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thesis entitled

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SHAME, PERSONALITY, AND
EATING ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS

presented by

Patrick S. Perkins

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RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SHAME, PERSONALITY, AND EATING ATTITUDES
AND BEHAVIORS

By

Patrick Scott Perkins

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Psychology

2002

ABSTRACT

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SHAME, PERSONALITY, AND EATING ATTITUDES
AND BEHAVIORS

By

Patrick Scott Perkins

Shame is an affect that is considered to be signiﬁcantly associated with eating
disorders. Consistent results have been found for eating-related shame, in which shame
regarding speciﬁc eating contexts has been positively correlated with eating pathology.
By contrast, results have been inconsistent for globalized shame, or shame affecting the
entire self, with it being shown to be positively correlated with eating pathology in some,
but not all studies. The current study addressed this issue by examining the relative
importance of eating-related versus globalized shame for disordered eating using several
measures of shame and eating pathology in a sample of 206 female undergraduates.
Participants completed measures assessing eating pathology, eating-related and
globalized shame, and personality. Results indicated that both eating-related and
globalized shame were positively and signiﬁcantly correlated with eating pathology.
Results also showed that shame variables predicted eating pathology scores above and
beyond the variance explained by personality factors. These ﬁndings suggest that
globalized shame may be one of many precipitating and/or maintenance factors of eating

pathology, and thus is an important factor to consider in treatment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would ﬁrst like to thank my advisor, Dr. Gersh Kaufman, for his commitment to
my work and ideas. He was instrumental in helping me understand and appreciate the
theories of shame and their relevance to eating disturbances. Next I would like to thank
my other committee members, Drs. Kelly Klump, Neal Schmitt, and Bertram Karon.
They provided the expertise necessary to ensure that this thesis was scientiﬁcally rigorous
and methodologically sound. Additionally, Dr. Klump offered valuable feedback during
the writing process. I am also grateful to my parents for their continued love and support,
which allowed this work to occur. Finally, I owe a tremendous amount of gratitude to my
ﬁancee, Kelley, who has been a major source of love and inspiration during all phases of

my work.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. vi
CHAPTER 1: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND LITERATURE REVIEW ....... 1
Theories of Shame .................................................................................................... 1

Role of Shame in Eating Disorders ........................................................................... 4
Theories of Eating Disorders and Shame .................................................................. 5
Empirical Studies ...................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN OF THE CURRENT STUDY .................................................... 11
CHAPTER 3: METHOD .................................................................................................. 13
Participants .............................................................................................................. 13
Measures ................................................................................................................. 13
Eating Disorder Inventory-2 .............................................................................. 13

Eating Attitudes Test .......................................................................................... 15
Intemalized Shame Scale ................................................................................... 16

Test of Self-Conscious Affect ............................................................................ 16

Shame and Guilt Eating Scale ............................................................................ 18

Scale of Eating Speciﬁc Shame ......................................................................... 18
Objectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale .............................................................. 18
Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire ..................................................... 19
Demographic Questionnaire .............................................................................. 20
Procedures ............................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS .................................................................................................. 22
Statistical Analyses ................................................................................................. 22
Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................... 23
Relationships between Globalized and Eating-Related Shame .............................. 23
Relationships between Shame, Eating Behaviors, and Personality Characteristics 23
Predictive Relationships between Shame, Personality, and Disordered Eating ..... 24
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 27
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 31
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 36
Appendix A: Consent Form .................................................................................... 36
Appendix B: Eating Disorder Inventory-2 .............................................................. 37
Appendix C: Eating Attitudes Test ......................................................................... 39
Appendix D: Intemalized Shame Scale .................................................................. 42
Appendix E: Test of Self-Conscious Affect ........................................................... 45
Appendix F: Shame and Guilt Eating Scale ........................................................... 51

Appendix G: Scale of Eating Speciﬁc Shame ........................................................ 52

Appendix H: Objectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale ............................................. 54
Appendix I: Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire .................................... 57
Appendix J: Demographic Questionnaire .............................................................. 76
Appendix K: Tables ................................................................................................ 78

Table 1:

Table 2:

Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:

Table 6:

LIST OF TABLES

Means, Standard Deviations, and Internal Consistencies of the Eating, Shame,
Personality, and Age Variables ........................................................................... 78

Correlations of Globalized Shame (ISS, TOSCA), Eating-Related Shame (SESS,
SGES, OBC), Eating (EAT, EDI-2 subscales), and Personality (Positive and
Negative Emotionality, Constraint) Measures ................................................... 79

Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Personality, Globalized, and Eating-Related
Shame on EAT Scores ........................................................................................ 80

Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Personality, Globalized, and Eating-Related
Shame on Body Dissatisfaction Scores ............................................................... 81

Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Personality, Globalized, and Eating-Related
Shame on Drive for Thinness Scores .................................................................. 82

Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Personality, Globalized, and Eating-Related
Shame on Bulimia Scores ................................................................................... 83

vi

CHAPTER 1

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND LITERATURE REVIEW

Shame is an affect that is considered to be signiﬁcantly associated with eating
disorders. Consistent results have been found for eating-related shame, in which shame
regarding speciﬁc eating contexts has been positively correlated with eating pathology
(Frank, 1991; Burney & Irwin, 2000). By contrast, results have been inconsistent for
globalized shame, or shame affecting the entire self. Globalized shame has been shown
to be positively correlated with eating pathology in some (McCreery, 1991; Sanftner,
Barlow, Marschall, & Tangney, 1995), but not all studies (Bumey & Irwin, 2000).
Differentiating eating-related from globalized shame and determining their relative
importance to eating disorder symptomatology is important for etiological and treatment
considerations of eating disorders. The current study seeks to address this issue by
examining the relative importance of eating-related versus globalized shame for
disordered eating using several measures of shame and eating pathology.

Theories of Shame

Shame has come to be considered one of the most prominent affects over the past
few decades (Kauﬁnan, 1996). With more research suggesting that shame plays a role in
psychological disorders, attention has shifted to better deﬁning shame and distinguishing
this affect from other affects and experiences. Efforts at clarifying the construct of shame
have led to a general deﬁnition of shame consistent with research and clinical ﬁndings.

Erik Erikson (1950) was one of the ﬁrst psychologists to highlight the importance

of shame. He viewed shame as a possible consequence of the second of his eight

theoretical psychosocial stages. A child experienced shame during this stage if autonomy
was denied. Erikson noted that shame had been scarcely studied because guilt had been
given greater attention. Nevertheless, he stated that shame caused a person to feel
completely exposed and highly self-conscious. As a result, Erikson believed that shame
was expressed as rage directed toward the self and motivated a person’s desire to become
invisible.

Following Erikson, other authors have added their own perspectives on the
experience of shame. Morrison (1989), drawing on Heinz Kohut’s self psychology
theory, believes that shame is central to narcissism. The narcissistic individual
essentially feels unacceptable to himself and others but relies on the defenses of
grandiosity and arrogance to cover the experience of shame. For Morrison, shame is akin
to the emptiness that underlies narcissism.

Silvan Tomkins and Helen Block Lewis have provided the two theoretical
formulations of shame which have guided most theory and research, and these authors’
contributions form the basis for the types of shame examined in the current study.
Tomkins argued that shame was one of the most painful and disturbing affects, which
causes a person to feel inferior and humiliated. He also posited that shame was one of
nine innate affects associated with a distinct set of muscle, facial, and skin responses
(1962, 1963). Tomkins described the characteristic physical response of shame as the
lowering of the head and eyes. Cross-cultural studies have supported Tomkins’s belief
that shame is an innate affect by showing that shame is associated with universal facial

expressions (Ekman, 1 971 ).

Tomkins also differentiated shame from the other affects by labeling shame as an
auxiliary affect. This meant that shame could only occur if the positive affects of interest
and enjoyment were ﬁrst activated. Tomkins believed that whenever expressions of
interest or enjoyment were interrupted, shame would be innately activated. For example,
when a child expects to see a familiar caregiver, the affects of interest and excitement are
activated. However, if the child is then met with an unfamiliar face, interest and
enjoyment are inhibited and shame is innately activated.

Other authors have generally agreed with Tomkins’s description of shame and
have also emphasized that the experience of shame causes a person to feel exposed and
naked, leading to a wish to disappear or hide (Izard, 1977; Lewis, 1992; Kauﬁnan, 1996).
In addition, Kaufman (1996) has described the process of shame internalization, whereby
shame is repeatedly associated with affects such as anger or fear, interpersonal needs
such as needs for afﬁrmation and differentiation, and sexual and hunger drives. After
these connections are established, Kaufman believes that shame binds develop. A shame
bind represents a permanent connection between shame and affects, needs, or drives.
Thus, whenever a person seeks to express an affect, need, or drive that has become
connected to shame, the experience of shame prevents expression of the shame bound
affect, need, or drive. In this way, shame becomes internalized and plays an important
role in inhibiting behavior and emotion. For example, a girl who is repeatedly shamed by
her parents for eating too much may develop an aversion to food. The hunger drive
becomes connected with shame and then hunger itself becomes shameful, causing the girl

to avoid food.

Helen Block Lewis (1971) agreed with Tomkins that shame was an important
affect to examine, but she focused more on the role of the self in shame. She believed
that the self came under global scrutiny during the experience of shame, whereby a
person would globally feel deﬁcient and worthless. In addition, Lewis emphasized that
shame is centered on the whole self, and because of this, shame is an extremely damaging
emotion that threatens the stability of the self.

Role of Shame in Eating Disorders

Despite the slight variations in the conceptualization of shame, there is consensus
that shame is an important factor in psychopathology (Lewis, 1971; Kaufman, 1996;
Tangney, 1995). Shame has been associated with a range of psychopathology, including
anxiety, depression, sexual dysfunction, bipolar disorder, narcissistic personality
disorder, and eating disorders (Cook, 1990; Morrison, 1989; Kaufman, 1996). For
example, Tangney, Wagner, and Gramzow (1992) found shame to be signiﬁcantly and
positively associated with the nine psychopathology indices (e. g., somaticization,
obsessive-compulsive, psychoticism) of the Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90; Derogatis,
Lipman, & Covi, 1973), depression on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck,
1972), and state and trait anxiety on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI:
Speilberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970). Although shame has been implicated in a range
of psychopathology, the current study focuses on shame and eating disorders, an area that
has received little attention.

The primary eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. In
anorexia nervosa, there is an intense fear of weight gain, and a refusal to maintain a

normal body weight (i.e., weight less than 85% of ideal body weight; American

Psychiatric Association, 1994). In addition, anorexia nervosa is characterized by a
disturbance in perception of body shape or size. Bulimia nervosa is characterized by
repeated binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behaviors to counteract the weight
gain from bingeing (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Some of these behaviors
include self-induced vomiting and the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, and enemas.
In bulimia nervosa, like anorexia nervosa, there is also a disturbance in the perception of
body shape and size, such that these factors unduly inﬂuence self-esteem.
Theories of Eating Disorders and Shame

Several authors have hypothesized links between eating disorders and shame-
related constructs. Silberstein, Striegel-Moore, and Rodin (1987) believe that shame is
often associated with symptoms of eating disorders for a number of reasons. First,
women may feel shame when they are not able to match an almost impossible
internalized ideal of beauty dictated by society. Many women with eating disorders
struggle to achieve this unattainable standard and continue these efforts to the point of
abnormal eating attitudes and behaviors. Second, women with eating disorders are
constantly surveying their bodies and feel that others are always doing the same to them.
As a result, these women often desire to hide their bodies and avoid exposure, which is
characteristic of shame. Third, women with eating disorders generally feel bad about
themselves globally. Thus, women do not only feel shame about their weight, but they
also tend to feel that they are worthless, which contributes to an overall level of low self-
esteem.

Kaufman (1996) has also discussed the centrality of shame in eating disorders by

formulating his own ideas about anorexia and bulimia nervosa based on Tomkins’s affect

theory. Kaufman argues that shame is an etiological factor for both of these disorders, as
he believes that a shame bind between shame and the hunger drive typically precedes
their development. For example, Kaufman (1996) points out that some women with
eating disorders come from families in which parents have force-fed them or have
particularly emphasized disordered eating behavior and attitudes. Kaufman argues that
shame associated with these incidents can lead to a hunger-shame bind that eventually
leads to food aversion.

In addition to hunger-shame binds, Kaufman posits that interpersonal need-shame
binds typically contribute to the formation of eating disorders. In bulimia nervosa,
Kaufman believes that shame is present in both bingeing and purging. A woman engages
in bingeing as a substitute for interpersonal needs that have become shame bound. For
example, if a woman has been repeatedly shamed for seeking affection or care from
others or has been shamed for the desire to be loved or admired, she may seek these
unmet needs through food. In other words, interpersonal needs such as needs for
afﬁrmation and differentiation that have been repeatedly associated with shame cannot be
satisﬁed due to the painful, inhibiting force of shame. A woman therefore turns to food
as a means of attempting to satisfy her unmet interpersonal needs.

Kaufman argues that food is never able to satisfy these unmet shame-bound
interpersonal needs, and shame increases during the bingeing process. As this shame
increases, the affect of disgust emerges as part of purging. Kaufman indicates that
Tomkins classiﬁed disgust as a defensive response to harmful substances that serves to
prevent them from entering the body. During the act of purging, a woman attempts to rid

the harmful shame that has intensiﬁed during the bingeing. Disgust motivates the woman

to purge, and the purging functions to temporarily relieve shame, but the shame once
again appears and the binge-purge cycle is reactivated.

In anorexia nervosa, Kaufman believes that shame causes a woman to reject food
due to the affect of dissmell. This affect, similar to disgust, functions to distance a person
from a noxious substance and also to reduce intense levels of shame. But, unlike disgust,
in which a substance is actually expectorated, dissmell motivates avoidance of the
substance altogether. Therefore, women with anorexia nervosa distance themselves from
food and turn to control as a method of avoiding food. Kaufman believes that this control
over food is symbolic of the need to control the overwhelming shame present in anorexia.
This shame may have resulted from a hunger-shame bind in which parents emphasized
disordered eating attitudes and beliefs to their children, whereby shame became linked
with the hunger drive, ultimately leading to food aversion.

Empirical Studies

Although Kaufman (1996) and others have emphasized the importance of shame
in eating disorders, few studies have examined this idea. The research that has been done
has examined relationships between eating disorder symptoms and shame in women
using eating disorder questionnaires that assess the presence and severity of symptoms
characteristic of eating disorders. These studies have sought to determine whether
globalized and/or eating-related shame contribute to eating pathology, with mixed results.

Globalized shame is considered to be shame that deeply penetrates the entire self
of an individual, leading to a general inhibition of a variety of meaningful behaviors and
emotions. A person with globalized shame experiences feelings of inferiority and

humiliation at the core of their lives. By contrast, eating-related shame focuses

speciﬁcally on shame associated with the act of eating and body image. Shame
associated with body image is also labeled as body-related shame and is considered to be
a facet of eating-related shame. Unlike globalized shame, a person experiencing eating-
related shame may feel deﬁcient because she ate too much food, but these feelings of
deﬁciency do not necessarily generalize to her core self beliefs.

Several studies have suggested that eating-related shame is associated with
disordered eating. For example, Frank (1991) used the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT;
Gamer, Olmsted, Bohr, & Garﬁnkel, 1982) to assess eating disorder symptomatology and
the Shame and Guilt Eating Scale (SGES; Frank, 1989/1990) to assess eating-related
shame (e. g., shame related to normal eating and overeating situations) in 30 non-
symptomatic and 30 symptomatic women. Findings suggested that women with
symptoms of eating disorders had signiﬁcantly higher levels of eating-related shame than
control subjects. Similarly, Burney and Irwin (2000) found both eating-related (as
measured by the SGES) and body-related (e.g., shame about appearance and size, as
measured by the Objectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale; McKinley & Hyde, 1996) shame
to be signiﬁcantly associated with EAT scores in 97 Australian women.

Findings regarding globalized shame have been less consistent. For example,
McCreery (1991) found internalized shame, a form of globalized shame, to be
signiﬁcantly associated with symptoms of bulimia nervosa. This author used the Eating
Disorders Inventory (EDI; Garner & Olmsted, 1984) to measure eating disorder
symptomatology and the Intemalized Shame Scale (ISS; Cook, 1990) to measure shame

in 20 women with bulimic symptoms and 20 women without these symptoms. Findings

indicated that women with symptoms of bulimia nervosa had signiﬁcantly higher levels
of internalized shame than control subjects.

In another study of globalized shame, Sanftner et al. (1995) investigated the
relationship between shame-proneness (a form of globalized shame) and eating disorder
symptomatology in 171 undergraduate women. Participants were given the Eating
Disorder Inventory (EDI—2; Garner, 1991) and the Test of Self-Conscious Affect
(TOSCA; Tangney, Wagner, & Gramzow, 1989), a measure of shame-proneness.
Findings revealed that shame-proneness was signiﬁcantly and positively associated with
eating disorder symptomatology.

In contrast to the studies above, Burney and Irwin (2000) did not ﬁnd globalized
shame to be associated with disordered eating. Using the sample of 97 Australian women
brieﬂy noted above, these authors failed to ﬁnd signiﬁcant associations between the
TOSCA shame scale and EAT scores.

Overall, existing research has demonstrated that eating and body-related shame
are associated with eating disorder symptomatology. Findings are much less consistent
for globalized shame, with some studies showing signiﬁcant associations while others do
not. Determining the relative role of globalized shame in eating pathology is important
for etiological and treatment considerations of eating disorders because globalized shame
may represent one of many precipitating factors in the development of eating pathology.
Additionally, if globalized shame is partially responsible for the development or
maintenance of eating pathology, targeting this affect in treatment could be valuable.

The current study seeks to further investigate the role of shame in eating pathology by

examining relationships between disordered eating and both globalized as well as eating-

related shame.

10

CHAPTER 2

DESIGN OF THE CURRENT STUDY

Due to the inconsistent results noted above, additional research is needed to
clarify shame and eating pathology relationships. The current study sought to examine
relationships between eating pathology and both eating-related and globalized shame. In
addition, it sought to improve upon past research by including a variety of shame and
eating pathology measures that have been used in separate studies but never together.

It was anticipated that the current study would replicate previous work showing
signiﬁcant and positive correlations between eating and body-related shame and eating
pathology. In addition, it was hypothesized that positive and signiﬁcant relationships
would be found between globalized shame and eating attitudes and behaviors. This
hypothesis was based on previous studies showing signiﬁcant relationships between
internalized shame, low-self esteem, worthlessness, and eating pathology (McCreery,
1991; Fryer, Waller, & Kroese, 1997; Abrams, Allen, & Gray, 1993; Killen, Hayward,
Wilson, Taylor, Hammer, Litt, Simmonds, & Haydel, 1994).

Additionally, the present study included a measure of personality, a dimension
that had not been explored in previous studies of shame and disordered eating
relationships. This component of the study would provide information regarding the
relationship between shame, speciﬁc personality factors, and eating pathology. Previous
studies have found that the three higher-order factors (Positive Emotionality, Negative
Emotionality, and Constraint) of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ;

Tellegen, 1982) are signiﬁcant predictors of eating pathology (Leon, Fulkerson, Perry, &

ll

Cudeck, 1993; Leon, Fulkerson, Perry, Keel, & Klump, 1999; Pryor & Wiederman,
1996). Positive Emotionality assesses pleasurable engagement in work and social
activities. Negative Emotionality assesses anger, stress, and anxiety, and Constraint
assesses inhibition and caution. Several of these factors, particularly Negative
Emotionality, may be related to shame such that women who tend to be dysphoric,
pessimistic, and anxious may be more prone to experience shame than women who are
less dysphoric and anxious. Understanding relationships between personality and shame
will increase understanding of the role that shame may play in eating pathology.

The current study tested the following hypotheses:

1. Globalized and eating-related shame will be signiﬁcantly and positively
correlated with each other as well as with EDI, EAT, Negative Emotionality,
and Constraint scores. In addition, these shame measures will be negatively
correlated with Positive Emotionality.

2. Globalized and eating-related shame will be signiﬁcant predictors of EAT
overall scores and the EDI subscales Drive for Thinness, Bulimia, and Body
Dissatisfaction. Additionally, they will predict above and beyond the variance
accounted for by the personality factors Negative Emotionality and

Constraint.

12

CHAPTER 3

METHOD

Participants

Participants included 206 female undergraduate students at Michigan State
University, who were recruited from introductory psychology courses and received
course credit for their participation. Participants ranged in age from 17 to 24 years.
Regarding ethnicity, 80.1% of participants were Caucasian, 8.3% were African
American, 3.4% were Hispanic, 3.4% were Asian, .5% were Native American, and 4.4%
were “other”.

To assess socioeconomic status, the highest education level of participants’
mothers and fathers was examined. Two and one-half percent of mothers did not
complete high school, 22.3% ﬁnished high school, 16.3% completed some college, 6.9%
completed an associate’s degree, 33.7% completed college, 15.8% completed a master’s
degree, and 2.5% ﬁnished an advanced degree (Ph.D., M.D., J.D.). Similar percentages
were observed for the fathers, in that 1% of them did not complete high school, 23.6%
completed high school, 11.3% ﬁnished some college, 2.6% completed an associate’s
degree, 37.9% completed college, 12.3% completed a master’s degree, and 11.3%
ﬁnished an advanced degree.

Measures
Disordered Eatingﬁharacteristics

Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2)

The EDI-2 (Garner, 1991) is a 91-item self-report measure designed to assess
psychological and behavioral traits associated with anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa. The EDI—2 consists of eleven subscales including Drive for Thinness, Bulimia,
Body Dissatisfaction, Ineffectiveness, Perfectionism, Interpersonal Distrust, Interoceptive
Awareness, Maturity Fears, Asceticism, Impulse Regulation, and Social Insecurity.

The ﬁrst three of these subscales measure core disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors, whereas the last eight assess personality traits believed to be associated with
eating pathology. Given the current study’s focus on disordered eating behaviors, only
the Drive for Thinness (i.e., excessive preoccupation with dieting, weight, and weight
gain), Bulimia (i.e., thoughts about binge eating and the tendency to engage in bingeing
behaviors) and Body Dissatisfaction (i.e., dissatisfaction with the shape and size of one’s
body) subscales were used in analyses. Respondents rate each EDI-2 item on a six-point
scale, ranging from “always” to “never.” Higher scores indicate more disturbances in
disordered eating attitudes and behaviors.

The EDI-2 shows good internal consistency within eating disordered samples with
alphas ranging from .83 to .93 for the original eight subscales (Garner & Olmsted, 1984),
and .70 to .80 for the remaining three (Garner, 1991). Internal consistency is also
adequate within community samples (alphas = .44 to .93), albeit somewhat lower than in
clinical populations. One-week (.67-.95), three-week (65-97), and one-year (.41-.75)
test-retest reliabilities have been found to be moderate-to-high in undergraduate college
and community samples (Welch, 1988; Wear & Pratz, 1987; Crowther, Lilly, Crawford,

Shepherd, & Oliver, 1990). The validity of the EDI-2 has been supported by studies

14

indicating that items discriminate between eating disorder and non-eating disorder
subjects (Garner, 1991).

Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40)

The EAT (Garner & Garﬁnkel, 1979) is a 40-item self-report measure used to
assess symptoms of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. This standardized measure is
the most widely used instrument to assess symptoms of eating disorders (Garﬁnkel &
Newman, 2001). Respondents rate each item on a 6-point scale ranging from “always” to
“never.” Higher scores on items indicate more eating pathology. The only subscale on
the BAT is the total score, which is the sum of the 40 responses. The EAT differs from
the EDI-2 in that the former primarily assesses behavioral symptoms of anorexia and
bulimia, whereas the EDI-2 includes items measuring psychological dimensions and
personality characteristics associated with anorexia and bulimia in addition to behavioral
symptoms.

Psychometric studies of the EAT have been conducted using two independent
samples of anorexia nervosa and non-eating disorder participants. For the anorexic
sample and pooled anorexic/non-eating disorder sample, Cronbach’s alpha has been
shown to be .79 and .94, respectively (Garner & Garﬁnkel, 1979). In another study, two-
to three-week test-retest reliability for the EAT has been shown to be .84 (Carter & Moss,
1984). Regarding validity, the BAT has been shown to predict membership in anorexic
and non-eating disorder groups (Garner & Garﬁnkel, 1979). In addition, discriminant
validity for the EAT has been shown by insigniﬁcant correlations for a non-eating
disorder sample between the EAT and Restraint Scale (Herman & Polivy, 1975) and the

Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968).

15

Globalized Shame

Intemalized Slme Scale (18$

The ISS (Cook, 1990) is a 30-item self-report questionnaire that assesses
internalized levels of shame. Intemalized shame is thought to be a stable and enduring
negative affect that inﬂuences the entire self (Kaufman, 1996). Respondents are asked to
rate each item on a 5-point scale, ranging from “never” to “almost always.” Higher
scores on items indicate more internalized shame. The ISS includes a basic shame scale
and a self-esteem scale. Given the current study’s hypotheses, only the shame scale was
examined in analyses. This shame scale is comprised of 24 items that have been based
on phenomenological descriptions of the experience of shame; all items are negative in
valence (e. g., “I feel intensely inadequate and full of self-doubt”) to reﬂect the negative
language and feelings associated with shame (Cook, 1996). The total score for the ISS is
the sum of the 24 responses on the shame scale.

The ISS Shame scale shows good internal consistency (alpha = .94) within
college student samples as well as clinical samples comprised of subjects with alcohol
dependence, depression, eating disorders, and other psychiatric disorders (alpha = .96;
Cook, 1990). Nine-week test-retest reliability has been shown to be high (.84; Cook,
1990)

Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA)

The TOSCA (Tangney, Wagner, & Gramzow, 1989) is designed to assess
proneness to shame and to guilt, extemalization of blame, detachment-unconcem, alpha
pride (pride in self), and beta pride (pride in behavior). The TOSCA consists of 15 items

that describe scenarios experienced in daily life. Of the 15 scenarios presented, 5

l6

describe positive outcomes (e. g., “You and a group of coworkers worked very hard on a
project. Your boss singles you out for a bonus because the project was such a success”),
and 10 describe negative outcomes (e.g., “You are driving down the road, and you hit a
small animal”). Each scenario is followed by four or ﬁve responses, one of which is a
phenomenological description characteristic of shame. The remaining three or four
responses are descriptions associated with the other subscales of this measure.
Participants rate the likelihood of responding to each item on a 5-point scale, ranging
from “not likely” to “very likely.” Higher scores on items indicate greater levels of
shame.

Again, given the hypotheses of the current study, only the proneness to shame
index was examined in the current study. This scale conceptualizes shame as a negative
affect inﬂuencing the entire self, and this appears to be akin to internalized shame on the
ISS. However, Cook (1996) argues that the scenario format of the TOSCA is not
adequate for measuring shame because shame is not restricted to speciﬁc situations.
Because shame affects the entire self, Cook believes that using phenomenological
descriptions not bound by a speciﬁc situation, as in the case of the ISS, is a better method
of assessing shame. Currently, it is unclear whether the two measures assess different
forms of shame, and thus both instruments are included in the current study.

The TOSCA demonstrates good internal consistency for the shame subscale with
alpha of .74 (Tangney, Wagner, Hill-Barlow, Marschall, & Gramzow, 1996). In addition,
test-retest reliability has been shown to be .85 for the shame subscale (Tangney, Wagner,
Fletcher, & Gramzow, 1992).

Eating-Related Shame

l7

ﬂame ind Guilt Eating Scale (SGES)

The SGES (Frank, 1989, 1990) is a 4-item self-report questionnaire designed to
assess eating-related shame and guilt in normal eating and overeating situations.
Respondents are asked to rate each item on a 5-point scale, ranging from “almost always”
to “never.” Higher scores on items indicate greater levels of shame and guilt. Frank
(1989,1990) used a combined index score of shame and guilt for the SGES, and Burney
and Irwin (2000) modiﬁed this to include separate indices of shame and guilt. The
current study only examined the shame index. Frank reported that the full-scale alpha for
the SGES in 94 college students was .81, but the internal consistency of the separate
indices has not been examined. Furthermore, test-retest reliability and validity have not
been established for this measure.

Sgle of Eating Speciﬁc Shame (SESS)

The SESS is a 14-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure eating-
related shame in various eating situations. Due to the limited psychometric data available
on the SGES and the infrequent use of this instrument as a measure of eating-related
shame, the SESS was developed for this study in order to provide an alternative measure
of eating-related shame. Respondents rate each item on a 5-point scale, ranging from
“never” to “almost always.” Higher scores represent higher levels of eating-related
shame. Example items include, “Eating makes me feel like an empty person” and “1
lower my head when someone watches me eat.”

Obiectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale (OBC)

The OBC (McKinley & Hyde, 1996) is a 24-item self-report questionnaire

assessing objectiﬁed body consciousness, which is a woman’s experience that her body is

18

an object and the beliefs associated with this experience. The concept of objectiﬁed body
consciousness has been derived from feminist theorists who believe that culture has
constructed the meaning of the feminine body to be an object that is observed (Spitzack,
1990). Respondents rate each item on a 7-point scale, ranging from “strongly agree” to
“strongly disagree.” The OBC consists of three subscales including body surveillance,
body shame, and appearance control beliefs. Body shame measures shame associated
with the failure to achieve internalized cultural standards of how the feminine body
should look. Higher scores on the body shame scale represent greater levels of shame
resulting from the failure to achieve cultural body standards. Only the body shame
subscale was examined in the current study.

The OBC shows good internal consistency within samples of undergraduate and
middle-aged women with alphas ranging from .70 to .84 for the body shame subscale
(McKinley & Hyde, 1996). In addition, two-week test-retest reliability has been shown
to be .79 for the body shame subscale (McKinley & Hyde, 1996). Regarding validity,
items on the CBC body shame subscale have been shown to discriminate between
women with more versus less eating disorder symptomatology (McKinley & Hyde,
1996)

Personality Characteristics

 

Multidimension_al Persme Questionnaire (MPQ)

The MPQ (Tellegen, 1982) is a 300-item self-report questionnaire assessing
normal range personality characteristics on eleven primary scales and three higher-order
factors that are weighted linear composites of the primary scales. Given previous work

with eating disordered populations (Casper, 1990; Casper, Hedeker, & McClough, 1992;

19

Pryor & Wiederman, 1996; Leon, F ulkerson, Perry, Keel, & Klump, 1999), only the
higher-order factors were considered in the present study.

The ﬁrst higher-order factor is Positive Emotionality, which is comprised of the
primary scales Well Being, Social Potency, Achievement, and Social Closeness. High
scores on this factor suggest active and pleasurable engagement in work and social
activities. The second factor, Negative Emotionality, is comprised of the primary scales
Stress Reaction, Alienation, and Aggression. High scores on this factor suggest a
tendency to experience strong negative emotions such as stress, anxiety, anger, and
resentment. Finally, the third factor, Constraint, is comprised of the primary scales
Control, Harm Avoidance, and Traditionalism. High scores on this scale indicate a
tendency toward caution, restraint, and inhibition.

The MPQ shows good internal consistency within college and community
samples with alphas ranging from .76 to .90 for the eleven primary scales, with a median
alpha of .85 (Tellegen, 1982). One-month test-retest reliability for a college student
sample ranged from .82 to .92, with a median value of .89. Construct validity for the
MPQ has been demonstrated by signiﬁcant correlations between the three higher-order
factors and other major personality factors from the California Personality Inventory
(CPI; Gough, 1975), the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; Eysenck & Eysenck,
1975), the l6-PF (Cattell, Eber, & Tatsuoka, 1970), and the Personality Research Form
(PRF; Jackson, 1974).

Demographics and BOdj Weight

Demographic Questionnaire

20

A general demographic questionnaire was used to collect information regarding
age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.
Procedures

Participants were scheduled for one and a half-hour testing sessions and were
tested in groups of two on separate computers. Upon arrival for the study, participants
provided informed consent and were asked to complete the nine questionnaires.
Participants’ height and weight were then measured. Finally, participants were debriefed
about the study goals and rationale after completion of these questionnaires and

measurements.

21

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Statistical Analyses

Descriptive statistics were computed for eating, shame, personality, and age
variables, and internal consistencies were computed for eating and shame variables.
Variables with positively skewed distributions were transformed using a standard log
transformation method. Four variables were transformed, including the EAT total score,
EDI-2 Bulimia subscale, SGES total score, and SESS total score. Pearson Product
Moment correlations between eating, shame, and personality variables were used to
examine initial between-subject associations of shame and eating pathology.

Separate multiple hierarchical regression analyses were then used to examine the
relative contribution of personality variables and shame to the total” variance in EAT, EDI
Drive for Thinness, EDI Bulimia, and EDI Body Dissatisfaction scores. Each regression
included one of the four eating measures as the dependent variable, and the personality
factors Positive Emotionality, Negative Emotionality, and Constraint were entered into
the ﬁrst block, the two globalized shame measures were entered into the second block,
and the three eating-related shame measures were entered into the third block. Variables
were entered into the regression in the speciﬁed order based on the hypothesis that stable,
trait-like personality factors would account for the largest variance in eating scores,
followed by globalized shame, another trait-like characteristic. Eating-related shame
measures were entered last into the regression because it was predicted that speciﬁc

shame would not account for as large of a portion of the variance in eating scores as

22

personality and globalized shame. A conservative p_ value of .01 was used to account for
the relatively large number of analyses conducted.
Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for the eating, shame, personality, and age
variables, and internal consistencies for the eating and shame variables. Internal
consistencies could not be computed for the personality factors because these variables
are higher-order factors comprised of weighted linear composites of the primary scales.
Overall, high internal consistencies were found for the eating and shame variables,
indicating that items within each measure were highly correlated with one another. These
internal consistency values are similar to ones reported previously in the literature.
Relationships between Globalized and Eating-Related Shame

To examine the ﬁrst part of hypothesis 1 that globalized and eating-related shame
would be signiﬁcantly and positively correlated with each other, correlations were
conducted between these measures (see Table 2). All of the shame measures were
signiﬁcantly and positively correlated with each other, supporting the ﬁrst part of
hypothesis 1. This suggests that higher levels of globalized shame are associated with
higher levels of eating—related shame.
Relationships between Shame, Eating Belgviors, and Personality Characteristics

The second part of hypothesis 1 predicted that globalized and eating-related
shame would be signiﬁcantly and positively correlated with EDI, EAT, Negative
Emotionality, and Constraint scores. Furthermore, it was predicted that shame measures
would be negatively correlated with Positive Emotionality. Table 2 presents correlations

between globalized shame, eating measures, and personality factors. Consistent with

23

these hypotheses, globalized shame was positively correlated with EDI, EAT, Negative
Emotionality, and Constraint, and globalized shame was negatively correlated with
Positive Emotionality. These ﬁndings suggest that higher levels of globalized shame are
associated with higher levels of eating pathology, Negative Emotionality, and Constraint.
Moreover, higher levels of globalized shame are associated with lower levels of Positive
Emotionality. In terms of the speciﬁc globalized shame measures, the ISS was
negatively correlated with Positive Emotionality, whereas the TOSCA was not correlated
with this personality factor. Additionally, the TOSCA was positively correlated with
Constraint, and the ISS was not. Thus, the ISS and TOSCA appear to be differentially
associated with the speciﬁc personality characteristics of Positive Emotionality and
Constraint.

Table 2 also presents correlations between eating-related shame, eating measures,
and personality factors. Eating-related shame was positively correlated with the eating
measures, and the Negative Emotionality and Constraint personality factors, supporting
hypothesis 1. This suggests that higher levels of eating-related shame are associated with
similar levels of eating pathology, Negative Emotionality, and Constraint. However,
eating-related shame was not signiﬁcantly associated with the Positive Emotionality
personality factor, providing evidence against this part of the hypothesis. This suggests
that there is no association between differing levels of eating-related shame and Positive
Emotionality.

Predictive Relationships between Shame, Personality, and Disordered Eating
To examine hypothesis 2, four hierarchical multiple regressions were performed.

These regressions tested the prediction that globalized and eating-related shame would be

24

signiﬁcant predictors of EAT scores and the three EDI-2 subscales above and beyond the
variance accounted for by the personality factors Negative Emotionality and Constraint.
Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6 present results from the regression analyses and include standardized
regression coefﬁcients (B), Multiple R (R), Effect size (132), R2 change (A32) values, as
well as signiﬁcance levels for the betas for each individual predictor.

Overall, results from the four regressions indicated that personality showed
predictable relationships with all eating variables except Bulimia in step 1, a ﬁnding
consistent with previous studies. Results also showed the novel ﬁnding that shame
variables predicted above and beyond the variance explained by these personality factors,
thus supporting hypothesis 2. For each regression, there was a signiﬁcant increase in
variance at each step, suggesting that globalized shame accounted for variance above and
beyond personality, and that eating-related shame accounted for variance above and
beyond both. Regarding globalized shame speciﬁcally, ISS shame accounted for the
largest amount of explained variance in each regression compared to TOSCA shame. No
one measure of eating-related shame consistently accounted for the largest amount of
explained variance in disordered eating.

For the ﬁrst regression, it was found that globalized shame predicted EAT scores
above and beyond the variance accounted for by personality. In the second step, the
variables Constraint, ISS shame, and TOSCA shame all accounted for signiﬁcant
variance in the prediction of EAT scores. The addition of the eating-related shame
measures in step 3 resulted in a signiﬁcant increase in variance explained beyond step 2.

SESS shame, SGES shame, and OBC shame accounted for this ﬁnal model’s variance.

25

Thus, eating-related rather than globalized shame accounted for signiﬁcant variance in
the prediction of EAT scores in the ﬁnal model.

In the second regression, results showed that globalized shame predicted EDI-2
Body Dissatisfaction scores beyond the variance accounted for by personality factors.
ISS shame was the only variable in the second step to account for signiﬁcant variance in
the prediction of Body Dissatisfaction scores. The inclusion of eating-related shame in
the third step explained more of the total and incremental variance in Body
Dissatisfaction scores. Only OBC shame accounted for signiﬁcant variance in the ﬁnal
model. Similar to the ﬁrst regression, the prediction of Body Dissatisfaction was best
accounted for by eating-related rather than globalized shame in the ﬁnal model.

Results from the third regression showed that globalized shame predicted EDI-2
Drive for Thinness scores beyond the variance accounted for by personality. Only ISS
shame accounted for signiﬁcant variance in predicting Drive for Thinness scores in this
step. The addition of eating-related shame in the third step resulted in a signiﬁcant
increase in variance explained beyond the second step. All of the eating-related shame
measures signiﬁcantly accounted for the explained variance in this ﬁnal model.

For the ﬁnal regression, it was found that globalized shame predicted EDI-2
Bulimia scores above and beyond the variance explained by personality. Only ISS shame
accounted for the explained variance in step 2. The inclusion of eating-related shame in

the third step explained variance in Bulimia scores.

26

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

Findings from the current study represent a signiﬁcant contribution to the
literature on shame and disordered eating behaviors and attitudes, as this was the largest
study of globalized and eating-related shame to date. In terms of predictive relationships
between globalized, eating-related shame, and disordered eating, results showed that both
globalized and eating-related shame accounted for signiﬁcant variance in disordered
eating above and beyond variance explained by personality factors. Of the globalized
shame measures, ISS shame accounted for the largest amount of variance in disordered
eating, with TOSCA shame overall accounting for negligible variance. Finally, when
eating-related shame was entered into the overall model, this type of shame accounted for
the largest amount of variance in disordered eating, with globalized shame and
personality generally no longer signiﬁcant predictors of disordered eating.

The above ﬁndings are notable in showing the importance of eating-related and
globalized shame in relation to disordered eating. Findings replicate previous research
suggesting signiﬁcant associations between eating-related shame and disordered eating.
However, ﬁndings are unique in suggesting that globalized shame is also signiﬁcantly
related to eating pathology. This ﬁnding highlights the need to further examine the role
of globalized shame in the etiology and maintenance of eating pathology. It is possible
that speciﬁc temperaments and/or family experiences predispose individuals to higher
levels of globalized shame. This shame may then interact with cultural pressures for

women to be thin, which may lead to the development of an eating disorder. As an eating

27

disorder persists, globalized shame may serve to maintain the eating pathology and be a
factor resistant to treatment.

Although globalized shame predicted disordered eating scores, this effect
disappeared when eating-related shame was included in the regressions. This ﬁnding
may be a direct result of the relationship between eating-related shame and disordered
eating. Speciﬁcally, high correlations found between the eating-related shame measures
and the disordered eating measures suggest that these different measures may be tapping
into the same construct. Indeed, a number of questions from the eating-related shame
measures closely resemble those from the disordered eating measures. Thus, although
eating-related shame accounted for the largest amount of variance in disordered eating,
this result may be misleading due to the strong relationship between eating-related shame
and disordered eating. These results suggest that eating-related shame may not be a
separate construct from disordered eating, and as such should not be considered as a
signiﬁcant factor predicting disordered eating. However, globalized shame does appear
to be a separate construct from disordered eating and was shown to be a signiﬁcant
predictor of disordered eating. Future research should focus more on this factor.

Another important ﬁnding was that ISS shame accounted for the largest amount
of variance in disordered eating, rather than TOSCA shame. Although both of these
measures are thought to assess globalized shame, the difference in their formats may be
responsible for the discrepant ﬁndings. As Cook (1996) pointed out, the TOSCA
presents scenarios in which a person chooses how they would respond if presented with
the given situation, whereas the ISS assesses current feelings of shame that are not bound

by speciﬁc situations. Thus, it is possible that the scenario format of the TOSCA does

28

not strongly predict disordered eating because the scenarios represent mundane
experiences not closely connected with the type of globalized shame experienced by
women with eating pathology. In contrast, items on the ISS appear to tap more into the
type of globalized shame found in women with eating pathology.

Several limitations of the current study should be noted. First, participants were
undergraduate students without clinical eating disorders. Thus, it is unclear how well the
study’s ﬁndings generalize to clinical populations. Nevertheless, undergraduate students
with subclinical eating pathology may actually exhibit less intense shame than women
from clinical populations, and thus the ﬁndings may be expected to be even more
pronounced in patient samples. A second limitation was that other variables such as
depression and anxiety were not included in the regressions. Thus, it is unclear what
effect these other variables would have on the relative importance of shame in these
regressions. Moreover, the percentage of variance accounted for in disordered eating was
modest for many variables in the current study, suggesting that other signiﬁcant factors of
disordered eating were not examined. Finally, because this study was cross-sectional, it
is impossible to address issues of causation surrounding shame and eating pathology.
Future longitudinal studies would help to address this question.

The overall ﬁndings from this study support the role of globalized shame in
disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. Although research regarding globalized shame
has been inconsistent to this point, the current study’s ﬁndings should encourage further
examination of this concept, as it may be one of many precipitating and/or maintenance
factors of eating pathology. One immediate implication of this study is the need to

speciﬁcally target globalized shame in treatment of women with eating pathology. As

29

globalized shame could be conceptualized as a central affect in psychodynamic work or
as a core belief in cognitive-behavioral treatment, focusing on globalized shame may help

decrease eating pathology.

30

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34

APPENDICES

35

APPENDIX A

Relationships Among Shame, Personality, and Eating Attitudes and Behaviors
Consent Form

This study examines relationships between shame, personality, and unhealthy
eating attitudes/behaviors. We hope to learn more about the ways in which shame and
personality variables may be related to different eating attitudes and behaviors.

If you decide to take part in this study today, you will be asked to complete
questionnaires about your experiences of shame, your personality characteristics, and
your eating attitudes and behaviors. In addition, we will weigh you and measure your
height. The total participation time will be about 1 and 1/2 hours. You will receive 3
course credits for your participation.

All information that you give us will be kept strictly conﬁdential among project
staff. Your name will not be on any questionnaires; an identiﬁcation number will be put
on them instead. All questionnaires will be kept in locked ﬁling cabinets in a locked
ofﬁce. Your identity will not be revealed in any reports written about this study. We will
summarize information from all study participants and will not report information about
yourself or any individuals. Your privacy will be protected to the maximum extent
allowable by law.

You have the right to refuse to answer any questions or to withdraw from this
study at any point with no penalty or negative consequences. Your decision about
whether to participate or not will not affect your course evaluations or relationship with
the Department of Psychology at Michigan State University. If you have any questions,
please ask us. If you have any questions about the study later, you can contact Dr.
Gershen Kaufman at (517) 355-2310 or Patrick Perkins at (517) 355-9564. If you have
any questions about your rights as a participant in this research study, you may contact
Dr. David Wright at (517) 355-2180.

I have read this form and agree to participate.

 

 

Signature of Participant Date

 

 

Witness Date

36

APPENDIX B

EDI-2

The items below ask about your attitudes, feelings, and behavior. Some of the items
relate to food or eating. Other items ask about your feelings about yourself. Please
respond to this questionnaire for the time when your concerns about eating and weight
were strongest. For each item, decide if the item was/is true about you for that time
period.

1 =Never
2=Rarely
3=Sometimes
4=Often
5=Usually
6=Always

l. I eat sweets and carbohydrates without 1 2 3 4 5 6
feeling nervous.

2. I think that my stomach is too big. 1 2 3 4 5 6

3. Only outstanding performance is good 1 2 3 4 5 6
enough in my family.

4. I eat when I am upset. I 2 3 4 5 6

5. I think about dieting. 1 2 3 4 5 6

6. I think that my thighs are too large. 1 2 3 4 5 6

7. 1 stuff myself with food. 1 2 3 4 5 6

8. I think that my stomach is just the l 2 3 4 5 6
right size.

9. As a child, I tried very hard to avoid l 2 3 4 5 6
disappointing my parents and teachers.

10. I feel extremely guilty after overeating. l 2 3 4 5 6

11. I have gone on eating binges where l 2 3 4 5 6
I felt that I could not stop.

37

12.

l3.

14.

15.

l6.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

I feel satisﬁed with the shape of my
body.

I hate being less than best at things.
I am terriﬁed of gaining weight.
I think about bingeing(overeating).
I like the shape of my buttocks.

I exaggerate or magnify the importance
of weight.

I think my hips are too big.

I eat moderately in front of others and
stuff myself when they’re gone.

My parents have expected excellence
of me.

I think that my thighs are just the
right size.

I am preoccupied with the desire to be
thinner.

I have the thought of trying to vomit in
order to lose weight.

I think my buttocks are too large.

I feel that I must do things perfectly
or not do them at all.

If I gain a pound, I worry that 1 will
keep gaining.

I eat or drink in secrecy.

I think that my hips are just the right
size.

I have extremely high goals.

1

l

38

APPENDIX C

EAT
Please select the response which applies best to each of the numbered statements. Most
of the questions directly relate to food or eating, although other types of questions have
been included. Please answer each question carefully.
1=Never
2=Rarely
3=Sometimes
4=Often
5=Very Often
6=Always
1. Like eating with other people. 1 2 3 4 5 6

2. Prepare foods for others but do not 1 2 3 4 5 6
eat what I cook.

3. Become anxious prior to eating. 1 2 3 4 5 6
4. Am terriﬁed about being overweight. 1 2 3 4 5 6
5. Avoid eating when I am hungry. I 2 3 4 5 6
6. Find myself preoccupied with food. 1 2 3 4 5 6

7. Have gone on eating binges where I

feel that I may not be able to stop. 1 2 3 4 5 6
8. Cut my food into small pieces. 1 2 3 4 5 6
9. Aware of the calorie content of foods 1 2 3 4 5 6
that I eat.

10. Particularly avoid foods with a high 1 2 3 4 5 6
carbohydrate content (e. g., bread,
potatoes, rice, etc.).

1 1. Feel bloated after meals. 1 2 3 4 5 6

12. Feel that others would prefer if I ate 1 2 3 4 5 6
more.

39

13.

14.

15.

16.

l7.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

Vomit after I have eaten.
Feel extremely guilty after eating.

Am preoccupied with a desire to be
thinner.

Exercise strenuously to burn off
calories.

Weigh myself several times a day.
Like my clothes to ﬁt tightly.
Enjoy eating meat.

Wake up early in the morning.
Eat the same foods day after day.

Think about burning up calories
when I exercise.

Have regular menstrual periods.

Other people think that I am too thin.

Am preoccupied with the thought of
having fat on my body.

Take longer than others to eat my
meals.

Enjoy eating at restaurants.

Take laxatives.

Avoid foods with sugar in them.
Eat diet foods.

Feel that food controls my life.
Display self control around food.

Feel that others pressure me to eat.

40

34. Give too much time and thought
to food.

35. Suffer from constipation.

36. Feel uncomfortable after eating sweets.

37. Engage in dieting behavior.
38. Like my stomach to be empty.
39. Enjoy trying new rich foods.

40. Have the impulse to vomit after
meals.

41

APPENDIX D

ISS

DIRECTIONS: Below is a list of statements describing feelings or experiences that you
may have from time to time or that are familiar to you because you have had these
feelings and experiences for a long time. Most of these statements describe feelings and
experiences that are generally painful or negative in some way. Some people will seldom
or never have had many of these feelings. Everyone has had some of these feelings at
some time, but if you ﬁnd that these statements describe the way you feel a good deal of
the time, it can be painful just reading them. Try to be as honest as you can in
responding.

Read each statement carefully and circle the number to the left of the item that indicates
the frequency with which you ﬁnd yourself feeling or experiencing what is described in
the statement. Use the scale below.

DO NOT OMIT ANY ITEM.

SCALE

1 — NEVER 2 — SELDOM 3 — SOMETIMES 4 — FREQUENTLY S — ALMOST ALWAYS

SCALE
1 2 3 4 5 l. I feel like I am never quite good enough.
1 2 3 4 5 2. I feel somehow left out.
1 2 3 4 5 3. I think that people look down on me.
1 2 3 4 5 4. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a success.
1 2 3 4 5 5. I scold myself and put myself down.
1 2 3 4 5 6. I feel insecure about others opinions of me.
1 2 3 4 5 7. Compared to other people, I feel like I somehow never
measure up.
1 2 3 4 5 8. I see myself as being very small and insigniﬁcant.

42

1 — NEVER

1

l

SCALE
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3

SCALE

2 — SELDOM 3 — SOMETIMES 4 — FREQUENTLY 5 — ALMOST ALWAYS

4 5 9
4 5 10
4 5 11
4 5 12
4 5 13
4 5 14
4 5 15.
4 5 l6.
4 5 17.
4 5 18.
4 5 19.
4 5 20
4 5 21
4 5 22
4 5 23
4 5 24

I feel 1 have much to be proud of.

. I feel intensely inadequate and full of self doubt.

. I feel as if I am somehow defective as a person, like there

is something basically wrong with me.

. When I compare myself to others I am just not as

important.

. I have an overpowering fear that my faults will be

revealed in front of others.

. I feel I have a number of good qualities.

I see myself striving for perfection only to continually fall
short.

I think others are able to see my defects.

I could beat myself over the head with a club when I
make a mistake.

On the whole, I am satisﬁed with myself.

I would like to shrink away when 1 make a mistake.

. I replay painful events over and over in my mind until I

am overwhelmed.

. I feel 1 am a person of worth at least on an equal plane

with others.

. At times I feel like 1 will break into a thousand pieces.

. I feel as if 1 have lost control over my body functions and

my feelings.

. Sometimes I feel no bigger than a pea.

43

l—NEVER

SCALE
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
I 2 3
l 2 3
1 2 3

SCALE

2 -— SELDOM 3 - SOMETIMES 4 — FREQUENTLY 5 — ALMOST ALWAYS

4 5 25
4 5 26
4 5 27
4 5 28.
4 5 29
4 5 30

. At times I feel so exposed that I wish the earth would

open up and swallow me.

. I have this painful gap within me that I have not been able

to ﬁll.

. I feel empty and unfulﬁlled.

I take a positive attitude toward myself.

. My loneliness is more like emptiness.

. I always feel like there is something missing.

44

APPENDIX E

TOSCA

Below are situations that people are likely to encounter in day-to-day life, followed by

several common reactions to those situations.

As you read each scenario, try to imagine yourself in that situation. Then indicate how
likely you would be to react in each of the ways described. We ask you to rate a_ll
responses because people may feel or react more than one way to the same situation, or

they may react different ways at different times.

For example:

A. You wake up early one Saturday morning. It is cold and rainy outside.

A) You would telephone a friend to catch up on news.

0

B) You would take the extra time to read the paper.

C) You would feel disappointed that it’s raining.

D) You would wonder why you woke up so early.

1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
1---2---3-—-4---5

not likely very likely
1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
1---2-—-3---4---5

not likely very likely

In the above example, I’ve rated ALI: of the answers by circling a number. I circled a
“1” for answer (A) because I wouldn’t want to wake up a friend very early on a Saturday
morning — so it’s not at all likely that I would do that. I circled a “5” for answer (B)
because I almost always read the paper if I have time in the morning (very likely). I
circled a “3” for answer (C) because for me it’s about half and half. Sometimes I would
be disappointed about the rain and sometimes I wouldn’t — it would depend on what I had
planned. And I circled a “4” for answer (D) because I would probably wonder why I had

awakened so early.

Please do not skip any items — rate all responses.

45

You make plans to meet a friend for lunch. At 5 o’clock, you realize you stood him
up.

A) You would think: “I’m inconsiderate.” l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
B) You would think: “Well, they’ll understand.” 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely

C) You would try to make it up to him as soon as possible. l---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

D) You would think: “My boss distracted me just before 1---2---3---4---5
lunch.” not likely very likely

You break something at work and then hide it.

A) You would think: “This is making me anxious. I need 1---2---3---4---5

to either ﬁx it or get someone else to.” not likely very likely

B) You would think about quitting. 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

C) You would think: “A lot of things aren’t made very 1---2---3---4---5
well these days.” not likely very likely

D) You would think: “It was only an accident.” 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

You are out with friends one evening, and you’re feeling especially witty and
attractive. Your best friend’s spouse seems to particularly enjoy your company.

A) You would think: “I should have been aware of what 1---2---3---4---5

my best friend is feeling.” not likely very likely
B) You would feel happy with your appearance and 1---2---3---4---5

personality. not likely very likely
C) You would feel pleased to have made such a good l---2---3---4---5

impression. not likely very likely

D) You would think your best friend should pay attention 1---2---3---4---5
to his/her spouse. not likely very likely

E) You would probably avoid eye contact for a long time. 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

46

4. At work, you wait until the last minute to plan a project, and it turns out badly.

A) You would feel incompetent. l---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

B) You would think: “There are never enough hours in 1---2---3---4---5
the day.” not likely very likely

C) You would feel: “I deserve to be reprimanded.” 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

D) You would think: “What’s done is done.” 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

5. You make a mistake at work and ﬁnd out a co-worker is blamed for the error.

A) You would think the company did not like the l---2---3---4---5
co-worker. not likely very likely

B) You would think: “Life is not fair.” 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

C) You would keep quiet and avoid the co-worker. 1---2---3—--4---5
not likely very likely

D) You would feel unhappy and eager to correct the 1---2---3---4---5
situation. not likely very likely

6. For several days you put off making a difﬁcult phone call. At the last minute you
make the calland are able to manipulate the conversation so that all goes well.

A) You would think: “I guess I’m more persuasive than 1---2---3---4---5
I thought.” not likely very likely

B) You would regret that you put it off. 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

C) You would feel like a coward. l---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

D) You would think: “I did a good job.” l---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

E) You would think you shouldn’t have to make calls 1---2---3—--4---5
you feel pressured into. not likely very likely

47

7.

You make a commitment to diet, but when you pass the bakery you buy a dozen

donuts.
A) Next meal, you would eat celery to make up for it. l---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely
B) You would think: “They looked too good to pass by.” l---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely
C) You would feel disgusted with your lack of willpower 1---2---3—--4---5
and self-control. not likely very likely
D) You would think: “Once won’t matter.” l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely

While playing around, you throw a ball and it hits your friend in the face.

A)

B)

C)

D)

You would feel inadequate that you can’t even 1---2---3---4---5
throw a ball. not likely very likely
You would think maybe your friend needs more 1---2---3---4--—5
practice at catching. not likely very likely
You would think: “It was just an accident.” l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
You would apologize and make sure your friend 1---2---3---4---5
feels better. not likely very likely

You have recently moved away from your family, and everyone has been very
helpful. A few times you needed to borrow money, but you paid it back as soon as

you could.
A) You would feel immature. 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
B) You would think: “I sure ran into some bad luck.” l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
C) You would return the favor as quickly as you could. l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
D) You would think: “I am a trustworthy person.” 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
E) You would be proud that you repaid your debts. 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely

48

10. You are driving down the road, and you hit a small animal.

11.

12.

A) You would think the animal shouldn’t have been on l---2---3---4---5

the road. not likely very likely

B) You would think: “I’m terrible.” l---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

C) You would feel: “Well, it was an accident.” 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

D) You would probably think it over several times 1---2---3---4---5
wondering if you could have avoided it. not likely very likely

You walk out of an exam thinking you did extremely well. Then you ﬁnd out you
did poorly.

A) You would think: “Well, it’s just a test.” 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
B) You would think: “The instructor doesn’t like me.” l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
C) You would think: “I should have studied harder.” 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
D) You would feel stupid. 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely

You and a group of co-workers worked very hard on a project. Your boss singles
you out for a bonus because the project was such a success.

A) You would feel the boss is rather short—sighted. l---2---3---4---5
. not likely very likely

B) You would feel alone and apart from your colleagues. 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

C) You would feel your hard work had paid off. 1---2—--3---4---5
not likely very likely

D) You would feel competent and proud of yourself. 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

E) You would feel you should not accept it. 1---2---3---4---5
not likely very likely

49

13. While out with a group of friends, you make fun of a friend who’s not there.

14.

15.

A)

B)

C)

D)

You would think: “It was all in fun; it’s harmless.” l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
You would feel small . . . like a rat.” l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
You would think that perhaps that friend should have 1---2---3---4---5

been there to defend himself/herself. not likely very likely
You would apologize and talk about that person’s 1---2---3---4---5
good points. not likely very likely

You make a big mistake on an important project at work. People were depending on
you, and your boss criticizes you.

A)

B)

C)

D)

You would think your boss should have been more l---2---3---4---S
clear about what was expected of you. not likely very likely
You would feel like you wanted to hide. 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
You would think: “I should have recognized the 1---2---3---4---5
problem and done a better job.” not likely very likely
You would think: “Well, nobody’s perfect.” 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely

You volunteer to help with the local Special Olympics for handicapped children. It
turns out to be frustrating and time-consuming work. You think seriously about
quitting, but then you see how happy the kids are.

A)

B)

C)

D)

E)

You would feel selﬁsh and you’d think you are 1---2---3---4---5
basically lazy. not likely very likely
You would feel you were forced into doing something 1---2---3---4---5

you did not want to do. not likely very likely

You would think: “1 should be more concerned about 1---2---3---4---5

people who are less fortunate.” not likely very likely
You would feel great that you had helped others. l---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely
You would feel very satisﬁed with yourself. 1---2---3---4---5

not likely very likely

50

APPENDIX F

SGES

Below are four situations you may ﬁnd yourself in from time to time, and feelings you
may have about these situations. Please indicate how often you think you would
experience the feeling in each situation by circling the appropriate number.

1.

When I eat quantities that most people consider to be normal, I feel that I am doing
something wrong.

Almost Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never
5 4 3 2 1

When I overeat, I feel I am doing something wrong.

Almost Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never
5 4 3 2 1

When I eat quantities that most people consider to be normal, I feel so ashamed of
myself I want to hide in a comer.

Almost Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never
5 4 3 2 1

When I overeat, I feel so ashamed of myself I want to hide in a comer.

Almost Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never

5 4 3 2 l

51

APPENDIX G

SESS

Below are statements describing feelings about eating. Please think about how often you
experience these feelings, and then circle the appropriate number.

1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Often 5 = Almost Always
1. After eating, I compare myself to l 2 3 4 5
others and feel bad.

2. Eating makes me feel like an empty person. 1 2 3 4 5

3. I feel content with myself no matter how 1 2 3 4 5
much I eat.

4. When I ﬁrst begin eating a meal, I 1 2 3 4 5
feel stupid.

5. I feel worthless when 1 eat. 1 2 3 4 5

6. When I eat in public, I worry that others 1 2 3 4 5
are looking at me, and I want to escape.

7. I feel ugly when I eat. 1 2 3 4 5

8. Eating makes me feel like a weak person. 1 2 3 4 5

9. If someone is with me or watching me when 1 2 3 4 5

I eat, I like to keep my eyes on my food.

10. I feel disgusted with myself after 1 2 3 4 5
l have just ﬁnished eating.

11. Eating leaves me feeling unsatisﬁed about 1 2 3 4 5
myself.

12. Even if I eat a lot or a little, I still feel bad 1 2 3 4 5
about myself.

13. I lower my head when someone watches 1 2 3 4 5
me eat.

52

14. When I eat, I feel just as good about myself 1
as when I don’t eat.

53

APPENDIX H

OBC

Please circle a response for each of the following statements. If an item does not apply to

you, circle NA.

1. I rarely think about how 1 look.

2. When I can’t control my weight,
I feel like something must be
wrong with me.

3. I think a person is pretty much
stuck with the looks they are
born with.

4. I am more concerned with what

my body can do than how it looks.

5. When I’m not the size I think I
should be, I feel ashamed.

6. The shape you are in depends
mostly on your genes.

7. I think it is more important that
my clothes are comfortable than
whether they look good on me.

8. I feel ashamed of myself when I
haven’t made the effort to look
my best.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 

 

 

Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 

 

 

 

Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Neither Strongly
Agree Nor Disagree Disagree

 

Strongly
Agree

54

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9. A large part of being in shape 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
is having that kind of body in Strongly Neither Strongly
the ﬁrst place. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
10. I rarely worry about how I look 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to other people. Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
11. Even when I can’t control my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
weight, I think I’m an okay Strongly Neither Strongly
person. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
12. I can weigh what I’m supposed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to when I try hard enough. Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
13. I think more about how my body 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
feels than how my body looks. Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
14. I feel like I must be a bad person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
when I don’t look as good Strongly Neither Strongly
as I could. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
15. I think a person can look pretty 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
much how they want to if they are Strongly Neither Strongly
willing to work at it. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
16. I often worry about whether the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
clothes 1 am wearing make me Strongly Neither Strongly
look good. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
17. When I’m not exercising enough, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I question whether I am a good Strongly Neither Strongly
enough person. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
18. It doesn’t matter how hard I try 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to change my weight, it’s probably Strongly Neither Strongly
always going to be about the same. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree

55

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

 

 

 

 

 

 

I rarely compare how I look with 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
how other people look. Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
I would be ashamed for people 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to know What I really weigh. Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
I really don’t think I have much 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
control over how my body looks. Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
During the day, I think about how 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I look many times. Strongly Neither Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
I never worry that something is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
wrong with me when I am not Strongly Neither Strongly
exercising as much as I should. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
I think a person’s weight is mostly I 2 3 4 5 6 7
determined by the genes they are Strongly Neither Strongly
born with. Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree

56

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

APPENDIX I

MPQ

Below you will ﬁnd a series of statements a person might use to describe her/his
attitudes, opinions, interests, and other characteristics.

Each statement is followed by two choices. Read the statement and decide which choice
best describes you. Then circle your answer on the questionnaire.

Please answer every statement, even if you are not completely sure of the answer.

Read each statement carefully, but don't spend too much time deciding on the answer.

57

1. When I work with others I like to take charge.

N

. I keep close track of where my money goes.

3. I often ﬁnd myself worrying about something.

I usually like to spend my leisure time with friends rather
than alone.

Sometimes I feel and experience things as I did when I was a
child.

6. My table manners are not always perfect.

7.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

l6.

l7.

18.

If people criticize me, I usually point out their own
weaknesses.

I am just naturally cheerful.

The best way to achieve a peaceful world is to improve
people's morals.

I often keep working on a problem even if I am very tired.
Of the following two situations I would like least:
(a) Running a steam presser in a laundry for a week.

(b) Being caught in a blizzard.

Some people go out of their way to keep me from getting
ahead.

I often stop one activity before completing it and start
another.

I can be greatly moved by eloquent or poetic language.
My feelings are hurt rather easily.
I don't like having to tell people what to do.
Smooth is most like:
(a) Rough
(b) Soft

I could be happy living by myself in a cabin in the woods
or mountains.

58

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(l)
(2)
(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)

(7)

(8)
(9)
(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)

(18)

19. My future looks very bright to me.

20. I am always disgusted with the law when a criminal goes
free because of the arguments of a clever lawyer.

21. Of the following two situations I would like _lpa_st:

(a) Being in a bank when suddenly three masked men
with guns come in and make everyone raise their
hands.

(b) Sitting through a two-hour concert of bad music.

22. When someone hurts me, I try to retaliate (get even).

23. While watching a movie, a TV. show, or a play, I may
become so involved that I forget about myself and my
surroundings and experience the story as if it were real

and as if I were taking part in it.

24. I see no point in sticking with a problem if success is
unlikely.

25. I enjoy being in the spotlight.

26. When faced with a decision I usually take time to consider
and weigh all aspects.

27. I am easily "rattled" at critical moments.

28. I have always been extremely courageous in facing
difﬁcult situations.

29. Many people try to push me around.

30. As young people grow up they ought to try to carry out
some of their rebellious ideas instead of just settling down.

31. When I am unhappy about something,
(a) I tend to seek the company of a friend.
(b) I prefer to be alone.

32. If I stare at a picture and then look away from it, I can
sometimes "see" an image of the picture, almost as if I were
still looking at it.

3

b)

. It might be fun and exciting to experience an earthquake.

59

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26)

(27)

(28)

(29)

(30)

(31)

(32)

(33)

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43

44

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

It is easy for me to become enthusiastic about things I
am doing.

I perform for an audience whenever I can.
I play hard and I work hard.
I enjoy violent movies.
Often I get irritated at little annoyances.
Slow resembles:

(a) Sluggish

(b) Fast

Sometimes I feel as if my mind could envelop the
whole world.

I often act without thinking.

Most people make friends because they expect friends
to be useful.

Of the following two situations I would like least:
(a) Attempting to beat a railroad train at a crossing.

(b) Spraining my ankle so that I can’t walk on it.

I would be very embarrassed to tell people that I had
spent my vacation at a nudist camp.

I prefer not to “open up” too much, not even to friends.
I often feel happy and satisﬁed for no particular reason.

On most social occasions I like to have someone else take
the lead.

I suffer from nervousness.
I like to watch cloud shapes change in the sky.
At times I have been envious of someone.

I like to stop and think things over before I do them.

(a)

(a)

T

T

When I have to stand in line I never try to get ahead of others. T

60

(b)

(b)

(34)
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)

(39)

(40)

(41)

(42)

(43)

(44)
(45)

(46)

(47)
(43)
(49)
(50)
(51)
(52)

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69

I am very religious (more than most people are).

Of the following two situations I would like least:
(a) Standing in line for something.

T

(a)

(b) Getting an electric shock as part of a medical experiment.

I enjoy putting in long hours.
I live a very interesting life.
People often try to take advantage of me.
If I wish, I can imagine (or daydream) some things so
vividly that they hold my attention as a good movie or
story does.
I often monopolize conversations.
I am a warm person rather than cool and detached.
Eagle is most unlike:

(a) Bird

(b) Fly

1 often feel lonely.

Higher standards of conduct are what this country needs
most.

I often prefer to “play things by ear” rather than to plan
ahead.

Of the following two situations I would like least:
(a) Balancing along the top rail of a picket fence.

(b) Walking up four ﬂights of stars.

I see no objection to stepping on people’s toes a little
if it is to my advantage.

I think I really know what some people mean when they
talk about mystical experiences.

I don’t enjoy problems that can’t be solved quickly
and efﬁciently.

Every day I do some things that are fun.

61

T

T

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(b)

(53)

(54)

(55)
(56)

(57)

(58)

(59)

(60)

(61)

(62)

(63)

(64)

(65)

(66)

(67)

(63)

(69)

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

My opinions are always completely reasonable.
I am (or could be) a very effective sales person.

When I want to, I can usually put fears and worries out of
my mind.

Of the following two statements I agree more with:
(a) Most parents today let their children get away with
too much.

(b) Most parents today do a pretty good job of raising their

children.
People often just use me instead of treating me as a person.
I am usually happier when I am alone.

I sometimes “step outside” my usual self and experience
an entirely different state of being.

I might enjoy riding in an open elevator to the top of a tall
building under construction.

I don’t like to start a project until I know exactly how to
proceed.

Mountain resembles least:
(a) Hill
(b) Lake
People say that I drive myself hard.
I would not enjoy being a politician.
When I get angry I am often ready to hit someone.

Most of the time I feel at peace with the world.

Textur'es--such as wool, sand, wood--sometimes remind me
of colors or music.

I often ﬁnd it difﬁcult to sleep at night.

I prefer working with people to working with things.

62

(a)

(a)

'-l -l '-l

.--l

(b)

(b)

(70)

(71)

(72)

(73)

(74)

(75)

(76)

(77)

(78)

(79)

(80)
(81)
(32)

(83)

(84)
(85)

(86)

87. Of the following two situations I would like least:
(a) Walking a mile when it’s 15 degrees below zero.
(b) Being near when a volcano erupts.
88. I am almost always treated fairly.
89. I would prefer to see:
(a) Stricter observance of the Sabbath.
(b) Greater freedom in regard to divorce.

90. I am very level-headed and always like to keep my feet
on the ground.

91. I have at times eaten too much.

92. Sometimes I experience things as if they were doubly real.
93. It is very easy for me to see the bright side of things.

94. I am quite effective at talking people into things.

95. My mood often goes up and down.

96. I would not enjoy ﬁghting a forest ﬁre.

97. I admit that I sometimes take pleasure in hurting someone
physically.

98. I often go on working on a problem long after others would
have given up.

99. I have few or no close friends.

100. More censorship of books and movies is a violation of free
speech and should be abolished.

101. Anger is least like:
(a) Happy
(b) Mad

102. When I listen to music I can get so caught up in it that I
don’t notice anything else.

103. I have had a lot of bad luck.

63

(a)

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(b)

(37)

(88)

(89)

(90)
(91)
(92)
(93)
(94)
(95)

(96)

(97)

(98)

(99)

(100)

(101)

(102)

(103)

104.

105.

106.

107.
108.

109.

110.

111.
112.

113.
114.
115.
116.

117.

118.

119.

120.

I am more likely to be fast and careless than to be slow and

plodding.
I am very good at inﬂuencing people.

Of the following two situations I would like l_ea_st:

(a) Having to walk around all day on a blistered foot.
(b) Sleeping out on a camping trip in an area where there

are rattlesnakes.
I sometimes feel “just miserable” for no good reason.
I enjoy nearly everything I do.

I consider it very important to have a good reputation
in my community.

I work just hard enough to get by without overdoing it.

If 1 wish, I can imagine that my body is so heavy that
I could not move it if I wanted to.

I can’t help but enjoy it when someone I dislike
makes a fool of herself/himself.

I am more of a “loner” than most people.

I have always been completely fair to others.

I almost never do anything reckless.

I have personal enemies who would like to harm me.

I am not interested in obtaining positions of
leadership.

Often I have feelings of unworthiness.

Of the following situations I would like Iggy
(a) Having a pilot announce that the plane has
engine trouble and he may have to make an
emergency landing.
(b) Working in the ﬁelds digging potatoes.

I can often somehow sense the presence of another
person before I actually see or hear her/him.

T

T

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(104)
(105)

(106)

(107)

(108)

(109)

(110)

(111)

(112)
(113)
(114)
(115)

(116)

(117)
(118)

(119)

(120)

121.

122.

123.

124.

125

126

127

128.

129.

130.

131.

132.

133.

134.

135.

136.

137.

I very much dislike it when someone breaks
accepted rules of good conduct.

Basically I am a happy person.
Dark is similar to:

(a) Black

(b) Light
I like to try difﬁcult things.

It is very important to me that some people are concerned
about me.

When I need to buy something, I usually get it without
thinking what more I may soon need from the same store.

I would rather turn the other cheek than get even when
someone treats me badly.

It would be fun to explore an old abandoned house at night.

People consider me forceful.

The crackle and ﬂames of a wood ﬁre stimulate my
imagination.

Occasionally I experience strong emotions--anxiety,
anger--without really knowing what causes them.

People who think primarily of their own happiness are
very selﬁsh.

I would be more successful if people did not make
things difﬁcult for me.

I usually ﬁnd ways to liven up my day.

I have at times been angry with someone.

I like hard work.

It is sometimes possible for me to be completely immersed

in nature or in art and to feel as if my whole state of
consciousness has somehow been temporarily altered.

65

(a)

(b)

(121)

(122)

(123)

(124)

(125)

(126)

(127)
(128)

(129)

(130)

(131)

(132)

(133)
(134)
(135)

(136)

(137)

138.

139.

140.

141.
142.

143.
144.

145.

146.

147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.

153.

154.

I tend to value and follow a rational, “sensible” approach
to things.

Of the following two situations I would like lpgsj:
(a) Being out on a sailboat during a great storm at sea.
(b) Having to stay home every night for two weeks
with a sick relative.

Often I go a whole morning without wanting to speak
to anyone.

I am easily startled by things that happen unexpectedly.
If I try I can usually “wrap people around my ﬁnger”.

I am ready for a ﬁght when someone tries to take advantage
of me.

The church has outgrown its usefulness and should be
radically reformed or done away with.

Spider is a kind of:
(a) Web
(b) Animal

Different colors have distinctive and special meanings
for me.

People often say mean things about me.
I have several pastimes or hobbies that are great fun.

I would enjoy trying to cross the ocean in a small but
seaworthy sailboat.

I do not like to be the center of attention on social occasions.
I often act on the spur of the moment.

For me one of the most satisfying experiences is the warm
feeling of being in a group of good friends.

In my work I have learned not to demand perfection of
myself.

I am often I'ICI'VOUS for 110 reason.

66

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(138)

(139)

(140)
(141)

(142)

(143)

(144)

(145)

(146)
(147)

(148)

(149)
(150)

(151)

(152)

(153)

(154)

155.

156.

157.

158.

159.

160.

161

162

163

164

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

171.

172.

My parents’ ideas of right and wrong have always proved
best.

I am able to wander off into my own thoughts while doing
a routine task and actually forget that I am doing the task,
and then ﬁnd a few minutes later that I have completed it.

I always tell the entire truth.

Sometimes I seem to enjoy hurting someone by saying
something mean.

I seldom feel really happy.
Of the following two situations 1 would like least:
(a) Riding a long stretch of rapids in a canoe.
(b) Waiting for someone who’s late.
. I feel that life has handed me a raw deal.
. I usually make up my mind through careful reasoning.
. I usually do not like to be a “follower”.
. I can sometimes recollect certain past experiences in my life
with such clarity and vividness that it is like living them
again or almost so.

I often feel fed-up.

Even when I have done something very well, I usually
demand that I do better next time.

People should observe moral laws more strictly than they do.
I prefer to work alone.
Blossom differs most from:
(a) Apple
(b) Flower
Most mornings the day ahead looks bright to me.

It might be fun learning to walk a tightrope.

I enjoy a good brawl.

67

(a)

T

(a)

(b)

(b)

(155)

(156)

(157)

(158)
(159)

(160)

(161)
(162)

(163)

(164)

(165)

(166)
(167)
(168)

(169)

(170)
(171)

(172)

173

174

175.

176.

177.

178.

179.

180.

181.

182

183.

184.

185.

. Things that might seem meaningless to others often make
sense to me. T F
. When I am with someone I make most of the decisions. T F
I sometimes get myself into a state of tension and turmoil as
I think of the day’s events. T F
I am oﬁen not as cautious as I should be. T F
I am disgusted by foul language. T F
I know that people have purposely spread false rumors
about me. T F
Sometimes I’m a bit lazy. T F
Some people say that I put my work ahead of too many
other things. T F
I would rather live: (a) (b)

(a) in a friendly suburb.
(b) alone in the woods.

. While acting in a play I think I could really feel the emotions
of the character and “become” her/him for the time being,
forgetting both myself and the audience. T F

Of the following two situations I would like lggst: (a) (b)
(a) Being at the circus when two lions suddenly get loose
down in the ring.
(b) Bringing my whole family to the circus and then not
being able to get in because a clerk sold me tickets for

the wrong night.
Most days I have moments of real fun or joy. T F
I get a kick out of really frightening someone. T F

68

(173)

(174)

(175)
(176)

(177)

(178)

(179)

(180)

(181)

(182)

(183)

(184)

(185)

186.

187.

188.

189.

190.

191.

192.

193.

194.

195.

196.

197.

198.

199.

200.

201.

Of the following two statements I agree more with:
(a) If a boy 6 or 7 years old lies or steals, he should be
punished severely.
(b) Lying and stealing aren’t very serious in boys aged
6 or 7.

I do not like to organize other people’s activities.
I am often troubled by guilt feelings.
Needle is least like:

(a) Pin

(b) Thread

1 plan and organize my work in detail.

My thoughts often don’t occur as words but as visual
images.

Most people stay friendly only as long as it is to their
advantage.

Of the following two situations I would like least:
(a) Having to drive alone for a day and a half without

stopping for sleep because I stayed on my vacation too

long.

(a)

(a)

(a)

(b) Jumping from a third-story window into a ﬁreman’s net.

I often feel sort of lucky for no special reason.
When I have a problem I prefer to handle it alone.
I am not a terribly ambitious person.

I am better at talking than listening.

I would describe myself as a tense person.

No decent person could ever think of hurting a close friend

or relative.

I often take delight in small things (like the ﬁve-pointed star
shape that appears when you cut an apple across the core or

the colors in soap bubbles).

Never in my whole life have 1 taken advantage of anyone.

69

T

t-lr-lt-l

T

T

(b)

(b)

(b)

(186)

(187)
(188)

(189)

(190)

(191)

(192)

(193)

(194)
(195)
(196)
(197)

(198)

(199)

(200)

(201)

202.

203.

204.

205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

210.

211.

212.

213.

214.

215.

216.

217.

Sometimes I hit people who have done something to
deserve it.

I often start projects with only a vague idea of what the end
result will be.

I would not like to try skydiving.
People rarely try to take advantage of me.
I often liven up a dull party.

When listening to organ music or other powerful music,
I sometimes feel as if 1 am being lifted into the air.

It is easy for me to feel affection for a person.
Every day interesting and exciting things happen to me.
Of the following two statements 1 agree more with:
(a) Parents should ignore it when small children use
naughty words.
(b) Parents should punish small children when they use
naughty words.
City is least like:
(a) Town
(b) Park
Minor setbacks sometimes irritate me too much.

I push myself to my limits.

People say that I am methodical (that I do things in a
systematic manner).

Of the following situations I would like legst:
(a) Finding out my car was stolen when I don’t have theft
insurance.
(b) Riding a runaway horse.

Sometimes I can change noise into music by the way I
listen to it.

I would not hurt others to get what I want.

70

(a)

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(b)

(202)

(203)
(204)
(205)

(206)

(207)
(208)
(209)

(210)

(211)

(212)

(213)

(214)

(215)

(216)

(217)

218. On social occasions I usually allow others to dominate the
conversation. T F (21 8)

219. I have sometimes felt slightly less hesitant about helping
someone who asked me to. T F (219)

220. Whenever I decide anything I make it a point to refer to the
basic rules of right and wrong. T F (220)

221. I am rather aloof and maintain distance between myself
and others. T F (221)

222. If I have a humiliating experience, I get it over very quickly. T F (222)

223. I ﬁnd it really hard to give up on a project when it proves

too difﬁcult. T F (223)
224. In my spare time I usually ﬁnd something interesting to do. T F (224)
225. Of the following two situations I would like least: (a) (b) (225)

(a) Being chosen as the "target" for a knife-throwing act.
(b) Being sick to my stomach for 24 hours.

226. Several people would like to take away what success I have. T F (226)
227. Some of my most vivid memories are called up by scents
and smells. T F (227)
228. I am a cautious person. T F (228)
229. Sweet is most like: (a) (b) (229)
(a) Gentle
(b) Sour
230. It is a pretty callous (unfeeling) person who does not feel
love and gratitude toward her/his parents. T F (230)
231. I am usually light-hearted. T F (231)
232. I like to watch a good vicious ﬁght. T F (232)
233. I am quite good at convincing others to see things my way. T F (233)
234. I often lose sleep over my worries. T F (234)

71

235.

236.

237.

238.

239.

240.

241.

242

243.

244.

245.

246.

247.

248

249.

250.

251.

252.

Some music reminds me of pictures or changing color
patterns.

I am happiest when I see people most of the time.
I like (or would like) to dive off a high board.
My "friends" have often betrayed me.

I generally do not like to have detailed plans.

I see no point in spending time on a task that is probably
too difﬁcult.

I have never felt that I was better than someone else.

. Of the following two statements I agree more with:
(a) No child should be permitted to strike her/his mother.

(b) A mother should not be harsh with a small child who
strikes her.

I often know what someone is going to say before he or
she says it.

I would enjoy being a powerful executive or politician.
I worry about terrible things that might happen.
I sometimes tease people rather mercilessly.

I feel pretty optimistic about my future.

. Of the following two situations I would like least:

(a) Tying up a truck full of newspapers for a paper sale.
(b) Seeing a tornado cloud moving toward me when I'm
driving in the country.
I tend to keep my problems to myself.

I have often been lied to.

I often have "physical memories"; for example, after I've
been swimming 1 may still feel as if I'm in the water.

Striving for excellence means more to me than almost
anything else.

72

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(235)
(236)
(237)
(238)

(239)

(240)
(241)

(242)

(243)
(244)
(245)
(246)
(247)

(248)

(249)

(250)

(251)

(252)

253.

254.

255.

256.

257.

258.

259.

260.

261.

262.

263.

264.

265.

266.

267.

268.

269.

270.

I don't like to see religious authority overturned by
so-called progress and logical reasoning.

Whenever I go out to have fun I like to have a pretty good
idea of what I'm going to do.

Cottage is most unlike:
(a) Garden
(b) House
For me life is a great adventure.
I don't enjoy trying to convince people of something.
1 often feel listless and tired for no reason.
Of the following two situations I would like least:
(a) Being in a ﬂood.
(b) Carrying a ton of coal from the backyard into the

basement.

The sound of a voice can be so fascinating to me that I can
just go on listening to it.

When people insult me, I try to get even.

Strict discipline in the home would prevent much of the
crime in our society.

I often prefer not to have people around me.
I have occasionally felt discouraged about something.

People consider me a rather freewheeling and spontaneous
person.

I am a pretty "strong" personality.

I like the kind of work that requires my close attention.
I know that certain people would enjoy it if 1 got hurt.
I would enjoy learning to handle poisonous snakes.

There are days when I'm "on edge" all of the time.

73

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(253)

(254)

(255)

(256)
(257)
(258)

(259)

(260)

(261)

(262)
(263)

(264)

(265)
(266)
(267)
(268)
(269)

(270)

271.

272.

273.

274.

275.

276.

277.

278

279.

280.

281.

282.

283.

284.

285.

286.

At times I somehow feel the presence of someone who is
not physically there.

Quiet is similar to:
(a) Loud
(b) Soft
Without being conceited, I feel pretty good about myself.

Before I get into a new situation I like to ﬁnd out what to
expect from it.

I am not at all sorry to see many of the traditional values
change.

Without close relationships with others my life would not
be nearly as enjoyable.

I could not feel happy about anybody's bad luck.

. When it is time to make decisions, others usually turn to me.

Of the following two situations I would like least:
(a) Realizing the ice is unsafe when I’m standing in the
middle of a frozen lake.

T

(a)

(a)

(b) Finding that someone has slashed all four of my car tires.

Sometimes thoughts and images come to me without the
slightest effort on my part.

I am too sensitive for my own good.

I don't like to do more than is really necessary in my work.

When people are friendly they usually want something
from me.

I ﬁnd it very easy to enjoy life.

High moral standards are the most important thing parents
can teach their children.

Never in my whole life have I wished for anything that I
was not entitled to.

74

(b)

(b)

(271)

(272)

(273)

(274)

(275)

(276)
(277)
(278)

(279)

(280)
(281)

(282)

(283)

(284)

(285)

(286)

287.

288.
289.

290.

291.

292.

293.

294.

295.

296.

297.

298.

299.

300.

On social occasions I don't particularly care to "run the

show". T
I ﬁnd that different odors have different colors. T
I often like to do the ﬁrst thing that comes to my mind. T
Of the following two situations I would like least: (a)
(a) Being seasick every day for a week while on an ocean
Voyage.

(b) Having to stand on the ledge of the 2561 Floor of a hotel
because there’s a ﬁre in my room.

I could pull up my roots, leave my home, my parents, and
my friends without suffering great regrets. T

I sometimes change from happy to sad, or vice versa,

without good reason. T
Sometimes I just like to hit someone. T
I set extremely high standards for myself in my work. T
Carpet is most unlike: (a)
(a) Wool
(b) Rug

I always seem to have something pleasant to look
forward to.

I can be deeply moved by a sunset.

Some people oppose me for no good reason.

-1—1—1-1

I admire my parents in all important respects.

Of the following two situations I would like least: (a)
(a) Burning my arm badly by leaning against a hot water

pipe.
(b) Swimming where sharks have been reported.

75

(b)

(b)

(b)

(287)
(288)
(289)

(290)

(291)

(292)
(293)
(294)

(295)

(296)
(297)
(298)
(299)

(300)

APPENDIX J

DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE

. What is your date of birth? (month/day/year)

 

. How would you describe your ethnicity?

El White, not of Hispanic origins [J Asian or Paciﬁc Rim
[3 Black, not of Hispanic origins El American Indian
D Hispanic 13 Other (specify):

 

. What is your present religious orientation?

El Protestant El Islamic
D Jewish D No Afﬁliation
El Catholic D Other (specify):

 

. What is your current marital status?

CI Never married El Married once

D Divorced El Divorced, remarried

D Widowed D Widowed, remarried

D Separated U Living with signiﬁcant other

. Have you had any children?

D No
El Yes How many sons have you had? _ How many daughters? _

. Did your parents divorce?

El No
D Yes What was your age at the time of the divorce?

. Do you have siblings?

D No
D Yes How many brothers? How many sisters?

76

8. What is your current primary role?

9. What is the highest level job you have ever had?
10. What is/was your husband’s occupation?
1 1.
12.

13.

D Wage earner D Homemaker
El Student El Retired
13 Other (specify):

 

 

 

What is/was your mother’s occupation?

 

What is/was your father’s occupation?

 

What is the highest level of education or grade in school that you have completed?

 

14.

15.

16.

Your husband’s highest level of education?

 

Your mother’s highest level of education?

 

Your father’s highest level of education?

 

77

APPENDIX K

Table 1

Meansﬁtandard Deviations, and Internal Consistencies of the Eating, Shame,

Personality, and Age Variables (N = 206)

 

 

Variable M SD or
EAT 1.04 .36 .91
EDI-2 Drive for Thinness 5.34 5.62 .87
EDI-2 Body Dissatisfaction 8.74 7.11 .90
EDI-2 Bulimia .23 .32 .81
ISS 29.68 18.35 .96
TOSCA 41.78 9.72 .81
SESS 1.37 .16 .94
SGES .61 .16 .78
OBC 3.46 1.33 .88
Positive Emotionality 159.46 13.07 --
Negative Emotionality 135.69 14.42 --
Constraint 162.66 14.62 --
Age 19.04 1.18 --

 

Note. Dashes indicate the reliability was not calculated. EAT = Eating Attitudes Test;
EDI-2 = Eating Disorders Inventory-2; ISS = Intemalized Shame Scale; TOSCA = Test
of Self-Conscious Affect; SESS = Scale of Eating Speciﬁc Shame; SGES = Shame and

Guilt Eating Scale; OBC = Objectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale.

78

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79

Table 3

Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Personality, Globalized, and Eating-Related Shame

on EAT Scores (N = 206)

 

 

Variable B 1_t_ 32 A32
Step 1 -- .34 .12 .12***
Positive Emotionality -,06 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality .22M -- -- --
Constraint .22M -- -- --
Step 2 -- .56 .31 .19***
Positive Emotionality .06 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality -. 12 -- -- --
Constraint ,19** -- -- --
Intemalized Shame Scale .40*** -- -- --
Test of Self-Conscious Affect .23" -- -- --
Step 3 -- .76 .58 27*"
Positive Emotionality -,02 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality -,11 -- -- --
Constraint ,1 3 -- -- --
Intemalized Shame Scale .01 -- -- --
Test of Self-Conscious Affect .04 -- -- --
Scale of Eating Speciﬁc Shame .36*** -- -- --
Sharne and Guilt Eating Scale .23“ -- -- --
Objectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale .22“ -- -- --

 

**p< .01. ***p< .001

80

Table 4
Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Personality, Globalized, and Eating-Related Shame

on Body Dissatisfaction Scores (N = 206)

 

 

Variable 8 a 13} 213?
Step 1 -- .31 .09 09*"
Positive Emotionality -,18** -- -- --
Negative Emotionality ,24*** -- -- --
Constraint ,0 1 .. -- --
Step 2 -- .50 .25 .16***
Positive Emotionality -.06 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality -,08 -- -- --
Constraint .0 l -- -- --
Intemalized Shame Scale .48*** -- -- --
Test of Self-Conscious Affect .07 -- -- --
Step 3 -- .66 .43 .18***
Positive Emotionality -. l 3 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality -,08 -- -- --
Constraint -,03 -- -- --
Intemalized Shame Scale .20 -- -- --
Test of Self-Conscious Affect -.10 -- -- --
Scale of Eating Speciﬁc Shame .24 -- -- --
Shame and Guilt Eating Scale .07 -- -- --

Objectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale .33*** -- -- --

 

"p < .01. ***p < .001.

81

Table 5

HierJarchical Multiple Regression of Personality, Globalized, and Eating-Rplated Shame

on Drive for Thinness Scores (N = 206)

 

 

Variable B 3 32 A32
Step 1 -- .35 .12 .12***
Positive Emotionality -,07 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality .25*** -- -- --
Constraint .18" -- -- --
StepZ -- .56 .31 .19***
Positive Emotionality ,0 5 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality -.O9 -- -- --
Constraint , 1 6 -- -- --
Intemalized Shame Scale .45*** -- -- --
Test of Self-Conscious Affect .17 -- -- --
Step 3 -- .82 .67 .36***
Positive Emotionality -,04 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality -,09 -- -- --
Constraint .09 -- -- --
Intemalized Shame Scale .01 -- -- --
Test of Self-Conscious Affect -.05 -- -- _-
Scale of Eating Speciﬁc Shame .40*** -- -- --
Shame and Guilt Eating Scale .21*** -- -- _-

Objectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale .32*** -- -- --

 

“p < .01. ***p < .001.

82

Table 6
Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Personality, Globalized, and Eating-Related Shame

on Bulimia Scores N = 206)

 

 

Variable B R 112 A32
Step 1 -- .20 .04 .04
Positive Emotionality -,14 -- -- --
Negative Emotionality .14 -- -- --
Constraint -,01 -- -- --
Step 2 -- .35 .13 .08***
Positive Emotionality .06 -- -- -_
Negative Emotionality -.09 -- -- --
Constraint -.02 -- -- --
Intemalized Shame Scale .32** -- -- --
Test of Self-Conscious Affect .09 -- -- --
Step 3 -- .50 .25 .12***
Positive Emotionality -.09 —- -- --
Negative Emotionality -.06 -- -- --
Constraint -,06 -- -- --
Intemalized Shame Scale .06 -- -- --
Test of Self-Conscious Affect .00 -- -- --
Scale of Eating Speciﬁc Shame .28 -- -- --
Shame and Guilt Eating Scale .30 -- -- --

Objectiﬁed Body Consciousness Scale -.11 -- -- --

 

**p_ < .01. ***p < .001.

83

    

  

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