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I In“! . rhi"--.‘4.O-‘!“JP ‘l ‘ :1... $1114”; s.» .vb. .III, {.1 .‘1 ‘4 l1"). 1 hi% limit! .v This is to certify that the thesis entitled WILLIAM BILLINGS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPOSER AS SHOWN BY AN ANALYSIS OF HIS ANTHEMS presented by Kimberly Anne Veenstra has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for MM. . ' ,. degree In Musrc Theory Major professor Date 5 . 0‘7. 2000 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution LIBRARY Mi°higan State University PLACE IN RETURN Box to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE AUG 27 2002 :11 0 {I 02 9.513 33 .30 4 a «’1 6/01 cJCIRC/DateOuepes-sz WILLIAM BILLINGS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPOSER AS SHOWN BY AN ANALYSIS OF HIS AN THEMS By Kimberly Anne Veensh'a A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF MUSIC School of Music 2000 ABSTRACT WILLIAM BILLIN GS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPOSER AS SHOWN BY AN ANALYSIS OF HIS AN THEMS By Kimberly Anne Veenstra William Billings (1746-1800) was an American composer who wrote music almost exclusively in four-part vocal texture. One genre that Billings was quite proficient in was the anthem, an English derivative of the Latin motet. From these anthems, much can be observed about Billings’s compositional style. The aim of this study is to trace the evolution of Billings’s work through an analysis of nearly all of his forty-eight anthems. Elements addressed in this analysis include text, form, meter and rhythm, and harmony. An overview of the anthems in each large publication of Billings’s work, which includes some defining features of his development as a composer, is presented first. A detailed analysis of two anthems with the same title and much of the same text, which shows more specific changes between Billings’s earliest compositions and his later ones, is presented second. The reader will find that such a study of Billings’s anthems shows his marked growth as a musician. Successive publications reveal stylistic changes, and the changes demonstrate an ever-increasing understanding of music and composition. Copyright by KIMBERLY ANNE VEENSTRA 2000 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to extend my thanks to the American Musicological Society for granting me permission to reproduce William Billings’s music. I am also grateful to several faculty members at Michigan State University for aiding me in the completion of my thesis. First of all, I would like to thank Dr. Gordon Sly for acting as chair of my thesis committee. His comments, suggestions, and flexibility with my hectic schedule have been much appreciated. Second, I would like to thank the other members of my thesis committee, Dr. Bruce Taggart and Dr. Jonathan Reed. They have inspired me to further my studies in early American music. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Michael Largey for introducing me to the book, The Clockwork Muse by Eviatar Zerubavel, without which I don’t know ifI would have ever begun writing. The prayers and encouragement from my family and friends have been a blessing to me. I would like to thank my colleagues and students at Michigan State University, my friends in Grand Rapids, my relatives and my parents for all . their love and support during the past year. I would especially like to thank my husband, Matt, who has been the best friend I could ever ask for. He has always been there for me, even when I could not be there for him. He has endured through my time-consuming schedule and my countless moments of stress. Throughout my studies at Michigan State University, he has showered me with compassion and support iv Finally, I must give my utmost praise and thanks to God. It has been such a comfort to know that He is always there for me, watching over me every minute of every day. He is my sole source of strength, and without him I can accomplish nothing. ”Not to us, 0 LORD, not to us but to your name be the glory, because of your love and faithfulness.” (Psalm 115:1 N'IV) TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF EXAMPLES .............................................. .vii . INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1 CHAPTER 1 THE ANTHEMS .................................................. 6 The New-England Psalm-Singer ................................. 9 The Singing Master’s Assistant .................................. 20 The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement ................................. 32 The Sufiblk Harmony .......................................... 40 The Continental Harmony ...................................... 45 CHAPTER 2 BLESSED IS HE THAT CONSIDERETH THE POOR ................... 57 Text ........................................................ 57 Form ....................................................... 61 Meter and Rhythm .......................................... 68 Melody .................................................... 74 Harmony ................................................... 77 CONCLUSIONS ................................................... 81 APPENDIX A BLESSED IS HE THAT CONSIDERETH THE POOR From The New-England Psalm-Singer ............................ 85 APPENDIX B BLESSED IS HE THAT CONSIDERETH THE POOR From The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement ............................ 97 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................. 110 LIST OF EXAMPLES Example 1a: ”The Lord is King,” mm. 1-5 (Original barring by Billings) . . 12 Example 1b: ”The Lord is King," mm. 1-5 (Re-barring by Kroeger) ....... 12 Example 2a: ”The Lord is King,” mm. 74-79 (Original barring by Billings) 13 Example 2b: ”The Lord is King,” mm. 74-79 (Re-barring by Kroeger) ..... 13 Example 3a: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 1-27 (Original barring by Billings) .............................................. 14 Example 3b: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 1-27 (Re-barring by Kroeger) . . . 15 Example 4a: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 117-127 (Original barring by Billings) .............................................. 16 Example 4b: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 117-127 (Re-barring by Kroeger) 16 Example 5: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 89-105 ....................... 17 Example 6: Dotted rhythms found in NEPS .......................... 18 Example 7: ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor,” mm. 13-15 ...... 18 Example 8a: ”Hear My Pray’ r,” mm. 20-25 (Original setting by Billings) . . 25 Example 8b: ”Hear My Pray’ r,” mm. 20-25 (Alternate re-barring) ........ 25 . Example 9a: ”Funeral Anthem,” mm. 12-15 (Original setting by Billings) . 26 Example 9b: ”Funeral Anthem,” mm. 12-15 (Alternate re-barring) ....... 26 Example 10a: ”Retrospect,” mm. 87-90 (Original setting by Billings) ...... 27 Example 10b: ”Retrospect,” mm. 87-90 (Alternate re-barring) ........... 27 Example 11: ”I am the Rose of Sharon,” mm. 98-110 ................... 28 Example 12: ”Is Any Afflicted," mm. 6-7 ............................. 29 vii Example 13a: ”Lamentation Over Boston,” mm. 54-57 .................. 30 Example 13b: ”Lamentation Over Boston,” mm. 100-102 ................ 30 Example 14: ”lam the Rose of Sharon,” mm. 35-38 .................... 30 Example 15a: ”And I Saw a Mighty Angel,” mm. 4-7 (Original setting by Billings) ........................................... 35 Example 15b: ”And I Saw a Mighty Angel,” mm. 4-7 (Possible alternate setting) ............................................... 35 Example 16a: ”And I Saw a Mighty Angel,” mm. 57-60 (Original setting by Billings) ........................................... 36 Example 16b: ”And I Saw a Mighty Angel,” mm. 57-60 (Alternate re-barring) ............................................ 36 Example 17: ”The Beauty of Israel,” mm. 37-44 ....................... 36 Example 18: ”Let Ev’ ry Mortal Ear Attend,” m. 21 ..................... 37 Example 19: ”Consonance,” mm. 77-82 ............................... 37 Example 20: ”Who is This that Cometh from Edom,” mm. 149-160 ....... 38 I Example 21: ”Funeral Anthem,” mm. 8-11 ............................ 42 Example 22' ”Lift Up Your Eyes,” mm. 1-10 .......................... 44 Example 23: ”0 Thou to Whom All Creatures Bow,” mm. 165-168 ....... 52 ,Example 24: ”0 Thou to Whom All Creatures Bow,” mm. 199-202 ....... 53 Example 25: ”I Am Come into My Garden,” mm. 109-110 .............. 55 Example 26: ”Hark! Hark! Hear You Not,” mm. 185-186 ................ 55 Example 27: ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor,” NEPS, mm. 35-43 ...... . ...................................... 71 Example 28: ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor,” NEPS, mm. 138-140 .......................................... 73 viii Example 29a: ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor,” PSA, mm. 124-128 .......................................... 75 Example 29b: ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor,” PSA, mm. 130-134 .......................................... 75 Example 30: ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor,” PSA, mm. 156-159 .......................................... 76 Example 31: ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor,” PSA, mm. 178-188 .......................................... 77 INTRODUCTION William Billings was a typical eighteenth-century American. Born on October 7, 1746, in Boston, Massachusetts, Billings spent his entire life working hard to support his large family. His main source of income came through his job as a tanner. He learned this skill early in life from his father, and he became quite respected in the trade. To supplement this income, Billings also worked as a street cleaner and a ”hogreeve.”1 Billings’s passion, however, was music. Though the generations that follow him may not remember his skill as a tanner, a hogreeve, or a street cleaner, there will always be evidence of his work as a musician. The mid-eighteenth century in Boston, Massachusetts, marked a time of tremendous growth in American industry and commercialism. This growth was largely due to the developing skills and trades of Bostonians like Billings. In addition to tanning, skills like printing and engraving became important during this time. The brother of Benjamin Franklin, 1. Franklin, was one of the earliest to print American books, and Paul Revere was one of Boston’s leading silversmiths. With the ability to print and engrave, sharing ideas became easier. Finally, Americans were making advancements in the music industry. The year 1720 marks what Oscar G. Sonneck calls the ”formative period” in American ‘ According to John C. Swan, a “hogreeve” can be described as “an enforcer of the local stray-swine laws.” John C. Swan, Music in Boston (Boston: Trustees of the Public Library of Boston, 1977), 20. l musical historyz, beginning with an attempt to better the vocal performance of church choirs, and ending with the composition of some of the most intriguing music we have today. What follows is a brief history of music in New England, tracing the influences that led to its increased popularity. The Puritans arrived in 1620, bringing with them very strict rules governing everyday life. One such regulation forbade the composition of new tunes. Other regulations discouraged dance classes and the performance of music outside the church. The Puritan tradition was grounded in psalmody (musical settings of verses of sacred text), and the singing of psalms at church was the only musical activity allowed in New England. In fact, the first book printed in America was the Bay Psalm Book, a large supply of psalm-tunes with which the new immigrants were very familiar. As time passed, succeeding generations of Americans lost the musical skills they once possessed, and. familiarity with the psalm tunes declined. The main problem was an increasing inability to read music, which led to difficulty with the less familiar tunes. Around 1720, the New England clergy noticed the decline in musical ability and established singing schools to remedy the situation. In a singing school, a member of the town or church congregation who could read music led classes where he would teach young children how to read music. This leader was called a ”singing master,” and was often not a professional musician. Basic 2 Marion Bauer and Ethel Peyser. How Music Grew from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day (New York: GP. Putnam’s Sons, 1939), 460. note-reading skills were learned through the fasola solmization method.3 Eventually, the students of a singing school were able to perform in choirs at churches, bringing back a more desirable sound with which they could sing praises to God. The first music studied at the singing schools came primarily from imported volumes of British psalmody. As years passed, Americans grew in their passion for nationalism, giving them a desire to compose music of their own. Many Americans were self-taught in their music knowledge and pursued crude attempts at composing. A composer in such a situation in Europe would probably never be acknowledged as legitimate, but the national pride felt during this time did not deter the Americans. Those who were brought up in the singing schools of the 17005 paved the way for Americans in the future to explore their talents in musical composition. Among the attendees of the singing schools was William Billings. His interest in music undoubtedly began while he was a student there. Through the singing school he learned the basics of note reading and also gained some performance experience. He was also introduced to large compilations of psalm- 3 The solmimtion method of fasola was very important in teaching how to read music. Solmizaticn methods were continually changing in the singing schools, however, and one product of these changes was shape notation. Bostonian John Tufts was one of the first to use non-traditional notation of pitch. In his book, At: I’m-eduction to the Art of Singing of Psalm T unes (Boston, 1721), he placed the first lettas of each fasola syllable on the stafl‘ (fa, sol, la and mi), followei by a series of dots to remeseut pitch duration. As this method of pitch reading became popular, shapes began to replace letters on the staff. In the early nineteenth century, urbanization in the northern United States replaced the singing schools with more formal music education. As this happened, singing schools began to spread into the South, where shape- note reading became very popular. To this day, southern church congegations thrive on singing shape- note hymns, such as those contained in The Sacred Harp, the best-known shape-note tune book. 3 tunes written by English composers, many of whom would later prove to influence his compositions. Billings’s desire to compose began while he was a student in the singing schools. Like many American composers who were to follow him, Billings was largely self-taught as a musician. He spent time studying the theoretical writings of his English contemporaries, and he immersed himself in the style of their compositions. Billings began composing in his mid-teens. Subsequently, composing became a skill that he nurtured throughout the rest of his life. Billings continued to be involved with the singing schools through most of his life. In the late 17608, he became a singing master. The following decades saw Billings organize and conduct in several singing schools all over the Boston area. In 1770, William Billings published his first volume of original musical compositions. Though rough in style, it was the beginning of Billings’s life as an American composer. Because of this publication. The New-England Psalm-Singer, Billings is often thought of as America’s first composer. According to john C. Swan, Billings was ”a musician, perhaps our first nativeobom, full-fledged professional musician, and he was a genius, a largely self-taught master of Psalmody, our first great composer.”4 ‘ Swan. 20. Altogether, Billings published six volumes of his own music containing psalms, anthems and fuging-tunes. The names of these tunebooks, as they are called, are as follows: The New-England Psalm-Singer (1770), The Singing Master’s Assistant (1778), Music in Miniature (1779), The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement (1781), The Sufihlk Harmony (1786), and The Continental Harmony (1794.).5 Of the three types of music found in these large publications, the anthems are the most elaborate. They are generally longer than the psalms or fuging-tunes, allowing a variety of textures and moods to be established in each piece. The purpose of this thesis is to trace the musical development of William Billings. I will provide an overview of all the anthems he wrote, noting changes in his compositional style from his earliest anthems to his final ones. Then I will illustrate these changes with an analysis of two representative works. These anthems are unique in that they share a common text but differ in their musical content. The first of these is included in The New-England Psalm-Singer, the second is in The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement, and they are both entitled ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor.” By looking at these anthems in detail, we can gain some knowledge about his development as a composer. William Billings was a musician who, like all who strive to become proficient in a craft, practiced until he reached his goal. ’ Although be advertised his publications to the general public, it is likely that they were used most often in the singing schools, for in several of the publications Billings includes specific rules and guidelines intended to aid singing masters. Several of Billings’s pieces were also likely performed by church choirs and congregations. In the late twentieth century, Billings’s music became quite popular in both church and concert settings. 5 THE ANTHEMS An anthem is a type of musical composition that evolved considerably over its history. According to Karl Kroeger, editor of The Complete Works of William Billings, ”the anthem represented the most formidable musical challenge of the parish musical tradition, the most complex musical form that its composers tackled.”6 An anthem is a setting of religious or generally non-secular texts, in English, derived from the Latin motet. Anthems first appeared in England in the late 15003, written by such composers as Christopher Tye (1500- 1573), Thomas Tallis (1505-1585) and William Mundy (1529-1591). They began as pieces alternating solo verse sections, usually accompanied by instruments, with full chorus sections. Anthems then developed into pieces that were entirely choral. Important composers of this type are William Byrd (1542-1623) and Thomas Morley (1557-1622). Further development occurred when composers added textural contrast. During the Baroque period, instruments again became a large part of the anthem. Henry Purcell (ca. 1659-1695) was the most important figure at this time, composing large-scale anthems. Though no one equaled Purcell’s greatness, the anthem remained an important part of worship, and composers continued their attempts at creating them. By the mid-1700s several other English composers were known for their work in church music, including ‘ Karl Kroeger, introduction to The Complete Works of William Billings, by William Billings, ed. Karl Kroeger (Boston: The American Musicological Society and The Colonial Society of Massachusetts. 1981), 1300111 their composition of a large selection of anthems. Among them were William Knapp, Joseph Stephenson, Aaron Williams and William Tans’ur. It was the work of these fine composers that paved the way for the American composer William Billings. From his knowledge of their works, he was able to create his own writing style, clearly influenced by the Englishmen, but which also had a unique flavor that would come to be recognized as truly ”American.” Of all the music William Billings wrote, the anthems are the most dramatic. Each anthem is a different length; each uses several different textures; each incorporates a variety of meters and tempos; and each has a different ”mood,” which is usually established by the key of the piece. His anthems also show a development of musicianship, which will be seen as each publication of his is examined in detail. Altogether, Billings wrote forty-eight anthems, including independent publications and an anthem by Billings that remained unpublished but was found in manuscript sources. In The Singing Master’s Assistant there is one piece of music that appears to be an anthem but is not listed in the index as an anthem. For this reason, I have not included it in my total count of anthems written by Billings. The piece is entitled ”David’s Lamentation” and is catalogued as an anthem by J. Murray Barbour in The Church Music of William Billings? Though Barbour was very thorough in his lists of Billings’s church music, he failed to 7 J. Murray Barbour, appendix B to The Church Music of William Billings (East Lansing, Mich: Michigan State University Press, 1960), 147-150. produce a complete list of anthems by Billings. There are four anthems written by Billings that are not included in Barbour’s appendix. The most surprising of these is the anthem ”Consonance,” which can be found in The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement and is specifically called an ”anthem” by Billings. The other three anthems not included in Barbour’s appendix are either independent publications or unpublished manuscripts, which makes them more difficult to locate. The texts used in Billings’s anthems are mostly Biblical, though a few are other types of religious text or were written by ministers or other important figures with whom Billings came into contact. Allen McCain Garrett states that the Biblical texts that Billings uses fall into three categories: The first type quotes directly from a single chapter of the Bible; the second type quotes from various sections of the Bible and then combines them into the text of a single anthem; and the third type paraphrases Biblical texts.3 These texts will be examined in greater detail below. In order to compare the works of this composer, it is best to examine the works in chronological order. Below the reader will find headings of each publication of Billings in the order they were published. Since no specific dates are given for individual pieces, analytical conclusions must be generalized for a time period rather than for a single year. The anthems in each publication will be 3 Allen McCain Garrett, ”The Works of William Billings" (PhD. diss., University of North Carolina, 1952), 80-82. discussed according to the texts, the form and texture, the rhythm and meter, and the harmonies used. The N ew-EngLand Pym-Singer" The texts used in the anthems in NEPS all are taken from the Bible. The texts very closely follow the original Biblical verses; Billings uses little or no artistic license when using the Word of God. F our of the five anthems found in NEPS exclusively use the book of Psalms for the text. These are ”The Lord is King” (Psalm 93), ”As the Hart Panteth” (Psalm 42), ”The Lord Descended from Above” (Psalm 18), and ”Hear My Prayer, 0 Lord” (Psalm 143). The persistent use of Psalms as a text source can be explained in two ways. First of all, American composers of sacred music relied heavily on English composition examples, and the majority of English anthem texts came from Psalms. Second, the psalms are poetic in form. For this reason, they lend themselves to musical setting. The anthem that does not come exclusively from Psalms is ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor.” It actually uses a combination of Biblical texts, which includes Psalms 34 and 41. Other sources for the text in this anthem are I Corinthians and Matthew, both found in the New Testament. It should be noted that one of these passages, Matt. 5:7, is part of ”The Beatitudes,” or the ”Sermon on the Mount,” which is also a very poetic passage. 9 Hereafter, The New-England Psalm-Singer will be referred to as NEPS. 9 The anthems in NEPS are all through-composed, having new musical material written for each portion of text. Through-composition is especially apparent in ”The Lord Descended from Above,” in which several lines of text reappear throughout the piece, but none of the musical material returns. Although a clear description of the musical form is difficult, the text of ”The Lord Descended from Above” has a form which could be described as ABBllezllBABC. Many other anthems written by Billings have textual material repeated without the repetition of musical material, but this particular anthem was probably arranged in this way because the text consists of only two verses. By repeating each portion of the text several times, he was able to write a more substantive piece of music. The other anthems in NEPS are formed from longer texts in which there is little or no internal repetition of text. There is one exception to this, however, in the anthem, ”As the Hart Panteth.” This is the only anthem in NEPS in which an entire ”verse” returns. This occurs because a portion of the Psalm is repeated in the original text. In the anthem, the ”verse” comes back after forty-three measures of other musical material The musical material is identical, but the original word ”hope” is replaced with the word ”light” on the repeat 10 ”Why art thou cast down, ”Why art thou cast down, 0 my Soul? 0 my Soul? And why art thou disquieted And why art thou disquieted within me? within me? Hope thou in God Hope thou in God for I shall yet praise Him for I shall yet praise Him For the Help For the Light of His Countenance.” of His Countenance.” (Text of mm. 118-128) (Text of mm. 171-181) All the anthems in NEPS end with a ”Hallelujah” section. This was probably also a feature of the English anthems. Other text is sometimes added to these sections, such as ”Amen” (found in ”As the Hart Panteth”) and ”Praise the Lord” (found in ”The Lord Descended from Above”). Although the ”Hallelujah" sections generally feature all of the voice parts, Billings does create different textures within these sections. Some ”Hallelujah” sections involve a solo part which is then answered by the other voices, some are fugal, and some are basically homorhythrnic with some added rhythmic movement within one voice for variety. Every anthem does end with a final exclamation in familiar style.10 Rhythm and meter seem to have been a struggle for Billings in NEPS. Western art music of the Renaissance era was governed by several rules regarding the setting of text to music. The rules that were set in place during the Renaissance greatly influenced the future relationship between text and music. 1° Familiar style is four-part vocal writing that is set in a syllabic and homorhythmic manner. 11 One main governing force was that text should be set in a natural way, so natural accents in textual declamation fall on accented or stronger beats in music. This is the main area in which Billings struggled in NEPS. Countless examples can be cited in which Billings shows his lack of understanding of the metrical relationship between music and text; we will consider only a few. The first of these is found in the opening line of ”The Lord is King”: ”The Lord is King and is clothed with Majesty.” The natural syllabic accents come on ”Lord,” ”King,” ”cloth-,” ”Ma-” and ”-ty.” Billings, however, places the following syllables on the downbeats of measures: ”Lord,” ”and,” ”with” and ”-ty.” Karl Kroeger, in The Complete Works of William Billings, edits this first line of music by changing the meter frequently (see Examples 1a-b). Example 1a: ”The Lord is King," mm. 1-5 (Original barring by Billings) The lordisKing__andisclotb-ed withMaj-cs-ty. Example 1b: ”The Lord is King,” mm. 1-5 (Re-barring by Kroeger) The Lord is King- and is cloth-ed with Maj - as - ty, 12 Another problem with Billings’s writing is seen later in the same anthem. In mm. 74-79 of Billings’s score, half notes and quarter notes are used in such a way as to imply a duple meter, but he uses triple meter (3 / 2) throughout the passage (see Examples 2a-b). Example 2a: ”The Lord is King,” mm. 74-79 (Original barring by Billings) Thy Throne, 0- God, is cs-tab-lish'dof old, Thou art fiom Ev-cr - last - ing, Example 2b: ”The Lord is King,” mm. 74-79 (Re-barring by Kroeger) Thy Throne,0_ Godises-tab-lish'd of old,Thou anfrom Ev-cr- lashing—m The second anthem in NEPS shows many more examples of Billings’s difficulty with meter. In ”As the Hart Panteth,” the first twenty-seven measures have been re-barred by Kroeger. This entire section was originally written in cut- time, but has been re-barred in 2/ 2 and 3/ 2 alternately, in no regular pattern (see Examples 3a-b). l3 Example 3a: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 1-27 (Original barring by Billings) 7 As the Hartpam-eth_af- As IthmpIm-eth (if-tar mewi - tar-brooks, AstheHarthm-eth af-tutheWa-ta-broob, As? As_the Huthm-eth If-wr the WI-tu-hrooks, theHu-t punt-eat tit-u: the Wa-ter-bmoka, Example 3b: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 1-27 (Re-barring by Kroeger) AstheHm punt-e!!! lf-ter the We - ta-brooks, A! pant-ah af-tu theWa-ter- hooks, In addition, the text in mm. 117-127 displays a very confusing relationship to the meter, so it also was re-barred by Kroeger, alternating 2/ 2 and 3/ 2 irregularly (see Examples 4a-b). Example 4a: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 117-127 (Original barring by Billings) Why art_._thou oust down, O_.__ my Soul?——_—-and why art thou dis- qui-ct-ed...__.. with- in me? Hope thou in God.__.._ for I shall yctpraise Him for the Help of His Court - te - nanoe. Example 4b: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 117-127 (Re-barring by Kroeger) Why art._ thou cast down, 0—— my Soul? __—.__ and whyartthoudis - qui- et- ed.._..._with - in me? Hope thou in God for lshallyctplaisc Him for the Help of His Conn - re - sauce. 16 Despite these awkward metrical places in ”As the Hart Panteth,” this anthem actually has many more places that do work well, such as the vivace section from m. 89 to m. 105 (see Example 5). Example 5: ”As the Hart Panteth,” mm. 89-105 For... I had gone with the Mill - ti - tudc. for... I had gone._ withthe Mul - ti - rude, I went with... them in - to the... House of... God with the Voice of Joy and Praise, In general, all the anthems in NEPS could have been written to reflect prosaic stress. Billings uses a variety of rhythms in NEPS. Beside the use of even note divisions (half notes into quarter notes and quarter notes into eighth notes), he frequently uses dotted rhythms, but in an unsyncopated arrangement (see Example 6). .17 Example 6: Dotted rhythms found in NEPS Billings also uses triplets in his music, both as quarter notes in cut-time and as eighth notes in common-time. Billings writes one particularly complicated rhythm for the alto voice in m. 14 of ” Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor” (see Example 7). Example 7: ”Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor,” mm. 13-15 l"\3\I theLord willpre- serve hirrrandkeep...__ him... a- live, Billings also writes triplets in one voice against eighth notes in another voice in mm. 127-137 of the same anthem. Among the variety of rhythms used by Billings, the more complex rhythmic patterns are generally reserved for melismatic purposes. The anthems in NEPS are harmonically very simple. The basic harmonic progressions used in them are I-IV-V-I and i—iv-v-i. Notice that the minor v chord is used. This is due to the primitive lack of accidentals. which would normally be present to create a strong dominant function in a minor key. 18 Because the minor v chord is used quite frequently, these anthems tend to sound modal. One could say that all the anthems in NEPS are either written in the Ionian or fire Aeolian mode. Not only does Billings avoid using accidentals, but he seems resistant to venturing beyond one sharp or three flats in the key signature. Two of the anthems are in C Ionian, while one is in A Aeolian, both of which have no sharps or flats. The remaining two anthems include both the Ionian and the Aeolian modes, in a parallel relationship, but bofir end in the Ionian mode. With firese two anthems, key signatures are necessary (G Aeolian, G Ionian and C Aeolian), but Billings still seems conservative in his use of different keys. Some other features of the harmony ought to be mentioned here. First of all, very few dissonances occur in Billings’s writing, but where they do occur, they are almost always passing tones. Second, the third of triads at cadences in minor keys is often missing.11 Finally, the harmonies used by Billings in NEPS are quite basic. The tonic harmony is used most often, the dominant is used next most frequently, and fire subdomirrant is often found connecting firem. Any ofirer harmonies firat are found in firese anthems generally have a passing function, connecting two of fire previously mentioned main harmonies. Using fire observations I made about text, form, meter, rhythm, and harmony, several general conclusions can be made about fire anfirems in NEPS. " This could be a reflection of the historical pattern of setting sacred texts. Up to this time, a minor triad rarely, if ever, concluded a setting of sacred text because it did not create a pure sound, whereas the open fifih sound was pure. ' l9 These anthems are primarily simple. They are an obvious first attempt at composition by Billings. This is most apparent by the awkward use of meter and by fire elementary use of keys and harmony. On fire ofirer hand, Billings does display an interest in rhyfirm and uses it as fire defining element of character in his early anthems. Let us now look at later publications by Billings and note any changes in his compositional style. The Sing1_r_r' g Ma_ster’s Assista__r_rt12 The Bible continues to serve as the primary source for fire texts of anfirems in SMA. As in NEPS, every anthem uses some text taken directly from the Bible. In addition, fire majority of the anthem texts still come from the book of Psalms, but in SMA, there are three anthems that do not include fire Psalms at all. There is actually a much greater variety of Biblical books used in SMA. From fire Old Testament, Billings uses passages from Exodus, II Chronicles, Nehemiah, Psalms, Song of Solomon, Isaiah and Jeremiah, and from fire New Testament he uses Luke, Ephesians, Colossians, James and Revelation. Alfirough fire original Biblical texts remain fairly intact, in this volume Billings does take a little more liberty with his representation of fire text Sometimes he paraphrases the original text, and occasionally he even expands fire text The anfirem ”Lamentation Over Boston” may very well be fire best example of Billings’s literary freedom: 12 Hereafter, The Singing Master’s Assistant will be referred to as SMA. 20 The Holy Bible (NIV) Psalm 137:1 By fire rivers of Babylon We sat and wept When we remembered Zion. Ieremiah 3:21 A cry is heard on fire barren heights, fire weeping and pleading of fire people of Israel, because firey have perverted fireir ways and have forgotten fire LORD fireir God. 21 Lamentation Over Boston By the Rivers of Watertown we sat down and wept When we remember’ d thee, 0 Boston. As for our Friends, Lord God of Heaven, preserve firem, defend them, deliver and restore firem unto us again. For firey firat held firem in Bondage requir’d of firem to take up Arms against fireir Brefirren. Forbid it, Lord God, that firose who have sucked Bostonian Breasts should thirst for American Blood. A voice was heard in Roxbury which echo’d firro’ fire Continent, weeping for Boston because of fireir Danger. The Holy Lflale, cont’ 4 LamentaLtion Over Boston, contgd Ieremiah 31:20 ”Is not Ephraim my dear son, Is Boston my dear town, fire child in whom I delight? is it my native Place? Though I often speak against him, For since their Calamity I still remember him. I do earnestly remember it still. Therefore my heart yearns for him; I have great compassion for him,” declares fire LORD. In addition to fire Biblical sources Billings uses for his anfirem texts, he now uses sources other than fire Bible. For example, the rest of the text of ”Lamentation Over Boston” is taken from one of Billings’s psalm tunes, ”Jargon.” With fire exception of ”Lamentation Over Boston,” fire non-Biblical sources used in SMA are still sacred and are taken from ofirer musical sources, such as hymnbooks. Additional sources used in SMA are fire ”Lesser Doxology,” portions of hymns from Tate and Brady, and Isaac Watts.13 The forms of fire anfirems in SMA do not change much from the ones in NEPS. Through-composition is still prevalent. Of fire nine anfirems in SMA, there are two exceptions: ”Is Any Afflicted” and ”Independence.” The formal organization of ”Is Any Afflicted” can be summarized as All:B:||C||:B’:||. Alfirough fire A and C sections are very different from each other musically, fire ‘3 Isaac Watts and Tate and Brady were popular psalnrodists of fire early eighteenth century. Hans Nathan mentiom fireee other sources in "The Singing Master’s Assistant: Commentary," appendix to The Complete Works of Mlliam Billings, by William Billings, ed. Hans Nafiran (Boston: The American Musicological Society and fire Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1977), 2:352. 22 return of fire B section prevents firis anfi'rem’s characterization as firrough- composed. The form of ”Independence” is more complicated but can be diagrammed as II:A:||BB1||:Bz(extended):||C||:D:||. Here, fire B section returns immediately, defined by fire first several measures of each section.14 As mentioned earlier, fire anfirems in NEPS all conclude wifir ”Hallelujah” sections and sometimes wifir additional text, such as ”Praise fire Lord,” or ”Amen.” Such closing sections are missing from fire anthems in SMA. Only two of fire nine anfirems in SMA have a closing section at all similar to the ones in NEPS. Six measures of ”Hallelujah” and ”Amen” appear at fire end of ”Retrospect,” and only five measures of ”Amen” appear at fire end of ”Independence.” If fire words ”Hallelujah” or ”Amen” appear at all in the other anfirems, it is in fire context of their original texts, occurring sporadically throughout fire anthem. For one reason or another, Billings disregarded his previous passion for fire closing ”Hallelujah” sections between 1770 and 1778. A final aspect of form that should be mentioned is compositional length. Alfirough NEPS contains fewer anfirems firan SMA, firey tend to be longer. There are four anfirems in SMA firat are a great deal shorter firan any found in NEPS. The rest of the anfirems are similar in length, but overall, Billings trims fireir Iengfir. 1"I'IrefirstappeararrceoffireBsectionbeginsatm.31. ThematerialinmmBl-40returnsalmost identically in mm. 55-62 and again in mm. 70-78. 23 The problem Billings had in NEPS with meter nearly vanishes in fire anfirems of SMA. Here Billings does a much more convincing job of organizing fire meter; overall, stressed syllables are assigned to stronger metrical beats. Hans N afiran, editor of fire second volume of The Complete Works of William Billings, chose not to re-bar any of Billings’s original scores. Although fire metrical relationship between music and text has greatly improved, firere still exist several awkward moments firat should be pointed out ”Hear My Pray’r” includes fire line of text, ”and a Sojourner as all my Fafirers were” (mm. 20-24). The most obvious disagreement between meter and textual declamation comes with fire words ”my Fathers.” Billings places a weak syllable, ”my,” on beat one in cut-time, with a much stronger syllable, ”Fa-,” on beat two. Wifirout changing fire overall flow of firis musical and rhyfirnric passage, I have offered a possible solution to firis awkward spot (see Examples 8a-b). Example 8a: ”Hear My Pray’r,” mm. 20-25 (Original setting by Billings) and a So-journ-er as all my._ Fa - thers were. Example 8b: ”Hear My Pray’r,” mm. 20-25 (Alternate re-barring) thee and a So-joum-er as all my- Fa - there were. ”Funeral Anthem” also has places where accented syllables are left on weak beats. Measure 12 includes the beginning of the text, ”Blessed are the Dead which die in the Lord.” The accented syllables fall on ”Bles-,” ”Dead,” ”die” and ”Lord.” The first twelve measures of firis anfirem are set very convincingly in. triple meter (3 / 2), with beat one being the strengest and beat three sounding the next strongest. Nevertheless, fire syllables ”B1es-” and ”Dead” should certainly fall on stronger beats. Once again, I give a possible solution to firis passage (see Examples 9a-b). Example 9a: ”Funeral Anfirem,” mm. 12-15 (Original setting by Billings) Bles- sed are the Dead which die__ in the Lord. Example 9b: ”Funeral Anfirem,” mm. 12-15 (Alternate re-barring) Bles-wd are the Dead which die_._ in the Lord. The final example of awkward metrical passages is slightly subfier and one might argue that it is not awkward at all. I feel, however, that the text itself should be fire guide for its musical setting. This example comes from mm. 87-90 of ”Retrospect.” Here, fire text reads, ”How long will it be?” and Billings places special emphasis on fire words ”How” and ”will” by placing them on downbeats. Reading fire text out loud, however, makes it clear firat fire one word firat is stressed fire most is ”long.” Billings could avoid firis misrepresentation of fire text by keeping the rhyfirm of fire passage intact, but beginning firis text one- half measure earlier or one-half measure later (see Examples 10a-b). 26 Example 10a: ”Retrospect,” mm. 87-90 (Original setting by Billings) how long will it be, how long will it be Example 10b: ”Retrospect,” mm. 87-90 (Alternate re-barring) how long will it be, how long will it be Although Billings has made improvement wifir text setting, he has not yet displayed a mastery of this technique. One final remark can be made concerning fire meter in SMA. In fire anfirem, ”I am fire Rose of Sharon,” Billings introduces compound meter (6/8 in this particular case). This small portion of fire anfirem shows a moment of true understanding of fire metrical relationship we have been talking about. Billings sets this passage in a very convincing manner (see Example 11). 27 Example 11: ”I am fire Rose of Sharon,” mm. 98-110 The voiceofmyBe-lovued. Be-hold,_...- he com-eth, Leaping rip-on- the mains, SUPP“!!- Lap-ing rip-on the man-rains, skippingup-oa the Hills-— 28 Rhyfirmically, little has changed from Billings’s first publication to his second. Several of fire same rhyfirmic figures appear. In fact, fire dotted eighfir- sixteenfir note figure begins to take on a very important role in SMA. One frequenfiy recurring rhythmic feature of fire anthems in SMA is syncopation. Such a feature is new and fresh compared to fire rhythmic organization in NEPS. In ”Is Any Afflicted,” Billings uses one of fire first of firese syncopated rhyfirms—an eighth note followed by a dotted quarter note in cut- time (see Example 12). Example 12 ”Is Any Afflicted,” mm. 6-7 Is an - y of you mer-ry, The next examples of syncopation are found in ”Lamentation Over BOston.” Again in cut-time, Billings writes two different types of syncopated rhyfirms: quarter-note/ half-note/ quarter-note and eighth-note/ quarter-note/ eighth-note (see Examples 13a-b). 29 Example 13a: ”Lamentation Over Boston,” mm. 54-57 those.— who have suck- ed Bos - ton - i - an Breasts Example 13b: ”Lamentation Over Boston,” mm. 100-102 yea,._ if I do_ not re-mern- ber__ thee, In ”I am fire Rose of Sharon,” Billings also writes eighfir-note/ quarter- note/ eighfir-note, but firis time in a common-time signature. This anthem also includes examples of syncopation occurring over barlines, such as is found in mm. 36-38 (see Example 14). Example 14: ”lam the Rose of Sharon,” mm. 35-38 un - der' hisshad-ow withgreatde-light, The harmonic make-up of fire anfirems in SMA is now a combination of modal and tonal. This change is mosfiy due to fire addition of accidentals, 30 primarily to produce a leading tone. The anthems are written in major keys, minor keys, and a combination of major and minor. Of the anfirems that include bofir major and minor sections, all are primarily written in major. In the minor sections, accidentals now produce leading tones, increasing fire urgency of dominant harmonies. A leading tone is not present in every dominant harmony, however, which leaves some portions of fire anthems sounding in the Aeolian mode. Accidentals are also used to create leading tones of secondary dominants, which is anofirer important new feature of harmony in SMA. Such secondary dominants are typically used to tonicize the V chord. In addition to fire use of accidentals to create leading tones, Billings also adds a greater variety of tonal centers. Anfirems are now found entirely or partially in the keys of A, a, b, C, c, D, E-flat, f, G, and g, using key signatures ranging from four flats to three sharps. These anthems tend to change mode frequently, moving between parallel major and minor keys. Billings also seems to recognize fire important relationship between relative major and minor keys, because in ”Gratitude” he presents a brief tonicization of E-flat major (mm. 39- 41) while in fire local key of C minor. In the eight years since fire publication of NEPS, Billings has shown a visible growth in understanding of tonal harmony. It is clear that Billings’s compositional style has changed dramatically since his first publication of music in 177 0. He used greater creativity when choosing and recreating text, and he experimented wifir length and form. He has shown a greater understanding of fire metrical relationship between text and 31 music, and he developed a distinct rhyfirmic style involving several syncopated and dotted rhyfirms. Finally, he has increased his harmonic vocabulary. The Psalm-Singer’s Angrsement15 The sources used for anthem texts in PSA are much more varied. The book of Psalms is no longer a primary source, alfirough a number of texts continue to use portions from fire Psalms. Biblical sources firat appear for the first time include fire Old Testament books of Genesis, II Samuel, and Proverbs. From fire New Testament, fire book of John is used for fire first time. Five of fire nine anfirems in PSA use non-Biblical sources for portions of their texts,16 and two of firose anfirems do not use firese texts in conjunction wifir Biblical passages. Even more dramatic is the fact firat fire text of one of firese last two anthems, ”Consonance,” is not only non-Biblical, but it is non-sacred.17 At this point, Billings seems to challenge fire definition of an anfirem-does it still have to be a sacred piece of music? It may be important to note here firat in PSA an anthem exists which is not completely original. The anfirem, ”Blessed is He that Considerefir fire Poor,” which appears in PSA, is very closely related to an anthem of the same title that 15 Hereafter, 'Ilie Psalm-Singer’s Amusement will be referred to as PSA. 1‘ Non-Biblical sources used by Billings in PSA include selected hymns by Isaac Watts; a poem by Alexander Pope; a poem by Dr. Mafirer Byles, entified, ”On Music;” and possibly some of his own words. 17 The text of ”Consonance” comes from ”On Music,” a poem by Dr. Mafirer Byles. 32 appears in NE PS. This is a common occurrence with Billings’s psalm tunes, which tend to reappear in volume after volume of music. In fire case of these anthems, much in both fire text and the music is changed from one version to fire next. We will look at fire similarities and differences between firese two compositions in greater detail in fire next chapter. The forms of fire anfirems in PSA have not changed nruch from firose firat we saw in SMA. They are still mostly firrough-composed wifir only a few exceptions. ”The Beauty of Israel,” for example, begins wifir a four-measure passage firat returns, slighfiy altered, in mm. 54-57 and again in mm. 77-80. These passages return wifir similar musical material, but different text. In fire same anthem, a different passage including bofir music and text returns at irregular intervals firroughout fire piece. The first statement occurs in mm. 948, and it returns in mm. 67-75, mm. 100-109, and mm. 129-138. Several of fire other anfirems in PSA have minute examples of motivic or textual repetition, but firey all remain righfiy considered as ”firrough-composed.” I Ofirer aspects of form seem to have returned from NEPS. The anthems in PSA, for example, are once again all rafirer long. The shortest is ”The Dying Christian to His Soul,” and it is still longer than most of the anfirems found in SMA. Whereas Billings may have seemed to be tiring of writing anfirems in SMA, he seems to have renewed energy in PSA. A second sense in which elements of NEPS have returned is in the presence of ”Hallelujahs” and ”Amens” at fire ends of fire anthems. Although such a section is not included in every 33 anfirem in PSA, four out of fire nine anfirems include substantial ”Hallelujah” and ”Amen” endings. Billings now appears to be even more comfortable with fire relationship of text and meter. He changes meter often, but fire changes are usually natural. I believe firis shows a learning process Billings went through firat began in NEPS wifir complicated ideas firat he did not yet have fire skills to execute convincingly. To achieve fire appropriate skills, he first worked to simplify his original ideas, as in SMA. After learning how to portray his simpler ideas accurately, he reached back to his original, more complicated, ideas and began to execute firem in a clear and convincing manner, producing PSA. Alfirough Billings now sets text more intuitively, firere still remain occasional passages firat could be improved. In mm. 4-7 of ”And I Saw a Mighty Angel,” Billings emphasizes fire word ”a” by placing it on a downbeat and giving it a relatively long duration. This can be avoided by assigning notes to different syllables of text (see Examples 15a-b). 34 Example 15a: ”And I Saw a Mighty Angel,” mm. 4-7 (Original setting by Billings) An - gel pro - claim - ing with a...— loud Voice, Example 15b: ”And ISaw a Mighty Angel,” mm. 4-7 (Possible alternate setting) with a loud Voice. An-gel pro-claim-ing In fire same anfirem, one of fire solo tenor lines is not set properly. The rhythm works well wifir the text in mm. 57-60, but fire meter would match properly if fire barlines were set half a measure back (see Examples 16a-b). 35 Example 16a: ”And I Saw a Mighty Angel,” mm. 57-60 (Original setting Billings) Example 16b: ”And I Saw a Mighty Angel,” mm. 57-60 (Alternate re-barring) ”The Beauty of Israel” displays a few words, as opposed to phrases, that are not set properly. The word ”rejoice” is set correcfiy in mm. 28-31, wifir ”-joice,” the stronger syllable, on a downbeat In m. 33, however, Billings puts ”re-” on a downbeat and ”-joice” on a weak beat, opposite of its inflection pattern. In a similar way, Billings sets fire word ”triumph” in a backward manner in mm. 37- 44. Wifir ”tri-” as fire accented syllable in firis word, it should be located on a downbeat. Instead, Billings consistenfiy puts it on an upbeat (see Example 17). Example 17: ”The Beauty of Israel,” mm. 37-44 r trr' - umph,tri - umph.tn' - umphandthe Dough-msof fireUn-cir-cum-cis-ed tri - urnph. 36 The entire topic of rhyfirm becomes much more interesting in PSA. Syncopation again plays a very important role in firese anfirems, and dotted rhyfirrrric figures continue to be prominent In addition, it appears that Billings’s awareness of sophisticated compositional techniques has increased tremendously. For example, in ”Let Ev’ ry Mortal Ear Attend,” special care is given to rhythm to reflect performance requirements. In 111. 21 in fire tenor voice, Billings sets fire word ”sounds” twice, each time to a dotted quarter note followed by an eighfir rest (see Example 18). Example 18: ”Let Ev’ry Mortal Ear Attend,” m. 21 a E l r: sounds, sounds, The result is bofir clear dictation and ample opportunities for the performers to breafire. An even more direct presentation of a new compositional technique is found in ”Consonance.” In mm. 77-82 we see an example of rhythmic diminution (see Example 19). Example 19. ”Consonance,” mm. 77-82 In we fill] nrag- ick Mel-o-dy of Sound, In thefull mag-ick Mel-o-dy of Sound. 37 One rhythmic passage, written in fire alto voice, is immediately followed by fire same rhyfirrrric passage at twice fire speed. My final observation of fire rhyfirm in PSA concerns, of all things, a rhythmically uneventful passage. This can be found in mm. 149-160 of ”Who is This firat Comefir from Edom.” At this point, all four voices are written in familiar style, and every note wifirin firis passage is either a quarter note or a half note (see Example 20). Example 20: ”Who is This firat Comefir from Edom,” mm. 149-160 lol. = MM. 80] Old A-dam the first, ex - cit-ed by Lust, And Eve the Se-duc-er en- tail-ed the Curse; But A-dam the Se-cond, our Sav-iour andKing. Has made the A-mnerrnent and freed us from Sin, and had us from Sin, Has made the A-tone-mcnt and freed us from S'm. What makes up for fire monotonous rhyfirm is fire rather quick tempo, causing firis section of 6/ 4 to feel much more like a buoyant 6 / 8. Overall, there has been a clear advancement in Billings’s understanding of rhythm from fire SMA to PSA. 38 Not much is changed harmonically from the anfirems in SMA to fire ones in PSA. Billings continues to use changes of mode, from a major key to its parallel minor and vice verse, to depict mood. All but two of firese anfirems include such a change of mode in firem. The two anfirems firat remain in one mode for fireir entirety are bofir in C major. Billings adds to his repertoire of key centers by writing anfirems in B, b, E, e, F, F-sharp and f-sharp in addition to some of fire keys he has already explored in previous publications. Accidentals are still used primarily as leading tones, and even then firey most often appear at cadences. A few secondary dominants also appear. Thus far it seems as if fire greatest change in Billings’s use of harmony came between NE PS and SMA. An in-depfir look at PSA reveals more development in fire compositional style of William Billings. For one thing, he is nrore creative in his choices of text, going so far as to challenge fire definition of an anthem by using a non-sacred text Secondly, he shows development as a composer by ”setfiing” into a formal organization firat includes a typical lengfir and procedure. Third, Billings shows a great deal of development in fire area of rhyfirm by using new and more sophisticated rhyfirnric techniques. 39 The Suffolk Harmony18 The anfirems in SH are few in number. Other than the publication Music in Miniature, which does not include any anfirems, SH is fire smallest volume of music Billings wrote. But Billings wrote it nonefireless, and it was published five years after PSA, so let us look at these anfirems now. There are firree anfirems in SH, and firey each include a different arrangement of text sources. ”Union” uses a combination of Biblical and non- Biblical sources. From fire Bible, Billings sets fire text from Ps. 133:1-4. For fire rest of fire text, Billings uses portions of several different pieces by Thomas Ken: II ”Doxology, ”Morning Hymn,” ”Evening Hymn,” and ”Midnight Hymn.”19 The text of ”Lift up Your eyes” comes from a hymn by Isaac Watts,20 who appears to be becoming a standard source for Billings. This anfirem does not include any text from fire Bible, but its text is sacred. Finally, fire text of ”Funeral Anthem” is entirely Biblical, drawing from fire books I Samuel, Job and Psalms. The texts of fire anfirems in SH nrost resemble the make-up of texts in SMA -a combination of Biblical and non-Biblical sacred texts. Looking at fire final 1" Hereafter, The Suffolk Harmony will be referred to as SH. 19 Karl Kroeger- lists these sources and refers the reader to John Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1892; reprint, New York: Dover, 1957), 618-621. This reference can be found in Karl Kroeger, ”Commentary: The Sufiblk Harmony" in The Complete Works of William Billings, by William Billings, ed. Karl Kroeger (Boston: The Anrerican Musicological Society 8: The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1986), 3:379. 2" Isaac Watts, Hymns and Spiritual Songs in Three Books, Book 2 (London: J.F. and C. Rivington, 1788), no. 43, stanzas 6-7. 40 publication of Billings’s music, Continental Harmony, will help us determine fire significance of firis apparent retrogression. All the anthems in SH are firrough-composed. Though of fairly modest lengfir, these anfirems use several different textures and are separated into numerous sections. There are no ”Hallelujah” or ”Amen” sections, alfirough ” Union” ends wifir a doxology, which resembles an ”Amen.” ”Funeral Anfirem” has one unique feature in its form. Measures 1589 provide a small section of call-and-response. The following text is repeated several times, each time interjected by a solo voice part ”Have Pity on me, 0 ye my Friends, for the Hand of God hath touched me.” As mentioned earlier, such a small publication of works may not hold any significant evidence of Billings’s development as a composer, but firat will not be certain until fire analytical overview is complete. This publication of music is the most convincing yet in fire relationship between text and meter. I found only one example of a word firat has been set in such a way that its natural accent does not lie on a stronger metrical beat than fire weaker syllable. This happens in mm. 8-11 of ”Funeral Anfirem" wifir fire word, ”mourned.” Whereas I feel the syllable ”mourn-” should fall on a downbeat, Billings places it on an upbeat with ”-ed” falling on a downbeat (see Example 21). 41 Example 21: ”Funeral Anfirem,” mm. 811 mourn-ed, mourn-ed, The slow tempo at firis point in fire anfirem does lessen the effect of unnaturally placed syllables. Billings sets firis music to 80 bpm for fire quarter-note, making fire half-note pulse of ”mourned” less metrical; it is more difficult to feel a strong downbeat at firis point. The only ofirer places firat one might find awkward settings of syllables are usually in places of polyphonic writing. In firese places, some adjustment must be made for compositional purposes. Also in firese places, fire tenor voice, which is considered in Billings’s music to be fire ”melody,” is often set naturally. Working wifir so few anfirems in firis publication may have enabled Billings to focus more attention to fire metrical implications of text. Anofirer aspect of rhyfirm and meter to be noted in SH is tempo. Throughout fire first firree publications of music by Billings firere have been occasional changes in tempo. These changes usually involve a change of meter, but fire tempo change itself is not too dramatic. There is, however, a significant tempo change in ”Lift Up Your Eyes.” This anthem begins in 3/ 4 time wifir fire quarter note set at 80 bpm. In m. 23 fire meter changes to 6/ 4 and fire dotted half note is set at 80 bpm. This keeps a governing beat at the same metronomical 42 tempo, but fire consistent use of quarter notes firroughout fire anthem produces a feel of speeding up, for fire quarter notes in m. 23 ff. are firree times as fast as those in mm. 1-22. This makes for an extremely quick last half of fire anfirem, where it moves at a nearly unsingable pace. Billings’s use of tempo in firis anfirem is certainly adventurous. SH shows fire most harmonic advances yet by Billings. Keys such as C, F and a continue to be used, but for fire first time Billings writes a true modulation. Rafirer firan simply alternating between parallel major and minor keys, Billings modulates from one major key to anofirer. This happens in ”Lift Up Your Eyes.” The anfirem begins in F major but quickly moves to its dominant, C major. Billings does firis firrough fire use of a secondary dominant in m. 7, where, instead of a diatonic G minor triad, Billings uses a G major triad to produce V/ V. This leads into a C major triad and for the next fifteen measures fire anthem stays in C. Modulation is a new practice for Billings, and firat is apparent by his placement of fire new key signature for C major in m. 9 rafirer firan in m. 11, after fire cadence (see example 22). Example 22 ”Lift Up Your Eyes,” mm. 1-10 Lift up your Eyes, ye Sons of Light, Up In m. 23, fire anfirem returns to F major, using fire C major triad in m. 22 as its dominant. Though firis may well be Billings’s first attempt at modulation, it works convincingly, and it shows his continuing development as a composer. The most valuable conclusion firat can be made from fire anfirems in SH is firat Billings is continuing to develop his understanding and use of harmony. It is now clear firat he knows a piece of music does not have to remain in fire same key firroughout. It is also clear that he understands fire function of fire dominant chord and that it is a strong way to modulate from one key to fire next. Finally, it is clear that he knows not to pick primary and secondary tonal areas arbitrarily. The increased understanding of harmonic relationships may be fire most valuable development Billings has made in all his compositions. The Continental Harmony21 The anfirems in CH offer a complete turn-around in fire choices of text sources used by Billings. NE PS, as noted earlier, uses texts firat come only from fire Bible, while SMA uses mosfiy Biblical texts but also begins to incorporate some sacred non-Biblical texts. Then, in PSA, Billings not only writes some anfirems wifir texts that are purely non-Biblical, but goes so far as to write one with a non-sacred text. That seems to be as far as Billings dares to experiment, 21 Hereafta', The Continental Harmony will be referred to as CH. 45 for in SH, Billings returns to purely sacred texts. This is certainly an intentional reversal, as we will see as we examine fire texts of fire anfirems in CH. Though CH as a whole is a smaller publication firan NEPS, it contains seventeen anfirems, fire most found in any of Billings’s music publications. Of fire seventeen anfirems, only one, ”The Dying Christian’s Last Farewell,” uses exclusively a non-Biblical, but sacred, text. ”Deliverance” makes use of Watts once again, but a portion of one of his psalms appears in conjunction with additional text from fire Biblical book of Psalms. Psalms again appears to be fire source of choice for Billings, alfirough several ofirer books are again introduced, such as Joel, 1 Kings, and Malachi, all from fire Old Testament. The sudden return to fire nearly exclusive use of Biblical text can be explained by something firat appears in fire introductory material of CH. Here, Billings includes a lengfiry description of musical rules, which is followed by an article he wrote entified, ”A Commentary on fire Preceding Rules; By Way of Dialogue, Between Master and Scholar.” In this dialogue, one of fire questions asked by fire scholar is, ”What is an Anfirem?” The Master's response reads as follows: 46 It is a divine song,22 generally in prose, and alfirough I have often heard it disputed, yet I think any piece of divine music, that is not divided into metre [i.e., set in verse] (excepting canons and chanting pieces) may wifir propriety be called an Anthem.” Billings’s emphasis on fire defining feature of an anthem as being its divine text shows firat he is no longer focused on being experimental wifir text or on trying to make a political point. In previous publications, non-sacred texts and paraphrased texts were generally used in songs of patriotism. In CH, Billings continues to add some textual material of his own. In ”0 Praise fire Lord of Heaven,” for example, he adds fire following text Join Creation, Preservation, and Redemption join in one; N 0 Exemption, nor Dissention, one Invention, and Intention reigns through the Whole, to praise fire Lord, praise fire Lord.‘Z4 22 A footnote in Billings’s text at this point reads: ”1 have heard some object to firis definition, because it was a partial one, for they say that all divine words when set to music, may wifir propriety be called divine songs, whether in prose or verse. —In answer, I grant that fire remark is very pertinent; but as words were made to convey ideas, and different names were given to different firings, for fire sake of distinguishing one firing from anofirer: I have (for fire sake of convenience) distinguished Anthems from Psalm-tunes in fire manner above mentioned." 23 William Billings, The Complete Works of William Billings, ed. Karl Kroeger (Boston: The American Musicological Society & The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1990), 4:34. 2‘ Billings, ”0 Praise fire Iord of Heaven,” mm. 86-94. 47 In CH, Billings chooses to write anfirenrs in fire manner in which firey were originally intended - as a setting of sacred texts, bringing praises and honor to God. Litfie has changed in fire form of Billings’s anfirems. He continues to write in a firrough-composed manner, dividing each anthem into several smaller sections, each of which is barely or not at all related to any ofirer. The anfirems in CH are quite evenly divided into having an ending ”Hallelujah” section or not having one. There are two anfirems firat vary fire ”Hallelujah” ending slighfiy. ”0 Thou to Whom All Creatures Bow" is one of firem. In it, some additional text is added, each phrase appearing at different times in each voice: Glory be to God on high, Peace be on Earfir, Good Will to Men, Glory, Glory, Hallelujah.25 This ending section begins with all four voices singing togefirer, ”Glory be to God on high,” and ends wifir the unison declaration, ”Glory to God, Peace, good Will to Men, Glory to God.” The second anfirem firat varies fire ”Hallelujah” ending is ”Hark! Hark! Hear You Not.” Here, a section of ”Hallelujah” does not appear at the end of fire anfirem, and it includes fire additional phrase, 2’ Billings, “0 Thou to Whom All Creatures Bow,” mm. 215-239. 48 ”Hosannah in fire Highest.” After this proclamation, a new phrase of text is used to complete the anthem. In addition to the slight differences in form related to ”Hallelujah" endings, firere is one ofirer anfirem whose form differs from fire others in anofirer way. In fire second half of ”Sanctify a Fast,” one verse of text returns frequently, alternating with a short solo by one of the voice parts. The musical setting each time is very similar, but each is elaborated in a slighfiy different way. The verse appears four times, and its text reads: Be glad firen, ye Children of Zion, and rejoice in the Lord your God. For he hafir given you the former Rain mod’rately, And he will cause to come down for you fire former Rain and fire latter Rain in the first Monfir.26 As was mentioned earlier, fire overall form of fire anfirems in CH has not changed much from Billings’s earlier publications. The few variances mentioned above may be considered artistic freedom wifirin a clearly established compositional style. Somewhat related to the form of these anfirems is fire texture, and it is important to point out one feature of the texture firat stands out in CH. The dominating texture of these anthems appears to be four-part familiar style, 2“ Billings, “Sanctify a Fast,” mm. 117-143, 151-171, 182-205, and 218-241. 49 providing a full and unified sound. Short solos and duets and small sections of fugal writing still appear, but there is an abundance of full textures. The full textures found in CH result in less independence of fire voices, especially regarding fireir rhyfirmic use. Since all fire voices move togefirer, fire rhythms used tend to be simpler firan fire rhyfirms of fire past four publications. Dotted rhyfirms are still common, but rarely are firey used in conjunction wifir ofirer complicated rhyfirmic passages. The main rhyfirmic motion is provided by quarter notes, though Billings also uses large sections of persistenfiy repeated half notes or eighth notes. It appears firat Billings’s experiments wifir rhyfirmic techniques are confined to his earlier works, and after several years of writing music, he setfied into a pattern of fairly simple rhyfirmic passages involving his characteristic rhyfirrrric figure, fire dotted eighfir note followed by a sixteenfir note. The harmonies used in CH require much attention because there exists a combination of certain harmonic qualities found in his earliest anfirems and ofirer harmonic qualities of fire later anfirems. We will be able to see similarities in the simple key choices and modal changes wifir his earliest anfirems. We will also be able to see a drastic change from firese earlier anfirems because of varied uses of accidentals and modulation. CH represents a culmination of Billings’s work. Here, he introduces new compositional techniques involving harmony. Let us look first at fire many ways that Billings’s use of harmony has not changed much since his first compositions. First of all, a fondness for fire key of 50 C major returns. Most ofirer keys used in CH are closely related to C major, including A minor, E minor, G major and F major. Parallel major and minor keys are also used frequenfiy. Secondly, major tonalities predominate. Of fire seventeen anfirems in CH, nine of firem are written completely in major keys. In. addition, all fire anfirems firat modulate or change mode end in a major key. F urfirer, only firree anfirems are written entirely in nrinor, but none ends with a minor triad. ”I am Come into My Garden” and ”The Dying Christian’s Last Farewell” bofir end wifir an open fifth, avoiding bofir fire major and minor final triad. ”Hear, Hear, O Heav’ns,” in F minor, ends wifir a Picardy firird, creating a major triad to end fire piece. This is fire only example in all fire anfirems firat uses a Picardy firird for fire final chord. It is unclear why Billings, after displaying his ability to write in so many different keys, decided to write exclusively in keys closely related to C for his last publication of music. Perhaps he truly felt firese keys were able to portray fire moods he desired. Now let us observe some of fire changes in fire anfirems Billings has made regarding key relations. As mentioned earlier, most of fire tonal centers used in fire anfirems of CH are closely related to C. This does not, however, give any indication of what happens harmonically wifirin a single anfirem. Several anthems in CH simply involve a change of mode between major and minor. There are two anfirems, however, which involve much more complicated modulations. The first of firese is ”O Thou to Whom All Creatures Bow.” This anfirem modulates from C major to F major, and firen returns to C major to finish 51 fire piece. What makes firis interesting is fire mefirod by which Billings modulates. Rafirer than using fire tonic triad in C major to pivot as V in F major, Billings writes out a brief duet, presumably to be played by two instruments, to bring fire piece to F major (see Example 23). Example 23: ”0 Thou to Whom All Creatures Bow,” mm. 165-168 Sym. to introduce B flat The duet runs four measures long and begins wifir a tonic harmony in C, followed by a deceptive cadence in C. Immediately following fire deceptive cadence, fire C major triad serves as a pivot to F major and V-I-V-I establishes firis new tonal center. Billings uses firis same technique later in fire anfirem to get back to C major (see Example 24). Example 24: ”0 Thou to Whom All Creatures Bow,” mm. 199-202 [Symvhony] The second anfirem wifir more complex modulations firan have previously been seen is ”Variety, Wifirout Mefirod.” In firis anthem, Billings modulates firrough several different keys. It begins in G minor and ends in C major, itself an unusual feature, since all of Billings’s ofirer anfirems begin and end in fire same key. The pafir Billings takes from G minor to C major is as follows: g-c-C—c-F-f-C. In the case of firis anthem, modulation occurs quite frequenfiy, and each modulation is produced by fire use of a secondary dominant. The title of firis anfirem, ”Variety, Wifirout Mefirod,” seems to refer more to its harmonic make- up firan its textual content. Finally, let us look at some ways in which fire anfirems in CH show continued progress in the direction of innovative use of harmony. Throughout Billings’s music we have seen advancement in fire use of accidentals. In CH, fire variety of uses of accidentals to comes to a climax. On fire simplest end, there are two anthems firat do not use accidentals at all, which is a feature we saw in NEPS. There are also one or two anfirems firat use accidentals for fire sole purpose of providing fire leading tone in a minor key, which is a common feature 53 wifir SMA. SMA also introduced fire use of accidentals to create secondary dominant functions. This particular use of accidentals occurs frequenfiy in CH. The most common secondary function found in CH is V/ V, which is present in two—firirds of fire anfirems. Ofirer secondary functions firat appear are V/vi, V/ ii, and V/ V of fire relative major in a minor key. Billings also uses accidentals to produce leading tones to single pitches, such as #4 leading to 5, where fire harmonic support is somefiring ofirer firan V/ V to V. Ofirer common uses of accidentals include borrowed chords, such as ii or IV from major when locally in a minor key, and Picardy firirds at interior cadences. One uncommon use of accidentals in fire anfirems of CH is conflicting chromatic embellishing tones. Their appearance creates a ”split-firird,” a compositional feature most often related to nineteenfir-century compositions, which is essentially a triad firat includes bofir fire major third and fire minor firird above fire root. In Billings’s writing, fire split-firird is a result of two chromatic neighbors, as in ”I am Come into My Garden” (see Example 25), or two chromatic passing tones, as in ”Hark! Hark! Hear You Not” (see Example 26). Example 25: ”I Am Come into My Garden,” mm. 109-110 I———— young—.——. Hm Example 26: ”Hark! Hark! Hear You Not,” mm. 185-186 55 The passing tones create an unusual situation because firey appear here wifirin the context of a major key, but firey function much as fire raised or lowered sixfir and sevenfir scale degrees appear in minor keys. Accidentals have become a very important tool for Billings, and it is clear firat he constanfiy revises his use and understanding of firem. The anfirems found in CH embody all the skills Billings has learned and developed since he began composing around 1770. As a publication of music including fire largest number of Billings’s anfirems, CH presents elements of bofir fire earliest features and fire latest developments of his writing style. Some of his established techniques include using fire Bible for most of his textual material, using a firrough—composed form for nearly all his anfirems, frequenfiy applying dotted rhyfirms, and using simple harmonies. Some of his new techniques include creating some text of his own to supplement fire text he was already using, learning how to relate meter and text in fire most natural way, and using accidentals to achieve unusual effects. After all has been observed, certain features of Billings’s anfirems have not changed at all, but fire progression from NEPS to CH reveals a definite search. It reveals several instances of trial and error. Those features of Billings’s anfirems .firat returned from his earlier works came back for a musical reason— because firey worked. There are also several features of Billings’s writing firat changed drastically, and firis is where we can see fire true development of a composer. 56 BLESSED IS HE THAT CONSIDERETH THE POOR As noted earlier, Billings wrote two anfirems firat use fire same text. The first version of ”Blessed is He firat Considerefir fire Poor” is found in The New- England Psalm-Singer (1770); fire second is in The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement (1781).” The following comparative analysis of firese two anfirems furfirer supports my argument that Billings’s technique of composing went firrough a great deal of change firrough fire years. It has not been determined whefirer or not fire second version is simply a reworking of fire first. The tunes present in each version are not at all alike, but ofirer musical elements, such as form, texture, and rhyfirm, are remarkably similar. Because of firese similarities, I will treat fire second version as a reworking, focusing on the improvements fire second version presents. The musical features firat will be discussed and compared between firese two anfirems include text, form, meter and rhyfirm, melody, and harmony. Text The sources firat make up the texts of Blessed I and Blessed II are very similar, but not exacfiy fire same. Much of fire text is used in bofir anfirems and comes from Matt. 5:7, 1 Cor. 13:13, 1 Cor. 14:1, Ps. 34:6, and Ps. 41:1-3. Text 2” Hereafter, 1 will refer to each anthem individually. Blessed I is the version found in NEPS, and Blessed H is the version found in PSA. 57 found only in Blessed I comes from Matt 25:34-35 and P3. 41:13. Text included only in Blessed II comes from Ps. 68:5, Ps. 106:48, Prov. 19:17, and James 1:27. The texts of fire two settings read as follows: The New-England Psalm-Singer The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement Blessed is he firat considerefir the Poor; Blessed is he firat considerefir fire Poor: fire Lord shall deliver him, the Lord will deliver him in fire Time of Trouble. in fire Time of Trouble. Blessed is he firat considerefir the Poor, Blessed is he firat considerefir fire Poor: fire Lord will preserve him fire Lord will preserve him, and keep him alive. and keep him alive. 23 And firou wilt not deliver him And firou wilt not deliver him into fire Will of his Enemies. into fire Will of his Enemies. 29 Blessed are fire Merciful, Blessed are fire Merciful: for firey shall obtain Mercy. for firey shall find Mercy. 3° Follow after Charity, Follow after Charity: 31 firere is Faith, Hope, and Charity; firere is Faifir, Hope, and Charity; but fire greatest of firese is Charity. but fire Greatest of firese is Charity. 32 Blessed is he firat considerefir fire Poor, Blessed is he firat considerefir fire Poor: fire Lord shall strengfiren him fire Lord shall strengfiren him upon fire Bed of Languishing. upon fire Bed of Languishing.33 2’ Ps. 41:1-2a. 29 Ps. 41:2b. 3° Matt. 5:7. 31 1 Cor. 14:1. 32 1 Cor. 13:13. 33 Ps. 41:3. 58 The New-England Psalm-Singer. cont’ (1 The poor Marr cried, and fire Lord heard him, and deliver’d him from all his Trouble. Come ye Blessed of my Fafirer inherit fire Kingdom prepared for you from fire Foundation of fire World?6 For I was anhungered and ye gave me Meat; and I was afirirsty and ye gave me Drink.37 3‘ Prov. 19:17. 35 Ps. 34:6. 36 Matt. 25:34. 37 Matt. 25:35. 3’ Ps. 68:5. 39 James 1:27. The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement. con_t:d_ He firat givefir to fire Poor he lendefir to fire Lord, and he will repay it.34 The poor Man cry’d, and fire Lord heard him and deliver’d him from all his Trouble.35 A Father to fire Fafirerless, fire Widow’s God and Guide.38 Pure Religion and undefiled before God and fire Fafirer is to visit fire Widow and Fafirerless, and to keep himself unspotted from fire World.39 59 The New-England Psalm-Singer, cont’ d The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement, cont’ 5! Blessed be the Lord God of Israel Blessed be fire Lord God of Israel from Everlasting to Everlasting, from Everlasting to Everlasting. Amen and Amen.“0 Praise fire Lord, Amen, and let all fire Pe0ple say Amen.41 Hallelujah, Amen. Hallelujah, Amen. It appears firat in Blessed II, Billings desired greater scriptural support for fire fireme of firis anthem—helping fire oppressed. The only text firat Billings did not use in Blessed II firat he did use in Blessed I is fire text firat states, ”Come ye Blessed of my Fafirer inherit fire Kingdom prepared for you from fire Foundation of fire World. For I was anhungered and ye gave me Meat; and I was afirirsty and ye gave me Drink.” Instead, Billings replaces it wifir a shorter text firat brings across fire same point in a more direct manner: ”If you give to fire needy, God will repay you greatly.”42 The next portion of text Billings adds in Blessed II focuses not only on firose oppressed by lack of wealfir, but also on firose oppressed by lack of family, such as fire widowed and fire orphaned. By changing fire text of firis anfirem slighfiy, Billings brings his message across in a much more direct manner. 4° Ps. 41:13. ‘1 Ps. 106:48. ‘2 This is a paraphrase ofProv. 19:17. 60 Form Though bofir these anthems are mainly through-composed, fireir forms do correspond considerably. This can be seen in fire diagram below: Blessed I: A B C D A1 E Ia Ib F Measures: 1-17 18-28 29-34 35-43 44-58 59-70 71-87 88-100 101-140 Tonal Area: C C C C C c C c C Blessed I I : A B C D A1 Ila E lIb F Measures: 1-26 27-37 38-47 48-59 60-70 71-92 93-103 104-138 139-188 Tonal Area: E E E E E E e e—rE E Each section is defined primarily by text, but corresponding texts also have corresponding musical features. In places where different text is used (as shown in fire diagram where Ia, Ib, Ila and 11b appear), fire musical elements are also original. We will now consider each successive section. Section ”A” is divided into two equal parts, each one introduced by a single line of text sung by only a small portion of fire choir. In Blessed I, this introductory line is first sung by tenor voices in fire form of a duet, and Billings gives specific directions firat fire upper part is to be sung soffiy. The main melody, firen, is sung by fire lower tenor part. In Blessed II, fire corresponding introductory melody is different firan in Blessed I, but fire rhythm is identical. It is also sung by fire tenor voice, but is arranged as a solo, not a duet. In each anthem, firis introductory line is firen followed by a response from fire full choir, 61 in which it repeats fire text, ”the Lord shall deliver him,” firree times before finishing the phrase. The second part of section ”A" firen begins wifir anofirer introductory statement by a small group of voices. Billings once again uses a duet in Blessed I, but uses a different combination of voices. This time it begins as a bass and tenor duet, but is concluded wifir a bass and soprano duet, creating a fragmented line. Billings does, however, retain fire lower voice as melody and the upper voice as harmony. The second introductory statement in Blessed II is much different from fire one firat began fire anthem, and it is sung as a solo by fire bass section. Once again, at fire conclusion of firis introductory statement, the full chorus enters to complete fire phrase. In summary, fire form of fire ”A” section in each anfirem is identical wifir fire exception of two details: Blessed I uses dues where Blessed 11 uses solos for fire introductory lines, and Blessed I retains fire original melody line while Blessed II changes it. Billings uses polyphonic writing as fire main feature of section ”B.” In each anfirem, the bass part begins a fugal passage wifir melodic motion from fire dominant to fire tonic. The ”fuge” firen continues wifir fire addition of first fire tenor voice, firen the altos, and finally fire sopranos, all imitating fire initial melodic motion from dominant to tonic. The pitch interval at which each voice enters fire ”fuge” is different in each anfirem. In Blessed I, the bass begins quite high in is range, where the tenor and alto can bofir enter in unison to it, and fire soprano one octave above it. In Blessed II, fire bass begins much lower in is range, and the tenor and alto both enter one octave above, and fire soprano 62 enters two octaves above the bass. The treatment of fire fuge tune is also different in each anfirem. The tenor imitates only fire first two pitches of fire bass tune before going on to a completely original tune in Blessed I. The second tune created by fire tenor voice is then imitated exactly by bofir fire alto and soprano pars. In Blessed II, fire first two-and-a-half measures of fire opening bass line are irrritated by all fire remaining voices. This creates a more unified section firan is found in Blessed I. Overall, however, very litfie changed in firis section from NEPS to PSA. The ”C” section in each of these anfirems is very short, and again shows litfie variation in form from one version to fire next. Bofir anfirems divide firis section into two parts, each one stating in full the line of text, ”Blessed are fire Merciful, for firey shall obtain Mercy.” In Blessed I, fire tenors and sopranos sing this text first, each voice part singing one half of fire phrase. In Blessed II, fire entire line is first sung as a duet in thirds between fire bass and tenor voices, and on fire final word, ”Mercy,” fire entire chorus joins. Each anfirem firen continues wifir an exact repetition of fire text, sung by fire full chorus. Melodically, Blessed II uses a parallel format to unify firese two statements of fire text. Blessed II also extends fire end of firis section slighfiy by one internal repetition of the words, ”the Merciful,” by fire chorus. Anofirer very short section, ”D,” arrives next in fire music, but ofirer firan firrough text, firere is litfie relationship between Blessed I and Blessed II. The melody in Blessed I is extremely fragmented. The first phrase is divided into brief 63 solos by each voice part, and firen firey all join togefirer to sing, ”but the greatest of firese is Charity.” The corresponding ”D” section in Blessed II begins in a similar manner, but is much less fragmented melodically. In Blessed II, the tenors sing ”Follow after Charity,” but the full chorus joins immediately to complete firis phrase. The full chorus continues togefirer in fire second phrase, which is expanded slighfiy by some repetition of portions of fire text. The changes Billings made in firis section from Blessed I to Blessed II are very appropriate; firey help unite fire text rather firan divide it ”A” is fire next large portion of each anfirem. The text firat appears here and fire basic form of firis section are similar to firat which was found in fire ”A” section. The text again begins wifir ”Blessed is He firat Considerefir fire Poor,” and once again it is sung by a small portion of fire chorus. In Blessed I, firis line is sung by a bass duet (firis time the upper part is the main melody), and in Blessed II it is sung by unison sopranos. One feature to point out is firat fire introductory melodies in ”A” and ”A1” of Blessed I are not fire same, whereas the corresponding melodies in Blessed II are identical. Section ”A” is also like ”A” because fire introductory line is answered by fire full chorus. At firis point, fire form of section ”A” in each anthem changes slighfiy. Blessed I mirrors fire beginning of the piece, using a different pair of voices to introduce fire second phrase. This second introductory line is once again completed by all four voices of fire chorus. Blessed II, on the ofirer hand, omis fire use of a second introductory phrase. Instead, the consequent from the first phrase is repeated. 64 From firis point on, fire forms of Blessed I and Blessed II do not correspond so precisely. As was seen wifir the comparison of texs, Blessed II now includes a section firat simply does not appear in Blessed I . This section of the anthem begins wifir a duet between fire tenor and soprano, which leads into a short fugal passage firat forms fire first phrase. In firis fugal passage, fire alto voice enters one measure after fire tenor and soprano, and it enters one octave above fire pitch on which fire tenor began. One half measure after fire alto enters, fire bass comes in, beginning a perfect fourfir below fire tenor’ s first pitch. The full chorus in a homorhyfirnric texture sings fire second phrase of firis section. The next section in each anfirem corresponds in one, but not every, respect. The text used here, in section ”B,” is nearly identical, but fire arrangement and texture of voices is different. The opening phrase in Blessed I is quite fragmented, as fire text is broken up and is sung by successive solo voices. The tenors begin, singing, ”The poor Man cried.” The sopranos answer wifir, ”and fire Lord heard him.” The second phrase concludes fire text of firis section wifir fire basses singing, ”and deliver’ d him from all his Trouble.” The text of fire second phrase is firen repeated at a much slower tempo, joining all four voice parts in homorhyfirnric texture. In Blessed II, fire full chorus sings fire entire text in familiar style, alfirough firere are occasional measures of more florid rhythm in individual voice pars. Also, rafirer firan repeating an entire portion of text, Blessed II only repeats fire words ”and deliver’ (1.” The less fragmented line and fire firicker texture found in Blessed II add continuity to fire anfirem. 65 The next two sections in Blessed I comprise fire first materials encountered firat are not found in Blessed II. Section ”la” is mosfiy a fugal section, and it begins wifir fire bass voice. The tenor voice enters next, imitating fire bass melody exacfiy for firree eighfir notes, but then leading into a different tune. The alto and soprano follow in exact irrritation of fire entire opening tenor line, much as was found in section ”B.” Once fire soprano sings is imitative line of text, all voices cadence on a tonic triad. After a measure of rest, fire full chorus enters, stating fire last line of text in four-part harmony. The format of section ”Ib” very much resembles firat of fire ”E” section of Blessed I . In it, fire text is divided into four pars and each part is sung by solo voices. Once fire text is completely exposed, the full chorus repeas it, again in familiar style. Section ”Hb” in Blessed II is fire last independent section wifirin firese two anfirems. It is made up of mosfiy four-part texture, alfirough firere are two brief solo interjections in fire later part of firis section. The first portion of ”Hb” is made up of two phrases, parallel in structure because of fireir musical similarity and fireir verbatim repetition of text. Written in E minor, the first phrase ends on a III triad, while the second phrase ends wifir a Picardy firird on a I triad. The second portion of ”Nb” is lengfirier firan fire first, and fire phrase structure is rafirer vague. It begins wifir a change of mode to E major. The end of fire first phrase elides wifir fire beginning of fire next phrase. The second phrase begins wifir fire solo tenor voice, which is firen joined by fire ofirer firree voices to 66 complete fire phrase. The firird and final phrase of firis portion is structured fire same way -it begins with fire solo tenor voice and is concluded by all four voices. The type of call-and-response found here is much more effective firan the various fragmented melodies of Blessed I. There are also some parallel melodic patterns wifirin each voice part in firese last two phrases. The patterns firat appear near fire end of fire second phrase, however, appear near fire beginning of fire firird phrase. The format of firis section shows a great deal of compositional creativity. Section ”F” is fire final section firat appears in each anfirem. As wifir fire ofirer corresponding sections of firese anfirems, the form and texture of each version is similar. Each section begins wifir fugal writing and ends wifir a combination of four-part familiar style and four-part polyphonic writing. In Blessed 1, fire first fugal passage begins in fire bass voice, which enters on fire tonic pitch. In Blessed II, the corresponding fugal passage begins in fire tenor voice, which enters on fire dominant pitch. Bofir voices beginning fire fugue sing firrough fire first lines of text: ”Blessed be fire Lord God of Israel from Everlasting to Everlasting.” The tenors join next in Blessed I, irrritating fire first firree-note motive introduced by fire basses. The polyphony found in Blessed II is apparenfiy not intended to be imitative, for fire only glimpse of imitation is in fire opening rhyfirmic figure between fire tenor and bass. Bofir anfirems also extend fire fugal portion of section ”F” by repeating much of fire text. The final portion of section ”F” varies slighfiy in format from Blessed I to Blessed II. In Blessed I, firis 67 final portion is begun with four-part familiar style proclaiming, ”Hallelujah," and is concluded wifir fugal writing. The fugal section repeas the text firat was used at fire beginning of section ”F.” The sopranos lead into the last part of fire text in Blessed II, beginning an extended segment of polyphonic writing. After a while, all voices join togefirer one last time in homorhyfirnric texture, singing final ”Amens" and ”Hallelujahs." The consistencies in form between Blessed I and Blessed II are a valuable aid in comparing Billings’s writing style from one anfirem to fire ofirer. The main change Billings made in fire form'of firese anfirems was reducing fire number of times fire texture changes. This action allows for a more unified piece of music in Blessed II. Ofirer inrportant changes between Blessed I and Blessed II will be 8 observed on fire following pages. Meter and Rhyfirm The overview of all fire anfirems written by Billings showed a marked change in his understanding and use of meter and rhyfirm as his compositional skills developed. An analysis of fire meter and rhyfirm in Blessed I and Blessed II will bring us even closer to understanding firese changes. Blessed I displays a wide variety of meters and tempos, creating a sense of disorganization. Billings changes fire meter firree times during section ”A,” twice during sections ”A1" and ”E,” and firree times during section ”F." In addition to 68 fire frequent meter changes, firere are also frequent tempo changes. Altogether, firis anfirem has a disjointed effect Blessed II mends fire disjointed quality firat Blessed I had. Each section wifirin fire anfirem is fairly consistent in is use of meter. The only changes in meter fall between major sections of fire piece, not wifirin each section. Even more consistent firan fire meter is the tempo; firere are no tempo changes in Blessed II. The tempo used in firis anfirem, however, is quite deliberate and causes some sections of fire music to drag. Overall, fire consistency in meter and tempo firat Blessed II displays is a unifying feature of fire anfirem and is an improved quality of Billings’s writing. The relationship between meter and text remains an issue. In section ”A” of Blessed I, for example, Billings sets fire solo pars in triple meter and fire chorus pars in duple meter. This does not work well because some weak syllables fall on strong beas in fire triple meter measures. Alfirough fire melody remains identical, the two settings for the solo voice are metrically inconsistent wifir each ofirer: fire first solo begins on an upbeat while fire second solo begins on a downbeat. Billings fixes firis problem in Blessed II by setting all of section ”A” in duple meter. Though fire rhyfirrrric pattern in Blessed II closely resembles firat in Blessed I, fire setting in Blessed II is much more natural because all fire accented syllables fall on strong beas. Section ”B” presents new difficulties in setting text convincingly. Because firis section is fugal, fire strong and weak syllables sung in each voice generally 69 do not coincide. This is especially true in Blessed I, where voices enter the ”fuge” at irregular temporal intervals. The text itself works very well in duple meter, but Billings ses in triple meter. To complicate matters, the arrangement of fire voices’ entries prevens this fugal section from being set well exclusively in duple or triple meter. Billings allows each voice of fire ”fuge” to enter at regular intervals in Blessed 11, providing one solution to fire problem firat occurred in Blessed I. Billings also sets firis section in duple meter rafirer firan triple meter. These actions, along wifir ofirer small changes wifirin fire musical setting, allow the text to be set convincingly. Section ”C” provides anofirer example of problems created and solved by metrical placement of text. Each version is set wifir the exact same rhyfirrrric pattern. In Blessed I, it is written in triple meter even firough fire text and rhyfirm strongly suggest duple meter. Billings once again solves fire problem in Blessed II by setting firis section in duple meter. Billings’s early lack of understanding of meter is really exposed in section ”D" of Blessed I. In firis very short section, Billings presens some awkward and unorganized rhyfirnric patterns firat do not fit well wifirin fire meter used. The result is firat several notes are held over barlines and firat highly complicated syncopated passages occur (see Example 27). 70 Example 27: ”Blessed is He firat Considerefir fire Poor," NEPS, mm. 35-43 [J- MM. 120] thereisFaiflr, 71 The musical passage found here is far from fire typical style of choral writing of the day. Billings writes section ”D” in Blessed II wifir a very pleasing arrangement of rhyfirm and meter. He lengfirens firis section slighfiy by adding some internal repetition of text. He also uses a repeating dotted rhyfirmic pattern wifirin fire boundaries of a steady metrical setting. These changes eliminate fire ties over barlines and fire complicated syncopation while creating an enjoyable segment of fire anthem. The metrical relationship to text in section "A1” in each anthem closely reflects fire commens made previously for section ”A.” Rafirer firan alternating triple and duple time, however, Billings ses all of ”A1" in triple meter in Blessed I . Unfortunately, fire meter used still does not reflect fire natural pulse of fire text. The setting in Blessed II is in duple meter, which works well. Since section ”B" is set up differenfiy in Blessed I firan it is in Blessed II, it is more difficult to deternrine whefirer or not improvemens were made to fire metrical setting of fire text. Generally, however, it is safe to say firat fire setting in Blessed I is slighfiy more awkward firan in Blessed II. The triple meter used firroughout section ”E” in Blessed I does not always fit naturally wifir fire text, while fire triple meter in Blessed II does achieve firis goal. The final section firat allows direct comparison between fire metrical settings in each anfirem is section ”F." This section in Blessed I begins wifir fugal writing. Once again it includes irregular temporal entrances by each voice, which may be one cause of fire unfavorable setting of text. The ”Amens” of the 72 last firree measures in Blessed I work very well, finally, in fire quadruple meter in which Billings ses it (see Example 28). Example 28: ”Blessed is He That Considerefir fire Poor,” NEPS, mm. 138-140 Section ”F" in Blessed II is all set in duple meter and even fire opening fugal section works consistenfiy well wifir firis meter. The last eleven measures of Blessed II move very slowly, but fire fullest sounds of a choir performing firese last measures make it a very appropriate ending to fire anfirem. The sections firat appear independenfiy wifirin each anfirem conform to the general characteristics of fire anfirem in which firey appear. Sections ”Ia” and ”lb” in Blessed I bofir have settings in triple meter firat do not work well wifir fire text. Sections ”Ila” and ”IIb” in Blessed II bofir have very natural settings of fire text in duple meter. 73 The final subject to discuss on fire topic of meter and rhyfirm is Billings’s use of rhyfirmic patterns. In general, Billings appears to use a great deal of creativity in fire rhyfirmic patterns of Blessed I . A variety of dotted rhythms and an abundance of triples and sixteenfir notes make fire rhyfirmic component of firis anfirem very exciting. Some of fire tempos in Blessed I are quite fast, however, making several rhyfirrrric passages difficult to execute. In Blessed II, Billings continues to use dotted rhythms to create energy and intensity. Overall, however, fire rhyfirms found in Blessed II are less elaborate, which in turn makes firem easier to perform and, therefore, more effective musically. By now fire significance of fire metrical and rhyfirrrrical changes from Blessed I to Blessed II should be clear. Blessed I is primarily set in triple meter, alfirough much of it works best in duple meter. Blessed II is primarily set in duple meter. Blessed I contains elaborate rhyfirms which may be a challenge to perform well. Blessed II simplifies fire rhyfirms, but maintains is rhyfirnric drive wifir dotted rhyfirms. Blessed I shows an immature understanding of meter and rhythm, while Blessed II demonstrates command of firis important feature of music. Melody Alfirough I did not include an overview of fire melodies used in all Billings’s anfirems, firere are two important features worfiry of mention regarding fire use of melody in Blessed II. First of all, Billings uses melody as a 74 unifying feature. Second, Billings displays a fondness for melodic sequence. These two features demonstrate development in Billings’s work as a composer. The melody used by fire tenor voice to begin Blessed 11 returns in fire soprano voice in m. 60. The corresponding spots in Blessed I make use of two different melodies. The anfirems on fire whole, being firrough-composed, tend to lack unity, so fire use of an identical melodic phrase in fire two different areas of Blessed II is important in tying togefirer fire entire anfirem. Not only does Billings use fire recurrence of a melodic idea to unite Blessed II, but he also uses fire compositional technique of melodic sequence to perform a similar task. Melodic sequence is found in fire tenor voice on two occasions in firis anfirem. The first occurs in mm. 124-128 and is repeated in mm. 130-134 (see Examples 29a-b). Example 29a: ”Blessed is He firat Considerefir fire Poor," PSA, mm. 124-128 to.__. vis - it the Wid-ow, to vis - it fire Wid-ow Example 29b: ”Blessed is He that Considerefir fire Poor,” PSA, mm. 130-134 and to keep him-sclfun- spot-ted, to kecphirn-selt‘un-spot-ted, 75 Each stage of fire sequence is two measures long. Though many sequences are found wifir stepwise movement between fire stages, firis one repeats fire motive a perfect fourfir above fire original statement. The second sequence found in the tenor voice is in mm. 156-159 (see Example 30). Example 30: ”Blessed is He firat Considerefir fire Poor," PSA, mm. 156-159 and let all_ the__ Poo-pie say, and let all._ thc_ Poo-pic say The stages of firis sequence are also two measures long, but the second stage of firis sequence appears in typical fashion- one step above fire first stage. Melodic sequence involving all four voices simultaneously is also found in Blessed II. This happens in mm. 178-188, where fire final firree proclamations of ”Amen” are heard (see Example 31). 76 Example 31: ”Blessed is He firat Considerefir fire Poor," PSA, mm. 178-188 9 A - men, A - men, A - men. Each statement of ”Amen" is a new stage of fire sequence, and each stage rises by step. The third stage of fire sequence is skipped, however, producing fire interval of a firird between fire last two stages. It is also interesting to note here that fire soprano and alto voices switch pars on the final stage of fire sequence. In addition, each stage of fire sequence represens a IV-V-I harmonic motion wifirin fire local keys of IV, ii and I. Billings’s use of melodic sequence resuls in a composition firat has melodic and harmonic direction and is internally unified — a feature firat is not found in Blessed I. Harmony Several of fire harmonic features found in Blessed I and Blessed II are very similar, yet firere are a few significant changes firat are made in fire later anfirem. The similarities firat exist involve fire most frequenfiy used harmonies and fire types of cadences firat appear. The major changes firat occur in Blessed II involve 77 film fire use of accidentals and fireir resulting harmonies. Let us now look in detail at fire element of harmony as it appears in Blessed I and Blessed II. The prevailing harmonies in bofir anfirems are, as one would expect, fire tonic and fire dominant. The next most common harmonies found are ii, IV and vi in major, but firey do not carry a strong predominant function as firey would in most eighteenfir-century music. In Blessed I, firese harmonies most often appear as passing or neighboring harmonies. They are found more frequenfiy wifir a predominant function in Blessed II, alfirough not exclusively. Occasionally a iii chord appears in Blessed I, but only as a passing or neighboring harmony, usually involving motion to or from IV. In Blessed II, vii is more fi-equent. Overall, fire diatorric harmonies used in firese two anfirems do not change much. The most common type of cadence found in firese two anfirems is fire authentic cadence. The labeling of these cadences as perfect or imperfect may be debatable because fire soprano voice rarely ends firese cadences on fire tonic. The tenor voice almost always does end on fire tonic, however, and in Billings’s music, fire tenor voice in four-part texture always carries fire essential melodic line. Half cadences also appear quite frequenfiy, and deceptive harmonic motion occurs, but never at a cadence point. The most significant change of harmony firat happens from Blessed I to Blessed II involves fire addition of accidentals. Only one accidental is used in Blessed I, which also happens to be fire only accidental firat appears in all of NEPS. On fire contrary, accidentals are quite common in Blessed II. 78 The one accidental found in Blessed I occurs in section ”lb," which is written in C minor (or C aeolian, if you consider the overall lack of accidentals). Here, a B natural appears in m. 91 as part of a melodic solo in fire soprano. B natural is fire leading tone in C minor, but it never occurs as part of a triad -it only appears for a melodic purpose. Because firere are no other B naturals, fire resulting harmonies in C minor include v and VII. There is, firerefore, no true dominant function in fire minor portions of Blessed I, aside from fire implied harmony firat fire altered melodic note presens. Many accidentals appear in Blessed II, and fire purpose of each varies slighfiy. One sharp is used as part of a solo melody, creating a leading tone to fire dominant scale degree (mm. 3 and 62). In a similar manner, a sharp is used later in a fugal section for fire same purpose (m. 140). Sharps are also used as chromatic neighbor tones (mm. 45 and 121). Secondary dominans, such as V/ V (m. 152, 173 and 179) and V/vi (m. 183), also appear occasionally as a result of added accidentals. The most frequent use of accidentals comes in mm. 94-112, where fire anthem is in fire key of E minor. In firis portion of fire anfirem, D sharp is used frequenfiy to produce a dominant triad - a harmony firat simply is not found in Billings’s compositions until after NEPS. Perhaps fire most interesting use of accidentals is to produce a major triad wifirin fire context of a minor key. In m. 112, Billings uses a Picardy firird to end a section firat was in a minor key. By doing firis, he is able to avoid cadencing on a minor triad and still use a complete triad. The varied use of accidentals in Blessed II not only shows an 79 advanced understanding of harmony by Billings, but it also creates an aurally pleasing musical composition. "I 80 CONCLUSIONS A detailed study of the anfirems written by William Billings makes it clear firat many changes occurred in his compositional style. Each of his successive publications displays continued effors to become a respectable musician. Advancing musical understanding can be seen in fire repertoire of texs that -.-.. Billings uses, fire formal design, fire metrical organization and rhyfirrrric patterns, and fire harmonic language in his anthems. The texs Billings uses provide an example of how he kept experimenting wifir different ideas, eventually setfiing on a certain style firat consistenfiy appears in his later anfirems. His earliest anfirems were completely sacred, as fire very definition of an anthem suggess, and firey were also taken direcfiy from fire ultimate sacred source, fire Bible. As time went on, Billings expanded his range of sources and added non-Biblical sacred texs. Later he went beyond fire Iimis of sacred texs and used non-sacred texts from ofirer sources, such as poems or even Billings’s own writing. At a certain point, firis experimentation wifir texs subsided, and Billings setfied back into a pattern of using purely sacred-texts, originating bofir from fire Bible and from ofirer religious sources. The overall form of fire anfirems did not change drastically from NEPS to CH. In general, fire anfirems are firrough-composed. There are slight variances, however, which show compositional development by Billings. The earlier 81 anfirems, for example, tend to be more disjunct The later anfirems seem to have more unifying features. One of fire most obvious compositional changes in Billings’s writing relates to meter, particularly to fire relationship meter has to text. In his earlier anfirems, Billings struggles to match meter and text in a convincing manner. Not only do strong syllables often fall on weak beats and vice versa, but several passages are very awkward metrically. For example, several texs firat clearly fit in duple meter have been set in triple meter. In his later anfirems, Billings ses fire texts in a much more natural way, showing his clear understanding of fire responsibility of meter. Rhyfimr appears in Billings’s anfirems in much fire same way firat fire texts do. Early on, he experiments wifir rhyfirm, involving several complicated passages in his first few publications. Once he tried all he could wifir rhyfirmic patterns, he setfied wifir simplified patterns that enhance, rafirer firan detract from, fire text. Rhyfirnric energy in Billings’s music comes from his frequent use of dotted rhyfirms, a feature firat he established early in his writing practice. Harmony is fire final area where much advancement can be noted. This advancement was most clearly seen in his use of certain tonal sonorities. In his earliest works, Billings uses diatonic chords exclusively. He does not even use fire leading tone in minor, which resuls in a reflection of medieval modal sonorities. Beginning wifir Billings’s second publication, leading tones are added, producing fire dominant harmony in minor. The second publication also 82 introduces chords with secondary functions. This not only adds to his harmonic vocabulary, but it expands the variety of moods available firrough sound. Later yet, Billings uses borrowed chords, including fire Picardy firird, a major tonic in a minor key. The anfirems of William Billings help define him as a composer. His early anfirems show his inexperience as a musician. Each successive volume of music he published displays at least one area where he shows musical progress. It is clear firat Billings developed in many ways as a composer -a composer of whom Americans should be proud. 83 APPENDIX A APPENDD< A Blessed is He That Considereth the Poor from The New-England Psalm-Singer Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 85 hudwmm-mimth—Hma-Man—wfll_m- sw—andbq—h'nI-live. An! Mfihmb-Bv-c Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by mm 86 20 the Irv-er Hm in.» ‘7 - 4,. theWill ofhisEn L j\ mics. b at him [iv- .1 “j 1 r 7 7 de-liv- A .34: v 1 slim liv fl - L n 1‘ L n L 1‘ the [iv-c him in-b & [Lao LIL 0-110 0" 4" En e-mies, Ii: L I WW I r I LI riyi ofh'sEn - Will YLrlLrn T L}. H‘lllo I. K T Y: e-mia ill-bib Willd‘his En- him 4 7 1H ‘1‘ "L Al. TUI 7 1 v A E A: I L J] r J Y Bless-ed one the w-d-u ofbisEn mum En e-mia, his Will dll'sEn Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 87 31 Macstuso [J = my blew-ed”!!! Mfl-d-fiihhy—M ob-finMa-cy atheism- i-ty. Blot-edit!» Mu-dd-«-edleom Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 88 1b Lad Munch-en MMM-mflmdfll M-mhhflM-n minim-min w-cn nudist-gill- Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 89 (b-liv-a’d him_—_ fun all his Tim-Ha. &-liv- dd him “dd—his Tran-his. Cam ’0 Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by pemu'ssl'on. 90 Fuh-ain-hu-itlha Kim-churn-w-ed i! you of anh-erin-hu-thina-dumpc-w-ed-~hyw b-hmeKhn-dunpe-pl-d—h’yw h-bu-hflnKins-dnmpe-pt-edh you. in Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 91 85 "— 3 —, Languissint 8h: Fun-a - lim— d'_ the “laid._. ndye’vemeDrirk Falun- chipmunk-Id Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by pennission. 92 lmn-flrim- y dye'wme Drink. Bin-edbednlmd God of ls-n-el fm'n Ev-a-lu - in II! - to Ev-a-llt - is; A-mu lid A- man; fiun Ev-c-I-t - in to Ev-a-lut - Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 93 fmn Ev-a-Ias - in to Ev-a- U-il‘ “Adlai-ll A - mfiunEwu-lan-in‘ A - mm. A - HIl-le - lu-jfl. Edwin-jig Hi-Ie-lu-jdl. A Phi-h - III-HI. PH-le-lu-jdi. m-Ie-ln-jdl. A Hui-1e - lu-jab. Hal-le-lu-jlh. Hal-le-lu-jdl. A m. A - um Phl-Io- ln-jd. IH-le-lu-jfi. Hfl-h-In-jdxA - ‘22 Vivace (J: I26] Iu-jah, Hal-le- iii-jab. nu I'H-le-ln-jdhm-le-hi-jdglhl-b- jab, A - um men-ed Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 94 ‘MHV >- 4 r +> F[ '\ 00] Forte I -—iiB———-———H .i -_.__r ._ ,3 T I m A - am 1 I l l 1 1 I 1 L I I l g r T T l '11" l l r I i. 1 ° _ ° N. -___' _ _.___ c . l—‘L— i—g— —il [at]. A - mad A - men. A - men. A - men A O __ A 3 Fr if 3'4 T fl- olln .L HIH'Aj—‘— i 2; L; E ”in“ 1 JITEI‘ E E i} in; A . man and A - men A - men. A - men .. L I Y r T 1* :9; 3 A l n T J”. .. i’ i tar—“LL i i: - 2 5' n i in- 1:“ * j i r i n a a i ‘ b—UP‘G ?; a 6‘ 6 J in; A - mad A - m A - men, A - men Copyright 1981 by The American Musicological Sodety. Used by permission. 95 APPENDIX B 96 APPENDIX B Blessed is He that Considereth the Poor from The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement .11 cm iipt} 1hr Jim. ii ca tit... I... is .TT 9» if? L... .5 I1 . LII . I I . Ii . i a 11W a 1L. . A. a g m t m .5 c e m m i: L L TL TILL I I II _ E1 r .U 11+: b rib fir M prv 11;. 11“ _ _ .Tim _ IIrl TILM 1 L [1L1 .i u . _ {AM . is 1. .u v-1... 11r 1 . filIIT . a . _ j-“ . +1 - UL L} . g: A l . . i v a i m . Im. in L L L 1 l I l U i. a L . i 4.. i m .. em in . . m .W +1 a . . a i a . .i . c . . ..m L .m g ..m 1 arm . a j a. la 1% a T: . g m ii m iLr m . .1. w. 1e rim Mr m -r m h+m ,L f u r.-- a L \JAx x1 ‘TAK x _\ rim. cu 3m. 11 .m. in. is: tar L. a. is 1. MT. m u H c. f is ifi a Jr. a . . a rim .i m cc m .2“ 1 111 11 1f EU cf .L .m J _ _ t a .3 a ii“ in L Ax ‘1‘? x _ . w w L w l I . I a V e - I... t Copyright 1986 by The Americon'Musicologicol Society. Used by permission. 97 cai- dd-a-uhlhe M landings-min.“ hep lint-live. lb W‘mw-m_mnd beplima-Iive. live. And hum—umb-EV-aim in-tohwmd'h‘s Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 98 EI-un-ies, & - liv-a' him in-mngfillofhis En-un-in, in-bthoflisFa-an-in Bias-duet: Maud-fl: fir theysllllfind— Mar - cy. Elan-ed I: fit Ma-d-ful. :1: Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 99 Mu-d-fifl: fu’ drywfin‘l— Ma - W- m is Faith, Hope, “GI-i-ty', In“: GH-utofflue is is m-i-txbmdnCuw-esloffluleis Cl! Chr-i-ty. Char-i-ty, is Clix-i-ty.bmme Gian-stardust; Clut-i-ty. Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 100 -edis he dum-a‘d-er-ethdnm Meaning“! mum-en hing“.-- stimuli-minim Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 101 Mb “chunk-d. Id__b.____will1e-plyig le-pyh. In Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission 102 Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 103 foreGod andltha-Ihs to vis-1th Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 104 and to bephim-selt‘m-spm-ted, to Md-outtovis-itanW-owmanh-er-len to Blea-edbcthelad Goddk-n-d firm Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 105 111 9111!! 144 In! Ev-er - In Ev~a - In Ev-a' - 1m Ev-er- V W7 lat Ev-a - A III Ev- er- 18! 156 I!!! let_ ‘1... db... Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by pemlission. 106 Poo-flea; India all—dz... Pen-lie say A - men. mutton—r1:— Pan-flow. 13ml]. um 111-de. Ha - b-Iu-i-n Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission. 107 / __,_______-___,___ n , _ . ___7__. ____ -—+—- :«e——~-+——--—~—-¥—~—-+ o——~-~11———:———1———g-u A e f 9r ———.f]' ' ‘ " ' ‘ ‘ ‘ “1’ c T 1 r] ! 3 A - men, A - men. A - men. . __ - . 1 m *—---—--7* ~ r- fc—r r- r .1 ~—__ ‘-_ f r Y T A . n ' A ° - U 3 n i n n ‘ 3 f “} . _=_ (I ' v .I } - l A - men, A - men. A men. I T . l A » HA1 __ I T“ n V n l - FD .fO“"—" “II—:3. gig—e . 1 e—--:~———————~ -v . . 1 .' g A - men, A - men, A - mm A 0 7’ I TT 1 - e 1 — - A G 5 u ; Tl - 9 fir l g F1 vii g r f“ f A 1 D 1 T n 10——Pe———j] \ A - 11m, A - men, A - men Copyright 1986 by The American Musicological Society. Used by permission 108 BIBLIOGRAPHY 109 BIBLIOGRAPHY Works Cited Barbour, J. Murray. The Church Music of William Billings. East Lansing, Mich; Michigan State University Press, 1960. Bauer, Marion and Ethel Peyser. How Music Grew:me Prehistoric Times to the Present Day. New York: G. P. Putnam’s and Sons, 1939. Billings, William. The Complete Works of William Billings. Edited by Karl Kroeger. Vol. 1. Boston: The American Musicological Society & The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1981. Billings, William. The Complete Works of Mlliam Billings. Edited by Hans Nathan. Vol. 2 Boston: The American Musicological Society 8: The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1977. Billings, William. The Complete Works of Mlliam Billings. Edited by Karl Kroeger. Vol. 3. Boston: The American Musicological Society & The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1986. Billings, William. The Complete Works of l/Vllliam Billings. Edited by Karl Kroeger. Vol. 4. Boston: The American Musicological Society 8: The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1990. . The Continental Harmony. Boston: 1794. . The New-England Psalm-Singer. Boston: 1770. . The Psalm-Singer’s Amusement. Boston: 1781. . The Singing Master’s Assistant. Boston: 1778. . The Sufi‘olk Harmony. Boston: 1786. Garrett, Allen. ”The Works of William Billings.” Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1952. Gould, Nathaniel D. Church Music in America. Boston: A. N. Johnson, 1853; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1972. 110 Swan, John C., ed. Music in Boston: Readings from the First Three Centuries. Boston: Trustees of the Public Library of Boston, 1977 . Watts, Isaac. Hymns and Spiritual Songs in Three Books. Book 2. London: J. F. and C. Rivington, 1788. General References Ayars, Christine Merrick. Contributions to the Art of Music in America by the Music Industries of Boston: 1640 to 1936. New York: The H. W. Wilson Company, 1937. Bauer, Marion and Ethel Peyser. Music Through the Ages. New York: G. P. Putnam’s and Sons, 1932. Britten, Allen Perdue. American Sacred Music Imprints, 1698-1810: A Bibliography. Worchester: American Antiquarian Society, 1990. Crawford, Richard. The Core Repertory of Early American Psalmody. Madison, Wis.: A-R Editions, c1984. . The American Musical landscape. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. . American Studies and American Musicology: A Point of View and a Case in Point. Brooklyn: Institute for Studies in American Music, Brooklyn College of the City University of New York, c1975. Daniel, Ralph T. The Anthem in New England Before 1800. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1966. Elljnwood, Leonard. The History of American Church Music. New York: Da Capo Press, 1970. Hood, George. A History of Music in New England. Boston: Wilkins, Carter 6: Co., 1846; reprint, New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1970. Hooper, William L. Church Music in Transition. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1963. 111 Lowens, Irving. Music and Musicians in Early America. New York: W. W. Norton 8: Company, Inc., 1964. Kroeger, Karl, ed. Music of the New American Nation: Sacred Music from 1780 to 1820. New York: Garland Publishers, 1995. McKay, David P. and Richard Crawford. William Billings of Boston: Eighteenth- Century Composer. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975. Nathan, Hans. William Billings: Data and Documents. Detroit. Information Coordinators, Inc., 1976. Stevenson, Robert Protestant Church Music in America. New York: 1966. Sound Recordings Billings, William. A land of Pure Delight: Anthems and Puging Tunes. His Majestie’s Clerkes, directed by Paul Hillier. Harmonia Mundi HMU 907048, 1992. Compact disc. Billings, William. Wake Ev’ry Breath. William Appling Singers 8: Orchestra. New World Records 80539-2, 1998. Compact disc. 112 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII (imamsigning”MJJJJWJJI