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Michigan State
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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

EVALUATION OF THE CURRENT STATUS AND ASSESSMENT
OF PROGRAM EFFECTIVENESS WITH REGARD TO STUDENTS'
MOTOR PERFORMANCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
IN THE NATIONAL SPORTS SCHOOL, MALAYSIA

presented by

Saidon Amri

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degreein KinesiologL

 

 

/Z {W

Major professor

 

DateW-yll 100/

MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.

TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due.
MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

DATE DUE

DATE DUE

DATE DUE

 

OCT 1 0 79“"

1910.116

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6/01 cJCIRC/DateDue.p65-p.15

. __._,

EVALUATION OF THE CURRENT STATUS AND ASSESSMENT OF PROGRAM
EFFECTIVENESS WITH REGARD TO STUDENTS' MOTOR PERFORMANCE
AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN THE NATIONAL SPORTS SCHOOL, MALAYSIA
By

Saidon Amri

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Kinesiology

2001

EIILIIATIC
EFFECT I

AND ACADEII

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ABSTRACT
EVALUATION OF THE CURRENT STATUS AND ASSESSMENT OF PROGRAM
EFFECTIVENESS WITH REGARD TO STUDENTS' MOTOR PERFORMANCE
AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN THE NATIONAL SPORTS SCHOOL, MALAYSIA
By

Saidon Amri

The purposes of this study were to determine the current status of the sports
component of a sports school in Malaysia, and to assess the effectiveness of the sports school
program with regard to motor performance and academic achievement.

Using information submitted by the administrator and 37 coaches of the sports school,
and from record and reports of the sports school, the cunent status of three main areas of the
program; nanely, the program content and policy, privilege and opportunities, and training and
facilities, was compared to its original plan. Additionally, the level of adequacy for each
program areas was determined. The program effectiveness was determined by Comparing
motor performance scores (flexed arm hang, jump and reach, thirty-yard dash, sit and reach,
agility shuttle run, BOO—meter run) and academic achievement attained over one school year
between students of the sports school and ordinary schools. One hundred sixty boys and 66
girls in the sports school from mree age groups; 13-year-olds, 14-year-olds and the 16- year-
olds, and a similar number Of students from two ordinary schools participated in the study. In
addition other variables (stature, body mass, sitting height, skinfolds-boys only, arm and calf
circumferences, sexual maturity statusboys only, arm and calf musculatures-boys only, family
income, body mass index, place of residence) were measured or constructed to control for pre—

existing differences among the subjects in the statistical analyses.

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The extent to which the current status of the sports school program met its original plan
varied according to the areas being evaluated. Among the three program areas assessed,
privileges and Opportunities provided to teacher-coaches and students had the least conformity
with the original plan. The overall adequacy of the program was rated as moderately
adequate. The most adequate area Of the program is training and facilities, followed by
program content and policy, while the privileges and opportunities area is the least adequate.

There were significant effects of the sports school program on motor performance for
boys and girls for all age groups. However, the motor performance tasks affected were not
consistent across age groups. The sports school boys had better performance than their
counterparts in the ordinary schools on the FAH, SR, ASR, and ER for the 13-year-olds; on the
TYD, SLJ, ASR, and ER for the 14—year-olds; and, on the FAH, TYD, and ER for the 16—year-
olds. For girls, the sports school students had better performance than their counterparts in the
ordinary schools on the FAH, ASR, and ER for the 13-year-olds; on the FAH, SLJ, ASR, and
ER for the 14-year-olds; and, on the JR, SLJ, and ER for the 16-year-olds. Among the sports
school students themselves, the effect of the program varied among the boys only. The boys
in the oldest group had better performance in the PAH and TYD than the two younger groups.

Overall, there was no significant effect of the sports school program on academic
achievement However, for specific age groups, the sports school program had negative effect
on academic achievement among the 14-year-olds. The sports school students in this age

group had poorer academic achievement than their counterparts in the ordinary schools.

Ded r
“Cali“

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Dedicated to my wife and sons who have sacrificed a great deal

to see me through this challenging process.

 

My speci '
doctoral commit?-
encouragement.
eIterded to Dr I
peace. and as
to thank Dr. Crys
encouragement

lam Inde
grahate studies
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My special and sincere thanks to Dr. John L. Haubenstricker, my advisor and my
doctoral committee Chairman who provided many hours, guidance, knowledge,
encouragement, and editing for the completion of this dissertation. Thanks are also
extended to Dr. Mark Reckase for serving on my committee and for his knowledge,
guidance, and assistance that he so willingly provided for my data analyses. I also wish
to thank Dr. Crystal Branta for serving on my committee and for her advice and
encouragement.

I am indebted to University Putra Malaysia which provided the funding for my
graduate studies and for the data collection of this research. Sincere appreciation to the
principals, coaches, and physical educators of the schools involved for giving all the
assistance and cooperation in data collection. Thanks are also due to Mr. Sam Shor
Nahar Yaakob, lecturer at University Putra Malaysia for providing me a place to stay and

helped me in various ways during my data collection.

L18T OF TABLE?
USTOF FlGLiF-LE

ltTRODUCTl’Jt.
Need to'
Purpose
Researt'
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES xiv
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1
Need for the Study ............................................................................ 7
Purpose of the study .......................................................................... 8
Research Questions .......................................................................... 9
Significance of the Study .................................................................... 9

Limitations of the Study ....................................................................... 10

Definition of terms ..................................................................... ' ........ 12

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................................ 13

Malaysia: geographical and sociocultural background .............................. 13

Malaysian Education System ............................................................. 15

Factors influencing academic achievement of Malaysian students. 17

Sports in Malaysia ............................................................................. 18

Physical education and school sports ......................................... 20

Origin of the National Sports School ...................................................... 22

Characteristics of the Program ............................................................. 25

Goal of the program ............................................................. 25

Individuals involved in the program ....................................................... 26

Administrative arrangements .................................................. 26

Student athletes .................................................................. 27

Teacher and teacher-coaches ................................................ 29

Non-academic staff .............................................................. 30

Privileges and opportunities ................................................................ 30

Training and facilities ......................................................................... 31

Training schedule .................................................... 31

Sports facilities ....................................................... 32

Summary ........................................................................................ 33

Normal Human Growth ....................................................................... 34

Biological Maturation ......................................................................... 37

Maturity associated variation in growth ..................................... 41

Other factors influencing growth ............................................. 44

Indicators for SES and Nutritional Status ................................................ 49

Socioeconomic and Nutritional Conditions in Malaysia .............................. 51

Growth of Malaysian children ................................................. 53

Motor Performance ............................................................................ 56

Age related changes in performance during adolescence ............ 58

Maturity associated variation in performance ............................. 62

Other factors influencing performance ...................................... 65

vi

Motor performance of Malaysian children .................................. 66

Study of Young Athletes: General Considerations .................................... 68
Characteristics of young athletes ............................................. 69
Training responses in adolescent ........................................... 73
Summary ........................................................................................ 80
METHODS ................................................................................................. 82
Design of the Study ........................................................................... 82
Definition of Variables ........................................................................ 84
Participants ...................................................................................... 85
Instrumentation ................................................................................. 92
Data Collection ................................................................................. 94
Procedures ..................................................................................... 99
Anthropometric measurements ............................................... 99

Motor performance ............................................................... 102

Maturity status ..................................................................... 102

Measurement Reliability and Variability .................................................. 102

Derived Dimensions ........................................................................... 106

Standardization of academic achievement ................................ 108

Data Analyses .................................................................................. 109

Power for Statistical Analyses .............................................................. 114

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ..................................................................... 116

Results ............................................................................................................. 117

Question 1 ....................................................................................... 117

Program content and policy ................................................... 117

Privilege and opportunity ....................................................... 123

Training and facility .............................................................. 127

Adequacy and problems associated with the sports program ....... 130

Adequacy of the program content and policy ................ 131

Adequacy of the privilege and opportunity .................... 133

Adequacy of training and facility ................................. 135

Problems associated with the program .................................................. 136

Effects of Sports School on Motor Performance and Academic Achievement 137

Descriptive statistics ............................................................ 137

Question 2 ....................................................................................... 147

Question 3 ....................................................................................... 159

Question 4 ....................................................................................... 170

Question 5 ...................................................................................... 173

Question 6 ....................................................................................... 176

Question 7 ...................................................................................... 180

Discussion ..................................................................................... 185

Current status of sports program of the sports school .................. 185

Characteristics of the sports school students ............................. 193

Motor performance of students enrolled in the sports school ......... 201

vii

SUIIIJARY C"
Cooc.3
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lure:

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Effects of the sports school program on motor performance .......... 203

Effects of the sports school program on academic achievement ..... 208

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 211
Conclusions ..................................................................................... 219
Recommendations ............................................................................ 222
APPENDICES ............................................................................................. 225
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................... 255

viii

Table 1- Ar
the

Table 2- re
36
Table 3- H5-

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Table 1-

Table 2-

Table 3 -

Table 4 -

Table 5 -
Table 6 -
Table 7 -

Table 8 -

Table 9 -

Table 10-

Table 11-

Table 12-
Table 13-
Table 14-
Table 15-

Table 16-

LIST OF TABLES

Anthropometric measurements and motor performance tests included in

the Talent Identification process of the sports school .......................... 28
Height and weight for boys between 13 and 18 years of age in

selected countries ................................................................................ 46
Height and weight for girls between 13 and 18 years of age in

selected countries ................................................................................ 47
Basic indicators for socioeconomic and nutritional conditions for

selected countries ................................................................................ 52
Motor tests included in several motor performance studies 57
Motor performance of Malaysian children (50th percentile score) .......... 67
Number of coaches participated in the study ......................................... 85
Number of students included in the sample by school, age group and

gender .................................................................................................. 87
Distribution of sports school boys who participated in the study by age

group, sports, and ethnicity .................................................................. 88
Distribution of sports school girls who participated in the study by age

group, sports and ethnicity ................................................................... 88

Level Of sports participation for ordinary school students by gender and 90
age group .............................................................................................

Distribution of subjects by place of residence ....................................... 90
Cutoff points or percentile for nutritional status based on BMI .......... 91
Distribution of subjects by nutritional status ...................................... 91
Distribution of male subjects by sexual maturity stage ............................ 92
Intra- and inter-observer technical errors of measurement for present

sample and other studies ............................................................. 104

Table 17- VI

Table I8 0

Table 23 C J,
T859 24' Car

Taboo

Table 25
Table 27.

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Table 17-

Table 18-

Table 19-

Table 20-

Table 21-

Table 22-

Table 23-

Table 24-

Table 25-

Table 26-

Table 27-

Table 28-

Table 29-

Table 30-

Table 31-

Wrthin and between day correlations for pretest and posttest motor

performance tests .................................................................................. 105
Concordance rate and correlations between students and physician
assessment for status of maturation with comparative data from other

studies ................................................................................................. 105
Conversion table for students’ academic grade ................................ 107
Adjusted point score for alphabetical grade for each school 109
Comparison of goal and objectives between the current status and the

original plan ofthe sports school program 118
Comparison of type of sports offered between the current status and the
origind plan ofthe sports school 120
Current number of individuals involved in the sports school program as
compared to the original plan ............................................................... 121
Comparison pertaining to selection of students and coaches between

the original plan and current status of the sports school ..................... 124
Comparison of privileges and opportunities received by students and
teacher-coaches between the current status and the original plan of the
Current training schedule of the sports school as compared to the

original plan ........................................................................................... 128
Cunent training facilities available for sports school athletes as

compared to the original plan ................................................................. 129
Comparison of medical services cunently received by athletes of the

sports school with the original plan ....................................................... 130
Descriptive statistics and MANOVA for rating of adequacy related to

program content and policy by teacher-coaches and nonteacher-

Descriptive statistics and MANOVA for rating of adequacy related to

privilege and opportunity by teacher-coaches and nonteacher-coaches . 134
Descriptive statistics and MANOVA for rating of adequacy related to

training and facility by teacher-coaches and nonteacher-coaches ......... 136

Table 32-

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Table 36 II.
Table 37- B"
Table 38 It;
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Table 32-

Table 33-
Table 34-
Table 35-

Table 36-

Table 37-

Table 38-

Table 39-

Table 40-

Table 41-

Table 42-

Table 43-

Table 44-

Table 45-

Table 46-

Table 47-

Ranking for problems associated with the sports program of the sports
school ..................................................................................................

Descriptive statistics for boys by school and age group
Descriptive statistics for girls by school and age group
F-ratios for between school differences by gender and age group ........

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for pretest motor
performance by school age group, and gender .....................................

Bonferonni post hOC tests of mean differences between age groups for
motor performance variables showing a significant MANOVA F-ratio

MANOVA and regression analysis for pretest motor performance
variables by school for boys and girls for each age group

MANCOVA for pretest motor performance by" school, age group, and all
covariates for boys and girls" .

Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age
groups for pretest motor performance variables showing a
significant MANCOVA F-ratio ........................................................

MANCOVA and regression analysis for pretest motor performance by
school and the covariates for the 13-year Old age group .

MANCOVA and regression analysis for pretest motor performance by
school and the covariates for the 14-year Old age group

MANCOVA and regression analysis for pretest motor performance by
school and the covariates for the 16—year old age group

MANOVA for posttest motor performance by school and age group. .....
Bonferonni post hoc tests Of mean differences between age groups
for posttest motor performance variables showing a significant

MANOVA F-ratio ...........................................................................

MANOVA and regression analysis for posttest motor performance
variables by school for boys and girls for each age group

MANCOVA for posttest motor performance by school, age group, and
all covariates for boys and girls" ..

xi

137
139
142

144

148

149

151

152

154

155

156

157

160

161

162

164

Tahre 48-

Iab‘e 56-

atle 59‘
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Table 48-

Table 49-

Table 50-

Table 51-

Table 52-

Table 53-

Table 54-

Table 55-

Table 56-

Table 57-

Table 58-

Table 59-

Table 60-

Table 61-

Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age
groups for selected posttest motor performance variables adjusting for
all covariates ....................................................................................... .

MANCOVA and regression analysis for posttest motor performance by
school and the covariates for the 13-year Old age group

MANCOVA and regression analysis for posttest motor performance by

school and the covariates for the 14-year Old age group

MANCOVA and regression analysis for posttest motor performance by

school and the covariates for the 16year Old age group

Standardized canonical discriminant functions (SCDF) and ANOVA F-
ratios for posttest motor performance between sports and ordinary
schools ................................................................................................

Classification results Of students based on motor performance

MANOVA and MANCOVA for postteswt motor performance among age
groupsforsports school students.

Bonferroni post hoc tests of mean differences between age groups
for posttest motor performance showing a significant MANOVA F-
ratio among sports school students ...............................................

Painrvise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age
groups for posttest motor performance showing a significant
MANCOVA F ratio among sports school students ..........................

ANOVA and ANCOVA for pretest academic achievement by school,
gender and age group ..................................................................

Bonferonni post hoc tests of mean differences between age groups
for pretest academic achievement .................................................

Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age
groups for pretest academic achievement .....................................

Regression coefficients ([3) for pretest academic achievement by school
and gender with and without controlling for the covariates ..................

ANOVA and ANCOVA for posttest academic achievement ...................

xii

165

166

167

168

171

172

174

175

176

177

178

178

180

181

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Table 71. c-

 

Table 62-

Table 63-

Table 64-

Table 65-

Table 66-

Table 67-

Table 68-

Table 69-

Table 70-

Table 71-

Bonferonni post hoc tests of mean differences between age groups
for posttest academic achievement ................................................ 182

Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means behrveen age
groups for posttest academic achievement ................................... 182

Regression coefficients ([3) for posttest academic achievement by
school and gender with and without controlling for the covariates .. 184

Ethnic group representation in the sample, total sports school, and the
National level ............................................................................................ 188

Comparison of physical characteristics of the sports school students
with other population .............................................................................. 195

Comparison of motor performance between the sports school students
and participants in MP8 at Michigan State University ......................... 197

Correlation between pretest motor performance with anthropometric
characteristics and maturity status 199

Summary of effects of sports school on pretest motor performances
controlling for the covariates by age groups ......................................... 202

Motor performances significantly affected by” the sports school program
by gender and age group. .. 203

Comparison of academic resources between the sports and the
ordinary school ...................................................................................... 209

xiii

 

Figure 1-

Figure 2-

Figure 3-

LIST OF FIGURES

Adjusted means for the interaction of school and age group on pretest
academic achievement ................................................................. 179

Adjusted means for the interaction of gender and age group on posttest
academic achievement ................................................................. 183

Adjusted means for the interaction of school, gender, and age group for
posttest academic achievement ..................................................... 183

xiv

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Youth sports have continued to flourish during the past decade. Today, youth
have more opportunities to play a greater variety Of sports and to get involved in more
highly competitive sport programs than youth in prior decades. The most common
motives for taking part in sports are intrinsic values like enjoyment and social reasons,
and for investment values of success and prestige (DeKnop, Engstrom, & Skirstad, 1996;
De Knop, Skirstad, Engstrom, Theeboom, & Wittcock, 1996). In the United States,
development in the social and cultural milieu of the society provided the most direct
influence on the rise and growth of competitive sports program (Benyman, 1996). The
rise of sports itself in all parts of the country and the subsequent desire to participate and
spectate by large numbers of the population were the most influential factors to the rise
and growth of competitive sport programs. In contrast, in many nations, especially the
developing ones, sport in general and competitive sport in particular are highly regarded
as means for building national image and assisting national integration (Ren, 1996). As
a result, development of sport has been accelerated with greater focus on youth sport

activities.

In the
for sport spet
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In the United States, the greater focus on youth sport has led to a growing trend
for sport specialization at high school levels (Hill, 1991). The primary reasons cited for
this increase are encouragement from coaches and parents, and the athletes’ desire to
win a state championship and receive a collegiate scholarship. In some countries,
special institutions have been set up to groom young athletes to be future champions. In
Poland, sports schools were established for the athletically gifted children with the idea of
developing the sports careers of students while also developing their complete
personality (Sulisz, 1996). The sport schools were organized at two different levels and
known as sport schools and sports championship schools. Conceptually, the sports
championship schools had fewer sports departments and had a lower student-
department ratio than the sports schools because of their heavy emphasis on individual
teaching. In Israel, youth aged 11 to 16, gifted in gymnastics, swimming, tennis, and
table tennis are invited to attend a boarding school at Wingate Institute and are provided
with the most advanced conditions available in the country (Simri, Tenenbaum, & Bar-Eli,
1996). China has its “competitive sports schools” which are secondary educational
institutions oriented toward professional sports (Ren, 1996). The students of these
schools are provided with the best sport training facilities, and receive instruction from
high-quality coaches.

In Malaysia, the rise of youth sports can be primarily attributed to the
establishment of the National Sports Policy in 1988. Since the inception of this policy,
various programs are being implemented to promote youth participation in sports, as well
as to identify athletes who can be groomed for international competition. Moreover, sport

is recognized as one of the important factors for the development of the country. It is

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being used as a means to foster national unity and to create a healthy and productive
society. Like many other developing countries, sport is also being used to project the
country’s image internationally.

In coping with the need for international achievement in sport, various strategies
are being adopted to produce world Class athletes. One of the strategies is to nurture
and promote excellence of youth in sport through identification and subsequent training
of young athletes with potential for success in national and international competition.
These selected athletes are trained in special sports schools where they are provided
with training Opportunities and facilities so they can be a sport champion of the future.

The first sports school in Malaysia was set up in 1996. The goal Of the school
program is to provide potential young athletes between the ages of 12 to 17 years with
systematic and scientific training without neglecting their studies. Young athletes are
selected into the sports school based on their performance in age group competition, on
recommendation from national sports bodies and State Sports Councils, and through
talent scouting by the school’s coach.

Parallel to its objective, the program of the school has two main components,
sports and academic. The sports component was designed to develop the Sport potential
of these young school athletes to form a pool from which potential international
champions can emerge. For such purpose, the students are to receive an in-depth
instruction from highly qualified coaches, practice with adequate quality equipment, and
have many competitive opportunities. Adequate funding is also to be made available for

the program to run smoothly and to achieve the desired outcome.

 

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The program of the sports school also places a strong emphasis on academic
achievement. In the academic pact of the program, students of the sports school are
provided with qualified teachers, financial aids, and academic tuition in subjects where
they find difficulties. Their academic lessons follow a flexible schedule to accommodate
time for training and sports competition. These measures are taken so that the students
Of the schools have the required academic qualifications for university education.
Additionally, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed by the Ministry of Youth and
Sports with University Putra Malaysia, to allow athletes with minimum required academic
qualifications to be given a place at the university. With such assurance, parents are
encouraged to allow their students to be enrolled at the sports school.

It is apparent that students selected into the sports school are different from their
peers in that they are successful in sport. Moreover, they are also provided with regular
physical training and are more actively involved in sports activities than those in the
ordinary school. Regular physical training is known to speed up the rate of development
of physical performance in adolescents (Meszaros, Mohacsi, Frekl, Szabo, & Szmodis,
1985). Athletes aged 13 were found to have similar performance in the 30-meter dash,
standing long jump, fistball throw, and better performance in 1200-meter run than non-
athletes 15 years of age. Increase in physical performance, in turn, can be consistent
with success in many sport activities, particularly when children are grouped according to
chronological age. For example, competitive-level performance may require that high
forces be generated rapidly in order to achieve sufficiently high velocity In movements

such as throwing, jumping, kicking, or sprinting (Thorland, Johnson, Tharp, 8: Housh,

1988).

 

 

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Training can also cause significant changes in strength, aerobic, and anaerobic
performance in adolescents. Both children and adolescents can increase muscular
strength as a consequence of strength training (Micheli, 1988; Guy & Micheli, 2001).
Maximal aerobic power of adolescents can be significantly increased in response to a
vigorous, intensive training program (Krahenbuhl, Skinner & Kohrt, 1985). Trained young
wrestlers were found to have higher anaerobic performance than non-athletes with
similar pubertal development (Sady, Thomson, Berg 8: Savage, 1984).

Physical training, however, is not the only factor that has an effect on the physical
or athletic performance of adolescents. Generally, at these ages, motor performance
capacity will continue to increase even if they do not participate in physical activity
because of the influence of growth and maturation processes. Although human beings
generally follow similar growth patterns, some variations occur between individuals Of the
same chronological age (Tanner, 1962; Shephard, 1982; Malina, 1988a). Many of these
variations are due to timing of the pubertal growth spurt and maturity status. Youngsters
advanced in maturity status are generally taller and heavier than their peers. They also
differ in physique, body composition, and physical performance compared to those
delayed in maturity (Malina, 1996). These differences are especially marked during the
circumpubertal years, 9 to 14 in girls, and 11 to 16 in boys.

Size, build, body composition and motor performance vary considerably with the
maturity status, suggesting an interrelationship between growth, maturation, and
performance (Malina, 1975; Ellis, Carron, 8: Bailey, 1975). Given the association
between the anthropometric characteristics and strength and motor performance, any
consideration of the relationship between maturity status and performance must include

R
v

 

the inter
Baucha'
pedonnl
status ( t.‘
poorly re:
SifOfiger ;

in later ad

the interrelationships among size, physique, composition, and maturity status (Malina &
Bouchard, 1991). Boys who are maturationally advanced generally are stronger and
perform better on motor tasks requiring speed and power than boys delayed in maturity
status (Malina, 1996). On the other hand, the motor performance of adolescent girls is
poorly related to maturity status (Malina, 1996). Although the early maturing girls are
stronger at early puberty, it is often the later-maturing girls who attain better performance
in later adolescence.

Maturity associated variation in size and body composition is a significant factor
in comparing motor perionnance among adolescents, especially between young athletes
and non-athletes. Young athletes are a highly selected group, ordinarily based on their
skill and physical perionnance, but sometimes size and physique may also be the criteria
(Malina, Meleski, 8 Shoup, 1982; Malina, 1988a; Malina & Bouchard, 1991). Male
athletes tend to be advanced maturationally compared to non-athletes especially in
sports or positions where size is important (Osterback & Viitasalo, 1985; Malina, 1996).
Female athletes, in general, are late maturing especially in ballet, figure skating, and
gymnastics (Malina et al., 1982; Malina, 1998). Except for gymnasts, figure skaters, and
ballet dancers, athletes of both sexes in other sports are equal to or exceed the
reference median in stature (Malina, 1994a).

It should also be noted that growth and maturation cannot be treated in Isolation
from the cultural and social conditions into which an individual is born and under which
he or she is reared (Malina 8. Bouchard, 1991). Biological factors are most likely to
interact with cultural and social factors in determining level of performance and, in turn,

influence the opportunities and experiences of individuals in sport (Malina, 1996). Social

6

 

conditions such as socioeconomic and nutritional status are significant factors that can
affect growth, maturation, and perionnance. Children in high and middle socioeconomic
groups in nearly all countries are, on average, larger in body size than their peers in the
lower socioeconomic group (Eveleth 8: Tanner, 1990). Reduction in body size and
wasting of muscle mass are the main contributors to low motor perionnance and low
physical fitness in undernourished Children (Malina 8 Buschang, 1985).

The interrelationships between growth, maturation, perionnance and other
environmental factors warranted several methodological considerations when studying
the effect of a program on young athletes. This has to do with the fact that physical
training may induce changes in the same direction and approximately the same
magnitude as expected growth changes (Bailey, Malina, & Mirwald, 1988; Bar-O, 1989).
To correctly evaluate training-induced Changes during growth, one must therefore include
a carefully selected control group. Matching the groups by chronological age alone may
not be adequate. One must consider also the biologic age and spontaneous
development of the subjects such as body height and body mass (Bar-Or, 1989;
Meszaros et al., 1985). Additionally, other related factors such as socioeconomic and

nutritional status should also be considered.

Need for the Study

The first sports school in Malaysia was set up to provide young Malaysian athletes
the opportunity to train under a systematic and scientific training program without neglecting
their studies. Wrth the facilities and privileges provided, they are expected to achieve strong

academic achievement and greatly improve their motor perionnance. However, since its

‘4

establishment in 1996, the effect of the school program on motor performance and academic
achievement has never been fully evaluated. The degree of implementation, as compared to
what has been planned, has yet to be determined. The morphological, motor performance,
and academic achievement characteristics of students enrolled in the sports school should
be determined, and the influence of the school program on academic achievement and motor
perionnance should be investigated.

Little is known about the interrelationships among growth, maturation, and motor
performance of students enrolled in this school. The selection of the students is based
mainly on their success in age group competitions. On the other hand, successful young
athletes usually are superior in size and perionnance as a result of more advanced maturity
status than their peers. It is also noted that, besides training, the motor performance of
adolescents is also influenced by other factors such as socioeconomic status, nutritional
status, and more importantly, their growth and maturity status. Therefore, evaluation of the
effectiveness of the training program on the motor perionnance of these young athletes has
to take these various factors into consideration. Similarly, the academic achievement of the

sports school students should be assessed with consideration of other influencing factors.

Fume of the StuQ
The purposes of this study are: 1) to determine the current status of the sports

component of the sports school, and 2) to assess the effectiveness of the sports school
program with regard to motor performance and academic achievement. The cunent status of
the sports program is determined by comparing the present status to its original plan. The

program effectiveness is determined by comparing the motor perionnance and academic

(D

 

 

ace:
fit?

0
n
the I

follow
I'I"

IJ

achievement attained over one school year between students Of the sports school and those

attending ordinary schools.

Research Questions

On the basis of the purposes Of this study, the investigation will seek answers to the

following questions:

1.

TO what extent does the current status Of the sports school meet the original

plan of the program?

. Are there differences in motor performance between students enrolled in the

sports school and in the ordinary schools?

Is there an effect Of the sports school program on the motor perionnance of
secondary school students in Malaysia?

Which motor performance tasks, if any, distinguished between students
enrolled in the sports school and those attending ordinary schools?

Does the effect of the sports school program on motor performance vary by
age group among students of the sports school?

Are there differences in academic achievement between students enrolled in
the sports school and the ordinary schools?

Is there an effect of the sports school program on the academic achievement

of secondary school students in Malaysia?

_S_ignifica_nce of the Study

This study examines the current status and the effectiveness Of the sports school

Program. It will provide a profile of the present status of the program, its strength and

0
u

weaknesses. 2
academic achl
indementers ‘
outcome is so:
Only with such
school of its III!
to used in set:

Finding
aid provide gu
Relationsmps t
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lehavioramonr
school athletes

e"Ial'lale the es:

I. SIUdentS OII
' I

IUmCUIUm an

weaknesses, and its effectiveness in enhancing students' motor perionnance and
academic achievement. Being the first sports school in Malaysia, it is essential for
implementers to know whether the program is properly implemented, to what extent the
outcome is successfully met, and problems associated with the implementation process.
Only with such information can relevant changes, if necessary, be made. Being the first
school of its kind, information about the strengths and weaknesses of the program could
be used in setting up similar schools in the country.

Findings of the study will also improve the knowledge for training young athletes
and provide guidelines for talent identification and predisposition for future success.
Relationships between the physical perionnance and physical characteristics of young
Malaysian athletes will be more clearly understood. This information can be used as
guidelines for more accurate selection, training and prediction for future success. The
effects of training on athletes of different age groups will reflect training response
behavior among adolescents in Malaysia. In addition, motor perionnance of the sports
school athletes can be used as a reference by coaches throughout the country to

evaluate the effectiveness of their youth training programs.

Limitations of the Study
The results of the study of this investigation are subject to the following limitations:
1. Students of the ordinary schools are selected from two urban schools only. Although
all ordinary schools in Malaysia follow similar guidelines in their physical education

curriculum and sports program, the degree of implementation may vary from school

10

 

toschor
charact
"t' I?"

. I’latur ll

based

to school. Generalizations may therefore be limited to students with similar school
characteristics only.

. Maturity status for boys is determined through self—assessment of sexual maturity
based on figure drawings depicting Tanner's five stages of pubic hair development
(Tanner, 1962). Biological maturation is most accurately assessed by measuring
skeletal age, however, with limited resources (i.e. physician, funds), this is not
possible. It should be noted that this method Of maturity assessment has its
limitations, namely superimposing a discrete series of stages onto a continuous
process and being limited to the pubertal years only.

. Reliability coefficient for subjects' rating on this maturity indicator will only be
calculated for students Of the sports school by comparing them to a physician's
assessment. It is assumed that students of the ordinary school also have similar
ability in rating their stage of sexual maturity.

Motivation of subjects is difficult to control when testing for motor performance,
although all subjects are urged to perform with maximum effort on all of the tests.

. Index of SES can be accurately derived from occupational prestige rating, years Of
education, and income. However, this study only uses household monthly income as
the indicator for SES due to the unavailability of occupational prestige rating and lack
of reference to rate years of education based on Malaysian population. Based on
numerous studies describing socioeconomic status in Malaysia, it is assumed that
those with high income also have high occupational prestige rating and longer years

of education.

11

 

 

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Urban school -
Statistics. Mala
gjfl - an inc
parts of the bod
IBouchard, 193

.4: .
WEN

Irganrzation, IE

 

Definition of terms
Ordinary school - school where students' enrollment is not based on sports perionnance
(i.e success in age group sports competition, talent identification).
Urban school - school located in urban area as defined and listed by the Department of
Statistics, Malaysia.
QM]; - an increase in the size of the body as a whole or the size attained by specific
parts of the body (Malina 8: Bouchard, 1991)
Maturation - the tempo and timing of progress toward the mature biological state (Malina
8: Bouchard, 1991).
Adolescent - encompasses all individuals between 10 to 19 years of age (World Health

Organization, 1995).

12

~v ‘F
"I. A.
Ext

‘\

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into three main parts. The first part contains a general
background Of Malaysia, the development of sports, and the origin and characteristics of
the National Sports School. The second part presents a review of literature related to
growth, maturation, and perionnance of adolescents. This includes interrelationships
between growth, maturation, and performance and factors influencing them. Finally,
characteristics of young athletes with regard to growth, maturation, and perionnance are

presented.

Malaysia: geographical and sociocultural background
Malaysia is located in the heart of South East Asia. Consisting of 127,316 sq. miles

(329,749 sq. km), Malaysia is divided into two main regions: Peninsular Malaysia, which
lies just south of Thailand, and East Malaysia, which can be found north of Indonesia on
the Island of Borneo. These two regions are divided into thirteen states, eleven in
Peninsular Malaysia and two states in East Malaysia.

Malaysia has a multiracial and multicultural population consisting of Malays,

Chinese, Indians and numerous indigenous peoples. It’s total population is about 21.41

13

 

million people (W
61 7percent of II‘.
and numerous in.|
percent, respect.
:tizens. The hta
Hindu. Sabah an:
Dusun. Kadazar.

Socioecc
rural-urban diner.
Chinese have be
90'398860 of his,
economic structu-
Chinese and In:
95:395. Along v
Wiring Chinese

IICIOUTIG social

million people (WHO, 1999). On the basis of ethnic classification used in the 1991 census,
61.7 percent of Malaysian citizens are Bumiputera (son Of the soil-comprised of the Malays
and numerous indigenous groups), while Chinese and Indians make up 27.3 and 7.7
percent, respectively (Malaysia, 1996). About 4 percent Of the total population are non-
citizens. The Malays are all Muslim, the Chinese mostly Buddhist and the Indians mostly
Hindu. Sabah and Sarawak in East Malaysia are home to many indigenous groups such as
Dusun, Kadazan, Bajau, Iban, and Bidayuh.

Socioeconomic divisions have Often been along ethnic lines, which in turn related to
rural-urban differentials in ethnic divisions. The urban populations who are predominantly
Chinese have better socioeconomic conditions than rural populations which are largely
comprised of Malays and Indians. Historically, these divisions are deeply rooted in the
economic structure that was built during the colonial occupation. The majority of the
Chinese and Indian immigrants were brought in to work as laborers in the tin and rubber
estates. Along with the laborers, Chinese businessman also came, hence there Is a
thriving Chinese business sector. The Malays remained largely in peasantry sector while a
very small upper class forms the administrative elite.

Over the years, Malaysia has experienced both rapid economic growth and
profound social and demographic Changes. The New Economic Policy (NEP) which was
introduced in 1971 has substantially reduced economic imbalance between ethnic groups
(Ghosh, 1998). WIth a Gross National Product of RM 6,716 per head in 1991, it is now
classified as an upper middle income country by the World Bank. Due to the rapid
transformation of the economic and social structure, Malaysia is now one of the newly

industrializing countries and hopes to attain the status of a fully developed nation by the

14

 

    
    
  

lear2020' Mata

compeimg with S

   

Mala-slat: Educa

The orga
IInstry of Educ
Divisions. State
cteducational a
state. district an
assisted by two 0
General of Educe

Decision
laclitates interde
Educational Plat,
bOCII’ al the feeder

name State EdL

The natio

School to higher .

j :
erel. between to

aim foundation

an
rigovemmen‘
.. :.I.E

o:

In
will:- by ille CI

year 2020. Malaysia now sees itself as a leader among the Asia Pacific nations,

competing with Singapore, Korea and Japan.

Malafiian Education Sfitem

The organization and management of education is the responsibility of the
Ministry of Education which consists of Professional and Administrative Departments,
Divisions, State Education Departments, and Statutory Bodies. This centralized system
of educational administration is organized at four hierarchical levels; namely, national,
state, district and school. The Ministry of Education is headed by a Minister who is
assisted by two deputy ministers. Directly responsible to the Minister is the Secretary-
General of Education who is concerned with professional matters.

Decision making at the Ministry is through a system of committees which
facilitates interdepartmental and interdivisional cooperation and cohesion. The
Educational Planning Committee, chaired by the Minister, is the highest decision making
body at the federal level. The implementation of policies and plans at the school level is
via the State Education Department and the District Education Office.

The national education system encompasses education beginning from pre-
school to higher education. Children generally begin their education at the pre-school
level, between four and five years of age. The aim of preschool education is to provide
a firm foundation for formal education. Pre-schools are run by government agencies,
non-governmental agencies as well as private institutions. However, all pre-schools have

to abide by the curriculum guidelines set by the Ministry Of Education.

15

 

Primary
seven years. P‘-
as well as build
assessment are

students.

Seconde
secondary leve'
Secondary Asse
saecralized field
and are re-eval.
assessment exe
schools have be
haloyment st:
Certificate (STP
universities, col:

A posts»:
,
Iii matriculatio
“Hilly I0 UDOQTQI:

 

Primary school begins at six years of age, and may be completed within five to
seven years. At this level, the emphasis is on acquiring strong reading and writing skills
as well as building a solid foundation in mathematics and the basic sciences. Two
assessment examinations at years three and six are used to evaluate the performance of
students.

Secondary school covers a period Of five to seven years, three years at the lower
secondary level and two to four years at the upper secondary level. Following the Lower
Secondary Assessment examination (PMR) at year three, students move into more
specialized fields of study at the upper secondary level, based on choice and aptitude,
and are re-evaluated at year five via the Malaysian Certificate of Education (SPM)
assessment examination. At the upper secondary level, several technical and vocational
schools have been set up to provide technically-based academic education and pre-
employment skills. Some secondary schools offer the Malaysian Higher School
Certificate (STPM) program which qualifies students for entry into the national
universities, colleges, and teacher training institutions.

A post-secondary level includes matriculation, certificate, and diploma programs.
The matriculation program is an alternative to STPM program which qualifies students for
entry to undergraduate programs at the national universities. The certificate program is a
one to two year vocational training program offered by polytechnics and colleges. These
institutions also offer a two to four year diploma program for vocation training and

preparation for further studies.

16

l .:

tower at

atelier;

Iarental

Which In

were

‘Vbli

‘1

(I)

Factors influencing academic achievement of Malaysian students

A consistent finding in several studies regarding factors influencing academic
achievement of Malaysian students is the negative effect of low socioeconomic status
(Razikin, 1986; Zainal, 1989; Educational Planning & Research Division, 1989;
Letchumanan, 1995). Students from low socioeconomic status, either rural or urban, had
lower academic achievement than did students from higher status. The strong influence
of socioeconomic advantage on academic achievement status was due to its influence on
mediating variables such as parents' support, home environment, and students'
academic aspirations (Zainal, 1989). Students from low economic status had less
parental support, a less conducive Ieaming environment, and lower academic aspiration,
which in turn resulted in lower academic achievement.

Various other factors have also been identified to influence Malaysian school
students' academic achievement. Among the factors are: type of school, teacher's
experience, students' prior achievement, student self-motivation, and supportive family
relationships (Razikin, 1986). Average teaching experience was found to be associated
in a curvilinear fashion with academic achievement, implying that the optimal level of
teacher efficiency occurred in the early years of the teaching career. Prior achievement,
self motivation, and supportive family relationships were positively and significantly
associated with achievement.

School characteristics such as location of the schools and availability of
resources were also found to influence Malaysian students' academic achievement

(Sarjit, 1989; Educational Planning & Research Division, 1994; Letchumanan, 1995).

Rural students tended to complete fewer years of schooling and had lower achievement

17

lnpubllcexaml"
received better i
hefier educatic.p

counlefnans-

The golf
factors for the a"
hahifesled in if
l938 {llgrlislry C
ferelapmenl of
conceals. Slrat:
achleverhenl in "I
Diysical activme

gcvemmenl to

n
P

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History c

86*
all Takraw. vi

Jayed in Melalé

Which i
, ”Volved l*

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Jim
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in public examinations than their urban counterparts. Further, the urban schools
received better school resources and thus, produced a higher proportion of students with
better educational attainment levels and examination grades at all cohorts than their rural

counterparts.

Smrts in Malaysia

The government of Malaysia has recognized sports as one of the important
factors for the development of the country. This recognition was comprehensively
manifested in the National Sports Policy, which was amended by the ministers’ cabinet in
1988 (Ministry of Youth and Sport, 1988). This policy provides guidelines for the
development of sports through the “Sports For All” and “Towards Sports Excellence”
concepts. Strategies and plans of action were outlined for the purpose of improving
achievement in high perionnance sports and providing scope for mass participation in
physical activities. Through the implementation of these concepts, it is the aim of the
government to promote a healthy, integrated and productive society, and at the same
time be capable of producing distinguished athletes to project the country’s image
internationally.

History of sports in Malaysia can be traced back as earty as the 15th century.
Sepak Takraw, which was originally known as "Sepak Raga" was recorded as being
played in Melaka in 1477 (Adam, 1991). Raga was the rattan ball used in the game
which involved the players standing in a circle keeping the ball in the air with not just the
feet but various parts of the body except the hands. The arrival of the Europeans

beginning with the Portuguese in 1511, followed by the Dutch and the British, and the

-A
CD

migration 0“
count!" The
badminton W-
hasketball. it1

Their
Bfitish signifi-
and cricket. -
individuals ot
such as hock
sports' origin.
sports develc
are often. ass
tend to play 3
Shorts associ

Aflerl

°5§3nized an:

migration of the Chinese and Indians in the earty 20th century, brought new sports to the
country. The Europeans brought with them sports such as soccer, cricket, and
badminton while the Chinese and Indian immigrants came in with their table tennis,
basketball, hockey, etc.

The founding of Perak Club in 1881 and the Royal Selangor Club in 1884 by the
British signified the beginning of organized sports activity in Malaysia, especially tennis
and cricket. However, it was limited to Europeans. Only after the first World War,
individuals other than Europeans began to pay more attention to various types of sports
such as hockey, soccer, volleyball, rugby, and badminton. Nevertheless, because of the
sports' origin, ethnic links with particular sport were apparent during the earty phases of
sports development in Malaysia (Salman, 1997). Basketball, badminton, and table tennis
are often associated with the Chinese, hockey and cricket with the Indians, while Malays
tend to play soccer and sepak takraw. These affinities however have decreased as
sports associations have become multi-ethnic.

After World War II, sports in Malaysia (Malaya at that time) became more
organized and Malaysia began to participate at international events. Although at that
time Malaya was not yet independent, the British government in Malaya allowed four
weightlifters to participate for the first time in the 1950 British Empire Games (now known
as the Commonwealth Games), and won two gold medals, one silver, and one bronze in
the games. The same year Malaysia also won the Thomas Cup for badminton. During
this time, the Federation of Malaya Olympic Council and many national sports

associations were formed in preparation for the 1956 Olympics: Malaya Hockey

Federation (1948); Malaya Swimming Association (1956); Malaya Weightlifting

19

 

Association (1956); and, Malaya Women Hockey Association (1956). Since then the
Olympic Council of Malaysia, as it is known since 1964, has been participating in all the
Olympic Games, except the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games.

The development and success of Malaysian sport led to the establishment of the
Ministry of Youth and Sport in 1964 and the National Sports Council in 1972. However,
despite the establishment of these two government bodies, Malaysia’s international
sports achievement saw a decline in 1980's. Thus, a complete restructuring of the sports
system was needed, and in 1986, the First national Sports Convention was held in Kuala
Lumpur to discuss the agenda of formulating the National Sports Policy. Consequently,
the National Sport Policy was formulated in 1988.

Thereafter, the development of sport in Malaysia has been guided by the National
Sport Policy. This comprehensive document introduced a two-concept approach, “Sports
For All” and “Towards Sports Excellence” to revitalize sports development in the country.
The two sport related government agencies, the Ministry of Youth and Sports and the
National Sports Council are held responsible to carry out these duties. The Sport
Division of the ministry is to encourage sports activities for the mass population, while the

National Sports Council has responsibility for competitive and high perionnance sports.

Physical education and school sports

Sport has long been considered one of the important components in the
centralized Malaysian education system. This is reflected in the country's educational
philosophy, which places a great deal of emphasis on sport activities as means to

produce a well-balanced individual and to achieve national integration (Ministry of

20

 

 

”fin
. i.

Agt'
dirt]:

the (

Sm.

ml“

3%
“Mi.

Education, 1989). In the effort to accomplish this philosophy, physical education and
sports are regarded as an integral part of education and the curriculum in the school
system. The sports program is to provide the students with educational experiences not
otherwise provided in the curriculum that will develop Ieaming outcomes in knowledge,
skills, and emotional patterns that will contribute to the development of a better person.
Physical education is compulsory for all primary and secondary school students and
usually lasts about 11 years. Sports, especially ball games (soccer, volleyball,
basketball, netball, etc), hockey, and track and field are the essential components of the
physical education curriculum. It is through physical education classes that many
children first come in contact with sports.

Besides the National Education Philosophy, the National Sports Policy also
provides for the role of education and school sports in Malaysian sport. This policy
developed by the Ministry of Youth and Sports, Malaysia (1988) encompasses both mass
and high performance sports. It has been formulated on the rationale that sports
activities form an integral part of the govemment’s overall development efforts towards
the entire population. In this context, implementation of sports programs in secondary
schools is also expected to produce athletes for higher level sports competition. The
program, besides being able to develop a “whole person", must also be able to produce
elite athletes to represent the nation in future national and international competitions.

The management and administration of school sports in Malaysia is under the
responsibility of the Sports Division, Ministry of Education. This division, headed by a
director, is responsible in implementing sports policies developed by the ministry. In

addition, it functions as the secretariat to the Malaysian Schools’ Sports Council which is

21

responsible for the development and enhancement of sports and for organizing
competition at district, national, and international levels. Empowerment and delegation of
responsibilities is channeled through the various State Schools Sports Councils to the

schools.

099' in of the National Sports School

Under the ”Towards Excellence" concept of the National Sports Policy, the
Malaysian Government through the National Sports Council (NSC) has initiated all sport
movements to obtain international achievement and to strive towards producing wortd
class athletes. One of the various strategies adopted to achieve this objective is to
nurture and promote excellence in youth sports. Athletes are to be selected and trained
systematically from an eai1y age. Programs such as “Junior” and “Talent” have been
undertaken to nurture and promote excellence in sports. Along with this idea came the
rationale for setting up a special sports school where young athletes could be groomed to
be wortd class athletes (Malaysia, 1991). The needs became more urgent when
Malaysia was selected as the host for 1998 Commonwealth Games. The sports school
was to prepare athletes for the Commonwealth Games and other international
competition thereafter.

So, in January 1996, the Ministry of Education with the cooperation of the
National Sports Council set up a National Sports School at Bukit Jalil in the capital city,
Kuala Lumpur. A site within the vicinity of the National Sports Complex was selected for
the location of the school. The complex built in preparation for organizing the

Commonwealth Games provides adequate sports facilities of international standard. This

22

 

 

location was selected with the consideration that students of the sports school could use
the facilities for their training.

The choice of setting up a special sports institution in a school setting is largely
based on the development of sports in the country. Sport associations which have
traditionally been administered by voluntary organizations are lacking in facilities and
personnel where athletes can be groomed and trained under a systematic program.
Additionally, school sports, which form the roots of the entire sport system of the country,
have also been the primary avenue for producing national athletes. However, the
existing school structure has several constraints to producing excellent athletes.
Cocurricular school sports have traditionally been provided by teachers before or after
schools, and sometimes on weekends. Teachers give their time voluntarily and much
depends on the interest and enthusiasm of individual teachers. Some schools also lack
facilities and equipment for training. As a result, students fail to receive in-depth
instruction from highly qualified coaches, practice with inadequate quality equipment, and
have limited competitive opportunities in order to be successful athletes. Thus, the
establishment of the sports school was to provide solution to all these problems.

Another component of the sports school program is the academic program.
Under this component, the responsibility of the sports school is to provide sufficient
academic resources and assistance to the athletes. For athletes selected to attend the
school, besides the pressure of increasing demands for sports success as a justification
for government spending, they are also expected by their parents to achieve

academically. Entry to tertiary education depends greatly on achievement in school level
public examinations. On the contrary, sports achievement has been given very little

9'!
LU

consideration for tertiary education and job placement. Parents, as much as they like
their children to excel in sports, want their children to have strong academic achievement
for university entrance. For that matter, parents must be assured that their children will
receive adequate academic assistance and only then they will allow their children to be
enrolled in the sports school.

Including the academic component in the sports school program has several
advantages. First, it encourages the parents to allow their students to be enrolled in the
sports school. Second, the school has the opportunity to adopt a flexible daily schedule
to accommodate the sports and academic needs of the students. During the competitive
season, more time is allocated for training, while during examination seasons more time
is allocated for academic study. In contrast, ordinary schools can not take such
measures for their student athletes. As such, lack of time due to studies may act as the
main barrier for sports participation (Salman, 1997). A study conducted by Donnelly
(1993) on student athletes reported academic difficulties were usually attributed to the
time committed to sports. Forty percent of the athletes had to attend school on a
modified schedule. To a certain extent, students drop out of sport in the later years of
school to concentrate on their studies (Oldenhove, 1996). Although no such studies
have been done in Malaysia, student athletes in ordinary schools may face a similar
problem. School athletes in ordinary schools who are selected to represent their state
are more likely to miss academic classes to attend centralized training. Moreover, the
current school system in Malaysia does not accommodate a modified schooling schedule

for elite student athletes in ordinary school.

[‘0
45

 

 

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Q_lw_rac_§fistics of the Progm

The sports school, which was initially known as National Sport School was later
named Bukit Jalil Sports School because more sport schools will be set up in the country.
The program, although running in a school format, functions at the national level because
its athletes will only be competing at national and international levels. Therefore, school
progress has to be reported directly to the nation’s highest sport and education governing
bodies; the Ministry of Education and the National Sports Council.

The school's program was also designed to produce student athletes with strong
academic achievement. For that reason, an academic component was included in the
sports school program. Through this component, academic assistance can be
appropriately channeled to these athletes, while at the same time they have the
opportunity to excel in sports.

A prominent approach taken by the sports school to ensure strong academic
achievement and excellent sports perionnance among its students is the adoption of a
flexible daily schedule for the students. This flexible schedule is designed to accommodate
the training and academic needs of the students at different school seasons. More training
times are allocated during the competitive season, while academic times are extended during

the examination season.

Goal of the program
Through the two main components; academic and sports, the goal of the program

is to produce athletes who not only excel in sports but also have strong academic

achievement. This goal is to be accomplished through the following objectives:

 

 

1. To improve athlete's performance in their respective games by providing them
with well-equipped sports facilities, highly qualified sports personnel, and
systematic training programs.

2. To create a balance between the need for sports and academic excellence by
providing them with a conducive learning environment and sufficient academic
assistance.

3. To instill and encourage the development of positive moral values through
their involvement in sports activities and competition.

4. To impart knowledge about careers in the sports industry such as sports
administrators, sports psychologist, fitness instructors, sports medical officers,

coaches, trainers, and other sports related experts.

Ms Involved in the Prom
Administrative arrangements

The school is under the authority and direct supervision of the Sports Department
of the School Division, Ministry of Education, Malaysia. At the school level, the
administration is headed by a principal and assisted by three vice-principals. These
three vice—principals are assigned to different departments; namely, Academic, Student
Affairs, and Sports department. The administrative arrangements at the sports school
are somewhat different from those of the ordinary schools. Ordinary schools are not
directly supervised by the School Division, but under respective State Education

Department where the schools are located. In ordinary schools of a similar category,

26

 

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there are only two vice-principals, Academic and Students Affairs. Sports related

activities in the ordinary schools are the responsibility of the Student Affairs department.

Student athletes

The school was planned to accommodate a total of about 600 students; 400 boys
and 200 gins between the ages 13 and 17 years. The selection of students is based on
their sports performance in the Under-12, and Under-16 age group competitions held by
the Malaysian Schools Sports Council, talent scouting by the school's coaches, and
recommendations from the State Sports Council. Besides their sports performance, the
entry of students is also based on their academic qualification. For Form One (13 years
old) entry, the students must score at least 2A’s and 2B’s (from 5 subjects) in their
Primary School Assessment Test. Students selected for Form Four (16 years old) are
required to obtain at least 4A’s (from 8 subjects) in their Lower Secondary Assessment
Test. However, special considerations are given to students with outstanding sports
performance who have lower academic achievement.

The talent identification process is conducted by the National Sports Council and
the sports school with the cooperation of respective state school sports councils. The
process is mainly administered on primary six school students aged 12 years old with
sports potential, at three levels; district, state, and national. Shortlist students from the
district level are directed to the state level for further screening. Students selected from
the state level screening are then referred to the national level panel comprised of
officers from the National Sports Council and teacher-coaches of the sports school for

the final selection.

27

 

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Administration of the process includes anthropometric measurements and motor

performance/fitness tests (National Sports Council 1998, National Sports Council, 1999).

The anthropometric measurements and fitness tests administered at each level are

summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Anthropometric measurements and motor performance tests included in the

Talent Identification process of the sports school

 

 

Level Fitness test Anthropometry

1 - District Standing triple jump Stature
40-meter dash Body mass
800-meter run Arm span
Overhead ball throw Sitting height

Vertical jump

2- State 10-meter shuttle run
Vertical jump
Standing broad jump
3-kg ball throw
40-meter dash
800-meter run

3- National Basketball dribbling
40-meter dash
Quadrant jump
Sit-up

 

Basically, selection is based on the motor perionnance of the students. The

students' motor performance scores are compared to normative motor performance data

of Malaysian children. Students' performance for motor performance tests administered

at the state level must at least equal the 70th percentile score of the normative data in

order to be selected into the sports school. The performance tests administered at the

national level are conducted on a competitive basis. Additionally, for team sports, game

99
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sessions are conducted to determine the skills of the candidates. For certain sports such

as volleyball and basketball, the student's stature is also given due considerations.

Teacher and teacher-coaches

The number of teachers allocated to this school is based on a teacher-class ratio
of 2:1, with each class having an average of 25 students. According to the teacher-class
ratio, the number of teachers allocated would be 40. However, the number of teachers
allocated in the original plan was 43. The allocation of three extra teachers could be due
to consideration of the small number of teaching periods assigned to the principal and
the vice-principals of the school. Selection of teachers is based on academic
qualifications, a bachelor’s degree and substantial teaching experience in their related
subjects. Some of the teachers selected are also responsible coaching sports. These
teacher-coaches must not only have the required academic qualifications, but also must
be a certified coach and have substantial coaching experience in their related games.
They must have at least three years of coaching experience at the state or national
levels. However, teacher-coaches without the required academic qualifications will be
given due consideration based on their experience and the needs of the sports school.
Selection of teachers and teacher-coaches is made through application, and the decision
is made through an interview by a selection committee headed by the Director of School
Division, Ministry of Education.

For some sports, coaches who are not teachers of the school are appointed to
conduct the training program. These coaches are assigned by the National Sports

Council and receive an allowance of RM 250.00 a month.

29

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Non-academic staff

As in ordinary schools, this school is provided with non-academic personnel:
clerical and maintenance staff, a hostel supervisor, and a fitness instructor. However,
the two latter positions are more directly involved with the school sports program. The
fitness instructor is responsible for monitoring conditioning activities, while the hostel

supervisor is responsible for the residential and nutritional needs of the students.

Privil es and rtunities

The school is managed on a full boarding concept based on the National Full
Boarding School status. With this status, students are provided with hostels, food, health
insurance, and a monthly allowance of MR 50 (USD 15) a month. Traveling expenses for
going back home and coming to school are also provided three times a year.
Additionally, the students are to be provided with personal sports equipment and medical
insurance.

Apart from the school’s training programs, students of the sports school are to be
exposed to sports camps, seminars, dialogs and workshops with experienced local and
overseas coaches and sports-related experts. In the academic program, assistance will
be given to students having academic difficulties and to those who will be sitting for the
national public examination.

Students of the school are also exposed to high level sports competition. This is
done by giving the school the status of a “state” team in the national age group
competition. With this status, athletes of this school compete with the best athletes from

various state teams of the country. Additionally, all athletes are to be given the

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opportunity to compete overseas at least twice a year for them to gain experience at the
international level. Athletes with outstanding performances are also given the
opportunity to represent the country in international competition.

Teacher-coaches and administrators are provided with apartments and houses
within the school compound. In addition, teacher-coaches of the school will be given
opportunities to attend courses to improve their knowledge and skills in sports

administration and training.

Training and Facilities

Training schedule
Student athletes selected and trained in this school are from various types of games.
The games are:

Track and field - boys and girls
Artistic gymnastic — boys and girls
Rhythmic gymnastic - girls only
Squash - boys and girls

Archery - boys and girls
Swimming - boys and girts

Sepak Takraw - boys only

Netball - girls only

Sogf‘P’SnPSPNT‘

Field Hockey - boys and girls
10. Soccer - boys only

11. Volleyball - boys and girts
12. Basketball - boys and girls

31

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The curriculum content of the academic program of the school follows the national
curriculum set by the Ministry of Education. In general, the courses offered are similar to
those of the ordinary schools, except for Physical Education which is substituted by a
Sport Science course.

Class schedules are also tailored to suit the sports training program. In ordinary
schools, academic classes are a one-half day commitment, running from 7:30 am. to
1:00 pm. for the morning session, or from 1:00 pm. to 6:00 pm. for the afternoon
session.

In general, daily schedules for the students of the sports school are as follows;

6:30 - 7:30 AM - Physical Fitness Activities
9:00 - 4:20 PM - Academic Classes

5:00 - 7:00 PM - Sports Training

8:30 - 10:30 PM - Academic Activities/Tuition
Saturday - Cocurricular activities

Besides the general daily schedules, the sports school also adopted a flexible daily schedule
which is designed to accommodate the sports competitive season and the examination
season. More training time is allocated during the competitive season, while academic time

is extended during the examination season.

Sport facilities
Sports facilities of the school consist of a multipurpose hall, squash courts, a
demonstration room, and a fitness training room. However, since the school is located

within the National Sports Complex, most of the athletes' training is expected to be

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carried out using the facilities in the complex. The complex is fully equipped with
international standard playing venues and advanced training facilities.

Athletes’ treatment for injury and rehabilitation will be provided by physicians at
the National Sports Council which is located in the vicinity of the school, and by

physicians at the National University hospital located in the capital city.

Summary

The development of sports and its important role in Malaysia has led to the
establishment of Bukit Jalil Sports School. The goal of the program is to produce
student-athletes with excellent sports perionnance and strong academic achievement.

Several processes have been identified to achieve this goal. First, there should
be a very selective strategy for entry to this school. Students have to be selected based
not only on their sports performance but also on their academic achievement. However,
under special circumstances, students with very outstanding sports performance are also
given the opportunity to be in the program. Second, students selected are to be given
the greatest opportunities to improve their sports performance and academic
achievement. In sports, they are to be provided with well-equipped sports facilities, and
systematic training under the supervision of qualified coaches. In academics, they are to
be provided with qualified teachers, adequate educational resources, and adequate
academic assistance. It is assumed that through these processes, the students’ physical
perionnance will improve, and their strong academic performance can be maintained.
Consequently, these students will come out winners in high level sports competition and

perform successfully in their academic commitments.

33

 

 

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For most parts of the program, the implementation is carried out by the
administrators, teachers, and teacher-coaches of the school. The academic component
of the program is solely the responsible of these personnel. However, there is
involvement of personnel from the National Sports Council and the Malaysian Institute of
Sports in the sports component of the program. Involvement of personnel from National
Sports Council is in the form of advanced training programs that their coaches provide to
the student-athletes during school holidays, while physicians and trainers from the
Malaysian Sports Institute are responsible for the rehabilitation programs of the athletes.
In addition, there is collaboration between the Sports Division, Ministry of Education and
the National Sports Council regarding the standard of the students’ performances in

sports competition.

Normal Human Growth

Growth refers to increase in the size of the body or its part, while biological
maturation refers to the tempo and timing of progress to the mature state (Malina &
Bouchard, 1991). Human beings generally follow a similar growth and maturation pattern
with regard to age. Growth accelerates just before and during puberty. Body size, body
composition, and physiology are basically similar in boys and girls before puberty
(Sanbom & Jankowski, 1994). The adolescent growth spurt and puberty mark the period
in life when sex differences in development become evident. Peak rates for height or
peak height velocity (PHV) are observed in girls at about 12 years and in boys at 14
years of age (Tanner, 1962; Marshall & Tanner, 1986; Lindgren, 1976; Shephard, 1982).

Due to the eartier growth spurt in girls, they become both taller and heavier than their

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male counterparts between 12 and 14 years of age. Adult height is reached after a final
phase of decelerating growth, at about 18 years in boys and 16 years in girls (Shephard,
1982; Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). Due to the longer period of preadolescent growth and
a slightly greater spurt in boys, adult men are generally taller than women. On average,
boys have two years longer of preadolescent growth than girls and therefore are taller
when they begin their adolescent growth spurt (Marshall 8 Tanner, 1986).

Although nearty all skeletal dimensions accelerate during adolescence, the effect
is not uniform throughout the skeleton (Eveleth, 1978). There is a greater increase in the
length of the trunk than in the length of the legs. As such, the proportion of the total
stature that is due to growth of the trunk n'ses during adolescence. Also, the spurt begins
at different times in different parts of the body (Marshall 8 Tanner, 1986; Malina 8
Bouchard, 1991). The legs experience their growth spurt earfier and their peak growth
velocity about 0.6 years earfier than the trunk. Because of this growth pattern, the ratio
of sitting height to stature is the lowest during the adolescent growth spurt, and then
increases into late adolescence. Girls' sitting height/stature ratio becomes slightly higher
than that of boys of corresponding age at the beginning of their growth spurt and remains
so through adolescence into adulthood. The longer period of preadolescent growth in
boys is also largely responsible for the fact that men’s legs are longer than women’s in
relationship to the length of the trunk because the legs grow faster than the trunk
immediately before adolescence.

Girls on the average have larger bicristal breadth than boys from middle
childhood through late adolescence (Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). On the other hand, boys

are larger in biacromial breadth at all ages with the exception of ages 10 to 12. During

35

 

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the adolescent spurt, boys gain more than girls in biacromial breadth, whereas girls gain
slightly more than boys in bicristal breadth. Boys, however gain twice as much in
biacromial breadth during the spurt, whereas there is a small difference in the amount
gained between the two breadth dimensions in girls. Thus, in young adulthood, males
have especially broad shoulders, but both sexes are similar in width across the iliac
crest.

The growth spurt for body mass corresponds generally with the rapid growth of
height, although it continues for a longer time (Tanner, 1962). Girls show a particularly a
rapid gain between 12 and 13 years of age due to the increase in fat content of the
breast and other parts of the body. In boys, gain in body mass is partly due to increase
in height, and partly due to increase in lean body mass. Skeletal muscle and bone tissue
are major components of lean body mass. Both tissues show patterns of age and sex-
associated variation during childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and aging that are similar
to those of lean body mass (Bouchard, Malina, 8 Perusse, 1997). Muscle widths have
their peak velocity more nearly coincident with sitting height than with PHV (Tanner,
Hughes 8 Whitehouse, 1981). Prior to the onset of adolescence, males have greater
breadth of muscle and bone than do females of corresponding age (Malina 8 Johnston,
1967). For the average child, the whole muscle spurt lasts approximately two years from
start to finish. At adolescent ages, the mean value for muscle breadth becomes greater
in females until about 15 years of age when male muscle breadths are again larger.
However, this temporary advantage in female is only in measure of the calf, not in arm
musculature. This is largely due to a more pronounced growth spurt in the calf muscle in

girls in comparison to boys than arm muscle for all ages (Tanner, 1981).

36

 

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Boys and girls both gain body fat early in adolescence (Forbes, 1986). However,
the boys’ gain stop or reverses temporarily, while giris continue to pun on fat as
adolescence proceeds. Females show consistently greater values for fatness at all ages
than do males. Fat mass and subcutaneous fat increase with age from 9 to 18 in girls
and from 9 to 13 in boys (Malina 8 Bouchard, 1988). Fat mass changes only slightly
between 14 and 17 years of age in boys, while subcutaneous fat declines gradually.

The ratio of trunk to extremity skinfolds is rather stable in both sexes during
childhood and begins to rise after 8 to 9 years of age in girls and 9 to 10 years in boys
(Malina 8 Bouchard, 1988). The ratio increases with age through male adolescence, but
changes little after 12 to 13 years of age in girls. In girls, both trunk and extremity fat
appear to accumulate at a reasonably similar pace after 12 years of age. In boys,
skinfolds for the trunks increase in thickness during adolescence, while those in
extremities decrease in thickness (Beunen et al., 1988). Growth velocity for the triceps
and calf skinfolds increases during early adolescence, but declines and becomes
negative between 14.5 to 15 years. Growth of the subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds
accelerates and is reasonably constant during eariy adolescence but they differ later in
adolescence. The velocity of the subscapular skinfold then increases slightly while that

of the suprailiac skinfold declines considerably.

Biological Maturation
Although human beings generally follow a similar pattern of growth and
maturation with regard to age, some variations do occur between individuals of the same

chronological age. These variations are especially apparent during the adolescent

37

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growth spurt (Marshall 8 Tanner, 1986; Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). The time at which the
adolescent spurt begins varies from child to child. Thus, within a given age group,
children may have a different maturity status.

Measures of maturity vary depending on the biological system used (Malina,
1988a; Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). Sexual maturity is fully functional reproductive
capability, while skeletal maturity is a fully ossified skeleton. More commonly used
maturity indicators are skeletal maturation, sexual maturation, and somatic maturation.
Dental maturity, as measured through dental eruption and calcification, is less
extensively used in the study of growth and maturation.

Skeletal maturation refers to the degree of development of the skeleton as shown
by X-rays. It is an ideal indicator of maturity because its development spans the entire
period of growth. The assessment from the radiograph is based on the recognition of
maturity indicators; the initial appearance of specific bone centers, gradual shape
differentiation of individual bones, and the fusion of epiphyses with their respective
diaphysis (Tanner, 1962; Roche, 1986). Currently, commonly used methods to assess
skeletal maturation are the Greulich-Pyle and the Tanner-Whitehouse methods (Malina 8
Bouchard, 1991). Recently, the Fels method has been developed as an extension of the
RWT method for the knee to the hand and wrist (Roche, Chumlea, 8 Thissen, 1988).

Assessment of sexual maturity is based on the development of secondary sex
characteristics, including the age at menarche for females. Maturity indicators include
pubic hair development in both sexes, breast development in girls, and genital
development in boys. The most commonly developmental criteria used for these

characteristics are those described by Tanner (1962) which are based on a 5-stage

38

scale. Stage 1 indicates the prepubertal state of development, absence of development
for each characteristic. Stage 2 indicates initial development of each characteristic.
Stage 3 and 4 indicate continued development of each and may be difficult to assess
(Malina, 1988a). Stage 5 indicates the adult or mature state of development for each
characteristic.

Somatic maturity is most often viewed in terms of the timing of maximum growth
during the adolescent growth spurt, that is, age at peak height velocity (PHV) (Malina,
1988a; Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). Age at PHV is derived by fitting growth curves either
graphically or mathematically to individual growth records for stature. Another indicator
is percentage of adult stature; that is, the height attained at a particular age expressed as
a percentage of adult stature. Similar to age at PHV, this indicator also requires
longitudinal data. However, parental statures can also be used to provide a target range
within which the adult stature of the child will likely fall.

Menarche, the first menstrual period, is also most commonly used maturity
indicator for female adolescence (Malina, 19983). There is no corresponding
physiological event in male adolescent. Age at menarche can be estimated with
prospective, status quo, or retrospective methods (Malina, 1996). The prospective
method is based on longitudinal studies in which giris are examined at close intervals
whether menarche has occurred and when. The status quo method is used to estimate
age at menarche in a sample of girls. Two pieces of information are required; each girl’s
exact age, and whether or not she has attained menarche. The retrospective method
requires the individual to recall the age at which she attained menarche. It is also the
most widely used method in estimating age at menarche.

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Because different maturity indicators are measured through different biological
systems, there is variation in maturity status obtained from these indicators.
Nevertheless, these maturity indicators are related to each other, except for dental
maturation which is not strongly related to the other maturity indicators (Fillippson 8 Hall,
1976; Demirjian, Buschang, Tanguay, 8 Patterson, 1985). Dental maturation tends to
proceed independently of skeletal, somatic, and sexual maturation, suggesting
mechanisms controlling dental development are independent of other indicators of
maturity

A summary of correlations between different maturity indicators from several
studies by Malina (1988a, 1988b) showed moderate relationships between the indicators,
and that correlations for boys tend to be somewhat lower than those for girls. A study by
Bielicki, Koniarek, 8 Malina (1984) on the interrelatedness among these maturity
indicators reported the presence of general maturity factor that discriminates among
individuals who are earty, average, or late maturers. This study also showed sufficient
variation among maturity indicators that no single system provides a complete description
of the tempo of maturation of an individual during adolescence.

Assessing biological maturation through the observation of maturity indicators is
not without problems. For skeletal maturation, difficulties include the time needed for the
assessment of so many bones, the expense of radiographic films, and the risk of
excessive radiation (Roche, 1986). The secondary sex characteristic is a continuous
process upon which the stages are superimposed. Thus, the 5 stages scale are
somewhat arbitrary, as is the case with other developmental scales. Assessment of

secondary sex characteristics also involves invasion of individual privacy, which is a

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matter of much concern for many adolescents (Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). Use of the
retrospective method in determining age at menarche may be unsatisfactory because a
subject’s recollection may be inaccurate, or some girls may deliberately give an incorrect
answer.

Apparently, biological maturation is most accurately assessed by measuring
skeletal age because the development of the skeleton spans the entire period of growth
(Tanner, 1962; Clarke, 1971; Roche, 1986; Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). However, in large
scale research and with limited expenses this is not always possible. Despite the
limitation of Tanner's stages of development (superimposing a discrete series of stages
onto a continuous process, and being limited to pubertal years), it is less intrusive and
easier to use with large subject numbers than is skeletal age. In some studies, self-
assessment of sexual maturation has been used to address the concern of invasion of
privacy (Duke, Litt, 8 Gross, 1980; Neinsten, 1982; William, Cheyne, Houfltooper, 8
Lohman, 1988; Jones, Hitchen, 8 Stratton, 2000). Self-assessment of sexual maturation
has been compared to assessment by physicians and has been found to have good

concordance.

Maturity associated variation in growth

Although the concept of maturity differs from growth and both processes are
probably under separate genetic regulation, they are related (Tanner, 1962; Malina,
1988b). Children who differ in maturity status also differ in size, physique, and body
composition. This maturity-associated variation in growth is most apparent at the most

extremes of the continuum (Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). Children are commonly grouped

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into categories of advanced (early), average, and delayed (late) maturity on the basis of
skeletal age, age at menarche, or secondary sex characteristics, and their growth status
can be compared from childhood through adolescence. Similariy, children of contrasting
maturity status can be compared within a single age group to provide indication of the
maturity-associated variation within a narrow range.

Several studies suggested that there is a relationship between physique and rate
of maturation (Hunt, Cocke, 8 Gallagher, 1957). Other reviews also have noted that
skeletal age is positively correlated with growth changes in fat, muscle and bone tissue,
causing eariy maturers to have more weight per unit of height than do late maturers
during adolescence (Tanner, 1962; Malina, 1974). In boys, the naturally slow maturer is
often predominantly ectomorphic while the early maturer is mesomorphic (Acheson 8
Dupertuis, 1957; Clarke, 1971). These differences between eariy and late maturers are
more apparent during late adolescence. Ectomorphy is also associated with lateness in
maturation in girls, but endomorphy or a combination of endomorphy and mesomorphy is
associated with early maturation.

Since physique is concerned with body size, body composition and body structure
(Boileau 8 Lohman, 1977), relationships between somatotype and maturity status would
suggest similar variation in these aspects due to contrasting maturity status. A study by
Lindgren (1976) on Swedish children found that mean weight and mean height were
significantly different between the early, average and late maturers for boys and girls
during puberty. The early maturers of both sexes are taller and heavier than their
average and late maturing age peers. Mean height differed between the maturity groups

at ages 10.0 - 14.0 years in girls and 10.5 -17.0 years in boys. Mean weight at

42

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successive ages differed between maturity groups at all ages from 10 — 16 years in girls,
and from 10.0 - 18 years for boys. The growth rate in height in relation to age at peak
height velocity was found to be significantly greater in early maturers of both sexes from
at least seven years before until two years after PHV (Hagg 8 Taranger, 1992). The
amount of growth during the pubertal growth spurt was significantly greater in the eariy
maturers of each sex. The lag periods between the occurrence of maturity indicators of
skeletal and pubertal development in relation to age at peak height velocity differed
between early and late maturers. The maturity indicators occurred earlier in relation to
PHV in the late maturer of each sex.

In girls, there were significant differences in height between the maturity groups
from 5 to 14 years of age, but final height did not differ between the groups (Hagg 8
Taranger, 1991). In boys, there were significant differences in height between the
maturity groups from 12 to 16 years but no significant difference was found at the age of
17 years. Consequently, adult height of the late maturers eventually attained or perhaps
surpassed the stature of early maturing children (Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991; Hagg 8
Taranger, 1991)

Other studies also showed maturity associated variation in growth (So, 1995;
Beunen, Malina, Lefevre, Claessens, Renson, Simons et al., 1994). There were
consistent differences among Belgian boys of contrasting maturity status during
adolescence in body weight, skeletal lengths and breadths, circumferences, and
skinfolds of the trunk (Beunen, Malina, Lefevre, Claessens, Renson, 8 Simons, 1994;
Beunen, Ostyn et al., 1997). However, there were no differences in skinfolds on the

extremities. A fairly high percentage of the variation in body dimensions between 13 and

43

linear or
however
skeletal i
crconle
tombiral
Chonolo

measorei

16 years is explained by skeletal age (approximately 50% for stature), and the
percentage of explained variance reaches its maximum at 14 to 15 years (Beunen,
Ostyn, Simons, Rensen, 8 Van-Gerven, 1981). The highest percentages were found for
linear dimensions and weight, followed by bone width dimensions and circumferences.
However, triceps and calf skinfolds were not found to be related to skeletal age. In girls,
skeletal age was found to be most highly correlated with lengths and then with breadths,
circumferences and skinfolds (Beunen, Malina et al., 1997). Skeletal age per se or in
combination with chronological age is a significant predictor of somatic characteristics.
Chronological age alone was not found to contribute in the prediction of body
measurements.

Absolute fatness estimated from four skinfolds in boys was positively related to
skeletal maturity but the correlations were rather low (Beunen et al., 1982). These
correlations tended to decrease with age from 12 to 17 years. Comparison between the
extreme groups, the fattest and the leanest, indicated that the leanest boys were the
most delayed in skeletal maturity. Correlations between adiposity and maturity indicators
in girls showed a similar trend (Beunen, Malina, Lefevre, Claessens, 8 Renson, 1994).
The fattest girls were as equally advanced as the leanest girts were delayed in skeletal
maturation. The attained stature that was consistent with the maturity data indicated that

the size differences between fat and lean girls were primarily due to maturity differences.

Other factors influencing growth
The growth and maturation of human beings depends on the integration of many

factors. A child's growth depends on the child’s genetic endowment and the environment

44

in which the child lives, and interaction between the two (Eveleth 8 Tanner, 1990). As
such, there are large differences between populations in height, weight, and age at
puberty. Children of the developing worid, on average, are shorter and lighter than
children in the developed world population (Tables 2 8 3). However, it should be noted
that while a portion of these differences is genetic in origin, a large portion is due to
environmental factors. Environmental factors such as culture, malnutrition and infectious
disease, and poverty are among the major factors that affect the growth of children in the
developing world (Gopalan, 1992; Stephenson, Latham, Adams, Kinoti 8 Perte, 1993).
Comparative growth studies of children of different races growing under similar
conditions have shown that population differences in body shape and size are due to
their genetic origin. Aschroft and Lovell (1964) found that children of African, Afro-
European and European ancestry were similar in size but were considerably bigger than
Chinese of the same economic class. Eveleth and Tanner (1990) in their world wide
comparison of body size concluded that Afro-American children growing up under
favorable conditions are a little taller and heavier than Europeans and Euro-Americans
living in the same cities. This is partly because they are a little more advanced in
maturity. Asians, on the other hand, are smaller despite being further advanced in
maturity. Indonesian-Malay groups are within the Europeans range for height until 12 to
13 years of age. After 13 years of age, all Indonesian-Malays are smaller than
Europeans. They mature eariier than Europeans, so they stop growing at an earlier age

with a final adult height lower than that of Europeans.

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47

Population differences in body proportion also exist. Smith and Brown (1970), in
their study of preschool children in Hawaii, observed that Japanese were as heavy as
part-Hawaiians but shorter in stature, although the trunk lengths were similar. Therefore,
the differences in stature are due to the shorter legs of the Japanese. Grantham-
McGregor, Desai, and Back (1972), on the other hand, found that Jamaican Negro
infants had longer legs than Europeans. Malina (1969), in a comparative survey of
growth of American Negro and white children, observed that Negro children and adults,
had shorter trunks, a more slender pelvis, longer upper extremities, greater arm span,
and longer lower extremities. A study of population differences in the body shape of
children and adolescents concluded that Australian aborigines have the longest legs to
sitting height followed by children of African ancestry, while Japanese have the shortest
legs (Eveleth, 1978).

In most populations, growth and maturity status are strongly related to SES,
suggesting the influence of SES on growth and maturation. Significant superiority in
anthropometric measurements of upper SES was also observed among Indian school
children aged 6 - 17 years, in Durban, South Africa (Walker, Walker, Jones, & Kadwa,
1989). Lower SES girls in India were significantly smaller in every physical measurement
when compared to upper SES girls (Qamra, Mehta, & Deodhar, 1990). The onset of
menarche, breast, and pubic hair development were also significantly delayed in lower
SES girls by 0.8 years (Qamra, Mehta, 8. Deodhar, 1991). A study of sexual maturation
and growth patterns in Egyptian boys also showed a significant effect of social class on
the mean ages of onset of puberty, and height and weight (Hafez, Salem, Cole, Galal, &

Massoud, 1981). Most pubertal changes in boys and girls in Newcastle upon Tyne

48

showed gradients by social class as determined by father‘s occupation level (Billewicz,
Fellowes, & Thomson, 1981). In boys, the development was later in unskilled manual
occupations, whereas in girls the greatest differences were between those with fathers in
non-manual occupations and the remaining occupations.

Satisfactory growth of children is also dependent on nutritional status and health
condition, which in turn, are related to SES. This is particularly true in developing
countries where urban-rural differences in nutritional status are signified by SES
differences. In general, the nutritional status is lower in rural areas, although poor urban
children sometimes suffer from higher prevalence of malnutrition than rural children
(Chen, 1976; Chen, 1977a; Chen, 1977b;Cameron, Kgamphe, Leschner, & Farrant,
1992). Characteristic features of undemutrition are stunted growth, delayed biological
maturation, reduced muscle mass, and decreased physical working capacity (Malina,
Little, Buschang, De Moss 8. Selby, 1985; Malina & Buschang, 1985). The severity of the
physiological effect of malnutrition can range from mild to severe and is due to the
interaction of intensity, duration and timing of the stress (Malina et al., 1985). Stunting
indicates that undemutrition has been present over a long period, while wasting indicates

current undemutrition (Chen, 1976).

Indicators for SES and Nutritional Status

Generally, the socioeconomic status score is a multiple item measure derived by
averaging scores for the component items of occupation, education and family income
(Miller, 1983). Thus, for the construction of an index, occupational prestige rating, weight

score for education, and income have to be determined first. Occupational prestige

45
(O

popula

aten

the u:

(M

U?

abOi

HUI?!
man:
the

USE

inf;

 

rating, for example, is determined through opinions from a national sample of a
population. For that matter, the prestige rating is only applicable for that population and
attempts to use such a rating for other populations may not be appropriate.

For cross national comparison of socioeconomic conditions, WHO recommended
the use of indicators such as estimates of life expectancy, real gross domestic product
(GDP) per capita, and average years of education for populations aged 25 years and
above (WHO, 1999).

Infant and preschool children mortality rates are accepted indicators of health and
nutritional status of a population (Martorell, 1982; WHO, 1999). The measure of
malnutrition of a population is determined by the percentage of children under 5 years
who are stunted. For older children, the World Health Organization has advocated the
use of weight-for-age, height-for-age, and weight-for-height as the basis for classification
of nutritional status (WHO, 1995). Weight-for-age, height-for-age, and weight-for-height
values that are between minus 2 SD and plus 2 SD of the National Center for Health
Statistics (NCHS) median are considered as normal growth.

For various limitations of weight-for-age, height-for-age, and weigh-for-height,
WHO recommended the use of Body Mass Index as the basis for anthropometric
indicators of thinness and overweight during adolescence (WHO, 1995). Weight-for-age
is considered uninforrnative or even misleading in the absence of corresponding
information on height-for-age, and the combined use of these data to assess body mass
is awkward and has yielded biased results. The use of weight-for-height poses problems

because weight/height relationships change dramatically with age. Although BMI has not

()1
<3

been fully validated as an indicator of thinness and undemutrition in adolescents, it

provides a single index of body mass and height, applicable at both extremes.

Socioeconomic and Nutritional Conditions in Malaysia

Malaysia's socioeconomic and health indicators have shown a steady
improvement since colonial times. Although this may be taken as part of worldwide
trend, the rapid rate at which this has occurred is a reflection of the wealth and economic
growth in the country. Malaysia's infant mortality rate (IMR) in 1998 is already less than
20 per 1000, the level which is considered desirable in countries where health and social
development has largely eliminated the environmental and demographic risks linked to
infant death (WHO, 1999). In fact, by 1998, Malaysia's IMR had dropped to one third of
its IMR in 1978. The rate is catching up to that of developed countries like the United
States and the United Kingdom.

For comparison, basic indicators of socioeconomic and nutritional conditions for
Malaysia and few selected countries are presented in Table 4 (WHO, 1992; WHO, 1999).
Also reported is the rank for Human Development Index (HDI) for developing countries to
show relative conditions for Malaysia as compared to other developing countries. This
index is derived from data on life expectancy, educational attainment, and income.
Malaysia’s HDI ranked 20th among the developing countries and third among the South
East Asian Countries (WHO, 1992). It should also be noted that most countries of South
and South East Asia fall in the ‘Medium’ or 'Low' categories for HDI; indeed the only
Asian countries that qualify for the ‘High’ category are Japan, South Korea, Singapore,

Thailand and Malaysia (Gopalan, 1992).

51

Table 4. Basic indicators for socioeconomic and nutritional conditions for selected countries

 

 

 

 

Infant GDP per Years of Human
mortality Life expectancy capita education for development
rate (1998) a (1998) a (1982- population aged index (1991)b
(per 1000) (years) 1992) a 25 + (1995)3 (rank c)
(US dollar)
male females
USA' 7 73 80 17945 12.1 --
UK‘ 7 75 80 12724 8.7 --
Japan * 4 77 83 15505 9.2 --
China" 41 68 72 1493 5.2 49
Malaysia” 1 1 7O 74 5746 5.5 20
India“ 72 62 63 1282 3.5 90
Thailand” 29 66 72 3942 33
Indonesia” 48 63 67 2102 3.9 65
Brunei" 10 73 78 11
Singapore" 5 75 79 12653 5.5 7
South Africa” 59 52 58 3068 4.8 25
3 adapted from WHO (1999) “developing country 'developed country
1’ adapted from WHO (1992)

c data reported developing countries only

The improving health and nutritional conditions as indicated by indicators reported
by WHO (1999), however may not reveal how this improvement is shared among
different sectors of the Malaysian population. The low national mortality rates are but
average figures and there are districts with mortality rates are much higher that the
national figures (Chee, 1990). In some cases, the IMR has risen in some rural areas due
to poor medical facilities, continued use of traditional medicine, waterborne diseases,

poor maternal nutrition, and inadequate personal hygiene. The live highest districts with

52

thehlght

Kedah. 1

different
predcmlr
higher ov
Malaysia
soar-econ
’98? (Pub
higher ant

11039 hall?

Glcwm g(
III
New
Wen

tainm

tiiim

the highest IMR were found in the states of Pahang, Trengganu, Kelantan, Penis, and
Kedah, where the population of rural and Malay population is higher (Arshat, 1986).
Urban-rural differences in IMR in Malaysia is closely associated with inter ethnic
differentials. The rural population is largely Malay and the urban population
predominantly Chinese. The urban population and the Chinese ethnic group also have
higher overall incomes (Malaysia, 1989). So, it seems that differential health status in
Malaysia is indirectly associated with the level of socioeconomic development as well as
socioeconomic status. The National Health and Morbidity Survey carried out in 1986-
1987 (Public Health Institute, 1988), found that both acute and chronic illness rates were
higher among those earning lower incomes, those with poor or no education, as well as

those having less skilled occupation.

Growth of Malaysian children

Most studies of children growth in Malaysia are to examine the relationship
between nutritional status and socioeconomic status, and urban-rural nutritional status
differences. A review of nutrition research pointed out that mild and moderate
malnutrition exists to a considerable extent in rural and urban poor communities (Wan
Ariffin, 1994). This is manifested in widespread growth retardation, specifically in
underweight and stunting of children. Results of anthropometric assessment of boys and
girls aged 18 years and below in rural community groups showed that the prevalence of
underweight (weight-for-age) among boys was 29.8 % and for girls 25.5 % (Lin & Siong,
1997). The prevalence of stunting (height-for-age) was 31.3 % for boys and 26.9 % for

girls. By age groups, the highest prevalence of underweight was among children aged 1

 

prevalen
was four
malnourl
acute ma

heZl-i

- 6 years old. A survey of primary school children in urban poor populations found that
27% of the children were underweight and 25% were stunted (Chen, 1977a). The
prevalence of malnutrition in children aged 0 - 72 months among squatter communities
was found to be 23% underweight and 29% stunted (Kassim, 1989). The proportion of
malnourished children was low among the O - 6 months age group, but there was severe
acute malnutrition among the 6 - 24 months age group and widespread stunting among
the 24 - 72 months age group.

Growth rates of children in poverty villages were found to be inferior when
compared to those of urban children in the capital city, Kuala Lumpur (Chong & Lim,
1975). Similar results were also obtained by earlier studies comparing growth
achievement of four Malay pre-school children from a very poor rural inland area, a
village where the Applied Nutrition Project is carried out with army children, and an upper
income group in Kuala Lumpur (Chong, McKay, 8 Lim, 1972; Chong 8 Lim, 1975). It was
found that the growth achievements of children from the army, and those under the
Nutrition Project were superior to those in poor rural areas, but were still below the level
reached by the upper income children.

Inter-ethnic comparisons of growth achievement also found differences among
Chinese, Malay, and Indian school children aged 6 to 11 years (Chen, 1976). On the
whole, the Chinese children were taller and heavier than the Malays and the Indians who
were the least heavy among the three ethnic groups. However, the growth status among
higher income children in the three ethnic groups did not differ significantly.

Economically the Indians were the poorest among the three ethnic groups and they had

the largest family size. This finding suggested that income is a confounding factor in

54

ethnic r
triers:
socioe

can all

tend II
115 ye

clrcrm‘

ethnic differences of the growth achievement. Rampal (1977) also noted that the
differences in nutritional status of different ethnic groups were due to differences in
socioeconomic status. It seems likely that Malaysian children of different ethnic groups
can attain similar statures if environmental conditions are similar.

Study of the secular trend of growth in Malaysian children indicated a positive
trend in height, weight and head circumference (Chen, 1990). Boys and giris from birth
to 5 years of age of the 1980 - 1985 cohort are taller, heavier and have bigger head
circumference than children of the 1968 - 1973 cohort, and the difference widens as the
child grows older. This result reflects an improvement of living conditions with time. In
the last two decades, there has been an improvement in the social, economic, and
environmental standards of the country, and over the years, the budget for health has
been increasing steadily (Wan Arifin, 1994). These improvements may have lead to
better nutritional conditions. The growth achievement of privileged Malay pre-school
children has been found to closely approximate the Boston standard (Mckay, 1971).
Similar study on children aged 3 - 12 years from wealthy families in Malaysia have also
shown that the anthropometric measurement patterns were quite similar to NCHS except
for having a lower median weight-for-age and height-for-age.

Growth of Malaysian adolescents compared to other populations can be found in
Tables 2 and 3. Malaysian adolescents are generally smaller than the Europeans,
Americans, and the Japanese but bigger than the South East Asians (Thailand,
Indonesia). However, Malaysian rural adolescents are shown to be smaller and lighter
than the Malaysian national sample and other population with exception of the

Indonesians. As indicated earlier, growth is greatly influenced by environmental factors.

55

The rural Malaysian and the Indonesians adolescents are more likely subjected to
nutritional problems.

In summary, rural-urban and ethnic differences in growth among Malaysians can
be largely explained by socioeconomic differences. Rural populations mainly consist of
the Malays and the Indians, while the urban population is predominantly Chinese. The
urban population and the Chinese ethnic group also have higher overall incomes.

Hence, the inter-ethnic differences are also a reflection of rural-urban differences, as well
as socioeconomic differences which is largely determined by household income. There
is also indication that with better living conditions the growth achievement of Malaysian

children will continue to improve.

Motor Performance

Performance on motor tasks is viewed in terms of the process and the product of
the particular activity under observation (Malina, 1975). Changes in basic skills, such as
running, jumping and throwing, when measured for performance, speed, distance, or
accuracy, reflect quantitative improvement in motor perionnance (Haywood, 1993). A
comprehensive motor performance test battery would theoretically represents all the
factors that enter into various types of physical perionnance. Those qualities that are
considered motor performance qualities and which make up the majority of test items for
motor performance test batteries usually include speed, power, agility, reaction time,
hand and eye coordination, and balance (Johnson 8 Nelson, 1979). Other test items,

which are sometimes included, are strength and endurance. It is essential that a test

56

battery be selected with a specific purpose in mind, in which the motor tasks of the test

items accurately measure the motor performance qualities to be measured.

Motor tasks and factors of physical perionnance included in several motor

performance studies are summarized in Table 5 (Clarke, 1971; Branta, Haubenstricker,

8 Seefeldt, 1984; Beunen et al., 1988). Running ability usually has been assessed in

one of three ways: (a) by a dash, in which the focus is on speed and power, (b) by an

agility run, in which speed is combined with quickness in changing body direction, and (c)

by an endurance run, in which speed is largely a function of the cardiovascular system.

Table 5. Motor tests included in several motor perionnance studies

 

 

Motor tests Factor
Clarke (1971) Standing broad jump Explosive power
Sixty-yard shuttle run Speed and agility

Branta, Haubenstricker,

Total body movement test
Arm movement tests

Flexed-ann hang

Reaction and speed of movement of the
arm and leg

Strength and endurance of shoulder girdle

8 Seefeldt, (1984) Vertical jump Leg power for vertical jump
Thirty-yard dash Speed
Sit and reach Flexibility
Agility shuttle run Speed and agility
Standing broad jump Leg power for horizontal jump
Endurance shuttle run (400
ft)
Beunen et al. (1988) Arm pull Static strength
Vertical jump Explosive strength
Bent arm hang Functional strength
Leg lifts Trunk strength
Plate tapping Speed of limb movement
Shuttle run (50 m) Running speed
Sit and reach Flexibility

 

The two tasks most commonly used to test jumping perionnance in children and

adolescents are the standing long jump and the vertical jump (jump and reach). The

standing long jump measures power of the legs in jumping forward, while the vertical

5?

jump measures power of the legs in jumping upward. The arm hang measures muscular
strength and endurance of the arms and shoulder girdle. Leg lifts are used to measure
trunk strength and arm pulls for static strength. Speed of the limb is measured by plate

tapping, while reaction time is measured by total body and arm movement tests.

Age related changes in performance during adolescence

It is well established that there are age related changes in motor performance
(Clarke, 1971; Ellis, Carron, 8 Bailey, 1975; Ostyn, Simons, Beunen, Renson, 8 Van-
Gerven, 1980; Branta et al. 1984; Beunen et al., 1988). Since children and adolescents
become taller, broader, and stronger with advancing age, it was generally assumed that
these changes would be accompanied by similar progress in the development of basic
motor skills and abilities (Branta et al. 1984). This assumption appears logical and was
supported by evidence that body size and strength contributes to motor performance.

The increase in strength due to increasing age is related to increase in total
muscle mass (Shephard, 1982). The total muscle mass increases progressively from
25% of birth weight to 40% of body weight as an adult. Much of this increase of lean
mass occurs during puberty (Tanner, 1962; Shepard, 1982). The peak muscle growth
velocity is somewhat later than peak height velocity and thus occurs coincidentally with
sitting height and shoulder width. Female shows less pubertal increase in lean mass and
at maturity both muscle mass and muscle force are only 60% of the male values (Tanner,
1981). However, girls' adolescent spurt in muscle occurs earlier than that of boys and as

such, girls on average have more muscle than boys for a short period of time.

58

At adolescence, the muscles not only increase in size; they also increase in
strength to a proportionately greater degree (Tanner, 1962). The increase is more than
predicted from growth in stature, and is especially apparent in male adolescents (Rarick
8 Smoll, 1967; Beunen 8 Malina, 1988). In boys, strength increases linearly with age
until 13 to 14 years of age through the late teens, with an acceleration during the
adolescent growth spurt (Malina, 1986; Beunen et al., 1988; Beunen 8 Malina, 1988). In
girls, strength increases linearly with age through about 15 years with no clear evidence
of an adolescent spurt. On the average, boys demonstrated greater strength than girls at
all ages (Beunen 8 Malina, 1988). The difference is greater during adolescence due to
marked acceleration of strength development in boys. However, growth in strength of the
upper extremities is more variable than in the trunk or lower extremities (Rarick 8 Smoll,
1967; Carron 8 Bailey, 1974). Nevertheless, sex differences in strength are more
marked in the upper extremity and the trunk than in the lower extremity, even after
adjusting for size differences between boys and girls.

Like strength, motor performance generally improves with age, with a clear
adolescent spurt in boys but not in girls (Beunen 8 Malina, 1988; Malina 8 Bouchard,
1991). Significant positive correlations between strength and performance indicate that
stronger children were the children who perionned better (Ball, Massey, Misner,
Mckeown, 8 Lohman, 1992). However, the pattern of improvement of strength and motor
performance is also not uniform in all tasks. Strength may be important to the successful
performance of some motor performances but not as important to others. It is likely that

performance related to power events would show a similar trend to that of strength.

(11
(O

Performances in a variety of motor tasks improve from childhood through
adolescence in boys, with some suggestion of a spurt in power tasks such as the vertical
jump and the distance throw (Branta et al., 1984; Haubenstricker 8 Seefeldt, 1986;
Beunen 8 Malina, 1988). The performances of boys exceed those of girls, and the
differences become larger with increasing age. An exception is flexibility, usually
measured with the sit and reach test, in which giris show greater flexibility at virtually all
ages (Haubenstricker 8 Seefeldt, 1986).

The performances of giris, on the other hand, improve only to about 13 to 14
years of age, with little subsequent improvement (Branta et al., 1984; Haubenstricker 8
Seefeldt, 1986). However, such findings were only based on children up to 14 years and
may not reveal the improvement thereafter. A more recent report of this study which
includes data of older adolescents showed that the plateau in performances in
adolescent girls has shifted to a slightly older age. Performances of girls increased
progressively although not at the same rate as that of boys, until the mid-teen years on
some tasks and until 17.5 years on others. Specifically, continuous improvement in
performances occurred until 15 years on the agility shuttle run, until 16 years on flexed
arm hang, standing long jump, and endurance mn; and until 17.5 years on the jump and
reach and thirty-yard dash. In contrast to boys, the flexibility of girts was relatively
constant from 5 to 11 years, increased through 15 years, and then tended to plateau.

Performance in power tasks, such as the softball throw, the standing long jump
and the dash tends to show reasonably good stability over periods of 2-3 years, whereas
other tasks such as hopping, the flexed arm hang, and sit and reach are less stable

(Branta et al., 1984). On the other hand, the stability of strength of upper extremities is

an
UV

more variable than the lower extremity (Rarick 8 Smoll, 1967). The inconsistency
between the stability of limb strength and motor performance associated with them
suggest that motor performance does not depend on strength alone. Size, physique, and
body composition and size may also be contributing factors.

Physique and body structure generally have been found to have a significant
relation to physical performance (Boileau 8 Lohman, 1977). However, physique does not
markedly influenced performance except at the extreme of the continuum (Malina, 1975).
A high degree of endomorph definitely limits physical performance capacity, while
children with a high degree of mesomorphy are more adapted to motor performance.
Nevertheless, correlations between physique and strength and performance are at best
moderate and not sufficiently high for predictive purposes (Malina, 1975).

Correlations between height and weight and performance in commonly used
motor tasks during the adolescent years are generally low and in same direction as those
for middle childhood (Malina, 1975). Items in which the body is projected tend to show,
but not consistently, negative correlations with body weight. Some data show that
shorter boys between 6 and 12 years tend to be stronger per unit of body weight than
taller boys, and also to have better perionnance scores in running and jumping.

Body composition is determined by Ieanness and fatness and most often is
predicted by skinfolds (Malina et al., 1982). Correlations between skinfold thicknesses
and perionnance are consistently negative suggesting the negative effect of fatness on
motor performance (Malina, 1975). Negative influence of body fatness on physical
performance occurs both mechanically and metabolically (Boileau 8 Lohman, 1977).

Mechanically, excess fatness is detrimental to performance involving acceleration of

R1
vr

body weight because it adds non-force producing mass to the body. Metabolically,
excess fatness increases the metabolic cost of performing work in activities requiring
movement of the total body mass. Thus, one would expect that in most types of
performance involving translocation of the body mass a low relative fatness to be
advantageous in both a mechanical and metabolic sense.

It should be noted that correlation analyses relating a specific body dimension to
motor performance may have limitations. Anthropometric factors influencing strength
and performance are themselves related, thus, a set of selected anthropometric
dimensions would account for a significant variation in physical perionnance (Slaughter,
Lohman, 8 Boileau, 1982). Using a step-down regression procedure, height, upper arm
circumference, abdominal and calf skinfold were identified as significant predictors of
physical performance (Slaughter et al., 1982). Analysis of canonical correlation on two
sets of variables, anthropometric and physical performance, also indicated that children
with greater weight, thigh volume, and height will perform well on performance measures

requiring high intensity work production (Docherty 8 Gaul, 1991).

Maturity associated variation in performance

Any consideration of the relationship between maturity status and performance
must include the interrelationships among size, physique, composition and maturity
status (Malina, 1988b). Child who differs in maturity status also differs in size, physique,
body composition, strength, and motor performance (Malina,1975; Malina, 1988b).
Strength and perionnance are related, and anthropometric factors influencing strength

and performance during development are themselves related.

62

 

DOSIII‘r
pert-r
and tr
matrr
Slnl
more
mea
adoi
ll‘tr

Illa

n.-

During adolescence, maturity relationships to strength and performance are
positive for boys, but no clear pattern is apparent for girls (Malina, 1975). Motor
perionnance (i.e. arm pull, vertical jump, sit and reach, shuttle run, plate tapping, leg lifts,
and bent arm hang) of early maturing Belgian boys are better than average- and late-
maturing boys (Beunen et al., 1981; Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991, Beunen 8 Malina, 1996).
Similar results were also found by Clarke (1971) for boys 9 to 17 years of age where the
more advanced maturity group had superior means in motor performance. Significant
mean differences were obtained most frequently at 15 years of age. Later in
adolescence, that is, about 17 to 18 years of age, the size, strength, and performance
differences between boys of contrasting maturity status are reduced or disappear
(Malina, 1996). The differences between boys of contrasting maturity status are most
apparent between 11 to 14 years, and it is the early-maturing boys who often have the
advantage in many sports.

Maturity associated variation in motor performance of girts is not consistent from
task to task across age (Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). The arm pull shows maturity
associated variation similar to that for boys. However, there is a considerable variation
among the three contrasting maturity groups on the other tasks. Late maturing giris, on
the other hand, perform better in the bent-ann hang and leg lifts at ages 12 and 13 but do
not differ from the other groups at ages 14 and 15. In general, motor perionnance of
adolescent girls is poorly related to maturity status, and it is often the later-maturing girts
who attain better performance in later adolescence (Malina, 1996).

A recent study by Jones et al. (2000) also suggested that sexual maturity has a

large influence on physical fitness measures in boys but has less effect in girts. Although

RQ

UV

later
toys
Elma
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fall:

cont

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ll:

stage of sexual maturity was also found to be significantly correlated with all physical
fitness measures in boys and girls, this study revealed that when stature and mass were
taken into account significant differences were evident between sexual maturity stages in
boys but not girls. This finding suggested that increases in mass and stature were
primarily responsible for variation in girts' physical performance throughout maturation,
whereas in boys there are some qualitative differences in performance due to other
factors. It is likely that increasing levels of androgens, particularly testosterones,
contribute considerably.

It was earlier indicated that a set of selected factors would account for more
variation in physical performance than any factor alone. Katzmarzyk, Malina, 8 Beunen
(1997) highlighted the interrelationships among skeletal maturity, body size, strength and
motor fitness in their study on American children 7-12 years. Strength items included
were right and left grip strength, and pushing and pulling strength of the shoulders.

. Motor fitness items included a 35-yard dash, the standing long jump, and softball throw
for distance. Regression analyses of the data showed that the strongest predictor of
strength was body mass, while chronological age was the best predictor of motor
performance. However, the significance of the interaction terms indicated that all the
predictors were interrelated.

The contribution of combined predictors on perionnance was also reported by
Beunen et al. (1981) on their study of motor fitness of Belgian boys ages 12 to 19 years.
The interaction between chronological age, skeletal age or in combination with height
and weight have the highest predictive value for motor fitness components except for

trunk strength (leg lifting) and functional strength (bent arm hang). However, except for

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vw

static strength (arm pull), the predictive value is rather low, varying between 0 % and 17
%. ln girls, on the other hand, chronological age, skeletal age, stature and weight and
their interactions explain less than 10% of the variance in most physical fitness items.
However, for physical work capacity (PWC), arm pull strength, and bent arm hang, the
interaction terms explain between 12% and 67% of the variance (Beunen, Malina et al.,

1997).

Other factors Influencing perionnance

Earlier discussions have shown that body size, body composition and physical
performance are interrelated. Furthermore, body size and body composition are known
to be influenced by environmental factors such as socioeconomic and nutritional status.
This suggests that factors influencing growth would also influence physical performance.
There is also evidence suggesting racial and ethnic variation in motor performance.

Black children of school age, particularly boys, perform consistently better than
White and Mexican-American in running speed (dashes) and the vertical jump with
somewhat less consistent results for the standing long jump and softball throw for
distance (Malina, 1988c). In contrast, differences in the motor development and
performance of Mexican-American and White children were generally inconsistent and
slight. However, from a socioeconomic perspective, this finding could be accounted to
socioeconomic variation in rearing and parental supervision which underlies the superior
performance of the Black children and youth. It is assumed that a more permissive

rearing atmosphere characterizes lower socioeconomic social classes, which provides

65

"tartar

srvuhv‘

Infancy

were C

anha
{Vlugc

flirt}:

Chlldfr

greater freedom for physical activity and in turn enhances motor development during
infancy and childhood.

SES and nutritional status are other factors that may affect physical performance.
As in growth studies, these factors together with ethnicity and body size are interrelated
especially in most developing world populations. Children of European ancestry who
were of higher SES, were taller and heavier, and had higher absolute performances
compared to boys of African ancestry (Ghesquiere 8 Eeckels, 1984). In undernourished
children, reduction in body size and wasting of muscle mass were the main. contributors
to low motor performance and low physical fitness (Malina 8 Buschang, 1985; Spurr,
Reina, Dahner, 8 Barac-Nieto, 1983). However, when motor performances were
expressed relative to body size, differences between undernourished children and normal
children were significantly reduced or disappeared (Ghesquiere 8 Eekels, 1984; Malina,
Little, Shoup, 8 Buschang, 1987). This finding, however, did not mean that
undernourished children were physiologically adapted to their condition; rather, it
emphasized the role of reduced body size in the performance of children (Malina et al.,

1987).

Motor perionnance of Malaysian children

A normative data set for Malaysian children ages 11 to 14 years old for five motor
perfonnances was constructed by the National Sports Council (Appendix A). These data
were developed mainly due to the need for a reference for the sports talent identification
process currently carried out by the council and the sports school. It should be noted

that the sample number is largest for the 12 years old because the talent identification

66

preres:

lose I

rump. .

Clrfdrl
toys

lasts

oa/

K’l

process is mainly conducted for children of this age. Motor performances included are

those used for the selection of students of the sports school; 3-kg weight throw, vertical

jump, 40-meter dash, agility hexagon, and BOO-meter run.

For investigation of age related variations in motor performance among Malaysian

children, the 50") percentile score for each motor task is presented in Table 6. For both

boys and girts, there is an increase in performance over increasing age in only one of the

tasks; the weight throw. The vertical jump for boys shows a decline at age 12, and then

increases. For girls, this performance declines after age 11 until 13 years, and then

shows an increase at age 14. For the other three tasks, boys’ and girls’ performance

increases until the age of 13 years, and then shows a decline at the age of 14 years.

Table 6. Motor performance of Malaysian children (50") percentile score)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Gender Motor Age (years)
Performance 11 12 13 14

Boys N 276-426 32574-40129 9840-11940 615-828
Weight throw (m) 5.5 6.0 6.6 7.0
Vertical jump (cm) 33.9 32.1 35.9 37.8
40-meter dash (sec) 7.46 7.27 6.84 6.99
Agility hexagon (sec) 19.72 18.87 18.08 19.49
BOO-meter run (sec) 266.2 259.2 238.5 251.1

Girts N 229-379 33520-42248 9755-13428 348-540
Weight throw (m) 4.2 4.7 4.7 4.8
Vertical jump (cm) 29.6 28.6 28.1 29.3
40-meter dash (sec) 8.22 8.06 7.85 8.04
Agility hexagon (sec) 22.5 20.15 19.70 20.92
BOO-meter mn (sec) 283.9 294.6 285.7 290.48

 

Source: National Sports Council, Malaysia (1998)

67

 

hr

Ital

ma

al

SU

an

This trend, however, is not consistent with other studies (Branta et al., 1984;
Haubenstricker 8 Seefeldt, 1986; Beunen et al., 1988) discussed earlier. As such, there
is an indication that the normative data are not “the norms” for motor performance of
Malaysian children, especially for the 11 and the 14-year—olds. The sample size for these
age groups is relatively small, and thus, may not be representative of the Malaysian
children. Nevertheless, gender differences in motor performance among Malaysian
children were consistent to those reported in other studies. The performances of boys

exceed those of girls and the differences become larger with increasing age.

Study of Your_lg Athletes: General Considerations

Any attempt to examine the influence of training programs on young athletes is
immediately beset with several problems. This has to do with the fact that physical
training may induce changes in the same direction and approximately of the same
magnitude as expected growth changes (Bailey 8 Mirwald, 1986). According to Malina et
al. (1982), studies on young athletes should take into consideration such matters as
definition, selection, variation of biologic maturity, and related factors that determine
successful performance. Growth, maturation and physical performance are interrelated,
and sociocultural factors are also related to growth and performance.

There is also need to quantify and qualify the training programs: e.g. frequency,
duration and intensity of the training (Bailey et al., 1986). Finally, the method used

should be able to tease out the effect of the program from those of growth and maturation
(Bar-Or, 1993). To correctly evaluate training-induced changes during growth, one must

therefore include a carefully selected control group. Matching the groups by

68

chronological age alone may not be adequate. One must consider also the biologic age
and spontaneous development of the subjects such as body height and body mass (Bar-
Or, 1989; Meszaros et al., 1985).

Characteristics of young athletes

Young athletes are usually defined by success on interscholastic or agency teams,
in national and international competitions, and in selected club and age-group
competitions (Malina et al., 1982). They are a highly selected group, ordinarily based on
skills, but sometimes size and physique may also be the criteria (Malina, 1996). Part of
the variation in size, physique, and body composition is due to the variation in maturity
status (Malina, 1998). This variation may be more significant at certain ages and in
specific sports where size has a significant advantage. Children advanced in maturity
differ in size, physique, and body composition compared to those who are average or
delayed in maturation. The differences are especially pronounced during the adolescent
phase of growth, about 9 through 16 years of age. Among boys, early maturation is
positively correlated to strength and motor perionnance. Among girls, the relationship of
strength and performance to biologic maturity is not consistent. Gids who mature later
generally have better performance, and the differences between contrasting maturity
groups are more apparent in later adolescence.

Early maturing males have had much success in team sports and other events that
require motor skill prowess. It has been shown that physical characteristics are a
selective factor in many sports, and success in sports at young ages is greatly influenced
by size and physique (Malina, 1994a; Malina, 1996; Malina, 1998). Boys regulariy active
and successful in sports tend to be advanced in biological maturation, which accounts for

R0
uu

their larger body size and more rapid growth during childhood and adolescence. Hale
(1956) studied 112 boys who participated in the 1955 Little League World Series. He
found that 17% of the participant were pubescent, 37.5% were prepubescent, and 45.5%
were post pubescent. Furthermore, all who batted fourth and most of the starting
pitchers were post pubescent. Krogman (1959) after analyzing 55 boys who played in
the 1957 Little League Wortd series stated that advanced biological maturation is a
favorable factor in Little League baseball after finding that 71% of the participant were
advanced in skeletal development.

Results from the studies by Hale (1956) and Krogman (1959) reflect the size
advantage of early maturing boys in a sport in which many youngsters are selected for a
position according to their size. Other sports such as football and basketball also show
similar trend. Regular and outstanding interscholastic football layers were advanced in
skeletal maturity at all ages between 10 to 15 years compared to non-participants
(Clarke, 1971). Outstanding basketball players between 13 and 15 years, and track
athletes between 12 to 15 years, were also advanced in skeletal maturity status
compared to the non-participants. However, no maturity differences were observed
between the senior high school athletes and non-participants.

Numerous reviews of the existing data on growth and maturity characteristics in
young athletes have been published by Malina (1982, 19883, 1988b, 1994,1996, 1998)
and Malina et al. (1982). Characteristically, the median heights and weights of young
athletes in several sports have been compared to the US reference data, while trends in

maturity status were determined based upon skeletal age and secondary sex

characteristics.

70

In general, athletes of both sexes in team sports have statures that equal or
exceed reference medians (Malina, 1994; Malina, 1998). Similarly, the average statures
of young athletes of both sexes in individual sports equal or exceed those of the US
reference group. Gymnastics is the only sport that consistently presents a profile of short
stature in both sexes. Although data are limited, figure skaters of both sexes also
present shorter statures. Female ballet dancers tend to have shorter statures during
childhood and early adolescence, but catch up to nondancers in late adolescence.

A Body weights present a similar pattern. Young athletes in most sports have, on
the average, body weights that equal or exceed the reference median. Only gymnasts
and figure skaters consistently show lighter weights. Gymnasts and figure skaters,
however, have adequate body weight for stature, while ballet dancers have low body
weight for stature.

With few exceptions, male athletes of different competitive levels in a variety of
sports are characterized by average or advanced in biological maturation (Beunen 8
Malina, 1996; Malina, 1994a; Malina 1998). Other than gymnasts, there is a striking lack
of later maturing boys who are successful in some sports during early adolescence.
However, later maturing boys are often successful in some sports in later adolescence
(16 to 18 years), which demonstrates the catch-up in skeletal maturation and reduced
significance of maturity-associated variation in body size and in the performances of boys
in late adolescence (Malina, 1998).

At the senior high school ages, skeletal maturity did not consistently differ between
the athletes and nonathletes, probably reflecting the catch-up of late maturing boys, and
Perhaps greater selection for skills (Malina, 1988b). The catch-up of late maturing boys

71
II

dunr

adole

air:

an

during the high school years reduces the size differences so apparent in early
adolescence. Also, at more competitive levels, skill is of more importance than the
advantage afforded by larger body size and greater strength at the younger ages.

Most discussions of maturation of female athletes focus on the age at menarche,
which is a late event in the pubertal sequence (Malina, 1998). Allowing for variation
among samples within a sport, the prospective and status quo estimates for gymnasts,
divers, and ballet dancers are reasonably consistent with the retrospective data,
indicating later ages at menarche (Malina, 1996). On the other hand, the prospective
and status quo data for track athletes, the status quo data for swimmers, and the
prospective data for rowers are earlier that the retrospective estimates for late
adolescent and adult athletes.

Female athletes tend to be average or later in biological maturation. Gymnast and
ballet dancers tend to be later in maturation (Malina, 1998). Volleyball and basketball
players are considerably taller and heavier than average. However, the maturity status
of these athletes indicates skeletal ages, and secondary sex development that
approximate the average. Hence, these athletes’ larger size is not a function of
accelerated growth rates or advanced maturation; it likely reflects the demand of the
sports. In contrast to boys, there is a striking lack of eariy maturing girls who are
successful in sport during adolescence, with the exception of swimmers during early and
midadolescence. It also appears that average and late maturing giris persist in sport in
later adolescence.

Relationships between anthropometric variables and motor perionnance among

athletes are similar to those of non-athletes (Docherty 8 Gaul, 1991; Bale, Mayhew,

72

Piper, Ball, 8 Willman, 1992). Physical maturation, as reflected by height and body mass
is a major contributor to increases in motor performance. A higher percentage of body
fat and more endomorphy were related to poorer perionnance for relative aerobic
capacity, 40-yard dash, and agility in boys, but only for upper body muscular endurance
for girts. Mesomorphy has higher relationships with performance variables among male
athletes than female athletes. Additionally, athletes' position within a sport and the
participation of athletes in a certain sport is determined to some extent by their
anthropometric characteristics. Body mass was found to differentiate between event
participation in track and field (Hollings 8 Robson, 1991), while the centers in female
basketball were much taller, had longer limb length, hip width and were more muscular

than the guards (Bale, 1991).

Training responses in adolescents

One of the important factors of a sports program is the nature of the training
involved. Physical activity is not necessarily the same as regular physical training (Bailey
et al., 1986). Although physical activities are part of training program, not all physical
activities qualify as training (Malina 8 Bouchard, 1991). These authors further defined
physical training as regular, systematic practice of specific physical activities. Training
should be sport specific, with the conditioning program specifically emphasizing the
energy system required by a particular sport.

The frequency, intensity, and duration of each training program must be able to
cause beneficial effects (Shephard, 1978; Wilmore 8 Costill, 1994). All well designed

training programs must also incorporate the principle of progressive overload. In

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(A)

1"“

4.
If)

general, this principle holds that to maximize the benefits of training, the training stimulus
must be progressively increased as the body adapts to the current stimulus. The body
responds to training by adapting to the stress of the stimulus. The only way to continue
to improve with training is to progressively increase the training stimulus, or stress.
However, to determine at which stage of training to introduce a new stimulus is not that
easy. It requires highly qualified coaches with broad training knowledge and
experiences.

There are two approaches frequently taken in studying the effects of training on
the physical performance of children and adolescents (Shephard, 1982; Bailey et al.,
1986). The traditional approach to studying the influence of exercise, physical activity, or
training on physical performance has been to compare athletes with nonathletes or
trained subjects with untrained subjects, or to compare subjects according to various
levels of physical activity. Another approach taken is to evaluate the influence of added
physical activity or through an enriched physical activity program.

Studies of various types on young athletes indicate that children respond to
vigorous training. Adolescent boys attending special swimming schools in
Czechoslovakia were found to have vital capacities that exceeded normal age and height
standards, and their heart volumes increased more rapidly than those of non-athletes
(Sobolova, Seliger, 8 Grussova, 1971). Observation of female students attending similar
schools noted that intensive training led an increase in aerobic power rather than the
decline usually seen between 12 and 15 years of age (Sprynarova, Parizkova, 8

Jurinova, 1978). Bulgarian students, aged 9 to 16 years, who had been recruited to

74

sports schools at a very early age had 18% to 24% advantage over non-athletic students
of the same age in terms of maximum oxygen intake (lliev, 1978).

Several other studies have also reported positive effects of intensive training on
performance by comparing young athletes with nonathletes. Prepubescent, pubescent,
and post pubescent males had significant strength gains after undergoing a 9-week
resistance training program (Pfeiffer 8 Francis, 1986). Trained 15-year-old boys from a
Belgrade swimming team exhibited higher maximal aerobic power in absolute values, and
when expressed per kilogram body mass than the untrained group (Nikollc 8 Ilic, 1992).
Sady et al. (1994) also found higher anaerobic performance in trained young wrestlers
when compared to non-athletes with similar pubertal development. Tharp, Johnson, and
Thorland (1984) found that male sprinters and distance runners had significantly higher
anaerobic power and capacity than non-athletes in all the age groups studied: 10 - 11
years, 12 - 13 years, and 14 - 15 years.

Another approach taken to evaluate the influence of physical activity on
performance has been the application of enriched physical education programs in school
settings. Students enrolled in an enhanced physical education program (increasing the
number of required physical education classes from three to five per week) for a one-year
period showed a significant increase in handgrip force and perionnance test scores
(Kemper, Verschuur, Ras, Snel, Splinter, 8 Tavecchio, 1978). A more recent study by
Shephard and Lavallee (1994) reported similar findings, supporting the favorable effects
of enhanced physical education programs on physical perionnance. Children who were
assigned to experimental program that added five hours of specialist-taught physical
education showed better aerobic power, isometric muscle strength, anaerobic power

7‘;
av

I"

 

(47.5 m dash), coordination (shuttle run), and muscular endurance (sit-ups and flexed
arm hang) than children in regular physical education programs. A study with similar
findings on older children and adolescents was reported by Elnashar and Mayhew
(1984). The fitness of Egyptian school children (9 to 18 years) as measured by the 6-
item AAHPER test showed a significant improvement after eight weeks of twice weekly
intensified physical education instruction.

Despite numerous reports of positive training responses in children, several
authors have observed otherwise. Increased physical activity in the form of sport
participation showed no significant influence on most motor fitness items except for pulse
rate after a step test, pulse recovery after the step test, and the bent arm hang (Beunen
et al., 1992). More active boys obtained better results than nonactlve boys from age 14
years onward, but only for pulse recuperation and for perionnance on the bent arm hang.
On the other hand, the active boys had less flexibility as indicated by lower sit and reach
scores. They further suggested that the weak relationship between physical activity and
physical performance might be due to the failure of the training stimulus to induce
positive effects on performance.

Similar results were also presented by Andersen (1994) where a change in
physical activity or sports related activity did not relate to change in physical fitness level
for boys and giris 16.5 years of age. The relationships between level of sports
participation, either for competition or health, or 'no activity“, and physical fitness
measures were weak or non-significant. The author further suggested two additional

explanations for these findings; part of the variability in fitness is explained by genetics,

and that gr
training.
lie
between
90 if; we
physical
children
domains

Clrédhor

effects

and that growth and hormonal changes, especially in boys, override the stimulus of
training.

Katzmarzyk, Malina, Song, and Bouchard (1998), found a significant relationship
between activity and health related physical fitness, but a large part of the variability (80-
90 %) was not accounted for by physical activity. They suggested that factors other than
physical activity exerted a significant influence on the health-related physical fitness of
children and youth. These factors were probably rooted in the biological and behavioral
domains of changes associated with normal growth, maturation, and development from
childhood through adolescence.

The evidence presented above suggests that child are susceptible to training
effects during the adolescent period. The positive effects of training on physical
performance, in turn, are associated with various training adaptations. Morphologically,
regular training in children and adolescents results in a decrease in fatness and an
increase in fat-free mass, quite often with an increase in body weight (Malina, 1989).
Regular training in a youth strength-training program has the potential to increase bone
mineral density and improve motor performance skills, as well as enhance sports
performance, especially in those athletic activities in which strength, power, or speed are
required (Webb, 1990; Faigenbaum, 2000).

Maximal aerobic power of children can be significantly increased in response to a
vigorous, intensive training program (Krahenbuhl et al., 1985). Ventilatory efficiency of
children at exercise is augmented by aerobic training and maximal values of ventilation
and breathing frequency are increased in children and youth by endurance training

(Zauner, Maksud, 8 Melichna, 1989). Although children respond to aerobic training as

77

do adults, such training in the first decade of life has been reported to have negligible
effects. It seems that control of ventilation at exercise is the same in children as adults,
but exercise ventilation is less efficient in children. Aerobic trainability in young boys
appears to improve markedly during the adolescent years (Naughton, Farpour, Carlson,
Bradney, 8 Van Praagh, 2000). One of the most plausible explanations for this
observation is the 'trigger hypothesis' which links increased aerobic improvements in
adolescence with hormonal changes and substantial growth of the cardiorespiratory and
musculoskeletal systems.

Anaerobic training appears to improve children‘s anaerobic capacity by increasing
resting levels of phosphocreatine, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and glycogen,
increasing phosphofructokinase (PFK) activity and maximal blood lactate levels
(Eriksson, 1972; Foumieret al., 1982; Bar-O, 1983). Phosphofructokinase which
catalyzes anaerobic glycolysis is believed to be the main determinant of anaerobic
capacity and is highly adaptive to training (Martin 8 Malina, 1998).

Training adaptations are specific to the mode of training; aerobic or anaerobic
(Foumier et al., 1982). A study on the effects of three-month sprint and endurance
training programs on 16-17 year-old male adolescents showed that the sprint trained
group had significant increase in glycolytic (phosphofructokinase) enzyme activity, while
the endurance training resulted in significant increase in oxidative (succinate

dehydrogenase) enzymes. The study also showed that enzyme changes in adolescents
due to training were similar in direction but different in magnitude to those found in

adults- The reduced anaerobic power of the adolescent athletes compared to that of an

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adult has

understor

adalescr
eharaclr
fifteen
orcapa

and ca:

no a
be):
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adult has been attributed to the intrinsic properties of the muscle that are yet to be fully
understood (Naughton et al., 2000).

There is also a different training adaptation between male and female
adolescents (Tharp et al., 1984). When expressed relative to morphological
characteristics; height, body mass, lean body mass, and body surface area, no significant
differences were found between sprint and distance female athletes for anaerobic power
or capacity. However, male sprinters developed consistently greater anaerobic power
and capacity than the distance runners. These findings suggested that in females, the
difference in anaerobic performance was largely dependent on their morphological
characteristics, while in males adaptation to training might be another factor influencing
anaerobic performance.

Another concern surrounding increased physical activity or sports participation in
adolescents is whether training for sports influences growth and maturation. In
numerous comprehensive reviews of this area, Malina (1982, 1988a, 1988b,1989, 1994a,
1996, 1998) has made some interesting and relevant observations. Regular training has
no apparent effect on attained stature, timing of PHV, and rate of growth in stature for in

boys and girls, however, it affects weight and body composition (Malina, 1989).
Increased physical activity in boys 13 -18 years of age did not significantly affect growth
in somatic dimensions, including skinfolds, age at PHV, and skeletal maturation (Beunen
et al., 1992). Similar finding were also reported for young British athletes age 8-19 years
from four different sports; soccer, gymnastics, swimming, and tennis (Baxter-Jones,
Helms, Mafulli, Baines-Preece, 8 Preece, 1995). Among girls, regular training in sport

during puberty and the adolescent spurt did not apparently influence the timing and

79

regresslc

Ilahna l I

from the
efllhahl
lr'lh bet

Sltdtfli

progression of somatic and sexual maturation (Geithner, Woynarowska, 8 Malina, 1998;

Malina 8 Bielicki, 1996).

Summag

It is evident that students of the sports school are young athletes and different
from their peers in that they are successful in sport. They are a highly selected group,
ordinarily based on skills and their physical performance. In addition, they are provided
with better training opportunities and are more actively involved in sports activities than
students in ordinary schools.

However, there are numerous other factors that affect adolescents’ physical or
athletic performance. Sometimes, size and physique may also be criteria. Although
human beings generally follow a similar growth pattern, some variations occur between
individuals of the same chronological age. Boys who are advanced in maturity status are
generally taller and heavier, have more weight for stature, are more mesomorphic, are
stronger and perform motor tasks requiring speed and power better than boys delayed in
maturity status. In contrast to boys, the motor performance of adolescent girls is poorly
related to maturity status, and it is often the late-maturing girls who attain better

performance in late adolescence.

Boys who are successful in sports from relatively young ages tend to be
advanced in biological maturation. Oftentimes, these young athletes differ in size,
PhYSique, and behavior when compared to their peers. They are generally taller and

heavier than the reference population. Female athletes tend to be average or later in

biologicaj maturation, especially in ballet, diving, figure skating and gymnastics.

(D
(D

purely s
from cr
apart I

status

 

Any study or discussion of youth sport cannot be done in a purely biological or
purely social or cultural manner. Growth and maturation cannot be treated in isolation
from cultural or social conditions. The processes underlying growth and maturation,
apart from genetic, are also affected by environmental factors such as socioeconomic

status, and health and nutritional conditions of the individuals.

81

CHAPTER 3

METHODS

The purpose of this study was to determine the current status of the sports
program of a sports school in Malaysia, and to determine the effectiveness of the school
program. The current status of the sport component of the school program was
determined by comparing it to the original plan for the sports school. Using information
submitted by the principal administrator and coaches of the sport school, a profile of the
current program was established and compared to the original plan for the school.

The effectiveness of the sports school program was determined by examining the
two components of the program, academic and sports. The academic achievement and
motor perionnance of students enrolled in the sport school were compared to those of

students from ordinary schools. Students’ examination results were used to assess
academic achievement while a battery of motor performance tests was used to assess

the sports component of the program.

Design of the Study

The research process was divided into two parts. The first part was to determine

the current status of the sports component of the school program, focusing on the

82

characteristics of its current sports program and problems associated with its
implementation. The second part focused on the central objective of the research, to
determine the effectiveness of the school’s program.

The current status of the sports program of the sports school was assessed
through the use of a checklist. Using the checklist, the present status of three main
areas of the sports program; namely, program content and policy, privilege and
opportunity, and facility and training were compared to it’s original plan.

Program effectiveness was examined using a non-equivalent pretest-posttest
comparison group design. It was basically a two-factor (2 by 3) design with school and
age groups as the independent variables. Academic achievement and motor
performance scores of sports school students were compared to those of a comparison
group comprised of students from ordinary schools. The purpose of the comparison
group was to determine whether the program in the sports school had a differential effect
on the academic achievement and motor performance of its enrollees. Several other
variables were measured and constructed and used as covariates to control for
preexisting differences between the two groups.

The logic of employing this design was that the two groups were not selected
randomly from the same population as program recipients (Cambell 8 Stanley, 1966;
Weiss, 1998). Since the comparison group was not similar to the program population,
there was a need for statistical adjustments for preexisting differences between the two

9FOUps. A common method used to equate program participants and members of the
nonrandom comparison group is to control statistically for the variables on which they

MEL 1 n the context of this study, variables that were likely to affect motor perionnance

83

and ac

hose '

asses
and la
and s;
and st
9W
laehh

Sm

sch:

all

and academic achievement were identified and the differences between the groups on

those variables were controlled when analyzing the data.

Definition of Variables
The determination of the current status of the sports program was made by
assessing three main areas of the program; policy and content, privilege and opportunity,
and facilities and training. Policy and content are concerned with the goals, objectives,
and sports program of the school, as well as the process for selecting teacher-coaches
and students for the sports school. Privilege and opportunity refer to the privileges and

opportunities received by students and teacher-coaches in the sports school, while

facilities and training deal with facilities available and the sports training schedule at the

sports school.

The independent variable to determine the effectiveness of the program is type of
school. The dependent or outcome variables are the students’ academic achievement
and motor performance. Characteristics such as growth (stature and mass), proportions
(sitting height/stature ratio), limb circumferences, body composition (sum of skinfolds,
trunk/extremity skinfold ratio), estimated arm and calf musculatures, and nutritional
status (body mass index) were also measured or derived form other measurements. In
addition, the monthly incomes of parents were gathered as a measure of socioeconomic
status, and students were classified as urban or rural by comparing their home

addresses to a list of rural and urban areas in Malaysia. These variables were used as

covariates to control for the effect of the independent variable on the outcomes.

Participants
Participants in the study were the principal administrator and 37 coaches of the
sports school, 226 boys and girls from the sports school, and a similar number of
students from two ordinary schools in Malaysia. Twenty-three of the coaches were
teacher-coaches comprised of 3 females and 20 males representing 11 sports (Table 7).
Their ages were between 29 and 46 years with a mean age of 35.3 years. All non
teacher-coaches were foreign coaches attached to the National Sports Council. They

were comprised of 12 males and two females and their ages ranged from 35 to 60 years.

Table 7. Number of coaches who participated in the study

 

Sports Male Female Total

 

Teacher-coaches Soccer, Sepak Takraw, 20 3 23
Netball, Track and Field,
Volleyball, Basketball,
Field Hockey, Squash,
Gymnastic Artistic,
Cricket, Rugby

 

Non teacher-coaches Soccer, Squash, Track 12 2 14
and Field, Tennis,
Fencing, Diving, Golf,
Equestrian, Cricket

 

Totals 32 5 37

 

The students were comprised of three different age groups; 13-year—olds, 14-
year-olds, and 16-year-olds. In the Malaysian school system, these groups were
differentiated by their grade level; Form One, Form Two, and Form Four. They were
classified by the year in which they were born. The students' birth dates were obtained
from their school records. The birth dates were verified through their birth certificate or

85

 

an identity card when they were enrolled in the school. As such, the three different
groups were born in 1987, 1986 and 1984, respectively. Their ages at the beginning of
the study were between 146 to 155 months, 156 to 165 months, and 182 to 191 months
for the 13-year-olds, 14-year-olds, and the 16-year-olds group, respectively. The number
of students by school, age group, and gender is presented in Table 8. A total of 71
students from each type of school were in Form One (13-year-olds), 77 in Form Two (14-
year-olds), and 78 in Form Four (16-year-olds). Due to the policy of the Ministry of
Education concerning the involvement of students as research subjects, Form Three (15-
year-olds) and Form Five (17-year-olds) students were not included in the study.
According to this policy, these students are not allowed to participate in any type of
research that requires their active participation because they will be sitting for their public
examination at the end of the school year. The Pre-University students of the school
also did not participate in the study because their school session only started in June,
2000.

Similar numbers of students from the same age groups, matched for gender and
ethnic composition, were selected from two ordinary schools. Prior to school selection,
an approval from the Ministry of Education, Malaysia was obtained. Upon approval from
the Ministry, several ordinary schools located in urban areas were identified to be
included in the study. The researcher then visited the schools and two schools were
finally selected based on the availability of teachers and coaches, of testing facilities, and
more importantly, the readiness of the school to be involved in the study. The availability

of teachers was based on their academic qualification, a degree in physical education

86

and exercise science, while testing facilities were determined by the availability of

adequate testing areas and testing equipment.

Table 8. Number of students included in the sample by school, age group and gender

 

 

 

 

Sports School Ordinary School Subtotal Total
Age Group Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
13-year—old 51 20 51 20 102 40 142
14-year-old 56 21 56 21 112 42 154
16-year-old 53 25 53 25 106 50 156
Totals 160 66 160 66 320 132 452

 

Participants selected from the sports school were also screened based on their
sports participation. Only those involved in soccer, sepak takraw, netball, track and field,
volleyball, basketball, field hockey, squash, cricket, and rugby were included in the study.
Swimmers, gymnasts, divers, equestrians, weight lifters, and archers were excluded
because these athletes underwent very highly specific training programs. Moreover,
these athletes, except for the archers and equestrians, were not allowed to participate in
the study by the relevant authorities as they were national athletes involved with the
national team training program.

The distribution of the sports school students who participated in the study by age
group, ethnicity, and sports for each gender is summarized in Tables 9 and 10. It should
be noted that the sample size from the sports school was slightly smaller than the overall
school enrollment for the selected age groups and sports (Appendix B). Ten subjects,

five boys from the 14-year-olds group, four boys from the 16-year-olds group, and one

(D
‘Q

girt I

the)

lab?

spcn

Spore
Soccr

girl from the 16-year-olds group had incomplete data records due to injury or because

they had moved from the school before the time of posttest data collection

Table 9. Distribution of sports school boys who participated in the study by age group,

 

 

 

 

 

sports and ethnicity

13-year-olds 14-year-olds 16-year—olds Totals
Sports M C l O M C l O M C l 0
Soccer 12 1 25 38
Sepak Takraw 7 1 13
Track and Field 4 1 3 1 20
Volleyball 3 1 4 12
Basketball 3 4 7
Field Hockey 4 1 7 8 20
Squash 1 6 1 2 1 11
Cricket 4 9 2 15
Rugby 24 24
Totals 47 2 2 46 7 3 46 6 1 160
M: Malay C: Chinese I: Indian 0: Others

Table 10. Distribution of sports school girls who participated in the study by age group,
sports and ethnicity

 

 

 

 

 

13-year-olds 14-year-olds 16-year-olds Totals
Sports M C l O M C I O M C I O
Netball 5 1 6 1 9 1 22
Track and Field 4 1 1 2 1 5 1 15
Volleyball 2 1 1 1
Basketball 2 3
Field Hockey 3 7 5 15
Squash 2 2
Totals 16 2 2 16 4 1 19 5 1 66
M: Malay C: Chinese 1: Indian 0: Others

88

The two ordinary schools selected for the study were labeled ordinary school A
and ordinary school B. Ordinary school A has a total enrollment of 2222 students
comprised of 1205 boys and 1017 girls, while ordinary school B has an enrollment of
2243 students with 1098 boys and 1145 girls. Both schools are located within the city
limits of one of the state capitals in Malaysia.

Students in the ordinary schools had two 40-minute physical education classes a
week. In addition, some of the students had the opportunity to be involved in inter-school
age group sports competition held at district, state, and national level. Summary of
ordinary school students’ level of participation is presented in Table 11.

Distribution of subjects according to place of residence (rural or urban) nutritional is
presented in Table 12. Rural or urban category was detennlned by comparing students’
addresses with a list of rural and urban areas provided by the Department of Statistics
Malaysia. Nutritional status was classified as overweight based on the BMI cut off points for
overweight and obesity published by Cole, Bellizzi, Flegal, and Dietz (2000). The cut off
points presented by these authors were based on a heterogenous population (Brazil, Great
Britain, Hong Kong, Netherlands, Singapore, and United States) and are more internationally
acceptable than the percentile cut off values for the US population published by Must, Dallal,
8 Dietz (1991a, 1991 b). However, Cole at al. (2000) did not provide cut off values for
undernourished children. Therefore, the cut off values for undemourished individuals were
based on Must, Dallal, 8 Dietz (1991a, 1991b) as recommended by WHO (1995). The cutoff
points for undernourished, nutritionally normal, overweight, and obesity for each age group is
presented in Table 13, and the distribution of subjects according to their nutritional status is
presented Table 14. However, it should be noted that the distribution for the sports school

89

students might not correctly indicate their true nutritional status because BMI is not regarded

as an accurate indicator of nutritional status for athletes.

Table 11. Level of sports participation for ordinary school students by gender and age

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

970W
13-veaL-olds 14-year-olds 16-veamlds
Level District State National District State National District State National
5%
Soccer 2 1 2 2 2 5 2
Sepak 2 2 2
Track and 3 2 2 2
Volleyball 1
Field Hockey 2 2 2
RugbL 3 2 2
Totals 6 4 1 8 5 2 11 7 2
Girls
Netball 1 1
Track and 1 2
Volleyball 2
Badminton 1
Field Hockey 1 2
Totals 1 4 6
Table 12. Distribution of subjects by place of residence
Gender School Age group
13 14 16
Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban
Boys Sports school 10 41 7 49 9 44
Ordinary school 51 56 5 48
Girls Sports school 3 17 2 19 4 21
Ordinary school 20 21 25

 

90

.- .' ,‘ —=_‘-
- flan;

 

la

Table 13. Cut off points or percentile for nutritional status based on BMI

 

 

 

 

Age Cut off points or percentile (BMI)
(years) Undernourished‘ Nutritionally normal Overweight" Obese“

Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls

13 BMI-for-age < 5m BMI smaller than cut off 21.9 22.6 26.8 27.8
percentile for all point for overweight and

14 ages larger than cut off 22.6 23.3 27.6 28.6

15 percentile for 23.9 24.4 28.9 29.4

undernourished

 

‘ based on Must, Dallal, 8 Dietz (1991a, 1991b).
” based on Cole, Bellizzi, Flegal, and Dietz (2000).

Table 14. Distribution of subjects by nutritional status

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Gender School Age group
13 14 16
UN NN OW OB UN NN OW OB UN NN OW OB

Boys Sports school 2 47 2 3 46 7 51 2

Ordinary school 3 46 2 7 43 6 1 47 5
Girls Sports school 20 21 1 24

Ordinary school 20 20 1 1 19 5
UN: undernourished NN: nutritionally normal OW: overweight OB: obese

Although the ordinary schools were located in urban areas, some students in these
schools were from rural areas. One of the ordinary schools has hostel facilities to cater for
these rural students. For nutritional status, composition of subjects for the 13-year-olds
group was comparable between the sports and the ordinary schools. For the 14-year-olds
group, boys of the ordinary school had more undernourished cases than the sports school.
Boys and gins of the ordinary schools had more overweight cases than the sports school
for the 16-year-olds group. None of the students participated in the study were in the

obese category.

91

Self-as
the male stude
and diagrams 1
sexual matunh
Among the 13-
than boys in th

at each maturlt

Table 15. Dish

Age gimp

 

Data w
and eVaant‘
determe the .
devieloped to C
Thistheckhsr
assessed the (

COM and p:

Self-assessment of sexual maturity was used to determine the maturity status of
the male students participated in the study. This assessment was based on descriptions
and diagrams of stages of the pubic hair development (Tanner, 1962). Distribution of
sexual maturity stages of the boys who participated in the study is presented in Table 15.
Among the 13- and 14-year—olds, the sports school had more students at the higher stages
than boys in the ordinary schools. However, among the 16-year—olds the number of boys

at each maturity stage was comparable between the two schools.

Table 15. Distribution of male subjects by sexual maturity stage

 

 

 

 

 

Age group School Sexual maturity stage
1 2 3 4 5
13 Sports 14 24 1 3
Ordinary 12 39
14 Sports 5 33 18
Ordinary 40 16
16 Sports 5 31 17
Ordinary 8 33 12
Instrumentation

 

Data were collected through several techniques. A model for collecting, organizing,
and evaluating information relating to status of a program by Tyler (1981) was adapted to
determine the current status of the sports program of the sports school. A checklist was
developed to compare current status with the original plan of the sports school (Appendix C).
This checklist, which was developed based on the original plan of the sports school,
assessed the current status of the sports program through it’s three main areas; program

content and policy, privilege and opportunity, and facility and training. Related information

(0
P0

was gathered fr
the school adn
coaches llloo
Stride
students' ace
aohlerensen
year exam'n
existing dif
limits use
Slit. end

(PMR) r0

was gathered from records and reports provided by the school, feedback from interviews with
the school administrator (Appendix D), and from a survey questionnaire distributed to
coaches (Appendix E).

Students’ personal background information such as parents' monthly income and
students’ academic achievement was collected from respective school records. Academic
achievement was based on the students’ grades in their most recent examination, the mid-
year examination. Examination results from the previous year were used to control pre-
existing differences between the sports and the ordinary school students. Examination
results used for this purpose were the Primary School Assessment Test (UPSR) for Form
One, end of year examination for Form Two, and the Lower Secondary Assessment Test
(PMR) for the Form Four students.

Students’ physical characteristics were collected through anthropometric
measurements, while a battery of motor performance tests was used to assess motor
performance. A form was prepared to record each subject’s personal information (i.e., date
of birth, level of sport participation, time spent on sport/physical activities, home address) as
well as the anthropometric and motor performance data (Appendix F). Self-assessment of
sexual maturity was used to determine the maturity status of the male students (Appendix

G). This assessment was based on descriptions and diagrams of stages of the pubic hair
development (Tanner, 1962). However, due to social and cultural constraints, skinfold

measurements and maturity assessments were not obtained from the female subjects.

93

 

Daa

throogh earl
October thr
mMorpenr
mmmMn
ano the is
again adr
and stud
Sientin
findenh
School

IIIIS De

80000
It Gal
SChot

DIOCE

Data Collection

Data were collected at the beginning of year 2000 school session (mid-February
through early March, 2000), and again at the end of year 2000 school session (mid-
October through early November, 2000). Anthropometry, maturity status for boys, and
motor performance measures were obtained at the beginning of the school year. Data
secured included height, mass, sitting height, skinfolds (for boys), limb circumferences,
and the boys’ sexual maturity status. Stature and motor perionnance measures were
again administered at the end of the school year. In addition, parents’ monthly income
and students’ academic achievement was gathered from the schools’ records, and times
spent in sport/physical activities were collected from information provided by the
students. Interviews were also conducted with the principal administrator of the sports
school and survey questionnaires were distributed to coaches of the sports school during
this period.

Data were collected by the teacher-coaches and physical educators of the
schools involved under the supervision of the researcher. The researcher's involvement
in data collection was in conformity with the prior approval from the Ministry and the
schools involved. It should also be noted that this study is part of a five-year evaluation

process of the sports school program that is presently being undertaken by the school.
The researchers involvement was to standardize measurements involved between the
sport school and the ordinary schools, to train teacher-coaches and physical education
teachers in administering the anthropometric and motor performance tests, and to
supervise the data collection procedures. Currently, most secondary schools in Malaysia
are carrying out a biannual physical fitness testing program which includes sit-ups, push-

0A
v-r

 

ups, the sit-and-reach, and a 1,500/800 meter run. The sports school conducts a
different set of performance tests comprised of the sit-and-reach, a 3 kg ball throw, a 40-
meter dash, an 800-meter run, a 10-meter shuttle run, and a vertical jump to evaluate it’s
athletes. The motor performance test battery employed in this study was similar to that
used in the Motor Performance Study conducted by Department of Kinesiology, Michigan
State University, except the endurance shuffle run was replaced by the BOO-meter run.
The reason for this selection was to provide an additional reference for motor
perionnance data of the current study.

One male and one female physical education teacher from each of the ordinary
schools, and 10 teacher-coaches from the sports school were involved in the data
collection. For anthropometry, physical education teachers in the ordinary schools
performed all the measurements, the male teacher assessed the male students and the
female teacher assessed the female students. At the sports school, anthropometry was
administered by a station approach. Four stations were set up, one each for measuring
body mass, stature and sitting height, limb circumferences, and skinfolds. For every
station, except for limb circumferences, one teacher performed the measurement while
another teacher assisted by being the recorder. For limb circumference measurements,

a male teacher measured the male students, while a female teacher measured the
female students.
Prior to pretest data collection, coaches and physical educators from the sports
and the ordinary schools were briefed and trained by the researcher regarding
Procedures involved in the measurements at their respective schools. Teachers involved
in anth ropometry were provided a handout with instructions, guidelines, and pictures for

95

doing anthropometric measurements (Lohman, Roche, 8 Martorell, 1988). Explanation
and demonstration of how to do the measurements, how to use the instruments, and how
to determine measurement sites (limb circumferences and skinfolds) was also conducted
by the researcher. The teachers then practiced doing the measurements on a few
students with the supervision of the researcher. Since most of the teachers were quite
familiar with the measurement of stature, sitting height, and body mass, the training was
mostly focused on the measurement of limb circumferences and skinfold thicknesses.
This was in part due to their involvement in talent identification process conducted by the
National Sports Council. While teacher-coaches at the sports school conducted such
measurements at the national level, teachers of the ordinary schools are involved at the
state level. Moreover, similar measurements had been introduced by the researcher and
conducted by the teacher-coaches of the sports school in 1998 as part of the
researcher’s independent study.
The duration of the training was from five to six days, two to three hours per day.
For their training, they were also provided with limits for intra-measurer error which
served as guidelines for their competency in doing the measurements. The limits were
0.2 cm for stature (Gordon, Chumlea, 8 Roche, 1988), 0.3 cm for sitting height (Martin,
Carter, Hendy, 8 Malina, 1988), 0.2 cm for arm and calf circumferences (Callaway et al.,
1988), and 1 mm for skinfold thicknesses (Harrison et al., 1988). At the sports school,
the teacher-coach who was most competent in skinfold measurements was assigned to
do the skinfold measurements. This competency was determined by the ability of the
teacher-coaches following instruction and procedures of the measurements, particularly
in locating measurement sites and in measurement technique. The teachers’

OR

UV

 

competency in anthropometric measurements was determined through their consistency
in performing the measurements. They were assumed competent when three out of five
pairs of replicated measures were within the intra-measurer and inter-measurer errors
reported in other studies. lnter-measurer errors were determined by comparing the
teacher’s measurement to the researcher’s measurement. The limits for error were 0.3
cm for stature (Gordon et al.,1988), 0.5 cm for sitting height (Martin et al., 1988), 0.2 cm
for arm and limb circumferences (Callaway et al., 1988), and less than 2 mm for skinfold
thicknesses (Harrison et al., 1988). The researcher also gave supervision while they
were performing the measurements on the first few groups of students. Additionally, a
second measurement was conducted on 10 percent of the subjects under the supervision
of the researcher within a one-week time interval. These replicated measurements were
then used to calculate intra-measurer error.

The same teachers and teacher-coaches administered the motor performance
tests. They received detailed instructions and training on the administration of the tests.
Since all of them were familiar with administering performance tests, training was
focused on procedures that were different from those used for frequently administered
tests at the respective schools. For the dash, the distance used in the study was 30

yards instead of 40 meters usually administered by the schools, and using a running start
instead of a standing start. For the flexed-arm hang, the palms away position was
stressed as the students tended to perform otherwise. The researcher also gave
supervision while they were administering the tests to the first few groups of students.

Additionally, retest scores for 10 percent of the subjects were obtained under the

supervision of the researcher within one to two-week time interval for calculation of test-
retest reliability.

The respective schools fixed data collection schedules with considerations on
time suitability and students’ availability to ensure easier participation of the students.
Anthropometric measurements and motor performance tests for students at the sports
school were collected during their morning physical conditioning session before
academic class started, so as not to interrupt the academic lessons and their skill
training, which was held in the afternoon. For students at the ordinary schools, data
were collected during their physical education classes. This was to ensure full
participation of selected students since they did not have to come to school outside
normal school hours.

For the beginning of the year data collection, subjects were administered the
anthropometric measurements and motor performance tests within a two-week time
interval. The first week was allocated for anthropometric measurements and the
following week for motor perionnance tests. All measures, except for the 800-meter run
were administered in a multipurpose hall at the school. Motor performance tests were
administered on outdoor courts at the ordinary schools. Anthropometry and motor

performance test schedules were similar to those of the sports school unless the physical
education class was canceled due to rain. In such cases, motor performance tests for
students affected were administered the following week. Similar schedules were also
used for data collection at the end of the school year. For anthropometry, only stature

was measured at this time.

98

In accordance with the University policy, an approval from the University
Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS), consent from parents
(Appendix H), and assent from students (Appendix I) were obtained for the students'
participation and the use of existing data gathered from the schools. Verbal informed
consents were obtained from the administrator of the sports school before conducting the
interview (Appendix J). Coaches' consent was indicated by their willingness to return the

survey questionnaire distributed to them (Appendix K).

Procedures
Anthropometric measurements
Body mass, stature and sitting height were measured with the participant attired
in sports clothing (track bottom and tee-shirt) and barefooted according to methods
described by Gordon et al. (1988) for mass and stature, and Martin et al. (1988) for
sitting height. Limb circumferences and skinfold thicknesses were measured according
to methods by Callaway et al. (1988) and Harrison et al. (1988). Mass was measured
using a Health-o—Meter Professional scale. Due to the unavailability of an
anthropometer, stature and sitting height were measured with a locally made portable
stadiometer. The use of a portable stadiometer in constructing a sitting height table for
measuring sitting height has been reported by Cameron (1982). Skinfolds were taken on
the right side of the body using a Lafayette (Model 01127A) caliper. Limb circumferences
were taken on the right side of the body using a nonstrechable flexible tape.

Stature. Each participant was asked to stand erect, heels together with weight

 

distributed evenly on both feet, facing away from the vertical board of the stadiometer.

99

The head was positioned in the Frankfort Horizontal Plane and the arms hanging freely
by the sides of the trunk, with the palms facing the thighs. A reading to nearest 0.1 cm
was recorded.

Ma_ss_._ Each participant was asked to stand still over the center of the platform
scale with the body weight evenly distributed between both feet. The reading was
recorded to the nearest 0.1 kg.

Sitting height: A portable stadiometer was placed on a table for the measurement.
The edge of the stadiometer platform was in line with the edge of the table. In cases
where the position of the knees exceeded the edge of the platform, a wooden block of
the same thickness was placed in front of the platform so that the edge of the wooden
block was in line with the edge of the table. The subjects sat on the platform with the
legs hanging unsupported over the edge of the table and with the hands resting on the
thighs. The knees were directed straight ahead. The backs of the knees were near the
edge of the table but not in contact with it. The subject sat as erect as possible, with the
head in the Frankfort Horizontal Plane. The measurement was made from the sitting
surface to the top of the head to the nearest 0.1 cm.

Upper arm circumference: The subject stood erect, with the arm hanging freely at
the sides of the trunk. The measurement was taken at point midway between the
acromial and olecranon processes to the nearest 0.1 cm.

Calf circumference. The subject stood with the feet about 20 cm apart and weight
distributed equally on both feet. An inelastic tape measure was positioned horizontally
around the calf and moved up and down to locate the maximum circumference. The

maximum circumference was recorded to the nearest 0.1 cm.

100

Triceps skinfold. The triceps skinfold was measured in the midline of the
posterior aspect of the arm, over the triceps muscle, at a point midway between the
lateral projection of the acromion process of the scapula and the inferior margin of the
olecranon process. The subject was measured standing, with the arm hanging loosely
and comfortably at the subject’s side. The triceps skinfold was picked up with the left
thumb and index finger, and measurement was recorded to the nearest 0.1 cm.

Suprailiac skinfold. The suprailiac skinfold was measured in the midaxilany line
immediately superior to the iliac crest. The subject stood with feet together in an erect
position, with the arms hanging by the side. An oblique skinfold was grasped just
posterior to the midaxilarry line following the natural cleavage lines of the skin. The
caliper jaws were applied about 1 cm from the fingers holding the skinfold, and the
thickness was recorded to the nearest 0.1 cm.

Medial calf skinfold. The subject stood with the foot on a platform or box so that
the knee and hip are flexed to about 90°. The measurement was made at the level of
maximum calf circumference on the medial aspect of the calf. The thickness of the fold
was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm.

Subscagular skinfold. The subject stood comfortably erect, with the upper
extremities relaxed at the sides of the body. To locate the side, the measurer palpated

the scapula, running the fingers inferiorly and laterally, along the vertebral border until
the inferior angle was identified. The skinfold was picked up on a diagonal, inclined
infero-laterally approximately 45° to the horizontal plane in the natural cleavage lines of

the skin. The thickness was recorded to the nearest 0.1 cm.

-4
CD
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collection at

collection at

 

hang (FAH),
shuttle run (I
instructions
scores for It
researcher

latest relia‘

Maturity St

Me
school Y9
Stage Sea
aSIage It
The stud.

next day

A
invOIVEd

(I)

Motor perionnance

The battery of seven motor performance tests administered for pretest data
collection at the beginning of the school year were also administered for posttest data
collection at the end of the school year. The tests included in the battery are; flexed-arm
hang (FAH), jump and reach (JR), thirty-yard dash (TYR), sit and reach (SR), agility
shuttle run (ASR), standing long jump (SLJ), and BOO-meter run (ER). Detailed
instructions for the administration of these tests are presented in Appendix L. Retest
scores for ten percent of the subjects were also obtained under the supervision of the
researcher within a two-week time interval. These scores were used for calculating test-

retest reliability coefficients of the motor perionnance tests.

Maturity status

Maturity status was assessed on male students only at the beginning of the
school year. Each student was provided with descriptions and diagrams of Tanner’s five-
stage scales of pubic hair development (Appendix G). They were then required to assign
a stage to themselves that most closely resembled the description and diagram provided.
The students were allowed to return their response at the end of the school day or the
next day in order to allow them to make a more accurate observation of their pubic hair

development.

Measurement Reliability an_d Variability.

 

Anthropometry was taken by the physical educators and coaches of the schools
involved. At each school, intra-observer measurement variability was calculated on
rePlicate measurements of approximately 10% of the sample, taken one week after the

109
IV!—

first set. The technical error of measurement proposed by Malina, Hamill, and Lemeshow
(1973) was used as the indicator of measurement variability.
o. = izdz/zn

where,
Co = technical error of measurement
(1 = differences between measurements

n = number of pairs

Since the sports school and the ordinary schools are located in different cities
and due to the tight work commitments among of the teachers and teacher-coaches,
inter-observer measurement variability between teachers and coaches involved could not
be administered. Nevertheless, inter-observer measurement variability was calculated
for measurements taken by teachers and coaches at the respective schools and
measurements taken by the researcher one week apart on approximately 10% of the
boys’ sample. Intra- and inter-observer technical errors of measurements presented in
Table 16 were within ranges observed in other studies.
Within day and between day reliabilities for motor performance tests were calculated on
approximately 10% of the sample (Table 17). Correlation between the best and second
best trials were used to indicate the within day reliability. Between day reliability was
calculated on measurements taken one week apart. Within day and between day
reliabilities for both pretest and posttest data were comparable to reliabilities reported by
other investigators. Test retest reliability for flexed-arm hang has

been reported as high as .90 (Johson 8 Nelson, 1979), jump and reach between

.75 and.95 (Sells, 1951; Johnson, 1962), agility shuttle run between .59 to .73 (Keogh,

103

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1965L Sta

thirty yard I

Tame17.'

pefionnant

 

 

Flexed arm
Jump and re
7“”ny yard (
Shandreac
Agi‘fly shun
Standing lo;

0 meter n
L.

A :
SPONSsch
fate and c
cakuknea
rate and C

comparab

We 18.

/

Cancofdant

1965), Standing long jump between .77 to .91 (Kane & Meredith, 1952; Keogh, 1965),

thirty yard dash ranging from .57 to .86 (Seils, 1961; Keogh, 1965).

Table 17. Within and between day correlations for pretest and posttest motor

 

 

 

performance tests
Pretest Posttest
within day between day within day between day

Flexed arm hang .95 .92
Jump and reach .96 .96 .96 .95
Thirty yard dash .95 .85 .94 .81
Sit and reach .98 .93 .98 .90
Agility shuttle run .87 .77 .82 .72
Standing long jump .92 .93 .97 .91
800 meter run .94 .93

 

A physician at the National Sports Council also assessed thirty students from the
sports school, ten from each age group, for their pubic hair development. Concordance
rate and correlation between the students’ and the physician’s assessments were
calculated to determine reliability of the students’ assessment (Table 18). Concordance
rate and correlation between students and physician assessments was slightly lower but

comparable with those reported in other studies.

Table 18. Concordance rate and correlations between students and physician
assessment for status of maturation with comparative data from other studies.

‘

 

Present study Boas et al. Neinstein Duke et al.
X (1995) (1982) (1980)
Concordance rate 76% (23/30) 85% (29I34) 77% (17/22) 91% (21/23)
_C0rrelation .81 0.87

 

105

Derived Dimensions

Some of the data collected were used to construct the following dimensions:

1.

Total subcutaneous fatness was estimated from total skinfolds (sum of the
triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, and medial calf skinfolds)
Relative fat distribution was estimated from a trunk/extremity skinfolds ratio
(sum of subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds/sum of triceps and medial calf
skinfolds).
Relative trunk or leg length was estimated from sitting height/stature ratio.
Sitting height! stature X 100
Ann and calf musculature was estimated using the method of Frisancho
(1981)
i. Ann muscle area (cm?) = 1141: [Ca - nT)]2
where: Ca = arm circumference (cm)
T = triceps skinfold (mm)
ii. Calf muscle area (cm?) = 1/41: [Ca - 1tT)]2
where: Ca = calf circumference (cm)
T = medial calf skinfold (cm)
Nutritional status: Body mass index (BMI) for the whole US population
compiled and published by Must, Dallal, & Dietz (1991a, 1991b) and BMI for
international population by Cole et al. (2000) was used as the basis for
anthropometric indicators of undernourished, overweight, and obesity during

adolescence. The cut off points for each nutritional status for each group for

boys and girls was earlier presented in Table 13.

-4
C3
C7)

6. Area

by r
Ma

a5“

 

for

SC

Gr;

BMI = Weight (kg)/height (m)2
6. Area of residence: Students‘ area of residence was classified as rural or urban
by comparing their home addresses to a list of rural and urban areas in
Malaysia (Department Of Statistics, Malaysia, 1994). Urban areas are defined
as follows:

i. areas gazetted by the local council as urban and adjoining
saturated built-up areas,
_ ii. the saturated built-up areas must have a population of at least
10000 peOples, with less than 40 percent involved in agricultural
activities,
iii. at least 30 percent of built-up area residence have modern
sanitary facilities.
7. Academic achievement: Grade Point Average (GPA) will be used as a measure
for academic achievement. The Malaysian school system uses alphabetically
scaled grades for students’ achievement. So for the purpose of calculating the

GPA, an alphabetic grade for each course will be first converted to a point

grade score (Table 19).

Table 19. Conversion table for students' academic grade

 

 

Alphabet grade Point grade
A 4.0
B 3.0
C 2.0
D 1.0
E/F 0

 

Grade Point Average (GPA) = total point score/number of courses

107
iv:

Slandardizatic

Comp:
be confounde
attempt was I
this study. Sr
Assessment
Lower SGCO)
Content and
0510‘s anr
SChool. Th
means and

Standardization of academic achievement

Comparing school-administered academic results between different schools may
be confounded by a different degree of difficulty of the examinations. As such, an
attempt was made to standardize academic achievement between the schools involved in
this study. School-administered examination results, the Lower Secondary School
Assessment Trial (PMRT) were compared to the national public examination results, the
Lower Secondary School Assessment (PMR). These two examinations covered a similar
content and are usually held within a one-month time interval. The number of A’s, B’s,
C’s, 0’8 and F’s and the means were compared between the two examinations for each
school. These differences were then compared between the schools and using the
means and standard deviations of each school GPA in both examinations, a new point

score was assigned for each alphabetical grade for the respective schools.

Grade point score #135 x SDN+ 55¢
SDSA

where )7 = initial alphabetical grade point score

X’sx = mean for school-administered examination

8sz = standard deviation for school administered examination
)7" = mean of the national public examination for specific school
SDN = standard deviation of the national public examination for specific
school

108

The ad
differel

presen

Table 1

~

A

\

Analys
develo
admim
areas;
The thl
reslion

Additio

Variable

The adjusted point score for each alphabetical grade after taking into consideration the
differences between the school administered test and the public examination are

presented in Table 20.

Table 20. Adjusted point score for alphabetical grade for each school

 

 

 

Alphabet grade Poifigrade
Sports school Ordinary school A Ordinary school B
A 4.39 4.92 4.57
B 3.40 3.56 3.44
C 2.42 2.20 2.31
D 1.43 0.84 1.17
E/F 0.45 -0.52 0.036
Data A_nalvses

 

Data analyses were conducted based on the research questions of the study.
Analysis of the current status of the sports school was done using a checklist that was
developed based on the original plan of the school and on information submitted by
administrators and coaches of the school. This checklist was divided into three main
areas: program content and policy, privilege and opportunity, and facility and training.
The three main areas of the sports program were also assessed for adequacy through
responses made by the administrator and teacher-coaches of the sports school.
Additionally, problems associated with the program were presented.

The effect of the sports school program on motor performance and academic
achievement was statistically detennlned. Descriptive statistics were calculated for all
variables for boys and girls for all age groups. Relevant multivariate and univariate

inferential statistics were utilized based on research questions of the study.

109

Question 1. To what extent does the current status of the sports school meet the
original plan of the program?

Using the information gathered from records, reports, and feedback from the
administrator and coaches, a profile of the current status of the sports program of the
sports school was established. This profile was compared to the original plan of the
program using a checklist to determine the extent to which the current status meets the
original plan. In addition, feedback from interviews and survey questionnaires distributed
to the administrators and coaches of the school were used to determine adequacy and
problems associated with the implementation of the school’s sports program.

Self-evaluation by the teacher-coaches on the adequacy of the sports program
was gathered using a 4-point Likert scale. Numerical weights were assigned to each of
the four response categories. Due to the nature of the statements presented in the
survey questionnaire, the extent of agreement or disagreement of the respondent with
each statement reflects the level of adequacy of the item and the program area assessed
(see Appendix E). Except for questions “the policy developed needs revision” and 'there
is a need for more coordination with various sports organizations”, the response for
”completely agree“, “tend to agree”, “tend to disagree', and “completely disagree' were
assigned scores of 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. Due to the nature of these two questions,
the responses were inversely scored. Thus, a higher score indicated greater adequacy
of the program.

To determine the level of adequacy of the program, means for each question

were computed. Average means for questions related to each of the areas assessed

110

were used to indicate adequacy for the particular area assessed. The rating means were
defined as follows:

Highly adequate: mean ratings of 3.51 and above

Moderately adequate: mean ratings of 2.51 and 3.5

Lowly adequate: mean ratings of 1.51 and 2.50

Inadequate: mean ratings of 1.50 and below

Problems associated with conducting the program were ordered through rankings
made by the coaches on six problems posed in the survey questionnaire. Rankings for
each problem were averaged and the problem with the smallest mean was detennlned to
be the greatest problem faced by the coaches.

Question 2. Are there differences in motor performance between students enrolled
in the sport school and in the ordinary schools?

Separate analyses were conducted for boys and girls. Multivariate analysis of
variance (MANOVA) was conducted to test the effects of school, age group, and their
interaction on the initial (pretest) motor perionnance. When warranted by a significant
MANOVA, specific between age group differences were detennlned using the Bonferonni
post hoc test. Follow up tests, utilizing the multiple regression analysis were also generated
for each of the motor performance tests for each age group.

Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was performed to test the effect
of school controlling for the covariates on the initial motor performance. For boys, growth
status (mass, stature), maturity status, SES (income), proportion (sitting height/stature
ratio), body composition (sum of skinfolds; trunk/extremity skinfold ratio), and nutritional

status (BMI) were entered as the covariates. For girls, growth status (mass, stature),

111

 

SE8 (incon
|

the covanatl
were pertor
each of the

Que

Denomanc
Sep.

test the efle

 

 

When wanal
detennlned
rE‘glession a
glow).

MA
poSttest m.
33 the dep
COVanateS
Stattire "it
QTOMh‘ V
dlfierenCe
means. F
the efiec t

for each :

SES (income), proportion (sitting height/stature ratio), and nutritional status (BMI) were
the covariates. For each age group, follow up tests utilizing multiple regression analysis
were performed to examine the effect of school while controlling for the covariates for
each of the motor performance variables.

Question 3. Is there an effect of the sport school program on the motor
performance of secondary school students in Malaysia?

Separate analyses were conducted for boys and girls. MANOVA was performed to
test the effects of school, age group, and their interaction on the posttest motor performance.
When warranted by a significant MANOVA, specific between age group differences were
determined using the Bonferonni post hoc test. Follow up tests, utilizing the multiple
regression analysis were generated for each of the motor performance tests for each age
group.

MANCOVA was performed to test the effect of the sports school program on
posttest motor perionnance controlling for the covariates. Posttest scores were entered
as the dependent variables, while pretest scores of motor performance were entered as
covariates in addition to the covariates listed for analysis in Question 2. Additionally,
stature measured at the time of the posttest was included to control for the effect of
growth. When warranted by a significant MANCOVA, specific between age group
differences were determined using the pairwise comparisons of the estimated marginal
means. Follow up tests utilizing multiple regression analysis were performed to examine
the effect of school controlling for the covariates for each of the motor perionnance tests

for each age group.

112

Question 4. Which motor performance tasks, if any, distinguished between
students of the sport and ordinary schools?

Separate analyses were conducted for boys and girls. For each age group, a
discriminant analysis was performed to determine motor performance scores (posttest)
that distinguished between the sport school and the ordinary schools. Further
investigation using the classification process of discriminant analysis was conducted to
determine the percentage of students that rightly belongs or most closely resembles type
ofschool

Question 5. Does the effect of the school program on motor perionnance vary by
age group among students of the sports school?

Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was performed to test the effect
of age on motor perionnance among students of the sport school. Posttest scores of
motor performance were entered as the dependent variables, while pretest scores of
motor perionnance and posttest stature were entered as covariates, in addition to the
covariates listed for analysis in Question 2. When warranted by a significant MANCOVA,
specific between age group differences were detennlned using the pairwise comparisons of

the estimated marginal means.

Question 6. Are there differences in academic achievement between students
enrolled in the sport school and in the ordinary schools?

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were
conducted to test the effects of school, gender, age group and their interaction on the initial

(pretest) academic achievement. For the ANCOVA, monthly income and place of residence

-A
-‘
(A)

were included as the covariates. When warranted, specific age group differences were
determined through pairwise comparisons of the estimated marginal means. Multiple
regression analysis was performed to determine the effect of school on academic
achievement controlling for the covariates for each age group.

Question 7. Is there an effect of the sport school program on the academic
achievement of secondary school students in Malaysia?

ANOVA and ANCOVA were performed to determine the effect of the sport school
program on posttest academic achievement. For the ANCOVA, the pretest academic
achievement was added as a covariate, in addition to 8158 and student’ place of
residence.

Additionally, specific age group differences of posttest academic achievement
were determined through pairwise comparisons of the estimated marginal means.
Multiple regression analysis was performed to determine the effect of school on

academic achievement controlling for the covariates for each age group.

Power for Statistical Analyses

Statistical power in research is determined by four parameters; alpha, power,
effect size, and sample size (Cohen 8 Cohen, 1983). Cohen defined the power of the
test as 1 - 8 (the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis). Cohen (1988) also
indicated that in most behavioral and applied research, the appropriate ratio between
beta and alpha is 4:1. As such, if alpha is set at 0.05, beta would be 0.2 and power
equals to 0.8 (Cohen & Cohen, 1983; Cohen, 1988). He further suggested that effect

size for the social and behavioral sciences could be interpreted as 0.8 representing a

114

large effect, 0.5 a moderate effect, and 0.2 as a small effect. Having a power of 0.8 sets
the level of error acceptable to the experimenter (Thomas, Lochbaum, Landers, 8 He,
1997). Stevens (1980, 1986) provided power values for two-group MANOVA for 2
through 7 dependent variables, with group size varying from small to large. Thomas and
Nelson (1987) provided a graphic figure to estimate sample size for alpha value 0.05 and
0.01 for different power and effect size.

This study employed MANOVAs and MANCOVAs with 7 dependent variables
(motor perionnance), and ANOVAs and ANCOVAs to determine the effects of the sports
school on motor perionnance and academic achievement. According to Stevens (1980,
1986), at an alpha of 0.05, multivariate analysis with seven dependent variables at a
moderate effect size of 0.64 and power of 0.8 requires about 45 subjects per group.
According to Thomas and Nelson (1996), if alpha =0.05, power is established at 0.08 and
the effect size at 0.06, the sample size required is about 20 for each age group.

Based on the above discussions, the sample size for boys for each age group (N=
51 - 56) in this study is large enough to provide adequate statistical power for the
multivariate analysis. However, the sample size for girls was smaller than required for
the multivariate analyses. This inadequate sample size may lack the power to detect
significant differences in motor performance between the sports school and the ordinary

school girls.

115

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The purpose of the study was to determine the current status of the sport
component of a sports school program, and to determine the effects of the school
program with regard to students’ motor perionnance and academic achievement. The
determination of the current status of the sports program was made through three main
areas of the program: content and policy; privileges and opportunity; and, facilities and
training. Additionally, problems associated with the conduct of the sports program were
idenfified.

Effectiveness of the sports school program was determined by comparing the
motor performance and academic achievement of the sports school students to students
of ordinary schools who served as a comparison group. Motor performance and
academic achievement attained after a one school year were compared controlling for
preexisting differences measured at the beginning of the year.

In this chapter, each of the seven research questions of the study will be
reviewed. To specifically answer question one, the data relating to this question will be

presented and determination of the current status of the sports school program will

116

follow. For questions two through seven, the results of descriptive and inferential

statistical procedures will be reported.

Res—W8.
Question 1. To what extent does the current status of the sports school meet the original
plan of the program?

The data pertaining to question 1 were obtained through an interview with the
administrator of the sports school, a survey questionnaire to coaches, and from annual
reports of the sports school. A checklist was developed and used to compare the
present status of the sports school to its original plan. The evaluation was carried out
along three main areas of the school program: program content and policy; privilege and

opportunity; and, facility and training.

Mm content ancmlicv

Goal and objectives

A comparison between the current and the planned goal and objectives of the sports
school program is presented in Table 21. Basically there was no change in the goal and
objectives of the program except for one additional objective, to create a strong base of
support for scientific research in the field of sports. This objective was proposed by the
Sports Division, Ministry of Education, following a reevaluation of the program in 1997
(Ministry of Education, 1997). The need for this objective was due to the lack of sports
research in Malaysia, especially on the development of young athletes. With the

establishment of the sports school, the ministry realized the need for scientific research

117

to evaluate the performance of young athletes and to establish performance norms which

were not available for Malaysian adolescents. This objective was parallel to the

Table 21. Comparison of goal and objectives between the current status and the original

plan of the sports school program

 

 

 

Original plan Current
Goal To produce athletes who not only excel To produce athletes who not only excel
in sports but also have strong academic in sports but also have strong academic
achievement. achievement.
Objective To improve athletes’ performance in To improve athletes’ performance in

their respective games by providing
them with well-equipped sports facilities,
highly qualified sports personnel, and
systematic training programs.

To create a balance between the need
for sports and academic excellence by
providing them with a conducive learning
environment and sufficient academic
assistance.

To instill and encourage the
development of positive moral values
through their involvement in sports
activities and competition.

To impart knowledge about careers in
the sports industry such as sports
administrators, sports psychologists,
fitness instructors, sports medical
officers, coaches, trainers, and other
sports related experts.

118

their respective games by providing
them with well-equipped sports facilities,
highly qualified sports personnel, and
systematic training programs.

To create a balance between the need
for sports and academic excellence by
providing them with a conducive learning
environment and sufficient academic
assistance.

To instill and encourage the
development of positive moral values
through their involvement in sports
activities and competition.

To impart knowledge about careers in
the sports industry such as sports
administrators, sports psychologists,
fitness instructors, sports medical
officers, coaches, trainers, and other
sports related experts.

To create a strong base for scientific
research in the field of sports.

national development of sports research in Malaysia with the establishment of the

National Sports Institute, a division that was set up at the National Sports Council.

Activities offered in the sports program

The number of sports offered at the sports school increased from 12 stated in the
original plan to 27 in the year 2000 (Table 22). Over the years, new sports were
introduced as the intake of students varied in terms of their sports participation. Although
the school was planned to offer only 12 sports, its development also had to
accommodate the preparation of national athletes for future international sports events.
In addition, the schools had to cater to school-aged national athletes who will compete in
international competition. These national athletes underwent a special training program
under the supervision of national coaches from the National Sports Council but attended
their academic lessons at the sports school. For this reason, the type of sports offered
and the intake of students varied depending on preparation for major international sports
events. Currently, there are 52 national athletes at the sports school who will be
competing in the South East Asian games in September, 2001 and in the Asian Games

2002.

Individuals involved in the program

A comparison of the number of individuals involved in the sports school program
between the original plan and the current status is presented in Table 23. The number of
students currently enrolled at the sports school is 90% of the planned capacity. The ten
percent shortage is in boys’ enrollment since the girls’ enrollment had met the targeted

numbers. The current number of 8 to 28 students per class is comparable to the original

119

Table 2

original

 

tires:-
2. ME
3. Rhy‘
4. Sou
5 Arc!
6. Swi
7. Ser
6. Net

103

Ill)
12 8

Di

1"

Table 22. Comparison of type of sports offered between the current status and the

original plan of the sports school

 

Original plan

Current

 

1.Track 8 Field - boys 8 girls

2. Artistic Gymnastics - boys 8 girls
3. Rhythmic Gymnastics - girls only
4. Squash - boys 8 girls

5 Archery - boys 8 girls

6. Swimming - boys 8 girls

7. Sepak Takraw - boys only

8. Netball - girls only

9. Field Hockey - boys 8 girls

10. Soccer — boys only

11. Volleyball - boys 8 girls

12. Basketball - boys 8 girls

1.Track 8 Field - boys 8 girls

acumen-noon

9.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

. Artistic Gymnastics - boys 8 girls
. Rhythmic Gymnastics - girls only
. Squash - boys 8 girls

Archery - boys 8 girls

. Swimming - boys 8 girls
. Sepak Takraw - boys only
. Netball - girls only

Field Hockey - boys 8 girls
Soccer - boys only
Volleyball - boys 8 girls
Basketball - boys 8 girls
Cricket - boys only

Golf - boys 8 girls
Synchronized swimming - girls only
Diving - boys 8 girls
Weightlifting - boys only
Ping Pong - boys 8 girls
Silat - boys 8 girls
Wushu - boys 8 girls
Rugby - boys only
Tennis - boys 8 girls
Cycling - boys only
Shooting - boys 8 girls
Taekwondo - boys 8 girls
Fencing - boys 8 girls
Equestrian

plan. More detail information on the number of students per class is presented in

Appendix B. The smaller number of students per class is in the higher grade classes

(Pre—U and preparation class). It should be noted that this grade level was introduced at

the school in June 2000 to accommodate national athletes whose academic achievement

did not meet university entrance requirements. This action was taken as a result of a

120

 

Memorar
Universit

achiever:

Table 23

compare

5

SMGeri

Numbe'
Teaohe
Number
Teache*
(Hencai
Hostel s
FfineSS
Madmai

TEacher

 

Tl
the origin
from 2:1 I
SChOOI is
67 alloCat
illVOlved i
of Suppon

Memorandum of Understanding signed by the Ministry of Youth and Sports with the
University Putra Malaysia in 1997 to allow national athletes with lower academic

achievement to receive a university education.

Table 23. Current number of individuals involved in the sports school program as

compared to the original plan

 

 

Original Plan Current

Students 600 542
(400 boys, 200 girls) (344boys, 198 girls)

Number of students per class 25 8-28
Teachers 43 64
Number of classes 20 23
Teacher-class ratio 2:1 2.7:1
Clerical and maintenance staff 9 17
Hostel supervisor
Fitness instructor 1
Medical assistant'
Teacher-coaches 23
Nonteacher-coaches 29

 

*not in the original plan

The number of teachers allocated to the sports school has increased from 43 in
the original plan to 67 in the year 2000. As a result, the teacher-class ratio also increased
from 2:1 to 2.721. Although the teacher-class ratio is higher than the planned ratio, the
school is still facing a shortage of three teachers. Only 64 teachers are available out of
67 allocated. Out of these 64 teachers, 23 are teacher-coaches, and one teacher is not
involved in academic teaching, as he is the counselor of the school. The current number
of supporting staff exceeds the original plan except for a fitness instructor who is still not

available at the school. However, a medical assistant has assigned to the school to

121

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monitor the health and the need of rehabilitation for injured students. As for the number
of coaches, apart from the 23 teacher—coaches, 29 non-teacher coaches are involved in

the training program.

Selection of students and coaches

A comparison between the original plan and current status pertaining to the
selection of students and coaches for the sports school is presented in Table 24. In
principle, the decision for the selection of students is still in the hands of the Ministry of
Education. However, this responsibility had been almost completely transferred to the
school with the coordination of the National Sports Council. This is especially true when
the selection is made either through success in age group competition and/or the Talent
Identification Process. Although the final decision is the responsibility of the Ministry of
Education, their decision is based on the recommendation of the school and the National
Sports Council.

The criteria for the selection of students has not changed from the original plan.
However, more emphasis is given to sports perionnance than to academic achievement.
Previous attempts in trying to impose strict requirements on academic achievement had
faced difficulties in getting students that fulfilled both sports and academic requirements.
As a result, more students have been selected despite their low academic achievement.
In 1996, 28% of the Form One intake did not meet the academic requirements, and this
percentage increased to 33% in 1997, and to 37% in 1999. The current intake had 49%

of the students not meeting the minimum academic requirements.

122

Although the original plan stated that all teachers of the sports school should
have at least a bachelor’s degree, only 78% of the teachers have the required
qualification. The remaining 22% are college-trained teachers with a teaching diploma
qualification. All teacher-coaches have the required coaching experience. In terms of
coaching certification, only one coach is without certification but has the experience of
representing the country in the sports that she coached. Other teacher-coaches have at
least Level 1 national coaching certification and 35% have an international level coaching
certificate. Selection of non-teacher coaches who are mostly foreigners was made by the
National Sports Council and the respective national sports association. Coaches
selected are those having at least a coaching diploma and prior experience as a national

coach of their respective countries.

Privilge and opportunig

A comparison of privileges and opportunities received by students and teacher-
coaches between the original plan and the current status of the sports school is
presented in Table 25. According to the original plan, all students selected into the
sports school are supposed to be provided with basic necessities including free food and
lodging, sports equipment and scholarships. However, as of year 2000, most students
have to pay a total fee of about RM 385.00 a year. The largest portion of these fees is
for food totaling about RM 270.00, based on a rate of RM1.00 per day. Only national
athletes and those under a special development program are exempted from paying their
fees or part of their fees since they are funded by the National Sports Council or by the

relevant national sports association. Athletes included in the special development

123

program are golf, soccer, cricket and rugby players. While all fees for the golfers and

soccer players are paid by their respective sports association, the cricket and rugby

players only have their food fees paid.

Table 24. Comparison pertaining to selection of students and coaches between the

original plan and current status of the sports school

 

Original plan

Current

 

Decision on selection of Ministry of Education
students

Criteria for selection of - Success in age group
students competition.
- Talent identification by the
schoolcoach.
- Recommendation by state and
national sports bodies.
- Academic achievement with
GPA between 3.0 to 4.0 in
National Public Examination

Criteria for selection of - Coaching certification
coaches - More than 3 years
coaching experience
- A bachelor's degree

Percentage of students
selected meeting academic
requirements

Percentage of students
selected meeting sports 100%
requirements

Percentage of graduate
teachers 100%

Percentage of certified
teacher- coaches 100%

Percentage of coaches with

more than 3 years coaching 100%
flperience

124

- Ministry of Education
— Sports School
- National Sports Council

- Success in age group
compefifion.

- Talent identification by the
schoolcoach.

- Recommendation by state and
national sports bodies.

- Academic achievement with
GPA between 3.0 to 4.0 in
National Public Examination

- Coaching certification
- More than 3 years

coaching experience
- A bachelor’s degree

51 %

100%

78%

96%

100%

Table 25

coaches

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Table 25. Comparison of privileges and opportunities received by students and teacher-
coaches between the current status and the original plan of the sports school

 

 

Original plan Current
Amount of food allowance each student RM 15.00 RM14.00
receives/day
Travel expenses for going back home/coming 3 times/year 3 times/year
to school
Scholarship for each student per month RM 50.00 RM 300 per year for
low income student
Academic and hostel fees, and sports equipment Provided Depending on
sports and level of
participation
Percentage of students with medical insurance 100% 100%
coverage
Percentage of students competed in 100% National = 88%
national/international competition International = 38%
Percentage of teacher-coaches teaching 4-6 100% 78%
periods/week
Percentage of teacher-coaches living in school 100% 91%
housing
Percentage of teacher-coaches receiving car 100% 0.9%
loan
Percentage of coaches who received professional 43%

development courses

Only 21.6% of the students are given scholarships of RM 300.00 a year based on
their parents’ monthly income, which is less than RM 1000.00 a month. It should be
noted that students in ordinary schools with low income but with good academic
achievement also have this privilege. Students of the sports school who are not in the
special program also have to buy their own basic sports equipment. The school only

provided a pair of tracksuits, and three training shirts. Students also have to purchase

125

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their own medical insurance under a scheme organized by the Ministry of Education,
similar to students in ordinary schools.

All students of the sports school had the opportunity to participate in competition
through tournaments organized by the Malaysian School Sports Council (MSSC) and
various sports bodies during the 2000 school year. Tournaments organized by the MSSC
were at the national level where the students represented their respective states, while
tournaments organized by various sports bodies were at regional, national and
international levels. Eighty-eight percent of the students participated in national level
competition while 38% participated at the international level. Those who did not have the
chance to participate in either national or international level competition were given the
opportunity to participate in open tournaments where the school took part as a team.

Several privileges were designed for teacher-coaches of the sports school in the
original plan. They were to be provided with school quarters within the school
compound, the loan of a car, less than six teaching periods, and the opportunity to attend
professional courses, if needed. Currently, 91% percent or 21 out of 23 teacher-coaches
live in the school quarters within the school compound. However, this accommodation
was not totally free as the teacher-coaches had to pay the government through a
deduction from their housing allowance.

Although all teacher-coaches were supposed to have the privilege of getting the
loan of a car, only 0.9% actually received one. It should be noted that all government
servants in the professional category (with at least a bachelor’s degree), including
teachers, in Malaysia are provided with housing allowance and the privilege of getting the

loan of a car. Only 78% of the teacher-coaches have less than six teaching periods, and

126

only 43% of them had the opportunity to attend professional courses during the year
2000.

The nonteacher—coaches involved with the sports school program are those
employed by the National Sports Council or the respective sports association. Their
salaries rang from USD 1000 to USD 6500 a month. In addition, they are provided with

housing and travel allowances.

Training and facility

Training schedule

Currently, there is a slight increase in the days of training and the duration of
training when compared to the original plan (Table 26). This increase is to accommodate
the need for competition and increased training hours for the national athletes. Most
students have training five to six days per week for 3 to 6 hours per day. Average
training time reported by teacher-coaches and students participating in the study is 15 to
17 hours per week, while the nonteacher—coaches trained their athletes for an average
time of 23 hours per week. The differences in training time between teacher-coaches
and nonteacher-coaches is probably due to requirements set by the National Sports
Council on nonteacher-coaches. Most of the coaches are required to spend 30 hours a
week with the sports school athletes.

Only the national athletes receive training during school holidays as their training
is an all year commitment. For other students, training during holidays is only provided, if
necessary, such as when preparing for a competition. Nevertheless, most of the

students were involved in competition during this time except for holidays at the end of

127

the year. School aged competition is a rare occasion during this time because the

national public examination is held during the school holidays.

Table 26. Current training schedule of the sports school as compared to the original plan

 

 

Original plan Current
Training frequency per week 5 days/week 5-6 days/week
Training duration per day 3-4 hours/day 3-6 hours
Training during school holidays Provided if necessary Provided to national

athletes only

Training facilities

Sports training facilities available within and outside the school are reported in
Table 27. The multipurpose hall consists of sepak takraw, basketball, volleyball, and
netball courts. Most of the training for these sports is done at this facility. However, other
sports also use this facility, especially for physical training. Due to this limited facility, all
sports also have their training at the facilities of the National Sports Council and at
facilities around the capital city. The distance of these facilities from the school is
between 0.5 and 35 kilometers.

As indicated earlier, not all students of the sports school are provided with sports
equipment. Eligible students are provided with equipment of international standard.
Other students mostly buy their equipment through the school to ensure the quality of the

equipment and to get a discounted price.

128

Table 27. Current training facilities available for sports school athletes as compared to
the original plan

 

 

Original plan Current
Within the school - Multipurpose hall (1) - Multipurpose hall (1)
- Fitness room (1) - Fitness room (1)
- Squash court (3) - Squash court (3)
- Demonstration room (3) - Demonstration room (3)
Outside the school For all sports using facilities at For all sports using
the National Sports Council facilities at the National

Sports Council and
facilities around the

capital city.
Quality of sport equipment provided to International standard if
students provided

 

Medical services

Comparison of medical services currently received by athletes in the sports school to
the original plan is presented in Table 28. Currently, all students at the sports school
receive medical attention as originally planned. Students are screened for their medical
condition as one of the criteria to be accepted into the sports school. This screening is
done by physicians once the students are offered a place at the school, and the results
are submitted to the school during registration. A medical history of each athlete is kept
by a medical assistant at the school. Injured athletes are referred to physicians at the
National Sports Institute and the National University Hospital. Rehabilitation programs

for injured athletes are also performed at these facilities.

129

Table 28. Comparison of medical services currently received by athletes of the sports
school with the original plan

 

 

Original plan Current
Physical examinations for students 100% 100%
Medical history kept for students 100% 100%
Accessibility to physician for injured athletes 100% 100%
Supervision of athletes in rehabilitation program 100% 100%

 

Adequacy and problems associated with the sports program

Adequacy of the current status of the sports program was evaluated through
responses gathered from the administrator and coaches of the sports school. The level
of adequacy of the program was detennlned through an 18-question self-evaluation
questionnaire. The questions were grouped into three main categories, which evaluated
the three main areas of the sports program; namely, program content and policy,
privilege and opportunity, and training and facility.

The evaluations of the respondents were gathered on a four-point Likert scale.
Numerical weights were assigned to each of the four responses in such a way that the
higher the number the higher the respondents’ evaluation of the adequacy of the
program. Except for questions “the policy developed needs revision” and “there is a
need for more coordination with various sports organizations”, the response for
"completely agree“, 'tend to agree", 'tend to disagree', and “completely disagree' were
assigned scores of 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. Due to the nature of these two questions,

the responses were inversely scored.

130

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To determine the level of adequacy of the current status of the program, means of
the four-point scale were computed for individual items and for each program area. The
rating means were categorized as follows:

Highly adequate: mean ratings of 3.51 and above
Moderately adequate: mean ratings of 2.51 and 3.5
Lowly adequate: mean ratings of 1.51 and 2.50

Inadequate: mean ratings of 1.50 and below

Individual items for each program area were also ranked to determine their level
of adequacy relative to each other. The ranking was based on the mean score of the
item. The item with the highest mean score was ranked first indicating the highest level
of adequacy relative to other items in that particular program area. Consequently, the
lowest mean score was ranked last indicating its low level of adequacy.

Severity of problems associated with conducting of the program was determined
through rankings made by the coaches on six problems posed in the survey
questionnaire. The ranking made by coaches for each problem was averaged and the
problem with the smallest mean was detennlned to be the most severe problem faced by

the coaches in running the program.

Adequacy of the program content and policy

Overall adequacy of the sports school program was rated as moderately
adequate by the coaches of the school, with a mean score of 2.56 (SD=0.82). The
results for the coaches’ evaluation of the level of adequacy for each program area are

presented in Tables 29,30, and 31.

131

Adequacy of the program content and policy as evaluated by teacher-coaches
and nonteacher-coaches is indicated in Table 29. In general, the program content and
policy of the sports school was detennlned as moderately adequate with an overall mean
of 2.52. However, the level of adequacy was rated differently by the teacher-coaches
coaches and nonteacher-coaches. While the teacher-coaches rated this area as lowly
adequate, the nonteacher-coaches rated it as moderately adequate. The results of the
MANOVA also showed similar finding regarding this difference between the teacher-

coaches and nonteacher-coaches.

Table 29. Descriptive statistics and MANOVA for rating of adequacy related to program
content and policy by teacher-coaches and nonteacher-coaches

 

Teacher- Nonteacher Overall Rank Univariate Multivariate

 

 

coaches coaches F F
(N=23) (N=14)
M SD M SD M SD
The purposes and objectivw of the 2.83 0.92 3.43 0.65 3.05 0.87 1 455* 243*
sports school are clearly stated

The purpose of the program is clearly 2.75 0.90 3.21 0.58 2.92 0.82 2 3.00
understood by all

Thepolicydevelopedneedsrevision 2.13 1.12 1.71 0.73 1.97 1.00 7 1.51

There is a need for more coordination 2.17 0.87 1.36 0.50 1.87 0.84 8 10.15"
with various sports organizations

Numberofsportsoffered bythe school 2.88 0.85 2.86 0.53 2.87 0.74 3 0.005
isadequate

Iamsatisfiedwiththeselectionprocess 2.38 0.77 2.93 0.27 2.58 0.68 5 6.70‘
ofthestudents

Number of teachers Is sufficient 2.71 0.95 2.71 0.95 4

 

_Numberofqualifled coaches is sufficient 2.13 0.99 2.29 0.73 2.18 0.90 6 0.28

 

_Overall 2.49 0.92 2.54 0.57 2.52 0.85
Highly adequate: 3.51 and above Moderately adequate: 2.51 to 3.5 * p < 0.05
Lowly adequate: 1.51 to 2.50 Inadequate: 1.50 and below “ p < 0.01
132

Overall, none of the items were evaluated as inadequate or highly adequate.
Three of the items were evaluated as lowly adequate; namely, 'the policy", "coordination
with various sports organizations”, and “number of qualified coaches'. The remaining
five items were evaluated as moderately adequate. There were differences between
teacher-coaches and nonteacher—coaches in the evaluation of two individual items. The
teacher-coaches rated the adequacy of the selection process low, while the nonteacher-
coaches rated this item moderately adequate. On the other hand, the nonteacher-
coaches evaluated coordination with other sports organization as inadequate, but for
teacher-coaches this aspect of the program was lowly adequate. Examination of the
univariate F statistics reveals support for the existence of these differences. Additionally,
there was a difference in the mean rating scores of the teacher-coaches and non-teacher
coaches regarding the clarity and understanding of the purposes and objectives of the
sports school.

Ranking of the items indicated that the clarity and understanding of the stated
purposes and objectives of the sports school was the most adequate compared to other
items in this program area, while coordination with other sports organizations was the

least adequate.

Adequacy of privilege and opportunity

The means of the responses and MANOVA results related to the adequacy of
privilege and opportunity for students and coaches of the sports school are presented in
Table 30. This area of the program was evaluated as lowly adequate with an overall

mean of 2.34. Moreover, all of the individual items were rated as lowly adequate.

133

Table 30. Descriptive statistics and MANOVA for rating of adequacy related to privilege

and opportunity by teacher-coaches and nonteacher-coaches

 

 

 

 

 

Teacher- Nonteacher Overall Rank Univariate Multivariate
coaches coaches F F
(N=23) (N=14)
M SD M SD M SD
Privileges provided to students are 2.33 0.76 2.29 0.47 2.32 0.66 3 0.04 4.07“
sufficient
Privileges provided to coaches are 2.17 0.87 2.64 0.50 2.34 0.78 2 3.51
sufficient
There are sufficient competition 2.63 0.97 2.14 1.17 2.45 1.06 1 1.88
opportunities for students
There are sufficient courses 2.58 0.97 1.71 0.61 2.26 0.95 4 9.01”
opportunities for coaches
Overall 2.43 0.89 2.20 0.69 2.34 0.86
Highly adequate: 3.51 and above Moderately adequate: 2.51 to 3.5 " p < 0.05
Lowly adequate: 1.51 to 2.50 Inadequate: 1.50 and below *" p < 0.01

Again, there were differences between teacher-coaches’ and nonteacher-
coaches’ evaluations on several of the items assessed. The teacher-coaches rated
competition opportunities for students and courses opportunities for coaches as
moderately adequate while the nonteacher-coaches rated them as lowly adequate. On
the other hand, opposite ratings were found on the sufficiency of privileges provided to
coaches.

The MANOVA results indicated that there was a difference between the teacher-
coaches and nonteacher-coaches in their ratings of the adequacy of privilege and
opportunity. Examination of the univariate statistics revealed that this difference was
largely due to difference in their rating scores for the sufficiency of course opportunities

provided to coaches.

134

 

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Ranking of the items indicated that competition opportunities provided to students
was the most adequate while course opportunities was the least adequate item in this

program area.

Adequacy of training and facility

The overall rating for adequacy of training and facility was moderately adequate
with a mean score of 2.73 (Table 31). All but two of the items were evaluated as
moderately adequate. The availability of sports facilities in the school was evaluated as
lowly adequate by both groups of coaches, while funding for the sports program was
rated the same by the teacher-coaches. Several of the individual items were rated
differently by the teacher-coaches and nonteacher-coaches. For the teacher-coaches,
accessibility to a sound rehabilitation program for injured athletes was rated moderately
adequate, while for the nonteacher-coaches this item was only lowly adequate. On the
other hand, funding for the sports program was rated oppositely by the two groups.

The results of the MANOVA indicated that the level of adequacy of this program
area was not similarly rated by the teacher-coaches and nonteacher-coaches. Further
investigation of the univariate statistics revealed that this difference was largely due to
differences in the rating scores between the teacher-coaches and non-teacher coaches
for the sufficiency of opportunities for the use of sports facilities outside the school, and
for the adequacy of the funding for the sports program.

The opportunity to use outside facilities was ranked the highest among the items
in this program area. On the other hand, sports facilities available in the school were

ranked last, indicating a poor level of adequacy of this item.

135

Table 31. Descriptive statistics and MANOVA for rating of adequacy related to training

and facility by teacher-coaches and nonteacher-coaches

 

 

 

Teacher- Nonteacher Overall Rank Univariate Multivariate
coaches coaches F F
(N=23) (N=14)
M SD M SD M SD
The time allotted for training is 2.75 0.90 3.21 0.43 2.92 0.78 2 3.29 2.66‘
consistent with the demand for
competition

Sports facilities available in the school 2.38 0.71 2.43 0.94 2.39 0.79 6 0.04
are sufficient

There are sufficientopportunitiesforthe 2.63 0.82 3.50 0.52 2.95 0.84 1 12.74“
use of sport facilities outside the school

Fundingforsports program is adequate 2.46 0.88 3.00 0.00 2.66 0.75 4 5.20”

 

 

Injured athletes have sufficient 2.75 0.68 3.07 0.27 2.87 0.58 3 2.88
accessibility for prompt medical
treatment
Injured athletes have sufficient 2.63 0.77 2.50 0.65 2.58 0.72 5 0.26
amessibility for sound rehabilitation

program
Overall 2.60 0.79 2.95 0.47 2.73 0.74
Highly adequate: 3.51 and above Moderately adequate: 2.51 to 3.5 * p < 0.05
Lowly adequate: 1.51 to 2.50 Inadequate: 1.50 and below ** p < 0.01

Problems associated with the program.

The coaches ranked six problems posed to them with the most severe problem
ranked first and the least problematic was ranked last (represented by the largest rank
number). The coaches’ rankings for each problem were averaged and the problem with
the lowest mean was considered as the most severe, while the problem with the largest
mean was determined as the least severe.

Rankings on the severity of the problems by coaches of the sports school are

presented in Table 32. The most severe problem of the sports program of the sports

136

 

 

 

 

 

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school was inadequate staffing, followed by students' apathy, students’ quality,
inadequate facilities, inadequate equipment, and lack of sufficient time. The problem of
“students’ apathy“ was concerned with the attitude of some students towards training and
competition. Some of the students lacked seriousness in doing the training and therefore
performed below expectation in competition. There was a slight difference in rank order
on the severity of the problems between teacher-coaches and nonteacher-coaches for
problems ranked first and second, and for problems ranked third and fourth. The
problems ranked first (students’ apathy) and second (inadequate staffing), and problems
ranked third (inadequate facilities) and fourth (students’ quality) by teacher-coaches were

inversely ranked by the nonteacher-coaches.

Table 32. Ranking of problems associated with the sports program in the sports school

 

Problem Teacher-coaches Nonteacher-coaches Overall
(N=23) (N=14)

 

Means SD Rank Means SD Rank Means SD Rank

 

Lackofsufficienttime 5.28 1.31 6 5.50 0.76 6 5.37 1.11 6

Inadequate equipment 4.05 1.56 5 4.64 1.00 5 4.28 1.38 5
Inadequate facilities 3.00 1 .58 3 3.93 0.47 4 3.37 1.33 4
Inadequate staffing 2.81 1.40 2 1.43 0.65 1 2.26 1.33 1
Students' apathy 2.71 1 .45 1 2.78 1.77 2 2.74 1 .56 2
Students’ quality 3.14 1.55 4 2.71 1.33 3 2.97 1.46 3

 

Effects of Sports School on Motor Performance and Academic Achievement
Descriptive statistics
Separate means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for all variables were

computed for 13-year-old, 14-year-old, and 16-year-old boys and girls in both the sport

137

and the ordinary schools. These measures are presented in Tables 33 and 34.
Additionally, a summary of MANOVA F-ratios for differences between the schools for
boys and girls for each age group for variables that constituted the covariates are
summarized in Table 35.

For boys, the 13 and the 14 year-old boys in the sports school were significantly
older than their counterparts in the ordinary schools. However, there was no difference
between age among the girls and boys in the 16-year—old group between the two schools.
Boys in the sports school students were significantly taller, heavier, had greater sitting
height, bigger arm and calf circumferences, and bigger arm and calf muscle areas than
the ordinary school students for all age groups. There was no difference in the sitting
height stature ratio between the sports school and the ordinary school boys for each age
group, but the overall comparison exhibited a significant difference for this variable. The
BMI of the sports school boys was only significantly higher than that of the ordinary
school boys among the 14-year-olds. Boys of the ordinary schools tended to have
thicker skinfold measurements, but the only significant difference was exhibited in the
medial calf skinfold in the 16-year-old group. Consequently, total sum of skinfolds and
trunk/extremity skinfold ratio also showed no significant difference between the boys of
the two schools. In terms of maturity status, boys of the sports school were more
advanced at 13 and 14 years, but not at 16 years. Monthly family income for the sports
school boys was lower than that of the ordinary school boys for the 14- and 16-year-old
age groups. Means for place of residence indicated that the sports school had more
students of rural origin than the ordinary schools for every age group (It should be noted

that rural was coded 0, while urban was coded 1 for this variable).

138

 

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Similarly, girls in the sports school were taller and had greater sitting height than
girls in the ordinary schools for all age groups. The sports school girls were heavier and
had greater arm and calf circumferences than the ordinary school girls only at age 14
years. There were no differences in BMI, sitting height stature/ratio, and monthly family
income between girls in the sports and those in the ordinary schools for all age groups.
Means for place of residence indicated that the sports school had more girls of rural
on'gin than did the ordinary schools for all age groups.

Boys and girls in the sports school exhibited better performance scores than their
counterparts in the ordinary schools on all motor performance tasks for all age groups.
For academic achievement, boys ages 13 and 14 years in the ordinary school had better
pre and post achievement than did the sports school students, and vice versa for the
oldest age group. Sports school girls had better pre and post academic achievement
than did the girls in the ordinary schools among the 13-year-olds, and the opposite was
true for the 14-year-olds. Among the 16-year-old girls, students of the sports school
exhibited better pre academic achievement but poorer post academic achievement than
their peers in the ordinary schools.

Parallel to its status as the sports school, time spent in sports activities by the
sports school students was significantly greater than that spent by the ordinary school
students. On average, the sport school boys spent 17.3 hours per week while the girts

spent 16.4 hours per week in sport activities.

146

Question 2. Are there differences in motor performance between students enrolled in the
sport school and the ordinary school?

Separate MANOVAs and MANCOVAs for boys and girts were conducted to
answer this question. The rationale for performing both analyses was to investigate the
differences in motor performance between students in the sports school and the ordinary
schools, with and without controlling for the covariates. For the MANOVA, pretest motor
performance scores were entered as the dependent variables while school (SC) and age
group (AG) were entered as the predictors. The variable school was dummy coded (0 =
ordinary school, 1 = sports school) and age group was entered as a categorical variable.
MANCOVA for boys included stature (ST), mass (MA), sitting height/stature ratio (SHSR),
body mass index (BMI), sum of skinfolds (SS), estimated arm and calf musculature
(AMA, CMA), maturity status (MS), monthly income (IN), and place of residence (PR) as
the covariates. Place of residence was also dummy coded (0 = rural, 1 = urban) for the
analysis. For girts, the covariates included were the same as those for the boys but
without the skinfolds. In addition, arm (ACR) and calf circumferences (CCR) were
substituted for estimated arm and calf musculatures, respectively.

Results of the MANOVA revealed significant differences between the sports
school and ordinary school students, and among the age groups for both boys and girts
(Table 36). There were no interaction effects between schools and age groups for either
gender. Examination of the univariate F statistics to determine differences between the
schools for each of the motor performance tasks also indicated that students of the two
schools were different in all motor performance tasks. Boys of different age groups were

found to be significantly different on all motor performance tasks. However, age groups

147

differences in motor performance for girts were demonstrated only for the JR, SR, SLJ,

and ASR.

Table 36. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for pretest motor perionnance by

school age group, and gender

 

 

 

 

 

 

School Age group School * Age group
B_oy§ N=320
FAH 19.54“ 17.75" 0.17
JR 170.32" 67.56“ 2.53
TYD 84.45" 75.93“ 0.40
SR 666' 10.97" 1.11
SLJ 129.61 “ 49.25" 1.87
ASR 42.93" 33.31“ 1.26
ER 449.33" 8.62“ 0.70
Multivariate F 77.71" 13.07" 1.47
Eta squared 0.64 0.26 0.03
gag (N=132)
FAH 25.05" 0.36 0.46
JR 23.95" 3.48“ 0.49
TYD 52.39“ 1.33 1.28
SR 27.52" 5.82" 1.47
SLJ 115.9" 4.13‘ 0.47
ASR 147.77" 10.19" 0.57
ER 147.83” 0.42 0.41
Multivariate F 37.20" 2.42" 0.55
Eta squared 0.68 0.12 0.03
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

Results of the Bonferroni post hoc test to determine specific age group
differences for each of the motor performance tasks is summarized in Table 37. For

boys, the 16-year-olds had better performance than the younger age groups on all tasks

148

except the ER where they were only better than the youngest age group. The 14-year-
old boys exhibited better performance in the JR, SLJ, and ASR when compared to the
13-year-old group. Most between age group differences for the girls were found between
the oldest and the youngest age groups. The 16-year-old group was significantly better
than the 13-year—old group in the JR, SR, SLJ and ASR. However, they were only

significantly better than the 14-year-old group in the ASR.

Table 37. Bonferonni post hoc tests of mean differences between age groups for motor
performance variables showing a significant MANOVA F-ratio

 

 

 

 

Variable Age Group Age Group Mean Difference
Boys Girls
Flexed arm hang . 13 14 -3.28
13 16 -11.13"
14 16 -7.85"
Jump and reach (cm) 13 14 -2.69" -1.64
13 16 -9.87“ -3.84*
14 16 -7.19" -2.20
Thirty yard dash 13 14 .072
13 16 .56"
14 16 .48“
Sit and reach (cm) 13 14 -1.55 -1.72
13 16 -3.68" 4.24"
14 16 -2.21‘ -2.52
Standing long jump (cm) 13 14 -9.19** -5.06
13 16 -27.75” -11.56*
14 16 -18.55“ -6.49
Agility shuttle run (sec) 13 14 .25“ .59”
13 16 .74" .76“
14 16 .48“ .16
800 meter run (sec) 13 14 7.62
13 16 13.95“
14 16 6.34
' p < 0.05 ” p < 0.01

149

Further investigation to determine the effects of school on each motor
performance task for each group was performed using the MANOVA and regression
analysis (Table 38). The regression analysis was employed to determine the magnitude
and direction of the differences which were not provided by the MANOVA. Overall
multivariate effect of school on motor performance indicated that there were differences
in motor performance between students of the two schools for all age groups. Effects of
school on each motor performance task were indicated by the regression coefficients. As
school was dummy coded, the regression coefficients (8) depicted mean differences
between the schools. It should be noted that negative values of the regression
coefficient for the TYD, ASR, and ER indicated better perionnance of the sports school
students because lower times indicated better performance. For the 16-year-olds, boys
and girls of the sports school had better perionnance on all of the motor performance
tasks. The 13-year-old boys and gins, and the 14-year-old boys of the sports school
were better than their counterparts on all tasks except the SR. However, for girls of the
14-year—old group, the only task where the sports school girls did not exhibit significantly
better performance than their peers was the JR.

Summary of MANCOVA for determination of differences between the schools and
among age groups with the presence of the covariates is presented in Table 39. Results
of the analysis again revealed significant differences in motor performance between the
schools and among the age groups for both boys and girls, even after adjusting for the
effects of these covariates. There was no interaction effect of school and age groups for

boys' and girts’ motor performance.

150

Table 38. MANOVA and regression analysis for pretest motor perionnance variables by

school for boys and girls for each age group

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age group 13 14 16
8 R2 B R2 8 R2
figys N=102 N=112 N=106
FAH 6.39“ 0.08 6.07‘ 0.04 8.15' 0.06
Regression JR 7.10" 0.34 9.78" 0.34 10.98" 0.39
analysis TYD -0.41" 0.24 -0.37“ 0.22 —0.32“ 0.18
SR 0.81 0.01 1.15 0.01 2.98' 0.05
SLJ 19.96" 0.19 30.20" 0.33 28.57" 0.36
ASR -0.65" 0.22 —0.44" 0.09 -0.37" 0.07
ER -52.96" 0.65 -59.31" 0.66 -63.60“ 0.58
MAN OVA F 26.88" 26.12“ 30.78"
Eta squared 0.67 0.64 0.69
Girls N=40 N=42 N=50
FAH 5.00' 0.11 5.71“ 0.19 7.72" 0.22
Regression JR 525* 0.10 4.00 0.07 7.56“ 0.36
analysis TYD -0.80“ 0.30 -0.54' 0.18 -0.94" 0.40
SR 3.83 0.08 4.69' 0.14 7.85" 0.36
SLJ 1.35" 0.53 38.07" 0.54 38.65" 0.43
ASR -1.68" 0.55 4.59“ 0.51 -1.94" 0.57
ER -50.85" 0.55 -59.14" 0.50 -60.68" 0.59
MANOVA F 12.75“ 15.16“ 16.58"
Eta squared .74 .76 .73
* p < 0.05 “ p < 0.01

Girls in the sports and the ordinary schools were different on all of the motor
performance tests, while the boys differed on all tests, but the SR. The analysis also
demonstrated the influence of several of the covariates on motor performances of the
boys and gins. For boys, the sitting height/stature ratio influenced the SR, sum of
skinfolds influenced the JR, TYD, SLJ, and ER, while arm musculature influenced ASR

and ER. Girls’ sitting height/stature ratio influenced their SR performance. Boys

151

 

 

 

 

 

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152

demonstrated age group differences in the FAH, JR, TYD, ASR, and ER, while girts
showed age group differences in the SLJ, ASR, and ER.

Specific age group differences between the age groups for these variables were
detennlned through a pairwise comparison of the estimated marginal means adjusting for
the covariates (Table 40). For boys, the 16-year-olds had significantly better
perionnance on the FAH, JR, TYD, and the ASR than the younger age groups. There
was no difference in the ER between the 14- and the 16-year—old boys, but both were
significantly better than the 13-year-olds. The 14-year-old boys also performed better
than the 13-year-olds on the FAH. For girls, the 16-year-old age groups had better
performance on the SLJ, ASR, and ER than the 13—year-olds, while the 14-year-old age
groups had better performance than the 13-year-olds on the ASR only.

Further analysis to determine between school differences in motor performance
for each age group was performed using the MANCOVA. Follow up tests utilizing
multiple regression analysis was then performed to determine the effects of school for
each motor performance test for each age group. Summaries of these analyses are
presented in Tables 41, 42 and 43. The multivariate F-ratios indicated significant
differences between the schools for all age groups for both boys and gins. Additionally,
significant influences of several covariates on motor performance were revealed by the
analysis. However, there were slight differences in the type of covariates with significant

effects for boys and girls and for different age groups.

153

Table 40. Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age groups for
pretest motor performance variables showing a significant MANCOVA F-ratio

 

 

 

Variable Boys Girls
AG M' AG M'I Md AG M' AG Ma Md
Flexed arm hang 13 21.14 14 25.96 -4.82"
13 21.14 16 36.61 -15.47"
14 25.96 16 36.61 40.65"
Jump and reach (cm) 13 40.65 14 42.04 -1.39
13 40.65 16 46.26 -5.61“
14 42.04 16 46.26 -4.22"
Thirty yard dash 13 4.24 14 4.23 0.01
13 4.24 16 3.92 0.32"
14 4.23 16 3.92 0.31"
Standing longjump (cm) 13 144.8 14 150.3 -5.5
13 144.8 16 157.4 -12.9*
14 150.3 16 157.4 -7.4
Agilityshuttle run (sec) 13 10.49 14 10.23 0.26 13 12.09 14 11.36 0.73"
13 10.49 16 9.85 0.64" 13 12.09 16 11.19 0.90"
14 10.23 16 9.85 0.38' 14 11.36 16 11.19 0.17
800meterrun (sec) 13 222.87 14 211.86 11.01" 13 260.0714 251.93 8.13
13 222.87 16 205.46 17.41" 13 260.0716 244.12 15.95"
14 211.86 16 205.46 6.40 14 251.93 16 244.12 7.82
a adjusted means ' p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

The multiple regression analysis revealed that significant effects of school on

several motor performance scores found previously (without the covariates) among the

13-year—olds were eliminated (Table 41). Effects of school among the 13-year-old boys

remained significant on the JR, ASR, SLJ and ER, while effects on the FAH, TYD, and

SLJ were eliminated after adjusting for the covariates. The sports school boys jumped

farther vertically and horizontally, and had shorter time completing the BOO-meter run,

than their peers in the ordinary schools. The overall multivariate test also found

significant effect for sum of skinfolds and arm muscle area on motor performance. While

sum of skinfolds had negative effects on the FAH, SR, and JR, arm muscle area had

154

 

 

 

 

 

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positive effects on the FAH. For girls of similar age, positive effects of school on motor
performance remained significant in the SLJ, ASR, and the ER, while the effect of the
FAH was eliminated. There were also significant multivariate effects of stature, mass,
and BMI. These effects were due to the significant relationships of these covariates with
SR. The SR was positively affected by stature and BMI, but negatively affected by mass.
For the 14-year—old age group, both boys and girls demonstrated significant effect
of school on motor performance (Table 42). Additionally, the multivariate test revealed
significant effects of sum of skinfolds, arm muscle area, and family income among the
boys. However, there was no significant effect of the covariates on the performance of
girls in this age group. For boys, the regression analysis indicated that all significant
effects of school on motor performance scores found earlier remained significant even
after controlling for the covariates. The sports school boys jump vertically higher and
farther, had shorter time in the ASR, TYD, and the ER, and had longer hanging time in
the FAH than boys in the ordinary schools. Boys with a greater sum of skinfolds had
shorter jumping distance (JR, SLJ) and had longer running time in the TYD, ASR, and
ER, while boys with greater arm muscle area had shorter long jump distance, and longer
running time in the TYD and ER. Additionally, boys with higher family income had better
performance on the SR. Among the 16-year—old girls, effects of school on motor
performance remained significant for the FAH, SLJ, ASR and ER, while effects on TYD
and SR were eliminated after adjusting for the effect of the covariates. The sports school
girls had longer flexed arm hang time, had farther jumping distance, and ran faster on the

TYD, ASR and ER than the girls in the ordinary schools.

158

There were also a significant effect of school on motor performance controlling for
the effect of covariates for both boys and girls in the 16-year-old age group (Table 43).
The effects remained significant for all of the motor performance tasks, except for the SR
for boys. The sports school boys and girls jumped higher and farther, had longer flexed
arm hang time, greater distance for the SR, and shorter running time on the TYD, ASR,
and the ER. There was also significant multivariate effect of arm muscle area for the
boys on motor performance. Boys with greater arm muscle area performed better on the
SR and ER. None of the covariates showed a significant multivariate effect on the motor

performance of the girls.

Question 3. Is there an effect of the sport school program on the motor performance of
secondary school students in Malaysia?

Separate MANOVA and MANCOVA analyses were conducted for boys and girls.
MANOVA was conducted to test the effects of school, age group, and their interaction term
on the posttest motor perionnance. Bonferroni post hoc test and pairwise comparison of
estimated marginal means were performed to determine specific between age group
differences for significant MANOVA and MANCOVA results, respectively. Follow up tests,
utilizing multiple regression analysis were generated for each of the motor performance tests
for each age group with and without controlling for the covariates. Covariates included were
the same as those used in the analyses for Question 2, with the addition of the pretest motor
performance scores and stature at the time of the posttest.

Results of the MANOVA are presented in Table 44. There were significant

differences between the schools and among the age groups for the motor performance

159

scores for both boys and girls. There was no school and age group interaction effect for

motor performance for either gender.

Table 44. MANOVA for posttest motor performance by school and age group

 

 

 

 

 

 

School Age group School * Age group

B_oy§ N=320

FAH 65.95" 28.00" 1.53
JR 252.04" 44.83" 0.67
TYD 250.43" 91.47" 1.61
SR 36.24" 17.78" 2.08
SLJ 176.11" 39.14” 1.00
ASR 92.98" 35.90" 1.93
ER 522.86" 5.06‘ 0.33
Multivariate F 107.69“ 13.63" 1.63
Eta squared 0.71 0.24 0.04
girls N=132

FAH 43.29" 0.76 0.28
JR 58.65" 4.41’ 1.00
TYD 110.89“ 3.52' 1.41
SR 58.64" 5.66“ 2.43
SLJ 159.37" 3.53* 0.29
ASR 244.45“ 6.33" 0.77
ER 222.60“ 0.04 0.42
Multivariate F 62.65" 2.18“ 1.01
Eta squared 0.79 0.11 0.06
* p < 0.05 “ p < 0.01

Specific age group differences for each of the motor performance tasks using
Bonferonni post hoc test are summarized in Table 45. For boys, the 16-year—olds had
better performance than the younger age groups on all tasks except the ER where they

were only better than the youngest age group. The 14-year—old boys exhibited better

160

performance on the SR, SLJ, and ASR when compared to the 13-year—old age group. All
age group differences in girls were found between the oldest and the youngest age
groups. The 16-year—old group was significantly better than the 13-year-old group on the

JR, TYD, SR, SLJ and ASR.

Table 45. Bonferonni post hoc tests of mean differences between age groups for
posttest motor performance variables showing a significant MANOVA F-ratio

 

 

 

 

Variable Age Group Age Group Mean Difference
Boys Girls
Flexed arm hang (sec) 13 14 -2.34
13 16 42.71“
14 16 40.37"
Jump and reach (cm) 13 14 -2.38 -2.55
13 16 -9.19'* -4.43'
14 16 -6.80*' -1.88
Thirty yard dash 13 14 0.06 0.27
13 16 0.55“ 0.31'
14 16 0.48" 0.04
Sit and reach (cm) 13 14 -2.09’ -1.66
13 16 «1.46” 388“
14 16 ~2.62" -2.21
Standing long jump (cm) 13 14 -8.16* -4.12
13 16 -25.90" -10.34'
14 16 47.74" -6.22
Agility shuttle run (sec) 13 14 0.24' 0.41
13 16 0.74" 0.59"
14 16 0.50" 0.18
800 meter run (sec) 13 14 4.98
13 16 10.41"
14 16 5.43

 

*p<0.05 "p<0.01

161

The effect of school on posttest motor performance for each age group was
examined by MANOVA and regression analysis and is presented in Table 46. For all age
groups, boys and girls in the sports school had better perionnance on all of the motor
performance tasks. They had higher and longer jumping distance, longer flexed arm
hang time, and shorter time in the dash, agility run, and BOO-meter run when compared to

their peers in the ordinary schools.

Table 46. MANOVA and regression analysis for posttest motor performance variables by
school for boys and girls for each age group

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age group 13 14 16
13 R2 l3 R2 B R2
_B_Qy§ N=102 N=112 N=106
FAH 11.22" 0.22 9.21" 0.10 15.33" 0.22
Regression JR 11.67" 0.49 13.25" 0.43 13.96“ 0.44
analysis TYD -0.63" 0.49 -0.60" 0.44 -0.48“ 0.41
SR 289* 0.05 2.95" 0.06 5.70" 0.19
SLJ 27.60“ 0.29 35.92" 0.38 32.95” 0.42
ASR -0.88* 0.38 -0.67“ 0.16 -0.53" 0.18
ER -60.61“ 0.64 -65.89" 0.66 -64.60” 0.59
MANOVA F 42.66 36.28 33.97
Eta squared 0.76 0.71 0.71
Girls N=40 N=42 N=50
— FAH 8.65" 0.25 7.57" 0.27 9.92" 0.27
Regression JR 10.00" 0.31 7.09" 0.16 11.19" 0.54
analysis TYD -1.27“ 0.60 -0.85** 0.33 -1 .13“ 0.48
SR 5.70“ 0.18 6.11“ 0.26 10.24“ 0.52
SLJ 37.57" 0.67 42.76" 0.59 43.14" 0.49
ASR -2.03*’ 0.69 -2.04” 0.63 -2.39** 0.68
ER 63.05“ 0.70 67.76" 0.57 43.12“ 0.67
MANOVA F 20.43“ 23.87" 28.41"
Eta squared 0.82 0.83 0.83
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

162

Summary of MANCOVA results for the determination of differences in posttest
motor performances between the schools and among age groups with the presence of
the covariates is presented in Table 47. Examination of the multivariate F-ratio again
revealed significant differences in motor performance between the schools even after
adjusting for the effects of the covariates for both boys and girls. The univariate F-ratios
indicated that boys between the schools were different on all motor performance tests,
except the SLJ, while the girls differed on all motor performance tasks.

The analysis also demonstrated the influence of several covariates on motor
performances of the boys and girls. All pretest motor performances significantly
influenced posttest motor performance for both boys and girls. Addifionally, the girls’ SR
performance was influenced by mass and BMI, and their ER performance was influenced
byBML

Only the boys exhibited differences among age groups in posttest motor
performance; specifically, on the FAH and the TYD. Summary of specific age group
differences determined by a pairwise comparison of the estimated marginal means of
these variables are presented in Table 48. Age group differences were only exhibited
between the 14- and the 16-year-old groups.

Further analysis to determine between school differences in motor performance
for each age group was performed using the MANCOVA. Follow up tests utilizing
multiple regression analysis were then performed to determine the effects of school for
each motor performance test for each age group. Summaries of these analyses are

presented in Tables 49, 50, and 51. The multivariate F-ratios indicate significant

163

 

 

 

 

 

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differences in motor performance between the schools for both boys and girls in all age

groups.

Table 48. Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age groups for

selected posttest motor performance variables adjusting for all covariates

 

 

 

Variable Boys
AG M8 AG M' Md
Flexed arm hang 13 30.69 14 30.16 0.30
13 30.69 16 34.10 -3.41
14 30.16 16 34.10 —3.94“
Thirty yard dash 13 3.95 14 3.97 -0.02
13 3.95 16 3.82 0.14
14 3.97 16 3.82 0.15'
' adjusted means ' p < 0.05 " p < 0.01

Significant influences of several covariates on motor perionnance were also
revealed by the analysis. All pretest motor performance scores had significant influence
on posttest scores for boys and girls in all age groups. Additionally, the 13-year-old girls
posttest motor performance was also influenced by income and pretest stature, while the
14—year-old girls’ performance was influenced by body mass.

The MANCOVA and the multiple regression analysis revealed that significant
effects of school on several motor perionnance scores found before (without the
covariates) were eliminated. Effects of school among the 13-year—old boys remained
significant in FAH, ASR, and the ER, while effects on JR, SR, TYD, and SLJ were
eliminated after adjusting for the covariates (Table 49). The sports school boys had
longer arm hang time, shorter time in the agility run, and completed the BOO-meter run

faster than their peers in the ordinary schools. All pretest motor performance scores had

165

 

 

 

 

 

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168

strong positive relationships with similar performance on the posttest scores. For the
girls, only three of the motor performances remained significant; namely, the FAH, ASR,
and the ER, after accounting for the covariates-

For the 14-year-old age group, the regression analysis indicated that several
significant positive effects of sports school on motor performance scores found earlier
were eliminated after controlling for the covariates (Table 50). The positive effects of the
sports school for boys remained only in the TYD, SLJ, ASR, and the ER. The sports
school boys had farther jumping distance and faster time on all running tasks than the
boys from the ordinary schools. Among the 14-year-old girls, effects of school on motor
performance remained significant in the FAH, SLJ, ASR, and ER, while effects on other
motor performances were eliminated after adjusting for the effect of the covariates. The
sports school girls had longer hang time, fartherjumping distance, and completed the
agility and 800-meter run in shorter time than their peers in the ordinary schools. There
were also significant relationships between mass and ER, and between mass and JR for
girls in this age group. Heavier girls at the beginning of the study had lower vertical
jumping distance but faster BOO-meter running time. There were also strong positive
relationships between pretest and posttest scores for similar motor performance tests for
both boys and girls in this age group.

There was a significant effect of school on several motor performances controlling
for the effect covariates among the 16-year—old boys and girls (Table 51). For the boys,
the positive effects of sports school on all motor performances exhibited by the previous
regression analysis (without the covariates) remained significant only for the FAH, JR,

TYD, and SR. The sports school boys had longer hang time, higher vertical jumping

169

distance, faster dash time, and had greater distance in the SR than their peers in the
ordinary schools. For the girls, effect of sports school remained significant in JR, SLJ
and the ER. The sports school girls jumped higher and farther than the ordinary school

girls and ran faster in the 800-m run.

Question 4. Which motor performance tasks, if any, distinguished between students of
the sport and ordinary schools?

Separate analyses were conducted for boys and girls. For each age group, a
discriminant analysis was performed to determine which posttest motor performance
scores distinguished between the sport school and the ordinary schools. Further
investigation using the classification process of discriminant analysis was carried out to
determine the percentage of sports school students that rightly belongs to the school
based on their motor performance.

Results of the discriminant analyses for boys and girls of each age group are
presented in Table 52. The eigen values of the first function indicated that this function
has a total discriminating power to discriminate students of the two schools for boys and
girls in all age groups. Boys and girts between the two schools were found to be
discriminated by all motor performance scores for all age groups.

However, the relative contribution of motor performance variables in
discriminating students of the two schools were different among the age groups, as
indicated by the standardized canonical discriminant function. For the boys at all ages,
the JR and ER contributed the most in separating the two schools. For the 13-year-old

girls, the three largest contributors separating the schools were the SLJ, ASR, and ER.

170

Five variables (TYD, SR, SLJ, ASR, and ER), had similar contributions in separating the
14-year-old girls of the two schools. The ASR and ER were the two largest contributors

separating the 16-year—old girls in the sports and ordinary schools.

Table 52. Standardized canonical discriminant functions (SCDF) and ANOVA F-ratios for

posttest motor performance between sports and ordinary schools.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age group 13 14 16
SCDF F SCDF F SCDF F

M N=102 N=112 N=106
FAH -0.10 28.16" 0.23 12.39" -0.01 30.06"
JR -0.63 95.22" -0.38 84.25" -0.45 80.76“
TYD 0.34 94.30" 0.25 85.95" 0.34 71.03"
SR -0.03 7.30" -0.09 7.58" -0.18 23.69"
SLJ 0.41 39.87" 0.23 67.60" -0.04 66-39“
ASR 0.02 62.10“ 0.13 21.62“ 0.03 22.72“
ER 0.76 177.86" 0.85 213.35" 0.63 144.26"
First eigen value 3.18 2.44 2.42
Wilks' lambda 0.24" 0.29" 0.29“
fills N=40 N=42 N=50
FAH 0.14 12.43" -0.28 14.42" 0.04 18.05”
JR 0.12 17.83" -0.06 7.57" -O.36 56.82"
TYD 0.27 56.26" 0.51 19.77" -0.22 44.00”
SR 0.10 8.45" 0.65 14.20" -0.39 51.15"
SLJ -0.43 78.20“ 0.65 58.39” 0.03 46.95“
ASR 0.41 84.67" -0.66 68.17" 0.61 100.71"
ER 0.49 90.38" -O.63 53.53" 0.54 97.84”
First eigen value 4.47 4.91 4.74
Wilks' lambda 0.18" 0.17“ 0.17”
*p<0.05 "p<0.01

Another purpose to which discriminant analysis was applied was the issue of

classification of cases (Rencher, 1995). Results of the analyses indicating number and

171

percentage of the sports school students that rightly belong to the sports school based

on their motor performance are presented in Table 53.

Table 53. Classification results of students based on motor performance

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age group
13 14 16
Original Predicted group Predicted group Predicted group
membership membership membership
Sports Ordinary Sports Ordinary Sports Ordinary
school school school school school school
895 N=102 N=112 N=106
Count Sports 50 1 52 4 49 4
school
Ordinary 1 50 2 54 5 48
school
Percentage Sports 98.0 2.0 92.9 7.1 92.5 7.5
school
Ordinary 2.0 98.0 3.6 96.4 9.4 90.6
school
Percentage of original 98.0 94.6 91.5
Aroup correctly classified
§_i_r_|§ N=40 N=42 N=50
Count Sports 19 1 20 1 25 0
school
Ordinary 2 18 O 21 1 24
school
Percentage Sports 95.0 5.0 95.2 4.8 100 0
school
Ordinary 10.0 90.0 0 100 4.0 96.0
school
Percentage of original 92.5 97.6 98.0

group correctly classified

For the 13-year-old group, 98% of the boys and 92.5% of the girls were correctly

classified. One boy and one girl of the sports school were found not to resemble the

motor performance characteristics of the school. The percentage of students correctly

classified in the 14-year—old group was 94.6% and 97.6% for the boys and girls,

respectively. Four boys and one girt of the sports school were misclassified based on

their motor performance scores. For the oldest age group, the percentage of students

correctly classified was the lowest for the boys (91.5%), but the highest for the gins
(98%) when compared to the younger groups. Four boys but none of the girls of the
sports school had motor performance scores that did not resemble the motor

perionnance characteristics of the sports school.

Question 5. Does the effect of the school program on motor performance vary by age
group among students of the sports school?

Separate MANOVA and MANCOVA analyses were conducted for boys and girts.
The MANCOVA was performed to test the effect of age group on motor performance
among students of the sport school adjusting for the covariates. Posttest scores of motor
performance were entered as the dependent variables and age group as the predictor.
Covariates included were similar those used in Question 3.

Summaries of the MANOVA and the MANCOVA for boys and girls are presented
in Table 54. The overall multivariate test of the MANOVA indicated that there were
significant differences in posttest motor performance among age groups for both boys
and girls of the sports school. The univariate F tests further revealed the effect of age
was significant for all motor performances of the boys but only for four of the girls' motor
performance, the JR, TYD, SR. and the ASR.

Specific age group differences following the MANOVA were determined by
Bonferroni post hoc analysis (Table 55). For boys, the 16-year-olds had better
performance than the younger age groups in all tasks except for the ER where they were
only better than the youngest age group. The 14-year—olds exhibited significantly better

performance than the 13-year—olds in the SLJ only. All between age group differences in

173

 

 

 

 

 

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girls were found between the oldest and the youngest age groups. The 16-year—olds

were significantly better than the 13-year—olds in the JR, TYD, SR, and ASR. There was

no significant difference between the 13- and the14-year—olds, and between the 14- and

the 16-year-olds on any of the motor performance scores.

Table 55. Bonferroni post hoc tests of mean differences between age groups for posttest

motor performance showing a significant MANOVA F ratio among sports school students

 

 

 

 

Variable Age Group Age Group Mean Difference
Boys Girls
Flexed arm hang 13 14 -1.33
13 16 44.76"
14 16 -13.43**
Jump and reach (cm) 13 14 -3.17 -1.09
13 16 -10.33“ -5.03*
14 16 -7.16" -3.94
Thirty yard dash 13 14 0.04 0.06
13 16 0.47“ 0.24'
14 16 0.42“ 0.18
Sit and reach (cm) 13 14 -2.13 -1.87
13 16 —6.12“ -6.15"
14 16 -3.99*" -4.28
Standing long jump (cm) 13 14 -12.32*
13 16 -28.57“
14 16 -16.25"
Agility shuttle run (sec) 13 14 0.13 0.41
13 16 0.56“ 0.76“
14 16 0.43" 0.35
800 meter run (sec) 13 14 7.62
13 16 12.41"
14 16 4.79
'p < 0.05 "p < 0.01

175

The MANCOVA indicated that the effect of age on motor performance of the
sports school students remained significant among the boys only. However, the effects
of age on several motor performances of the boys exhibited in the MANOVA were
eliminated after adjusting for the covariates. Only two motor performance scores were
significantly influenced by age group, the FAH and TYD.

Specific age group differences for boys following the MANCOVA were determined
by pairwise comparison of the estimated marginal means adjusting for the covariates
(Table 56). The 16-year—olds had significantly better performance in the FAH and TYD

than the younger age groups who did not differ significantly from each other.

Table 56. Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age groups for
posttest motor performance showing a significant MANCOVA F ratio among sports
school students

 

 

 

Variable AG Ma AG Ma Md
Flexed arm hang 13 36.80 14 34.33 2.47
13 36.80 16 41.75 -4.95'
14 34.33 16 41.75 -7.42"
Thirty yard dash 13 3.69 14 3.70 -0.01
13 3.69 16 3.50 0.19“
14 3.70 16 3.50 0.20"
1* adjusted means * p < 0.05 " p < 0.01

Question 6. Are there differences in academic achievement between students enrolled in
the sports school and in the ordinary schools?
To answer this question, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of covariance

(ANCOVA) were conducted to test the effects of school, gender, age group and their

176

interaction on the initial (pretest) academic achievement. For the ANCOVA, monthly
income and place of residence were included as the covariates.

Summaries of the ANOVA and ANCOVA for pretest academic achievements are
presented in Table 57. There was no difference in pretest academic achievement
between the students of the sports school and the ordinary schools and between gender
groups with and without controlling for the covariates. However, both analyses revealed
significant differences among students of different age groups, as well as significant
school and age group interaction effects. Additionally, the ANCOVA revealed a

significant effect of income on academic achievement.

Table 57. ANOVA and ANCOVA for pretest academic achievement by school, gender

and age group

 

 

 

 

 

ANOVA ANCOVA
Independent/covariates F R2 F R2

N=452 N=452
School 0.05 0.00 0.43 0.00
Gender 0.09 0.00 0.05 0.00
Age group 27.13“ 0.11 25.99“ 0.11
School " gender 2.02 0.00 1.68 0.00
School " age group 5.79" 0.03 6.04" 0.03
Gender’ age group 2.35 0.01 2.31 0.01
Income 6.87" 0.02
Place of residence 0.77 0.00
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

Bonferonni post hoc test following the ANOVA and pairwise comparison of
adjusted means following the ANCOVA to determine specific age group differences

indicated that the younger age groups performed significantly better than the older age

177

groups (Tables 58 & 59). The 13-year—olds had better academic achievement than the
14- and the 16-year-olds, while the 14-year—olds had better academic achievement than

the 16-year-olds.

Table 58. Bonferonni post hoc tests of mean differences between age groups for pretest

academic achievement

 

 

 

Age group Means Age group Means MD
Academic achievement 13 2.87 14 2.65 0.22*
GPA 13 2.87 16 2.23 0.64“
14 2.65 16 2.23 0.42”
* p < 0.05 “ p < 0.01

Table 59. Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age groups for

pretest academic achievement

 

 

 

Age group Meansa Age group Meansa MD
Academic achievement 13 2.86 14 2.61 0.25"
GPA 13 2.86 16 2.28 0.58"
14 2.61 16 2.28 0.33”
a adjusted means ' p < 0.05 " p < 0.01

The interaction effect of school and age group on pretest academic achievement is
depicted in Figure 1. Among the 13- and the 16-year-olds, the sports school students exhibited
better academic achievement than the ordinary school students, but for the 14-year-olds, the
situation was reversed.

A regression analysis was conducted to further analyze the effect of school on
pretest academic achievement for each age group (Table 60). There were significant

effects of school on academic achievement for the 14- and the 16-year-old age groups

178

either controlling or not controlling for the covariates. However, the direction of the
relationship was not similar between the two groups. The sports school had a positive
effect on academic achievement in the older age group, but negative effect on the
younger age group. In other words, the sports school students had better academic
achievement than the ordinary school students among the 16-year-olds, but vice versa
among the 14-year-olds. For the 14-year-old group, there was also a significant positive
effect of income on the academic achievement. Higher income students had better

academic achievement than lower income students.

3.00
l
85 275': ”,n
t; ,,’
c l ,,
§ 250 i r”
A.
g225l +1Ww
E“ ' 1 1 --I-14-yearold
I --i---16—yearold
2.00- —0—- 00—-—..»——
sports ordinary
School

Figure 1. Adjusted means for the interaction of school and age group on pretest academic

achievement

179

Table 60. Regression coefficients (8) for pretest academic achievement by school and

gender with and without controlling for the covariates

 

 

 

 

 

Independent Without covariates With covariates
/ covariates Age group Age group
13 14 16 13 14 16
N=142 N=154 N=156 N=142 N=154 N=156
B R2 B R’ B 82 8 R2 B R2 B R2
School -0.01 0.00 -0.28' 0.06 0.22' 0.03 0.02 0.00 024‘ 0.04 0.23' 0.03
Gender -0.02 0.00 -0.13 0.01 0.21 0.02 -0.004 0.00 -0.15 0.01 0.20 0.02
Income .00005 0.03 0.0001' 0.04 0.00001 0.00
Place of 0.17 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.07 0.00
residence
‘ p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

Question 7. Is there an effect of the sport school program on the academic achievement
of secondary school students in Malaysia?

ANOVA and ANCOVA were performed to determine the effect of the sport school
program on posttest academic achievement. For the ANCOVA, the pretest academic
achievement was added as a covariate, in addition to income and the student’s place of
residence. Specific age group differences in posttest academic achievement were
determined through pairwise comparisons of the estimated marginal means. Additionally,
a regression analysis was performed to determine the effects of school on posttest
academic achievement.

Summaries of the ANOVA and ANCOVA are presented in Table 61. The ANOVA
showed significant differences in posttest academic achievement between the schools,
among age groups, and significant interaction effects of school and age groups, gender

and age groups, and school, gender, and age groups. However, the effect of school and

the interaction effect of school and age groups were eliminated after controlling for the

180

covariates. Additionally, the ANCOVA revealed a significant effect of income and pretest

academic achievement on the posttest academic achievement.

Table 61. ANOVA and ANCOVA for posttest academic achievement

 

 

 

 

ANOVA ANCOVA
Independent/covariates F R2 F R2

N=452 N=452
School 4.09" 0.01 3.74 0.01
Gender 2.95 0.01 3.15 0.01
Age group 59.75" 0.21 35.91” 0.14
School * gender 0.30 0.00 0.17 0.00
School ‘ age group 5.39” 0.02 1.49 0.01
Gender ' age group 8.90" 0.04 6.54" 0.03
School ‘ gender * age group 6.09“ 0.03 6.02“ 0.03
Income 4.94" 0.01
Place of residence 3.73 0.01
Pre academic achievement 205.92" 0.32

 

' p < 0.05 " p < 0.01

Bonferroni post hoc analysis following the ANOVA and pairwise comparison of
adjusted means following the ANCOVA indicated that the 13-year—olds and the 14-year-
olds performed significantly better than the 16-year-olds (Tables 62 & 63). No significant
differences were exhibited between the 13- and the 14-year—old age groups although the
14-year—olds had a slightly higher GPA.

The interaction effects of gender and age group indicated by the ANCOVA are
depicted in Figure 2. Among the 13- and the 16-year—olds, the girls exhibited higher
academic achievement than the boys, and vice versa for the 14—year-olds. Figure 3

dePicts the school, gender, and age group interaction effects. The 16-year—old boys and

the 13-year-old giris of the sports school had higher academic achievement than their

181

counterparts in the ordinary school, but the opposite was true for the 13- and 14-year—old

boys, and the 14- and 16-year—old girls.

Table 62. Bonferonni post hoc tests of mean differences between age groups for posttest

academic achievement

 

 

 

Age group Meansa Age group Meansa MD
Academic achievement 13 2.69 14 2.77 -0.08
GPA 13 2.69 16 1.94 0.75"
14 2.77 16 1.94 0.83”
'p<0.05 "p<0.01

Table 63. Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means between age groups for

posttest academic achievement

 

 

 

Age group Meansa Age group Meansa MD
Academic achievement 13 2.55 14 2.69 -0.14
GPA 13 2.55 16 2.18 0.37“
14 2.69 16 2.18 0.51"
a adjusted means ’ p < 0.05 " p < 0.01

182

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<

o.

9 2.75 . n- .....

g . ...... a

to - #0

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E .-A

g 2.25 l

g -,.- —o—13»yeaold
2.00 7 "' _—a--14-yeaold
1751 ' ' .......1syearord

boys girls
Genderl

Figure 2. Adjusted means for the interaction of gender and age groups on posttest

academic achievement

 

3.50 7,
3.25 1

0 3.00 4,

c l ‘_ __ —.

8 2.75 i .. —- "’ _.....—x

E l e:—- """ :4/

g 2.50 : -/~,_..

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< i , _ . _ ~ . —-— yea' boys
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1.75 i —u—13~yeaoldg'rts
1.50 L 0 0 7 . —4——14-yeaoldg'rls

sports ordinary --.o...16yeaddgns
School

Figure 3. Adjusted means for interaction of school, gender, and age group for posttest

academic achievement.

183

Results of regression analyses showing the effects of school and gender on

posttest academic achievement with and without controlling for the covariates for each

age group are presented in Table 64. There was a significant effect of school only for the

14-year-old group after either controlling or not controlling for the covariates. Students of

the ordinary schools had better academic achievement than the sports school students.

The 16-year-old age group exhibited gender differences where boys demonstrated better

academic achievement than girts. In addition, income had positive effect on posttest

academic achievement among the 14— and the 16-year-old age groups. Students with

higher income tended to have better academic achievement than those with lower

income.

Table 64. Regression coefficients (0) for posttest academic achievement by school and

gender with and without controlling for the covariates

 

 

 

 

 

Independent! Without covariates With covariates
covariates Age group Age group
13 14 16 13 14 16

N=142 N=154 N=156 N=142 N=154 N=156

8 R2 8 R2 8 R2 8 R2 8 R2 B R2
School 018 0.02 041“ 0.14 0.15 0.02 -0.15 0.02 019“ 0.06 0.16 0.02
Gender 0.04 0.00 -0.17 0.02 0.44“ 0.11 0.05 0.00 -0.09 0.01 0.35“ 0.09
Income 0.00 0.00 000006" 0.03 0.0001' 0.03
Place of residence 0.14 0.01 0.15 0.01 0.18 0.01
Pre academic 0.63" 0.44 0.63“ 0.49 0.30" 0.12
achievement
’p<0.05 "p<0.01

184

Discussion

Current status ofjpons promam of the sports school

The extent to which the current status of the sports school program meets its
original plan varies according to the areas being evaluated. While the implementation of
some areas of the program exceeded what had been planned, some areas still have not
met the original plan. In general, program content and policy has been implemented as
planned. In fact, there has been an addition to the objectives as a result of a re-
evaluation of the function of the sports school. Presently, the sports school also fills the
needs for strong base of scientific research in the field of sports. This addition was
appropriate for more accurate prediction of the future success of these athletes and to
determine the effectiveness of the program. Furthermore, research on these young
athletes may provide insight and greater understanding of the development of sports
performance and its relation to the growth and maturation of Malaysian adolescents.

Although there was still a small shortage in the number of boys enrolled in this
school, there was a tremendous increase in the number of sports offered at the sports
school. Presently, there are 27 sports offered at the sports school compared to only 12
in the original plan. Nevertheless, 82% of the students are involved in the 12 sports
stated in the original plan. Despite the tremendous increase in the number of sports
offered in the sports school, this item is only evaluated as moderately adequate by the
coaches. The exact explanation for such evaluation is beyond the scope of this study. It
may due to the lower number of sports offered at the sports school compared to the
number of sports offered at major international sports event. As mentioned eariier, the

sports school accommodates the preparation of national athletes for international sports

185

events. Generally, major sports events such as the South East Asian Games, the Asian
Games, and the Commonwealth Games have 36 sports for competition.

Although there was an increase in sports offered in the sports school, not all
sports are represented by the students enrolled at age 13. As such, there was an
unequal distribution of students by sports among the age groups in the school (see
Tables 9 & 10). Basically, the sports offered in the original plan, except for soccer, are
represented every year provided that there are qualified students to be selected into the
program. Soccer players are in a special development program funded by the Football
Association of Malaysia (FAM). Due to recent changes in the development plan of FAM,
soccer players now will not be enrolled in the sports school until they reach age 16.
Recently, rugby has been added in the school sports program due to a newly introduced
development program organized and partly funded by the Malaysian Rugby Union
(MRU). The selection of students are selected in other sports in any particular year is
largely dependent on the need to prepare athletes for specific future major sports events
set by the National Sports Council. In addition, preference in the selection process is
given to athletes in sports where there is good potential for winning models. For
example, over the next few years, the selection of athletes will focus on badminton, field
hockey, bowling, and squash.

It is important to note that the enrollment of girls (36.6%) in the sports school is
much lower than that of the boys (63.4%) despite the fact that women account for about
one-half of the Malaysian population (Malaysia, 1996). One of the reasons for this
situation is due to the type of sports offered in the sports school. Comparatively, there

are more 'all-boy' sports than 'aII-giri' sports offered at the sports school. Moreover, the

186

“all-boy“ sports such as soccer and rugby have more players per team, thus, resulting in
more players from those sports selected into the sports school. This unequal boy-girl
enrollment may also be attributed to several other factors. The participation rate of
Malaysian women in sports is very low, either in high performance sports or general
mass participation in sport activities (Salman, 1997). Salman further revealed that the
participation of women in sports is influenced by structural constraints (policy, provision,
facilities), cultural constraints (notions about what women can and should do), and
personal constraints such as family obligations, lack of time, and lack of mobility. The
lower number of girls compared to boys in the sports school perhaps also reflects the
government's lack of promotion and implementation of women sports, especially at
grassroots level (Salman, 1997).

Although the National Sports Policy cleariy specifies that all Malaysians have
equal opportunity to participate in sports (National Sports Council, 1988), the ethnic
composition of the sports school enrollees is not the same as the ethnic composition of
the country (Table 65). The percentages of Chinese and Indians in the sports school are
much lower than their national percentages. In contrast, there is a higher percentage of
Malay boys enrolled when compared to their national representation. An apparent
reason for this situation may due to ethnic affinities for particular sports among the
Malaysians and the sports offered in the sports school. In other words, the sports school
enrollment is a reflection of these ethnic-sports affinities in the country. The sports
participation of Malays is closely linked to soccer, rugby, and sepaktakraw, while the
Chinese are associated with sports such as basketball, table tennis, and wushu.

However, the usual domination of the Indians in hockey and cricket is not depicted by the

187

sports school ethnic composition. Since sports linked to the Malays have more players
per team, there is also tendency for more Malays to be selected into the sports school.
For girls, the ethnic composition of the sports school students is more representative of
the Malaysian population. Ethnic linked sports (netball with the Malays, basketball with
the Chinese) have an equal number of players per team, thus, ethnic differences in
enrollment are largely due to other sports which reflect the ethnic composition of the

country.

Table 65. Ethnic group representation in the sample, total sports school, and the

 

 

 

National level
Ethnic group Sample (%) Total sports school (%) National (°/o)'
Male Female Total Male Female Total Total
Malay 86.9 77.3 84.1 78.4 62.1 72.5 61.7
Chinese 9.4 16.7 11.5 16.6 32.3 22.4 27.3
Indian 3.8 6.1 4.4 3.2 4.5 3.7 7.7
Others 1.7 1.0 1.5 0.3

 

Note: indigenous groups are categorized as Malays (Malaysia, 1996)
* based on 1991 population consensus (Malaysia, 1996)

Criteria for the selection of students have been implemented according to the
plan with all of the students selected meeting the requirements of the sports. However,
not all of the students selected have met the criteria for academic achievement. Over the
years, the number of students selected meeting academic requirements has become less
and less. According to the school, to obtain students with equally good sports and

academic qualifications is quite difficult. Therefore, priority for the selection of the

188

students is mainly based on their sports performance. Moreover, most of the coaches
tend to agree with the current process for selecting the students.

The number of supporting staff and the teacher-class ratio also showed an
increase from the original plan. The teacher-class ratio increased from 2:1 in the original
plan to 2.7: 1 in the current status. Despite this increase, there was difficulty in getting a
fitness instructor for this school and the number of teachers is three less than the number
allocated by the Ministry of Education. Only 78% of the teachers had the required
bachelor's degree for academic qualification. The remainder, although not meeting the
academic requirement, were all certified and qualified teachers. It is normal practice in
the Malaysian school system to have teachers with such qualifications to teach students
at the lower secondary level.

Currently, there are 23 teacher-coaches and 29 nonteacher—coaches involved in
the sports program. All but one are certified coaches and all have the required coaching
experience. However, most coaches felt that the number of qualified coaches was still
insufficient, especially the teacher-coaches. In general, all sports had the services of
qualified experienced coaches although some sports had the services of better and more
experienced foreign coaches. To get teacher-coaches with qualifications and experience
similar to those of the nonteacher- coaches is almost impossible because their
participation and involvement in coaching was restricted by their position as teachers. In
contrast, all nonteacher-coaches were full time coaches specifically hired by the National
Sports Council.

The overall adequacy of the policy and content of the sports program was

evaluated as moderately adequate by the coaches of the school. However, the three

189

biggest problems faced by coaches in running the sports program were related to this
area of the program; namely, inadequate staffing, quality of the students, and apathy of
the students. Despite the greater number of support staff compared to the original plan,
the number of teacher-coaches is still insufficient. Additionally, there is very limited
support staff in the management of sports training and in sports competition. Currently,
most of the administrative duties are also the responsibility of the teacher-coaches. The
coaches have to do most of the preparation pertaining to sports training and competition
such as arranging for transportation, booking venues, and assisting with purchase of the
sports equipment for the students, in addition to their coaching duties. Some of the
teacher-coaches also have to give extra classes to the students. This has become an
extra burden for the teacher-coaches.

Although all the students met the sports requirement of the sports school,
evaluation by the teacher-coaches indicated that there is a need for better quality
students to be selected into the school. The selection process also depends on
recommendations from the various state sport councils. In some cases, a state was
reluctant to have its best athletes enroll in the sports school because the services of
these athletes would be lost for inter-state national competition. However, a measure
has been taken to overcome this problem. The sports school athletes will have the
priority to represent their respective states in national competition. The result of this
measure is presently unknown because it has just been implemented. Rankings by the
coaches also indicated that there is a need for more coordination with various sports
organizations, especially in terms of the selection of students and the use of outside

training facilities.

190

Problems of student apathy are mosfly concerned with the students' attitude
towards training. There were indications that some of the athletes are not trying their
best in training, thus resulting in a lack of achievement in sports competition. These
athletes apparently felt that their place in the sports school was secure after being
selected into the sports school. Consequently, the school has recently decided to expel
students with discipline problems and those who fail to show expected performance
improvement.

There is still a lot to be implemented in terms of privileges and opportunity, for
students and the teacher-coaches, if the sports program is to meet the original plan.
Evaluation by the coaches is also in agreement with this conclusion because this area of
the program was rated as “lowly adequate' and ranked last in terms of adequacy.

Most students of the sports school still have to pay school fees, buy their own
sports equipment, pay their own medical insurance, and do not automatically received
monthly scholarships. For lower income students, although provided with scholarships, a
large portion of their scholarships is used to pay their school fees. In the end, they are
left with limited financial resources to buy their own sports equipment.

Although most of the students have the chance to compete in national and
international competitions, this opportunity is still considered as insufficient by the
coaches, especially those at the international level. The coaches felt that the students
should be given more opportunities for competing at the international level through test
matches to gain more experience in their related games. Presently, only those selected

to represent the country have the opportunity for international level competition. To date,

191

opportunity of students to compete at the international level twice a year, as stated in the
original plan, has not been yet implemented.

There is no coaching allowance provided to the teacher-coaches and there are
still teacher-coaches teaching more than six periods a week. It should be noted that
ordinary school teacher-coaches who are assigned to sports development projects in
their various states are paid RM 250.00 a month. Although most of the coaches are
provided with housing within the school area, this facility is not actually a privilege since
they do not receive their housing allowance. In other words, there is no difference
between teachers and teacher-coaches of the school, or between the teacher-coaches
and teachers at other schools in terms of housing privilege. Some teachers at ordinary
schools are also provided with housing facilities.

Only 43% of the coaches attended professional development courses during the
year 2000. This aspect of opportunity was assessed by the teacher-coaches as “lowly
adequate” and ranked last in term of adequacy for this area of the program. Among the
reasons cited by teacher-coaches for this inadequacy are heavy commitments with the
school program and lack of relevant courses offered.

Comparatively, the most adequate area of the program was the training and
facility area. The current training schedules are run according to what is stated in the
original plan. Most of the coaches tended to agree regarding the sufficiency of time
allotted for training and the demand for competition.

There are very limited training facilities within the school. The location of the
school within the vicinity of various training facilities of the National Sports Council did

not seem to justify such limited facilities. The number of sports offered in the sports

192

school is more than the number that can be accommodated by the facilities available at
the National Sports Council. For some sports, the training has to be carried to venues up
35 kilometers from the school. Additionally, the facilities available are mostly training
venues while the need for more training equipment still exists. There were also requests
by coaches for additional training facilities, and especially for specific training equipment
for each type of sport.

Among the various aspects of training and facilities, opportunities for the use of
facilities outside the school was ranked as the most adequate. Most of the coaches
tended to agree on this opportunity and rated it as moderately adequate. However, there
are problems faced by coaches in using these outside facilities. Transportation, long
traveling times, and clashes with other teams for using these facilities were among the
problems cited by the coaches.

Generally, medical services rendered to students are implemented according to
the original plan. Medical screening is done prior to enrollment and medical histories are
kept by the school. All injured athletes have accessibility to prompt medical treatment
and rehabilitation programs. However, the adequacy of a sound rehabilitation program

was ranked fifth out of six items listed in this program area.

Characteristics of t_he spgrts school stugents
Young athletes are usually defined by success on interscholastic or agency
teams, in national and international competitions, and in selected club and age groups

competitions (Malina et al., 1982). Students in the sports school were young athletes

193

according to this definition. They were a highly select group based on their success in
national and international age-group competition.

The criteria for the selection of the sports school students indicated that the
selections were ordinarily based on skills and physical performance. However, among
adolescents, physical performance is also influenced by size and physique due to
variation in maturity status (Malina, 1975; Malina, 1988b; Jones et al., 2000). Numerous
reviews by Malina (1982,19883, 1988b, 1994a, 1998) indicate that athletes of both sexes
in team sports, have statures that equal or exceed reference medians. In the present
study, comparison of anthropometric dimensions between the sports school and the
ordinary school students demonstrated a similar finding. The sports school students
were found to be taller, heavier, and had larger arm and calf circumferences and thinner
skinfolds than the ordinary school students. Consequently, sports school boys
demonstrated larger arm and calf muscle areas as a result of the larger circumferences
and thinner skinfold measurements.

Comparison with the Malaysian national population and other populations from
various studies also demonstrated that students of the sports school were taller, heavier,
and had larger arm and calf circumferences, especially among the boys (Table 66).
However, it is interesting to note the pattern of differences in height when comparisons
are made between the sports school students and the Asians, and between the sports
school boys and the American and Europeans over increasing age. There is a tendency
for the size advantage of the sports school students to diminish when they are compared
to the Americans and the Belgians over increasing age, while height differences between

the sports school boys and the Asians over increasing age are rather consistent. This

194

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195

finding may provide an explanation for the adult size differences between Malaysians and
Americans or Europeans. Perhaps this trend is similar to what had been cited by Eveleth
and Tanner (1990) when comparing the height of Indonesian-Malays to Europeans. The
size advantage at younger ages was due to earlier maturation, and consequently, they
stopped growing at an earlier age with a final adult height lower than that of Europeans.

Because the sports school students are selected to be groomed for international
sports competition, the diminishing size advantage over increasing age, and as adults,
when compared to other papulations may provide one important consideration. This
finding suggests a limitation for future international success in sports where size is also a
determinant factor. The most successful athletes are those with the appropriate body
structure to perform their events; and, world championship athletes represent the
optimum combination of genetic and environmental influences to produce maximum
perionnance (Carter, 1984; Bonus & Hebbelinck, 1984). In various sports, especially
contact and combative sports, having a bigger size is an advantage. As well as being
directly related to potential for strength and power movements, larger size also serves to
create greater momentum and obstacles for opponents. This feature justifies the cliche,
'a good big athlete will always beat a good small athletes' (Shephard, 1978).

As indicated by the descriptive statistics, students of the sports school had better
motor performance than the ordinary school students. Further comparison with
adolescents of similar ages who participated in the Motor Performance Study (MPS)
conducted at Michigan State University is presented in Table 67. As shown by the table,
the motor performance of the sports school boys is better than that of the MPS male

participants. However, the sports school girls are only better than the MPS female

196

participants in the JR, TYD, and ASR. Noting that the participants of the MPS arenot a
highly selected group, the poorer performance of the sports school girls on several of the
tasks may suggest a further implication. Their poor motor performance could be a major

setback for international sports success.

Table 67. Comparison of motor performance between the sports school students and
participants in MP8 at Michigan State University

 

 

 

 

Present study Motor Performance Study, MSU'

Age group 13 14 16 13 14 16
B_oy§
Flexed Arm Hang, sec 32.2 33.6 47.0 21 28 39
Jump and Reach, cm 49.0 52.2 59.4 36.8 40.6 49.5
30 Yard Dash, sec 3.8 3.8 3.3 4.4 4.2 3.9
Sit and Reach, cm" 22.4 24.5 28.5 17.8 19.1 22.9
Standing long jump, cm 208.2 220.6 236.8 182.9 193 214.6
Agility shuttle run, sec 9.9 9.8 9.3 10.4 10.1 9.5
grls
Flexed Arm Hang, sec 14.5 13.0 16.1 15 17 22
Jump and Reach, cm 39.2 40.2 44.2 34.3 36.8 38.1
30 Yard Dash, sec 4.3 4.2 4.0 4.5 4.4 4.3
Sit and Reach, cm“ 25.3 27.1 31.4 26.7 29.2 31.8
Standing long jump, cm 170.5 177.2 183.6 172.7 179.1 182.9
Agility shuttle run, sec 10.7 10.3 10.0 10.8 10.6 10.3

 

' 50th percentile score
“ A value of 15 cm been added to this score

The present study also revealed significant differences in maturity status between
boys of the sports school and the ordinary schools for the 13-year-old and the 14-year-
old groups, but not for the 16-year—old group. This finding suggests that students
selected into the sports school were early maturers. It has been shown in previous

studies that children who differ in maturity status also differ in size, physique, body

197

composition, strength, and motor performance (Malina, 1975; Malina, 1988b). The data
also showed that maturity status is significantly correlated with various measures of
anthropometry and motor performance (Table 68). Except for body mass and skinfolds,
results of this correlational analysis are generally in agreement with those obtained in
previous studies (Espenchade, 1940; Clarke 1971; Malina, 1975; Beunen et al.,

1981 ;Beunen, Malina et al., 1997; Jones et al., 2000). In the present study, the
detrimental effects of body weight and skinfold thicknesses on motor performance are not
consistently exhibited. However, it should be noted that half of the samples are young
athletes and greater weight may reflect bigger muscle size. Furthermore, maturation and
body dimensions, body composition, and body proportion are confounded in their effect
on performance (Malina, 1975).

The size advantage of the sports school boys is not merely due to maturity status
especially in the oldest group. Among the 16-year-old students, the sports school boys
continue to exhibit size advantage although their maturity status is similar to that of the
ordinary school boys. The catch-up growth of late maturing boys during the high school
years that reduced the size differences so apparent in earty adolescence as cited by
Malina (1998), is not depicted in this study. However, such catch-up growth may not
occur until the later teen years. Since most of the athletes are selected during earty
adolescence, it can be assumed that their larger size is not only a function of accelerated
growth rate and maturation but also likely reflects hereditary influence.

The superior performance of the sports school girls may also be accounted for by
their size advantage as indicated by descriptive statistics and the correlational analyses.

However, whether these advantages are also due to maturity status cannot be

198

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200

determined since the girls' maturity status was not assessed. Numerous studies have
shown that female athletes, except for swimmers, tend to be average or late in biological
maturation (Malina. 1998). It also appears that average and late maturing girls persist in
sport in later adolescence. Taking this into consideration, the size advantage of the

sports school girls likely reflects the demand of the sports.

Motor performance of students enrolled in the sports school

Based on the discussion above regarding the interrelationships between growth
status, maturity status and motor performance, the significant differences in motor
perionnance between the sports school and the ordinary school students favoring the
sports school students are indeed expected. If these were the only variables that
account for these differences, then one would expect the elimination of the school effect
after the influence of these variables is controlled. Nevertheless, all motor performances
(except for the SR) for boys continue to exhibit the effect of the sports school even after
controlling for these variables and other variables related to socioeconomic status. This
finding suggests that these residual differences could be due to the training received and
to the active sports participation of the sports school students. However, motor
performances that reflect significant differences between the sport and the ordinary
schools are not exactly the same among different age groups because there are
variations on the covariates among the different age groups (Table 69). An apparent
trend depicted by this finding is that the older age groups have more motor performance
variables that remain significant after controlling for the covariates. For the boys in older

age groups, the effects of the sports school on motor perionnance remain significant for

201

all variables except the SR, while at age 13, only performances on the JR, SLJ, ASR,
and ER remain significant. For the girls, the effect of the sports school remains
significant in all motor performances for the 16-year age group, while for the younger
groups only performances on the SLJ, ASR, and ER remain significant. In this context, it
is important to note that the sports school students in older age group have been in the

school for more years than the younger age groups.

Table 69. Summary of effects of sports school on pretest motor performances controlling
for the covariates by age groups

 

 

 

Gender Age group Motor performance
13 JR. SLJ, ASR, ER
Boys 14 FAH, JR, TYD, SLJ, ASR, ER
16 FAH, JR, TYD, SLJ, ASR, ER
13 SLJ, ASR, ER
Girls 14 SLJ, ASR, ER
16 FAH, JR, TYD, SR, SLJ, ASR, ER

 

Arguably, comparing the sports school and the ordinary school students among
the 14- and 16-year—old age groups does not necessarily demonstrate the performance
characteristics of the students selected into the sports school. The motor performances
of the sport school students at these ages are also influenced by the number of years
they have been in the sports school. Perhaps, a better indication of the motor
performance characteristics of students selected into the sports school is displayed by
the youngest age group. These students had been in the school for about a month when

this study was begun.

202

Effects of the sports school mm on motor perfonnm

Bearing in mind that there are pre-existing differences between the sports school
and the ordinary school students, the effect of the sports school program on motor
perionnance over a one school year is determined by controlling for these differences.
Additionally, stature measured during the posttest is included as additional covariate to
control for the effect of growth. This is due to the fact that physical training may induce
changes in the same direction and approximately the same magnitude as expected by
growth changes (Bailey et al., 1986).

The MANCOVA of the posttest motor performance revealed the significant effect
of the sports school program on overall motor performance for both boys and girls.
Specifically, the sports school program had a significant effect on all motor performances
except for the boys' SLJ. Examination of the effect of sports school program on the
motor performance of each age group revealed a significant effect for boys and girls in all
age groups. However, the motor performance variables affected are not consistent

among the age groups (Table 70).

Table 70. Motor performances significantly affected by the sports school program by
gender and age group

 

 

 

Gender Age group Motor performance
13 FAH, SR, ASR, ER
Boys 14 TYD, SLJ, ASR, ER
16 FAH, TYD, SR
13 FAH, ASR, ER
Girls 14 FAH, SLJ, ASR, ER
16 JR, SLJ, ER

 

203

Thus far, it has been shown that the sports program of the sports school has
beneficial effects on motor performance, particularly on the variables listed in Table 70.
This finding indicates the ability of the program to cause positive effects on these motor
tasks. Available information on the sports school suggests that these effects can be
primarily attributed to the selection process and to the school's training program. The
significant effect of pretest motor performance on posttest motor performance,
particularly in the youngest age group, reflects the effectiveness of the selection process.
On the other hand, the significant effect of the sports school program on posttest
performance after controlling for the covariates which includes pretest motor performance
and growth, reflects the effects of the training program. Training-induced changes during
growth can be identified after giving consideration to biologic age and developmental
factors such as stature and body mass (Bar-O, 1989). Within this context, the training
stimulus provided to the sports school students seems to induce greater positive effects
on motor performance than do growth factors alone.

The significant effect of the sports school on motor performance may also reflect
the systematic training program of the sports school. As suggested by Willmore and
Costill (1994), the frequency, intensity, and duration of training are important factors in a
training program. Also, it has been shown that the sports school students spend more
time spent on sports activities than the ordinary school students. However, merely
increasing time in physical activities may not influence perionnance (Beunen et al., 1992;
Andersen, 1994). The physical activities also have to qualify as training which refers to

regular, systematic practice of specific physical activities (Malina & Bouchard, 1991).

204

Several studies have reported effects of intensive training on aerobic and
anaerobic performance by comparing young athletes with non athletes (Nikolic & Ilic,
1992; Sady et al., 1994; Tharp et al., 1984). Other studies have reported the significant
influence of enhanced or intensified instructional programs on motor performance
(Elnashar & Mayhew, 1984; Shephard 8: Lavallee, 1994). Perhaps, the sports program at
the sports school is a combination of the two, an enhanced instructional program with
intensive training.

Improved performance as a result of training is usually attributed to numerous
physiological adaptations, such as increased in glycolytic enzyme activity and oxidative
enzymes (Foumier et al., 1982). These adaptations in turn are specific to the mode of
training which should be sports specific, emphasizing the energy system used for the
particular sport (Malina & Bouchard, 1991). Taking these facts into consideration, the
variations in the effect of the sports school program on motor performance among age
groups can be explained. Since the proportion of athletes for each sport is not equal
across age groups, there are variations in the modes of training for the age groups.
These variations result in different types of physiological adaptation which are manifested
by differences in motor performance- Additionally, physiological differences among
different age groups and maturity status can also contribute to these variations.

Results of the discriminant analysis parallel the results of the MANOVA on the
posttest motor perionnance. The motor performances distinguish between students of
the sports and ordinary schools across all age groups. Nevertheless, the relative
contributions of motor performance variables in discriminating students of the two

schools are not consistent across age groups.

205

Despite the significant effect of the sports school program on motor performance,
the classification process shows that 8 boy and 3 girls in the sports school do not
resemble the motor performance characteristics of sports school students. Surprisingly,
for the boys, the number is greater in the older age group. Since the students are a
highly selected group, provide with systematic training, and had been longer in the sports
school compared to the younger age groups, this finding warrants further investigation by
coaches of the sports school.

The effect of the sports program on different age groups was further investigated
by comparing posttest motor performance between different age groups among the
sports school students. There were no differences in the effect of the sports program on
motor performance among the girls of different age groups, and between the 13- and 14-
year-old boys. However, for the girls, the number of students in each group may be too
small to statistically detect significant differences between the different age groups. As
such, the non-significant difference among age groups for the girls may be partly or
entirely due to this factor.

The 16-year-old boys are significantly better than the younger boys on the FAH
and TYD. The exact explanations for such differences are beyond the scope of this
study. However, they may due to differences in type of training, training adaptation,
and/or limited physiological capacities of the younger boys. Trainability in adolescents
has been linked to the intrinsic properties of the muscle, substantial growth in
cardiorespiratory system, and hormonal changes (Naughton et al., 2000).

In summary, the sports school students had better motor performance than the

ordinary school students on both the pretest and posttest measures. These findings

206

reflect the effectiveness of the selection process identifying students with high
performance (pretest performance of the 13-year-olds), and the effectiveness of the
training program in successfully enhancing motor performance of the students (posttest
performance). However, it is important to note that some of these differences can be
attributed to differences in the physical characteristics of students between the two
schools. The effects of the sports school program on several motor performance
variables are eliminated after controlling for the physical characteristics of the sample-
Available reviews indicate that these findings might be due to two main factors. First, the
training program being conducted in the sports school fails to induce greater positive
effects on several performance variables than do growth factors alone. Second, there
may be physiological limitations among adolescents that prohibit further improvement on
some of the motor performance tasks. Nevertheless, the exact explanation for these
findings has yet to be investigated. For the time being, the sports school coaches should
try to design training programs that will improve motor performance on tasks on which
the current program had no significant effect.

The ultimate goal of the sports school is to produce future sport champions
through the identification of talented children at young ages and then providing them with
a systematic training program. Within the limitations of this study, this aspect of the
program's effectiveness cannot be determined. It requires a longitudinal study involving
continuous evaluation of the students' physical performance and their performance in
sports competition.

Although supen'or motor perionnance can be consistent with success in many

sports activities, it is not the only factor that determines success in sports competition.

207

The results of this study have triggered one important question; to what extent is the
basic motor performance of the students related to performance in actual sports
competition? If there is a substantial relationship, the motor performance of the students
may be used to help predict success in sports competition. Conversely, students whose
motor performance does not resemble the motor performance characteristics of the
students in the sports school are likely to perform poorly in sports competition.
Additionally, the coaches may be able to determine which of the motor performance

tasks, if any, makes the greatest contribution to success in sports.

Effects of the sports school prggram on academic achievement

 

In general, the ANOVA and ANCOVA of the pretest academic achievement shows
no significant differences in academic achievement between the students enrolled in the
sports school and students in the ordinary school. However, comparisons among the
age groups indicate that the 14-year-old sports school students have lower academic
achievement than their counterparts in the ordinary schools, but the reverse is true for
the 16-year-old group. Similarly, the ANOVA and ANCOVA of the posttest academic
achievement shows that there is no significant effect of the sports school program on
academic achievement. Moreover, there is a negative effect of the sports school
program on the academic achievement of the 14-year -old students. The study also
shows that income and pretest achievement are predictors of academic achievement.

Since income, pre-academic achievement, and place of residence are controlled
in the analyses, the non-significant effect of the sports school can be explained by

comparing the academic programs of the schools. Among the strategies adopted by the

208

sports school to boost academic achievement is having a sufficient number of qualified
teachers, smaller class sizes, flexible academic schedules, high teacher-class ratios, and
sufficient academic assistance. A comparison of these resources between the sports

school and the ordinary school is presented in Table 71.

Table 71. Comparison of academic resources between the sports and the ordinary school

 

 

Resources Sports school Ordinary school

Weekly class hours 19 hours 26 hours

Number of student per class 8-28 19 - 41

Teachemlass ratio 2.7:1 2.021

Percentage of graduate 78% 75%

teachers

Scholarship Provided to low income Provided to low income
students students with strong academic

achievement

 

The similarity in academic resources between the sports and the ordinary school
could be a factor contributing to non-significant effect of the sports school on academic
achievement. Generally there are no differences in academic resources between the
sports and the ordinary school, except for the number of students per class, which is
smaller in the sports school. The fewer class hours per week in the sports school is
supplemented by six hours of preparatory class per week. During this preparatory class,
students are given academic assistance by teachers of the school. The higher teacher-
class ratio in the sports school is actually due to the presence of the teacher-coaches.

it seems that the smaller class size at the sports school has no significant impact
on the students' academic achievement. The literature on the impact of small class size

on academic achievement is mixed (Mosteller, 1995; Hanushek, 1999). A recent study

209

by Johnson (2000) using the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data
indicated that class size has little or no effect on academic achievement. Children in the
smaller classes (20 or fewer per class) do not score higher than students in the largest

classes (31 or more per class).

210

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to detennine the current status of the sports school
and to determine the effectiveness of the sports school program with regard to motor
performance and academic achievement. The current status of the sports component of
the sports school program was assessed by comparing it to the original plan. The effect
of the sports school on motor performance and academic achievement was detennlned
by comparing the motor perionnance and academic achievement of the sports school
students with students in ordinary schools.

Based on the two main purposes of the study, the research process was divided
into two major parts. The first part was concerned with the determination of the current
status of the sports school program. The extent to which the current status of the
program met the original plan was assessed through three primary areas of the program;
namely, program content and policy, privileges and opportunity, and training and
facilities. Additionally, the adequacy of each program area and problems associated with
conducting the sports program were detennlned through responses from the
administrator and coaches of the sports school. Thirty-seven coaches comprised of 23

teacher-coaches and 14 nonteacher-coaches participated in the study.

211

A checklist was developed and used to compare the present status of the sports
school program to its original plan. Responses from the coaches regarding the adequacy
of the program were numerically assigned and the rating means for each item and each
program area were categorized into four levels of adequacy: highly adequate; moderately
adequate; lowly adequate; and inadequate. Further, individual items for each program
area were ranked to determine their relative level of adequacy. Rankings made by
coaches on six problems posed to them were used to determine the severity of these
problems with regard to the program.

With a few exceptions, the current program content and policy is similar to that of
the original plan. Although there is still shortage in the number of boys enrolled, there
was a tremendous increase in the number of sports offered at the sports school. The
number of support staff and the teacher-class ratio also showed an increase from the
original plan. Criteria for selection of the students had been implemented according to
the original plan with 100% of the students selected meeting the sports requirement.
However, some of the students selected did not meet the criterion for academic
achievement. Only 78% of the teachers had the required bachelor’s degree for academic
qualification. The others, although not meeting the academic requirement, were all
certified and qualified teachers.

There is still a lot to be implemented in term of privileges and opportunity, for the
students and for the teacher-coaches, if the program is to meet the original plan. Most
students still have to pay school fees, buy their own sports equipment, and do not
automatically receive monthly scholarships. Although most of the students had the

chance to participate in national and international competitions, only 38% of them had

212

the opportunity to compete at international level. For the teacher-coaches, some are still
teaching more than six periods a week (22 %), and no coaching allowance is provided to
them. Only one (0.9%) of the teacher-coaches receives the loan of a car and only 43% of
the teacher-coaches were able to attend professional development courses during the
year2000.

The only program area that fully met the original plan is training and facilities-
Training facilities are available as stated in the original plan. Nevertheless, training
facilities available within the school area are very limited and the use of outside facilities
is faced by problems such as transportation, long travelling time, and clashes with other
teams. There is a slight increase in the frequency and duration of training, from 5 days a
week to 5-6 days a week, and from 3-4 hours per day to 3-6 hours per day. Training
during school holidays is provided to national athletes since their training is a year round
program. For the others, training is provided only if necessary, i.e. when they are
preparing for a competition.

All students in the sports school receive medical attention as originally planned.
They are screened for their medical condition upon being selected into the sports school-
lnjured athletes are referred to physicians for treatment and rehabilitation. Nevertheless,
sufficient accessibility to sound rehabilitation programs still needs further attention.

In terms of adequacy, the sports program of the sports school was evaluated as
moderately adequate. None of the items or the program areas were assessed as highly
adequate or inadequate. Among the three program areas evaluated, training and
facilities was assessed as the most adequate, while privileges and opportunities was

rated the least adequate. Two of the program areas; program content and policy, and

213

training and facilities, were assessed as moderately adequate. The privileges and
opportunity area of the program was assessed as lowly adequate

For program content and policy, five items were rated as moderately adequate,
and the remaining three as lowly adequate. The more adequate items are the clarity of
the purposes and objectives, understanding of the objectives, the number of sports
offered, and the selection process of the students, while the less adequate items are the
number of qualified coaches, policy, and coordination with various sports organizations.

For training and facilities, all but one item were rated as moderately adequate.
Items receiving higher ratings are opportunities for the use of sports facilities outside the
school, time allotted for training, and accessibility for prompt medical treatment, while
those rated lower are funding, accessibility for sound rehabilitation for injured athletes,
and availability of sports facilities inside the school. For privileges and opportunities, all
four items were assessed as lowly adequate. The privileges provided coaches and
competition opportunities for students are the more adequate items, while the privileges
provided to students and course opportunities for coaches were less adequate.

The three biggest problems faced by coaches of the sports school in conducting
the sports program are inadequate staffing, the apathy of students, and the quality of
students. There is an insufficient number of qualified coaches, especially among the
teacher-coaches. Additionally, there is a need for more support staff, especially in the
area of team management and supporting services. Inadequate facilities, although
ranked fourth in the order of severity, need to be given special attention. The training
facilities available at the sports school are limited and the use of outside facilities

presents transportation problems, lost practice time due to travel, and clashes in practice

214

schedules with other teams. Perhaps these problems are linked to the need for more
coordination with various sports organizations.

The second part of the study was concerned with the determination of the
effectiveness of the sports school program with regard to motor perionnance and
academic achievement. One hundred and sixty boys from nine sports and 66 girls from
six sports in the sports school were included in the study. The students were comprised
of three age groups; 13-year—old, 14-year-old, and the 16-year—old. Similar numbers of
students matched for gender, age group, and ethnicity were selected from two ordinary
schools.

The motor perionnance scores and academic achievement of sports school
students attained over a one school year were compared to those of a comparison group
comprised of students from ordinary schools. Motor performance tests included were the
FAH, JR, TYD, SR, SLJ, ASR, and ER, while examination results were used as a
measure of academic achievement. Other variables were measured and used as
covariates to control for pre-existing differences among the subjects. These variables
measured at the beginning of the school year were characteristics of growth status,
maturity status (for boys only), socioeconomic indicators, nutritional status, and the initial
status of motor performance and academic achievement of the subjects. Additionally,
stature measured at the end of the school year was included to control for growth
change.

Means and standard deviations on all variables measured were computed for
school, gender, and age group. Additionally, the MANOVA F-ratios were computed to

determine the significance of differences in the covariate variables between the sports

215

and the ordinary school students for each gender and age group. The significance of the
differences in motor performances between the subjects was determined by MANOVA for
school and age group, and differences in academic achievement by ANOVA for school,
gender, and age group. MANCOVA procedures were used to determine the influence of
the sports school on motor performance and academic achievement, controlling for the
covariates.

Results of the study indicated that students of the ordinary school were different
in several measures of physical characteristics and maturity status (boys only). Boys
and girls of the sports school were taller, heavier, and had greater sitting height than the
ordinary school students. The sports school boys had larger arm and calf
circumferences than the ordinary school boys. However, there were no differences in
skinfold thicknesses between the boys of the two schools. Consequently, boys of the
sports school had larger arm and calf muscle areas than boys of the ordinary school. In
terms of maturity status, the sports school boys were more advanced than the ordinary
school boys among the 13-year-olds and 14-year-olds, but not the 16-year—olds.

In terms of socioeconomic influences, the families of 14- and the 16—year-old boys
in the sports school had significantly lower income than their counterparts in the ordinary
schools. There were no differences in girls' family monthly income between the two
schools. The sports school had also more students of rural origin when compared to the
ordinary schools. The BMI between the subjects of the two schools was only different
among the14-year—old boys, where the sports school boys had a larger BMI.

Results of the MANOVA for pretest motor performance revealed the existence of

school and age group differences for both boys and girls. These differences remained

216

 

significant even after controlling for the covariates. However, differences on several
motor performance tasks were eliminated. The 16-year—old boys continued to
demonstrate better performance than the younger age groups on the FAH, JR, TYD, and
ASR, and better performance than the 13-year-olds on the ER. The 14-year-old boys
were better than the 13-year—olds on the FAH and ER. The 16-year—old girls were better
than the 13—year—olds on the ASR and ER. The 14-year-old girls were better than the 13-
year-old girls on the ASR only.

Analysis of the pretest motor performances revealed preexisting differences in
motor performance between students enrolled in the sports school and students
attending the ordinary schools. These differences continued to exist even after
controlling for the covariates. The 14- and the 16-year-old boys in the sports school had
better performance than their counterparts in the ordinary schools on all motor
performance tasks except for the SR. Among the 13-year-old boys, sports school
students had better perionnance than students in the ordinary schools on the JR, SLJ,
ASR, and ER. Similarly, the sports school girls had better performance than the ordinary
school girls on all tasks among the 16-year-olds; and on the SLJ, ASR, and ER among
the 13- and the 14-year-olds.

Results of the MANOVA for posttest motor performance demonstrated school and
age group differences. Additionally, the analyses revealed that the pretest motor
performances were most influential variables in predicting motor performance attained at
the end of the year. The sports school students had better performance than the
ordinary school students on all of the motor performances. The 16-year-old boys had

better performance than the younger age groups on all motor tasks, except for the ER

217

where they were only better than the youngest age group. The 14-year-old boys had
better performance than the 13-year-olds on the SR, SLJ, and ASR only. Age group
differences for the girls were only demonstrated between the oldest and the youngest
age groups for the JR, TYD, SR, SLJ, and ASR.

The MANCOVA and the multiple regression analyses of the posttest motor
performance revealed the effectiveness of the sports school program in enhancing
performances on several motor tasks. However, there were age group variations in the
motor tasks affected by the sports school. Among the boys, the sports school
significantly enhanced performance on the FAH, SR, ASR, and ER of the 13-year-olds;
the TYD, SLJ, ASR, and ER of the 14-year-olds; and the FAH, TYD, and ASR of the 16-
year-olds. Among the girls, the sports school significantly enhanced FAH, ASR, and ER
of the 13-year-olds; FAH, SLJ, ASR, and ER of the 14-year-olds; and JR, SLJ, and ER of
the 16—year-olds-

Results of the discriminant analyses indicated that all motor performance scores
distinguished between the sports school students and the ordinary school students, a
finding similar to the results of the MANOVA of the posttest motor performance scores.
Further analyses revealed that the motor performance of 8 boys and 3 girls in the sports
school did not resemble the motor performance characteristics of remaining sports
school students.

Comparisons within the sports school revealed age group variations in the effects
of the sports program on motor performance among the boys only. The 16-year-old boys
had better performance than the younger age groups on FAH and TYD. There were no

differences in the effects of the sports school program on the 13- and 14—year—old boys.

218

Overall, there were no between school or gender differences in the academic
achievement of the students at the beginning of the school year. However, there were
differences between the sports school students and the ordinary schools students for the
14- and 16—year—old age groups. The 14-year—olds of the sports school had lower
academic achievement than students in the ordinary schools. The reverse is true for the
16-year-olds. Inter-age group differences found in the study were due to the lower
academic achievement of the 16-year-olds compared to the younger age groups.
Monthly family income accounted for small but significant proportions of the variance in
academic achievement.

Results of the statistical analyses for posttest academic achievement were similar
to the results exhibited in the pretest analyses. The non-significant effect of school on
academic achievement attained at the end of the year indicated that the program of the
sports school was no more effective than the ordinary schools in improving academic
achievement. In fact, the 14-year—old students of the sports school had lower academic

achievement than their counterparts in the ordinary schools.

Conclusions
Based on the research questions, the following conclusions are drawn from the
results of the study:
1. The current status of the sports school program does not completely meet the

original plan of the program.

219

-‘ 'E-‘A'll

.—
.r.

 

IL_

 

 

 

 

 

2. Among the three program areas assessed, privileges and opportunities

provided to teacher-coaches and students had the least conformity with the
original plan.

. ln term of adequacy of the sports school program, the program content and
policy, and training and facilities, were rated as moderately adequate, while
privileges and opportunities was rated as lowly adequate. Comparatively, the
most adequate area of the program is training and facility, followed by
program content and policy, while the privileges and opportunities provided to
students and coaches is the least adequate.

. The following characteristics of the sports program of the sports school were
rated as lowly adequate (in rank order, the least adequate is presented first):

i. coordination with various sports organizations,
ii. policy of the sports school,

iii. number of qualified coaches,

iv. course opportunities for coaches,

v. privileges provided to students,
vi. privileges provided to coaches,
vii. sports facilities available in the school,
viii. competition opportunities for students.

. The three biggest problem associated with conducting the sports program of
the sports school are:

i. inadequate staffing,

ii. apathy of students,

iii. quality of students.

220

Minn. I

 

 

..s‘l

6. There were differences in pre-existing (pretest) motor performance scores
between the sports school students and the ordinary school students, with or
without controlling for the covariates. However, the motor performances that
reflect significant differences are not exactly the same among different age
groups, except for the 13- and the 14-year-old girls.

7. The sports school program had a significant effect on motor performance for
all age groups. However, the motor performance tasks affected are not
consistent among the age groups.

8. Performance on all motor tasks distinguished between the sports school and
the ordinary schools students.

9. Among the sports school students, the effects of the sports school program on
motor performance varied among the boys only. Performance on the FAH
and TYD by the boys in the oldest group was significantly enhanced when
compared to that of the boys in the younger age groups.

10. There were no differences in pre-existing (pretest) academic achievement
between the sports school students and the ordinary school students, with or
without the inclusion of covariates, except for the 14-year-old age group. The
sports school students had poorer academic achievement than the ordinary
school students.

1 1. The sports school program had little differential effect on academic
achievement, except for the 14-year-old age group. The sports school
program had a negative effect on the academic achievement of students in

this age group when compared to that of students in the ordinary schools.

221

Recommendations

In light of the findings and conclusions of this study, the following

recommendations are made: 1) for the improvement of the sports school program, and

2) for further research.

Improvement of the sports school program

1.

It is necessary to review the policy of the sports school. There are indications
that some problems in conducting of the sports program such as an insufficient
number of teacher-coaches, and inadequate staffing are associated with
teachers‘ and staff’ allocation policy of the school. With an increase in number of
sports offered at the sports school, it is necessary that the allocation of teacher-
coaches also increase. Additionally, teacher-coaches duties' should be more
confined to coaching responsibilities, without the burden of school and student
administrative duties.

The number and type of sports offered should be based on the availability of
training facilities and training equipment inside the school and within the vicinity
of the school. Alternatively, training facilities and equipment should be made
available in the school, or adequate transportation services should be made
available for training sessions outside the school.

In light of the growing international interest for the participation of women in
sports, and for successful implementation of the Malaysian National Sports
Policy, the number of girls in the sports school should be increased. The present

status of the sports school indicates lack of promotion and implementation by the

222

government to provide equal opportunity for women to participate in sports, even

at the grassroots level.

. The privileges and opportunities provided to students and teacher-coaches

should be implemented according to the original plan.

. There should be more coordination for those involved in the sports school

program with other sports organizations. Such coordination could facilitate the
selection of students, provide more competitive opportunities for students,
provide more course opportunities for coaches, and provide for use of training
facilities outside the schools. Additionally, coordination with sports research
institutions, such as the universities, should be established to facilitate sports

research and evaluation on athletes in the sports school.

Recommendations for further research

1.

While several motor performance tasks are significantly affected by the sports
school program, other tasks and academic achievement are not affected. The
aspect of the program that contributed to these strengths and weaknesses have
yet to be identified.

The ultimate goal of the sports school program is to produce successful young
athletes. Although a superior motor performance can be consistent with success
in many sports activities, the relationship between motor perionnance and sports
success among the sports school students is still unknown. Further studies on
this issue should be conducted to determine the importance of motor performance

for sports success.

223

3. The effectiveness of the talent identification process and the training program in
producing future sports champion is still undetermined. Therefore, a longitudinal
study should be conducted where changes in motor perionnance from ages 13 to
17 and perionnance in sports competition are evaluated on an annual basis.

4. The comparison group in this study was limited to students from ordinary schools
located in an urban area. A similar study with a more diverse comparison group,
or with participants from other sports development programs should be conducted
to provide more information on the effectiveness of the sports school program.

5. Each sport in the school program undergoes a different training program under
different coaches. A follow-up study should be conducted to compare the relative

effects of the sports program on athletes in selected sports.

224

APPENDICES

225

Appendix A

Nomafivgrkita for selected motor perionnance of @lavsian children

 

 

Boys
Age Motor Percentile
(years Performance 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95

 

Weight throw (m) 2.7 3.1 4.0 4.6 5.0 5.5 5.9 6.3 6.9 7.8 8.3
Vertical jump (cm) 13.3 16.6 23.4 27.4 30.8 33.9 37.1 40.5 44.5 51.3 54.6
11 40-meter dash (sec) 9.27 8.98 8.38 8.03 7.73 7.46 7.18 6.89 6.53 5.94 5.65
Agility hexagon 30.2 28.59 25.1 23.06 21.3 19.72 18.11 16.37 14.32 10.84 9.17 ,3.
800-meter run (sec) 357. 343.0 312. 295.1 280- 266.2 252.3 237.3 219.5 189.4 174.9
Weight throw (m) 3.2 3.6 4.6 5.1 5.6 6.0 6.4 6.9 7.4 8.4 8.8
Vertical jump (cm) 16.0 18.6 23.9 27.0 29.7 32.1 34.6 37.3 40.4 45.7 48.3
12 40—meter dash (sec) 9.06 8.77 8.18 7.83 7.54 7.27 6.99 6.70 6.35 5.76 5.48
Agility hexagon 28.8 27.3 24.0 22.05 20.4 18.87 17.34 15.69 13.74 10.44 8.85
800-meter run (sec) 365. 348.7 313. 292.9 275. 259.2 242.9 225.4 204.6 169.6 152.7
Weight throw (m) 3.2 3.7 4.8 5.5 6.1 6.6 7.1 7.6 8.3 9.4 9.9
Vertical jump (cm) 18.5 21.2 26.8 30.1 32.8 35.9 38.0 40.8 44.1 49.6 52.3
13 40-meter dash (sec) 8.51 8.24 7.7 7.37 7.10 6.84 6.59 6.32 5.99 5.44 5.18
Agility hexagon 27.1 25.74 22.7 20.97 19.4 18.08 16.7 15.2 13.43 10.43 8.99
800-meter run (sec) 330. 315.7 285. 267.6 252. 238.5 224.6 209.5 191.2 161.4 146.8
Weight throw (m) 3.3 3.9 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.5 8.1 8.8 10.0 10.6
Vertical jump (cm) 19.6 22.8 28.6 32.1 35.1 37.8 40.5 43.5 47.0 52.8 55.7
14 40-meter dash (sec) 9.07 8.74 8.06 7.65 7.31 6.99 6.67 6.33 5.93 5.24 4.91
Agility 29.0 27.51 24.3 22.51 20.9 19.49 18.03 16.46 14.60 11.46 9.94
800-meter run (sec) 332. 319.9 293. 277.1 263. 251.2 238.7 225.2 209.3 183.4 169.4
Source: National Sports Council, Malaysia (1998)

 

 

 

 

 

226

 

Girls

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age Motor Percentile

(years) Performance 5 10 20 30 40 50 6O 70 80 90 95
Weight throw (m) 2.2 2.6 3.2 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.9 5.3 5.9 6.2
Verticaljump (cm) 12.8 15.5 21.1 24.4 27.3 29.9 32.5 35.3 38.6 44.2 46.9

11 40-meter dash (sec) 9.98 9.7 9.12 8.78 8.49 8.22 7.96 7.67 7.33 6.75 6.47
Agility hexagon (sec) 35.7 33.67 29.3 26.71245 22.50 20.47 18.28 15.69 11.32 9.22
800-meter run (sec) 378. 363.8 332.5 314.0 298.4 283.9 269.4 253.8 235.3 204.0 188.9
Weight throw (m) 2.3 2.7 3.5 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.5 6.0 6.8 7.2
Verticaljump (cm) 13.8 16.2 21.0 23.9 26.3 28.6 30.8 33.3 36.1 41.0 43.3

12 40-meterdash (sec) 9.93 9.64 9.02 8.65 8.34 8.06 7.77 7.46 7.09 6.48 6.18
Agility hexagon (sec) 31.05 29.33 25.73 236121.81 20.15 18.49 16.69 14.56 10.97 9.24
800-meter run (sec) 407.6 389.7 352.5 330.4 311.8 294.6 277.3 258.7 236.6 199.4 181.5
Weight throw (m) 2.1 2.5 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.5 6.0 6.8 7.3
Vertical jump (cm) 13.7 16.0 20.8 23.7 26.1 28.1 30.6 33.0 35.8 40.6 43.0

13 40-meterdash (sec) 9.75 9.45 8.82 8.45 8.14 7.85 7.56 7.25 6.88 6.26 5.96
Agility hexagon (sec) 30.05 28.41250 22.98 21.28 19.7 18.13 16.42 14.4 11.0 9.36
BOO-meter run (sec) 384.3 368.6 336.2 316.9 300.7 285.7 270.7 254.5 235.3 202.8 187.3
Weight throw (m) 2.2 2.6 3.5 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.1 5.6 6.0 6.9 7.3
Vertical jump (cm) 13.6 16.1 21.3 24.4 27.0 29.3 31.7 34.3 37.4 42.6 45.0

14 40-meterdash (sec) 10.19 9.85 9.14 8.72 8.36 8.04 7.71 7.35 6.93 6.22 5.88
Agility hexagon(sec) 30.9 293126.03 24.08 22.44 20.92 19.39 17.75 15.8 12.52 10.94
800-meter run (sec) 390.6 374.7 341.7 322.2 305.7 290.4 275.2 258.7 239.2 206.2 190.3

 

Source: National Sports Council, Malaysia (1998)

227

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229

Appendix C

QH_ECKLIST FOR EVALUATION OF
THE CURRENT STATUS OF THEORTS SCHOOI= PROGRAM

A. PROGRAM CONLENT AND POLICY

1. Goals and objectives of the sports school program.

 

Original plan Current

 

Goal To produce athletes who are not only excel
in sports but also have strong academic

achievement.

 

Objective 1. To improve athletes' performance in
their respective games by providing
them with well-equipped sports
facilities, highly qualified sports
personnel, and systematic training
programs.

2. To create a balance between the need
for sports and academic excellence by
providing them with a conducive
learning environment and sufficient

academic assistance.

3. To instill and encourage the
development of positive moral values
through their involvement in sports
activities and competition.

 

 

 

 

 

230

2. Activities offered in the sports program.

 

Original plan Current

 

Track & Field - boys 8. girls

 

Artistic Gymnastics - boys 8. girls

 

Rhythmic Gymnastics - girls only

 

Squash - boys & girls

 

Archery - boys & girls

 

Swimming - boys & girls

 

Sepak Takraw — boys only

 

Netball - girls only

 

Field Hockey - boys 8. girls

 

Soccer - boys only

 

Volleyball - boys 8. girls

 

 

 

Basketball - boys & girls

 

 

3. Individuals involved in the program

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Original Plan Current
1. Number of students 400 boys, 200 gins
2. Number of students per class 25
3. Number of teachers 43
4. Number of classes 20
5. Teacher-class ratio 2:1
6. Number of clerical and maintenance staff 9
7. Hostel supervisor 1
8. Fitness instructor 1
9 Number of teacher-coaches
10. Number of nonteacher-coaches

 

 

 

 

 

231

4. Selection of students and coaches.

 

Original plan Current

 

1. Who decides on the selection of Ministry of Education
students

 

2. Criteria for selection of students 1. Success in age group
competition.

2. Talent identification by the
schoolcoach.

3. Recommendation by state
and national sports bodies.

4. GPA between 3.0 to 3.5

 

3. Criteria for the selection of 1. Coaching certification
coaches 2. More than 3 years
coaching experience
3. A bachelor’s degree

 

2. Percentage of students meeting

academic requirements

 

 

 

 

3. Percentage of students meeting 100%
sports requirements

4. Percentage of graduate teachers 100%

5. Percentage of certified 100%
coaches

6. Percentage of coaches with 100%

more than 3 years coaching
experience

 

 

 

 

 

232

 

B. PRIVILEGE AND OPPORTUNITY

5. Privileges and opportunities to students and coaches.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Original plan Current

1. Amount of food allowance each student receives/day RM 15.00

2. Travel expenses for going back home/coming to school 3 times/year

3. Scholarship for each student per month RM 50.00

4. Academic and hostel fees, and sports equipment Free

5. Percentage of students with medical insurance coverage 100%

6. Percentage of students competed in national/international 100%
competition

7. Percentage of teacher-coaches teaching 4-6 100%
periods/week

8. Percentage of teacher-coaches living in school housing 100%

9. Percentage of teacher-coaches receiving car loan 100%

10. Percentage of coaches who received professional 100%
development courses

C. TRAINING ANQ FACILITY
6. Training
Original plan Current

1. Training frequency per week 5 days/week

2. Training duration per day 3-4 hours/day

3. Training during school holidays provided

 

 

 

 

 

233

l‘f‘: u ...- till!

 

7. Facilities available for training.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Original plan Current

1. Sport facilities within the school Multipurpose hall (1)

Fitness room (1)

Squash court (3)

Demonstration room (3)
2. Sport facilities outside the school Track 8 Field

Artistic Gymnastics

Rhythmic Gymnastics

Squash

Archery

Swimming

Sepak Takraw

Netball

Field Hockey

Soccer

Volleyball

Basketball
3. Quality of sport equipment provided to

students
8. Medical services.
Original plan Current

1. Physical examinations for students 100%
2. Medical history kept for students 100%
3. Accessibility to physician for injured athletes 100%
4. Supervision of athletes in rehabilitation program 100%

 

 

 

 

 

234

ft“ .4 9;: fl

D. ADEQACY AND PROBLEMS OF THE PROGRAM

1. Adequacy

 

Areas evaluated

Reference

Adequacy

 

1. Program content and policy

a. policy, goal, and
objective

b. individuals involved

Interview schedules: question 4.
Survey questionnaire: question 9.

Self-evaluation questionnaire:
questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11,
and18.

 

2. Privilege and opportunity

coaches

b. opportunity to students
and coaches

a. privilege to students and

Interview schedules: questions 7
and 8.

Survey questionnaire: questions 16
and 21.

Self-evaluation questionnaire:
questions 7, 8, 9, and 10.

 

3. Training and facility
a. training
b. facility

 

 

Interview schedules: questions 11,
13, 15, 16, and 17.

Survey questionnaire: questions 18
and 20.

Self-evaluation questionnaire:
questions 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and
17.

 

 

 

2. Major problems in administering the sports program.

 

Rank

 

Lack of sufficient time

 

Inadequate equipment

 

Inadequate facilities

 

Inadequate staffing

 

Apathy of students

 

Quality of students

 

 

 

 

 

235

I'm-mew. '

Appendix D

Interview Schedules
Respondent: Administrator of the Sports School

PROGRAM CONTENT AND POLICY

1.

2.

What are the purposes and objectives of the school sports program?

What sport activities are now offered in the program?
-ask for list of sport activities

What are the components of the school program?

a.

Number of students: Boys Girls

-ask for breakdown according to grade level and sports
Number of teachers: Men Women

Number of teacher-coaches: Men Women

-ask for breakdown according to sports

Number of non teacher-coaches : Men Women

-ask for breakdown according to sports

Number of support staff: Men Women
-ask for breakdown according to job description.

Who decides on the number of students to be selected into the school?

What criteria are used for the selection of students?

a. academic:

b. sports:

How are the coaches appointed?

a. teacher-coaches

b. non teacher-coaches

236

PRIVILEGES AND OPPORTUNITIE_S_

1. What kind of aids do the students receive from the school?

 

 

 

 

 

 

Aids Yes No Amount (where Adequate
applicable) yes/no
Monme allowance
Hostel
Food
Training equipment
Training apparel

 

Medical insurance
Home travel expenses

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other, please specify:

 

 

2. What privileges do the coaches receive?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Privilege Yes No Amount and/or number received
(where applicable)
Allowance
Housing
Car loan
Other, please specify

 

 

3. Are opportunities for National competition available?
-ask for number of students who competed in National competition.

4. Are opportunities for courses available for coaches?
-ask for number of coaches attending courses

TRAINING FACILITY. AND SERVICES

 

1. What are the schedules for sports training of the school?
-ask for schedule

Is the time allotted for training consistent with the demand for competition? If no, why?

237

1"” ‘ " “at“ ‘3‘ r
l ' I.

 

 

2. What facilities are available for sports training/practice inside the school?

 

Facility Adequate for Program Maintained Adequately
Jedm) Ores/no)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. Which sports activities, if any, receive the highest priorities for use of training facilities?
Why?

4. Are additional facilities needed? If yes, please specify.

5. What facilities are available for sports training/practice outside the school?

Facility Location Distance from school

 

238

6. What are the school priorities for use of outside facilities? (mark where appropriate)

Facility 1“ priority user 2"d priority user 3rd priority user

 

7. Are the priorities for use of facilities satisfactory? If no, why?

8. How is the sports program of the school funded? List all resources.

1.

 

2.

 

3.

 

ls funding adequate? YES NO

 

Is additional funding available? If yes, specify sources.
8. Are physical examinations provided for athletes?
9. Is a medical history file kept for athletes?

10. Do injured athletes normally have access to a physician? If no, why?

239

 

11. Do injured athletes normally have access to, and are they normally supervised in a sound

rehabilitation program? If no, why?

SELF-EVALUATION OF PRESENT PROGRAM

Check the box that conesponds to your answer for the following statements
Completely

The purposes and objectives of the sports program are clearly stated
The purpose of the program is clearly understood by all

The policy developed needs revision

I am satisfied with the selection process of the students

Number of teachers is sufficient

Number of qualified coaches is sufficient

Privileges provided to students are sufficient

Privileges provided to coaches are sufficient

There are sufficient competitive opportunities for students

There are sufficient course opportunities for coaches

Number of sports offered by the school is adequate

Time allotted for training is consistent with the demand for competition
Sport facilities available in the school are sufficient

There are sufficient opportunities for the use of sport facilities outside
the school
Funding for sports program is adequate

Injured athletes have sufficient accessibility for prompt medical
treatment

Injured athletes have sufficient accessibility for sound rehabilitation
program

There is a need for more coordination with various sports
organizations

Please rank the major problem areas when administering the sports program

disagree
[:1

DD DDDDUDDUDDDDDDD

 

Rank

 

Lack of sufficient time

 

Inadequate equipment

 

Inadequate facilities

 

Inadequate staffing

 

Apathy of students

 

 

Quality of students

 

 

 

240

ii

DI] DDDUDDDDDDDDDDDD

Tend b

.3
9

UDDDDDDDUUUDDDDDDD
DDDUDDDDDDDDDDDUDD

89188

11.—‘_-"*:r—‘:~‘[ -

 

Appendix E.

Survey Questionnaire
Respondent: Coaches

1.

2.

3.

4.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

What is your age? years
Are you a D male ? I:I female?
Are you a teacher of the school? CI Yes D No

Do you live in the school quarters? [3 Yes I:] No

 

 

 

Do you receive a car on loan? [3 Yes D No

What sports do you coach?

How many athletes do you coach? male female

Are you satisfied with the quality of athletes selected for your sport? [:I Yes D No

Are you a certified coach? D Yes D No

What coaching certification do you have?

 

Your coaching experience D less than 3 years |:| more than 3 years
Have you attended any coaching course this year? E] Yes [:I No

How much allowance, if any, do you receive per month? RM

 

How many hours per week do you train your athletes? hours

15. What facilities are available in the school for your training program?

 

16. What additional facilities would you like to have in the school?

 

241

'1'! -
it

._.. -.. u— at-
IJ

 

17. Are you satisfied with the privileges that you received? E] Yes |:] No
18. What facilities are available outside the school for your training program?

Location/distance:

 

 

19. What difficulties, if any, have you had in scheduling training outside the school?

 

20. Are you satisfied with the number and quality of equipment provided to your athletes?

[:I Yes [:I No

21. How many of your athletes take part in competition this year?

National: lntemational:

 

22. Do injured athletes normally have access to physician? El Yes D No

23. Do injured athletes have access to a supervised rehabilitation program?

[:lYes EM

242

 

SELF-EVALUATION OF PRESENT PROGRAM

Check the box that corresponds to your answer for the following statements

Wm? m.
The purposes and objectives of the sports program are clearly stated CI
The purpose of the program is clearty understood by all

The policy developed needs revision

I am satisfied with the selection process of the students

Number of teachers is sufficient

Number of qualified coaches is sufficient

Privileges provided to students are sufficient

Privileges provided to coaches are sufficient

There are sufficient competitive opportunities for students

There are sufficient course opportunities for coaches

Number of sports offered by the school is adequate

Time allotted for training is consistent with the demand for competition
Sport facilities available in the school are sufficient

There are sufficient opportunities for the use of sport facilities outside
the school
Funding for sports program is adequate

Injured athletes have sufficient accessibility for prompt medical
treatment

Injured athletes have sufficient accessibility for sound rehabilitation
program

There is a need for more coordination with various sports
organizations

[II] UDDDDDDDDDDUDDDD
DE] DDDDDUDDDDUDDD

Please rank the major problem areas when administering the sports program

 

Rank

 

Lack of sufficient time

 

Inadequate equipment

 

Inadequate facilities

 

Inadequate staffing

 

Apathy of students

 

Quality of students

 

 

 

 

 

243

I]?

DD DDUDDDDDDUDDDD
DI] DDDUDDDDDDDUDU

CMPIBIBIY

Us

 

 

Appendix F.

SUBJECT INFORMATION

 

 

 

Subject No:
Identity card number: Form: 1 2 4 (circle one)
Date of birth: I / Gender: male / female (circle one) _
( day [month/year) f
School: I

 

Type of sport involved :

 

Level of participation before entering present school: lDistrictlState/Nationalllntemational
Level of participation now: IDistrict/State/National/lntemational
Average time spent on physical or/and sport activities per week hours

Anthrqpmetric measures

 

 

 

 

 

Stature : cm Sitting height: cm
Body mass : kg Upper arrn circumference: cm
Calf circumference : cm

 

 

 

 

Skinfold thickness @ovs only)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Triceps: mm Calf (medial): mm
Subscapular: mm Suprailiac: mm
Maturity status:

Date:

 

244

Motor Performance Tests

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Subject No:
Identity card number: Form: 1 2 4 (circle one)
Test Original Trial
position 1 2
Flexed arrn hang XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
Jump and reach
30 yard dash XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
Sit and reach XXXXXXXXXX
Agility shuttle run XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
Standing long jump XXXXXXXXXX
800 meter run XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
Date:

 

245

 

 

Appendix G
Stages of Pubicfitir Development

Instruction' Please read each description corresponding to the diagram presented opposite.
Then mark (A? in the corresponding box to assign a stage to yourself You may wish to use a

 

mirror to help assign the correct stages

 

 

 

 

 

No pubic hair

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

\‘o 0:, |
l .. ,.
a "' i 2
!‘ T
I

 

There is sparse, long, slightly colored hair that
is straight or slightly curled
It is at the base of the penis or on the scrotum.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The pubic hair is considerably darker, coarser
and more curled.
The hair is around the base of the penis.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The hair is darker(similar to cranial hair),
coarse, and curled.

The hair covered more area but does not extend
over the folds where the thighs join the

vtnmnrh

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The hair spreads to the inner surfaces of the
thighs where the thighs join the stomach

It covers a triangular area v with a straight
upper margin

 

 

246

‘lt—h—Tfi-Iu—

 

Appendix H

INFORMED CONSENT FORMS (PARENTS)

We are conducting a study aimed at evaluating the current status, and assessing the
program effectiveness with regard to motor performance and academic achievement of the
National Sports School, Malaysia. This study will form the dissertation component of Saidon
Amri's doctoral program at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.

To conduct this study, students of the sports school and a few ordinary schools will be
selected as participants. Your son/daughter has been chosen as a participant for this study as
he/she is a student enrolled in schools listed in the letter of approval to conduct the study by
the Ministry of Education Malaysia dated February 10, 2000. In addition, the principal of the
school has been informed and permission to conduct the study has been granted. Participation
in this study is voluntary, and your son/daughter is free to withdraw (you also can choose to
withdraw your son/daughter) during any portion of the study without penalty.

If you allow your son/daughter to participate in this study, he/she will be tested for
motor performance using a battery of motor performance tests. Tests included are the flexed-
arm hang, jump and reach, thirty yard dash, sit and reach, standing long jump, thirty-foot agility
shuttle run, and 800 meter run. For your information, all these tests are similar to those tests
usually conducted in your son’s/daughter’s physical education classes or school sport training.
Although your son/daughter will be expected to work very hard, none of these tests are
dangerous and every effort will be taken to ensure that no harm comes to him/her.

These tests will be administered during your son’s/daughter’s physical education
classes or during his/her school sport training session, thus, in no way will affect your
son/daughter academic lessons. Administration of these tests will involve a total time of
approximately 90 minutes, or two sessions of your son/daughter's physical education class.

Additionally, the researcher will get several existing information about your family and
your son/daughter from his/her school’s record. This information includes your family monthly
income, your son/daughter’s growth status (height and weight), your son’s body measures
(arm and calf circumferences, skinfold thicknesses) and maturity status, and your
son/daughter’s academic achievement.

Although the main aim of this study is to evaluate the physical abilities of students of
the sports school, students of the ordinary schools will also benefit from involvement in this

247

V'r*-'--.- - arr “‘

 

study. Your son/daughter will gain information regarding his/her nutritional status and to a
certain extent his/her physical fitness status as several tests involved can also determine
physical fitness levels.

Your son/daughter’s participation in this study will not incur any financial costs to you
and your family. All materials needed for the testing will be provided by the researcher and the
school

All information and data gathered will be treated with the strictest confidence and will
not be used except for the purposes stated above. Your son’s/daughter’s privacy will be
protected to the maximum extent allowable by law and he/she will remain confidential in any
report of the research findings. On request and within these restrictions results may be made
available to you.

If your son/daughter is injured as a result of his/her participation in this research
project, the Ministry of Education through the school will provide emergency medical care if
necessary. You will not be held responsible for any medical expenses as a result of this injury.
All such medical expenses incurred by you as a result of this injury shall be paid by Takaful
Insurance, a health insurance plan provided by the Ministry of Education to every school
student in the country.

If you have any question regarding this study, please feel free to contact Saidon Amri
at Physical Education Unit, Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia, 43400,
Serdang, Selangor (Phone: 03-9486101 ext. 2439), or Dr. John Haubenstricker at Institute for
the Study of Youth Sports, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48825 (Phone:
517- 355-4741).

If you have any concern regarding your son’s/daughter's role and rights as a subject of
this study, you may contact Dr. David E. Wright, Chair, University Committee on Research
Involving Human Subjects, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 (Phone: 517-
355-2180).

Please sign and return the attached form if you allow your son/daughter to participate
in this study.

Sincerely yours,

 

(Saidon Amri)

248

 

 

INFORMED CONSENT FOR!

Parent/Legal Guardian,

Your signature here indicates that, having read the above information, or having had someone
read the information, you have decided to allow your child to participate in the study. You and your child
will be offered a copy of this form to keep.

 

 

 

 

( ) Date
Signature of Parent/Legal Guardian
( ) Date

Signature of Investigator

If you would like a personal report of the tests taken, please provide your address below.

 

 

 

 

249

“film's ‘3 1"—

 

 

 

 

Appendix I
ASSENT FORM FOR STUDENT

You are invited to participate in a study that will evaluate your motor performance and
academic achievement. This study has been explained to your father/mother/guardian and that
she/he has given his/her permission for you to participate in this study. Your participation is this
study is voluntary and you are free to withdraw during any portion of the study without penalty.

If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to perform several motor
perionnance tests during your physical education classes or during your sport training session.
These tests will involve a total time of approximately 90 minutes, or two sessions of your physical
education class.

Additionally, the researcher will have access to your personal and family information
(academic achievement, height, weight, body measurements, maturity status — for boys only, and
your family's monthly income) through records provided by the school.

Your signature below indicates that this page was read to (or by) you and that you are
agreeing to participate in this study.

 

 

( I Date
Signature of student

250

 

 

Appendix J
INFORMED CONSENT FORM (ADMINISTRATOR)

(Verbal Script)

We are conducting a study aimed at evaluating the current status, and assessing the
program effectiveness with regard to motor performance and academic achievement of the
National Sports School, Malaysia. This study will form the dissertation component of Saidon Amri's
doctoral program at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.

For that matter, I hope to get some information from you regarding the sports school and
problems in mnning the sports program of the school. To get this information, I hope to have an
interview session with you and where possible and relevant, to have access to certain documents
of the school. The interview session will take approximately one to two hours.

Your participation is voluntary and you may chose not to participate or not to answer
certain questions during the interview without penalty. You may also discontinue the interview at
any time.

Your response and other information provided to me will be treated with the strictest
confidence and will only be used for the purposes stated eariier. Your privacy will be protected to
the maximum extent allowable by law and your personal identity will remain confidential in any
report of the research findings. On request and within these limitations results may be made
available to you.

If you choose to participate, the interview can be administered now or at some other time
most convenient to you. I can be contacted at Faculty of Educational Studies, UPM, Serdang
(Phone: 0389486101 ext. 2439).

If you need more information regarding the study please feel free to ask (me), or you can
contact Dr. John Haubenstricker at Institute for the Study of Youth Sports, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, Michigan 48825 (Phone: 517- 355-4741).

If you have any concern regarding your role and rights as a subject of this study, you may
contact Dr. David E. Wright, Chair, University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 (Phone: 517-355-2180).

Thank you

251

 

Appendix K
INFORMED CONSENT FORM (COACHES)

(Face sheet to a written questionnaire)

Dear Sir/Miss/Madam

We are conducting a study aimed at evaluating the current status, and assessing the
program effectiveness with regard to motor performance and academic achievement of the 1
National Sports School, Malaysia. This study will form the dissertation component of Saidon Amri's ! "I
doctoral program at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.

You are selected to give your response to this questionnaire as you are one of the .' ~ —:
coaches of the sports school. This questionnaire aims to determine the current status of the sports I
program of the school and to identify problems associated with running the program. It will take
you approximately 30 minutes to response completely to the questionnaire. Participation is this
study is voluntary and you may choose not to participate or not to answer certain questions without
penalty.

Your response to this questionnaire will be treated with the strictest confidence and will not
be used except for the purposes stated above. Your privacy will be protected to the maximum
extent allowable by law and your personal identity will remain confidential in any report of the
research findings. On request and within these restrictions results may be made available to you.

If you have any question regarding this study, please feel free to contact Saidon Amri at
Faculty of Educational Studies, UPM, 43400, Serdang, Selangor (Phone: 03-9486101 ext. 2293),
or Dr. John Haubenstricker at Institute for the Study of Youth Sports, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan 48825 (Phone: 517- 355-4741).

If you have any concern regarding your role and rights as a subject of this study, you may
contact Dr. David E. Wright, Chair, University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 (Phone: 517-355—2180).

You indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and retuming

 

questionnaire. If you decide to return this questionnaire, please do so during my visits to your
school or you can mail it to me at the above address before November 9, 2000.

Thank you.
Saidon Amri

252

Appendix L

MOTOR PERFORMANCE TESTING
Directions for Administration of Tests

FLEXED ARM HANG: Adjust the bar so it is approximately six inches wove the performers height
Position in a bent arm hang with the elbows flexed at greater than 90°. Hands should be in the reverse curl
or pronated grip (palms away). The score is the time to the nearest whole second from the moment the
performer hangs unaided until his chin rests on the bar or his elbows assume a position of less than 90°
fiexion. Record one trial unless the performer does not receive a fair chance, i.e. if less than one ortwo
seconds is recorded on the first trial, give an additional trial.

JUMP AND REACH: The performer stands with the right or left side to the wall and fully extends the elbow
and shoulder vertically. Record the point where the distal most part of third digit contacts the tape. The
performer then jumps (without an approaching step) and contacts the tape. The score is the difference
between the height attained on the jump and touch and the score of the initial reach. Instructions to the
pgrfonnen Besureto bend thekneeswhen getting readytojumpaidswing yourarmstohelpyougetup
higher. Record three trials.

 

AGILITY SHUTTLE RUN: Two blocks are placed on a line 30 feet (9.15 mLfrom the startigg line. The
performer takes a position with toes behind the starting line. Examiner’s commands are: To your mark, Get
set, Go. Performer mns to the 30-foot mark, picks up one block and places it on the startigg line, then
retumstothe30-footmarkfortheotherblock, picksitupand runsmsjthestarting Iinewith itin his hand.
The time is recorded to the nearest 1/10 second. Record twotn'ds.

Wood
P bloat/baton

iJBIS

30 feet (9.15m)

* %

 

 

 

STANDING LONG JUMP: The performer begins with toes behind the restraining line. Take-off and landing
must be on two feet. The score is the distance (to the nearest ‘/2 cm) in centimeters from the take-off line to
the point where the body touches nearest to the take-off line. Record three trials.

 

253

 

30 YARD (27.43 m) DASH: The performer begins the run with a five (5) yard (4.57m)running start. The
starter's commands are: To you mark, Get set, Go. As the performer reaches the starting line, the starter
gives a hand signal for the timer to start the watch. The performer reports his name to the timer, who
records the time to the nearest 1/10 second. Instructions to the runner: "When I say 'Go' you are to run as
fast as possible to....' (The designated spot should be five (5) yards beyond the actual finish line, because
young children will tend to stop on the finish line.) Record two trials.

 

A 5 vards 30 yards (2743 m) 5 vards (4.57m)
11: + a“
B A

1. StartstopwatctwhenperforrnerpasslineA
2. StopstopwatdumenperforrnerpaeslineB

WELLS SIT AND REACH: The performer sits on the floor with the soles of the feet in contact with the
bench. Knees should be fully extended and remain in this position during the test The performer moves
both hands forward, one on top of the other, reaching as far beyond the toes as possible. The perfomier is
asked to slowly “bob and reach” three times and to ‘hold' on the fourth reach. The score is plus or minus
the distance (to the nearest ‘/2 centimeter) reached in relation to the vertical surface of the bench. Record

three trials.

800 METER RUN: The performer mn two (2) laps on a 400 meter course. Performers are asked to continue
walking iftheycannotfinishthe race ata run. Thetimeisrecordedtothenearestsecond. Instructiontothe
mnner: Be sure to run so that you will be able to finish the entire distance at a run. Record one trid.

 

254

~ «1‘...-

 

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