.9: 1 v ‘ n.2,...“ :35. x ‘ In..." . ‘ influuemhui. . 3 -t\ .1- ...{D‘llv [IN 11311:“: 183.343! 113.915.... . gi;i€fl3‘.flu’:}i «I!!! lolu. I}: its!) . .21.? {Flat-L2! [3.1 ft 31).}. IIJIA» s ‘ .4w . \3.‘ 2!..- .u . Illkl 3K THESIS floVL/ This is to certify that the dissertation entitled EXPERTISE IN SPORT INSTRUCTION: EXAMINING THE PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE OF EXPERT GOLF INSTRUCTORS presented by Robert H. Benham has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Kinesiology Major professor #7312415. Date 2/14? 61" Z’ MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. PATE our DATE DUE DATE DUE W MAY 0 4 2005 m3 \\ 'O"\ 3 OCT 2 8 2005 2; 5m 1;. 6&2006 6/01 cJCIFiC/DateDue.p65-p.15 EXPERTISE IN SPORT INSTRUCTION: EXAMINING THE PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE OF EXPERT GOLF INSTRUCTORS BY Robert H. Benham A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Kinesiology College of Education 2002 ABSTRACT EXPERTISE IN SPORT INSTRUCTION: EXAMINING THE PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE OF EXPERT GOLF INSTRUCTORS BY Robert H. Benham The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze the pedagogical content knowledge of expert golf instructors. The study was guided by a conception of pedagogical content knowledge forwarded by Lee Shulman and colleagues. Qualitative research techniques were used to examine the instructors’ conceptions of teaching, pedagogical content knowledge, and their instructional strategies for teaching the most fundamental skill in golf: the full swing. Data collection techniques included repeated observations, video taping of their lessons, a stimulated recall exercise, audio—taped interviews, and document analysis. Case studies were developed to describe and interpret the pedagogical content knowledge of these experts, using Grossman’s model of pedagogical content knowledge as an interpretive framework. This investigation revealed a breadth of pedagogical content knowledge and a diverse set of instructional strategies worthy of consideration for novice golf instructors, K—12 physical education teachers, physical education teacher educators, and others involved in the preparation of instructors in the sport of golf. Additional findings suggest a modification of Grossman’s conceptual model that accounts for the instructors’ overarching orientations toward their pedagogical practice. Implications and recommendations for the future study of expert teaching in golf and other sport settings are discussed. Copyright by Robert H. Benham 2002 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Conceptualizing, conducting, analyzing, and writing this dissertation have been part of a long and difficult process. Without the help and support of many colleagues, family members, and friends, it would not have been possible. My sincere gratitude goes to Dr. Crystal Branta for offering guidance when help was needed and for directing the study. Thank you also to Dr. Gary Sykes, Dr. Marty Ewing, and Dr. Tom Bird for helping me to frame this study and for providing timely and valuable feedback. I also wish to thank each of the instructors in this study who consented to participate and were so generous with their time. To my parents, friends, and rest of my family, I thank you for your encouragement and your support throughout this process. And foremost to my wife, Maenette, I thank you for being a source of great inspiration to me. I am especially grateful for your endless support, encouragement, and love. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1 Introduction and Background 1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge 2 Expertise in Teaching 6 Significance of the Study 7 Purposes 8 Research Question 8 Limitations 10 Summary 12 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 14 Introduction 14 Research on Expert Teaching 14 Background 14 Topics of Research on Expert Teaching 17 Knowledge of Subject Matter 17 Knowledge of Pedagogy 18 Decision Making 18 Pre-active Thoughts 19 Interactive Thoughts and Decisions 21 Post-active Thoughts 23 Pedagogical Content Knowledge 24 Summary 77 Research on Expert Teaching in Physical Education and Sport 97 Background 77 Expertise in Physical Education 28 Expertise in Sport Instruction 31 Sport Specific Pedagogical Expertise 14 Data Collection Methods 25 Summary 40 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS 41 Introduction 41 Research Design 41 Theoretical Framework 42 Participant Selection 43 vi Research Process 45 Data Collection Procedures 46 Interviews 47 Documents 48 Videotaped Observations 48 Stimulated Recall Exercise 49 Data Analysis Procedures 50 Role of the Researcher 54 Trustworthiness 55 Summary 58 CHAPTER 4 CASE STUDIES 60 Introduction 60 Description of the Instructors 60 Traci: The Empathetic Enthusiast 62 Dan: A Partner in Discovery 76 Jan and Shirley: MORAD meets The Ferris Wheel 87 CHAPTER 5 AGGREGATE FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS 110 Introduction 110 Expert Instructors' Pedagogical Content Knowledge ........... 111 Category A 111 Category B 115 Category C 123 Category D 127 Summary of Pedagogical Content Knowledge 130 Synthesis of Findings 131 The Pedagogical Content Knowledge Model 133 Relationships Between Components of the Model ......... 133 PCK Within the Teacher Knowledge Framework ............... 136 Overarching Orientations Toward Teaching Golf ......... 137 Multidimensionality of Pedagogical Expertise ............ 139 Reconstructing the PCK Model for Golf Instruction 140 Summary 146 Conclusions, Implications, Recommendations 147 Building the Knowledge Base for Teaching 147 Exploring Multidimensionality in Expert Teaching 148 Constructivist Perspectives on Teaching Practice 150 Sport-Specific Research 151 APPENDICES Appendix A: Instructors’ Informed Consent Formmm 154 vii Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix B I BL I OGRAPHY Students’ Informed Consent Form. ............. Letter of Introduction and Invitation Pre-Observation Interview Guide ............. Post-Observation Interview Guide ............ Common Problems, Myths and Misconceptions Instructional Strategies, Resources,Aids viii 156 158 160 162 164 168 176 Table 1: LIST OF TABLES Description of Instructors ix 61 Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: LIST OF FIGURES A Model of Teacher Knowledge Case Study Method 53 A Model of Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Golf Instruction 134 Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE Introduction and Background The following story is told by Dr. Gary Wiren, Director of Golf Instruction for the Professional Golf Association (PGA) of America. A college-aged student of mine in the first few classes had developed some basic motion and a sense of rhythm to his swing, which was producing good success for him in moving the ball. He seemed to be getting the hang of ‘feeling the swing’. After a warm-up period, he prepared to hit a few shots for his teacher- friend, an excellent varsity golfer. Being a little nervous, he resorted to instinct on his first shot, and right-handed it badly enough so that his left arm had collapsed, causing him to barely tick the top of the ball, sending it only a few feet from where he stood. “Oh, you bent your left arm,” said his temporary mentor. “Don’t bend your left arm on your next swing." The pupil didn't. But in attempting not to bend his left arm, his motion became restricted and he failed to get any weight transfer to the left on his down swing so that he ended up hitting some four inches behind the ball. The resulting distance bore striking resemblance to the first shot. “You stuck on your back foot," said the varsity golfer friend. “Don’t stay on your back foot this time." Trying not to bend his arm and not to stay on his back foot during the next swing, our pupil lunged to his left side, promptly raising his head and right shoulder on the downswing and making it impossible for the clubhead to meet the ball anywhere but on the sole. He was three for three. “Oh, you raised your head up. Don’t do that! Don’t bend your arm, don’t keep your weight on your back foot, don’t raise your head”, and on it went. In 15 minutes the pupil looked like a robot whose programming had gone haywire, not knowing what to do, only recognizing there were many things that he shouldn’t do. Wiren concludes, “Knowing the subject matter is not enough. Communicating it successfully to a variety of people is what puts the teacher to the test.” This story reminds us that effective teaching is based on much more than subject matter knowledge alone. This is an argument that has been echoed by many scholars in education over the years, and lies at the heart of this investigation. The purpose of this dissertation study was to describe the pedagogical content knowledge of expert golf instructors. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is a particular form of teacher knowledge that was first made explicit by Lee Shulman (1986) when he alerted the research community to a ‘missing paradigm’ in educational research. In the context of descriptions of effective and ineffective teaching practices that proliferated between the 1960’s and 1980’s, Shulman observed that important differences between teaching in one subject area and teaching in another had been overlooked. He believed that there was a missing program in the research on education. Shulman’s conception of that missing paradigm was a systematic study of teachers' “cognitive understanding of their subject matter content and the relationships between such understandings and the instruction teachers provide for students” (1986, p. 25). PCK was characterized by Shulman as a form of teacher knowledge that “goes beyond knowledge of subject matter per se to the dimension of subject matter knowledge for teaching.” (1986, p. 9). Shulman went on to make several calls for research that would elucidate the practices of excellent practitioners within the framework of their particular content area. This program of research would not be “enamored with theory nor pragmatically opportunistic, but would somehow wend its way toward middle level theories and meaningful understandings of the practice of teaching in specific domains” (Leinhardt, G., 2001, p. 335). That is, according to Leinhardt, the field needed to examine the truly complex issues involved in trying to understand teaching, and do so in ways that recognized the effects of important contextual issues such as subject matter. Pedagogical Content Knowledge Pedagogical content knowledge is now recognized as one of several forms of teacher knowledge. Grossman (1990) provided a framework for the delineation of teacher knowledge. Her framework describes four domains of professional knowledge for teaching: a) subject matter knowledge, b) general pedagogical knowledge, c) pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), and d) knowledge of context. Lying in the center of this framework is the concept of PCK (Figure 1). A Model of Teacher Knowledge Grossman, P. (1990) SUBJECT MATTER KNOWLEDGE GENERAL PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE Content: Structure Schema i Learners and Learning Classroom Management Curriculum & Instruction i PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE Conceptions of Purposes for Teaching Subject Matter Knowledge of Students’ Understanding Curricular Knowledge of Knowledge Instructional Strategies f KNOWLEDGE OF CONTEXT Students Community District School Figure 1. A MOdel of Teacher Knowledge As can be seen from Figure 1, PCK lies at the heart of the Teacher Knowledge Model, and is influenced by each of the other components. PCK? has become a topic of substantial research in the academic areas of math, science, and literature, but this type of knowledge had for years gone largely uninvestigated by physical education and sport pedagogy researchers. Recently, however, efforts to frame research on teaching physical education using the concept of PCK have emerged in the literature (Barrett & Collie, 1996). For example, Griffey and Housner (1991) called for more physical education research aimed at the cognitive dimensions of instructional expertise. They noted that while expert coaches and teachers are often known for their rich understanding of representations that help students learn, this knowledge has neither been shared nor explored in a systematic way. Thus, they called for further research on teachers’ and coaches’ thought ‘ The construct of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is useful in describing that realm of teacher knowledge that is neither strictly pedagogical (instructional strategies) nor content (subject matter) specific. It is a teacher’s understanding of how to help students understand specific subject matter. It includes knowledge of how particular subject matter topics, problems, and issues can be organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and then presented for instruction. It is the kind of knowledge that helps teachers develop meaningful analogies, metaphors, examples, activities, and demonstrations that foster student success. It also refers to the “understanding of how particular topics are comprehended or typically misconstrued, are learned and likely to be forgotten.” Shulman, 1986, p. 26). It has been argued (e.g., McDiarmid, Ball, & Anderson, 1989) that PCK is at the heart of effective teaching. processes, verified with actual performance differences and observations of their practice. A major focus of this genre of research is to determine not only what teachers know about teaching their subject matter, but also the ways this knowledge is translated into meaningful learning activities. The present study was designed to contribute to this small, but growing research body. Expertise in Teaching A secondary purpose of this study was to consider alternative conceptions of pedagogical expertise as they emerged in the practice of the expert golf instructors. The majority of research on the topic of expertise in sport pedagogy has been framed from a technical, or behavioral perspective. Only recently have alternative views of expertise been explored, e.g., cognitive views. Therefore, an eye was kept on possible trends and patterns in the data that might cast light upon the multidimensional nature of pedagogical expertise that has been studied by some education researchers (Housner & French, 1994; Dodds, 1994). A doctoral study by You (1999) described pedagogical expertise in dance instruction along multiple dimensions, including the cognitive, clinical, technical, improvisational, humanistic, and artistic dimensions. These multiple conceptions of expertise were considered throughout the data collection and analysis process of the present study. Significance of the Study This investigation was conceived with both practical and theoretical implications in mind. On a practical level, it was anticipated that the study of specific teaching strategies and golf—specific PCK of a group of experts would yield sufficient data to enable direct interpretation by novice golf instructors and physical education teachers. On another level, Housner and French (1994) had stressed the need to begin the examination of expert sport instructors in a manner that would synthesize our knowledge of sport pedagogy with the knowledge base underlying teacher preparation programs in physical education. Echoing Shulman’s (1987) call, they also suggested that the pedagogical research on expertise should focus on the instructional processes associated with how knowledge and skills can be efficiently transformed and conveyed to learners. The present investigation of the PCK of expert golf instructors, therefore, may ultimately provide K-12 physical education teachers and teacher educators with valuable insight about golf instruction. From a theoretical perspective, this study provided an opportunity to appraise Grossman’s conception of PCK as a heuristic device for understanding PCK among a group of expert golf instructors. Would a conceptualization of PCK that was derived from a study of English teachers be equally suitable for interpreting expert golf instruction? As explained in the final chapter, a few modifications to Grossman’s PCK model were proposed based upon the study’s findings. Purposes The two primary purposes of the study were: a) to enhance our understanding of the complex nature of PCK among expert golf instructors, and b) assess the concept of PCK as a useful heuristic device in sport pedagogy research. The focus of the investigation was on the PCK held by expert instructors in the sport of golf. The specific subject matter of interest in this study was the most fundamental skill in the game of golf - the full swing. Research question The overarching research question of this study was: “What are the characteristics and dimensions of pedagogical content knowledge among expert golf instructors relative to teaching the full swing?” Sub questions were organized into five main categories: Category 1: Conceptions of purposes and objectives for teaching students of diverse needs, levels of ability, e.g., beginners, intermediate, and advanced students: A. How do experts' teaching goals and purposes change for different students? B. How do experts accommodate a range of abilities, skills, interests among their students? Category 2: Knowledge of student’s understanding, conceptions, misconceptions of the elements of the full swing: A. How do experts assess what their students know, or what skills the student brings to the instructional setting? B. How do experts overcome common misconceptions, learning difficulties, and special challenges students have? Category 3: Knowledge of curriculum and materials available for teaching the full swing: A. What resources (books, manuals, videos) do experts use? B. What knowledge is held by experts about progressions in skills and concepts? Category 4: Knowledge of instructional strategies and representations for teaching content: A. How do experts convey the particular subject matter to students (concepts and skills)? B. What teaching strategies are employed? C. What other learning activities, equipment, and teaching aids are used? Category 5: What other characteristics or dimensions of pedagogical content knowledge and expertise exist among these instructors, relative to full swing instruction? An important characteristic of this study was the decision to examine the PCK of expert instructors in their work with beginning and intermediate level golf students as opposed to advanced or elite level students. There are a number of ‘high-profile’ expert golf instructors who work selectively with the most highly skilled golfers, but the majority of golf instruction is provided for the benefit of beginning and/or intermediate level students. In these instructional settings, the instructors are focused on teaching fundamental concepts and skills to the typical recreational golfer, and doing so in a fashion that meets their specific needs. For the purposes of this study, therefore, the search for participants was limited to those expert instructors who taught primarily with novice and intermediate level golfers. Limitations The study of expertise in teaching has been called difficult for a variety of reasons (O’Sullivan & Doutis, 1994). Some have questioned the criteria used for selecting participants in expert-novice studies, and thus have called for better standards in this endeavor (Housner, 1990). In the present study, the selection of expert instructors reflected a set of criteria that included, among others, recommendations from professional colleagues 10 familiar with their practice. While recommendations such as these can be very subjective, in this study they represented only one of a number of criteria derived from previous studies on expert instruction. These criteria are described in detail in Chapter Three. Another difficulty in conducting research of this genre was that expert practitioners often lack the capacity to explain or articulate the basis for their expertise and skill. This problem can limit the depth of understanding that the researcher seeks to acquire about an individual’s teaching practice and/or PCK. According to Schon (1983), much of the knowledge underlying an expert’s practice is tacit, and remains that way unless the practitioner actively reflects upon his/her professional practice. Schon has referred to the inarticulateness among professionals who may actually be expert performers of their craft in the following quote: When we go about the spontaneous, intuitive performance of the actions of everyday life, we show ourselves to be knowledgeable in a special way. Often we cannot say what it is that we know. When we try to describe it we find ourselves at a loss, or we produce descriptions that are obviously inappropriate. Our knowing is ordinarily tacit, implicit in our patterns of action and in our feel for the stuff with which we are dealing. It seems right to say that our knowing is in our actions. (1983, p. 49). ll The present study sought to describe the aggregate PCK of four instructors. Naturally, there were limitations as to how much of this knowledge could be tapped, but multiple data-gathering strategies were employed for the purpose of eliciting this knowledge. These techniques are described in detail in Chapter Three. A final limitation in this study was one that is inherent in any qualitative research design. Due to the small number of subjects, the findings must be interpreted with care, e.g., within contextual parameters. As with all case study research, the findings here are not generalizable, in a statistical sense, beyond this group of subjects. However, the insight gained via detailed examination of these instructors’ thoughts and actions may have important meaning for certain readers. Yin (1989) argues for the value of the case study research approach, asserting that case study findings might be deemed reasonably transferable by certain individuals who find themselves in similar circumstances. Summary The purpose of this chapter has been to provide background information relative to the study, establish the significance of this research, and define the purpose of the investigation. The constructs of Pedagogical Content 12 Knowledge (PCK) and Expert Teaching were defined, and the limitations of this genre of research were considered. 13 Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction This review of literature is organized into three major sections: a) Research on expert teaching, including research on teacher knowledge, and a discussion of pedagogical content knowledge; b) Research on expertise in physical education and sport instruction; and, c) Data collection methods employed in the study of expert teaching. Research on Expert Teaching Background The mysteries surrounding the notion of expertise in teaching have been a topic of scholarly inquiry since the early 1980’s. The term expert teaching has multiple definitions, and alternative conceptions of expertise can be found in the literature. Dodds (1994) defined teaching expertise as "a global construct that refers to the ease with which teachers perform their work to maximize student learning” (p. 156). She noted that expert teachers have also developed and used teaching practices that optimize achievement across different student characteristics and conditions. Siedentop and Eldar (1994) viewed teaching 14 expertise as an extension of effective teaching. That is, expertise represents a level of performance that went beyond existing definitions of effective teaching. They suggested that for a teacher to be considered an expert, s/he must couple superior teaching skills along with an extensive understanding of the subject matter. Teachers, teacher educators, and researchers alike have all been engaged in related efforts aimed at describing and understanding the phenomenon of expert teaching. The study of teacher expertise is a relatively new research enterprise that is focused on both cognitive and behavioral aspects of teachers’ pedagogical practice (Berliner, 1987). The first studies of teachers' thought processes that were conducted in the 19803 represented a departure from the extensive process-product research of the previous two decades that focused on the behavioral correlates of effective teaching. Once it was determined that effective teaching practice had discernible characteristics (Brophy & Good, 1986), it was natural for researchers to search for distinctions between effectiveness and expertise. Expert teachers, it was reasoned, would promote even greater student learning and development, design and deliver content creatively, and 15 motivate learners in ways that extended beyond the level of effectiveness. Recent research on expert-novice distinctions in the teaching profession suggests that expert teachers are actively engaged in a complex cognitive activity. That is, expert teachers notice many more aspects of the classroom than do novice teachers, are selective in their use of information during planning and interactive teaching, and make great use of instructional and management routines (Berliner, 1987, 1988; Calderhead, 1983, Leinhardt & Greeno, 1986). Master teachers can also perform their duties accurately and speedily while consciously attending to other functions. Expert teachers clearly outperform novice teachers in the amount and detail of their respective knowledge bases. Berliner and colleagues (Carter, Cushing, Sabers, Stein, & Berliner, 1988) investigated subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge differences between experts and novices. The cognitive schemata1:m_%No. No- m m 883:6 arooQ Ugo—op " 00:96" TIL £18 .2600. .HIV IV mucosa ammo M V Famine»: I.Y . T macaw. m Oman Waco: Cami: .UmS m 958 Arman—no - RES IV 00:02.0: _ . . _ W803 was? 8 5.088. - 58362.0. _ . . _ - puma—5-538: 36525 - 0362325 “ . _. H. s 983. - ecocaosa “ - 56 8» 5 m - cmo madam. m m 98 n m . €18 >mm~omm8 8:830: " 025:9 . 2:8 We on :5 monsosm . _ . . TIV . . c . .6 floorsficom .Y Wags—saw U 5959;: I. 086 mEEom Ommo Waco—.8 - 08. - 08 53 summary of the four instructors’ PCK. Role of the Researcher In view of the potential for researcher bias that may have developed because of frequent interaction with the participants, the researcher tried to assume an air of detachment and a consistent degree of formality with the participants. The researcher endeavored to conduct this investigation in a manner that facilitated a spirit of educational inquiry among the participants. He assured them that no risk to them was present. It is impossible to be devoid of subjectivity in doing research. It has been acknowledged by some researchers (Patton, 1990) that all researchers take sides, or are partisans for one view or another. Therefore, truly value- free interpretive research does not exist. Consequently, the recognition and acknowledgement of potential biases were considered in a reflective manner throughout the research process. A research journal and interpretive memos were kept to document the decision-making throughout the research process. The researcher’s own interest in the study stemmed from a lifelong passion for the game of golf as well as long-held professional interests in the dynamic processes of teaching and learning. Having played the game for over 54 25 years and having also taught the golf swing to beginning and intermediate students, he brought an informed perspective to this particular study. This is a valuable asset when it comes to the interpretation of other teachers’ pedagogy. Trustworthiness Trustworthiness is the degree to which the findings of a qualitative study are deemed dependable, credible, and transferable (Guba, 1981). Unlike statistical analyses, there are very few fixed formulas or recipes to guide case study analysis (Yin, 1989). Therefore, much of the analysis for the present study depended on the researcher’s own rigorous thought processes and critical analysis, together with adequate presentation of evidence and consideration of alternative interpretations. Several measures were taken to increase the trustworthiness of the data analysis and interpretations. Subjects were selected with whom the investigator had no prior relationship. This strategy eliminated one potential threat to validity that might have arisen from a personal bias towards these individuals. In an effort to minimize researcher bias during the interviews and observations, the investigator utilized formal interview guides and employed 55 a structured method of taking field notes (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973). A level of credibility of the data analysis process was established by using the strategies of member checks, peer debriefing, and triangulation (Guba, 1981). The first member check consisted of returning interview transcripts to the instructors, providing them an opportunity to modify or clarify any aspect of their responses. The second involved the instructors reading a manuscript draft to verify the researcher’s interpretations. The strategy of peer-debriefing was also employed during the analytic phase of the study. Peer debriefing consists of inviting other researchers or colleagues to challenge both the interpretations of the data and/or the methodological procedures adopted. As proposed, two meetings were scheduled with a qualified individual for this function. Segments of the videotaped lessons were reviewed on two occasions by a university professor who was both familiar with pedagogical theory and had recently been certified as a golf instructor. This individual was introduced to the coding scheme and asked to code a segment of the videotaped data. His coded data were then compared to that of the primary investigator, and very few differences were fodhd between the two. 56 A second instance of peer-debriefing occurred when early interpretations by the investigator were compared with those of a fifth (non—participating) expert instructor. This instructor was helpful in confirming these early interpretations made by the investigator. The methodological triangulation in this study, (interviews, field observations, and document analysis) enabled cross checking of the data sources. By using all of these strategies, the investigator reduced the chances that the findings of this study would be based on indiosyncratic data. Throughout the data analysis process, a methodological problem faced by the qualitative researcher is to determine how to identify the salient themes or patterns that emerge from the instructors’ actions in teaching, interview responses, and their reflections. The identification of these critical ideas, and the assignment of a relative weight to them requires a careful and deliberate analysis of the data. A few criteria were helpful in determining the relative significance of various segments of the data. First, the order in which the instructors said things about their teaching indicated one level of significance. Ideas that surfaced first were assigned greater weight. Second, the repetitiveness of comments by instructors was an 57 indication of an important theme. Third, internal emphasis, whereby the instructors explicitly labeled a particular idea as relevant or meaningful to them, offered additional evidence of significance. Another concern in qualitative research is the problem of reactivity, i.e., the influence of the researcher on the setting or on the individuals being studied. Because the total elimination of this effect is not possible in qualitative research, the goal was to understand it and to use it productively. Two interview questions were included in the post—lesson interview protocol to elicit the instructors’ perspective on this issue, and the investigator remained sensitive to the participants’ responses to these questions. Two of the four instructors disclosed that the presence of the video camera had created “a little” discomfort for them and thus posed an early distraction. It caused them to “think twice before acting” during the first recorded lesson. However, they both eventually adapted to the camera’s presence and said that subsequent lessons proceeded in a manner that felt “normal" to them. Summary The purpose of this study was to describe and interpret the teaching practice and PCK (Shulman, 1986) of 58 four expert golf instructors. For the purpose of creating rich descriptions of their PCK, three case studies were written and a cross-case analysis was conducted. The data were managed and analyzed in accordance with the tenets of qualitative research methodology. 59 Chapter 4 CASE STUDIES Introduction Three case studies are presented in this chapter that describe the teaching practice and PCK of the four participating expert golf instructors. The first two case studies offer evidence of the instructors’ PCK in the first two knowledge domains described in Grossman’s PCK model. The third case study addresses the third and fourth domains while offering a view of two instructors’ PCK, comparing their philosophical approaches toward teaching the full swing. Each of these three case studies reveals particular pedagogical strengths, highlights interrelationships between knowledge domains, and offers insight into the multidimensionality of their pedagogical expertise. Description of the Instructors The participating expert instructors taught primarily in private lesson settings, although they would occasionally offer group lessons. It has become a common business practice for the expert golf instructor to spend most of his/her time working in private lesson settings. The demand for their services is strong, and prospective students are willing to pay nearly one hundred dollars 6O for a one-hour lesson. a lower price, assistants or apprentice instructors. When group lessons are offered at the lessons are usually taught by teaching Consequently, while an effort was made in this study to observe group lessons, most of the investigator’s observations were of individual lessons. The criteria and procedures used for selecting the expert instructors were described in detail in Chapter 3. Table 1 four instructors, (below) provides a brief description of each of the all of whom are identified by pseudonyms. Table 1. Description of Instructors Instructor: Traci Dan Shirley Jan Current Teaching Director, Teaching Director, Position/ Professional Golf Academy Profes- School of Title: sional Golf Instruction Current Suburban Collegetown Suburban University Location: Municipal Practice Public Golf town Golf Golf Course Facility Course Course and Practice Facility Total Years 18 22 30 16 Teaching: Education/ B. Ed., B. Ed., H. S. B. A., Degrees: Secondary Golf Course Diploma Liberal Education Management Studies M.B.A. Awards, MI teacher MI teacher of Regional Nominee, Golf Recog- of the year the year recog- Magazine Top nition: award, award, nition, 100 U.S. Golf Clinician, Clinician, Clinician, Instructors, Presenter, Presenter, Conference Clinician Ntl. Ntl. Speaker Conferences Conferences 61 Traci - The Empathetic Enthusiast It is a sunny Saturday morning in June at the Fernwood Golf Course and Recreation Facility. A group of young professional colleagues have assembled on this day for a corporate golf outing, awaiting their second of three group lessons with Traci R., head teaching professional at the local public golf course. Ten students, most of them beginners, are on the practice tee, stretching their bodies in anticipation of the arrival of their instructor. They seem a little anxious, each of them gripping their own club, finding their own personal space for a few, tentative practice swings. There is little conversation among them. The loud voice heard approaching from the clubhouse is that of their instructor, who strides in, accompanied by a teaching assistant and another student. After exchanging a few pleasantries with the group, she begins the formal lesson. “Last week we went over putting. Today we’re talking about the full swing. We’re cramming it in a little bit today, trying to get you all ready for our tournament next week." While she talks to the group, she and her assistant are arranging the equipment. She moves a very large bucket of golf balls to the middle of the practice tee. “I've got 62 lots and lots of balls for you to practice with out here todaymso you can’t leave early!” she says jokingly. “Alright!” one student replies in sarcasm, feigning her joy at the prospect of a lengthy practice session. Several in the group laugh at this exchange. Traci now has the attention of the group, and she begins the formal lesson. “OK, remember last week? We went back with the club,” she says, while demonstrating a partial backswing. “And then we just tossed it down the line. To begin with, hit a few of these, five at a time, and then we’ll have you switch with your partner. Remember how we extended the club back this way, and then we just tossed it down the line. We’re not throwing it out this way, (she demonstrates an exaggerated ‘over the top’ swing motion) but just tossing it underhand. Any questions on that? OK. ” While a few of the students continue to practice the swing motion they have just observed, Traci sets up five learning stations by laying out five 3-foot long fluorescent green strings, tied at each end to golf tees inserted into the ground. “OK. Why don’t five of us move in here, and your partner will just stand behind you.” The first five students assume their positions in the tee box, and Traci issues them their tees as they take a few 63 practice swings. They begin to swing at the balls. She focuses on one student, who has been standing over her first ball for at least ten seconds, adjusting her stance and grip several times in the duration. She finally makes a hesitant attempt at her first full swing, with a stiff, uncomfortable movement. She misses the ball completely - a whiff. “Good, but now relax,” Traci responds immediately, moving closer and lowering her voice to a quiet, soothing tone, nearly a whisper. The student laughs at herself nervously, seeming to acknowledge Traci’s observation of her nervousness, and her awkward swing motion. She gathers herself, and then begins to settle into a stance for another try. This task appears to be very hard work for this woman. Five seconds pass, as she adjusts her stance only once this time. The second swing attempt is a bit longer, but the ball is struck by the ‘toe’ of the club head, causing it to shoot out at a 45-degree angle to the intended target line. “OK,” Traci says. “It went way over there. Now remember to aim it down that green line,” she says, referring to the fluorescent string on the ground. As she speaks, Traci tees up another ball for her student, then moves around to a position directly next to her, standing shoulder to shoulder. She reaches back across her 64 students’ body with her left hand, and grabs the club just below her students’ grip. She then guides the club back and brings it forward for her student, while her student keeps both hands on the club. While manipulating the club for her, Traci says, “First go back, then move your arms over there.” “Ohhhh!” OK!” her student exclaims, immediately noticing the difference. “Relax. You’re trying to be (too much) in control," Traci says. A student calls out for Traci’s help. “I’ll be there in just a minute!" she says. The third swing attempt by the first student produces another whiff, and Traci says, “Down”, while demonstrating the desired movement. “Toss it way down here,” lowering her voice again to a near whisper, and demonstrating the motion she wants to convey. “You’re tossing it with your shoulders, would you toss a ball like this - with your shoulders?” “I would toss it like this,” replies the student, showing her the underarm tossing motion. “Right. Correct!” Traci says, emphatically. Just toss it down the line with your hands." She swings again, with a longer swing. “Better!” “That feels a lot better!” the student says. “See? We got them (the arms) moved away from your body.” 65 Traci glances quickly at another student, just in time to observe a well-struck ball. “Woooo! Look at you!” she calls out. Her first student tries to swing again, this time making solid contact with the ball and sending it about 50 yards down the range. In the span of this three-minute lesson segment, one gains insight into Traci’s personable teaching style and rapport with her students. Several aspects of her pedagogical approach are remarkable. Her friendly, easy- going nature has an immediate calming effect on her students. She also sets relaxed tone for the lesson by telling jokes, humorous stories, or by just chatting with those around her. She is thus able to keep open the channels for communication with her students. This may contribute to her ability to quickly and accurately determine her students’ motivations, interests, and goals for learningl. Empathy for the Learner Traci’s friendly banter with her students at the beginning of the lesson immediately sets the tone for her 1The first category of pedagogical content knowledge includes the information and beliefs about the purposes of teaching a subject at different grade levels (Grossman, 1990). These conceptions reflect a teacher’s objectives for teaching particular subject matter to specific groups of students, modifying goals for students of diverse needs, interests, abilities, and accommodating differences in students’ needs, abilities, skills, interests. For purposes of this study, ‘levels of ability’ were interpreted as beginning, intermediate, and advanced skill levels. 66 lesson. She understands the fear and nervousness that can virtually paralyze a beginning student who is trying to learn a new motor skill. Traci has been there. As a college basketball player, she suffered a serious injury to her back and neck, one that forced her to relearn all of her basic motor skills, including her golf swing. She reflected on her injury and how it shaped her perspective on teaching. I think that to be a good teacher you need to have patience. In my younger years I didn’t have a lot of patience with people. Now I think that I do because when I injured my back I wrecked my left side and I had to learn to do a lot of things all over again — like walking, talking, sight and other stuff. So I know what patience is, and how I know how hard it is to have to start over. This difficult learning process would ultimately make her more effective as a golf instructor, because of the empathy she develops for her beginning students. Her understanding of the nature of the learning process combines with her patience and supportiveness for her beginning students. However, Traci’s expertise is not limited to her work with beginning students. In her role as a teaching professional at a public golf facility, Traci works with golfers of all ability levels, and must address their diverse interests. She seems to have a special knack for helping novice golfers 67 develop their own understanding of the fundamentals of the full swing as well as the right feel for the swing. From what I’ve seen out there, a lot of teaching professionals don’t seem to understand why their student’s can’t learn. They’ll tell me, ’How can they be so dumb? I just told them everything!’ And I think that those instructors lose, not intentionally, but they lose empathy for what it is like to be a learner instead of always being the giver of the information. Traci’s non-threatening teaching style seems to work particularly well with her novice students. She displays a casual, friendly attitude with all of them, and her manner reveals her empathy for the beginning students who typically struggle with the complex mechanics of the golf swing. She shared the following: I decided long ago that I was always going to be a learner somehow, so I have always, from day one, taken up something new every year, just to be taking lessons. Last year it was skiing, the year before that it was running. I also take cooking lessons. I have to put myself in the role of a student to know what the shoes are like for my students. Because they’re nervous, you know, hands wet and shaky. Nobody likes change, and change has got to happen to make a new swing movement work. Addressing Individual Needs Traci demonstrates her genuine interest in her students as individuals first, taking ample time to inquire about their work, families, hobbies, etc., before delving into the technical aspects of the lesson. She quickly 68 assesses the interest and ability level of her students and seamlessly adapts her teaching goals to help her students achieve their own goals. Among her students on this day (her lesson was designed for a group of corporate colleagues) is a married couple, both of them warming up on their respective practice tees. Traci noticed a problem that they shared. “You two are a perfect match. You both like using your shoulders, and that's just too much work! It's like taking your two little ones on vacation.” They both laugh, and it is apparent that she has touched them on a personal level. She then offers them the technical instruction they need. Traci shared how important she believed it was for her to get to know her students on a personal basis at the beginning of a lesson. During the first 5 minutes, when they come out to the lesson tee, I talk to them a lot, I let them hit some balls, I want to see their set up, I want to see their mechanics, but I also don’t know what else they have brought to the tee that day. You knowm are they excited? Or are they sad? Are they elated? Or are they mad? Did they get fired recently, or were they just told they were going to be a parent for the first time? You try and see what kind of mood they’re in. And (simultaneously) I’m watching their set-up, I’m watching the ball flight, I’m watching their pre-shot routine. In those five minutes, I’m accomplishing a lot of stuff, plus trying to make them comfortable with me there.” 69 Traci’s personal approach appears to work for both her and her students, as they all seem to enjoy themselves during the lesson. Flexible Style Traci’s style of teaching, by her own description, is quite flexible. She is able to adapt her instructional approach and her objectives to suit the unique interests and abilities of her students, while also maintaining the general organizational structure in her lessons. I think I teach both ways. You have to be a little of both (flexible and structured). I think you have to develop your way of teaching to the student’s needs. And I think I am more of a developmental teacher than a band- aid teacher, in the way I see the overall picture, not just what’s happening at that moment. She elaborated on her pedagogical approach: I think I’m unique in that in my teaching method, I try to look at everybody differently. I also compare my teaching approach to being like a doctor. I mean, if the doctor sees twenty patients in a day, I hope that if I am the twentieth one that he is as alert with me as he was with the first. That’s how I try to treat my students. You know, if I were taking my son to the doctor I would want the same attention as the first patient got. And, yes, it’s a business, but to me it’s more important to build friendships, build bridges, and show them I really care, and many times my students have arrived and told me that they didn’t do their homework, and I’m willing to say, “OK, let me just watch you for ten minutes and then let’s reschedule”. Do I lose money? Yes, but do I build a bond with them and show them that I’m interested in their improvement? Yes. So, once you start losing the identity of the student, and they become a dollar figure, you’d better get out of the business.” '70 Over the years, Traci has developed and refined her diagnostic and perceptual skills. She takes pride in both her ability to accurately diagnose mechanical swing problems, and her ability to quickly acquire important background knowledge about her students and their interestsz. She enjoys the challenge of guessing her students' professional occupations, based on their golf swing technique and their conceptions of the swing. Traci spoke of her ability to determine the professional occupations of her students, based solely upon their own swing mechanics. I think you’ve also got to take their profession into account. Dentists are very short with their golf swings because they work in very constricted areas. Architects and engineers are very precise, they want everything to be point A to point B. Lawyers and accountants - and I’m an accountant - I’d say they are kind of, I mean, they are just very stiffmin their swing. I can usually guess what they do for a living because you can tell a lot about them from their swings. Traci maintains her flexible stance throughout the lesson and shows her willingness to help her students achieve their own personal goals. She carries on a steady conversation with her class that lasts for the duration of the lesson, and the topic of conversation will often cover 2This domain includes the teacher’s knowledge of student understanding, including assessing and addressing student conceptions, misconceptions of the subject matter. 71 a range of topics, but, surprisingly, relatively little with respect to the technical elements of the golf swing. That’s a big point for me because I am trying to relax my students, and you can’t give them too muchm But then I also have some real high-tech students that are very technical, terminology-wise, and they want to get right to that focus, so we can go that way too. As her Saturday morning group lesson progresses, Traci manages to keep her students entertained with her wit and good humor. Observing a mechanical swing flaw that she has seen with two other students today, she intervenes by teasing the student in a good-natured way, chanting in a nursery—rhyme-like cadence, “You’re swinging too much with your shouldersm Lady in purplem Shoulder swinger! Shoulder swinger!” Having captured the attention of the entire class with the good-natured ribbing, she then offers the critical piece of instruction. “Now let the hands swing it down. There you go!” Her students all laugh at this friendly exchange, but they have all learned an important concept as well. Traci maintains the humorous commentary for the duration of the 30-minute lesson. The group warms to her style. They seem more interested in having a good time together rather than in perfecting their golf swings. Traci reminds the group, “This is su osed to be relaxation ever one, remember? Y 72 It's not the bosses' head you’re trying to hit!" She reacts to another one of her student’s swings. “Does this one like to be in control?” she asks the group. “Is she a control freak? An A-Type?” “A-plus,” someone replies. “A-triple plus!”, another one shouts. They all laugh together, and Traci seems to have achieved her goal of establishing a relaxed learning environment, and making this group lesson an enjoyable experience for them. Conclusion In order to understand and appreciate both the teaching practice and the PCK held by Traci, one needs to understand that she is a very personable individual who has a special talent for creating a personal rapport with her students. This rapport creates a level of trust, and it enables Traci to get closer to her students, while also freeing them to reveal more of their own fears and concerns to her. The mutual understanding that emerges between Traci and her students enables her to quickly and accurately ascertain those goals and objectives for learning that have the greatest meaning for her students. This form of knowledge is found in Category A of Grossman’s PCK model (1990): knowledge of the purposes and goals of instruction. She is thus very adept at devising an 73 instructional experience most suitable to the individual student. Another finding that emerges from the examination of Traci’s practice is that an important dimension of her teaching expertise lies in her humanism as a teacher. She is able to weave her compassionate nature together with her rich knowledge of her students. As a result, she lends support to a conception of expertise that features great empathy and compassion for the student. She has traveled the road of the novice learner many times, and continues to do so in her own life. She remains sensitive to her students’ individual needs and interests, so that she can match those needs with a lesson designed to suit those interests on any given day. Her own life experiences enable her to shape her pedagogical approach to match either the interest level or skill/ability level that her students bring to the lesson tee. Later that day, during a lesson with a young man who aspires to become the ‘second man’ on his college golf team, Traci modified her instructional approach to focus immediately on a few of his mechanical deficiencies. This student was much more business—like, goal-oriented, and he appreciated the detailed technical instruction given to him. 74 Traci holds a special appreciation for the difficult challenges that confront the beginning golfer, and she assures her students that she will be on their side, supporting them in their quest to become a better golfer. Traci’s compassionate nature gives her a special appeal to her beginning students who seem appreciative of her warm, friendly manner. While she is also capable of demonstrating her technical know-how, it is truly those qualities of compassion, dedication, and humanism as an instructor, woven together with her ability to personalize her lessons, that uniquely define her pedagogical expertise, and lend credence to her status as an expert golf instructor. 75 Dan — A Partner in Discovery In this case study, we examine the second component of Grossman’s PCK model, and also expand upon her definition to account for the nature of the subject matter at hand. We will consider the teacher’s knowledge of student understanding1 of the subject matter, i.e., their conceptual understanding of the full swing, together with their physical capacity to execute the skill correctly. We will also see how a video analysis software program is adapted to perform multiple pedagogical functions simultaneously. In particular, we see one instructor’s unusual capacity for assessing his students’ difficulties, conceptions and/or misconceptions of the golf swing. Finally, we see an example of a pedagogical approach that truly engages the students in an active, collaborative learning process. The Academy Dan is the Director of the Stephens Golf Academy (pseudonym), which has been in operation for the past 12 years. His golf academy has become quite popular in recent years, as evidenced by the long waiting list to schedule a lesson with him. Students must register up to 6 weeks in lDomain B: Knowledge of student understanding - assessing and addressing student conceptions, misconceptions, of the subject matter. 76 advance before they can be placed on Dan’s calendar. As popular as he is, though, Dan steadfastly refuses to increase the price of his lessons. Nor does he limit his services to just the highly talented golfer; he works with students of all ability levels. He typically teaches private lessons with his students, although he will occasionally teach a group lesson. The Diagnosis Huddled together in front of a single computer monitor, two men are staring intently at an image of a male golfer, captured in ‘freeze-frame’, half-way through his down-swing. The instructor begins to draw a line on the image with his virtual highlighter pen. “Now we’re just gonna look at your impact positionmright here,” he says, while tracing the golfer’s arms and the club, highlighting the angle formed by the arms and the shaft of the golf club at the moment of impact. “Notice that?” asks the instructor. “See how your club head is out in front at the point of impact?” “Yeah,” the student replies without hesitation. “OK, good,” says Dan. “The first step for you is knowing what’s happening with which component. So what we’re trying to do is establish where you are now. Then we’re gonna say, ‘OK, if we get to choose any (impact) position in the world, what 77 would we want it to be?’ That’s what we’re gonna do now, because I believe that if you have a vision of where you are now, and a vision of where you’d like to be, then you can get there. You really can!” Dan’s student seems interested, attentive. “Let’s compare two different swings.” He manipulates the software program to produce a split-screen view with the student’s image on the right side and an image of a younger Jack Nicklaus (in his prime) displayed on the left. Both golfers are captured at the very top of their respective back swings. “This is going to be very conceptual," he says, preparing his student for the ensuing analytical exercise. “Now I want you to look over here at his shaft as it comes down.” He clicks the mouse four times and the video of Nicklaus’ swing advances by four frames. “Now see how his hands are even with his right hip? And notice how the angle of the club shaft is still up here?” He advances the image forward with a few more clicks until Nicklaus’ club has reached the point of impact. “Now see how it looks like he’s trying to hit it with the butt end of the handle in front of the club head?” “Yep,” his student replies. “O.K. Now we’re going to look at your swing. At this point, where your club is near your right hip line, we can see how the club has already started pointing down and is nearing a straight line. So at the 78 point of impact you can’t help but go beyond (the desired position) cause there’s momentum in the club head.” His student nods his head, and tells the instructor, “I see that,” seeming to understand the underlying cause of his swing trouble. In the short span of a few minutes at the outset of this private lesson, the instructor, Dan Stephens, Director of the Stephens Golf Academy in Collegetown, MI, has already provided his student with an invaluable learning experience, and he has performed several important pedagogical tasks. As proposed by Grossman’s PCK framework, the second component of a teacher’s pedagogical content knowledge includes the instructor’s knowledge of their students’ abilities, knowledge, and skills, accompanied by an understanding of the common misconceptions held by students and how to overcome learning challenges, difficulties, and misconceptions. In this lesson, Dan has already performed a quick assessment of his student’s skill level and general abilities, and he has diagnosed and prioritized his student’s most pressing mechanical problems, with the assistance of some digital video technology. 79 Dan has recently obtained a state-of—the-art golf swing video analyzer. He is one of a very few PGA teaching professionals in the state of Michigan who has acquired this particular system. His students receive one on one instruction in his ‘video studio’, a covered room located at one end of his practice facility. This temperature- controlled studio is equipped with a sophisticated swing analysis program that incorporates two digital video cameras and the most sophisticated swing analysis software available today. Dan has learned to use this sophisticated video system extensively because it helps him perform several important pedagogical functions. It obviously works as a powerful assessment and diagnostic tool, providing the instructor with graphic evidence of the potential sources of trouble for his students. The average golf instructor, sans the video swing analysis tool, must rely upon a keen eye and a thorough understanding of the ‘laws of ball flight’, in order to make an inference about their students’ swing flaws. That is, the golf instructor must often make a determination of the nature of the swing flaw from the feedback provided by the direction and flight path of the ball that is struck by the golfers’ swing. The speed of the down swing movement makes it impossible for the naked 80 eye to detect each of the critical components as they are performed. With the advent of the digital video swing analyzer, however, the instructor can now actually see each component unfold in full detail, from two angles in either a slow motion replay or freeze-frame mode. What’s more, he is now able to share this visual feedback with his students immediately, thereby providing evidence to support his diagnosis. Dan felt that his swing analysis software helped him perform this invaluable function in ways that were previously impossible to achieve, thereby making the learning experience much more meaningful. Dan explained that his students would often have trouble interpreting their own sense of 'feel' of a particular movement, and they would doubt the accuracy of his assessment as determined via naked eye. Now, with the indisputable evidence provided by the video system to support his own visual analysis, Dan no longer faces that battle. This was important, as he explained, because his students would generally respond very positively to the video images. With the video, it puts us on the same side. I mean, if I’m trying to convince a student that he’s over the top or over the plane, or whatever, and he doesn’t believe me, he’s probably saying to himself, 'I don’t 81 think that guy really sees it right; I don’t think I’m doing that.’ But if I show him his image on the computer screen, he says, 'Is that me?‘ I’d say, ‘Yes, that’s you.’ Then he’d say, ‘Well that can’t be me!’ And I’d say, ‘That looks like your hat, doesn’t it?’ He’d say, 'Yeah, but I don’t swing like that!I I’d say, 'I think you do. Let’s watch it again. You think that’s you now?’ 'Yup,' he says, ‘But I don’t swing like that! I’d say again, “I think you do." He’ll finally say, ‘OK. We gotta fix that.‘ And I'd say, 'Yeah, I think you’re right'. An important additional benefit of using the video system as an assessment tool is that it unites Dan and his students in a collaborative process of discovery. He and his student will approach the process of skill learning via a repeated series of visual observations, collaborative analyses, and swing trials. By sharing with his students the responsibility for analyzing their swing mechanics, Dan is deliberately engaging them in the problem-solving process, placing the responsibility for learning upon the shoulders of the student. I mean, then we’re on the same team now, and I’m not criticizing him, ripping his swing apart. I never expect my students to take my word for it. I’ll say, 'Let’s look at the video. What do you see?‘ So whenever I can use their eyes to come up with the answer, that's much better. When I have to use my own eyes and tell them what I see, I don’t think that’s as good as when they use their eyes, and they come up with their own conclusions. The video analysis system provides both Dan and his student a valuable form of feedback, via repeated, multi-angled 82 displays of the student’s golf swing. This form of feedback has proven to be very convincing for Dan’s students. Prior to the advent of this computer program, Dan’s students had to rely upon his naked eye to observe and detect any swing flaws. Even with his trained eye, Dan admitted that it was difficult to determine all of the technical flaws that might exist in a particular swing. Among Dan’s considerable repertoire of pedagogical skills is his ability to anticipate and accommodate the unique problems and needs that each of his students brings to the lesson. He first looks for the source of their swing problems with the aid of his video system, and then conducts the rest of the lesson in a manner that gets the student involved in the analytical process. After moving outside from his studio to the practice tee, Dan says to his student, I’ll bet that you not only hit the ball high and short, but you also will hit it fat sometimes, right?” “Yeah”, he replies. “Way too often.” Dan then starts his student with short, partial swings, in order to teach him/her the desired feel at impact position. Throughout his lessons, Dan would frequently anticipate questions by his students, and would say, "Now you'd probably ask me...‘What about this, or that?’ Then I'd tell you we would expect that to happen, or something 83 similar.” By posing these questions, Dan seemed to be encouraging his students to generate their own questions, or to be more reflective about the learning experience. He was able to anticipate and acknowledge their concerns, dilemmas, and fears, thus giving them permission for any possible confusion they might be experiencing at the moment. This strategy appeared to create a learning environment in which Dan’s students felt comfortable about asking questions. Dan’s considerable experience (22 years) enabled him to anticipate his students’ problems, likely due to the fact that he had seen them repeated so many times previously. Another result of asking these questions was that Dan provided his students with a model for critical analysis. He explained how he incorporates problem—solving experiences into his lessons: I'll usually do research. My research begins by putting myself into the position that my students get themselves into, and then I try to understand how their swing works from their perspective. But what we learn here is, or should be, ‘How do we approach problem-solving in any situation? How would I do it?’ You know, I like to learn more about it myself! “I tell my students, ‘We’re working at this together.’ Some of the best ideas come from them. I just think that if we tap into our creativity, who is to say we have to be limited by mine or my lack of it? Why 84 don’t we use yours, too? You know, you may come up with a good idea that says, ‘Dan, now why don’t we do it this way?’ I’d say, you know, I wished I had thought of it. I’d say, let’s try it, I think that might work!” Conclusion As with all good golf instructors, Dan routinely performs a comprehensive assessment for his students early in his lesson. However, a student of Dan’s will likely acquire a much more comprehensive understanding of their swing after a few lessons with him. They will do more than listen to the instructor’s interpretation and diagnosis of their swing mechanics. Instead, they are likely to join with him in a shared process of problem solving. In this way, with the help of his digital video swing analyzer, Dan displays an unusual capability for assessing his students’ difficulties, conceptions and/or misconceptions of the golf swing. Beyond that, however, Dan recognizes the added pedagogical value derived from engaging his students in an active, collaborative learning process. An additional pedagogical advantage offered to Dan via his video analysis system is the immediate access he is afforded to multiple ‘models of expert performance’. The software program includes digitized video clips of several of famous PGA.and LPGA touring professionals, e.g. Jack 85 Nicklaus, Annika Sorenstam, and others. He utilizes the computer images of selected professionals as a way of representing or demonstrating the critical swing components and concepts that he is trying to convey. In this way, Dan is able to represent the fundamentals of the full swing in a (visual) form that is more accessible to his students, thus building a bridge between his own sophisticated understanding and the developing understanding of his student. This feature was especially useful in enabling him to illustrate for his student the difference between a correct and an incorrect 'impact position'. This final pedagogical strategy can be more accurately classified within the fourth domain of Grossman’s PCK modelz. 2 Domain D: Knowledge of instructional strategies and representations for teaching content. 86 Jan and Shirley: MORAD meets The Ferris Wheel The final case study presents a description of the remaining two components of Grossman’s PCK framework as manifested in the practice of the last two expert instructors: knowledge of curriculum and instructional strategies. Several examples of their curricular knowledge and their knowledge of instructional strategies and representations are described and explained. By studying their work simultaneously, we see further evidence of the multidimensional nature of pedagogical expertise in golf instruction. Although the four major components of Grossman’s PCK framework are depicted as discrete elements when displayed graphically (Figure 1), it should be understood that, in practice, all four components of the model actually overlap, operate in concert with, and have influence on each other. In order to illustrate this relationship, this case study considers the final two PCK components together. These two components of PCK are also virtually inseparable in teaching practice. That is, a teacher’s curricular knowledge, no matter how extensive, is rendered meaningless unless it can be transformed into engaging learning experiences for students via effective teaching strategies. 87 Similarly, even the most engaging instructional activities may fail to produce the desired learning outcomes unless situated within a broader curricular framework. The interdependent nature of these two elements suggested that they be examined with consideration given to each other. The swing Among the many dilemmas confounding the average golfer today is the existence of a large number of credible, yet competing points of view or philosophical conceptions of the full golf swing. As with other sports skills, like the batter’s swing in baseball or the tennis backhand, a student can find many competing theories regarding the execution of these skills as well as conflicting philosophical approaches in the teaching of the fundamental movements involved. In golf, the teaching approach adopted will usually serve as a complement to the preferred swing model, and visa versa. That is, the drills or learning activities implemented typically reflect the instructors’ theoretical conceptions of the full swing and their orientation toward teaching. Historically, a multitude of instructors have achieved success by using swing models and teaching approaches that differ greatly from one another, suggesting that there are alternative pathways through a complex thicket. These 88 instructors can all make legitimate claims about the correctness of their approach with their own students. Not surprisingly, a few contrasting pedagogical approaches and conceptions of the full swing were found among the four expert instructors who participated in this study. In examining the practice of Jan and Shirley, with a focus on their curricular knowledge and their knowledge of instructional strategies, we encounter some of these differences. Jan and NORAD The Golfing Machine Model As an instructor who possesses a rich understanding of a particular swing model, and a vast repertoire of carefully sequenced progressions and associated learning activities, Jan can be considered a ‘technical master’ of his profession. With 16 years of experience in teaching this particular model, Jan now possesses a rich technical understanding of this swing model as well as the associated drills and learning activities that help him teach it to others. The model itself was developed in the early 19808 after years of biomechanical analysis and research, and it first emerged in print in the book entitled “The Golfing Machine” (1983). It was this swing model that Jan learned 89 first as a young player, and it still shapes his practice as an instructor today. Jan explained how important it was for an instructor to have a clear model and systematic approach to teaching it. I believe that an expert golf instructor needs to have a thorough understanding and a complete knowledge of the swing model they are trying to presentmand they must know what physical training routines work best to improve their students’ games. The Golfing Machine swing model that Jan uses with his students today is also known as the MORAD system. Jan recalled his introduction to this system. My college coach was a Golfing Machine instructor, and so we would drive up state together to see Ben Doyle, who was the first certified Golfing Machine instructor, and probably the world’s authority on teaching that system. So that was the only system that I really knew back then. It dealt with angles, geometry, basic mechanics, and I was very rigid in the approach that MORAD has. Really not knowing anythinng was only 21 years old. Today, Jan’s knowledge of the swing model is on full display during his lessons. He encourages his students to move toward mastery of the golf swing as conceptualized within MORAD system. The discourse that takes place during Jan’s lessons is one that is punctuated by an extensive technical vocabulary. He uses many terms and phrases that convey very precise meanings to his students. For example, during one segment of the lesson, he used terms such as 90 “axis tilt”, “approach speed”, “clubshaft planes”, “delivery paths”, and “downstroke sequences”. The technical nature of Jan’s language reflects the terminology found in the original Golfing Machine manual. This text has been described by some as a work of golf engineering, with an emphasis on the geometry, physics, and biomechanical principles of the swing. Jan has also published his own illustrated technical manual, an interpretation of the MORAD model. He gives a copy of this manual to each of his students. Drills and Progressions Jan’s knowledge of an appropriate learning progression for a particular component of the swing model was evident as he sequenced a ‘Tai Chi’ movement drill for his student, Steve. I like to teach the slow motion drill so that you can begin to get the feel of the new movement,” he told Steve. During this drill, Jan began to notice that Steve was misjudging the desired swing speed for the Tai Chi drill, swinging too fast to achieve the necessary short-term result. “Let’s pick this one up incrementally. Let’s go at 50% speed,” Jan said. Steve swings again. “This one will be at 60%. He swings again. “OK. Let’s go to 70%." Another swing. “80%. O.K. Go ahead and bring it up to here...” He makes a slight adjustment to the club in Steve’s back swing position. “OK, now go ninety.” Steve swings. “At first, it feels exaggerated, but eventually you’ll get it so that it feels like one movement.” 91 Jan then grabbed a club of his own, stepped into a position behind Steve on the tee, and then prepared him to take a few swings in unison with him. I've got to get you timed up. Let's hit a couple shots together. I'll go a thousand one, a thousand two, a thousand three, and we will swing together...Ready? They attempted to swing in unison, but Steve's swing was obviously at a much quicker pace than Jans', although he cannot see or perceive this difference. "OK? That's a good one to look at,” says Jan. “Let's look at the video. They moved back to the portable video camera and started to analyze both of these swings. Jan had observed that Steve had severely misjudged his own swing speed during this drill. Realizing that the effectiveness of his student’s future ‘Tai Chi' homework practice sessions would be jeopardized unless he learned to swing much slower, Jan needed to quickly find a way to represent for his student the difference between his current conception or feel of the proper speed and the actual swing speed that Jan felt needed to be prescribed. The use of Jans’ video camcorder helped achieve this objective. At another point later in Steve's lesson, the following exchange revealed Jan's knowledge of how to help his student to make a few important changes to his back swing movement. He broke down the swing movement into 92 several parts, and prescribed extensive practice on just those parts of the swing, before returning to work on the 'whole' swing. He concluded the lesson with his student with the following. I know this drill is 'piece-y'. I know its segmented, and that the flow is disruptedm but frankly, by segmenting it, it lets you know where you should be at each position. You need to feel the weight of the club at this point.” In this short summary, Jan has used a specific drill designed to convey to his student the ‘feel’ associated with the proper club position at various stages of the swing. He also reminded his student of the need to train those movements with repetitive practice. The combination of Jan's intricate knowledge of the swing model and his knowledge of students’ abilities enables him to modify his drills to suit the individual needs of the student. He altered the Tai Chi drill slightly for his next student by having him progress from a slow motion swing without the ball, to a full speed drill with the ball, using clubs of various lengths. Jan began by instructing this student to begin by taking four consecutive swings at a slow motion pace - without the ball in place. “Alright, no ball. Good right arm delivery, so we're trying to time the delivery of the right arm with the 93 pivot. “Yup.” (The student swings.) “Again, all one pattern. Good.” The student swings a few more times with the same club. "OK, now with the ball at that same speed. (The student swings again). “Finish it. What club was that, an 8 iron? Use this 6 iron now...same thing. Good, now half speed. Not any faster. For anything faster than that I get two dollars. I'm gonna be rich at the end of the day! (Swing) Finish it. Alright, new club, don't look at the number...(he hands him a new club) Same speed, same movement...several more swings...Again...that was good..." This progression was used at the beginning of the lesson, and while his student was swinging without a ball, Jan observed him from three different angles. “Take a practice swing for me. Again...One more time...Right here there's a little break." Then he moved the video camera to spot where he could observe from a different angle. "You see, when going at a slow speed, we should really have better downswing paths. So when you practice this at full speed, you should be working on downswing path and arm exits, right? Make sense? "Yeah." 94 Flexible Instructional Strategies Jan demonstrated an extensive repertoire of teaching strategies while working with his students. He selected these learning activities based on a quick assessment of his students’ needs, recognizing that his students have diverse backgrounds and a myriad of needs. Jan compared his teaching approach to that of a football coach who must constantly be ready to modify his strategy in response to changing and unpredictable circumstances. Sometimes I think that I’m like the defensive coordinator (in football), and the student is the offense. So if I show you on video and I explain it to you, I’ll let you try, and if I can’t ‘beat you with my base defense’. I’ve got to jump in and start adding more and more things. Meaning that I’ll just react to where the deficiencies are, so I’ll add an impact drill, for example. You can show a student how, using yourself as a model, you can show them on video, hold up pictures, or you can put them in the right positioanou can use all the bells and whistles. I’ll just keep running more ‘blitzes’ and different ‘coverages’ until I get the results that I want. Metaphors, Analogies One of the skills that comprises a teacher’s instructional repertoire is the careful selection and use of language, e.g., metaphors and analogies, which represent or convey meaningful ideas, concepts, or skills (Shulman, 1986). Jan’s approach, while rich in technical vocabulary, did not feature many metaphors or analogies. 95 “Obviously there are the three learning modes for the student - auditory, visual, and kinesthetic - and they are all part of the learning experience. I know there are guys who teach like that (using metaphors and analogies), but I have a hard time with that, and it’s mainly because of the training I’ve had. With all my mentors, it’s always been about establishing a position, learn that position, and equate that to what it feels like to you”. So while Jan did not use metaphorical language to a great extent, he did employ a rich technical vocabulary. The MORAD system included many terms and phrases that conveyed a very precise meaning to his students. Equipment and teachingiaids A typical lesson with Jan will likely find him using one or more of his many teaching aids. He totes a large duffle bag out to the tee each morning that holds several of his devices, such as the impact bag - a heavy beanbag that provides resistance at the bottom of the swing to help the student maintain the alignment of his/her left arm, left wrist, and club shaft at the point of impact. Other kinesthetic training items used by Jan included straps to keep their elbows together and devices to keep their arms extended on the backswing. I use all kinds of things, rods, sticks, a plane board (shaped from a foam exercise mat), that I hold up for them to get an idea that all these elements need to line up properly on the back swing. I’ve got other aids - like a mirror, you can take the mirror out to let a student actually see how to line up everything 96 correctly. You just keep working until you find something that helps the student learn and they say, ‘Wow, that really helps. Thanks!’. Jan also used a portable video camcorder system that helped him analyze swing mechanics and provide immediate visual feedback to his students. “I think that the teacher who doesn’t teach with a video camera is actually robbing the student of one of the valuable learning tools. So I think that an expert has got to teach with a camera. The movements in the golf swing are happening so fast, especially the complexities of impact, issues with the hand and the shaft, and clubface position at impact. That makes having the video very important. You know there’s actually instructors who have taken that one step further, and now they have ball-launch monitors and all kinds of high-tech equipment that will indicate exactly what that face is doing, and exactly the angle of attack of the club, and all of those things. Now maybe a beginning golfer doesn’t need to see all of these things until later on, but I think that ultimately the student needs to see it. Because it is very difficult for me to convince a student that their spine is changing 20 degrees during the swing, until you can actually show it to them. Developingythe Feel of the Swing Jan believed that the most important goal of his instruction was to create a learning experience for his students in which they could develop a sense of feel for the proper swing movements. He recalled the advice of one of his first teaching mentors. 97 Jim always stressed this to me. One of the first things he said when I was first thinking about getting into teaching, he said, ‘Jan, I’ll give you one tip’, and I’ll always remember this. He said, ‘Let the student learn their feel from the correct mechanics. So put them in the right spot, and let them feel what that’s like, because what it feels like for me is completely different from what it feels like to Tom, Dick, and Harry. And that stuck with me. Jan also stressed the importance of active involvement on the part of his students, often referring to the importance of engaging his students in the learning process. If I’m telling you what the motion should feel like, you are not really engaged. So if my teaching doesn’t put you in the right spot and force you to get involved, I don’t think you are going to learn as quickly. You know, just like in a group class for beginners, I would ask, ’What’s this part of the club called? OK, now, What’s this? The shaft or the grip?’ So, you know, when I teach group lessons, I make them repeat back to me, you know, like, ‘What are your three check points here? What is your swing thought here?’ I don’t want them to go brain dead. Jan also recognized the use of his portable video system as an opportunity to engage his students in the learning process. He explained that it offered an alternative “learning mode” for his students. Summary Jan’s teaching practice featured a deep understanding of a research-based swing model, the use of an accompanying technical manual and vocabulary, numerous drills (and various modifications thereof), and a multitude of teaching 98 aids, including a portable video system. An important aspect of Jans’ philosophy of the full swing is that he believed that the MORAD model, together with the various drills associated with it, were an especially good match for his personality. The thing that is so great is that this system fits my personality, that is, how I want it to be, you know, I want to have concrete check-points. I want to know the hows and whys. Don’t tell me that something has to happen without providing a rationale for it. You know, if my left arm angle, or the club shaft, needs to be at 10 degrees inside the target line on the downswing, tell me why. But I think that all these things I’ve learned through MORAD, as well as from all the other guys who teach the system, have really made it easier for me to teach. Jan shared that he has probably ‘softened’ a bit over the years in his approach to teaching the MORAD swing model, making adjustments for students who may be somewhat deficient with respect to some aspect of their physical capabilities. It’s the only way I know how to do it. I don’t know any other way. I still have deep rooted feelings for the system, but I’ve learned more about physical deficiencies, like muscular strength and flexibilitymsome players just cannot get to model, so what you do is explain to each player, ‘You have these deficiencies, so you have to build a pattern that makes it easier to have a non-compensating golf swing.’ 99 Jan prefers to work with students who can commit to taking lessons over an extended period of time. He knows that lasting changes in his students’ full swing techniques require a sustained effort at training and regular practice by the student. Shirley and the Ferris Wheel The swing model Shirley’s conceptions of the golf swing are much less visible to the casual observer. She generally avoids the use of specialized, technical jargon that is found in many golf manuals and texts. Shirley does not refer to swing plane angles, downstroke sequences, and delivery paths with her students. Instead, she speaks in laypersons’ terms, choosing instead to communicate with them in whatever language she believes will be most meaningful to them. In a group lesson she conducted for three young boys, ages 11-12, Shirley demonstrated this approach. After finishing a lesson segment on the short game, she returned to the tee with her three students for a review of the full swing key components. “Alright, this will be a good review for us.” She takes a club and steps out in front of the group. Are you 100 watching? You be the teachers. OK, watch me.” She purposely takes an awkward back swing, pauses at the top, and then asks them, “What’s wrong here?” One of the boys replies, “It’s laying on your back and your foot is lifted up.” “So it should be up here? Like a nice high ferris wheel?” she asks.” “Yeah.” “OK, everyone tell me, what leg is my power leg?” “Your back one,” they respond. “Alright, and we’re doing better with our happy feet, not moving all over. You’re getting better, a lot better. Big circles though,” she says as she swings the club through to the finish position. “Big circlesm and I wanna see your power leg.” OK, everyone have some tees?” she asks as the boys reassume their position. Nice big circles, now. That is so much better. I am so glad you got away from those happy feet. A casual observer of Shirley’s lessons might be misled by the apparent simplicity of her instructional approach. She seems to exemplify the phrase “less is more”, as she makes minimal use of detailed, technical language. However, the relative invisibility of her technical know- how may not necessarily correlate with a lack conceptual understanding of the full swing. Instead, it more likely reveals a certain wisdom about just how much information her students might be able to grasp, and how to represent lOl that information to them at precisely the right moment, and in ways that make sense for them. While Jan’s knowledge of the swing model was typically in full view, Shirley’s knowledge would only surface selectively, and even then, in a form or language that might not persuade an observer of her grasp of modern swing theory and techniques. Shirley reflected briefly on her teaching approach. I think one of the keys to my teaching is that I don’t always teach by using the technical golf terms. It’s not always so A,B,C. I kind of do it with unique, funny situations. And my students will sometimes say something to me that helps them relate an idea to their bodies, and so I’ll just go with that. Flexible Teaching Strategies Another lesson segment illustrates Shirley's ability to adapt her instructional strategies to accommodate the needs and abilities of her students. Instead of recommending a major change in the swing mechanics for this student, Shirley chose to recommend only minor adjustments, thus allowing this student to retain one of her favored movements. The student was a mature woman, in her sixties, who started her lesson with Shirley by reminding her that she had taken a lesson from Shirley a few years ago. She reminded Shirley about her unorthodox follow-through and 102 finish position, one that would likely be labeled incorrect by most professionals. “Remember,” the student says to Shirley, “I have a natural thing that I do on my follow through. I kind of walk into the ball after I hit it. I know I should stop doing it, butmwatch, I’ll show you.” She then swings at the first ball and hits a solid shot, but the ball flies far to the right of her target. On her follow through, she steps with her right foot across her left, and finishes with her weight on that right foot, as if walking down the fairway towards the target. “Oh I see,” says Shirley. “You advance after you’ve hit it. But was that a pretty good hit, wasn’t it?” “Yeah, I guess that was OK," the woman replies. “Alrightmand you’ve been doing that for a long time, haven’t you? Kind of walking past it?" “It sort of feels natural to me.” “Well if it feels natural, maybe we’ll leave it alone!” Later in the lesson, Shirley discovers a problem with the woman’s foot placement: “Let’s aim for that flag out there at the 100-yard mark. I think you can definitely shave a few shots off of that 55 you’ve been shooting." She hits a few more balls, during \MhiCh time Shirley notices that her feet are misaligned. 103 “Now get your target lined up. It looks like you are lined up to the right. You might want to check that. “ The woman realigns her stance and swings again. “Now that was a nice hit,” says Shirley. “OK. The only thing I saw differently was your left arm, on your arc on the back swing. You didn’t drop your club so much. Like this, watch me.” Shirley switches places with her student to demonstrate. “You took the club back like this (she demonstrates a proper back swing motion and then stops before reaching the top). You are about right here, which is fine, but when you get here, it might be that maybe you are trying to get more power, and you’re going back so far, that you are losing that good stretch right here (she points to her elbow). And about walking into the ballmI know you’ve been doing that for a long timem “Yes, I’ve done that forever, you know.” “So we should probably just let that go. That might be a good thing for you to keepmjust a good follow through.” A few minutes later, Shirley addresses another source of trouble for this student: the position of the ball at address. She walks around from behind her student to a position on her side in order to view her midline. 104 “Did you know that you keep changing your ball placement?” There is no reply. “Do you know where it is supposed to be? Proper placement for most of us with that club is to play the ball right here, just inside the left toe. You’re playing it nearer your right foot.” “Oh really?” “Yes, and here’s what it would look like. (She demonstrates the incorrect ball position relative to her stance.) “OK go ahead and set up again. That’s good. Now square your hips upmand the ball should be placed right here.” Up to this point in the lesson, Shirley has probably spotted a number of deficiencies in her stance and her swing, but she has selected only 2—3 on which to focus attention, while ignoring others like the negligible influence of her unorthodox follow through motion. Her student is happy to have hit a few shots further and straighter with her 7—wood than she had hit them in a long time. Shirley seems to have won the confidence of her student. She swings again, and hits her best shot of the day. “I think you have something there,” the woman tells Shirley. “I think that we do have something there,” Shirley replies. “Now tell me two things that you did right that time so that you can remember and take them back 105 with you to the club.” “I tried to be in the right position and take it back not quite so far.” “OK.” She then hits three consecutive shots down the middle. As the lesson comes to an end, her student reflects on a previous lesson she had taken with Shirley. “That’s what I liked about my last lesson from you. No fancy stuff. And what I fear is that some guys (instructors) are gonna look at the way that I swing and throw there hands up in the air and say, ‘Just quit!’” Shirley responds, “Oh no, no, no!m Now, just like the last one. You just hit that one way past a hundred yards.” Representations and Metaphors Shirley takes a slightly different pedagogical approach with each of her students. She even spoke of the different strategies she uses with junior golfers of varying ages. "With junior golfers I use different concepts depending on their age and their attitudes. I think age and attitude in junior golfers makes a big difference in how I am going to teach.” She compared the golf swing motion to that of a ferris wheel for her younger students. If I have a group of kids that are younger, I try to relate to what they will know about, to try to create a good back swing. I try to figure out something that’s fun for them, and a ferris wheel is fun. And 106 most of them have been on a ferris wheel. So I use a concept like “picking somebody up" and then you take the clubhead back when “you’re going for a ride" and then you try to take them all the way up high (on the ferris wheel) so that you see the entire Fair Ground, and that really allows them to take a big back swing and then I say ‘OK now, give everybody a good ride’, and that brings it all the way through. I also had a group of kids that somehow picked up on the phrase, ‘orange slice’, when talking about a sliced golf shot. We used that phrase from there on, and they loved it." As far as junior golfers and their hands (grip), I use this with all students, just a good hand shake position, and I think most pros still do that, with just a few changes here and there. And then, you get the kids who are 16-17 years old, which means sometimes they don’t want to be here in the first place, so now I’m not just teaching them, I also have to work with their personalities. And I usually can test that probably within ten minutes. Within a half- hour lessonmand most pros teach within a half hourmbefore I even think about teaching them, I have to quickly figure out their personality. And I’ve been getting better at that over the last ten years or so. I’ve been teaching for close to thirty years. So that’s probably why I am getting to know personalities, and that really does help in my teaching. Summary Shirley’s pedagogical approach with her students reveals a much more flexible stance toward teaching the fundamentals of the full swing. While it may not have been readily apparent to a casual observer, it became evident during the course of this investigation that Shirley held a clear conception of what a functional swing should look like for any particular student. She noted that even amongst PGA tour professionals, one finds drastic differences in swing 107 shapes and movements. However, one fundamental characteristic of all good golf swings is that they consistently return the club face squarely to the ball at the point of impact. Shirley’s conception of the full swing model appear to hold much more latitude for variation than did Jan’s. In fact, among the four instructors examined in this study, Jan and Shirley would likely find themselves situated at opposite ends of a continuum describing the relative degrees of structure vs. flexibility in their swing philosophies. As with their distinct swing conceptions, these two instructors also differed in their teaching strategies. Jan's lessons reflected a more systematic approach than Shirley’s. Shirley’s lessons were flavored with colorful phrases and metaphors that reflected the interests and abilities of her students. Hers was the more flexible approach. Conclusion The success experienced by these two accomplished instructors offers evidence that alternative conceptions of the golf swing can, indeed, coexist, as can a diverse assortment of teaching strategies. Contrasting philosophical approaches toward teaching the full swing 108 have particular characteristics that are well—suited to the needs of an individual student. An important implication of this finding is that the best result may occur when a student locates an instructor whose swing conceptions and instructional approach most closely resonate with their own abilities, skills, and interests. This finding, among others, will be discussed in Chapter Five. 109 Chapter 5 AGGREGATE FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS Introduction The purpose of this investigation was to examine the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of expert golf instructors. The goals of the study were to describe the PCK and teaching practice of these instructors via case study presentation, and to interpret the findings through a cross-case analysis. The case study method was useful for providing rich descriptions of various aspects of their teaching practice, but was limited in its capacity to document the full scope of these expert teachers’ knowledge. Accordingly, this chapter will present a comprehensive summary of the expert instructors’ PCK via cross-case analysis. Examples are presented in the next section that highlight the commonalities and contrasts among the instructors. In the final section, the results are explored further and juxtaposed against Grossman’s PCK conceptual framework (1990). Additional findings are considered, and modifications to this framework are proposed to reflect a synthesis of these findings. Implications and recommendations for future research in the area of sport 110 PCK are discussed. Expert Instructors’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge Category A. The first category of Grossman’s PCK model includes the instructor’s conceptions of their purposes and objectives for teaching students of diverse needs, skills, interests, and levels of general ability. This domain includes the information and beliefs about the purposes of teaching a subject at different grade levels (Grossman, 1990). These conceptions reflect a teacher’s objectives for teaching particular subject matter to specific groups of students, modifying goals for students of diverse needs, interests, abilities, and accommodating differences in students’ needs, abilities, skills, interests. For purposes of this study, the ‘levels of ability’ were recognized as beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels. Answers were sought to these questions: 1. How do expert instructors' purposes and instructional goals change for different students? 2. How do experts accommodate a range of abilities, skills, interests? A summary of the four instructors’ PCK in this domain offers the following findings. The case study of Traci provided an in-depth description of one instructors’ rich PCK in this first 111 area. While her capacity in this area was particularly outstanding, the other three expert instructors also demonstrated the ability to accommodate diverse interests and varied needs among their students. Because of their acquired status as ‘expert instructors’ within the golf profession, these instructors were observed teaching in mostly private lesson settings. This meant that they had been afforded repeated opportunities to learn and develop those diagnostic skills and strategies that enabled them to determine the appropriate course of action for a particular student. These instructors had also developed an acute perceptual awareness of the various purposes to be served via their golf instruction and an understanding of the associated strategies used to create meaningful learning experiences for their students. Some of those skills are described as follows. The instructors all devoted substantial time and effort during their lessons in determining an appropriate set of goals for their students. This task was accomplished, in part, by direct observation, video assessment, informal conversation, and written survey methods. Instructors also questioned their students directly to determine their students’ perceptions of their most pressing needs and interests. This assessment process 112 was an ongoing task for these instructors because oftentimes the students’ own learning objectives would shift as they acquired new knowledge or skills. The shifting nature of these purposes and goals for instruction required constant monitoring and a degree of perceptiveness by the instructors. For example, one of Shirley’s strengths lay in her capacity to listen and learn from her students about their own full swing difficulties. She would adopt a different instructional posture for different students, depending on what she perceived as their unique needs and personalities. I’m not just teaching a skill to a student, I am working with their personalities. Before I can even think about teaching them, I have to quickly figure out their personalities. Certain.personality traits of the instructors themselves, e.g., empathy, were particularly noticeable during the lessons of these instructors. Sincerity, supportiveness, friendliness, and humor also appeared to improve communication between teacher and student, helping them to determine the most relevant purposes and goals for instruction. This ability might be considered analogous to a physician’s “bedside manner”. Not surprisingly, the expert instructors identified their primary instructional goals as: a) the acquisition 113 and/or development of greater understanding about the full swing, and b) the physical capacity to perform the skill of the full swing correctly. This finding supports those of Rovegno (1992) and Schempp et al. (1998), who identified similar goals among physical education teachers. The expert instructors addressed the obvious skill level differences between beginning and advanced level golf students. A variety of complementary instructional goals were also found among the four expert golf instructors. Of particular interest was how diverse those needs could be. These goals were found in those lessons where the needs, interests, or motivation of a particular student may have dictated a unique instructional approach. The instructors recognized these differences in interest and motivation, as they occurred among students within the same classification of playing ability. These differences required the formulation of alternative goals and instructional approaches. The instructors shared a common understanding about their students’ own expectations, i.e., that the vast majority of their students held expectations of themselves as learners that were, ultimately, unrealistic. The instructors knew that the majority of their ‘average 114 ability’ students desired either a quick reduction in their handicap by a few strokes, or else were looking for a ‘quick fix’ for a particular swing ailment. Unfortunately, only a small proportion of these students would actually be willing and/or able to make the necessary long-term commitment needed to making substantial improvements. The majority of students are unable to do so. As a consequence, the instructors were often confronted with the challenge of modifying (usually lowering) their students’ expectations, and then re-orienting them to the learning experience in light of renewed expectations. Therefore, communication skills, diplomacy and a certain degree of artistry became important. As Traci demonstrated in her group lesson, her humanistic qualities and friendly rapport with her students enabled her to decipher and address the most important objectives for learning that her students held for themselves. Category B. The second category of PCK included the teacher’s knowledge of their students’ understanding of particular topics within a subject matter (Grossman, 1990). Teachers need to know what conceptions or misconceptions their students might hold, and they need to anticipate difficulties that their students will likely encounter. Answers were sought to the following questions: 115 1. How do the instructors assess what students know about the golf swing, or what skills they brought to the lesson? 2. What are the conceptions and misconceptions students hold regarding the golf swing? 3. How do these instructors overcome learning difficulties, challenges? 1. Assessing what students know, or what skills they possess: All of the instructors recognized the importance of accurate observations, diagnoses, and analyses of their students’ swing movements. They employed a variety of strategies designed to help them assess students’ skills and knowledge. These included formal surveys, interviews, informal conversation, visual observation, video-tape swing analysis, drills, and other activities specifically designed to help the instructor assess their students’ abilities. The case study of Dan provides a detailed description of how the digital video swing analysis system could be used to provide indisputable evidence of his students’ mechanical tendencies. His adaptive use of the technology also demonstrated an expert teacher’s ability to transform the traditional assessment process into an engaging learning experience that involved self-assessment by the student. 2. Conceptions and misconceptions: 116 The list of common misconceptions about the golf swing held by students is too extensive to present in this chapter. A list of these has been compiled and is presented in Appendix F. A few general misconceptions held by many students will be highlighted here. One of the misconceptions all four instructors agreed upon concerned the average student’s misunderstanding of the motor skill learning process. Each of these instructors recognized the inherent difficulties and challenges facing the average golf student. The instructors all referred to the common misconception that their students held about the skill learning process, i.e., the general misconception that permanent changes and improvement in one’s golf swing could be realized after only a few lessons and a modest investment of their time and effort. Many of the students felt that if they could conceptualize the causes of their faulty swings, and then learn the associated remedial strategies, then they would be capable of immediately translating this knowledge into an improved full swing performance. What the instructors understood, however, is that the successful acquisition, refinement, and mature performance of a complex motor skill like the golf swing requires from the student a sustained 117 effort at quality practice and training. The instructors realized that a small minority of students will actually commit themselves to the necessary practice regimen. As Shirley explained: When I’m teaching adults I try to tell them that their mind knows what I’m trying to tell them, but their bodies do notm People really need to take more than just a few lessonsmand that is a common problem in teaching, that they cannot practice often enough for their bodies to learn what I am trying to get them to do. Shirley addressed the need for regular and frequent practice in order for significant improvements to occur, like those she had observed in her regular students. Teaching my returning students is wonderful, because when I tell them to do something, their bodies do react totally the way I want them to. Like when I teach my lessons with the community college class...I know that I can get some of those students hitting it better just because they have more experience. Traci also recognized the nature of this problem. She explained that the lack of sufficient practice time would often undermine the efforts of beginning golfers. I think the biggest thing is recognizing that the average person wants to improve their game, but they don’t really have enough time to do it. Other things in their life creep up, family, work, other intangibles get in their way. So I try to keep my teaching strategies toward things they can take with them. 118 The views shared here suggest that the expert instructors understand that expectations for a student’s success must be tempered by an acute awareness of the difficulties that the average student will encounter due to a lack of quality practice timel. Despite this problem, these four instructors continued to support each of their students’ efforts in the face of such predictably adverse conditions, searching for the type of learning experience that offered their students the greatest chance for improvement. 3. Overcoming learning difficulties: While the four instructors in this study shared a common understanding of many of the problems students encounter, they held somewhat divergent philosophical views on how to deal with these problems. For example, with the problem of the unrealistic expectations held by many of their students, some instructors were more demanding of their students, particularly if these students were ‘regular clients’. A few of Jan’s students, for example, had committed to him for an on-going series of lessons. He felt justified, therefore, in prescribing major changes in their swing mechanics. At the same time, however, he would caution them about the inherent difficulty of the learning 1The second component (B) of pedagogical content knowledge includes the teacher’s knowledge of the student understanding (i.e., student’s conceptions and/or misconceptions of the full swing). 119 tasks he had just prescribed. He offered this thought to an adult student, who indicated that she was becoming frustrated at her lack of progress, despite her intense practice routine. If I can offer any solace to you, it’s that, as we get older, the process of learning neurological motor skills, like the kinesiological movements of the golf swing that are so complex, becomes very difficult because there are so many moving parts and so many things we have to check and account formand there's a lot of things to think about. So I do empathize with youm Jan helped another student make an important distinction between the two separate learning processes that he labeled training and practice. Let’s distinguish between training and practicing,” he tells her. Training is a total disregard for the outcome of the shot while we’re out here on the range. Training is an all-out assault on the mechanics that you want to learn. When you play, or if you decide to practice, practice is really trying to maintain good ball flightmin any way, shape, or form possible. Training means you can top shots and have mis-hits as long as you have the right mechanics. Dan explained that he was hesitant to prescribe large-scale mechanical changes and full-swing overhauls for people who, in his opinion, were not likely to commit to the necessary training regimen to ingrain those fundamental swing changes. I’ll say, ‘OK, these are the things that are important. We want to impact the ball this way. Can 120 you do that?’ So I want to reinforce the things that he does right. You knowma guy can have less than a perfect swing method but if he really believes in it, and he trusts it, then he’s gonna be twice as good as a guy who isn’t as committed to his swing. Dan showed an understanding for his students as they struggled to acquire a new movement or make a change in their swing pattern. He also made sure they understood the rationale for any prescribed change in their swing. After asking one student to alter his grip position on the club, Dan tried to reassure him: I know that feels bad, but if you could imagine that this grip won't always feel that Tracible. You know, at first, when I change a person's hand, I have all the empathy in the world for that ‘cause I know that it makes a person feel distracted, but I feel like you do need to adjust that (grip) to get you into a more natural position so the club can just flow... The process of learning a complex motor skill like a golf swing can be very frustrating for the average golfer. The swing motion involves a coordinated, rhythmic movement, one that needs to be ‘grooved’, or habitualized via repetitive practice. The expert teachers in this study fully understood the many difficulties inherent in this process, and they often played the role of cheerleader for their students. They offered a good deal of counseling or coaching in their lessons, providing emotional support and 121 encouragement when the difficulties became a source of frustration to them. These instructors had their own strategies for sustaining student interest and optimism in the face of repeated failure. Dan showed these strengths, as he demonstrated a unique talent for providing timely encouragement to his students, often exhorting them to greater achievement than they believed possible. He demonstrated this ability several times over the course of a day. In one instance, Dan seemed to recognize that his student was struggling a bit with learning to achieve a new impact position. I hope this is not too elementary, but what we're going to do is to build something from its most basic point, something we can build on, I hope... His student interrupted, "Believe me. I'm ready to try anything right now." OK good...because you'll be able to do it. I mean, I know you'll be able to! I've got to make you want to do it, and I’ve got to help you with the right movements but I really believe, if I'm capable of teaching it, that you can do it! Dan went on to explain the details of the movement, implementing a drill in which he challenged his student to re-learn a part of his swing while using a new grip position. Another of Traci's strategies was to redirect her students’ attention away from the occasional ‘whiffed’ or 122 topped shot by responding with a comment that was unrelated to the errant swing. She explained that she did not want her students thinking about these inevitable errors. Instead, she would find an alternative thought upon which they could focus. These were usually positive swing thoughts or they might even be thoughts about topics unrelated to golf. Category C. The third category of the PCK model includes the teacher’s knowledge of curriculum and course design, knowledge of resources available for teaching the subject matter, and knowledge of learning progressions associated with the skill(s) and concepts involved. Curriculum resources typically include such items as books, equipment, and teaching aids. Answers were sought to the following questions: 1. What conceptions or theories of the golf swing are held by these instructors? 2. What resources (books, manuals, videos) do these experts use to help them understand and teach the full swing? 3. What knowledge do these experts have about skill progressions associated with the full swing? 1. Full swing theories: The breadth of information available today on golf “swing mechanics” is overwhelming. A scan of the available resources on golf instruction (PGA Teaching Manual, 2000) reveals that there are literally thousands of books, 123 manuals, periodicals, videos, web sites, research articles, Master’s Degree theses (17), and doctoral dissertations (41) pertaining to the sport of golf. The majority of these resources contain instructional information on the fundamentals of the full swing. A cable television channel was recently created that is devoted exclusively to the sport of golf, and a substantial portion of its programming content features full swing lessons. The sheer volume of information available to golfers today actually poses a dilemma for many of them. The overabundance of technical information available about the golf swing can actually serve to confuse the average golfer. This is especially true when the expert advice is being offered by individuals who hold vastly different philosophical views on the swing. The more time a student invests in seeking answers to his/her particular swing problem, the more confused s/he is likely to become. This problem is created by the existence of so many competing theoretical views of the golf swing today. As explained in the third case study, there are a number of theories or schools of thought about the golf swing. So it was not a surprise in this study to discover differences in opinion among the four expert instructors regarding their conceptions of the full golf swing. These differences 124 ultimately influenced the character of the learning experience for their students, leading to different instructional approaches by the four instructors as they worked with a diversity of students. One of the implications of this finding for the average golf student is that s/he should attempt to locate an instructor whose swing conception and teaching philosophy provide a reasonable match for their unique learning needs and characteristics. The match between the student’s learning style, or preferences, and the philosophical approach of the instructor is an important factor in the ultimate success of the experience. 2. Resources USed: Resources used by these experts to help them understand and teach the full swing included the Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA) Teaching Manual (2000) and the PGA Specialty Certification Program Candidate Manual (1998). These publications provide a comprehensive description of the full swing and its fundamental components. Another source of curriculum knowledge for each of these instructors was accumulated wisdom that had been passed on to them by their mentors when they were novice golf instructors. Each of the four 125 experts spoke at length about the tremendous influence that certain individuals had upon their teaching philosophy. In Jan’s case, a significant portion of his knowledge of the full swing had been translated into print, and shared with his students via an instructional manual. 3. Skill progressions: Each of the instructors demonstrated a working knowledge of sequential learning progressions designed to improve their students' swings in the most efficient manner possible. Dan and Jan both used drills that involved partial swings, or slow—motion swings. These drills were designed to teach the proper feel of the swing at certain points. Another example of a skill progression was demonstrated in the instructors’ strategic ‘club selection’. All of the instructors followed the same general protocol in terms of club selection. They typically asked their students to begin the lesson by swinging a short iron, usually the seven-iron. The seven- iron was much easier to control than the clubs with longer shafts, and it provided ample loft to get the ball airborne, an important issue for beginning golfers. Following a segment of practice with the 7-iron, the instructors would then progressively challenge their 126 students with the longer-shafted clubs, reverting back to a shorter club should difficulties arise. The strategic use of golf tees by these instructors was another way for them to control the difficulty of their student’s learning task. They insisted that their novice students use tees when hitting from the grass practice tees, inserting them into the ground at progressively lower heights as their students learned to strike the ball more consistently. The instructors knew that by teeing the ball higher, they would effectively reduce the difficulty of the task at hand, enhancing their students’ chances of success. This small adjustment became especially important when a student needed to alter some aspect of his/her swing motion, thus disrupting his/her accustomed rhythm and causing mis-hits or whiffed shots. The instructors would progressively raise or lower the height of the tee to accommodate each golfers' skill level. Categgry D. The fourth category of the PCK model includes the teacher’s knowledge of instructional strategies, representations, and materials for teaching the golf swing (Grossman, 1990). Because the mastery of the golf swing involves learning in both the cognitive and psychomotor domains, consideration was given to those 127 strategies aimed at teaching across both of these domains. Answers were sought to the following two questions: 1. What teaching strategies, verbal representations, metaphors, and/or other expressions are used by expert instructors to promote increased understanding of the full swing by their students? 2. What specific drills, instructional materials, and/or teaching aids are used to convey the kinesthetic feel associated with correctly performing the full swing? 1. Teaching for Uhderstanding— As we learned in the third case study, numerous conceptual models for understanding the golf swing have emerged and evolved over the years, as have pedagogical strategies for teaching those swing models. Therefore, one can find a wide array of effective pedagogical strategies in use today. Some instructors will adhere tightly to a particular swing model, while other instructors will adopt a more flexible approach, striving to assist their students in finding the swing motion that best suits their unique abilities and characteristics. These alternative approaches have led to teaching strategies which vary accordingly. Several examples of these strategies are presented in Appendix G. In summary, they are described as follows. verbal strategies employed by these expert instructors included explanations, instructional cues, analogies, metaphors, anecdotal stories, and even ‘pep talks’ which 128 were all aimed at creating positive mental images in the minds of the students. Some of these strategies were planned and appeared to be part of a lesson routine, e.g., explanations and cues. For the most part, however, the use of metaphors, analogies, and anecdotal stories seemed unrehearsed, enacted in response to situational demands, and requiring the experts to improvise and react spontaneously. Visual display of the students’ own swing motions was enhanced by the use of portable camcorder systems and computer software programs which gave students immediate feedback about their own performance and also offered videotaped demonstrations of model swings by PGA professionals. Demonstrations by the instructors were also used for the same purposes. 2. Teaching Kinesthetic Feel: Among the many teaching activities used by the expert instructors to teach their students proper ‘feel’ were an assortment of swing drills. Examples of these drills are described in Appendix G. One teaching activity used primarily with novice students by three of the four instructors was the physical manipulation of their students’ bodies and/or their golf club. By actually taking hold of an arm, shoulders, hips, or the club, the 129 instructors would control their students’ movements. As a result, the students would experience the desired feel for the correct movement. The instructors often positioned their body parts to foster the correct full swing motion. Materials used by these instructors included a variety of instructional aids designed to teach certain movements and develop within the student a particular ‘feel’ for the movement. A list of these resources is included in Appendix G. Summary of Pedagogical Content Knowledge In summary, these instructors demonstrated their rich knowledge across all four dimensions of Grossman’s PCK model. Summarized, they included knowledge in the following areas: Category A. General Orientation, Knowledge of Purposes: Teachers exhibited and/or understood: 1. multiple diagnostic skills and strategies. 2. acute perceptual awareness. 3. effective relationship skills. Category B. Knowledge of Student Understanding, Conceptions, Misconceptions, Learning Difficulties: Teachers understood Teachers exhibited and/or understood: students’ unrealistic expectations. accurate observations, diagnoses, and analyses. engaging student in process of self-assessment. student misunderstandings of the motor skill learning process. editor—I 130 5. awareness of conceptual and biomechanical difficulties. effective training and practice regimens. how to provide emotional support and encouragement. redirection of students’ focus away from errors. persistence in the face of adversity. \OCDQON Category C. Curricular Knowledge: Teachers exhibited and/or understood: .competing theoretical views. .various publications, resources. .importance of their mentors’ influence. .use of sequential learning progressions: a. club selection in training and practice settings. b. use of golf tees in training and practice settings. c. drill sequences. ibUJNl-J Category D. Instructional Strategies: Teachers exhibited and/or understood: verbal strategies — representations and feedback. visual display techniques. demonstrations by instructor or by others on video. swing drills. physical manipulation. instructional aids. ChUlibLAJNI-J In the following section, these findings are synthesized with others, and Grossman’s PCK model is critically examined for its applicability as a heuristic for understanding PCK in golf instruction. Synthesis of Findings A synthesis of the findings emerging from this study of expert golf instructors’ PCK led to the following conclusions. First, the construct of PCK conceived by 131 Shulman (1986) proved to be a useful heuristic device for guiding the description and interpretation of the pedagogical practice of golf instructors. Second, the data gathered in this study suggest a substantial amount of integration and varying degrees of mutual influence between each of the four PCK components. These phenomena are not addressed in Grossman’s (1990) representation of PCK. Third, the four PCK components, in turn, are also influenced by the complementary forms of teacher knowledge as described in the larger Teacher Knowledge Framework (Figure 1), i.e., knowledge of context, general pedagogical knowledge, and subject matter knowledge. Thus, the PCK of the instructor cannot be completely understood as a distinct entity, without consideration given to the other forms of teacher knowledge depicted in Grossman’s Teacher Knowledge Model (Figure 1). Fourth, the emergence of salient themes from the data cast a different light on the complex nature of these instructors’ pedagogical expertise. The data reveal a picture of expertise as a multifaceted amalgam, or blend, of pedagogical knowledge and skills. These four findings were synthesized, and led to a proposed modification of the portion of Grossman’s Teacher Knowledge Model that depicts 132 PCK. These modifications also reflect the nature of the subject matter at hand — the full swing in golf. The Pedagogical Content Knowledge Model In general, Grossman’s conception of PCK proved useful in the examination and analysis of pedagogical practice by expert golf instructors. The data gathered were organized according to the four components of PCK defined in Grossman’s model (Figure 1). As a heuristic device for explaining and interpreting PCK as an important dimension of teaching expertise, the Grossman model served its purpose. However, a few shortcomings of this model became apparent during the research process. First, it did not offer an adequate depiction of the relationships between the four PCK components and their relative influence upon each other. Second, this model did not account for the important effect of each instructor’s overarching orientations toward teaching the golf swing. These overarching orientations and the relationships between PCK components are discussed below and included in the revised PCK model. Relationships Between PCK Components Throughout the data collection and analysis process, repeated instances of linkages, interconnections, and relationships between the four PCK components were 133 discovered. These repeated findings argue for the existence of an interdependent relationship between the four major components. This relationship is depicted in a revised PCK model conceived for golf instruction (Figure 3). Overarching Orientation Toward Teaching Golf A. Knowledge of purposes for teaching at different skill levels C. Knowledge of the golf swing model; other curricular understanding and assessment D. Knowledge of teaching strategies Teaching facts, concepts, principles Kinesthetic awareness, or ‘feel’ Figure 3. A MOdel Illustrating Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Golf Instruction. In practice, the four knowledge components were complementary, overlapping, and had mutual influence upon each other. For example, when adapting their instruction 134 to suit the unique needs of their individual students, (Component B) these instructors drew upon their extensive knowledge or repertoire of instructional strategies (Component D) to create a learning experience that fit the situation. For example, Sheila was able to adapt her instructional approach to accommodate an unorthodox follow- through motion by one of her older students. She recognized that, although the follow—through of this particular student did not reflect contemporary views about the ideal finish position, this particular student was uninterested in making significant changes to her swing mechanics. Sheila needed to weigh the needs of her student against what she knew about the mechanics underlying the ‘ideal finish position’ and make a decision that would satisfy her student and maximize her opportunities for success on the golf course. The existence of knowledge in one category, therefore, was often interrelated with knowledge in at least one other category. This finding would support previous research which describes the act of teaching as a highly complex cognitive activity in which teachers must apply their knowledge from across multiple domains (Leinhart & Greeno, 1986; Wilson, & Shulman, 1987). The expert teachers in this study demonstrated their ability to synthesize their PCK 135 quickly and act appropriately upon it. In practice, therefore, an expert teacher’s PCK can be conceived as a composite of these associated knowledge components. PCK Within the Teacher Knowledge Framwork The findings of this investigation lend support to the general structure of Grossman’s Teacher Knowledge Framework. Specifically, the study of these expert instructors revealed relationships between the four-part PCK construct and the complementary forms of teacher knowledge that Grossman identified and depicted in her Framework of Teacher Knowledge (Figure 1), i.e., knowledge of context, knowledge of general pedagogy, and knowledge of subject matter. These other forms of knowledge must be considered when examining and interpreting PCK. For example, there were a number of special circumstances surrounding the practice of each of the instructors that contributed to shaping the unique character of their pedagogy. In the cases of Jan and Dan, the mere presence of the video equipment altered the learning experience for their students in substantive ways. The instructors’ own practice was also influenced by the availability of these tools. Thus, each of the four learning environments in this study possessed its own distinctive contextual characteristics which interacted in 136 some unique way with the teacher’s PCK to shape the overall teaching and learning experience. Overarching Orientations Toward Teaching Golf Throughout the course of this research study, a few salient themes became evident to the investigator. These themes were integrated with the PCK data gathered, and corroborated with previous research findings in the analytical process. One important finding that emerged from this analytical process is that each of the instructors displayed his/her own unique overarching orientation toward his/her teaching practice. This orientation became more distinguishable over the course of the investigation. Teachers’ orientations toward teaching reflect their general way of viewing or conceptualizing teaching their subject matter. These orientations are shaped in part by their knowledge, beliefs, and values (Ennis, 1994) and are reflected in their general style and approach to teaching (Mosston & Ashworth, 1990). A range of orientations toward teaching in sport and physical education settings has been identified in the literature. More specifically, the orientations of these four golf instructors were likely shaped by their life experiences, including playing experience, professional development opportunities, 137 apprenticeships, and their own teaching experiences. It is not surprising, then, that this study revealed the existence of a wide range of diverse teaching styles and instructional orientations among even a small group (4) of expert instructors. As depicted in the PCK for Golf Model (see Figure 3), an instructor's overarching orientation toward teaching will exert influence on every other aspect of his/her PCK as well as his/her practice. As described in the third case study, there are a number of alternative conceptions of the golf swing which lend themselves to contrasting teaching approaches. Jan and Shirley both took different approaches to teaching the golf swing, yet they had each experienced a substantial degree of success2 with their contrasting approaches. It is worth noting that the four expert instructors’ teaching approaches did not always produce the same results for all students. As Jan shared in his interview, he was not averse to abruptly canceling a lesson if he felt that he and his student were not making progress toward their goals. Shirley had also found that she had greater success with certain kinds of students. So it appears that an 2 Success in this instance is defined as student satisfaction with the lessons. 138 influencing factor in the ultimate success of a golf lesson may lie in finding the appropriate match between the instructor's teaching orientation and the student’s needs and characteristics, with the onus on the instructor to identify whom they can help and whom they need to refer elsewhere. Multidimensionality of Pedagogical Expertise Previous research studies on the topic of expert teaching have characterized pedagogical expertise as having a multidimensional character (Dodds, 1994; Housner & French, 1994). This view posits that a definition of expert teaching must reflect a much broader view of teaching, embracing the multidimensionality of teaching. In this view, teachers are likely to demonstrate their own pedagogical strengths, but not necessarily in the same ways or to the same extent over time. You’s (1999) study presented five dimensions of pedagogical expertise (cognitive, clinical, technical, improvisational, and humanistic)3. 3Multiple dimensions of expertise (You, 1999): In the cognitive dimension of expertise, the expert teacher displays extensive knowledge and skills, a command of pedagogical content knowledge, and skillful decision-making. In the clinical dimension of expertise, the expert teacher displays an enhanced ability to diagnose problems, to represent fundamental problems to students, and uses conditional strategies for solving problems. 139 The findings of this study support this multidimensional view of pedagogical expertise. Although this particular investigation was focused on one aspect of teacher knowledge, PCK, which can be placed within the cognitive dimension of teaching expertise, various other dimensions of expertise surfaced throughout the course of the study. Reconstructing PCK Model for Golf Instruction The following framework is proposed for a reconstruction of the PCK model for expert golf instructors. Building upon the work of Grossman’s study of English teachers (1990) and Magnussen, Krajcik, and Borko’s (1999) study of science teaching, it suggests a few modifications to earlier PCK models, taking into account those particular characteristics that are unique to the teaching of a complex sport skill such as the golf swing. This framework In the technical dimension of expertise, the teacher displays many behavioral indicators of ‘effective teaching’, e.g. establishing routines, planning systematically, teaching approach, , a variety of assessment techniques, use of metaphor, and using reflective practices. Fourth, the improvisational dimension of expertise in teaching dance embraced three themes in this study: flexible teaching, spontaneous teaching, and creative learning environment and equipment. Fifth, the humanistic dimension of expertise in teaching dance, the expert dance teacher revealed student-centered teaching, teaching dance techniques, teaching accountability, and teaching as a ‘mission. 140 consists of the same four general components which comprise Grossman’s model, but a fifth component is included which accounts for an instructors’ overarching orientations toward teaching the golf swing. Those components are: A. Overarching orientations toward teaching the golf swing. B. Knowledge of purposes and goals for teaching at different levels. C. Knowledge of student understanding and assessment. D. Knowledge of the golf swing model (and curricular knowledge). E. Knowledge of teaching strategies. The proposed framework is depicted in Figure 3, and is described conceptually below. A. Overarching Orientations Toward Teaching the Golf Swing 1. Philosophical approach to teaching, including pedagogical beliefs and assumptions. 2. Predominant teaching style(s). 3. Theoretical conception of their particular swing model. A conceptual framework describing pedagogical content knowledge in golf instruction would be incomplete without addressing the teacher’s overarching orientations toward teaching golf. Magnussen, et.al, (1999) define an orientation as a general way of viewing or conceptualizing one’s teaching, to include a teacher’s existing knowledge and beliefs about teaching, his/her preferred or predominant teaching style, and his/her theoretical conception of the golf swing. The significance of this 141 overarching component is that it acknowledges the influence of one’s practical knowledge and philosophical beliefs. An orientation toward teaching can serve as a “conceptual map” that guides instructional decisions about issues such as prioritizing daily objectives, making choices about instructional activities, selecting of curriculum resources, and assessing student learning (Borko & Putnam, 1996) . The instructors in this study had developed their own particular teaching style that was founded upon their conception of the full swing and their own understanding of how best to teach it - an understanding that had been shaped and refined over many years of playing and teaching experience. The instructors also referred to the important influence of their mentors upon their development as teachers. The amalgamation of all of these experiences and influences helped to shape their overarching orientations toward teaching. B. Knowledge of purposes and goals for teaching 1. Knowledge of purposes, goals for students at different levels of ability (Beg, Int., Adv.). 2. Adapting teaching goals for different skill levels. 3. Accommodating the range of student abilities, needs, and interests. 142 This component includes the instructor’s knowledge of the purposes of instruction for students of various levels of skill, ability, and interest. Extensive knowledge in this area enables the teacher to provide meaningful experiences for a diverse population of students. Ultimately, the match between the student’s learning needs, or preferences, and the philosophical approach of the instructor becomes an important factor in determining the ultimate success of the learning experience. C. Knowledge of student’s understanding of the full swing 1. Knowledge of cognitive conceptions, misconceptions, or other difficulties students may have when learning the full swing. 2. Knowledge of motor skill acquisition process, including principles of feedback, practice, training, etc. 3. Knowledge of skill assessment techniques, including direct observation and video analysis techniques. The modifications to the Grossman model are proposed in this section in order to account for the instructors’ knowledge of the learning process across both the cognitive and psychomotor domains. This PCK element includes knowledge of the common problems that students are most likely to encounter, and knowledge of the popular myths and misconceptions about the golf swing that exist, e.g., “You lifted your head”, or “Keep your left arm straight”. This knowledge component also includes the instructors’ 143 understanding of motivational factors underlying a student’s participation, and knowledge of the ‘emotional highs’ or ‘lows’ that can affect student learning. The ability to encourage students to persist in the face of repeated failure or to risk making a change in their swing can be difficult in the face of anticipated failure. Dan provided an example of his capacity in this area via an occasional “pep talk”. Each instructor displayed a deep understanding of the nature of the learning process as specifically related to the golf swing. Repeated references by all four instructors to student involvement and engagement by the students in the learning process suggested an understanding of learning as an “active process of knowledge and skill acquisition” on the part of each student. Their teaching practices supported these statements, particularly those of Dan and Jan, who worked intensively with their students to help them analyze their swings with the video equipment. D. Knowledge of the golf swing model and other curricular knowledge 1. Knowledge of various full swing models. 2. Knowledge of the specific swing model employed and associated manuals, books, videos. 3. Knowledge of swing-related skill progressions. 144 This component includes knowledge of a wide range of curricular approaches (full swing models) as well as detailed knowledge of the preferred swing model taught by the instructor and related curriculum materials. It also includes the knowledge about both horizontal and vertical progressions for the subject matter. Horizontal curricula include closely-related skills and knowledge, e.g. ‘short game’ concepts and skills. Vertical progressions are progressions in skills and concepts specifically related to the full swing. E. Knowledge of instructional strategies and representations for teaching content 1. Knowledge of specific learning aCtivities and drills designed to teach movement patterns and kinesthetic feel. 2. Knowledge of instructional strategies or representations designed to teach facts, concepts, principles. 3. Knowledge of instructional materials, aids, and equipment. This final component includes all instructional strategies used by the instructor to help his/her students understand important ideas, concepts, and principles. It also includes strategies designed to promote kinesthetic awareness or ‘feel’ for the swing and to help them develop the most efficient swing motion. 145 Summary In summary, the examination of the four PCK components cannot be accurately interpreted without recognition of the interrelationship of these knowledge components in practice. Nor can they be fully understood without an acknowledgement of the overarching teaching orientations of these instructors. While Grossman’s model serves as a useful conceptual guide, its graphical representation does not account for the mutual influence each of these components have upon one another. A meaningful interpretation of expert teaching must acknowledge the complex nature of teachers’ PCK and how the multiple strands of knowledge are truly woven together. This assertion is supported by descriptions of expertise in the literature, i.e., that experts have sophisticated and elaborate knowledge of class management, subject matter, pedagogical principles, and curriculum development (Rink, French, Lee, Solomon, & Lynn, 1994; Ennis, Mueller, & Zhu, 1991); and they have the ability to synthesize their knowledge of a skill or concept into meaningful information for their students to comprehend and use (Siedentop & Eldar, 1994). Having multiple and alternative ways of representing information and skills helps the expert teacher assist their students in 146 understanding new concepts and acquiring new skills. Finally, the overarching orientations of these expert instructors held influence over every aspect of his/her PCK and teaching practice. These orientations were highly individualistic and personal in nature. Therefore, they are resistant to codification or formal analysis. However, they did emerge in this investigation as a significant factor in shaping the pedagogical expertise of these expert instructors. Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations Building the Knowledge Base for Teaching A great deal of descriptive data was collected during this study that did not find their way into the final presentation. The knowledge and teaching repertoires of expert teachers are too rich and extensive to be fully described and presented via text format alone. An inherent difficulty in attempting to interpret teachers’ practice is that often the individual cannot articulate all that they know about teaching. While the researcher has attempted to present the best evidence to be found that describes their PCK, much of their knowledge remains, in fact, inert, or as Schon (1983) described it, “knowledge in action". Therefore, in order to make this knowledge more easily 147 accessible to future teachers, it is recommended that future sport pedagogy researchers create a digital video database of teaching strategies and representations of PCK across different sport and physical activities. Teaching vignettes could be captured, edited, and categorized according to the PCK model. The subtleties, nuances, and skillful timing of these instructors in their practice would be displayed to offer robust representations of the skill and artistry of expert teachers. This video database would represent an evolving knowledge base for golf instruction, one that would allow novice instructors to view effective teaching strategies specific to golf, while also considering contextual influences and other forms of teacher knowledge. New technologies are now available which make this a worthwhile undertaking. The PCK conceptual framework could evolve further in ways that would give younger teachers a valuable way to think about developing their own competency as a teacher. Exploring Multidimensionality in Expert Teaching Research efforts exploring the nature of expertise in teaching are broadening in scope. The focus on teachers’ behaviors, knowledge, or cognitive processes is widening to include other dimensions of teachers’ practice. Theories such Yinger’s (1987) view of teaching as a form of 148 improvisational performance or You’s (1999) assertions about the multidimensionalityr3 of pedagogical expertise deserve further exploration. An important implication of this study of teachers’ practice and PCK lies in the discovery of the interplay between their knowledge, their beliefs (which impact both what and how teachers teach), and their actions. In fact, pedagogical expertise has been conceptualized as the synthesis of teachers’ knowledge and beliefs (Ennis, 1994). The beliefs of teachers impact how teachers design teaching and learning objectives, how teachers make instructional decisions, how teachers organize curriculum, how teachers employ instructional strategies and activities in their practice to achieve the learning tasks, and how teachers evaluate student learning (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Ennis, 1994). In other words, teachers’ beliefs about teaching determine when, how, and why teachers utilize their knowledge to structure their teaching practices (Ennis, 1994). Both research and common sense alike dictate that the nature of expertise in teaching can best be investigated and understood when actual teaching practices are carefully examined and those beliefs about teaching examined more completely. This interplay between the 3 See definition on pages 138-139. 149 beliefs, knowledge, and orientations of sport instructors should be investigated further. Constructivist Perspectives on Teaching Practice Historically, effective teaching practice among physical education teachers and sport instructors has been defined by the general principles and guidelines derived from process—product research, a body of research that assumes a behavioral view of the teaching/learning process. Therefore, traditional conceptions of sport and physical education instructional expertise reflect this behavioral perspective. Researchers have discovered, however, that teachers holding different beliefs about teaching and learning will establish different kinds of teaching practices (Yager, 1991), and teachers will tend to teach in accordance with their own beliefs about how students learn (Ennis, 1994). The call for educational reform in recent years has given rise to alternative conceptions of teaching and learning. Constructivist learning theory‘ has been increasingly influential in shaping teaching practices 4 Constructivism theory characterizes learning as an active process in which the individual actively seeks out and constructs information in relation to the task at hand and the environmental conditions prevailing at any given time (Kirk & Macdonald, 1998). Constructivist learning theory is concerned with the connections that learners make between context and their existing theories or prior experience with a given task or phenomenon (Anderson, 1994). 150 across all subject areas during the past decade (Rovegno, 1992; Florio—Ruane & Lensmire, 1990; Chen, 1997). However, research on expert teaching in physical education and sport settings has paid relatively little attention to constructivist-oriented teaching practices of expert teachers. In one study of expert and novice physical education teachers’ use of constructivist-oriented teaching practices, significant differences were found (Chen, 1997). The constructivist perspective holds promise for the development of instructional strategies that would focus on teaching for understanding, with an eye toward situational factors that may promote or inhibit learning (Kirk et al., 1999). If used to complement to the predominantly behavioral perspective on learning found in research on physical education and sport, constructivist learning theory may offer an important alternative perspective for understanding the complex nature of the teaching and learning process (Anderson, 1994). Future investigations into the teaching practices of expert sport instructors should explore this theoretical perspective. Sport-specific Research Future studies of sport-related PCK must also consider the unique nature and characteristics of the specific sport or physical activity being studied. Attempts to generalize 151 pedagogical research findings across the diverse array of sports/physical activities may contribute to an oversimplified view of the teaching process. The reduction of the inherently complex and multidimensional act of teaching to a set of generic pedagogical guidelines is analogous to recommending generic pedagogical strategies for all academic subject matter. Future research on expert teaching and teachers’ PCK should limit its scope to the specific sport or physical activity being studied. Finally, it is hoped that the results of this investigation will add a new perspective to the existing knowledge base for golf instruction, and will stimulate further research to uncover and describe sport/activity-specific pedagogical content knowledge. 152 APPENDICES 153 APPENDIX A Instructors’ Informed Consent Form 154 APPENDIX A Instructors’ Informed Consent Form You are being asked to participate in this doctoral research study by Robert H. Benham, who is examining the teaching practice of expert golf instructors. The investigator will collect qualitative data from participant’s responses to interview questions, observations of the instructors’ teaching sessions, and from analyzing pertinent documentation. The interviews and instructional sessions will be video taped in order to supplement the investigator’s field notes. All information obtained from this research will remain confidential. The names and teaching programs of all participants will remain anonymous. Should this study be published, instructors’ names and institutions will not be identified in the study without written approval. The privacy of all participants will be protected to the maximum extent allowable by law. Participants are under no obligation to the investigator and may terminate involvement in the study at any time. Additionally, if participants have questions regarding their role and rights as a subject of research, or if they have any concerns about the research, they may contact the Institutional Review Board (IRB) directly. Their address is: David E. Wright, Ph.D. Chair, University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects Michigan State University (517) 355-2180 I hereby consent to voluntarily participate and cooperate in this study. Participant’s Name Date 155 APPENDIX B Students’ Informed Consent Form 156 Appendix B Students’ Informed Consent Form You are being asked to participate in this doctoral research study by Robert H. Benham, who is examining the teaching practice of three expert golf instructors. The investigator will video tape a few lessons in order to supplement his field notes. There is a chance that the video camera might capture images of several students during this process. All information obtained from this research (including videotapes) will remain confidential. The names of students and teaching programs will remain anonymous. The video tape will be viewed only by the investigator and the instructor. It will be kept in a secure location at all times. Should this study be published, instructors’ and students’ names and institutions will not be identified in the study without written approval. The privacy of all participants will be protected to the maximum extent allowable by law. Participants are under no obligation to the investigator and may terminate involvement in the study at any time. Participants may contact the researcher in the event that they want to discuss any questions about the research. (Contact Info: Robert Benham, 1825 N. Harrison, E.Lansing, MI 48823; (517)351-9438; benhamroOmsu.edu) Additionally, if participants have questions regarding their role and rights as a subject of research, or if they have any concerns about the research, they may contact the Institutional Review Board (IRB) directly. Their address is: David E. Wright, Ph.D. Chair, University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects Michigan State University (517) 355-2180 I hereby consent to voluntarily participate and cooperate in this study. Participant’s Name Date 157 APPENDIX C Letter of Introduction and Invitation 158 APPENDIX C Letter of Introduction and Invitation May, 2001 Dear Instructor, I am a doctoral candidate at Michigan State University in the Department of Kinesiology. As partial fulfillment for a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Kinesiology, I am working on my dissertation study. This study will be a qualitative analysis of expert golf instructors. You and a few other instructors are being invited to participate in this study. The purpose of this study is to observe the teaching practice of expert golf instructors and explore their pedagogical content knowledge by examining planning strategies, teaching plans, and post-lesson thoughts and reflections. Pedagogical content knowledge has been defined as that special knowledge that is the unique domain of teachers, i.e., how one effectively teaches certain skills to particular learners in particular contexts. I would like to observe a few group lessons that you may be offering to either beginning or advanced-beginning students and that might be scheduled in May and June, 2001. In order to capture these lessons for subsequent analysis, I will need to video tape them. This method will involve the incidental videotaping of your students, and I will seek their permission beforehand to do this. The videos will be seen only by you and I. Your participation is strictly voluntary, and all information about you will remain confidential. Your name and the name of your company will not be identified in this study without your permission. The results of this study will add to the knowledge base about expert golf instruction, and they may be published in the future. If so, any decisions about identifying you or your company will be left to your discretion. Thank you for your consideration. I will call you in a few days to discuss your interest and the study in more detail. I look forward to having you participate in this study in the near future. Sincerely, Robert H. Benham Doctoral Candidate Michigan State University Department of Kinesiology 159 APPENDIX D Pre-Observation Interview Guide 160 Appendix D Pre-Observation Interview Guide Biogrephical Questions l . 2. 6. How did you first become interested in golf? How much golf have you played professionally? .How did you become a teacher of golf? .How long have you been teaching golf professionally? .Are there any people who were particularly influential to you as a novice golf instructor? What role did your mentors play in your development? Philosophical Questions 1. 2. Could you comment on your own teaching philosophy? What philosophical views do you hold about teaching the full swing to beginners and intermediate students? .How did you arrive at this philosophy? .What do you think makes for an expert golf instructor? .How is expertise in teaching golf developed? .How do you continue to grow professionally or improve in your own teaching practice? PCK Questions (Component C — Curricular Knowledge) 1. 2. Tell me about your full swing philosophy. What are its basic tenets? How do you break down the skill for beginners? What (progressive) drills do you employ? Do you use any instructional resources (books, etc.)? 161 APPENDIX E Post-Observation Interview Guide 162 Appendix E Post-observation Interview Guide Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Component A l. 2. How do your goals for teaching vary for students at different skill levels? How do you accommodate the wide range of skills and abilities among your students? How do you address the needs of the individual student? Pedagogical Content Knowledge:Component B H OJ How do you assess your students’ skills or knowledge? What are the classic problems or dilemmas related to teaching the full swing that you contend with? How do you deal with this? How do you counteract the natural mistakes or most common errors made by your students? When you see several mistakes at once, it might be tempting to correct all of them. What are the most important flaws to correct first? Dimensions of Teaching and Learning N What stands out about the lesson I observed today? Do you feel particularly good about any aspect of the lesson? What? Why? Did any aspect of the lesson particularly concern you? What? Why? Impact of the investigator on the research 1. 2. Did my presence in your class have any effect on your teaching or your planning? If so, to what extent? Did your participation in this research project, in general, have any effect on your teaching or your planning? What effect? Probes that follow the initial questions will be generally non-