LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE IN RETURN Box to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE '1 1 1 91'1“]! JUL 1. U LUV 1381705 “(We 91 Ti E0072 age 0 5 2907 1;)ii‘a~ A 6/01 cJCIRC/DateDuo.p65—p.15 BARRIERS TO INTEGRATION OF TIME AND COST INFORMATION ACROSS ESTIMATING AND SCHEDULING DEPARTMENTS WITHIN CONSTRUCTION FIRMS By Reshma Sambare A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTERS OF SCIENCE Construction Management Program Department of Agricultural Engineering 2002 As imr exa iIlIE PTO infi mii mo 56h anc‘ Fin ind bef ofi ABSTRACT BARRIERS TO INTEGRATION OF TIME AND COST INFORMATION ACROSS ESTIMATING AND SCHEDULING DEPARTMENTS WITHIN CONSTRUCTION FIRMS By Reshma Sambare As the construction industry moves to use information technology as a part of its effort to improve efficiency, researchers, software vendors, and industry participants have examined approaches for integration of information. While, researchers have proposed integration models, few construction firms have used extensive integration systems. This project is focused on identifying barriers, which may discourage integration of information during the planning phase between estimating and scheduling departments in midsize commercial construction firms. As a part of the research, ten existing integration models were examined. The Appau model, which addressed some industry barriers, was selected and a data flow diagram was developed to illustrate the flow of information suggested by Appau. Twenty interviews of construction professionals were conducted, and along with the literature were used to identify industry perceptions of barriers. Finally, recommendations for overcoming barriers are made. Findings of the research indicated that varying contractual arrangements, a lack of analysis of business processes before adopting new technology, a lack of change management, and a lack of awareness of importance of integration were the most significant barriers to integration. @eJicateJ to my parents... iii Mroz thesis to tha valual The au constru researcl her coll. building Finally, I fatherly f l ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank and acknowledge her graduate advisor, Prof. Timothy Mrozowski, for providing continued support, guidance, and help, all throughout this thesis and the master’s program at Michigan State University. The author would also like to thank her committee members, Prof. William McCarthy and Dr. Matt Syal for their valuable time and input, which goes a long way in completing this research work. The author would like to thank all the faculty members and the staff in the department of construction management for their direct or indirect support and help in completing this research work. The author would like to acknowledge valuable support provided by all her colleagues at the Physical Plant field office at the Bio-Medical and Physical Sciences building project. Finally, the author would like to thank her parents for their love and support and her fatherly fi'iend for life, Trent, for his love and continuous support. iv LIST ' LIST ' LIST . CHAF INTRI 1.1 Int 1.] 1-8 Res TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Complexity in construction projects 1.1.2 Construction projects and integration 1.1.3 Information technology in construction 1.1.4 Cost and Time information flow in construction projects 1.2 Research scope 1.3 Model review 1.4 The Appau model 1.5 Problem statement 1.6 Need for finding out barriers to integration 1.7 Barriers to integration 1.8 Research objectives 1.9 Methodology 1.10 Expected output 1.11 Chapter summary and organization of thesis xi xii XV 10 ll 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 CHAPTE LITERA' 2.1 lntrod 2.4.1 Ti 2.4.2 0 2-5 Bar 2-6 Sur CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction 2.2. Integration models 2.2.1 Teicholz Model 2.2.2 Hendrickson Model 2.2.3 Ibbs and Kim Model 2.2.4 Work Packaging Model 2.2.5 Stone and Webster Model 2.2.6 Syal Model 2.2.7 Spencer Model 2.2.8 Abudayyeh / Rasdorf Model 2.2.9 Shi Model 2.2.10 Appau Model 2.3 Model Analysis 2.4 Integrated Software 2.4.1 Timberline Precision Primavera Integrator 2.4.2 Other Integrated Solutions 2.5 Barriers to Integration 2.6 Summary vi 22 22 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 28 29 29 3O 3O 31 32 35 3.4: CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 3 .2 Literature Review 3.2.1 Developing Questionnaires 3.2.2 Interview Methods 3.2.3 Open-ended Questions 3.3 Methodology 3.3.1 Literature Review 3.3.2 DFD characterizing the Appau model 3.3.3 Feedback fiom the industry personnel 3.3.4 Restructuring the DFD 3.4 Summary CHAPTER 4 THE APPAU MODEL AND DFD 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Selection criteria for the Appau model 4.2.1 Planning vs. controlling phase 4.2.2 Information flow 4.2.3 Conceptual / Mathematical models 4.2.4 Management structures in the construction industry 4.2.5 Organization culture vii 42 42 42 43 45 45 46 51 52 55 55 56 56 56 57 57 4.3T 4.4 D 4.5 E 4.6 P 4.7 L 4.8 I 4.91 4.10 4.11 4.2.6 Use of flow charts 4.3 The Appau model 4.4 DFD modeling technique 4.4.1 Data flow 4.4.2 Process 4.4.3 File 4.4.4 Source or Sink 4.4.5 Data dictionary 4.5 Developing a data flow diagram characterizing Appau’s integration concept 4.6 Processes in the Appau model 4.7 Leveling the processes 4.8 Developing the data flows 4.9 Integration of the processes 4.10 Benefits of developing a data flow diagram 4.11 Summary CHAPTER 5 DATA REPORTING 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Data Collection 5.3 Data Handling and Reporting 5.4 General Data Reporting 5.4.1 Company Demographics viii 57 57 59 6O 60 61 61 62 63 65 66 67 67 68 91 91 92 93 93 5.4.2 Personal Demographics 5.5. Specific Data Reporting 5.5.1 Vice Presidents 5.5.2 Estimators 5.5.3 Schedulers 5.5.4 Software Vendors 5.6 Overview of the Responses 5.7. Barriers 5.8 Summary CHAPTER 6 BARRIERS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Integration 6.3 Barriers to Integration 6.3.1 Organization Structure 6.3.2 Business Processes 6.3.3 Contractual Arrangements 6.3.4 Information Technology 6.3.5 People 6.3.6 General 6.4 Recommendations 6.4.1 Recommendations for Contractors ix 94 95 95 99 102 105 107 108 118 120 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 128 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 AP AP — ——‘ AP 6.4.2 Recommendations for Owners 6.4.3 Recommendations for Software Vendors 6.4.4 Recommendations for Researchers 6.5 Way to Integration 6.6 Restructuring the DFD 6.7 Summary CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Overview of the Report 7.3 Barriers to Integration 7.4 Recommendations 7.5 Conclusions 7.6 Limitations of the Research 7.7 Future Areas of Research 7.8 Summary REFERENCES APPENDIX I APPENDIX II APPENDIX III 135 136 137 138 139 143 164 164 166 167 169 173 174 175 177 183 187 190 1.1 6.1 Al-l A3-1 A3-3 A3-4 LIST OF TABLES Integration Models Barriers Matrix Data Dictionary Feedback from Vice Presidents Feedback from Estimators Feedback from Schedulers Feedback from Software Vendors xi 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 LIST OF FIGURES Circle of Integration Project Control Cycle Teicholz Model Hendrickson Model Ibbs / Kim Model Work Packaging Model Abudayyeh / Rasdorf Model Conceptual Model for Methodology Phases of the Appau Model Foundation Phase of the Modeling Process Cost / Time Phase of the Model Consolidate Schedule / Cost Estimate Integration Symbols Used to Represent the Integration Model Leveling of the Processes in DFD Characterizing the Appau Model DFD for the Appau Model DFD for Phase 1 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 1.1 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 1.1.2 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 1.2 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 1.2.] of the Appau Model DFD for Phase 2 of the Appau Model xii 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 DFD for Step 2.1 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 2.2 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 2.3 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 2.4 of the Appau Model DFD for Phase 3 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 3.1 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 3.1.2 of the Appau Model DFD for Step 3.2 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Phase 1 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 1.1 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 1.1.2 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 1.2 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 1.2.] of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Phase 2 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 2.1 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 2.2 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 2.3 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 2.4 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Phase 3 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 3.1 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 3.1.2 of the Appau Model Restructured DFD for Step 3.2 of the Appau Model xiii A2-l Database Input Form xiv CBS CAD CIC CM CSI DFD E-R ERP GC IAI IT LAN OOPS P3 SQL TGIF WBS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Architect — Engineer — Contractor Cost Breakdown Structure Computer Aided Design Computer Integrated Construction Construction Management Construction Specification Institute Data Flow Diagramming Entity-Relationship Enterprise Resource Planning General Contractor International Alliance of Interoperability Information Technology Knowledge Base Local Area Network Object Oriented Programming System Primavera Project Planner Resource Event Agent Structured Query Language Timberline Gold Interface Work Breakdown Structure Extensible Markup Language XV CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION Many participants in the construction industry are convinced of the advantages of using information technology, but have not been fully successfirl in its implementation, due to a variety of reasons (J agtap, 1998). The construction industry needs to consider managerial as well as technical issues when proposing and implementing information technology. Exciting new technologies are continuing to be developed but these advances may not be addressing some business practice issues. Change is always easier said than done; just being technologically enabled does not necessarily lead to changes in actual practice. In an article on the technology revolution published by Engineering News Record (ENR), it states, “We have very good CAD tools, very good cost estimating tools and very good scheduling tools. Now its time to go beyond each of those silos and use the data across disciplines.” (ENR, 2001) The literature shows that there is growing interest in the construction industry for integration yet gaps in actual implementation. This research work is undertaken to explore possible barriers during the planning stage of the project, which in turn may limit computerized integration of time and cost information across scheduling and cost estimating departments during the project control phase, within small to mid size general contracting type construction firms. 1.1.1 COMPLEXITY IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS Construction projects are intricate, time-consuming undertakings. Total development of a project normally consists of several phases requiring a diverse range of specialized services. (Clough & Sears, 1998) A journey from the planning phase to the close out phase requires input from various resources such as architects and designers, different 1.1 Th th cor crc dal' tec trade personnel, financial organizations, government agencies, lawyers, insurance agents, material manufacturers and suppliers. Furthermore, in the construction industry, no two projects are ever alike, which makes it even more complex to derive any particular pattern. Depending upon the contractual arrangement, each project has different components and participants. Project participants generate various project processes such as designing, estimating, scheduling, procurement, execution, close out, maintenance and so on during different phases of the project life cycle. Thus, to track such highly variable and unpredictable factors, and make use of them in future projects, it is important to track accurate time and cost data at any particular stage of the project. Effective tracking of data flowing through different construction processes can most efficiently be done through organized efforts such as project management and project controls. Project management systems should include estimating, scheduling and tracking (performance budget). (Spencer, 1987) Much of the information required by each of these processes is common to all of them, which offers the possibility of an organized system to integrate information flow between construction project and office functions. 1.1.2 CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS AND INTEGRATION The construction industry is fiagmented by nature. The design process is separated fi'om the construction process and the essential involvement of designers, estimators and other construction professional exacerbates fragmentation. Integration can be defined as the creation of a common database accessed by multiple users with the ability to manipulate data for many applications. (Gould, 1995) In the past, researchers have used information technology (IT) for providing numerous decision support systems for professionals involved in the industry. These systems have created “islands of automation” and are far from achieving an acceptable level of integration across the disciplines. (F araj & Alshawi, 1999) Software products are present in almost all aspects of the construction business - accounting, managing, estimating, scheduling, documentation, etc. What is missing is the ability to forego recreation of data as the project progresses. This missing link is the next phase of the information revolution within construction industry. (Abcede, V2N1) In general, construction projects rest on a tripod. Owners hold one corner, engineers and architects another, and contractors the third. All three track similar elements of the project in a different manner. (Faraj & Alshawi 1999) The next move in construction industry, i.e. integration of different application software at a higher level, will aid in minimizing this redundancy. The various benefits of integration include timesavings, cost savings and improved efficiencies. But integration also improves the quality of information. (Rakow, V3N9) An integrated project promotes teamwork and partnering and provides opportunities for estimating, scheduling and design throughout the life of a project. This research work has been undertaken to find out why such an important feature is still in its infancy in the construction industry. 1.1.3 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION The construction industry has been slow in adopting and utilizing new technologies with negative consequences on productivity and innovation (Mitropoulos & Tatum, 1999). Though it may lag behind other industries in its rate of Information Technology (IT) apl be As pl’t‘ adoption, it is heavily information based, and IT offers great potential for improving management practices, communication, and overall productivity in the industry. IT is not a single technology but a wide range of technical approaches to a variety of problems (Froese, 1999). As mentioned earlier, the construction industry seems to be convinced of the advantages of using IT, but still lacks its successful implementation. (J agtap, 1998). Industry needs to consider technical as well as managerial issues while implementing IT. Today there are several different software packages used in management of construction; it is also important that the software supports independent PCs as well as a network environment, which is important in being able to use that software in integrating different construction processes. Computer integration is occurring in a number of different forms throughout the industry. Present integration efforts between different application software are shown in Figure 1.1. Many large corporations have been using computer-integrated construction on a mainframe computer system since the 1970’s, such as Bechtel, Stone & Webster, etc. (Gould, 1995) A new era of PC’s forced different departments to accept discrete pieces of application software, which further generated a need for integration. It is the author’s belief that the need for integration is going to increase as time passes. In 1995, at the Associated Schools of Construction annual conference, one of the speakers said, “Every professional that was interviewed agreed that the potential of integration is enormous and that integration will occur in the future,” (Gould, 1995). This was based on the series of interviews, that author carried out with industry professionals. 1.1.4 COST AND TIME INFORMATION FLOW IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS Typically, in the construction industry, tracking costs and scheduling manpower have consisted of two separate processes. “Effective communication of the cost and schedule information between construction site management and its field supervision is a weakness common to most of the project control systems. . .there are countless instances of gross inefficiencies and impacts stemming from poor information flow to and from the field.” (Kratt, 1989) This problem occurs at two levels, at the time of construction and in corporate historical data, which keeps a cycle of delays and over-expenditures continuing. The information flow originates during the planning phase and continues to the project controls phase. During controls, it gets updated and modified and changed as per the actual progress of the project. Figure 1.2 illustrates how information flows from the planning to the controls phase. Since the author assumes that company historical data is used during the planning phase of a construction project, the updated database, as explained in Figure 1.2, plays an important role in providing accurate information to planners. “The approach of selecting contractors by the competitive bidding process in particular has created a large amount of interest in the ability to both quickly and accurately determine construction costs.” (Spencer, 1987). This approach has made general contractors aware of the prime importance of accurate cost estimating in the bidding process. Further, an important factor in accurate implementation of the cost estimate is time, and general contractors are also implementing scheduling to maintain competitiveness in the market. What is missing here is tracking accurate and timely information, moving back and forth between estimated cost and actual time. To achieve this connection between cost estimating and scheduling processes, it is necessary to integrate these processes first and then integrate the actual flow of information. TIMBERLINE PRECISION COLLECTION JOB COST CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULING MODULE ESTIMATION INTEGRATOR TIMBERLINE PRIMAVERA PROJECT GOLD PLANNER COLLECTION Cashing” ACCOUNTING EXPEDITION TGIF INTEGRATOR INT EGRATOR PRIMAVERA EXPEDITION PROJECT ADMINISTRATION FIG. 1 O l CIRCLE OF INTEGRATION (Source: Joshi, 2000, Fischer & Kunz, 1995) ESTABLISH OPERATIONAL SCHEDULE MEASURE AND REPORT PROGRESS V COMPARE ACTUAL ACHIEVEMENT WITH PLANNED PLAN AND IMPLEMENT CORRECTIVE ACTION UPDATE OPERATIONAL SCHEDULE FIG. 1.2 PROJECT CONTROL CYCLE (Source: Clough & Sears 1991) The US. Department of Energy has recognized the importance of time and cost integration and has included in its General Conditions of the contract the following language: “A project’s cost estimate must integrate with the scope, schedule and cost baseline.” It further states, “Throughout the phases of a project, reassessment of the cost estimate will be made as specified by the project manager. The capability must exist to calculate TPC (Total Project Cost), and cost estimates must have the ability to distinguish between TPC, TES (Total Estimated Cost), and OPC (Other Project Cost), as defined in DOE Order 413.X. Most projects will be required to provide a revised estimate-to- complete (ETC) on an annual basis. The ETC is an estimate of the cost and time required to complete a project’s remaining effort including estimated cost of authorized work not yet completed and authorized work not yet estimated; it is generated in conjunction with the current project schedule.” (DOE, 2000) The construction industry has begun to realize the importance of establishing a high level of integration between cost and time factors of a project and has led the research in several aspects of integration. This research work will address the barriers faced at the industry level, during the planning phase of a project in order to carry out integration during project controls phase. 1.2 RESEARCH SCOPE The proposed research work is based on the study of existing integration models described below and focused on determining barriers to actual integration process at the industry level. The study of existing models helped the author understand different integration concepts developed by researchers. The author believes that in order to integrate time and cost information during the controlling phase, integration of this information must occur during the planning phase of a construction project. The model proposed by Appau outlines an integration process during the planning stage of the project. Details of the Appau model are given in section 1.6. The author also applied other selection criteria for the selection of the Appau model, which are discussed in section 1.5. Detailed study of the Appau model helped the author understand the flow of information proposed in the model. It also helped in developing interview questionnaires focused on integration concepts proposed by Appau and other researchers. This research work is limited to information tracking during scheduling and cost estimating. The models studied by the author are identified below: 1.3 MODEL REVIEW Cost estimating and scheduling functions are treated traditionally as separate entities during construction projects. This separation increases the difficulty in coordination during construction. Many construction researchers and practitioners have proposed and suggested integration of cost estimating and scheduling is the true means by which production cost and delivery time are optimized, (Appau, 1994) but the common computerization of the two entities has not yet led to any extensive use of integration of these two aspects in construction practice. The literature review addressed several different integration models, as listed in Table 1.1. The majority of the authors, who have proposed different integration models, have not focused on possible barriers to integration processes faced at the industry level. This research work focuses on finding out whether problems in actual implementation of 10 in in in 74 1.. l s~l : El ~— ' \O ’4 (rt 1’" p] ’7 EL integration concepts proposed by different researchers are related to the concept of integration, company organization and culture, existing software and hardware, or existing business practices. Appau (Appau, 1994) addressed some of the problems faced in carrying out integration of time and cost information at the industry level. 1. Teicholz Model (Teicholz, 1987) 6. Syal Model (Syal, 1992) 2. Hendrickson Model (Hendrickson, 1989) 7. Spencer Model (Spencer, 1987) 3. Ibbs and Kim Model (Ibbs, 1987, Kim, 8. Abudayyeh & Rasdorf Model 1989) (Abudayyeh, 1991) 4. Work Packaging Model (WPM, 1988) 9. Shi Model (Shi, 1998) 5. Stone and Webster Model (Stone & 10. Appau Model (Appau, 1994) Webster, 1990) TABLE 1.1 - INTEGRATION MODELS 1.4 THE APPAU MODEL The model review identifies several different integration models, which have been proposed. Typically the models are based on similar concepts of integration of time and cost data; some of them also deal with the design data while proposing an integration concept. The author selected one model, representing the general concepts proposed by most integration models. This research work is based on the generic concepts of integration proposed by different researchers. While selecting the Appau model as representative of integration concepts, the author has applied certain criteria such as 1. planning vs. controlling, 2. author’s knowledge about the database, 3. use of simple flow 11 charts, 4. management structures in the construction industry, etc., which are discussed in detail in chapter four of this report. The Appau model typically deals with the planning phase of the construction process. The basic structure of this model proposes a common procedure, which combines scheduling and cost estimating processes during the project-planning phase. It does not suggest any software or how the actual data will be integrated, but suggests the integration of basic processes, which create time and cost data. The model also addresses several management related issues and different organization cultures, which may affect integration of time and cost information. The model is further discussed in detail under chapter four of this report. 1.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT The complex nature of a construction project makes it difficult to stay on schedule and it becomes important to track all cost variances from the original estimated costs for effective cash flow. A cost estimator does not consider activity durations, produced by the scheduler, while assuming construction methods. This has a strong impact on direct and indirect costs. On the other hand, the scheduler does not usually know what crew and equipment assumptions the cost estimator used. (Yau, 1992) While this description applies to information flow between the schedule and cost estimate, the same concept applies to the relationship of cost estimating and job cost accounting, design and the actual construction phase, etc. The amount of information generated during the entire life cycle of a construction project is so massive that it becomes difficult to keep track of 12 accurate data at every stage of the project, without the help of some kind of integration or an interface implementation. The construction industry has realized the importance of integration. Literature shows that many large size construction firms have been using integration since the 19705 when mainfiames were in existence, but research shows that there is still little effective or active implementation of the integration concepts in small and mid size construction firms. The literature review carried out by the author and discussed in different chapters of this report, shows that the need for integration is growing in the industry, but the integration concepts proposed by different researchers are still not being fully implemented. That’s where the author feels that work needs to be done, to find out the barriers faced at the industry level to the integration process of time and cost information. The author has restricted her research to the planning phase of the construction projects. 1.6 NEED FOR FINDING OUT BARRIERS TO INTEGRATION Typically in the construction industry, during the project control phase, project managers are responsible for overall success of the project, which includes meeting goals related to cost, schedule, quality and safety. Some of the tools, which are used to achieve these goals are S-curves and/or Earned Value Analysis. The base on which these tools work is that if the actual values are close to the planned values, the project will achieve a successful outcome. (Russell, et. al., 1997) If the schedule has been used at the construction site to manage daily work, then schedule status transfer to the cost system will facilitate accurate earned value analysis. In order to 13 generate a clear picture of the project, data regarding four main factors is required: budget, earned value, actual costs and estimates. An analysis of only budget vs. actual costs can often give an incorrect value. If the contract is 10 % under budget, it might appear that the contract is doing very well but when the earned value is added to the analysis, it might show that only half of the originally planned work has been performed. Thus, the contract is behind schedule and the work that has been done cost more than originally planned. (Schulte, 2000). Further, it is also important to track the earned value for a specific period, as well as for cumulative data, which requires continuous communication between cost and time processes. If there is no continuous flow of information between these two factors and earned value is calculated at the end of the project, there will be no way to figure out when the schedule delay occurred and thus wrong data will be stored in the historic records, which will be used for future projects. Integration of time and cost information during the project control phase plays an important role in effectively tracking project details and application of these details to future projects. The information flow in the project control phase is generated during a number of different construction processes. In order to effectively integrate these different construction processes during controlling, it is necessary to integrate these processes during the planning phase of the project. Software vendors are creating different active interfaces and integrated databases such as Enterprise Resources Planning (ERP), database by SAP, or aecXML, which help to integrate time and cost information during execution of the project, but to effectively implement such integrated solutions, barriers related to the organization structure, culture, involvement of project participants 14 and management need to be addressed. Some of the barriers related to these issues, addressed by Appau and other literature are indicated below: 1.7 BARRIERS TO INTEGRATION PROCESS Appau identified a number of possible barriers to integration of time and cost information, which play an important role, especially during planning phase of the construction project. Barriers addressed by Appau are summarized as follows: 1. Complex nature of the construction industry: a. Competitive bid process b. Fear of time or cost records being used during litigation 2. Manpower: a. Extreme specialization of functions. b. Poor communication among the departments. 3. Appropriate skills: a. Lack of appropriate skills. b. Resistance to change. c. Lack of essential software technology knowledge. 4. Software Technology: a. Separate pieces of software for different construction processes. b. Protective instincts of software development firms, which further restricts the interface between two software programs. 5. Long learning curve. 15 6. High Cost: a. High cost for new software purchase. b. Cost of training the staff for new technology. c. Maintenance and updating cost for the new software programs. Although barriers have been previously addressed, the construction industry still does not have a seamless solution for integration, which can take care of barriers in the planning stage of the project and can effectively integrate time and cost information between scheduling and estimating processes during project controls. This research work has been undertaken to find out possible barriers to integration during the planning stage of the construction project, which will help the researchers and vendors in understanding barriers faced at the industry level. 1.8 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of this research work can be summarized as follows: 1. Review several different integration models in general and the Appau model in detail. 2. Introduce Data Flow Diagramming (DFD) modeling technique and develop a DFD characterizing the Appau model with extensions to the original Appau model. 3. To validate and further modify the entities defined in the DFD with the help of industry feedback, develop an interview questionnaire and conduct interviews with the industry personnel and software vendors. This will help to identify 16 1.9 l. 1 Lite intel barriers to implementation of the sequence of steps defined by the Appau model and thereby barriers to integration of time and cost information concept. 4. Based on feedback from the interviews, summarize barriers to integration, propose recommendations and incorporate possible recommendations in the DFD developed in the second step. 1.9 METHODOLOGY The research work was accomplished through four primary activities introduced below and further explained in chapter three “Methodology” of this report. 1. Literature review Literature related to integration models, integrated software, research methodology and interview questionnaires was reviewed. 2. DFD characterizing the Appau model The Appau model was studied in detail and using DFD modeling technique, a DFD was developed characterizing the Appau model. 3. Feedback from the industry personnel Sample Selection Six Michigan based, small to mid size general contracting firms along with two leading software firms were selected for interviews to obtain feedback related to barriers to integration of time and cost information. 17 Inl Eh [)2 4.1 l’C‘Sl l.l( sche “tul and Proji A" Pre-evaluation Pre-evaluation of the questionnaires was carried out. Data collection On completion of pre-evaluation, the interview questionnaires were finalized and interviews were conducted. Data analysis: Data collected through interviews was recorded and managed in a spreadsheet format. 4. Restructuring DFD In this final phase of the methodology, the DFD characterizing the Appau model was restructured, based on the feedback obtained during the interviews and literature findings. 1.10 EXPECTED OUTPUT The research is an effort to explore barriers to integration of cost estimating and scheduling processes, during the planning phase of a construction project. The research work addressed possible barriers, which are faced during the planning stage of the project and may be responsible for the non-integration of time and cost information during the project controls phase. The research work produced the following deliverables: l. A preliminary DFD characterizing the Appau model with extensions by the author. 2. A list of barriers addressing several different issues such as organizational structure, computing and networking facilities, management structure, etc. and 18 sets of recommendations for contractors, owners, software vendors and researchers. 3. A revised DFD for integration of cost estimating and scheduling processes, based on the changes suggested through recommendations. 1.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND ORGANIZATION OF THESIS Research efforts have indicated the benefits of computer-integration of various construction management processes. The outcome of this research is to help provide direction as the industry steps ahead to implement conceptual integration models. Barriers to implementation of integration concepts in industry are studied, which will lead to possible changes in existing models and aid in more effective implementation. The research work is organized in six different chapters with appendices. The first chapter describes the introduction, need for the research work, research Obj ectives and the expected outcome. The second chapter is based upon the literature review of existing research work in computer integrated construction processes models and other similar areas. The third chapter discusses the methodology adopted to complete the research work. It also proposes selection criteria for construction firms contacted for interviews and development of the interview questionnaires. Additionally, data management and analysis is presented. 19 Chapter four presents the Appau model in detail. It also introduces the DF D modeling technique. Additionally, a DFD characterizing the Appau model is developed. Chapter five presents data collection, data management and reports data obtained through twenty interviews. Also, barriers found through interview feedback are discussed at the end of the chapter. Chapter six consists of an overview of barriers found through the literature review and interview feedback and also discusses recommendations for contractors, owners, software vendors and researchers. Chapter seven consists of the summary, conclusions and limitations of the research. It also focuses on future areas of research. Appendix I represents a sample data dictionary and structured English example related to DFD modeling. Appendix H consists of features of the database developed to manage data obtained through interviews, and Appendix III describes questions and responses obtained through twenty interviews. 20 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 21 2.1 INTRODUCTION Technology is revolutionizing the AEC industry, but there remains a clear disconnect between traditional manual practices and new automation developments, whether LAN - based (local-area network) or Internet-based. The Internet platform further perpetuates the industry’s tradition of fragmented processes because new applications only offer stand-alone solutions. New capabilities such as Internet plan rooms, online materials procurement, equipment rental, and employee recruitment have introduced new challenges by further contributing to the industry’s fi'agrnentation. (Inglesby, V3N1) Researchers have proposed several seamless solutions for integration of time and cost information of construction projects, and vendors are providing stronger and more sophisticated specialized software packages, but research shows that small to mid-size construction firms are still not experiencing integration of construction process data to the fullest extent. The author has studied and presented several integration models representing integration of time and cost data in construction projects, proposed by different researchers and vendors. Literature related to research methods for conducting qualitative analysis and developing structured questionnaire was also reviewed and is discussed in chapter three of this report. Additionally, existing research work on barriers to integration of time and cost data was reviewed, and presented in this chapter. 2.2 INTEGRATION MODELS 2.2.1. Teicholz Model (Teicholz, 1987) One of the basic problems faced by the construction industry as it attempts integration of time and cost information derives from differences in terminology used by estimators and 22 schedulers. Teicholz at Stanford University identified this problem and proposed mapping the relationship between cost breakdown structure (CBS) and work breakdown structure (WBS), which are used by estimators and schedulers. Figure 2.1 illustrates Teicholz’s perception of the difference in terminology used in CBS and WBS. In the Figure, an account for recording cost data of one “strip 8 inch walls” task on the CBS corresponds to many tasks on WBS, including “strip 8 inch wall — area A” and other such tasks for area B and C on 4th floor. Teicholz proposed mapping the relationship between CBS and WBS. This mapping helps to relate one cost account to all related activities as well one activity to all related cost accounts. Mapping of these relationships is based on a percent allocation concept. Each activity contributes a certain percentage toward one or more cost accounts and vice versa. Though this model suggests an effective method of keeping time and cost data related to a particular activity or line item at one place, it does not necessarily address the integration of actual stages or steps involved in cost estimating and scheduling processes. Further, the model does not address certain issues such as: some incomplete activities may not contribute any percentage to the cost account. 2.2.2. Hendrickson Model (Hendrickson, 1989) Hendrickson at Carnegie Mellon University, proposed an integration model based on the work elements concept. A work element is a control account defined by a matrix of work packages from the WBS and cost accounts from the CBS, as shown in Figure 2.2. In this model, a work element provides a link between the WBS and the CBS, where a cost 23 account may relate to one or more activities and at the same time an activity may relate to one or more cost accounts. This relationship uses the work element as a common denominator that achieves cost and time integration. Accurate data collection and data management are required for effective use of this model. The Hendrickson model carries out integration of WBS and CBS in a similar way as proposed by the Teicholz Model. The work element matrix, described in the Hendrickson model, is shown in Figure 2.2 below: Work Element Matrix lit 2nd 3rd 45—- Floor Floor Floor Floor = i g 3 X X X X 3 fl 8 = 0 $2 a g g 3 X X ‘é U a 3 co 3 X X: Work Element Figure 2.2 Hendrickson Model (Source: Hendrickson, 1989) 2.2.3. Ibbs and Kim Model [(Ibbs, et. a1. 1987) & (Kim, 1989)] Ibbs and Kim, at the University of California at Berkley, proposed a computer data model for improving construction project planning and control using an object oriented 24 programming approach. The data model not only integrates construction cost and schedule information but also integrates the design data of the project. It is based on an element called Basic construction Operation required by a Design object (BOD). BOD is defined as the lowest level construction task needed to build a specific design object and its corresponding construction operation control functions (WBS and CBS). A BOD has three objects: a work package on the WBS, a cost account on the CBS, and a design object on a drawing. The model is further explained with the help of Figure 2.3. The model addresses the data representation aspects of integrating cost and schedule control by developing storage and manipulation mechanisms using an object oriented programming approach, but it does not address data acquisition issues. 2.2.4. Work Packaging Model (W PM, 1988) This model was developed by NASA and the DOD for design-build projects in the aerospace and defense industries. The model is based on WBS, where the lowest level of WBS represents the actual tasks that will be used in the project’s activity network. The model is also based on the concept of activity based costing. The concept suggests that each activity in the activity network can be used as a control account, within which both cost and time data are required and accumulated. In this model the concept of activity based costing is slightly modified. The modified concept uses WBS as the basis for control, where a package may exist at a higher level than the actual activity level. The work packaging model creates a unified view of project data by adding cost data to the WBS and eliminating the CBS. The model identifies the need for a common denominator 25 illustrated by the activity based or work package based cost control concepts. This common denominator is considered a major contribution toward the integration of time and cost information. The model is further described with the help of Figure 2.4. 2.2.5. Stone and Webster Model (Stone & Webster, 1990) Stone and Webster have developed integrated management systems called Stone and Webster Integrated Management Systems. (Badger 87, C11 90). This is a centralized database, which integrates data related to all possible construction processes starting from engineering, procurement, construction and start-up. The concept of the work packaging model was used while developing this database. A common WBS is developed which is used for estimating and scheduling purposes, which is then developed into control account structure. Finally, Stone and Webster added the design view to the integrated database management system by linking a three dimensional geometric modeling software with the centralized database. The model achieves higher level of integration among cost, time and design data throughout the project life cycle. The design of the relational database developed in this model is briefly described in reference CH 90. The Entity Relationship (ER) modeling technique was used to design the relational database in this model. 2.2.6. Syal Model (Syal, 1992) Syal at Penn State University proposed this model in his Ph. D. dissertation. The research primarily deals with modeling of the construction project planning process itself, which 26 fiirther helps in integrating different construction processes and generates integrated time and cost plans. The model further focuses on construction methods selection process practiced particularly in small to mid size building projects. The author also has developed a knowledge based computerized model for construction method selection process. The model deals with the planning phase of a construction project. Though there are no methods suggested for actual time and cost information during the project controls phase, the basic cost estimating and scheduling processes are integrated in this model, which plays an important role in overall integration of time and cost information. 2.2.7. Spencer Model (Spencer, 1987) The model proposes integration of cost estimating and critical path scheduling using Turbo Pascal structured programming language. The model is called the ESTCPM model. The author first developed a Visual Table of Contents (V TOC), which basically introduces all the tasks involved in the three main functions in the construction process - estimating, scheduling and the interface required between two, and then with the help of VTOC, developed a data dictionary. With the development of a data dictionary, a flow control diagram is developed, which shows how the data is grouped together and how it flows through the program during processing. With the help of data the flow diagram and data dictionary, the author developed an integrated database for cost and time data. 27 2.2.8. Abudayyeh / Rasdorf Model (Abudayyeh, 1991) This is an automated data acquisition model developed on the basis of a work packaging model. It primarily deals with data acquisition, which is not addressed by any of the above integration models. ORACLE database management system is used for the automated storage module, while C and Pro C utilities are used as the interface between the ORACLE and PLAN TRAC scheduling packages. The ORACLE DBMS provides data storage and manipulation mechanisms based on its Data Definition Language (DDL) and Data Manipulation Language (DML). The model uses DML to process time data, such as labor hours to produce, to calculate earned value and percent complete for each control account. The automated data acquisition features of the model strengthen the integration of time and cost information. 2.2.9. Shi Model (Shi, 1998) This model is based on Entity Relationship modeling technology. This is a relational database model developed to store and manage time and cost data to facilitate effective cost and time control during the project control phase of a construction project. The time related data is proposed to be entered and managed in the cost system in order to integrate time control functions in the same system. This is accomplished by using work items as the basic storage units for cost and time data. The work items are generated by using WBS according to the CSI master format. The research proposes a conceptual database model for the project cost and time data. 28 2.2.10. Appau Model (Appau, 1994) Appau has explained the concept of Concurrent Engineering as well as different management styles and aspects important in adopting integration of time and cost data in the construction industry. Further, with the help of horizontal and vertical integration concepts, he explained typical steps in the process of estimating and scheduling and identified common or parallel steps in the two processes. In the end, while developing an integration model, Appau tried to consolidate time and cost information parameters, fiom both estimating and scheduling processes during the planning phase of a construction project. The basic structure of this model proposes a common process, which involves all the important participants in the construction industry during project planning. The model does not propose a software solution or object oriented program or database structure for integration of time and cost data, but instead addresses management aspects, and proposes changes in the organizational structure, which will help in integrating cost estimating and scheduling procedures. The model is described in detail in chapter 4 of this report. 2.3 MODEL ANALYAIS The author studied all the above mentioned integration models to obtain an understanding of research work done regarding integration of time and cost data in a construction project. Different integration models have used different modeling techniques and information technology tools, but the basic concept proposed by all the above models is similar. Two out of ten models address integration of construction processes during the 29 project planning phase while the rest of the models address integration of actual time and cost information during the project execution phase. Other than the Appau model, no other model, studied by the author addressed management related issues, which may play an important role in carrying out integration of time and cost information of a construction project. The author also believes that it is necessary that the integration process occur during the planning phase of a project in order to make it feasible during project controlling. Once the industry personnel adopt the integration of cost estimating and scheduling processes during the initial phase of the project, the time and cost data will, for the majority of the time, remain intact and integrated during later phases of the project. The integration techniques, suggested by the rest of the models can be used as a complementary attachment to the one, which addresses integration during the project planning phase. 2.4 INTEGRATED SOFTWARE 2.4.1. Timberline Precision Primavera Integrator The Precision Primavera integrator provides an interface between Timberline Precision Estimating software and Primavera P3 Project Planner. The interface works one way from Timberline software to Primavera software, but not the other way around. The line items created in the Timberline estimate form activities for scheduling and the software sends them across to the P3 Project Planner. This is similar to creating one common breakdown structure for estimating and scheduling processes. This helps to resolve problems of different terminology used by the estimator and the scheduler. 30 The integrator can be used in two ways: The user can first create the activities and build the network in Primavera and then use the integrator to extract information from the estimate, in order to provide duration and resource information for the activities. Another way to use the integrator is to create the activities directly in the integrator using the estimating information and then transfer the completed activities to Primavera Project Planner. (Syal, 1992) 2.4.2 Other integrated solutions Similar to the Timberline Software Company, Meridian Project Systems, J. D. Edwards, Deltek Systems and MC Square have provided interfaces between estimating and scheduling software. The International Alliance of Interoperability (IAI) has been working on standardization of terminology used in the AEC industry, so that they can create an integrated software solution for the AEC industry using aecXML. An aecXML can be defined as extensible markup language used to represent information in the AEC industry. This information may be the form of resources, such as projects, documents, materials, parts, organizations, professionals; or activities, such as proposals, design, estimating, scheduling, and construction. (Albright, V4N9) There are small and large software vendors in the industry who have been working in the filed of integration to address their clients’ need, and have been creating a number of customized integrated software versions for the sole purpose of solving their customers’ problem of data management. For example there is a new integrated software named, AMX Prolog Adapter, which is a functional interface system that integrates Meridian Project System’s Prolog Manager Software with J. D. Edwards’ OneWorld system, a leading ERP solution 31 in the AEC industry. (www.constructech.com). Kodak, Rochester, NY, has written connecting software to tie together a number of off the shelf software packages. They use a combination of CAD, scheduling, and estimating packages which are tied into their accounting and financial systems. The facility development system put out by a SARA group is another example of design-construction integration. This software targets institutional facilities and includes approximately three hundred building models. The software is designed to allow the user to program, design, estimate and manage the lifecycle cost of a project, with information moving electronically between the modules. There are a number of integrated packages available for small to mid size home builders, where construction processes are quite standardized. 2.5 BARRIERS TO INTEGRATION Several articles and white papers addressing integration and barriers to integration were reviewed. The majority of the articles were obtained from online magazines such as “Constructech”, “Itcon” and an online version of “Engineering News Record”. The articles are briefly discusses below: 1. Integration Barriers and Benefits, (Rakow, V4N6) Bob Rakow conducted an interview with the senior vice president of Prima Vera systems regarding integration, barriers to integration and benefits of integration. The article identified several barriers to integration such as “The construction community is very broad with many players of various sizes,” “Not only does the size of the company 32 matter, but also the company’s philosophy (plays an important role during integration),” and “corporate culture”, etc. Integrating different departments comprised of people with different corporate cultures was identified as a main hurdle to integration. Further, the article discussed use of XML and aecXML for standardization of data exchange between different systems from various companies. At the end, the vice president of Prima Vera stated, “We are in the world of decision support. You want managers to have access to the right information. Integration enables real time access to data.” 2. ABC Dilemma: Exploring the Barriers to Change (Beck, 2002) This article discussed adoption of IT in the construction industry and resistance to change. It was identified that people carrying out construction processes play an important role in adoption of any new technology and in carrying out integration of information within organizations. Several issues related to current business practices in the construction industry and software solutions for the same are discussed in detail in the article. The article stated, “Construction projects rely upon a variety of disciplines containing poorly integrated silos of knowledge. The process, as currently practiced, creates enormous inefficiencies, which result in massive waste in delivery times and costs.” Several causes of these inefficiencies are discussed. 33 Poor inter-organizational communication between owner, designer and contractor, insufficient margins for all those entities, and lack of information, were some of the barriers indicated by the article. 3. What is the biggest challenge facing the Construction Industry? (O’Neil, V2N3) This was an online survey conducted by the chief editor of a Constructech magazine online issue. The article focused on challenges faced in the construction industry from different IT managers working for construction firms and software companies. People skills and behavior were indicated as the largest barriers faced in the construction industry for adoption of new information technology and integration. The lack of standardization of terminology was identified by the respondents as the second biggest hurdle. The article stated that construction firms no longer have to be worried about cost of “bricks and mortar” but have to be worried about “time”, “quality” and “constant change”. 4. Other articles related to barriers to integration Several other articles and white papers were reviewed and are presented in chapter five, six and seven. A review of these articles helped the author to identify barriers to integration other than those found through the interview responses. The literature findings 34 also helped the author in developing recommendations for contractors, owners, software vendors and researchers. The articles generally indicated that the awareness of importance of integration in construction firms has increased in the last couple of years, and firms have started asking for better and better software solutions. It was also indicated by these articles that not only hardware and software systems will get upgraded by adopting integration, but also that business processes practiced in the firm need to be upgraded as well. Thus, construction firms need to spend the time and resources required to redefine their business processes and then pursue upgrading of hardware and software systems used in the firm. Barriers identified by the literature are principally related to organizational culture and philosophies, people skills and behavior, lack of standardization of terminology and also the processes and unique nature of construction projects. The articles are referenced in the reference section and also in the chapters, where applicable. 2.6 SUMMARY A study of different integration models proposed by researchers and integrated solutions proposed by software vendors shows that integration is occurring, but in a fragmented way. Large owner organizations such as Kodak can design their own software links, or can designate the software requirements for the project. Large Design Build Construction companies like Bechtel or Stone and Webster have the resources to write their own 35 software, in fact they have been using computer integrated construction on a mainframe computer system since the 1970’s. (www.constructech.com). Small to mid size construction companies, who can not invest resources in writing their own software or buying comprehensive packages like ERP or SAP are not being addressed. They are buying software solutions provided by different software companies to carry out construction processes within a firm and trying to integrate flow of information. Several different surveys and research studies showed that there is a missing link between integrated solutions and business processes practiced by these firms. Several articles related to barriers to integration or the challenges faced by construction firms in adopting integrated software solutions. The author believes that involving the right participants during the planning phase, and channeling information flow, will help to keep time and cost information integrated throughout the life cycle of a construction project. 36 C‘ WBS PROJET PROJET l I . | | | l l SITEWORK CONCREIE EARTHWORK FOUNDATION SUPERSTRUCTURE l l l | | l l | l FORMWORK REBAR BORING FLOORt FLOORZ FLO0R3 FLO0R4 | f I I l | I | I FOUNDATION COLUWS WALLs SAAB/BEANs AREAA AREAB AREAC TH I ll SLI'I I SLAB/BEAMS WALLS coLums m WALLs coLums 8" 10' 12' I I 12' 10' a“ 3” m ”‘8 I SLAB/SEALS WALLS cowms I | l l——-| l l FORMINORK REBAR comer a" 10- ,2. FORM“ W l REBAR l I l FORMNORK REBAR comes FAB ERECT smp FAB Bchr STRIP FAB enter sap ' as: I as: f as: I r ALLOCATIONS FIGURE 2.1 TEICHOLZ MODEL (Source: Teicholz, 1987) 37 CBS WBS PROJET FROJE'ST I I I I I I I SITEWORK WORSE EARTHWORK FOUNDATION SUPERS‘IRUCTURE I I I I I I I I FORMNORK REBAR PWRNG FLOORt FLOOR2 FLOORS FLOOR4 I I I I l I I l FOUNDATlON coLums WALLs SLAB/BEAMS ARE“ AREAB mac I COLUMIIS \/ ii ‘1 FAB BET PLACE m SIRP FORMS F DRAG REBAR FORKS is“ \\l/ 8' WALL IN AREAAFLOOR 4 DESIGNOBJECT BOO‘I UGN “JETS FIGURE 2.3 IBBS / KIM MODEL (Source: [(Ibbs, et. a1. 1987) & (Kim, 1989)] 38 PROJECT I I I I EARTHWCRK FUNDATICN LRE LEO-IANICN. EECIRICAL I I I I I FLOUR1 FLOORZ FLOOR! FLOCR4 FLCXI'IS 11MB r I I AREAA ma AFEAC 8118838585 WALLS m i E m m m ......i...... ......I. ..... , .....i..... v t ........t ........ :FABQQE “WW: .SftSTB'R ....HPOUB ....... ewe ....... taster-... A. _ LT A-WmK-PACKAGE ICENTIFIER A-TASK FIGURE 2.4 WORK PACKAGING MODEL (Source: WPM, 1988) 39 INPUT 1 DATA - ACQUISITION - MODULE - BAR - CODING - (SCANNERS) TRANSACTION - MANAGER INTERFACE - C - AND PRO '0 DATA - STORAGE - - MODULE - ORACLE oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo SCHEDULE- cosT- CONTROL- ':L:R:;g'fcc —> CONTROL- PLANTRAC ORAcLE - 80L REPORT a GENERATOR ‘ ; DATA ; PROCESSING MODULE OUTPUT FIGURE 2.5 ABUDAYYEH / RASDORF MODEL (Source: Abudayyeh, 1991) 40 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 41 3.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the methodology adopted to complete the research work. Literature reviewed by the author related to the methodology is also presented. The chapter focuses on how data was obtained, managed and used to draw conclusions related to the research topic. Upon studying several integration models as discussed in the previous chapter, the author decided to find out the views of industry professionals and software vendors toward the same. Integration of time and cost information during the planning phase was discussed with six vice presidents, six estimators, six schedulers and two software vendors. Interview responses were further used to draw inferences related to barriers to integration, propose changes to the DF D and to propose recommendations to constructors, owners, software vendors and researchers. 3.2 LITERATURE REVIEW Literature was reviewed in order to study how questionnaires should be structured to obtain the best results. Several websites related to development of questionnaires and qualitative analysis of the data, were examined. A book on Research Methods by Jack Nation was studied to learn more about developing questionnaires and drawing inferences from the feedback. 3.2.1 Developing Questionnaires A questionnaire is a tool for collecting data in a particular survey, (www.quickmba.com) consisting of a series of written questions to which the respondent provides answers, in a structured fashion. It is an important tool to obtain required information in a 42 predetermined fashion from the unknown respondents. The following steps were followed by the author while developing a questionnaire, as summarized below from several different references (www.quickmba.com, www.ericae.net, etc.). 1. 8. 9. Since Determine why the study is being undertaken and what the study aims to learn or determine. Choose a question type based on interview method (such as verbal interview, written form, email form, etc.) Determine the general question content needed to obtain information. Determine the form of response. Choose the exact question wording. Arrange the questions into an effective sequence. Categorize the questions based on the type of information expected to be sought. Give short introduction before the questionnaire starts. Test the questionnaire and revise it if needed. the questionnaires contained more non-structural questions than structural questions each question was tested for its content and the possible response. The author made sure that each question had a specific purpose and was oriented toward the sole purpose of obtaining required information. 3.2.2 Interview Method The face to face interview method was selected for this research work, however the option of telephone interview was provided for respondents. Face to face interviews have several different advantages including: 43 1. Enables the interviewer to establish rapport with the respondent. 2. Allows the interviewer to observe as well as listen. 3. Permits more complex questions to be asked than in other types of data collection. 4. Follow up questions can be posed and more information can be obtained. 3.2.3 Open ended questions The majority of the questions were designed as open ended, which makes it harder to evaluate the responses. Though the open ended questions provided no structure for the answer, they were tightly focused to elicit the kind of information the author intended to obtain. Since the number of respondents was small and the whole object behind the survey was to refine the research, the author believed that the open ended question format was a suitable option for this research. Several other papers available online were reviewed to obtain information on qualitative analysis of the data and were used while analyzing the data obtained through the interviews. Papers and books referred to are cited in the reference section. Actual steps in the methodology adopted are discussed in the following paragraph. 3.3 METHODOLOGY The research work was accomplished in four steps as described below, which are also explained with the help of Fig. 3.1 3.3.1 Literature review: In this phase, existing integration models of time and cost data and other research work on integration were studied. Literature on adoption of information technology in the construction industry was studied. Different modeling techniques used in integration models were reviewed, two modeling techniques related to this research work are firrther discussed in detail in chapter four. This provided an understanding of the existing on integration of information, which helped in identifying some of the barriers to the integration process, during actual implementation of these models. Literature on “How to develop a structured questionnaire” and also on research methods for qualitative analysis was studied and is discussed earlier in this chapter. 3.3.2 DFD characterizing the Appau model: Per the selection criteria discussed in chapter one, the Appau model was selected and studied in detail. Different management strategies, which play an important role in adoption of any new changes or technology in the organization addressed in the Appau model were studied in detail. The DFD modeling technique was studied in detail and introduced in chapter four. Using this technique, a DFD characterizing the Appau model was developed. The author believed that developing a DFD for the Appau model would be helpful for representing the flow of information in each of the steps during the planning phase of a construction project, also participants in those processes were identified clearly with the help of DFD. 45 3.3.3 Feedback from the industry personnel: Sample Selection: The author developed selection criteria for the firms to be contacted for interviews. The criteria were as follows: A firm should be in a list of the top four hundred general contracting firms engaged in commercial construction, published by the Engineering News Record in the year 2001. A firm must have an office in the state of Michigan, for ease of travel to the interviews. Further, the author also used her personal contacts to shorten the list. Contacts with professionals working for the same firm were used to identify appropriate contact persons in their offices in the state of Michigan. Eight firms satisfying the above criteria were selected. A total of eighteen interviews from the selected firms (three interviews from each firm) were targeted. Six out of eight firms were contacted with the remaining to be identified as alternates. The vice president, scheduler and estimator were interviewed from each of the firms. The responses to each of the questions from all the interviewees are given in Appendix B with accompanying code. Two more interviews of technical personnel from leading software firms providing software for construction scheduling and cost estimating processes were also conducted. Pre-evaluation: Prior to developing the interview questionnaire, the researcher studied different survey and interviewing methods and decided upon the final interview structure, which helped in gathering the required data. Consent from the graduate committee members was obtained before finalizing the questionnaires. The questionnaires 46 were pre-tested with one of the committee members to verify the tentative time required to complete one interview. Data collection: On completion of the pre-evaluation, an interview approach was finalized. Two options were decided: phone interview and personal interview. Fifteen out of total twenty interviews were conducted face to face; the rest were conducted by telephone. Because of the small sample size, interviews were structured open- ended. Each of the interviews took almost 50-60 minutes to go through all the questions. Initially the author had proposed to audio tape the interview responses, but since the equipment was not readily available, the author did not record the responses. Instead hand notes were taken. The data obtained through the interviews was recorded in tabular format in a database developed in Access. A sample database developed in Microsoft Access is attached in appendix I at the end of this report. Four different types of questionnaires were developed: one for vice presidents, one for schedulers, one for estimators, and one for software consultants. The questions were categorized according to the role of the person to be interviewed. There were four different categories of questions: personal demographic, company demographic, project specific, integration concept and barrier related. The actual questionnaires are given in Appendix A. The topics covered in each type of the questionnaires are explained in brief as follows: 47 1. Questionnaire for vice presidents: Personal demographic questions consist of educational qualification, number of years of experience in construction industry and number of years of service with the present firm, computer skills of the interviewee, inclination toward learning new computer skills, etc. Company demographic questions deal with annual sales volume in dollars, type of projects, size of projects, type of contractual arrangements, percentage of investment toward information technology, frequency of up-gradation of information technology, etc. Project details were obtained through questions such as: typical staff on project sites, typical staff involved during the planning stage, computerization and networking facilities on each project site, etc. Finally, questions related to integration concepts and implementation barriers were asked covering the following topics: integration of time and cost data — existing methods and means, any future possible developments toward integration, discussion regarding the integration models developed by different researchers, awareness of such integration models, a brief introduction of the Appau model and a brief walk-through to explain the flow of information in the Appau model, etc. 2. Questionnaire for estimators: This was divided into three different categories such as: personal demographics, cost estimating process related and integration of time and cost data related. Personal demographic questions were the same as the ones in the previous questionnaire, while the estimating procedure related questions consisted of the following topics: methods of 48 obtaining required information while preparing estimates, types of software used for estimating, participants involved other than the estimating department while preparing estimates, total involvement in typical life cycle period of the project, etc. Project related questions consisted of: involvement of schedulers while preparing an estimate, communication with the schedulers during the life cycle of the project, existing means and methods of integration of time and cost data during the life cycle of the project, frequency of updating cost estimates during the life cycle of the project, etc. The information related to integration and implementation barriers was obtained through questions such as: the need for integration, necessity of better means to carry out integration of time and cost data, discussion regarding integration models developed by different researchers, awareness of such integration models, brief introduction of the Appau model and a brief walk through to explain the flow of information in the Appau model. . Questionnaire for schedulers: This questionnaire was similar to the one for estimators, except all the questions were addressed in context to scheduling rather than estimating. . Questionnaire for software vendors: This questionnaire was categorized into criteria such as: personal demographics, creation of new software, and integration of time and cost data. Personal demographic questions consisted of details such as: educational qualification of the interviewee, number of years 49 of experience with the construction related software development, number of years of service with the present firm, typical role played in the firm, etc. the questions related to the development of new software consisted of: clients or type of customers dealt with, participants involved while creating or modifying any construction related software programs, operating systems and programming languages used, etc. Questions related to integration concepts and implementation barriers consisted of: customer interest in integration features of the software, complaints or feedback regarding the existing interface between scheduling and estimating software, reasons for not developing a two way integrator, discussion regarding the integration models developed by different researchers, awareness of such integration models, brief introduction of the Appau model and a brief walk through to explain the flow of information in the Appau model, etc. After finalization, the interview script was submitted for UCRIHS approval. UCRIHS is the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects. UCRIHS reviewed the interview script to make sure that human related matters were handled as per the rules and regulations. Upon approval by UCRIHS, interview dates were scheduled and interviews were conducted. The interview questionnaire was sent to the interviewees a week prior to the interview. This gave them sufficient time to gather statistical details or general demographic details. The interviewees were also sent a reminder email two days prior to the actual interview date. Responses to each type of questionnaire were recorded in the Access database as mentioned earlier. 50 Data analysis: As mentioned earlier, data collected through interviews was recorded in Access database. Each question was recorded with the related responses. Each interviewee was assigned a code, as noted with the response obtained from him/her. Because of the small sample size, a statistical study of the data could not be carried out, so a qualitative analysis of the data was used. The responses were evaluated and separated into different categories. The number of categories were decided only after all the responses were obtained. The qualitative nature of the analysis did not allow the author to draw conclusions simply on the basis of higher percentage of agreement. The entire background of the interviewee, his/her technical knowledge, and experience in the related field was studied before deciding the weighted factor of agreement or the significance toward using it while drawing the conclusions. All the open-ended responses were concluded based on the weighted factor they gained. 3.3.4 Restructuring the DFD In this final phase of the methodology, a DFD characterizing the Appau model was restructured. Restructuring was done based on the feedback obtained from the interviews. It was not possible to incorporate all the comments by the interviewees; but only those that could easily be related to the original Appau’s concept and could easily be incorporated into the DFD format were considered. Detail discussion regarding general barriers interpreted from the interview responses was carried out and stated in chapter six of this report. Recommendations for contractors, owners, software vendors and researchers were proposed to be considered while developing a 51 pragmatic integration model for integrating time and cost data across the scheduling and estimating departments within construction firms; they are also discussed in detail in chapter six. 3.4 SUMMARY This chapter primarily addresses the steps in the methodology adopted to complete this research. Proper selection of the steps in the methodology determines the success of the research work. The author believes that the steps adopted here helped in obtaining the required information from the industry personnel and software vendors and in finding out barriers to integration of time and cost information. 52 | oomnemmmRATarooNsmICIIONMGm EVIEWCI= TIE EXIS'IIIIB m3 SEETICNCFITI-Emm ES‘I’WEDINEI'AIL IWHFYIMATIW PARAIEIEEEATE) A TOTI'ETIIEAMJ‘I'I'EWINAPPMSM I Immmmmmmm WWTI-EAPPAUM m AQESTIG‘IAIRE mm IN'I'EGRATIGJ WINNLCI'RSWALTO WINTEIWIEJBWTH TIEIINIIJSTRYPM I V INTERVIBNIMISTRY INTERVIEW PM W m I ¢ 7 J MNNFEBACKSLMMRZEBARREB8: WWW MCI-WWW WMTIEAPPAU FIG. 3.1 CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR METHODOLOGY 53 CHAPTER 4 THE APPAU MODEL AND DFD 54 4.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces the Appau model in detail and the selection criteria applied while choosing the Appau model for the research work. Appau used simple flow charts to represent integration of time and cost information during the project planning phase of a construction project. The flow charts are easy to understand, but they are a combination of information collection, actual processes and participants, which makes it difficult to explain the sequence of the processes and to show the exact inflow and outflow of information in each of the processes. To describe the information flow in each of the processes indicated in the Appau model, a Data Flow Diagram (DFD) characterizing the Appau model was developed. Data flow diagrarnming is used to specify the information flow in different processes or different organizations. Data flow diagrams can further be defined as high level, low level and so on, with which the processes can be aggregated and then classified into different levels. Data flow diagrams are explained in detail later in this chapter. In the end, the benefits of developing a DFD for the Appau model were discussed. 4.2 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR THE APPAU MODEL A literature review identified different integration models, proposed by researchers representing integration of time and cost information in different ways. The majority of the models proposed integration of time and cost data; while some of them also integrated design data along with time and cost data. To achieve the desired goal, one model representing a generic concept of integration of time and cost information during the project-planning phase was selected. Certain criteria were applied while choosing the 55 Appau model for this study. Thus, the research work is not based only on the Appau model, but it is based on a generic concept of integration of time and cost information, proposed by different researchers. The selection criteria developed by the author are discussed below: 4.2.1. Planning vs. controlling phase: The author believed that integration process must begin during the planning phase in order to continue integration during the project control phase of a construction project. Appau has developed an integration model for the planning phase of the project, where most other models deal with the actual integration of time and cost information during project controls. 4.2.2. Information Flow: Researchers have used different modeling techniques while developing integration models, such as obj ect-oriented structures, structured programming languages, etc, which further made it difficult to identify the exact information flow in each of the processes. The Appau model was found to be reasonably simple to convert into a DFD identifying information flow in different processes. 4.2.3. Conceptual / Mathematical Models: Most of the models, studied by the author are either conceptual or mathematical in nature. Some of those propose object oriented databases for time and cost information. But none of the models has addressed issues related to the implementation of those concepts in real 56 practice. Appau on the other hand, conducted several interviews with the industry professionals and revised the model based on the responses. 4.2.4. Management structures in the construction industry: Management plays an important role in adoption of any new concept or technology into the business structure. Appau described different management styles present in the construction industry and tried to incorporate possible factors related to the same in the model. 4.2.5. Organization culture: An important factor in adopting any new change in an organization is its organizational culture. Appau, based on feedback from industry personnel, has also incorporated required changes in organization culture into his integration model. 4.2.6. Use of Flow Charts: It is necessary to understand any model to the fullest extent, before one uses it as an example or base for his/her research work. Appau has demonstrated his model with the help Of flow charts, which the author found easy to understand. 4.3 THE APPAU MODEL Mr. Kwaku, Addae Appau, at Georgia Institute of Technology proposed this integration model as a doctorate dissertation work in 1994 (Appau, 1994). Appau also validated the model while working for an architectural and construction management firm in Atlanta, 57 Georgia. Appau primarily adopted three phases to develop the integration model as described below. The phases are also explained with the help of Figure 4.1, while the entire Appau model is explained with the help of Figures 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5. In the first phase of establishing the foundation for the modeling process, Appau studied several existing integration models. He proposed a preliminary model based on his concept of integration and conducted interviews with several professional schedulers, estimators and constructors. Based on the feedback, he updated the model. In the second phase, Appau explained the concept of Concurrent Engineering as well as different management styles and aspects important in adopting integration of time and cost data in the construction industry. Further, with the help of horizontal and vertical integration concepts, he explained typical steps in the process of estimating and scheduling and identified common or parallel steps in the two processes. Appau also explained the advantages and disadvantages of horizontal and vertical integration within the organization and the important role played by the organizational structure in carrying out integration of time and cost information. In the last phase of development of the integration model, Appau tried to consolidate time and cost information parameters, from both estimating and scheduling processes. This model primarily dealt with the planning phase of the construction process, but could easily be extended to other phases. The basic structure of the model proposed a common process, which involves important participants within a construction organization 58 required to process cost and time plans for the project. The model did not address any issues related to computerization, but it can easily be computerized, especially with the revised version in DFD format. The model primarily deals with management aspects, which play an important role into defining the processes to carry out time and cost integration across scheduling and estimating departments throughout the life cycle of a construction project. As discussed earlier, Appau used flow charts to represent the integration model, which makes it difficult to explain the exact information flow to and from any particular process in the model. The author believes that the barriers to integration may be related to the flow of information as well the process itself. To further represent the information flows to and from each of the processes in the Appau model, Data Flow Diagram was developed. Developing data flow diagrams for the Appau model helped the author to: 1) understand the Appau model to the fullest extent, 2) understand the planning phase of a construction project in detail, 3) understand the processes in the planning phase, 4) understand the information flows in each of those processes, and 5) understand the information sources and participants involved in those processes. 4.4. DFD MODELING TECHNIQUE Advances in Information Technology such as client —— server architectures, object technology and a variety of Internet technologies such as XML are dramatically changing the way enterprise systems are designed, implemented and operated. The use of object oriented technology has resulted in a decrease of the semantic gap between the analysis, design and implementation phases of information systems. As a result, conceptually designed business models can be fully carried into implementation and the links between 59 different enterprises are much tighter. The author selected the use of DFD to represent the integration concept proposed by the Appau model in an effort to move one step closer to the implementation phase of this process model. Data flow diagrarnming is primarily used to specify the information flow in the given processes or in the given organization. A list of events is developed to meet the requirements of the particular sequence of the processes. These events can further be aggregated and then classified into higher and lower level events. Processes in the DFD are the places where data gets transformed into the information or information into the format that can provide value to the organization. (Whitbeck, 2000) The key elements for DFD are defined as follows: 4.4.1. Data flow: A data flow is a pipeline through which packets of information of known composition flow (DeMarco, 1979). A packet of information can further be broken down and each of the elements of the packet can be defined in the data dictionary. (DeMarco, 1979) A vector, wherein direction of the vector plays an important role to identify inflow and outflow of the database to and from a particular process, represents data flow. Some of the rules applied while naming the data flows are: a) Data flow names are hyphenated, b) No two data flows have the same name, c) Data flow names may also represent the characteristics of particular type of data, etc. 4.4.2. Process: A process is a transformation of incoming data flow(s) into outgoing data flow(s) (DeMarco, 1979). 60 Processes show work performed on data. A notational convention used to represent a process is a circle or a bubble on the DFD. In a completed set of DFD, each process is given a separate name. Processes can be classified into higher level and lower level processes, wherein higher level processes typically are broken down further into lower level processes. 4.4.3. File: A file is a temporary repository of data (DeMarco, 1979). A file may be a tape, or an area of disk, or a card data set, or an index file in the drawer, or the database (public or private). The direction of arrows leading to or from a file is significant. One way or two way arrows from the file defines the relationship between the data flow and the file. A file is represented by the two parallel lines on the DFD. 4.4.4. Source or Sink: A source or sink is a person or organization, lying outside the context of a system, which is a net originator or receiver of system data (DeMarco, 197 9). The source or sink is primarily used to show where the net input to the system comes fiom and where the net output of the system goes. As defined above, the source or the sink represents a person or organization outside the context of a system; a person or organization inside the context is characterized by the processes he or it performs. The source or sink is represented on DF D with the help of a rectangular box. 61 4.4.5 Data Dictionary: A data dictionary can be defined as a set of data parameters used to represent the data flow. A data flow is typically a combination of different information parameters, which cannot be shown in the DF D because of the complexity. A sample data dictionary is developed, wherein some of the data flows shown in different DFDs in this chapter are defined. Each of the data flows can be defined when it becomes necessary. Table Al-l shows a sample data dictionary developed for this research work. 4.5 DEVELOPING A DATA FLOW DIAGRAM CHARACTERIZING APPAU’S INTEGRATION CONCEPT The data flow modeling technique was used as a foundation for analyzing the business processes, which take place during the planning stage of a construction project and are addressed by the Appau model. A general framework for the methodology adopted to develop a DFD is summarized with the help of DeMarco (1979) and David (1998) as follows: 1. Identify information exchanges taking place in different business processes to be analyzed. 2. Identify the processes to be shown on the DF D along with the participants, i.e. the sources and the sinks and the resources for information. 3. Derive the levels of the processes and aggregate the respective lower level processes into the higher-level processes. 4. Develop individual data flow diagrams for each of the lower level processes. 62 5. Perform integration of the processes, by overlaying the processes and identifying common sources and sinks and information resources. Analyze each process to ensure the proper inflow and outflow of the information. 6. Develop a sample data dictionary explaining data inflow and outflow packets of information. The processes described in the original Appau model are listed in the following paragraph, which were further used to identify the information resources, sinks and inflow and outflow of data. 4.6 PROCESSES IN THE APPAU MODEL The processes in the Appau model are identified and stated as follows. 1. Secure design documents 2. Introductory review of the design documents 3. Decide upon staffing and time frame 4. Exarrrine design documents 5. Conduct site and regulatory studies 6. Conduct Designers/ Schedulers/ Estimators meeting 7. Access project features 8. Access own resources 9. Access sub contractors and in-house resources 10. Access historical records 11. Decide upon in-house and sub-contracting work 63 12. Carry out the apportion of job among estimating and scheduling teams 13. Distribute documents to sub-contractors 14. Conduct co-ordination review meeting 15. Decide completion constraints 16. Detailed study of plans and specifications 17. Develop preliminary milestone schedule 18. Divide plans into preliminary building systems 19. Streamline the rationales 20. Prepare final milestone schedule 21. Finalize building systems 22. Develop detailed work breakdown structure 23. Develop work category and items from building systems 24. Collect scheduling information from the sub contractors 25. Collect estimates fi'om the sub contractors 26. Formulate project activities 27. Determine activity sequence 28. Compute quantities 29. Compute activity durations 30. Perform scheduling calculations 31. Calculate costs of work categories and work items 32. Evaluate resource availability 33. Finalize estimating and scheduling parameters 34. Send the work for the management review 64 35. Evaluate caliber of the participants 36. Evaluate basis of the estimate 37. Evaluate methods and data used in the estimate 38. Evaluate the quality of documentation 39. Evaluate the performance of the estimate 40. Carry out the revision of the estimate 41. Write up rationales for the estimate and the schedule 42. Finalize upon the construction schedule 43. Finalize upon the construction estimate 44. Finalize upon the format for cost and time controls 45. Publish the estimate 46. Distribute copies of the estimate 4.7 LEVELING THE PROCESSES The processes described above were firrther studied to derive different levels, which would help in classifying them into different groups. The three main phases of the Appau model were categorized as the first level processes and numbered as l, 2 and 3, as shown in Figure 4.7. Each of these phases is further broken down into several different lower level processes. Phase one of the Appau model entitled “Establish the foundation for the modeling process” is divided into second level processes called “Introductory review of contract documents” and “Apportion of the work assignments”, as shown in Figure 4.8. Similarly, level one processes for phase two and three Of the Appau model are broken down as shown in Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.17, and are called level two processes. Level 65 two processes can then be broken down into level three processes. For example, in Figure 4.9, level two process “Introductory Review” gets broken down into level three processes as, “Secure contract documents” and “Preliminary review of contract documents”. The same applies to all other level two processes. Thus, leveling can be carried out to the extent required. In this DFD, there are total four different levels of processes. Figure 4.10 represents one example of breakdown of level three processes into level four processes. Leveling of the processes also helps in classifying different processes with the similar data inflow or some other similar characteristics and further helps in sequencing the processes and identifying the required participants to be involved at any given time. The last level processes are typically known as the tasks that can be performed in an understandable way. The entire leveling of the processes is shown in Figure 4.6, wherein different levels of the processes are indicated by numbers and sub numbers format. All the processes in the DFDs characterizing the Appau model are shown in a tree format indicating leveling of the processes in the DFD. 4.8 DEVELOPING THE DATA FLOWS Leveling of the processes helped in identifying data inflow and outflow for each of the processes. Thus, each of the above mentioned processes was further studied in detail and with the help of literature review, study of the Appau model, and author’s expertise in this area, data flows or rather packets of information parameters going into each of the processes and coming out of each of those processes were identified as shown in Figures 4.7 to 4.21. Data inflow and outflows are named as shown in the figures. The names 66 given to each of the data flows can further be defined in the data dictionary in order to give details of each of the information parameters tracked in each of the packets of information. A sample data dictionary is developed as indicated in Table A2-1. All the data inflows and outflows can be defined in the data dictionary in a similar way. 4.9 INTEGRATION OF THE PROCESSES As mentioned earlier in step five of the methodology adopted to develop a DFD characterizing the Appau model, the processes were supposed to be overlaid and then integrated per the common sources, sinks and information flows. Since the author conducted interviews with vice presidents, estimators, schedulers and software consultants separately, it was helpful to keep the data flow diagrams for each of the processes separate instead of integrating all into one main data flow diagram. By doing so, it became easier to discuss a related part from the DFD with the respective interviewee and obtain responses for the same. It also helped in identifying which data flow was critical while studying integration of time and cost information. Those participants who were required to be involved in a process but where it is practically not possible to be involved, were easy to identify with the individual data flow diagrams. Therefore, the author did not follow step five of the methodology adopted for developing DFD for the Appau model. 4.10 BENEFITS OF DEVELOPING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS A primary intent behind this research work was to find out barriers to integration of time and cost information, for which several different integration models have been proposed 67 by the researchers and software solutions developed by vendors. It is somewhat like playing the role of an analyst helping industry and researchers / vendors group communicate across the “logical—physical” boundary. Researchers and vendors live in the logical domain, while industry people live in the physical domain of getting the actual work done. To help in analyzing an integration concept proposed by Appau in an unspecified format using flow charts, it was necessary to adopt a certain structured analysis tool. DFD had certain advantages such as: 1. ability to analyze the concept of integration of time and cost information proposed by Appau, 2. helped to understand the project planning phase, 3. helped to understand data inflow, data outflow and participants involved in each of the processes and 4. the ability to convert the Appau model from an unspecified format into a more defined and specified format. This detailed understanding of the project planning process, integration of time and cost information, the participants involved in each process and data transformation taking place in every process, helped the author while finalizing interview questionnaires and also while identifying barriers based on the literature findings and interview responses. 4.11 SUMMARY The details of the Appau model were further enhanced with the help of data flow diagrams developed for each of the steps indicated in the model. Data flow diagramming proved to be a powerful tool in achieving the goal of this research work. The chapter also gives details of the data flow diagramming technique and the benefits of developing data flow diagrams characterizing the Appau model. 68 DESIGN SECTION ( ESTABLISH THE FOUNDATION FOR THE MODELING PROCESS KERNEL GENERATE TIME AND COST PLANS — — —| I I I I I I I cONSOLIDATE TIME AND COST _ _ __] ESTIAMTE K TRANSLATE COST AND SCHEDULE DATA INTO A MGMT. INFORMATION SYSTEM FIG. 4.1 PHASES OF THE MODEL (SOURCE: APPAU, 1994) 69 HASES f C. EXAMINE DESIGN DOCUMENTS I DESIGN SECTION _ — A. SECURE DESIGN DOCUMENTS Ir B. INTRODUCTORY REVIEW T STAFFING & TIME FRAME l \\U D. SITE & REGULATORY STUDIES I i E. DESIGNERS/SCHEDULERS/ ESTIMATORS MEETING I F. ASSESS PROJECT FEATURES L W ASSESS OWN G. ASSESS SUBS RESOURCES & IN-HOUSE I H. ASSESS HISTORICAL RECORDS I DECIDE UPON IN HOUSE & SUBS \\\ I I. APPORTION JOB AMONG ESTI SCH TEAM L J. DISTRIBUTE DOCUMENTS TO SUBS START OF COST/TIME SCHEMING MDOEL FIG. 4.2 FOUNDATION PHASE OF THE MODELING PROCESS (Source: Appau, 1994) 70 A.CO- TRADITIONAL EST DEPT ORDINATION SCHEDULING DEPT REVIEW MEETING Vi B.DECIDE COMPLETION CONSTRAINTS A I C. DEVELOP PRELIM MILESTONE SCH a I D. DETAIL STUDY OF PLANS/SPECS b E. DIVIDE PLAN INTO PRELIM BLDG SYSTEMS K. I S F. STREAMLINE / .DEVELOP ) \ RELATIONALi—f FINAL MILESTONE M I . DEVELOP DETAILED WBS I I COLLECT scH Mia FROM suesf a fl CW V M. FORMULATE PROJECT ACT. 5 FINALIZE BLDG '\ SYSTEMS I K. DEV WORK CATEGORY & ITEMS FROM BLDG SYSTEMS I fiOLLECT SUBS k ESTIMATES L up ,1 N.DET.ACT. O.COMPUTE SCHEDULE QUANTITIES f P. COMPUTE ACT. DURATIONS 4 V I Q. DET. SCHEDULING CALCULATIONS R EVALUATE RESOURCE AVAILABILITY I ”I”? T. FINALIZE ESTI SCH PARAMETERS S. CALCULATE COST OF CATEGORIES & WORK ITEMS Ly START OF CONSOLIDATE TIM El MGMT REVIEW COST ESTIMATING FIG. 4.3 COSTITIME PHASE OF MODEL (Source: Appau, 1994) 71 START OF THE CONSOLIDATE TIME/COST ESTIMATING I Q. MGMT REVIEW) CALIBER OF PARTICIPANTS BASIS OF . ESTIMATE 3 OLTYOF 5 METHODS& . Q DATA USED DOCUMENTATIO) i l 5 v : 5 PERFECTION OF : ; ESTIMATE f B. REVISE SCHEDULING DEPT ESTIMATE BY TRAD'TD'CE'S’T‘L 55“- EST/SCH TEAMS T Ir C. W RITE UP RATIONALES \J /\ FOR EST/SCH v T D.SORT INTO E.SORT|NTO F.SORTINTO FINAL FORMAT FOR FINALCOST CONSTRUCTION COST/TIME ESTIMATE SCHEDULE CONTROL G.PUBLISH ESTIMATE I H. DISTRIBUTE COPIES OF ESTIMATE END OF MODEL MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM FIG. 4.4 CONSOLIDATE SCHEDULE/COST ESTIMATE INTEGRATION (Source: Appau, 1994) 72 W LOGICAL FLOW RELATION ________ p FEEDBACK RELATION INFORMATION COLLECTION DECISION MAKING ACTION \ / JOINT DECISION MAKING ACTION JOINT INFORMATION COLLECTION OFF PAGE CONNECTOR FIG. 4.5 SYMBOLS USED TO REPRESENT THE INTEGRATION MODEL (Source: Appau, 1994) 73 The Appau Model I I l DFD For j V Consolidate Tim e/ Produce Cost & Cost Estiamting (3) Time Schemes (2) Establish The Foundation For The FIGURE 4.6 LEVELLING OF THE PROCESSES IN DFD CHARACTERIZING THE APPAU MODEL 74 Modeling Process(l) I I I l l I . D t 'l ntro ‘ e 3" Develop Evaluate Revise Finalize ReVIew Apport II Revrew Develop Resource . . Time & _ , Time & Tlme & Of OfWork 0f Activrty Requirement , Cost , Cost Cost Contract Assrgnme Contract Scemes‘ Details & Plan Pl Docu. nts( 1.2) Docu. (2 2) (2.3) Availability (3 I; (38;: (1-1) (2.1) ' (2‘4) ' I Prelim. 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