between the sexes are as notable as, if not more notable
than, the differences,” (as cited in Basow, 1986, p. 52).

a

This section provides some clues for CRM strategies. The more recent literature
suggests that there are more similarities than previously thought. Although some gender
differences play an important role, in terms of consumers’ attitudes toward the company,
product/service and brand, the similarities should also be considered before any
marketing, advertising, promotion and public relations programs are begun.

SUMMARY

Because the genders may have their own characteristics, some researchers believe
that they exhibit different attitudes and behaviors toward a company, brand,
product/service and social causes. Ross, Stutts and Patterson (1990-1991) suggest that
women are more sensitive to CRM than are men. Carol Cone, Cone Communications

CEO, reports that women and parents support CRM (Business Wire, 1997). McDaniel

40

and Kinney (1998) also emphasize that women have more favorable attitudes toward
companies sponsoring CRM than do men.

Some differences in behaviors between women and men may be explained by sex
roles. Bern (1993), for example, indicates that these differences can be related to cultural
values and social experiences. LaBarbera, Weingard and Yorkston (1998) approach
people’s attitudes based on polarization of each person’s behavior, although Bern (1995)
believes that people should not be classiﬁed in categories of extremes poles.

Golombok and Fivush (1994) suggest that these differences between women and
men are based on variances in cultural values that genders learn though social
experiences during an entire life.

Anastasi (1958), Bakan (1966) and Schaffer (1981) implied that sex differences
were established under cultural and experiential environment, including where each
gender was educated. All of them highlighted these differences, declaring that women are
more communication oriented, and have more manual abilities, perception and memory.

Bakan, (1966), Schaffer (1981), Hall (1984), Eagly (1987), and Meyers-Levy
(1988) also emphasize that women have more‘communal concerns and are other-oriented
because of their nurturance and afﬁliation orientation characteristics.

Some other researchers believe that men are more oriented to heroism, individual
rights, principles of justice, and personal concerns (Golombok & Fivush, 1994).

However, more recent research shows that distinctions between genders cannot be
assumed. These traits and characteristics of women and men are controversial, may be

inaccurate and do not account for individual differences in people.

41

CHAPTER TWO

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to provide some directions to companies sponsoring a
social issue, and to nonproﬁt organizations, which will receive the contributions donated
as the result of CRM campaigns. The research’s main goal is to empirically investigate
the correlation between attitudes of genders toward different types of causes and
corporations (local and national).

In the ﬁrst stage, a pretest was conducted to ﬁnd the social issues with which
women and men might be more concerned. These ﬁndings in the pretest helped to build
the survey structure and were also used to support the results of match and no match
issues that genders care more about.

. The second stage, supported by the survey, explores the attitudes of respondents
toward local and national causes. Little previous research has examined the effects of the
proximity in social causes on positive behaviors and attitudes of consumers and the
public in general toward local versus national causes.

The last stage analyzes the inﬂuence of the size and geographic location of a
company sponsoring a social cause on the attitude of consumers. The informational need
is to know if respondents have a more positive attitude toward local companies
sponsoring causes or toward national companies sponsoring causes. Little is known about
the correlation of different sizes (local/national) of corporations with different types of
social causes (local/national) and with gender preferences for particular causes. For that

reason, the study incorporates three research questions:

42

RQl: What are the social issues with which women and men are more
concerned?

RQ2: What are the attitudes of the genders toward local and national CRM?

RQ3: What are the attitudes of the genders toward local and national companies

which support social causes?

43

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the type of methodology, subjects, procedures,
measuring instrument, data analysis plan and hypotheses used in this study. Considering
the necessity of informational results and of statistical generalization to part of the
population, the primary quantitative research method was used, by a systematic collection
of information from respondents through the use of questionnaires. The study adopted a
pretest and survey based on personal or face-to-face questionnaires.

Methodological approach

Primary quantitative research provides broader numerical information, which
allows a statistical generalization of the results found. For that reason, it is usually more
reliable and predictable. Survey questionnaires, a most common measurement, can be
conducted by telephone, mail, interactive computer, and personal or face-to-face
interview (Davis, 1997).

The beneﬁts and limitations of each approach depend on eight criteria: cost,
timing, control, sample characteristics, accuracy, complexity of the issue and
questionnaire, interview length and response rate (Davis, 1997).

RATIONALE

Primary research is the best approach for this study, considering that there is little

material available regarding this subject in secondary research. It is also a good

instrument for understanding populations of individuals in terms of numerical and

44

statistical descriptions. In addition, this study is looking for comparisons among
variables, where perceptions, behaviors and attitudes are the important issues.

The nature of close-ended questions, a characteristic of quantitative research,
allows more objective results and interpretations which answer the questions “what” and
“how much.” It is the way to ﬁnd speciﬁc numbers to measure the needed information
and to build predictions. Consequently, face-to-face surveys in quantitative research can
offer more control, less ambiguity, high response rate, completeness and more
information.

Qualitative research in this case is not a good instrument because it would provide
more exploratory and subjective results and interpretations to answer the question “why”
through open-ended responses. In addition, it is a type of research with small base/sample
where the data is not generalizable.

PERSONAL SURVEYS

Personal surveys are also more suited to this type of research. They are
administered by the researcher to a respondent in a face-to-face setting. Davis suggests
that this type of approach has a higher level of data quality because of the face-to-face
contact between the researcher and the respondents, especially when questionnaires are
long and complex (Davis, 1997).

LIMITATIONS AND BENEFITS

Depending on the research, personal surveys can be time consuming and

expensive, compared to other methods of measurement. They offer less administrative

control, and are less sensitive to demographic and socioeconomic differences in the

45

sample population than other methods. It is difﬁcult to recruit proportionally equivalent
subjects according to their race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status (Davis, 1997).

However, personal surveys provide a higher degree of sample control. The
methodology has a higher level of interview control because the researcher can supervise
the participation of the respondents in all questions (Davis, 1997).

In terms of accuracy, Davis (1997) suggests that personal surveys are better for
collecting complete and important information. This method is also appropriate when the
questionnaire and/or the issue approached are complex and/or long. Another strength of
personal surveys is the response rate. They have much higher response rate than other
methods.

Study design

The quantitative research in this study applied a pretest in the ﬁrst stage and a

survey in the second stage. Both stages were conducted by face-to-face questionnaires.
PRETEST

The pretest evaluated which social issues women and men care more about. The
subjects were exposed to 16 different social issues sponsored by some known companies,
and asked to rate these issues at the interval level for their concerns of low and high
importance, in a Likert type scale or semantic differential scale8 of seven points. (See
Table 1.)

The same pretest also presented three other nominal dichotomous questions. The

gender of the subject was asked next, followed by the question whether she/he was an

 

8 Semantic differential scale “asks a respondent to rate an object on a number of itemized, seven-point
rating scales bounded on each end by one of two bipolar adjectives,” (Davis, 1997, p. 285).

46

enrolled Michigan State undergraduate student, and ﬁnally whether the respondent was
an American citizen.
Table 1

Pretest issues

 

Issues Used

 

a) Cleaning up the environment

 

b) Improving quality of school and education

 

c) Sponsorship of youth and sports programs

 

(1) Awareness of domestic violence

 

e) Conservation/restoration of public monuments

 

f) Preserving endangered species

 

g)Anti-hunger efforts

 

h) Breast cancer awareness

 

i) Combating crime

 

j) Kids help line (providing advice on different topics related to children)

 

k) Improving volunteerism

 

l) Donation to nonproﬁt organizations (Red Cross, Unicef. . .)

 

m) Human rights causes

 

n) Preventing cruelty to children

 

0) Reducing poverty in the Third World

 

p) Arts sponsorship

 

 

 

47

SURVEY

Based on the answers to this pretest, eight questionnaires were built to measure
the attitudes of each gender toward local and national companies sponsoring local and
national causes. The purpose of this survey was to measure if there are congruencies
among genders toward different types of causes and corporations.

Each of these eight questionnaires provided a short story about a company
sponsoring CRM in different scenarios, based on the correlation among variables in a
2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. (See the appendices.) These scenarios represented a ﬁctitious
situation, where questionnaires one through four sponsored a cause which appeared in the
pretest as the social issue women care more about. Questionnaires ﬁve through eight
introduced a cause found as the one men are more concerned with. The questionnaires
varied only in the way the variables were presented, such as local and national causes,
local and national companies, and causes each gender was more concerned with. For
instance, questionnaire number one supported a scenario for a national company
sponsoring a national cause. In questionnaire number two, a national company sponsored
a local cause. Questionnaire number three presented a local company supporting a local
cause. Finally, questionnaire number four had a local company sponsoring a national
cause. The other questionnaires ﬁve through eight repeated the same change in the

variables in the same order of the ﬁrst four questionnaires. (See Table 2.)

48

Table 2

Questionnaire distribution

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Questionnaire Company Cause ’ ' Quantity Issue
# (Local x National) (Local x National) (Total 208) (Female x Male)
1 N N 13 Female F

13 Male

2 N L 13 F F
13 M

3 L L 13 F F
13 M

4 L N 13 F F
13 M

5 N N 13 F M
13 M

6 N L 13 F M
13 M

7 L L 13 F M
13 M

8 L N 13 F M
13 M

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In addition, questionnaires one through four which approached the social cause
women are more concerned with, were applied for female and male respondents
proportionally. Questionnaires ﬁve through eight which approached the social issue men
care more about were also assigned equally for female and male respondents. This
distribution of questionnaires about social issues that women and men care more about

was designed to check if there were some congruencies between the survey and the

49

pretest results. Consequently, the results showed the tendency of each gender to support
different types of causes and companies presented in the pretest.

Candy was distributed to the subjects during both the pretest and the survey as an
incentive.

Target population

For this study, it was necessary to have a homogenous population of both genders,
with a common level of education, some income to perform some purchase behavior, and
residence in a region where people do not have extreme bipolar lifestyles that differ
greatly from the rest of the country — thus allowing for some statistical generalizations.

Sampling frame

This research involved a probability sampling method, comprising the universe of
enrolled undergraduate students from Michigan State University for both the pretest and
the survey.

This sample is more homogeneous in terms of level of education, age, geographic
location and income. It may also have more universal cultural norms reﬂected in
behaviors and attitudes. In addition, university students are an important part of the target
market now and in the near future, when they graduate and start working.

Procedures

Because the population homogeneity is high, it was not necessary to select the
sample in a random way. The results could provide reliable generalization for the
population of undergraduate students on the campus. The pretest and the survey were
administered by the researcher of this study, and were distributed inside the campus and

randomly assigned to students from different courses. The students were recruited inside

50

classrooms, lobbies of the departments, libraries, dormitories and other locations in the
campus and asked to complete the questionnaires.

In the pretest stage, 43 questionnaires were administered, 24 of which were
assigned for women and 19 for men. The minimum number of respondents necessary for
the pretest in this research was 20.

In addition, the convenience sample technique was used for the survey stage.
With a conﬁdence level of at least 95 percent, and a conﬁdence interval of plus or minus
3 percent, a number of 200 respondents was found. This number could also be reached by
using the formula of: sample size = (zje)2 . (p) . (l-p), where z score represents the
speciﬁc conﬁdence level and e represents the desired conﬁdence interval.

sample size = (l.96/.03)2 . (.95) . (1-.95)

= 202.75 or 203 respondents

This calculated sample size is approximately the same size obtained from
tabulated values, as the convenience size.

Consequently, in this second stage, 208 questionnaires were completed on the
Michigan State University campus. This number provided a proportional number of
women and men for each of the eight questionnaires. The subjects were asked if they
were enrolled undergraduate students. Half of the students were women and the other half
men. For this part of the study, 95 percent participation or an even higher level of

response was expected.

51

Measuring instrument
FACTORIAL DESIGN

The measuring instrument in this research adopted a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design:
genders (female and male); types of causes (local and national); and types of companies
(local and national). Hence, it is a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial study with 8 (2 x 2 x 2) different
treatment groups. This procedure allowed the manipulation and observation
simultaneously of the effects and interactions of the independent variables — types of
causes and corporations related to genders — on dependent variables, attitudes of
respondents toward types of causes and corporations, brand affinity and purchase
intentions.

PRETEST

The pretest questionnaire answered part of the ﬁrst research question in this study
— the social issues with which women and men are more concerned. The 16 social issues
exposed in this questionnaire, as cited in the study design section, provided some
direction for the survey questionnaires, where the support for different types of causes
and companies could be analyzed.

SURVEY

Eight questionnaires were built based on the ﬁndings of the pretest. Each
questionnaire was built according to the different independent variables discussed in this
research — gender (female and male), corporations (local and national), and causes (local
and national). However, all the 13 questions presented in each of these eight

questionnaires were basically identical. Beyond the ﬁctitious story of a company

52

sponsoring a social cause, the questionnaires provided answers for the three research
questions.

The ﬁctitious story was about La Trattoria, (a national chain or a local Italian
restaurant in Lansing) which is completing a second restaurant near Meridian Mall. The
restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and is known for its gourmet pizza and
fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly and will celebrate its success by
donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand opening in the month of August to
the “x” national or local cause.

Questions one through four in the survey measured people’s eating habits,
feelings and attitudes toward the ﬁctitious product/company discussed. They were a
preparation to approach the three research questions. The ﬁrst question asked if the
respondent often eats out for dinner.

The second question made a comparison with a similar type of restaurant exposed
in the story. The respondent should agree or disagree if she/he does not eat often at the
Olive Garden restaurant (a competitor at the same level as La T rattoria). In the third
question, the respondent was asked to express agreement or disagreement with trying a
restaurant like La Trattoria.

Question four asked the respondent if La T rattoria sounds like a good place to
eat. After, the respondent is induced to give her/his opinion about if she/he thinks
restaurants such as La Trattoria serve good food, are overpriced, are fun, are too ritzy,

are a good value, just care about making money, and are a good place to take a family.

53

Questions ﬁve and six measured respondents’ and genders’ attitudes toward local
and national CRM. They asked if the respondent donates often to causes she/he cares
about, and if she/he donates more frequently to local than national charities.

Questions seven, eight and nine were formulated to answer the third research
question about the attitudes of genders toward local and national companies which
support social causes. They asked respectively if the respondent would eat at La Trattoria
to support a cause she/he believes in, if La Trattoria ’s charitable efforts are good for the
community, and if respondents buy often from companies which support social issues.

Question 10 reinforced the ﬁrst research question asking if La Trattoria was
supporting a cause that respondents care about. It was a way to conﬁrm respondents’
choices of the social issues in the pretest.

Questions 11, 12 and 13 are dichotomous questions which identiﬁed gender,
enrollment as a Michigan State University undergraduate student, and citizenship.

Data analysis

This research collected discrete data,9 involving the interval level of
measurement. The discrete data receives this name because the respondent selects one of
several response options (constrained set) coded as 1, 2, and so on (Davis, 1997). In

addition, there are also nominal measures in both the pretest and survey.

 

9 Discrete data “reﬂects responses constrained to a speciﬁc set of numbers and separated by ﬁnite and
uniform steps,” (Davis, 1997, p. 333).

54

This study used the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software to
perform all statistical tests. The pretest was analyzed by running the t-test to compare the
means of social issues with which each gender was more concerned.

Each hypothesis was tested using the multi-factorial Analysis of Variance
(AN OVA). '0 Therefore, the survey was analyzed by applying the multi-factorial ANOVA
to make a comparison of means in attitudes of genders toward local and national causes
and companies.

The mean or averagell is the most common measure of a set of interval data, and
was adopted in this study. Means are powerful because they provide a single numeric
summary of the entire set of responses to a survey question. The mean score represents
the set of responses from which it was calculated. However, it becomes less
representative of the distribution, when the distribution does not represent a normal curve
(Davis, 1997).

RATIONALE FOR THE FACTORIAL ANOVA

The z and t-test are normally appropriate to draw conclusions about the statistical
differences between two means representing two independent groups or the mean of any
sample and the mean of a relevant population. Consequently, the t-test was used for the
analysis of the pretest. However, both tests have limitations of use. The z and t-test are
not appropriate when there are three or more means to compare (Davis, 1997; Kitchens,

1998). For that reason, this research applied the multi-factorial Analysis of Variance

 

‘0 The multi-factorial Analysis of Variance is the statistical design of comparing several population means
using independent samples, to discover if different groups have similar or different behaviors.
” Mean or average “is the computed average of a distribution of scores,” (Davis, 1997, p. 348).

55

(ANOVA), a measurement that eliminates these types of problems when more than three
means are compared.
Hypotheses
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Some statistical questions require veriﬁcation just by testing the hypothesis.12
Normally, the hypothesis discusses an unknown parameter of the population to be
discovered by the researcher (Kitchens, 1998). Null hypothesis or H0 is the statement
that the researcher tests. If the evidence does not support the null hypothesis, then it will
be rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis or Ha. Therefore, the alternative
hypothesis, also referred as the research hypothesis, is that for which support is sought
(Kitchens, 1998).
GUIDELINE FOR ACCEPTING THE NULL HYPOTHESIS

The signiﬁcance of a test is a level that can be denoted as (l - a ), where
or represents the highest probability allowed of rejecting the Ho when it is actually true.

The p-value “is the probability (computed when H0 is assumed to be true) of
observing a value of the test statistic at least as extreme as that given by the actual
observed data. The smaller the p-value, the stronger is the evidence against the null
hypothesis,” (Kitchens, 1998, p. 486).

Once a has been chosen, the H0 is rejected if the p-value results in avalue

smaller than a . Usually, in social science the or adopted is .05. Therefore, if the p-value

is less than .05, then H0 is rejected. If p-value is higher than a , the researcher should fail

 

’2 Hypothesis testing “is a means by which statistical decisions are made,” (Kitchens, 1998).

56

to reject Ho. However, if the p-value is close to .05, one should be cautious in rejecting

or failing to reject the Ho.

Based on the Cone/Roper Benchmark Survey on CRM, 78 percent of adults said
they would be more likely to buy a product that is associated with a cause that they care
more about (PR Newswire, 1993). The cause should be speciﬁc and meet the particular
needs of the consumers. Furthermore, 66 percent of the adults in the same survey said
they would exchange brands, and 62 percent conﬁrmed that they would switch
companies to support a cause that they are more concerned with (Shell, 1989).

Related to the congruency among causes, consumers and companies, if there is
strong correspondence among all these variables, consumers will have strong positive
attitudes toward companies (Barone, 2000). Consequently, corporations should check to
see if their images are compatible with the causes they sponsor and, if the causes are
meaningful for their target audience (Shell, 1989).

Webb and Mohr (1998) also emphasize that the importance of the cause for
consumers and the amount of donation for the issue are extremely important for their
positive attitude and purchase intention. The same authors mention that respondents
reported they would boycott a company which supports a cause in conﬂict with their own
values. For instance, a few years ago some people boycotted Domino’s Pizza because the
company was sponsoring a cause that did not match their values.

“I boycotted Domino’s. And I know the boycott is over and it doesn’t make any

difference anymore, but it just deeply offended me that they advertised that a

certain, I think it was 25 [cents] from every pizza that they sold for a certain

57

amount of time, I think it was for a year or something like that, went to the

antiabortion [sic] league... The people that founded Domino’s are very much

antiabortion [sic]. That’s okay. Fine. But it doesn’t mean I want to give them my

cash,” (Woman’s report, 29 years old; Webb & Mohr, 1998, p. 235).

Thinking of the importance that social issues play in the decision-making of
consumers, the hypothesis below was developed to test if there are differences in the
issues that each gender cares more about.

H1: When causes match the concerns of each gender, they are more effective for

companies than when they do not match.
Ross, Stutts and Patterson (1990-1991) indicate that the public is more able to recall and
support social issues in CRM when they are local or regional, and a long-term program
(Business Wire, 1997) rather than national or international causes. Because local and
regional causes are in relative proximity to consumers or the public in general, it is easier
for them to engage in a behavior that is part of their reality and to follow the development
of the philanthropy than to relate to national or international causes — sometimes far from
their locus of control. Proximity exerts relevant inﬂuence in consumer behavior and
attitudes in a CRM campaign (Varadarajan & Menon, 1988). Kelley mentions that many
experts believe that “it builds additional goodwill when people see the money from a
company coming into their community, and it also gives retailers and distributors in the
area a chance to look good to their customers,” (Kelley, 1991, p.62).

Welsh (1999) also supports the same idea of proximity, and contends that one key
ingredient for a successful CRM program is to act locally. He reports, for instance, that

people in Dallas would be more receptive to support their own cause (e. g. children’s

58

hospital) than a national cause. In addition, Welsh contends that the American Express
successful national CRM supporting the restoration of the Statue of Liberty was an
isolated cause that should not be generalized.

However, in another study conducted by Ross, Patterson and Stutts (1992), they
could not ﬁnd a statistically signiﬁcant difference between respondents who have a more
positive attitude toward a local cause than toward a national issue. Because this
difference was not signiﬁcant, the same hypothesis was tested again in distinct conditions
by this researcher. It was an attempt to ﬁnd a relationship between the variables (attitude
and proximity) also approached and analyzed in this study.

H2: Consumers will have more positive attitudes toward local cause than toward

national cause.

If this second hypothesis can be veriﬁed, it can be logical to ﬁnd support for the
third hypothesis. In addition, consumers also will be more inclined to recall and support
local companies sponsoring social issues. Comparing again to local causes, local
companies are closer to consumers. This makes it easier for consumers and the public to
understand and engage in CRM supported by a local company. Ross, Patterson & Stutts
measured as well the attitudes of respondents toward the ﬁrm sponsoring a local cause,
independently whether the ﬁrm was local or national. This research, nevertheless,
measures the attitudes toward the company at the level of local and national, without
involving the type of causes supported.

H3: Consumers will have more positive attitudes toward local companies

sponsoring causes than toward national companies sponsoring causes.

59

SUMMARY

The primary quantitative research method was adopted in this study through the
use of face-to-face questionnaires. This method was approached considering that there is
little material available regarding this subject in secondary research. It is also a good
instrument for understanding populations of individuals in terms of numerical and
statistical descriptions.

The quantitative research in this study applied a pretest in the ﬁrst stage and a
survey in the second stage. Both stages were conducted by face-to-face questionnaires.
The pretest evaluated which social issues women and men care more about. Based on the
answers to this pretest, eight questionnaires were built to measure attitudes of each
gender toward local and national companies based on local and national causes sponsored
by corporations of varying sizes.

This research involved a probability sampling method, comprising the universe of
enrolled undergraduate students from Michigan State University for both the pretest and
the survey. The questionnaires were administered by the researcher of this study, and
were distributed inside the campus and randomly assigned to students from different
courses.

In the pretest stage, 43 questionnaires were administered, 24 of which were
assigned to females and 19 to males. The convenience sample technique was used for the
survey stage, where 208 questionnaires were distributed.

The measuring instrument in this research adopted a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design:
genders (female and male); types of causes (local and national); and types of companies

(local and national).

6O

The pretest was analyzed by running the t-test to compare the means of social
issues each gender was more concerned with. Each hypothesis was tested using the multi-
factorial Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) procedure. Therefore, the survey was analyzed
by applying the multi-factorial ANOVA to make a comparison of means in attitudes of
genders toward local and national causes and companies.

The three hypotheses analyzed in this study were:

H1: When causes match the concerns of each gender, they are more effective for
companies than when they do not match.

H2: Consumers will have more positive attitudes toward local cause than toward national
cause.

H3: Consumers will have more positive attitudes toward local companies sponsoring

causes than toward national companies sponsoring causes.

61

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

This chapter presents the results of the quantitative research administered in the
pretest and in the survey stages. First, the issues which women and men care more about
are presented to justify the choice of the two issues representing each gender in the eight
survey questionnaires. Then, several tests, including the multi-factorial AN OVA, t-test
and a test of reliability, using Cronbach’s Alpha,l3 were conducted to analyze the
attitudes of women and men toward local and national companies and local and national
causes.

Pretest results

Before testing the hypotheses, it was necessary to determine issues relevant to
women and men. Sixteen social issues were presented to a sample of 43 undergraduate
students. The students were asked to rate the importance of each issue on a seven-point
Likert type scale, from low importance to high importance.

T-tests were run to examine potential gender differences related to the importance
of each social issue. Table 3 and Figure 1 show the degree to which women and men care
about the different social issues. The ﬁndings indicated seven signiﬁcant differences
among issues that female and male respondents care about, although in each case women
care more than do men. As it can be observed in the results, women care more about the

issues of: (1) Awareness of domestic violence; g) Anti-hunger efforts; h) Breast cancer

 

‘3 Cronbach’s Alpha is a model of internal consistency, based on the average inter-item correlation, which
measures reliability. It is the “statistical technique most commonly used for determining the reliability of
multiple items” (Davis, 1997, p. 270).

62

awareness; i) Combating crimes; j) Kids help line (providing advice on different topics
related to children); n) Preventing cruelty to children; and 0) Reducing poverty in the
Third World (p < .05). There were no other signiﬁcant differences between women and
men, indicating that they care about the other issues equally.

Female respondents considered “preventing cruelty to children” the issue that they
care most about (; = 6.67). “Improving quality of school and education level” was the

issue that men are most concerned with (; = 5.79 of male respondents choosing this
issue).
On the other hand, for women and men, “conservation/restoration of public

monuments” was the issue that they care least about. Only a E = 4.33 of female

respondents and a 3; = 4.00 of male respondents are concerned with this issue.
Therefore, “preventing cruelty to children” was the female issue discussed in the
ﬁrst four survey questionnaires. Among issues that women and men care most about
“improving quality of school and education level” was the issue with which men were
most concerned. This men’s issue was discussed in survey questionnaires ﬁve through

eight.

63

Table 3

Issues that genders care more about*

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Issues Women Men t df Sig. (2-
tailed)
a) Cleaning up the environment
5.42 5.21 -.533 41 .597
) Improving quality of school and education
level" 6.00 5.79 -.602 41 .550
c) Sponsorship of youth and sports programs ~
5.04 4.68 -.897 41 .375
d) Awareness of domestic violence
5.79 4.63 -3.222 41 .002-
e) Conservation/restoration of public
Monuments 4.33 4.00 -.665 41 .510
:f) Preserving endangered species
5.75 5.53 -.561 41 .578
g) Anti-hunger efforts
5.96 4.79 -2.798 25.601 .010-
h) Breast cancer awareness
6.04 4.42 -4.453 41 .000-
i) Combating crimes .
5.96 4.53 -3.802 41 .000-
j) Kids help line (providing advice to different
topics related to children) 5.42 4.47 -2.066 41 .045-
k) Improving volunteerism
4.71 4.21 -1.190 . 41 .241
l) Donation to nonproﬁt organizations
(Red Cross, Unicef...) 5.04 4.37 -1.469 41 .150
m) Human rights causes
5.67 5.11 -l.577 41 .123
n) Preventing cruelty to children***
6.67 5.47 -3.747 41 .001-
0) Reducing poverty in the Third World
5.67 4.32 -3.121 41 .003-
p) Arts sponsorship
4.58 4.37 -.384 41 .703

 

Note: * Issues that genders care more about are based on means of a seven-point

Likert type scale and n = 43 (19 men and 24 women).

** Issue that men care most about.

*** Issue that women care most about.

-p<.05

64

 

Means

Figure 1

Issues that genders care more about

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Issues

I men El women

65

 

 

 

 

 

Survey results
ATTITUDES MEASUREMENT
Measurement puriﬁcation was applied in this section to identify items that
reliably measure the construct of attitudes. To measure the attitudes of the respondents
toward the company (in this case, La Trattoria restaurant), question four of the survey
presented seven items, which allow observation of these attitudes. A principal component
analysis, with varimax rotation was conducted on the items to examine the underlying
factor structure. The initial results revealed two factors. (See Table 4.) Factor loadings
of .4 and above were used to determine the factors. These seven items in question four
are: serve good food, are a good place to take a family, are fun, are a good value, are
overpriced, just care about making money, and are too ritzy.
Table 4

Factor loadings of the seven items of question 4 — scale of attitudes

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Items Factor 1 Factor 2

Serve good food .841

Are a good place to take a family .771

Are fun .700

Are a good value .522

Are overpriced .853
Just care about making money .720
Are too ritzy .413
Alpha = .71

 

 

 

66

C031

grr

be

In

Qt

 

 

Factor one grouped the positive items regarding serve good food (.841), good
place to take a family (.771), fun (.700) and a good value (.522). In addition, respondents
also felt the restaurants such as La Trattoria are overpriced (.853), just care about making
money (.720), and are too ritzy (.413). These negative characteristics were grouped in
factor two.

Measuring the positive and negative attributes of La T rattoria using all seven
items allowed the assessment of overall attitude toward the restaurant. Internal
consistency or reliability of the seven items was measured by the average correlation
Cronbach’s Alpha, which in this case was a = .71. This number indicates that the scale
was reliable. Consequently, a mean attitude score of 4.73 was created using the seven
variables. .

PREVIOUS BEHAVIOR BETWEEN GROUPS

Three t-tests were conducted to assess the impact of previous behavior between
groups (companies: local and national; causes: local and national; match and no match:
between gender and cause). These t-tests of group differences are designed to make sure
they were not extraneous measures on these variables. To estimate this impact, question
two (respondent does not often eat at the Olive Garden restaurant, a competitor), and
question ﬁve (respondent often donates to causes she/he cares about) were used.

The responses to the question “do not eat often eat at the Olive Garden restaurant

did not differ from when respondents are exposed to the situation of a local company
(Tc = 3.81) or cause (E = 4.00), and a national company (; = 4.02) or cause (E = 3.83). ~

The same occurred related to the means of a local company (; = 4.10) or cause

67

(E = 4.13), and a national company (E = 4.08) or cause (E = 4.05), when the subjects
were asked if they “oﬁen donate to the causes they care about.” (See Tables 5 and 6.)
Table 5

Previous behavior toward local versus national company

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Company Mean t df Sig. (2-
tailed)*
Question 2: Respondents Local 3.81 -.775 206 .439
do not often eat at Olive
Garden. National 4.02
Question 5: Respondents Local 4.10
often donate to causes they
care about. National 4.08 .080 206 .936
Note: *p > .05
Table 6
Previous behavior toward local versus national cause
Cause Mean t df Sig. (2-
tailed)*
Question 2: Respondents Local 4.00 .634 206 .527
do not oﬁen eat at Olive
Garden. National 3.83
Question 5: Respondents Local 4.13
often donate to causes they
care about. National 4.05 .322 206 .748
Note: * p > .05

68

Table 7

Previous behavior toward match versus no match between genders and causes

 

 

 

 

 

Genders - Cause Mean t df Sig. (2-
Match tailed)*
Question 2: Respondents Match between 3.86 -.358 206 .721
do not often eat at Olive genders and causes
Garden. No match between 3.96
genders and causes
Question 5: Respondents Match between 4.07
often donate to causes genders and causes
They care about. No match between 4.10 -.154 206 .878
genders and causes

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note: * p > .05

By analyzing Tables 5, 6 and 7 of the previous behavior of the three groups, 206
df Q) > .05) in the signiﬁcant 2-tailed columns, and their approximate means, it can be
concluded that no differences were found among the groups. Therefore, the hypotheses
can be tested in the next step.

HYPOTHESES TESTING

To test the hypotheses, a factorial ANOVA was used to measure the main effects
among the independent variables of company (local and national), cause (local and
national) and match (between genders and causes), and their interactions among company
versus cause, company versus match, cause versus match, and company versus cause
versus match. (See Table 8.) No signiﬁcant differences were found for the three main

effects — company, cause and match (p > .05). The means for each independent variable

69

are presented in Table 9. There are also no signiﬁcant differences among them.
Consequently, the hypotheses were not supported.

Table 8

Factorial ANO VA summary for the main eﬂects of the three independent variables

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source Sum of squares df Mean square F ratio Sig.
Main Company 1.339E-05 1 1.339E-05 .000 .996
Effects Cause .256 l .256 .488 .486
Match .433 l .433 .826 .365
Company 2.266 1 2.266 4.322 .039
vs. Cause
Company 1.189E-02 1 1.189-02 .023 .880
vs. Match
Interaction Cause vs. .433 1 .433 .826 .365
Match
Company 9.001 E-04 1 9.001E-04 .002 .967
vs. Cause
vs. Match
Error 104.319 199 .524
Total 107.716 206

 

MATCH VERSUS NO MATCH BETWEEN GENDERS

No differences in the issues that each gender cares more about were found.

Consequently, there is no support for H1. Table 9 shows that there are small differences

among the means related to the match and no match for female and male respondents,

which cannot tell anything about the effectiveness of the match for companies.

70

 

Table 9

Match and no match between attitudes of genders toward company and cause *

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[Company
Local I l I National ’1
Cause Match No match Match No match Total
Local 4.654 4.665 4.874 4.863 4.764
National 4.697 4.899 4.507 4.670 4.697
Total 4.731 4.731

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

— No match = 4.776 J

 

 

 

 

h—t Match=4.684 —*

 

 

 

Note: * Match and no match between attitudes of genders toward company and
cause are based on means.
However, a signiﬁcant interaction was found between the company and the cause
at the local and national levels. Table 8 shows that the attitudes toward the company

versus the cause groups were signiﬁcantly different, F (1 199) = 4.322, p < .05

(p = .039). To determine where this difference occurred, the means of each group were
examined in Tables 10 and 11.

Considering a 95 percent conﬁdence interval and the lower and upper bound of
each mean of Table 12, some signiﬁcant interactions occurred between company and

cause. (See Figure 2.)

71

Table 10

Interactions between company and cause *

 

 

 

 

Company
Cause Local National
Local 4.659 +_ 4.868
1
National 4.798 4’ 4.588 +

 

 

 

 

 

Note: * Interactions were measured by analyzing the means of each of the
paired diﬂerences.

Table 11

C onﬁdence interval of each mean from Table 10

 

 

 

 

 

 

95 Percent of Conﬁdence Interval
Means from Table 10 Lower Bound Upper Bound
4.659 4.461 4.857
4.798 4.600 4.996
4.868 4.670 5.066
4.588 4.389 4.788

 

 

 

 

 

There are interactions between:

; Local company/national cause (; = 4.798) versus national company/national cause
(3: = 4.588);

‘39 National company/local cause (E = 4.868) versus local company/local cause

(E = 4.659);

72

> National company/local cause (; = 4.868) versus national company/national cause
(E = 4.588).
Based on these interactions, no support for H2 and H3, in terms of proximity
variables (consumers’ favorableness toward local cause and consmners’ favorableness
toward local company sponsoring causes) could be found by the data. However, the

interactions indicated that respondents have more positive attitudes toward a national
company sponsoring a local cause (E = 4.868) than a national company sponsoring a
national cause (; = 4.588). Respondents also favored a national company sponsoring a

local cause (E = 4.868) more than a local company sponsoring a local cause (E = 4.659).
In addition, respondents are more supportive toward a local company sponsoring a
national cause (E = 4.798) than a national company sponsoring a national cause
(E = 4.588). (See Figure 2.)
SUMMARY

In the pretest, t-tests were run to examine among 16 social issues which issues
women and men care more about. The ﬁndings indicated seven signiﬁcant issues that
women care more about. Related to the other nine issues, there were no signiﬁcant
differences between women and men, indicating that they care about those issues equally.

Based on the pretest, “preventing cruelty to children” was the issue that female
respondents care more about. Therefore, it was the issue discussed in the ﬁrst four survey
questionnaires. Among issues that women and men care more about, “improving quality
of school and education level” was the issue that men were more concerned with. It was

discussed in survey questionnaires ﬁve through eight.

73

Figure 2

Interaction between company and cause

 

 

Mean Attitudes

4.9

4.8

4.7 --

r“
or

4.5 -

4.4

4.3 '

Local

Interaction between company and cause

Company National

, I

Local Cause

A

National
Cause

 

74

 

In the survey stage, to measure the attitudes of the respondents toward the
company, seven items of question four of the survey were examined. The ﬁndings
revealed two factors of positive and negative attributes of the company consistent among
them, which allowed the assessment of overall attitude toward the company.

Three t-tests were also conducted to assess the impact of previous behavior
between groups (companies: local and national; causes: local and national; match and no
match: between gender and cause). To estimate this impact, questions two and ﬁve of the
survey questionnaires were used. There were no differences in both responses when
respondents were exposed to the situation of a local company or cause, and a national
company or cause.

To test the hypotheses, a factorial ANOVA was used to measure the main effects
among the independent variables and their interactions. No signiﬁcant differences were
found for the three main effects — company, cause and match (p > .05).

In addition, no differences in the issues that each gender cares more about were
found. Therefore, there is no support for H1. However, a signiﬁcant interaction was
found between the company and the cause at the local and national levels. Based on these
interactions, no support for H2 and H3, in terms of proximity variables (consumers’
favorableness toward local cause and consumers’ favorableness toward local company

sponsoring causes) could be found by the data.

75

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

This chapter contains a brief summary of the problem and the theory. The
empirical ﬁndings are interpreted in terms of the theoretical concepts discussed in
Chapter One. Furthermore, the methodological and theoretical limitations of this study
are developed in conjunction with implications for future research.

Summary of the problem

This study was designed to empirically investigate the correlation and attitudes of
genders toward different types of causes and corporations (local and national). The study
was divided into three stages, conducted by a pretest and survey. These three stages
attempted: 1) to ﬁnd the social issues with which women and men are more concerned;
2) to explore the attitudes of respondents toward local and national causes; 3) and to
investigate the inﬂuence of the size and geographic location of a company sponsoring a
social cause on the attitude of consumers.

Theoretical implications
CRM

In terms of CRM effectiveness, the majority of Americans believe that this is a
strategy to help the country solve social problems, and the public uses to support this
strategy (Varadarajan & Menon, 1988; Webb & Mohr, 1998; PR Newswire, 1993).
Consumers also think that CRM is a good way to increase money for social causes (Ross,

Stutts & Patterson, 1990-1991; Ross, Patterson & Stutts, 1992). However, sometimes

76

Ct

\\

 

companies can be viewed by the public as exploitative when they donate money to help
worthy causes (Pringle & Thompson, 1999).

Related to the types of causes supported by companies, Ross, Stutts and Patterson
(1990-1991) indicate that causes aimed at curing a disease (e. g. cancer), supporting
disaster relief, providing shelter for the homeless, and protecting the environment are
more popular among the public, receiving high ratings.

The evidence that “conservation/restoration of public monuments” was the issue
that both genders care about the least supports the research of Ross, Stutts and Patterson
(1990-1991). In this study, respondents were also more concerned with cleaning up the
environment, preserving endangered species, preventing and combating violence and
helping people suffering from economic difﬁculties.

PURCHASE INTENTION AND BRAND AFFINITY

Schaffer (1981) states that purchase intention and brand afﬁnity are attitudes
dependent on individual characteristics (e. g. personality, cultural and social experiences,
levels of education, marital status, age, employment, economic situation, place of
residence, ethnicity and other variables). Consumers’ decision or intention to buy a
product/service occurs when the behavioral consequences of the action are considered
(Peter & Olson, 1999).

In the ﬁrst Benchmark Survey on Consumer Attitudes toward Cause-Related
Marketing, 78 percent of adults conﬁrmed they would purchase a product/service of a
company sponsoring a cause that they are more concerned with. Furthermore, 66 percent
of adults added that they would switch brands or choose one where a worthy cause could

receive some beneﬁts. In the same survey, 54 percent of adults declared they would pay

77

more for a product/service when the company sponsors issues really important for them
(PR Newswire, 1993; Campbell, Gulas & Gruca, 1999).

Some studies also indicate that both purchase intention and brand affinity can be
inﬂuenced by low price and high quality of the product/service, time of the brand in the
marketplace, and distribution (Chintagunta & Prasad, 1998). Although price is a relevant
element in a consumer’s choice and purchase behavior, for some products this might be
relative, according to the low or high involvement of a person with the product/service
and her/his economic situation (Cobb-Walgren, Ruble & Donthu, 1995). Anschuetz
(1997) also believes that brand loyalty increases when the product/service becomes more
popular among consumers.

CONGRUENCY

Sirgy (1982) and Metha (1999) deﬁne congruency as the matching process of
consumer self-image and perceived product image. In a process of purchase behavior and
brand afﬁnity, a product/service will have value to a consumer when it matches her/his
own self-concepts and beliefs. Therefore, the product/service, company and cause should
match the ideal congruency of consumers’ expectations (Ericksen, 1996).

Adjusting in terms of different types of CRM, consumers will have more positive
attitudes toward a company or a brand when the organization sponsors a cause that has a
signiﬁcant meaning for them (Tversky, Sattath & Slovic, 198; Chandon, Wansink &
Laurent, 2000). Hong and Zinkhan (1995) also support that positive attitudes toward
companies were found when consumers and ﬁrms’ interests and objectives matched. The
greater the congruency between the product/service image and consumers’ self-concept,

the more consumers will have positive attitudes toward the product/service, brand and

78

company (Sirgy, 1982). On the other hand, when this congruency does not exist,
consumers are indifferent or present negative attitudes toward the cause or company

(Metha, 1999).

No signiﬁcant differences were found for the three main effects — company, cause
and match (p > .05). Consequently, the hypotheses were not supported and the current
study’s ﬁndings do not show support for the literature in the areas of Purchase Intention,
Brand Afﬁnity and Congruency.

GENDER ROLES

Bern (1993) deﬁnes gender roles as social experiences which are programmed
differently for each gender in the society. This author believes that women and men are
socialized in a different way to play distinct roles within the society.

Deaux (1976), Golombok and F ivush (1 994) suggest that women and men have
different concerns because they are treated differently ﬁ'om birth. Consequently, they
learn behaviors that are typically female and male. This difference of gender behaviors
can be attributed to variances in cultural values and socialization that happens not only at
home, but also through social experiences (Golombok and F ivush, 1994).

Based on CRM, some researchers believe that genders have different attitudes,
behaviors and opinions toward companies, products/services and social issues because of
their own characteristics. For instance, Ross, Stutts and Patterson suggest that women are
more sensitive to CRM than are men. Therefore, the female consumers have more
favorable attitudes toward companies and causes than do men (Ross, Stutts, & Patterson,

1990-1991; Ross, Patterson & Stutts, 1992).

79

These characteristics were also observed by Carol Cone, Cone Communications
CEO, who reports that women and parents support CRM (Business Wire, 1997).
McDaniel & Kinney (1998) mention that women react more positively to companies
sponsoring social issues than do men.

The study shows that there are some issues that women care about more than do
men. However, other issues important to men are also equally important to women. It
means that CRM campaigns have high probability of success if adopted by companies

where the main target is female consumers.

In terms of individual features of each gender, Golombok and F ivush (1984) state
that women are more relational and care-oriented. Hall (1984) believes that this happens
because of women’s universal responsibility for child rearing.

Eagly (1987) and Meyers-Levy (1988) also suggest that women have more
“communal concerns” and positive attitudes toward “other-oriented” appeals than do men
because of women’s tendency of “nurturance” and “care.” For instance, they posit that
women devote themselves to others, are helpful, kind, love children, and soothe hurt
feelings, all afﬁliation orientation characteristics (Bakan, 1966; Schaffer, 1981; Hall,
1984; Eagly, 1987; Meyers-Levy, 1988). In addition, Deaux ( 1976), Schaffer (1981),
Hall (1984) and Eagly (1987) believe that women are more socially sensitive,
interpersonally oriented and easily inﬂuenced. The researchers contend that women tend
to identify with other people, especially in critical situations.

The results in the current study indicate that women generally care more than men

about some social issues. This supports prior sex role research of Bakan (l 966), Deaux

80

(1976), Schaffer (1981), Hall (1984), Golombok and F ivush (1984), Eagly (1987) and
Meyers-Levy (1988) which suggest that women are more “socially sensitive” and “care-
and children-oriented.” “Preventing cruelty to children” was the issue that women in this
study care most about. Such ﬁndings reinforce that companies which have female
consumers as the main target should consider promoting their product/service using CRM
and approaching themes which are more care- and other-oriented.

Furthermore, the other issues that women are more concerned with, such as “anti-

99 ‘6

hunger efforts,” “breast cancer awareness, combating crimes” and “kids help line”
mirror women’s characteristics of being “kind,” and again “care- and other-oriented” and

having more “communal concerns.”

On the other hand, some authors believe that men think more about moral subjects
related to “individual rights” and “principles of justice.” They suggest that men are more
concerned with personal consequences (Golombok & Fivush, 1994) and life
achievements (Schaffer, 1981 ). While women are more “alterocentric,” men are more
achievement-oriented.

The current study ﬁnds that in the group of issues that women and men care about
equally, “improving quality of school and education level” was the issue with which men
were more concerned. This can demonstrate men’s features of “life achievements” and
“personal consequences” to justify men’s higher mean in this topic. The fact that female
respondents in this study care at the same level about this issue (both genders were
balanced) may be explained by the circumstance that the respondents were students and

therefore more similar in their behaviors.

81

However, as Hall (1984) suggests, there are distinct viewpoints regarding these
sex differences. Deaux (1976) and Schaffer (1981) mention that many conclusions made
by some researchers about genders’ differences are wrong. They say that there is a
tendency in this kind of study to focus only on differences between genders, but not on
similarities (Schaffer, 1981). In addition, Deaux (1976) indicates that there is little
evidence about the difference in behaviors of women and men. Deaux sustains that this
small difference does not justify stereotyped generalizations. Eagly (1987) also adds that
psychologists posit that gender similarities are more common than differences.

The researcher in this study found that, for the majority of the issues, female and
male respondents care equally about the same topics. Because there was not any issue
that men care about more than do women, this may explain Deaux (1976) and Eagly’s
(1987) position that the similarities between the genders are more common than the
differences. It endorses that the genders are more homogeneous and uniform in their
behaviors. Thus, the differences between women and men exposed by some researchers
might be inaccurate, biased, and not as prevalent in recent years which have experienced
many changes in social and cultural lifestyles. Taking this point in consideration, it may
be too great a leap to generalize sex differences to the population as a whole.

Nevertheless, it should be highlighted that the results have also provided some
implications speciﬁcally related to the population selected for this study. The fact that no
signiﬁcant differences were found among the issues that men care more about can be
justiﬁed by the homogeneity of the sample in terms of level of education, age, geographic

location, and income.

82

PROXIMITY

Ross, Stutts and Patterson (1990-1991) indicate that the public is more able to
recall and support social issues in CRM when the issues are local or regional, and a long-
terrn program (Business Wire, 1997) as opposed to national or international causes.
Because local and regional causes are closer to consumers in general (and for that reason
more accessible for the public to exert some control), it is easier for them to engage in a
behavior that is part of their reality and to follow the development of the philanthropy
than to relate to national or international causes — sometimes far from their locus of
control. Proximity exerts relevant inﬂuence in consumer behavior and attitudes in a CRM
campaign (Varadarajan & Menon, 1988). Kelley mentions that many experts believe that
“it builds additional goodwill when people see the money from a company coming into
their community, and it also gives retailers and distributors in the area a chance to look
good to their customers,” (Kelley, 1991, p.62).

Welsh (1999) supports the same idea of proximity and contends that one key
ingredient for a successful CRM program is to act locally. He reports that people in
Dallas would be more receptive to support a local cause (e. g. children’s hospital) than a
national cause. Welsh also believes that American Express’ successful national CRM
campaign supporting the restoration of the Statue of Liberty was a singular cause that
should not be generalized.

However, Ross, Patterson and Stutts (1992) could not ﬁnd a statistically
' signiﬁcant difference between respondents who have a more positive attitude toward a
company which sponsors a local cause than toward a company which supports a national

issue.

83

Although no supports were found for the hypotheses in the current study, there are
some interesting interactions related to the type of company and cause that can inﬂuence
future strategies in the CRM ﬁeld. For instance, respondents’ attitudes toward a national
company sponsoring a local cause are more positive than a national company sponsoring
a national cause or a local company sponsoring a local cause. It is logical from a
consumer’s point of view, considering that a national company is normally well known
by the public, and the fact that it is sponsoring a local cause makes the consumer think
that the philanthropy donation is better administered and controlled (more reliable)
because of its size and number of employees. Moreover, a national company could be
seen as more effective because of the relatively large amount of the donation. It also
approaches the point of proximity — a national company matched with a local cause in an
attempt to be closer to its consumers. From consumers’ perceptions and their helping
behaviors, a local cause could also be more effective in terms of visibility and immediate
results.

In addition, respondents in this study were more likely to favor a local company
sponsoring a national cause than a national company sponsoring a national cause. This is
partially consistent, considering that a local company (closer to consumers) is sponsoring
a national cause which has large reach, and consequently is more effective also.
Nevertheless, it would be much coherent if the size of a company (local or national)
sponsoring a national cause were compatible to the size and proportion of the campaign
involved. It would be more reasonable that a local company dealing with its local target
public would sponsor a local cause that would directly affect the community of its

consumers.

84

All these interactions show that national companies interested in adopting CRM’s
strategy should look for local causes in the region where they are operating. It might be
assumed from analyzing the data that local companies would beneﬁt from sponsoring
national causes. However, the most signiﬁcant and supported ﬁnding is the interaction
between national company and local cause.

Final thoughts

The fact that women scored higher than men on all issues exposed in the pretest
supports the literature which suggests that women are more sensitive, emotional,
relational, and care-oriented than are men. They are very affected by communal concerns
and give more importance to social topics in general than do men. Because the sample
was very homogenous, in terms of same level of education, age, geographic location,
income and cultural norms, this can be considered an important result.

Related to the perceived motivations of respondents to have more positive
attitudes toward national companies sponsoring local causes, national companies may
transmit more credibility and reliability to the public because of the size investments
made by these types of corporations. Consequently, national companies have expensive
and large marketing, advertising and public relations campaigns which increase
awareness about the company. Local companies, in general, have limited budgets.

In addition, consumers may feel that a national company cares about their local
problems, even if the company has other types of customers located in other places as
well. A local cause is also more easily controlled by consumers because it is close to

them and they are affected more directly.

85

Another point is that a national company may be seen as more effective because
the donation is larger than that of a local company. The public may trust a national
company more and see it as more successﬁil and better administered in terms of honesty
to pass the donated amount to the local cause.

Past experiences of some local companies, whose directors misused the charitable
donation of this type of campaign (CRM) or whose amount of money was not sufficient
to show signiﬁcant results to the public, may exert an appeal for the favorability of the
respondents toward a national company sponsoring a local cause.

Limitations

This study had several limitations. One relevant problem was the population
selected for the study. The methodology used in this research also limited the results.
Certainly, no generalization can be taken from the ﬁndings, beyond one to a particular
Midwestern university’s population of undergraduate students.

POPULATION

To have a homogeneous population in this study was probably a mistake. First,
the students investigated were very young, with limited income, considering that they are
still studying and have not yet ﬁnished their undergraduate degrees. Therefore, it is a
population very price sensitive and perhaps not very much concerned with donations,
strong values and social problems. In addition, possibly they could not clearly recognize
a local versus national company and whether a company was sponsoring a local or
national cause. They are more concerned with having ﬁrn, and obtaining products at a

good price, based on their own condition of not having enough disposable income to

86

consider donating to a cause. It is hard to believe that they would switch brands, or
choose one where a worthy cause could receive some beneﬁts, if the cost was greater.
Furthermore, because the sample has basically the same level of education, age,
objectives and is located in the same geographic region, there were no differences among
issues that each gender cares more about. Perhaps, these differences could have been
found if the sample were different. For instance, female and male respondents care
equally about some social issues (their means were very close), such as “improving

’9 6‘

quality of school and education level”, “preserving endangered species, cleaning up the

,9 ‘6 ’9 66

environment, sponsorship of youth and sport programs, arts sponsorship” and others.

If another sample frame were used — for instance, staff and faculty members from
Michigan State University or even community members from Lansing and two or three
other cities of the state, in a random sample — maybe more conclusive and precise
ﬁndings could have been produced (such as issues that men care about more than do
women, affecting the survey and results more directly). It would be a more heterogeneous
group, with different ages and education, and probably with a certain amount of money to
spend and donate.

METHODOLOGY

Related to the questionnaire format, where some characteristics of importance for
the research were highlighted in bold (e. g. whether it was a local or national company
sponsoring a local or national cause), the attention of the subjects was possibly not
captured by this detail. Apparently, there were no differences for the respondents about

the size of the company and the extension of the cause supported, in terms of being local

or national.

87

The ﬁndings could have been more substantial if there were an article with a
concrete/real example of a well known company sponsoring a cause (e. g. a short article
of Ben & Jerry’s reporting its efforts in the community by sponsoring a cause) or some
brief examples, followed by an easy deﬁnition of CRM.

The example exposed in the survey (an Italian restaurant at the same level and
location of Olive Garden) may not have been strong enough to touch the respondents in
the degree of caring more about the type of company and cause sponsored (although
previous behavior has been analyzed in Chapter Four).

Additionally, the subjects could have been asked if they had prior experiences in
purchasing a product/ service sponsoring a cause that they care about or even if in the
present, they would purchase a product/service which would result in a donation to
charity.

Also the convenience sampling method used in this research could have been
extended. Likely, a higher number of respondents could have showed different results.
Moreover, a random sample was not used in this study because the sample was
considered homogeneous/uniform. In any case, this was a relevant limitation.

Future research

By analyzing the implications and limitations of this study, the same research
could be conducted again, considering modiﬁcations in the sample frame and in the
methodology sections, as previously mentioned.

CRM is a beneﬁcial strategy for all parties involved (company, charitable
organization, the public and consumers), when well developed and positioned. Little

previous research investigating the correlation between attitudes of genders toward

88

different types of causes and corporations (local and national) has been conducted.

Therefore, future research in the ﬁeld of CRM should explore:

\\
I‘

‘7

‘7

V/

‘7

‘7

The reason consumers have more positive attitudes toward a local company
sponsoring a national cause than a local company sponsoring a local cause.
Consumers’ responses to CRM, in terms of the amount of donation that the cause can
receive, and whether the size of the company (local and national) exerts some
signiﬁcant inﬂuence on their behavior.

Whether a signiﬁcant number of companies, which sponsor a social cause, have
women as their target group.

The reason CRM does not exert signiﬁcant inﬂuence on a product with a utilitarian
nature, but has higher inﬂuence on a product with a hedonic nature.

Attitudes of consumers toward a new purchase behavior after having performed a
donation to another company engaged in a charitable strategy.

Types of media which exert higher inﬂuence in purchase behavior of consumers,
when a company is introducing a CRM campaign.

How employees perceive and support the sponsorship of their companies toward
charitable causes.

Other studies could also be conducted to measure the effectiveness of CRM.

These are just some insights that can suggest strategies for using CRM more effectively.

89

APPENDICES

90

1.

Social Issues — Survey

Appendix A

Pretest

First, I would like to have your opinion about some social issues. There are some

topics listed below. Please, circle the number that best describes the level of your

concerns:

a) Cleaning up the environment

b) Improving quality of school and
education level

c) Sponsorship of youth and sports
programs

d) Awareness of domestic violence

e) Conservation/restoration of
public monuments

f) Preserving endangered species

g) Anti-hunger efforts

h) Breast cancer awareness

i) Combating crime

j) Kids help line (providing advice
on different topics related to
children)

k) Improving volunteerism

l) Donation to non-proﬁt

organizations (Red Cross,
Unicef. . .)

Low
Importance
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
l 2

91

High

Importance
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7

Low High

Importance Importance

m) Human right causes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

n) Preventing cruelty to children 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0) Reducing poverty in the Third

World 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

p) Arts sponsorship 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. What is your gender?
Male ( ) Female ( )

3. Are you an enrolled MSU undergraduate student?
Yes ( ) No ( )

4. Are you an American citizen?
Yes ( ) N0 ( )

Thank you for agreeing to give your opinion in this study.

92

Appendix B

Questionnaire # 1

La T rattoria, a national chain of Italian restaurants, is completing a new
restaurant near Meridian Mall. The restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and
is known for its gourmet pizza and fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly
and will celebrate its success by donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand
opening in the month of August to the National Organization Against Violence to
Children.

The company is trying to ﬁgure out people’s eating habits and how likely people
are to try out its new East Lansing location.

Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with the following

statements.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I often eat out for dinner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I do not often eat at the Olive
Garden restaurant. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I don’t think I will try a
restaurant like La Trattoria. l 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. La T rattoria sounds like a good
place to eat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In general, I think restaurants such as La T rattoria

93

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree
serve good food 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are overpriced 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are fun 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are too ritzy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
just care about making money 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good place to take a family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Now, please tell us your feelings about supporting charities.

5. I often donate to causes I care
about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. I donate more often to local
charities than national charities. l 2 3 4 5 6 7

7. I would not eat at La Trattoria
to support a cause I believe in. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. La Trattoria ’s charitable efforts

are good for my community. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I often buy from companies
which support social issues. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. La Trattoria is supporting a
cause which I care about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11. Please, indicate your gender Male ( ) Female ( )

12. Are you an enrolled MSU
undergraduate student? Yes ( ) No ( )

13. Are you an American citizen? Yes ( ) No ( )

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey.

94

Appendix C
Questionnaire # 2

La Trattoria, a national chain of Italian restaurants, is completing a new
restaurant near Meridian Mall. The restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and
is known for its gourmet pizza and fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly
and will celebrate its success by donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand
opening in the month of August to the Lansing Organization Against Violence to
Children.

The company is trying to ﬁgure out people’s eating habits and how likely people
are to try out its new East Lansing location.

Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with the following

statements.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I often eat out for dinner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I do not often eat at the Olive
Garden restaurant. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I don’t think I will try a
restaurant like La Trattoria. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. La Trattoria sounds like a good
place to eat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In general, I think restaurants such as La T rattoria

95

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree
serve good food 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are overpriced 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are fun 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are too ritzy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
just care about making money 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good place to take a family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Now, please tell us your feelings about supporting charities.
5. I often donate to causes I care
about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. I donate more often to local
charities than national charities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. I would not eat at La T rattoria
to support a cause I believe in. l 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. La Trattoria ’s charitable efforts
are good for my community. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I often buy from companies
which support social issues. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. La Trattoria is supporting a
cause which I care about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11. Please, indicate your gender Male ( ) Female ( )
12. Are you an enrolled MSU
undergraduate student? Yes ( ) No ( )
13. Are you an American citizen? Yes ( ) No ( )

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey.

96

Appendix D
Questionnaire # 3

La T rattoria, an Italian restaurant located in Lansing, is completing a new
restaurant near Meridian Mall. The restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and
is known for its gourmet pizza and fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly
and will celebrate its success by donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand
opening in the month of August to the Lansing Organization Against Violence to
Children.

The company is trying to ﬁgure out people’s eating habits and how likely people
are to try out its new East Lansing location.

Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with the following

statements.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I often eat out for dinner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I do not often eat at the Olive
Garden restaurant. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I don’t think I will try a
restaurant like La Trattoria. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. La T rattoria sounds like a good
place to eat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In general, I think restaurants such as La Trattoria

97

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree
serve good food 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are overpriced l 2 3 4 5 6 7
are fun 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are too ritzy l 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
just care about making money 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good place to take a family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Now, please tell us your feelings about supporting charities.

5. I often donate to causes I care
about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. I donate more often to local
charities than national charities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7. I would not eat at La Trattoria
to support a cause I believe in. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. La T rattoria ’s charitable efforts

are good for my community. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I often buy from companies
which support social issues. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. La Trattoria is supporting a
cause which I care about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11. Please, indicate your gender Male ( ) Female ( )

12. Are you an enrolled MSU
undergraduate student? Yes ( ) No ( )

13. Are you an American citizen? Yes ( ) No ( )

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey.

98

Appendix E

MIME

La T rattoria, an Italian restaurant located in Lansing, is completing a new
restaurant near Meridian Mall. The restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and
is known for its gourmet pizza and fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly
and will celebrate its success by donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand
opening in the month of August to the National Organization Against Violence to
Children.

The company is trying to ﬁgure out people’s eating habits and how likely people
are to try out its new East Lansing location.

Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with the following

statements.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I often eat out for dinner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I do not often eat at the Olive
Garden restaurant. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I don’t think I will try a
restaurant like La Trattoria. l 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. La T rattoria sounds like a good
place to eat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In general, I think restaurants such as La Trattoria

99

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree
serve good food 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are overpriced 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are ﬁin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are too ritzy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
just care about making money 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good place to take a family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Now, please tell us your feelings about supporting charities.
5. 1 often donate to causes I care
about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. I donate more often to local
charities than national charities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. I would not eat at La Trattoria
to support a cause I believe in. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. La Trattoria ’s charitable efforts
are good for my community. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I often buy from companies
which support social issues. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. La Trattoria is supporting a
cause which I care about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11. Please, indicate your gender Male ( ) Female ( )

12. Are you an enrolled MSU
undergraduate student? Yes ( ) No( )

13. Are you an American citizen? Yes ( ) No ( )

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey.

100

Appendix F
Questionnaire # 5

La T rattoria, a national chain of Italian restaurants, is completing a new
restaurant near Meridian Mall. The restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and
is known for its gourmet pizza and fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly
and will celebrate its success by donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand
opening in the month of August to the US. Department of Education to purchase
computer equipment for public schools around the nation.

The company is trying to ﬁgure out people’s eating habits and how likely people
are to try out its new East Lansing location.

Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with the following

statements.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I often eat out for dinner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I do not often eat at the Olive
Garden restaurant. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I don’t think I will try a
restaurant like La Trattoria. l 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. La Trattoria sounds like a good
place to eat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In general, I think restaurants such as La Trattoria

lOl

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree
serve good food 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are overpriced l 2 3 4 5 6 7
are fun 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are too ritzy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
just care about making money 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good place to take a family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Now, please tell us your feelings about supporting charities.
5. I often donate to causes I care
about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. I donate more often to local
charities than national charities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. I would not eat at La Trattoria
to support a cause I believe in. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. La Trattoria ’s charitable efforts
are good for my community. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I often buy from companies
which support social issues. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. La T rattoria is supporting a
cause which I care about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11. Please, indicate your gender Male ( ) Female ( )

12. Are you an enrolled MSU
undergraduate student? Yes ( ) No ( )

13. Are you an American citizen? Yes ( ) No ( )

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey.

102

Appendix G
Questionnaire # 6

La T rattoria, a national chain of Italian restaurants, is completing a new
restaurant near Meridian Mall. The restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and
is known for its gourmet pizza and fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly
and will celebrate its success by donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand
opening in the month of August for Lansing area schools to purchase computer
equipment.

The company is trying to ﬁgure out people’s eating habits and how likely people
are to try out its new East Lansing location.

Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with the following

statements.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I often eat out for dinner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I do not often eat at the Olive
Garden restaurant. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I don’t think I will try a
restaurant like La Trattoria. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. La Trattoria sounds like a good
place to eat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In general, I think restaurants such as La T rattoria

103

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree
serve good food 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are overpriced 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are fun 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are too ritzy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
just care about making money 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good place to take a family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Now, please tell us your feelings about supporting charities.
5. I often donate to causes I care
about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. I donate more often to local
charities than national charities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. I would not eat at La T rattoria
to support a cause I believe in. l 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. La T rattoria ’s charitable efforts
are good for my community. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I often buy from companies
which support social issues. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. La Trattoria is supporting a
cause which I care about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11. Please, indicate your gender Male ( ) Female ( )

12. Are you an enrolled MSU
undergraduate student? Yes ( ) No ( )

13. Are you an American citizen? Yes ( ) No ( )

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey.

104

Appendix H
Questionnaire # 7

La T rattoria, an Italian restaurant located in Lansing, is completing a new
restaurant near Meridian Mall. The restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and
is known for its gourmet pizza and fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly
and will celebrate its success by donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand
opening in the month of August for Lansing area schools to purchase computer
equipment.

The company is trying to ﬁgure out people’s eating habits and how likely people
are to try out its new East Lansing location.

Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with the following

statements.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I often eat out for dinner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I do not often eat at the Olive
Garden restaurant. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I don’t think I will try a
restaurant like La Trattoria. l 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. La Trattoria sounds like a good
place to eat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In general, I think restaurants such as La Trattoria

105

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree
serve good food 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are overpriced 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are fun 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are too ritzy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
just care about making money 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
are a good place to take a family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Now, please tell us your feelings about supporting charities.

5. I often donate to causes I care
about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. I donate more often to local .
charities than national charities. l 2 3 4 5 6 7

7. I would not eat at La Trattoria

to support a cause I believe in. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. La Trattoria ’s charitable efforts

are good for my community. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I often buy from companies

which support social issues. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. La T rattoria is supporting a

cause which I care about. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11. Please, indicate your gender Male ( ) Female ( )

12. Are you an enrolled MSU
undergraduate student? Yes ( ) No ( )

13. Are you an American citizen? Yes ( ) No ( )

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey.

106

Appendix I

Questionnaire # 8

La Trattoria, an Italian restaurant located in Lansing, is completing a new
restaurant near Meridian Mall. The restaurant serves moderately priced Italian dishes and
is known for its gourmet pizza and fun atmosphere. The company is expanding rapidly
and will celebrate its success by donating 10 cents of each dollar spent during its grand
opening in the month of August to the US. Department of Education to purchase
computer equipment for public schools around the nation.

The company is trying to ﬁgure out people’s eating habits and how likely people
are to try out its new East Lansing location.

Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with the following

statements.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I often eat out for dinner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I do not often eat at the Olive
Garden restaurant. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I don’t think 1 will try a
restaurant like La T rattoria. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. La Trattoria sounds like a good
place to eat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In general, I think restaurants such as La Trattoria

107

serve good food

are overpriced

areﬁrn

are too ritzy

are a good value

just care about making money

are a good place to take a family

Now, please tell us your feelings about supporting charities.

5.

10.

11.

12.

13.

I often donate to causes I care
about.

. I donate more often to local

charities than national charities.

. I would not eat at La Trattoria

to support a cause I believe in.

La T rattoria ’s charitable efforts
are good for my community.

. I often buy from companies

which support social issues.
La T rattoria is supporting a
cause which I care about.
Please, indicate your gender

Are you an enrolled MSU
undergraduate student?

Are you an American citizen?

Strongly

Disagree
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2
Male ( )
Yes ( )
Yes ( )

AAA-b-h-h

Female (

No(

No(

)
)

Strongly

Agree
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7

)

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey.

108

REFERENCES

109

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