primary 1. ABSTRACT A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE DOCTORAL PROGRAMS IN THE UNITED STATES BY Calvin James Swank This study was undertaken in consideration of two assumptions. That all Criminal Justice personnel with general enforcement powers should hold the baccalaureate degree. that all faculty members who teach at the bac- calaureate level in Criminal Justice should hold the doctorate. ‘ ZFollowing these assumptions, and because no published consideration has been given to doctoral programs in this area, the author set out to answer the following questions. 1. impetus in this What kind of programs exist to train and educate teachers, researchers and administrators in this discipline? How do these programs differ from each other? Where can they be found? What are the perceived goals of these programs? Do some schools see themselves producing college teachers while others produce only administrators? Do these programs all see themselves as producing researchers? An effort to answer the above questions was the for this project. The responses and printed materials which aided inquiry were obtained through personal contact or Calvin James Swank correspondence with the directors of the respective pro- grams. It was found that in Criminal Justice education today there are throughout the United States a select few doctoral programs. Heretofore, there being no published studies of these programs and their objectives or their relationship to the system of Criminal Justice, or each other, the need for such information became obvious. Basic to the need is the fact that all of these programs claim direct relevance to American Criminal Justice. Thus, the objectives of this study were threefold. First, to provide for the reader an historical analysis of the emergence of all presently existing doctoral programs in Criminal Justice. Second, hopefully to provide for institutions anticipating implementation of such a program guidelines to coursework, goals and objectives. Third, to provide for the Criminal Justice doctoral student, in one volume, a source book to aid him in program selection. The limitation of this study is that only those doctoral programs listed in the 1972-1973 Law Enforcement Education Directory published by the International Associa- tion of Chiefs of Police are considered. The thesis is divided into seven chapters. Chapter I of this thesis includes the need for higher education in Criminal Justice, the problem, the objectives of the study and its limitations, and defini- tions of relevant terms. Chapter II is a brief history of man's approaches Calvin James Swank to Criminal Justice from early history to the present day. It was included in order to apprise the reader of the evolution of our system of Criminal Justice and its in- creasing complexity. Chapter III presents the emergence of Criminal Justice as a discipline in American higher education. It covers the early programs and looks at present day Criminal Justice education at the junior college, baccalaureate and master's degree levels. Problems in concept definition and curriculum are also considered. Chapter IV presents for the reader some insight into doctoral study in general. It traces historically the emergence of the doctorate, the characteristics of various doctoral degrees and their usage in other countries. Chapter V consists of a descriptive account of all presently existing Criminal Justice doctoral programs in the United States. It includes a brief history of each institution, the origin of Criminal Justice programs at that institution, the objectives of the doctoral degree, the general course of study, the requirements for admission to the doctoral program and requirements for graduation. Chapter VI provides an analysis of the variations in the Criminal Justice doctoral programs. It analyzes the similarities and differences in their stated objectives as well as courses of study and admission and degree re- quirements. Chapter VII is a summary of the entire study and Calvin James Swank contairus the justifications for its writing, restatement of the problem, research objectives and limitations as well as a general overview of the chapters. It also pro- vides for the reader the conclusions of the author. A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE DOCTORAL PROGRAMS IN THE UNITED STATES BY Calvin James Swank A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1972 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ’1- The author wishes to express appreciation to a number of peOple who aided in this endeavor. This project could not have been completed without the valuable assist- ance of the program directors of the institutions dis— cussed here. To Dr. Eldon Nonnamaker, Vice President for Student Affairs and my thesis chairman, I owe much for the contribu— tion of his valuable time. Also my appreciation goes to Dr. William Goldberg, Dr. Dale Alam and Dr. Robert Trojanowicz for their guidance and encouragement toward this end. Special thanks is extended to Mr. Larry Hoover and Mr. Steven Egger who, during my hours of depression in this undertaking, provided insight and a push to the next phase. To my wife Bobbie who has contributed far beyond what one should expect I can only be grateful. To Jeff and Wendy, who have been so long without a father, I simply offer my heartfelt thanks and hOpe to do better in the future. ii Chapter II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . 3 Objectives of the Study . . . . . . . . . . 4 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . 5 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Format of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 A SHORT HISTORY OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE . . . . . 10 The Earliest Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Criminal Justice in England . . . . . . . . . 13 England Prior to 1829 . . . . . . . . . . . 13 The Coming of the MetrOpolitan Police ACt (1829) o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 16 Development of Criminal Justice in the United States I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 17 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROGRAMS AT THE COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY LEVEL . . . . . 21 The Chronological Evolution . . . . . . . . . 21 The Problems in Curriculum . . . . . . . . . 37 The Community—Junior College . . . . . . . . 43 The Baccalaureate Programs . . . . . . . . . 49 The Master's Degree Programs . . . . . . . . 54 THE DOCTORAL DEGREE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 The History of the Doctorate . . . . . . . . . 58 The Doctorate in the United States . . . . . . 60 iii Chapter Page The State University of New York at Albany . . 107 History of the University . . . . . . . . . 107 The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program . 109 The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree . . . 111 The General Course of Study for the Doctor of PhilOSOphy Degree in Criminal Justice . 115 The Nature of Crime . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Law and Social Control . . . . . . . . . . 115 The Criminal Justice Process . . . . . . . 116 Planned Change in Criminal Justice . . . . 118 Support Offerings . . . . . . . . 119 Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Criminal Justice . 120 The University of California at Berkeley . . . 121 History of the University . . . . . . . . . 121 The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program . 123 The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree . . . 124 The General Course of Study for the Doctor of Criminology Degree . . . . . . . . . . 125 Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of Criminology Degree . . . . . . . . . . 127 The University of Maryland . . . . . . . . . . 128 History of the University . . . . . . . . . 128 The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program . 128 The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree . . . 129 The General Course of Study for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Sociology (Criminology Specialization) . . . . . . . 130 Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of PhiloSOphy Degree in Sociology (Criminology Specialization) . . . . . . . 131 The University of Montana . . . . . . . . . . 131 History of the University . . . . . . . . . 131 The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program . 133 The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree . . . 133 The General Course of Study for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Sociology (Criminology Option) . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Chapter VI. Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Sociology (Criminology Option) . . . . . . . . . . . The University of Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . History of the University . . . . . . . . . The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program . The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree . . . The General Course of Study for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Sociology (Criminology Option) . . . . . . . . . . Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Sociology (Criminology Option) . . . . . . . . . . . The University of Southern California . . . . History of the University . . . . . . . . . The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program . The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree . . . The General Course of Study for the Doctor of PhiloSOphy and the Doctor of Public Administration Degrees (Criminal Justice EmphaSiS) O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 0 Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Programs 0 O I I O O O O O O I 0 Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Public Administra- tion (Criminal Justice Emphasis) . . . . . Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of Public Administration Degree (Criminal Justice Emphasis) . . . . . . . . . . . . VARIATIONS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE DOCTORAL PROGRAMS O O O O I O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 Comparison of Program Objectives . . . . . . . Comparison of the General Courses of Study . . Comparison of Admission Requirements . . . . . Degree Level Necessary for Admission to the Doctoral Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graduate Record Examination Requirements for Admission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 134 134 136 136 138 138 139 139 140 141 141 143 144 145 145 145 147 148 148 153 154 154 155 Chapter Co Reference Requirements for Admission . . . Transcript Requirements for Admission . . mparison of Requirements for Completion of the Doctoral Degree . . . . . . . . . . . Residency Requirements of the Institution Coursework Requirements for the Doctoral Degree in the Criminal Justice Area . . Comprehensive, Preliminary and Qualifying Examinations Required for the Doctoral Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foreign Language Requirements Within the Criminal Justice Doctoral Programs . . . Dissertation Requirements for the Doctoral Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grade Level Required for Maintenance of Doctoral Standing . . . . . . . . . . . VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Federal Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enrollment Projections . . . . . . . . . . Admissions Problems . . . . . . . . . . . Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Appendix A. Courses Available to Students in Criminal B. (I Justice Doctoral Programs . . . . . . . . nstrument) A Survey to Determine A Core Program of Undergraduate Studies for the Professional Preparation of Law Enforce- ment Personnel in Four—Year Colleges and Universities ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Page 155 156 156 156 158 160 161 162 163 164 164 165 168 168 169 170 171 172 178 178 279 Chapter Page C. Number of Law Enforcement Degree Programs Available in the United States and Outlying Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 D. Abbreviations of Doctoral Degrees . . . . . . 286 viii L I ST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Required Core Law Enforcement Courses in Responding Four-Year Colleges and Univer- sities as of February 1969 (by Frequency) (N = 45) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In American society the term "criminal justice" names a system comprising institutions of social control authorized to enforce sanctions against violators of societal norms. This system consists of three major seg- ments: the police as members of the executive branch of government and functioning agents of law enforcement; the criminal courts that provide inquiry, application of laws and imposition of sanctions; and the correctional agencies that provide for offenders a treatment aiming at rehabili- tation. The need for advanced education of the agents of such a broad and diverse system was recognized as early as 1931. Although professional training of attorneys had been required for years, little thought of it has been applied to the other personnel in criminal justice. In 1931 the Wickersham Commission publicly declared that policing a community is one of the most complex of professional responsibilities. Reviewing the tasks we expect of our law enforcement officers, it is our impression that their complexity is perhaps greater than that of any other profession. On the one hand we expect our law enforcement officer to possess the nurturing, caretaking, sympathetic, empathizing, gentle characteristics of physician, nurse, teacher, and social worker as he deals with school traffic, acute illness and injury, juvenile delinquency, suicidal threats and gestures, and missing persons. On the other hand we expect him to command respect, demonstrate courage, control hostile impulses, and meet great physical hazards. . . . He is to control crowds, prevent riots, apprehend crimi- nals, and chase after speeding vehicles. We can think of no other profession which constantly demands such seemingly opposite characteristics. Although a number of college programs were in operation prior to and following the Commission's report, the major impetus to higher education in the field of Criminal Justice did not come about until 1967 when the findings of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice were released. In that year this Commission stated: It is nonsense to assume that the enforcement of the law is so simple that it can be done best by those unencumbered by a study of the liberal arts. The man who goes into our streets in hOpes of regulating, directing or controlling human behavior must be armed with more than a gun and the ability to perform mech- anical movements in response to a situation. Such men as these engage in the difficult, complex and im- portant business of human behavior. Their intellec- tual armament so long restricted to the minimum--must be no less than their physical prowess and protection. An officer of any police department should certainly be conversant with the structure of our government and its philosophies. He must be well grounded in sociol- ogy, criminology, and human relations in order to understand the ramifications of the problems which confront him daily. He must understand what makes 1National Commission on Law Observance and En- forcement, Report on the Police (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1931), p. 19. people act as they do and what impact his actions in the performance of duty will have on them.2 On these premises the Commission then recommended that a requirement of all police departments should be baccalaureate degrees for personnel with general enforce- ment powers. If as a society we consider this recommendation validly based, a number of questions arise. If all police officers with general enforcement powers are required to obtain a bachelor's degree, and those in baccalaureate programs should be taught by persons holding advanced de- grees, preferably the doctorate, one must then ask: What kinds of doctoral programs exist to teach the teachers and researchers? How do these programs differ from each other? Where can they be found? What do they perceive as their goals? Do some see themselves educating just college teachers, while others produce only administrators? Do they all see themselves as producing researchers? The purpose of this thesis is to answer these questions. The Problem Statement of the Problem A few, select, doctoral programs in Criminal Justice do exist in this country today. They are attempting to 2The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1967), P. 126. produce educators and researchers in a discipline that is rapidly expanding both in number and diversity of new pro- grams. There is a problem, however, in the fact that no research or consideration has been given to the similari- ties or differences within these present programs, or even to what their goals should be. There are indications of differing goals; some institutions may be trying to meet one goal while others see themselves as having a totally different role. Since all claim direct connection to the Criminal Justice System, there is a need to evaluate their relationship to this system as well as to each other. Objectives of the Study The distinctive characteristic of this study is its historical analysis of the emergence of all nationally ex- isting doctoral programs in Criminal Justice; no other such study is presently available. For an institution antici- pating implementation of such a program this approach pro- vides guidelines in coursework, goals and objectives. For the student interested in a criminal justice doctorate, it will aid in program selection, providing insight into the relationship between academic needs and vocational objec- tives. The criminal justice doctorate today is highly in demand. Positions exist not only in university teaching and research, but in top-level administration of police departments, correctional agencies and other divisions of government as well as in business and industry. As in any field, a doctoral program in Criminal Justice is a program designed to prepare one for a lifetime of creative activity and research. Limitations of the Study The limitation of this study is that it pertains to only those doctoral programs listed in the 1972-1973 edition of The Law Enforcement Education Directory published by the International Association of Chiefs of Police. This publi- cation, however, is based on a national polling of all institutions known in March and April of 1972 to offer degrees related to criminal justice. Pertinent data were also gathered from personal contact or correspondence with their directors, as well as from all available printed materials. The author realizes that there exist within the country some programs in sociology, political science or related disciplines which have minor course offerings in criminal justice. Their focus, however, is not considered in this study to be primarily that of criminal justice programs. Definition of Terms In an effort to clarify a number of terms used interchangeably in the fields of Education and Criminal Justice, the following definitions are provided. Criminal Justice. In the generic sense, Criminal Justice refers to the entire process or system to which one could be exposed from the point of commission of a crime to the point of rehabilitation. This includes the police, the courts, and correctional agencies; these are referred to as the Criminal Justice System. In some cases, however, the term "criminal justice" refers to one of these three segments rather than the whole. In the field of Education, the term means a unified program under which all the agencies and their relationships are considered together. Criminology. In the broadest sense, criminology is the entire body of knowledge regarding crime, criminals, and the efforts of society to control and prevent them. Thus, it is composed of knowledge drawn from such fields as law, medicine, religion, science, education, social work, social ethics, and public administration; it includes with- in its scope the activities of legislative bodies, law enforcement agencies, courts, educational and correctional institutions, and private and public social agencies. In a theoretical sense, criminology is the study of the etiological factors related to crime.3 Criminalistics. This is the science of crime detection. It involves the application of physics, chemistry, 3Robert G. Caldwell, Criminology (New York: The Ronald Press, 1965), p. 3. physiology and other natural sciences to the investigation of crimes and the apprehension of criminals.4 Police Science. This term has double usage. To begin with it is synonymous with criminalistics. Secondly it is sometimes used to denote a study of the "science" of police work or police administration. Police Administration. This is organization and management in relation to the police function. It includes an examination of command—level problems, the planning process, tactics, budgeting, and the administration of a comprehensive personnel program. The term also, to many educational institutions, includes all aspects of Criminal Justice combined. Law Enforcement. This term refers to those persons who as members of the executive branch of our federal, state and local governments have the power of arrest. In the educational sense it may refer to a program including the study of the police or of all three segments of the Criminal Justice System. Corrections. ‘This term is similar to an older one known as "penology" which deals specifically with the Opera- tion of correctional institutions and related social 41bid., p. 321. agencies in the rehabilitation of offenders.5 Criminal Justice Doctoral Program. The term Criminal Justice Doctoral Program includes all programs which at the doctoral level have a major emphasis of study in an area related to Criminal Justice. Since the termin- ology shows a great overlap in usage, for the purposes of this study it is unimportant whether the department is called "Criminal Justice," "Criminology," or "Police Science." The unifying factor is that they all offer the doctoral degree and contain a significant amount of study in the social and behavioral sciences. Format of the Study This historical analysis is organized into seven chapters. Chapter I, the introduction, includes the statement of the problem, objectives of the study, limitations of the study and definition of terms. Chapter II presents a brief history of Criminal Justice based on our English precedents. It covers the earliest beginnings of the police, the origin of penal codes, and the Peel Reform of 1829. It looks at the his- torical evolution of policing in the United States with 51bid., p. 3. respect to the development of city, county, state and federal involvement in criminal justice. Chapter III shows the chronological development of programs in Criminal Justice at the college and univer- sity level. It considers the emergence of, and present status in, community junior colleges, baccalaureate and master's degree programs. Chapter IV presents the general development of doctoral degrees. It contains their historical emergence through the first universities, early curricula, the de— velopment of the various degrees and their introduction into the United States. It explains the present status and types of degrees in existence, and takes a brief look at the doctorates of other countries. Chapter V contains a description of all Criminal Justice programs offering the doctoral degree in the United States today. The goals, curricula, entrance standards, periods of study and graduation requirements are considered. Chapter VI presents a narrative analysis of simi- larities and differences within the Criminal Justice doc- troal programs. It outlines needs within the system and the way each institution perceives its role in meeting these needs. Chapter VII is a summary and conclusion based on information contained in Chapters Five and Six. It con- tains the author’s perception as to what might be done in the future to meet on-going needs in Criminal Justice educa- tion, research and teacher preparation. CHAPTER II A SHORT HISTORY OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE The Earliest Years The develOpment of the Criminal Justice System has been long and interesting. Probably the original forms of social control existed chiefly within the family struc- ture. This sufficed as long as the unit of control re- mained small. However, when man began to live in the com- pany of other men, the situation changed. With the growth of tribes and clans, social structures became more complex and new control measures were needed. From these basic groups, what became known as the "kin police" evolved. Under this system, all members of the family assumed res- ponsibility for the actions of all others. But because revenge was often sought for injustices, the system created interfamily feuds and was primarily retaliatory in nature. As a result of such tribal customs, King Hammurabi of Babylon, in 2100 B.C., standardized not only each of- fense but also codified the accompanying penalty. The Code of Hammurabi dealt with the responsibility of the individual to the group, and with private dealings between individuals; 10 11 its penalties were of the retributive type.1 In about 1500 B.C., Egypt had a functioning system of judges and courts, and sophisticated laws dealing with bribery and corruption. In 1400 B.C., under the Pharaoh Amenhotep, a marine patrol controlled the coast of Egypt near the delta and set up customs houses.2 In Persia, in the sixth century B.C., under Cyrus, there existed a road and postal system which point to the probability of institutional police. Later, under Darius, the empire was divided into provinces for the purpose of administration, with satraps placed in control and given the authority to levy and collect taxes. The early Greek city-states also witnesses some development from tribal or clan policing to community (city) policing. Pisistratus, a ruler of Athens, estab- lished a guard system to protect the tower, highways and his own person. Sparta developed a ruler-appointed police, and since the regime was authoritarian, this body is often referred to as the first "secret police" system.3 Seneca, a Roman statesman and First Citizen (4 B.C.- A.D. 65), observed that "punishment is designed to protect society by removing the offender, to reform its subjects, 1A. C. Germann, Frank D. Day and Robert J. Gallatti, Introduction to Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (Spring- field, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1969), p. 39. 21bid., p. 40. 3Ibid. 12 and to render others more obedient." Thus he added to the ancient philosophy of retaliation, which was later modified by Plato to include reformation, the concepts of protecting the general welfare and deterring potential offenders.4 In the society of the ancient Jews, the problems of criminal justice were handled by high priests and elders of the tribe. This process was maintained even under Roman rule. Matthew (XXVI, 47) notes that Christ was arrested in the garden by those who came from the "chief priests and elders of the people."5 With the decline of the Roman Empire during the first three centuries A.D., the historical data on criminal justice fades. During these years most of Europe was in chaos, and warring nations engaged in invasion and plunder. But the emergence of the feudal system returned some stability to the Western world, and history was again re- corded. Even though a number of nations have had some impact on the history of Western criminal justice, it is to feudal England that the American system traces its heritage.6 41bid., p. 41. 51bid. 6Edward Eldefonso, Alan Coffey and Richard C. Grace, Principles of Law Enforcement (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1968): P. 41. 13 Criminal Justice in England England Prior to 1829 In the Anglo-Saxon period, much of England was forest land and people lived for the most part in clearings. The country was divided into shires (counties); the most local form of government pertained to the tithing, an area in which ten families lived. Tithings were combined in multiples of one-hundred, which later became parishes and from which cities emerged.7 In those days the King's Peace governed the entire country. And since the country was divided into 52 indi- vidual shires, the King appointed a person in each shire who acted on his behalf as a reeve (the Anglo-Saxon word for judge). The shire-reeve had two duties, (1) responsi- bility to the King for insuring maintenance of law and order within the shire; and (2) serving as the judge of cases brought before him. The name "shire-reeve" has been contracted over the years to "sheriff."8 In this early society, the tithingman (the head of ten families) was responsible for the action of all the members of his tithing. For the most part the legal struc- ture of the day was somewhat rudimentary, consisting of two 7Samuel G. Chapman and T. Eric St. Johnston, The Police Heritage in England and America (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press, 1962), p. 11. 81bid. 14 commandments: "thou shall not kill" and "thou shall not steal." If any person in the tithing broke one of the laws, it was the duty of the whole tithing to bring the suspect before the shire-reeve for judgment. This is the origin of the principle still extant in England, that each subject of the King has two duties: to keep the law himself, and to see that the law is kept by others. It is a principle of collective responsibility for the mainten- ance of law and order.9 From the tithing grew the "hundred" which consisted of the actual ground-area within which one hundred families lived. To keep the peace within his shire, the shire-reeve traveled to each hundred, and held court in "hundred houses" some of which are still standing today. As the feudal era ended and the Church came to power in England and Wales, rural areas progressed to a parish form of government; each area shared by peOple who worshipped in a particular parish church was referred to as a "parish." Once each year, the parish appointed a "parish constable" to act on behalf of the community for the purpose of law enforcement in each of the rural parishes. This system was used to maintain law and order in rural Britain from the Middle Ages into the 18th century.10 91bid. loIbid., p. 12. 15 As English society began to grow, so did commerce and industry. Since England was primarily a woodland, most items in those days were made from wood. Thus in order to prevent fires at small building sites, the guilds ap- pointed a group of men known as the "watch and ward." They patrolled at night on fire watch, and also assumed the coincidental responsibility for preventing people from breaking into houses and shops. England's industrialization was not without prob- 1ems; poverty and unemployment increased, and so did crime and other forms of deviancy. Mobs began to form, and in many cases marched on Parliament hoping to have some redress for their growing problems. Since there existed no civil police as such, the authorities would simply order a magis- trate to read the Riot Act which permitted the use of military force to quell the riot. 'The use of such force to repress civil disobedience and impede a group as it sought to assert its civil rights, proved an undesirable means of supervising public behavior. Soldiers hesitated to fire on their own townspeople; the townspeople, who actually paid the soldiers' wages, resented being fired on by the soldiers, not just because someone could get hurt, but on the basis of principle. As a consequence, when the Riot Act was read, it provoked citizen uprisings, and in- creased the problem.11 llIbid., p. 13. 16 The Coming of the Metropolitan Police Act (1829) As previously mentioned, the Industrial Revolution which overtook England created wealth for some, but poverty and misery for many others. Crime grew at an alarming rate and many sections of London became slums. Even women and children turned to crime. Vigilante groups and various other attempts were made to solve the many problems. Long term prison sentences were imposed; people were hanged; but still crime ran rampant. In 1829 Sir Robert Peel was appointed Home Secre— tary. In that year he introduced into Parliament "An Act for Improving the Police In and Near the Metropolis"--the Metropolitan Police Act.12 In this act, Peel proposed a number of guidelines which have had a significant impact on police organization and administration. They consisted of twelve basic premises: 1. The police must be stable, efficient, and organi- zed along military lines. 2. The police must be under governmental control. 3. The absence of crime will best prove the efficiency of police. 4. The distribution of crime news is essential. 5. The deployment of police strength both in time and in area is essential. 6. No quality is more indispensable to a policeman 12Germann, Day and Gallatti, p. 54. 17 than a perfect command of temper; a quiet deter- mined manner has more effect than violent action. 7. Good appearance commands respect. 8. The securing and training of proper personnel is at the root of efficiency. 9. Public security demands that every police officer be given a number. 10. Police headquarters should be centrally located and easily accessible to the people. 11. Policemen should be hired on a probationary basis. 12. Police records are necessary to the correct dis- tribution of police strength.l3 Most of Peel's ideas were eventually implemented, although initially there was much opposition. Many con- sidered him something of a dictator who was attempting to enslave the people. But as time passed, he became a national hero. Thus England had emerged with a satisfac- tory police force which still exists in nearly the same form today. Development of Criminal Justice in the United States Shortly after the first Englishman set foot in New England, the Dutch West India Company set up Operation in New Amsterdam, the present New York. The Dutch appointed 14 their own peace officer known as the "schout-fiscal." In 1631, the city of Boston followed the example and 13Ibid.. pp. 54—55. l4Eldefonso, Coffey and Grace, p. 46. 18 appointed seven officers to watch over the town at night. 15 The Soon every settlement in New England followed suit. daytime policing of cities, however, did not come about until 1833 when Philadelphia provided for 23 policemen to serve by day and 120 by night, all under a captain appoin- ted by the mayor.16 In 1838 Boston finally went to a day force of six men, and in 1850 consolidated the night and day watches. The early years were difficult ones in American law enforcement. For in the minds of men there existed a belief in the "spoils system," which simply implied that "to the victor go the spoils." This created gross politi— cal interference in police work, and corruption was present almost everywhere. In the South, development had been somewhat dif- ferent. PeOple in the South lived a more homogenous type of existence and in a rural setting. Although the politi- cal problems were similar, government existed for the most part on the county rather than the city level. This facili- tated the growth of the county sheriff as senior agent of law enforcement. The first law-enforcement officers at the state level were the Texas Rangers. They were organized in 1835, lslbid. 16Germann, Day and Gallatti, p. 59. l9 primarily to deal with cattle rustlers, outlaws and Indians. The first actual state police were the Pennsylvania State Police organized in 1905 partly as a result of early coal strikes. The major development in state agencies, however, came about after World War I and today all states have some form of law enforcement agency.17 Federal concern with law enforcement began with a Revenue Cutter used in 1789 to prevent smuggling, and in 1865 the Secret Service was established to combat counter- feiting. The FBI was created in 1924 along with the National Kidnapping Act, Banking Act, and Racketeering Act. From these beginnings, federal involvement has expanded vastly to other areas within the law enforcement spectrum.18 Thus we can see that in the United States develop- ment came about somewhat as in England. That is, greater urbanization and the Industrial Revolution brought with them larger concentrations of people and new and complex problems. Crime rose and society reacted with the creation of more and more police agencies. As society became more complex, the job of being a police officer also became more complex. It changed from one requiring minimal training to one where a capacity for greater understanding and judgment were needed. When institutions of higher education realized 17Ibid., p. 61. 13Ibid., p. 62. 20 this need in the early twentieth century, programs designed to fill the void began to emerge. CHAPTER III THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROGRAMS AT THE COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY LEVEL The Chronological Evolution According to available information, no college or university level programs in fields related to Criminal Justice existed prior to 1916. In that year, however, Northwestern University proposed a "Program of Instruction for Police at Northwestern University." The program was prompted chiefly by the need to provide evening instruc- tion for members of the Chicago Police Department who might qualify for admission to the university through examina- tion.1 The proposed program was considered to be a general one of courses in Criminal Law, Physiology, Anatomy, Hygiene, Evidence, Psychology, Practical Sociology, Criminal Procedures and Police Administration.2 This first proposal never came into being however, and although Northwestern presently supports a large Traffic Institute and criminal law program, the idea of police education fell by the wayside. 1"Proposed Instruction for Police at Northwestern University," The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 6:794 (January, 1916). 21bid. 21 22 Despite this loss of initial momentum, in that same year the University of California at Berkeley instituted courses for the instruction of police officers. These were on a workshop basis and included instruction in such areas as The Problems of Crime, Methods of Police Investigation, Medical Examination of Criminals and Delinquents, and Legal Relations Involved in Criminology. When initiated in 1916, it served both pre—service and in-service students; it existed in somewhat similar form until 1931.3 As this program materialized in 1916, August Vollmer, the Chief of Police in Berkeley, realized that law enforce- ment would benefit if college graduates entered police work. He formulated a plan and reached an agreement with the Uni— versity of California that technical subjects would be taught by the police department, and liberal arts subjects by the university. He began a campaign to recruit college students for his department, and according to some sources he was very successful. Although these courses themselves provided for no college major in police administration, they undoubtedly had a significant influence on the later de- ve10pment of law enforcement education.4 The next step in the direction of improved educa- tion came about in 1918. In that year, Mrs. Alice Stebbins 3William A. Wiltberger, "A Program for Police Train- ing in a College," Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, May, 1937, p. 44. 41bid., p. 47. 23 We]. 1.. s, then President of the International Association of Pol. icewomen, instituted a program at the University of California, Los Angeles. This was also a terminal work- shop type of institute and included, in addition to lec- tures, visits to various public and private social agencies in the Los Angeles area.5 The first actual degree in the field of Criminal Justice was granted in 1923. It was an A.B. degree in Economics with a minor in Criminology; it was awarded to a Berkeley police officer who had followed Vollmer's ori- ginal training and education plan. According to Wil— t‘JDerger's research in 1937, it is the first known instance . . . 6 of even a minor in a police-related area. The next, and probably one of the most significant inroads in police education was made by the University of C"'1"-io::ago in September of 1929. In that year a police train- program was created as part of the regular school cur— r ' . . . . . lQUlum 1n the Department of Political Sc1ence. This Ekrogram was brought about through the efforts of Charles E: Dflerriam and Leonard B. White. August Vollmer was ap- pQihted Professor of Police Administration, and taught s . . . . . . e\’eral technical police courses, including Police Admin— 1 . . . S1Citation, Police Procedure, and two research courses in \ 51bid., p. 48. 51bid., p. 50. 24 pol ice-related areas. Although the program lasted only three years, it is significant for two reasons: (1) it was the first police program established in a political science department in a university, and (2) it marked the first time in the history of the country that technical police-training courses were made a part of the regular 0 7 11nd e rgraduate curriculum . Following the example of such movements, addi- tional programs began to develop. In 1930, under the leadership of George H. Brereton, a former Berkeley police officer and graduate of the University of California, San 30863 State College initiated a program. This was the first instance in the history of police education in the United States of a complete program of police education being included as a major academic field in the regular c‘13l'::I*:icu1um.8 The program consisted of such courses as I"151$":ory of the Police, Police Practice and Procedure, 1301ice Problems, Identification, Investigation, Forensic 1Vieciicine and Toxicology, Police Administration, Law of I\1":3=‘est, Evidence, Court Procedure, Gunnery, State and Muni- c ‘ . . . . 9 1961 Administration, and Crime and Its Problems. \ 7Felix Monroe Fabian, "The Evolvement of Pre- Law Enforcement Education at the College and Uni- Sefil‘sity Level," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Univer- lty of Idaho, 1965, p. 123. SeI‘vice 81bid., p. 124. 91bid., p. 125. 25 In that same year something of a reorganization took place at Berkeley. August Vollmer had returned and was appointed Professor of Police Administration in the Department of Political Science of the University. Dr. Herman M. Adler, an eminent criminologist and psychiatrist, was added to the staff of the Medical School of the Uni- versit and was made chairman of an "unofficial criminolo Y gy group" organized to prepare a degree program.10 Professor Vollmer compiled a curriculum, and the Squested major was submitted to members of the Berkeley Police Department and the University community for review. The final results were submitted to the unofficial crim- iI'1c31c3gy group and were approved by the University in 1933. The curriculum was divided into three aspects: technical, legal, and social. Police Administration was considered part of the social aspect. The final outcome of this pro- cedlne was that students were then able to obtain the A.B. clegree with a major in Criminology.ll The next institution to follow suit was what is no“? Michigan State University. In June of 1935, seven forWard-looking men held a meeting to determine the future of the police profession. They developed a program until that time unheard of in the United States--a complete cuI‘riculum in Police Administration. The five-year program loIbid. 111616., p. 126. 26 was offered in cooperation with the Michigan State Crime Cornrnission, Michigan State College (now Michigan State University) and the Michigan State Police. The course of study consisted of three years and one term in residence at Michigan State College and eighteen months' training with the Michigan State Police, six months of which would be spent in residence at the State Police Barracks in East Lansing; the remaining twelve months were spent with the Detroit Police Department, the United States Secret Service, the Federal Narcotics Bureau, or the Plant Protection Division, Oldsmobile Motor Division, General Motors Cor— Poration. Seven men instituted the program. They were Deans R- C. Huston, H. B. Dirks, and L. C. Emmons from Michigan State College, and Herbert P. Orr, Harry G. Gault, and Hay W Linsey of the Michigan State Crime Commission. Their c(DI'I’IIWnittees were presided over by the State Police Commis- slcDner, Oscar G. Olander.12 In July, 1935, the program was officially approved Eir‘ci. the Department of Police Administration added to the D ‘ . . . 1V131on of Sc1ence and Arts under Dean R. C. Huston. p r0fessor D. J. Bremer was made head of the Department. The fall of 1935 saw an enrollment of forty-five men in \ 12Leon Fagan, Information taken from Contact, an It\‘house Publication by Alpha Phi Sigma, Beta Chapter, School of Police Administration and Public Safety, Michigan State University, 1949, p. 1. 27 P01 ice Administration. In that year the men in the in- service training program received maintenance of $1.00 per day plus room and board; upon graduation they were to receive an honorary reserve commission of Second Lieutenant in the Michigan State Police. From 1935 on, the program expanded. Enrollment grew until 1938 when it hit a high of 194 new enrollees. During the year of 1938, however, the appropriations of the Michigan State Police were out, which meant that the Students would no longer be allowed maintenance. This buaget cut also modified the program to three years of academic work and only twelve months of in-service training. In 1940 the enrollment drOpped to 115 men because of more rigid physical requirements. During these years co\lrses in Forestry and Conservation were added as elec- tiv . . - l3 es for those who Wished to go into conservation work. As the program grew in its early years, Professor T . . or“ H. King became head of the Department in 1942 upon the esH'Lgnation of Professor Bremer. Because of the National D efvense Program, courses in sabotage, espionage in war 1utilistries, CiVilian defense and fire training were added. In 1943 the twenty-three graduating students entered military service. In 1944 few of the remaining undrafted CiVilians could meet the strict physical requirements of Police Administration. All those who did were soon drafted 131bid. 28 into military service. 1945 saw only four men enrolled. In 1946, with the return of the veterans, the momentum again began, and in that year Mr. Arthur F. Brandstatter, a graduate of Police Administration in 1938, was appointed Associate Professor and Assistant Department Head . The following year, as the program again expanded, Professor Brandstatter became Head of the Department, a position which he still holds today.14 Probably the two major distinctive characteristics Of the Michigan State program were the fact that if of- fered the first Bachelor of Science Degree with a major in Police Administration, and that it participated in a co- operative training and education arrangement with a large E3C>li€21Tienced a steady and heavy growth. By the fall of 1949, EErIITOllment had increased to seventy-six, and by 1961 more than 150 students were enrolled. Since its inception, the p2":Ogram at Fresno State has been called "Criminology," although it was designed for students who planned to enter the fields of police work, social work or corrections.16 15 Fabian, p. 128. 161616., p. 131. 30 Following Fresno State College, Indiana University instituted a degree program. Some training courses had been develOped there in the twenties, but no actual program existed until after the war. The post-war program consis- ted of an A.B. degree with a major in Police Administra- tion; then a B.S. degree with a major in Police Administra- tion; and finally a most distinctive contribution--a six- Year curriculum coordinated with the School of Law leading to the A.B. and LL.B. degree with a major in Police Ad- ministration. Under this plan a student can major in Police Administration, follow the six—year program and receive both degrees. In his first year he is confined to study in liberal arts; in the second year he continues his liberal aIts study and completes six units of Police Administration; in his third year of study he completes his liberal arts requirements, concentrates heavily in government and sociol— ogy, and completes a major in Police Administration. At the beginning of the fourth year he transfers to the Law School and continues the prescribed Law School curriculum 1:I‘lrough his fourth, fifth, and sixth years. Upon completion of his LL.B. degree, four units in Criminal Law (taken in the Law School) are applied as Police Administration credit t0 meet the core-area requirements for the A.B. degree. In turn, seven units of law (taken in the Law school) are ap- Plied toward completion of a second A.B. degree in govern- ment or sociology. In other words, when the student completes the requirements as prescribed in the combined A.B. and LL.B. 31 curriculum, he has completed majors in Police Administra- tion, Government or Sociology, and Law.17 In 1949 a new program was created in Los Angeles State College. In the initial stages it consisted of only three courses with an enrollment of fifty-four students. This program was similar to the early program at Michigan State. It was then and is today geared to close c00pera- tion with local law enforcement agencies. The unique feature at Los Angeles State was the evening class dupli- cating traditional daytime classes in order to accomodate working police officers.18 Sacramento State College also established a program in 1949; it was made up of four courses. It originally catered, as did its predecessors, to in-service personnel, but has since progressed to a large daytime enrollment. The next and probably most diverse program in Criminal Justice education came into being in 1953. Dr. Vernon B. Fox, a graduate of Michigan State University and former correctional officer at Jackson Prison, developed a program within the School of Social Welfare at Florida State University. Although Dr. Fox's major area of empha— sis was penal reform and corrections, his program also included an element of law enforcement. A Department of Criminology was created and the student had the option of 17Ibid., p. 133. 181616., p. 136. 32 either a law enforcement or corrections track. This was probably the first instance of what today is considered a comprehensive Criminal Justice program. The student in Fox's program received, upon completion of a sequence of required courses and an internship, a Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Arts degree in "Criminology and Corrections." The terminology was later changed and the option of a major in Law Enforcement, Corrections, or Criminology now exists. This program was most distinctive because it was the first of its kind to be developed within a School of Social Welfare.19 According to Fabian, perhaps the most unique ap— proach to college training in the police field in recent years is that of the Baruch School of Business and Public Administration of the City College of New York. In this program one sees the most complete cooperative effort of a police department and a college to date. In the fall of 1954, the Mayor of the City of New York requested his Police Commissioner and the President of the City College to formulate "a program for the more effective education of the police force of the city of New York." A detailed plan was developed, and the first classes began in September 1955. Since then about 2500 members of the Police Department have participated in the program. 19Personal interview with Dr. Vernon B. Fox, Depart- ment of Criminology, Florida State University, April 12, 1972. 33 The working principles of this adventure in col- legiate education for the world's largest police department distinguish this program from the other college law enforce- ment programs in the United States. This particular Police Science program in its early stages accepted as students only law enforcement officers; its instructional staff in the professional subjects was made up exclusively of superior officers of the New York Police Department; and the administrative structure of the program involved joint Police Department and College effort. These characteris- tics, which have been fundamental in the success enjoyed by the program, are a consequence of the specific educa- tional objectives of the program and the history of the 20 What two institutions' cooperating in its Operation. this program amounted to was the City College on the one hand and the Police Department on the other simply joining in an educational endeavor for the upgrading of law enforce- ment education. In the technical areas, the non-credit work re- mained of the in-service type and came under the specific jurisdiction of the Police Department. Courses of an academic nature fell within the realm of the City College and were subject to the same academic standards as other 20John I. Griffin, "The Police Science Program of the Baruch School of the City College of New York Conducted in Cooperation with the Police Academy, Police Department, City of New York," Police (November-December, 1959), PP. 50-54. 34 courses. The defined objectives of this joint project were stated to be "effective law enforcement training for police service, development of qualities of leadership, and fos- tering the ideals of professional achievement in the public service."21 At its inception the only degree offered in this program was the Associated in Applied Science with a con- centration in Police Science. It consisted of sixty-four units, ten of which were acquired by successful completion of the Recruit Training School Course at the Police Academy. Those beyond the Academy in the police area were made up of fifteen units in Police Science courses and eleven units selected from such courses as Statistics, Government, Law, Business Management, Psychology, and Criminology. All students pursuing the A.A.S. degree were also required to complete the general-education core consisting of such courses as English, Government, Speech, Mathematics, Psych- ology, and Science. In 1957 the school branched out to include the Bachelor of Business Administration degree with a major emphasis in Police Science. All students entering this program were required to meet the same standards as regular students entering their junior year.22 21Ibid. 22Ibid. 35 Thus the die was cast. By 1965 the total number of colleges and universities offering Criminal Justice higher education programs in the United States had more than doubled. But of the 64 known institutions offering such programs that year, 32 were located in California. By the fall of 1968 there were, according to a survey con- ducted by the International Association of Chiefs of Police, 261 programs in Law Enforcement in 234 individual colleges and universities.23 This rapid growth has not been surprising, and there are good reasons to believe that such growth will continue for the next few years. As of July 1, 1969, 519 institutions had applied to the Law Enforcement Assistance Administrative Office of Academic Assistance for scholar- ship and loan funds made available under the Safe Streets and Crime Control Act of 1968. Of this number, 395 schools indicated the availability of a program of courses "dir- ectly related" to Criminal Justice. In 1965, based on the consideration of current social problems,_President Johnson established through Executive Order the Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice. Later that same year, the Presi- dent signed the Law Enforcement Assistance Act, creating the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance (OLEA) designed to 23International Association of Chiefs of Police, 93w Enforcement Education Directory, 1968, p. 12. 36 foster new approaches, new capabilities, and new resources for dealing with crime and criminals through a program of federal aid. In 1968, with the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) was created; it incorpora— ted the OLEA. Under this legislation the LEAA was authori- zed "to carry out programs of academic educational assist- ance to improve and strengthen criminal justice."24 In 1967 the President's Commission issued its task force reports and the general report The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society. Included among the recommendations in these reports were two which merit consideration. The Commission contended that all police departments should take immediate steps to establish a minimum requirement of the baccalaureate degree for all supervisory and executive ranks; they also stated that at that time they considered it essential that departments strive to eventually have all sworn personnel with four-year degrees. The year before the Commission published its find- ings, the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance undertook the encouragement of higher education for law enforcement through a series of curriculum development grants to 2- and 4-year institutions throughout the nation. Altogether, 24Charles W. Tenney, Jr., Higher Educational Pro- grams in Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, U. S. Depart- ment of Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, National Institute on Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (June, 1971), p. 2. 37 twenty-eight colleges and universities received forty- eight grants totaling nearly one million dollars. First priority was given to schools in states which had no higher education programs in Criminal Justice. Second priority was given to colleges in metropolitan areas without such programs. Funds were supplied to fourteen institutions to develop two-year programs, to eight insti- tutions to develop four-year programs, and to six institu- tions to develop both two- and four-year curricula. Fifteen of the programs funded were the first of their kind in their state. All but one of the grantees developed and now have in operation a degree program in Criminal Jus— tice.25 This funding of programs added to the list of Criminal Justice higher education programs that had begun in the early 19003, and generated greater expansion which has not yet peaked. The Problems in Curriculum For years the academic world's age-old problem of defining the difference between "education" and "training" has existed. The endless argument has not failed to surface in Criminal Justice. According to one writer in The Task Force Report: The Police: 251bid. 38 The trained man differs from the educated man in that he has developed skills and attitudes needed to perform a complex task. The educated man on the other hand has developed the capacity to judge the worth, the performance, and the excellence of human action.26 To some degree, however, the issue of education versus training is a spurious one. This is not to say that distinctions between the two are not real, or that the emphasis in higher education programs should not be on education rather than training. What according to one author always remains unmentioned in discussions concern- ing the problem, is the fact that, unlike most other pro- fessional education which is lodged generally in the graduate schools, Criminal Justice higher education is working at the undergraduate level. No intelligent indi- vidual would presume that the holder of a baccalaureate degree in Psychology, or Sociology, or English, or History is particularly professional in these fields. His profes- sionalization will come, if at all, in graduate school and beyond. And even in the graduate curricula of any of these disciplines, as in Law or Medicine, there is a necessary element of training.27 The reason this question comes about in Criminal Justice is that much of the curriculum is heavily laced with training courses. But properly the question is not 26The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police, p. 127. 27Tenney, p. 6. 39 whether a course, a curriculum, or a program is "education" or "training," for both are generally conceded to be neces— sary, and there is no logical reason why either or both should not be taught in college. There are, however, practical and empirical reasons why training subjects should be kept at a minimum or even completely excluded from the college curriculum. These reasons concern the nature of the subject matter, the instructors, and the institutions. For instance, most training subjects such as firearms, first aid, typing, defensive tactics, and the like can be taught in a relatively short time. And in most cases such subjects can be taught by persons who require no more edu- cation or expertise beyond that which extends to the subject matter itself. When these factors are considered and judged with an awareness that most states either have, or are in the process of creating, academy training programs for law enforcement, the inclusion of training subjects in a college curriculum seems not only to detract from the time spent on matters which the colleges specifically handle best, but it seems to duplicate the efforts of training programs as well. One must ask if, as collegiate institutions they are doing nothing more than duplicating what the police academy already does.28 There appears to be three general types of curriculum 28Ibid., p. 7. 40 patterns in Criminal Justice programs. The first, as Previously mentioned, is oriented to training; the second to professionalism; and the third to the field of social SCience. For example, a particular subject would be cate- gorized as training if it is primarily aimed at achieving maStery and application of particular rules, or at the deVe lopment of particular mechanical skills. On the other hatIl<3., a course or program designed to professionalize the Student in his field or to direct him toward the develop- ment of internalized standards of behavior could be con- Sidezred professional in nature. Courses oriented towards social science are those designed to teach about a parti- cular subject. Unlike either the training or the profes- S‘j~<>nal courses, they are not directed specifically to preparation for work in the area studied, although they may h>€3i f factual data from persons and things. The develop- nment and practice of criminal investigation in the ffield of law enforcement (University of Illinois). Eiplice Administration. The principles of administra- tzion and management in their application to law enforce— rnent, a study of the police organizational structure. Ikesponsibilities and inter-relationships of administra- tzive and line-and-staff services. An analysis of the ifunctional divisions of a modern police operation in zits application to public safety needs of the com- rnunity (University of Illinois). As one can see, these courses expand the base of SBE>€3<2:ific professionalism. Those courses considered Social Sc'z-ience, General, unlike either of the others, focus on the study and analysis of the institutions of Criminal CI . . LIEStice and related soc1a1 phenomena. Three examples of 53‘: (311 courses are: Criminology. Culture, nature, origin and development of crime; trends in Criminal Law; psychological and sociological factors involved in criminal behavior; current programs for treatment and prevention (Michigan State University). Organized Crime in the United States. The development of organized crime from the first recorded beginnings in early French and English metropolitan areas to its present position and operation in the United States. Detailed consideration of the social, political, and economic conditions which gave rise to the initial appearance of the Mafia in Sicily and eventual spread and expansion in America; attempted analysis of the political and social implications of organized crime in a democracy (University of Illinois). Juvenile Delinquency. Social and psychological factors underlying delinquency; the juvenile court and proba- tion; treatment and preventive measures (Youngstown State University). After looking at Criminal Justice curricula in the 43 general sense, let us now consider the implementation of these curricula at the various collegiate levels. Elie Community-Junior College In these two—year institutions, Criminal Justice eduCation usually falls within the realm of the Associate in Arts or Associate in Science degree. Arts The Associate in is the preparatory degree which provides for transfer to an upper-division institution while the Associate of Sc3-‘i—ence is usually a terminal program. The major difference bet-V'~7een the two is that general education type of courses are required for the Associate in Arts degree. Primary emphasis in Criminal Justice two-year pro- grams has in past years been strictly in the area of law e . . . Iliforcement, although correctional programs are beginning t O emerge . The Associate Degree programs for the most part are presently designed to prepare an individual for a ca~1l2‘eer in modern law enforcement by providing him with the 156~ekground and understanding necessary to function at the er1":ry level and to advance to the limits of his ability. with a sound educational background and the basic and s‘Decialized training provided by his agency, the police C3fficer is prepared for a career of service to his profes- S‘Z‘Lon and his community. A second advantage of a broadly-based Associate Degree program is the potential for entry into a variety 44 (315 <:Eireer patterns. While most community-junior colleges address themselves primarily to the needs of local police €i§J€311c1ies, a large number of related law enforcement and (ZirziJIuinal Justice career fields are Open to graduates of the tYPe Of programs here discussed. The following list sug- gests a few such career fields for those with either the A-A- or A.S. degree. .Federal. Central Intelligence Agency; U. 8. Secret -—T'—— o Serv1ce; Internal Revenue Serv1ce; Bureau of Nar- cotics and Dangerous Drugs; Border Patrol; Immigra- tion and Naturalization Service; Military Police; ‘Naval Investigative Service; Office Of Special Investigations (U.S. Air Force); National Park Service Police; Federal Bureau of Investigation; and others for a total of over fifty federal agen— cies concerned with some aspect of law enforcement. State. State police; highway patrol; crime control commissions; liquor control commission; fish and wild- life agencies; state narcotics bureaus; crime lab- oratories; bureaus of criminal investigation and identification; and others for a total of over 200 state agencies in the United States. Correctional. Probation Officer; parole officer; prison security officer; juvenile court officer; half- way house worker; training school staff. Private. Plant protection and industrial security; 1—__—— O . . o 0 insurance investigator; retail store security; pri- vate police; railroad, bus and airline security; private investigation.3o While some of the above career fields require edu- czeii:ion beyond the Associate Degree level, with the excep- ti«on of several federal agencies, most are open to \ 30Thompson S. Crockett and James D. Stinchcomb, (3uidelines for Law Enforcement Education Programs in Com- Eflggty and Junior Colleges (American Association of Junior Colleges, 1968), p. 9. 45 <:c>mn1niinity-junior college graduates who present a broad knowledge of the process of administration of Criminal Justice and a basic understanding of human behavior.31 One very important point must be considered here. Title; community college in the true sense is comprehensive j—Ii- riature, and as a community-serving institution should at7-":empt to meet the needs of all its members. In the case (’15 JLaw enforcement or corrections, these needs are not a‘J-‘Ways the same for all officers. For instance, Older C>fjficers, both in police service and correctional agencies, “neiil’ be more concerned with a certificate program that will Eiriiikole them to achieve more limited objectives. On the C>‘111£er hand younger students in this type of institution Vv‘i-lql most likely be more interested in the Associate Degree 2E)1?1: these reasons, the comprehensive community college Should attempt to provide all things to all peOple. Some C) . . . . . . . . :tDZJectives which become obV1ous in such Criminal Justice Q d lication programs are: 1. The development of sound associate degree programs designed to meet the long range career needs both in law enforcement and corrections. 2. Identification of more limited one-year certificate programs for in-service police and corrections per- sonnel, with shorter range educational goals. 3. Provision of opportunities for in-service officers to take one or more professional courses to meet specific job objectives such as promotion or work related background knowledge. 311bid., p. 10. \r 46 Offering of in-service training courses to provide job skills and information. 5 . Coordination Of regional basic or recruit programs for the development of competencies in personnel which will enable them to function at the entry level in law enforcement and correctional agencies.32 TO some, these objectives may seem beyond the realm of a collegiate institution's role. But it must be remembered that the comprehensive community college exists to provide Se31"‘f:lces other than the transfer function exclusively. Given these considerations, the staffing of such pI‘<>§Jrams must also be taken into account. The individual who teaches in such an institution must have at least a bachelor's degree in a Criminal Justice related area, a1— thongh a master's degree would be preferred. It is this at‘J'tlior's opinion that one who teaches at this level must also have some occupational experience in the field in o:bder to relate to the large numbers of in-service personnel in such a program. This factor appears even more critical at this level than at the upper division, for a larger petTczentage of the student population is apt to be seasoned in‘service police and correctional Officers. Another fac- tQJ': which must not be overlooked is that faculty members in this type of program need to gain a great deal of rap- 1DQrt with local agencies. This attempt creates in some instances excessive stress for a new faculty member with no fI'Leld experience. In many cases he is considered 32Ibid. 47 Liricaiizilified to be teaching in the program. Examples of those who seem to face this problem are new program direc- tors who are ex—FBI agents and retired military police Of ficers with no experience in the problems of state, C=<>1111ty, or municipal agencies. It becomes obvious that those who teach in the two- Year community-junior college programs are faced with a three-fold responsibility: to the students, to the police atrléi corrections field, and to the community college itself. 1. Responsibilities to the student a. To offer occupational guidance to the entering student. b. To provide continued educational and career guidance and follow-up after graduation. c. To develop through the curriculum offerings the necessary competencies in communications and human relations to insure success in the field. d. To meet the occupational needs of the student through professional knowledge. e. To aid the student during and after his formal - training and employment in further educational develOpment. f. TO encourage the concept of continual education through formal and informal instruction. g. To give students periodic evaluation of their classroom and laboratory progress. 2. Responsibilities to the Career Field a. To acquaint the police and correctional em- ployers with their responsibilities for co- operative work experience (cadet programs). b. TO offer to the field the best possible candi- dates to meet their employment needs. 48 To keep the field informed of school services available. To provide assistance in evaluating a student's progress on the job. To offer programs of continuing education in the field. To offer advice and assistance of law enforce- ment agencies when solicited. Responsibilities to the Community-Junior College a. b. f. 9. To conduct necessary studies of occupational needs, surveys, or research. To insure that the curriculum reflects the current needs of the field. To inform and work with the counseling and guidance department on mutual problems of occupational education. To comply with all regulations, reports, etc. necessary for smooth functioning of the criminal justice program. To keep the administration informed of cur- rent happenings in the law enforcement field as they pertain to the educational program. To conduct a program that is consonant with the philosophy of the institution. To foster their own professional qualities.33 In general consideration of the curriculum in two- year Criminal Justice programs, a number of things have become evident. To begin with, almost any community-junior college in Operation today can offer the actual or poten— tial police or correctional officer a year's course in English Composition. Likewise, it can expose the individual 33Ibid., p. 15. 49 to the organized study of society and human behavior, along with social problem analysis. In addition, courses are available in psychology, mental health, understanding group interaction, and personality development. Courses of this nature, it is hoped, will provide a broader base Of ref- erence for each individual, and a greater understanding of human action. In the professional sense, these programs are providing and will continue to provide in-service and pre— service students with the fundamental tools necessary to function in the field. This segment will consist of courses such as Introduction to Law Enforcement, Introduction to Corrections, Police Organization and Operations, Basic Criminal Law and others. Thus it can be said without reservation that the community-junior college programs are making a significant contribution to this discipline and to society as a whole. The Baccalaureate Programs In comparing the differences that exist between the two- and four-year curricula, a number of considerations are readily apparent. To begin with, the four-year programs for the most part follow, as do the two-year, the three above-mentioned general areas Of training, professional, and social science. Probably the major variable lies in the amount of course work available in the professional and social science categories. As the trend indicates, today 50 a larger volume of students than ever before is com- pleting the general education or liberal arts courses in the community-junior college prior to transfering to an upper-division program. This then creates, for the upper- division institution, a student who is ready to devote his time to his major area of study. For this reason, and rightly so, the courses are more in—depth and more profes- sionally oriented. This is not to imply that flexibility is unavailable for generalized study in the social sciences-- most institutions provide for a significant number Of electives. The training aspect‘is less evident here than in the two-year institutions. This is to some extent based on the stand taken by the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice in the 1967 Task Force Report: The Police. The Commission's examination of programs discloses that many of them are highly vocational in nature and are primarily intended to provide technical skills neces- sary in performing police work. College credit is given, for example, for such courses as traffic con- trol, defensive tactics and patrol procedures. Al- though there is a need for vocational training, it is not and cannot be a substitute for a liberal arts education. Therefore the wisdom of giving degree credit for technical courses must be questioned. Training may be properly offered at college or junior college facilities but not as part of the school's basic program. When courses are offered for voca- tional training they should be considered as such and not as degree credit offerings of the institution.34 In the light of these and other factors, some 34The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police, pp. 127-28. 51 research has been done to determine just what should exist in the baccalaureate curriculum. In 1969 a study was conducted by Professor Richard F. Marsh of the Department of Criminology and Corrections at Florida State Univer- sity. It was entitled "A Core Program Proposal of Under- graduate Studies for the Professional Preparation of Law Enforcement Personnel in Four-Year Colleges and Universi- ties." In this project Professor Marsh administered a survey to forty—seven department heads of institutions Of- fering undergraduate programs in law enforcement leading to the bachelor's degree. The purpose of the survey was to determine the content of the present curriculum and to obtain opinions as to what respondents considered a needed and appropriate core curriculum. The respondents were also requested to submit a list of two or three persons they considered outstanding educators or professionals in the field, to serve on a panel of experts in order to appraise and criticize an initial core program. The tenta- tive core program for a four-year law enforcement curricu- lum was then submitted to the panel for evaluation. Each respondent was asked to categorize core- program areas he considered "essential," "deSirable but not essential," or "unimportant to professional preparation." All respondents were encouraged to add what they considered core-program areas. Each was also requested to indicate the amount of time to be included in each aspect of the core program. This amount of time was allocated on the 52 basis of semester hours to be devoted to each core area. All members were asked to provide a rationale for each program area marked "essential."35 The 45 department heads who responded indicated current requirements within their core programs, as shown in Table 1. As can be seen from Table 1, almost all re- quired at least one course in Criminal Law as well as Police Administration and Criminal Investigation.36 In analyzing the reactions Of 30 Of the 37 expert panel members who responded to the "core," however, some- what different results were recorded (See "Instrument," Appendix B). The first area listed, Psychology, which con- sidered developmental theories of personality and social factors, showed a rating of "essential" by 80 per cent of the panel. Ninety—seven per cent rated as "essential" "Human Relations Skills," while only 13 of the initial 45 programs presently show a course of this nature in their core. Legal aspects, on the other hand, which was required in 38 of the 45 programs on the initial questionnaire, was rated "essential" by 100 per cent of the panel. Thus, what is considered "essential" by the panel in some cases is consistent with existing programs, but in other instances it is not. 35Richard F. Marsh, "A Core Program Proposal of Undergraduate Studies for the Professional Preparation of Law Enforcement Personnel in Four-Year Colleges and Uni- versities," Unpublished Advanced Master's Thesis, Florida State University, 1969, pp. 21-29. 36Ibid., p. 31. 53 Table 1. Required Core Law Enforcement Courses in Res- ponding Four-Year Colleges and Universities as of February 1969 (by frequency) (N = 45) Course Title Frequency Criminal Law 33 Police Administration 36 Criminal Investigation 34 Introduction to Law Enforcement 27 Juvenile Delinquency 23 Administration of Justice 13 Rules and Laws of Evidence 17 Traffic Control 17 Criminalistics l6 Abnormal Psychology/Deviant Behavior 14 Introduction to Corrections 13 Introduction to Criminology 13 Police Problems and Practices 13 Police-Community Relations 13 Patrol Procedure 12 Statistics/Research Methods 12 Senior Seminar 11 Internship 9 Police Records 6 Report Writing 5 Firearms Training 4 First Aid 3 Vice Control/Organized Crime 2 Data Processing 2 Public Administration 2 Polygraph/Interrogation 1 Typing 1 Foreign Language 1 Narcotics and Drugs 1 Source: Richard F. Marsh, "A Core Program Proposal Of Undergraduate Studies for the Professional Preparation of Law Enforcement Personnel in Four-Year Colleges and Universities," Unpub- lished Advanced Master's Thesis, Florida State University, 1969, p. 31. 54 Therefore, in evaluating the effects of this study it is believed that a number of significant things have been shown. To begin with, our baccalaureate programs are not in content even what their creators think they should be. The reactions of the panel indicate a trend in four- year programs towards the social science model. Also in this evolution from the training to the combined profes- sional/social science curricula, these programs are bridging the gap to the academic world as previously recommended by the President's Commission. The Master's Degree Programs Other than in the community-junior college, the academic world perceives the Ph.D. as the union card to success. If this in fact is true, and assuming most jobs in what is known as the "outside world” can be Obtained with only the bachelor's degree, some obvious questions arise: Of what use is the master's degree to the man or woman who earns one? For what professional or cultural functions does it prepare one? What demand will there be for persons who earn master's degrees during the years ahead? For those who expect to earn a Criminal Justice related Doctor of Philosophy degree, the master's program may simply be a valuable part of doctoral training. A great majority of Ph.D.‘s earn master's degrees on the way to the doctorate. Whether or not this need be, is a case 55 for debate. The point is that there are many master's degree holders who will never obtain the Ph.D. Where then can these people find Opportunity? In Criminal Justice the holder of a master's degree can work in many areas where more than a bachelor‘s degree is required or may be an added advantage. For example, in federal law enforcement agencies, one who holds a master's degree may enter civil service at a higher rating. In the case of local law enforcement, ad- ministrative positions are more readily obtainable by the master's graduate. In the field of corrections there ap- pears a significant advantage in the areas of probation, parole or juvenile court Officer. In addition, many teaching positions in the expand- ing junior college law enforcement and corrections programs will Open for people with master's degrees during the next several years. And in some cases, due to the shortage of Ph.D.‘s, many positions, at least temporarily, will be available in four-year colleges and universities. However, no graduate student should content himself with the terminal master's degree on the assumption that he will readily find promotion, substantial salary increases, and tenure as a member of a college faculty. For in years to come, as the supply of Ph.D.‘s begins to meet the demand, this Oppor- tunity will cease to exist. Examination Of the programs that produce these individuals indicates a wide gap between defined goals and 56 means of Obtaining them. For example, the Master of Science degree at California State College at Los Angeles is intended to provide specifically occupational training in law enforcement service, with special emphasis on the development of leadership and administrative skills.37 Michigan State University somewhat similarly designs its program to further the capacities of career people in law enforcement, administration, correctional administration, and security administration. According to the catalog, areas of study in criminalistics, delinquency prevention and control, and highway traffic administration are also available.38 Eastern Kentucky University simply states that the responsibility of its program is to prepare students for careers in police work.39 Near the other end of the continuum, are programs such as those at Florida State University and the Univer- sity of New York at Albany. Florida State sees its role at the master's level as placing emphasis on both the theory and practice of social control.40 The State Uni- versity of New York at Albany states that its program 37California State College at Los Angeles, General Catalog, 1971-1972, p. 224. 38Michigan State University, Graduate Study, 1971-1972, p. 202. 39Eastern Kentucky University, Catalog, 1971-1972, Vol. 62, NO. 1, p. 160. 40Florida State University, University Catalog, 1970-1971, p. 391. 57 is a frank attempt to meet the current lack of meaningful research and education programs relating to the Criminal Justice systems of the world.41 For the most part the remaining 22 or so master's programs fall somewhere within these varied boundaries. However, in the past year or so there has been a significant effort on the part of many schools to provide a "balanced" Criminal Justice curriculum. This implies that institutions are now attempting to visual- ize Criminal Justice more as a total dynamic interacting system than as a mere conglomeration of parts. With the advent of this approach, the master's programs seem to be moving from the professional model toward the social science model, as the four-year programs moved from the training model toward the professional model. 41School of Criminal Justice, State University of New York at Albany, Bulletin, 1971-1973, p. 14. CHAPTER IV THE DOCTORAL DEGREE The History of the Doctorate The term "doctor" is derived from the Latin docere, which means "to teach." Its essential and ear- liest meaning was simply "one who teaches." The same Latin root is found in other English words such as "doc— trine," "docile" (teachable), and "document," words which no longer directly refer to the art of teaching. The usage of the title "doctor" is believed to have begun in the twelfth century as Europe emerged from the Dark Ages. At about this time learning and education became highly valued. To meet the demand, certain educated in- dividuals set themselves up to provide tutelage; any teacher who gathered a group Of students around him was then called "doctor." From these humble beginnings, church schools gradu- ally grew in the larger EurOpean towns such as Rheims, Chartres, Laon, Tours, Orleans, Paris, Bologna, Salerno, 1George K. Schweitzer, The Doctorate: A Handbook (Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1965), p. 3. 58 59 and Oxford. These institutions received students from all over the Western world. The early curriculum was restric- ted to the arts of language, oratory, logic, mathematics, astronomy, music, philosophy, theology, medicine, and law.2 The masters of these schools organized into guilds and set up rigid requirements for those wishing to join their ranks. They would award a teaching license only after these requirements had been met. Some consider this to be the first prototype of the university degree.3 By 1130 and 1160, two such institutions at Paris and Bologna had become large enough to be called "univer- sities." It is said that when one graduated from either of these he was granted jus ubicunque docenti, "the right to teach anywhere."4 Although the early guilds had previously made doctors of students, it is believed that the first actual granting Of degrees occurred at Bologna in the twelfth century, the degrees of Doctor of Canon Law and Doctor of Civil Law. From this beginning Southern Europe continued to award degrees at the doctoral level. In certain dis- ciplines, the master's degree became a prerequisite for doctoral study, and in the German universities, the Master 5 of Arts was often combined with the doctorate. As the 14th century began, the doctorate became a 21bid., p. 5. 31bid. 41bid. 51bid., p. 8. 60 significant sign of intellectual prestige. The degree was taken by many people who did not remain in the academic setting, but preferred to practice in a specific discip- line. Thus the degree took on a much broader meaning than that of teacher, referring also to practitioners in medi- cine, law, philosophy, music and other fields.6 New universities followed the guidelines established in France and Italy. There was a marked proliferation of universities in the Scandinavian countries as well as in Britain, China, and ultimately in the newly-settled Americas. New programs evolved, and with them came the awarding of new doctorates; the performance of original research became a requirement in almost all degree programs. By the twen- tieth century many institutions had shortened the time required for the doctorate, while others had reduced the number of required intermediate degrees.7 The Doctorate in the United States The doctoral degree in the United States evolved primarily from the German system. Yale was the first American institution to establish work leading to the doctorate and was also the first to award the degree itself. In August Of 1846, the Yale Corporation authorized a faculty committee to look into the possibility of Offering studies 61bid. 7Ibid., p. 11. 61 beyond the bachelor's degree for graduates of Yale and other institutions. From 1846 until 1860, during which time a Department of Philosophy and Arts was created, this de— liberation took place. In 1860 the department was authorized to offer the degree Doctor of PhilOSOphy "to retain in this country many young men, and especially students of Science who now resort to German Universities for advantages of study no greater than we are able to afford."8 In 1861 the Doctor of Philosophy degree was awarded to three men. The degree required a two-year course of study beyond the bachelor's degree, and was comprised of examinations in Greek and Latin as well as a thesis presenting the results of an original research project.9 A number of other institutions followed the prece- dent set by Yale. The Doctor Of Philosophy was awarded by New York University in 1866, the University of Pennsylvania in 1871, Cornell University in 1872, Harvard University in 1873, Columbia University in 1875, and the University of 10 Harvard, which had awarded its first Michigan in 1876. Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1873, also granted the Doctor of Science degree (Sc.D.) in that same year, the first doctorate other than the Ph.D. to be earned in the 8Everett Walters (ed.), Graduate Education Today (Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1965), p. 4. 9Schweitzer, p. 11. 1°1bid., p. 12. 62 United States. In 1921 Harvard also became the first American institution to offer the Doctor of Education de- gree (Ed.D.).ll By 1930 almost all American universities of any size or prestige Offered graduate work leading to the doc- torate. With the exception of one or two, however, graduate work was simply an extension of the undergraduate curriculum, sharing both faculty and facilities. As universities grew, the Doctor of PhiloSOphy degree took predominance, and earlier established degrees often fell by the wayside. The requirements for obtaining the Doctor of Philosophy degree remained for the most part quite similar to the requirements established by Yale in 1861. Programs required the student to hold the bachelor's degree, study for three years (although some institutions stipulated only two years) and to master two foreign languages. General examinations, written or oral, or both, were required, as was a dissertation on original research, and an oral defense of that dissertation. Americans soon recognized college teaching as a career for which one specifically prepared, and the college curriculum became divided into disciplines, or subjects, similar to those in which the teachers had done their graduate work. Thus one who held the doctorate was looked upon as a sociologist, historian, or psychologist, rather 12 llibid. Waiters, p. 14. 63 than as one who came from the ministry or public service.13 The Research Doctoral Degrees According to Oliver C. Carmichael, writing in Graduate Education, A Critique and Program, the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the United States has a unique status. In the profession of college teaching it is the union card. With rare exceptions a teacher cannot rise to the top without it. But government, business, and industry also hold it in high esteem and employ almost half of those produced by the universities eaCh year. They could use more if they were available in certain fields; indeed, much of the research they require is done by professors in the universities. According to Carmichael, there are two poles of the doctoral degree--teaching and research. It can be seen that from the doctorate's inception in this country it has tried to fill both of these needs. The degree is often referred to as the badge of the proven investigators, whether used in the classroom, laboratory, government or private enterprise.14 In the United States today over 176 institutions offer the Doctor of PhilOSOphy degree in one or more areas of study, and approximately 1300 such degrees will be awarded this year. The requirements for the degree in these institu- tions are quite similar. Usually the student is admitted 13Ibid., p. 15. 14Jane Graham, (ed.), A Guide to Graduate Study: L Programs Leading to theggh.D. Degree (Washington, D. C.: The American Council on Education, 1965), p. 3. 64 into a doctoral program upon completion of a master's degree if he meets certain additional criteria. He is often requested to present letters of reference concerning his ability to perform at the graduate level. He may also be asked to take standard entrance examinations, and present transcripts of his previous work. Once admitted, the student then takes qualifying examinations shortly after completion of preliminary coursework. These may be oral, written, or sometimes both. In a large number of Ph.D. programs today one is also re- quired at some point before completion of coursework, to demonstrate reading ability in at least two foreign lan- guages. Gradually the latter requirement is being elimina- ted in many institutions today, or is left to the discretion of individual departments. In many cases, completion of a sequence in computer application and/or language, or a statistical sequence may be submitted in lieu of one or both languages. When the student has fulfilled any such requirements, together with the major portion of coursework, he may pre- .sent himself for comprehensive examination. This usually consists of narrative writing in one's area of concentra- tion so that his professors may evaluate his ability in his field. Such examinations are sometimes administered orally. When the student has passed the comprehensive examinations, completed his coursework, and met the 65 existing language requirement, he is then entitled to pre- pare his dissertation. This is done by writing a prospec- tus which outlines the subject and method Of study and the student's justification for choosing the dissertation topic. When the prospectus is approved, the student may proceed to write his dissertation. Upon its completion, and an oral defense thereof, he is then awarded the Doctor of PhilOSOphy degree. Although the aforementioned procedure describes most academic research degrees today, there are some variations. For example, one need not always Obtain a master's degree prior to entering a doctoral program. A number of disciplines, especially the natural sciences, bypass the master's and the student simply proceeds directly toward the doctorate. In most cases the time saved is that which would be expended on the master's thesis. In doctoral programs the amount of actual credit hours may vary widely from institution to institution, as well as within individual university departments. The decision is based on the evaluation of the senior profes- sor working with the candidate and what best fits his needs and goals. Some programs, however, do set a minimum, usually not less than a year or a year and a half's coursework. Supervision of doctoral students is usually by a committee of three to five senior faculty members who over- see the candidate's work. This committee is ultimately responsible for the student's completion of established 66 requirements in the proper sequence. Upon the student's completion of his dissertation defense, they as a group then either certify him or not for graduation. The Doctor of Philosophy gsia Degree for College Teaéhers and Researchers Of the various occupations requiring the Doctor of Philosophy degree in our society, the most common is that of college teaching, the career choice of most Ameri- can Ph.D.'s. The perennial question is: Does the Ph.D. prepare one to teach? The answer to the question is: probably not. There is widespread Opinion that although the Doctor of PhilOSOphy degree is required for college teachers, the degree itself does not insure adequate ful- fillment of the role. This is evident in the low level of undergraduate teaching in certain areas, and the lack of interest in teaching on the part of some university professors. There is marked indifference on the part Of university administrators, and there is also the fact that the doctoral program stresses research.15 There is of course still reason for the research model. It is expected that college and university instruc- tors be profoundly familiar with the subjects they teach, and so generate intelligent inquiry and understanding among their students. To many peOple, such a pedagogical 15Walters, p. 39. 67 background is gained primarily through research. There remains, however, a problem: "Does a degree program based primarily on research meet its obligations if it fails to provide any training in the art for which it purports to prepare its students, namely college teach- ing?"16 For, teaching itself is a difficult and demanding profession. Proposals have been made, accordingly, for inclusion in the doctoral program, of instruction in teach- ing per se. One such suggestion is for instruction in modern learning theory; another is that all prospective college teachers be required to take a course in the his- tory of American higher education and in the present cur- ricula and administrative structures of our colleges and universities. According to one author, the latter idea is attractive since it would presumably inform the prospective teacher of the general institutional environment which he plans to enter, if not the particular one in which he will eventually find himself.17 The related point of debate is can teaching be taught? As far as higher education is concerned, the question remains unanswered. Although there have been some attempts at evaluation of the dilemma, no significant data exists to substantiate either pros or cons. One suggested solution is implementation of more imaginative and systematic types of teaching assistantships in order to prepare the 17 16Ibid., p. 40. Ibid. 68 prospective college teacher for his eventual role. Al- though not all who Obtain the Doctorate of Philosophy have a chance to serve as a teaching assistant, many do, and for them the experience gained by working with an established and capable teacher, complemented by relevant experimental and theoretical studies in education, can provide guidance. Ideally, such eXperience should also increase the self- confidence that comes from an intern exercising his competence.18 These are some aspects of the argument against the dissertation as a fixed requirement of preparation for college teaching. Many critics further call the disserta- tion a waste of valuable time because prospective college teachers who are forced to write a dissertation Often never again engage in publishable research. The latter criticism of the dissertation is considered a weak argument and not worthy Of serious consideration. No one attacks the writing of compositions by advanced students of music because few of them will ever have their works performed by a major orchestra, or the writing of novels by ambitious under- graduates because most of these novels will never be pub- lished.19 In spite of the many critics, the Doctorate of PhilOSOphy and the dissertation have become inseparable. The dissertation has always been the distinctive feature of 13Ibid., p. 41. 19Ibid., p. 48. 69 the degree, the mainfestation of "original research." The case is made that the experience of the dissertation has given those who have undergone it an understanding Of the way knowledge grows, of the difficulty of establishing fact and truth, and of the drudgery as well as the ex- citement of finding something new or giving new insight to old data, and that such an experience can be nothing but valuable to one who will teach at an advanced level even though he were never to undertake a program of research of 20 This is a similar scope again or publish a line. sound justification for its retention. As already briefly noted, the Doctor of Philosophy degree usually takes from three to five years beyond the bachelor's degree to complete. A major force Often inter- ruptive to this process is a student's lack of financial resources. In contrast to students who study medicine or law, those who pursue the Doctorate of Philosophy often come from a less affluent socioeconomic group. Further— more, since the Ph.D.'s profession does not, in most cases, pay as well as medicine or law, the academic student is less apt to borrow money than a student in the professional disciplines.21 Further, unlike the student of law or medicine, the doctoral candidate does not know when his program will end; he cannot, as they do, anticipate graduation with a 21 201bid., p. 49. Ibid., p. 50. 70 particular class. He is under individual contract, and it is often impossible to predict the duration of his re- search. It is quite likely that he will encounter unex- pected difficulties such as the need for additional course- work, or problems in gathering research data. His three- year time period often extends into four or more years, he may become involved in peripheral research, in teaching duties which interfere with coursework or research. In the final analysis, he faces, to greater or lesser degree, the hazard of all students: lack of sustained motivation to continue. An additional hurdle to American doctoral candi- dates, and one not faced in pursuit of professional de- grees, is the language requirement. Today this is probably one of the most controversial issues in doctoral education. The proponents of the language requirement claim that its elimination will result in a lowering of standards; they contend that knowledge of a foreign language is a cultural attribute. But if it is cultural improvement that we wish to promote, then we must consider whether or not some other use of a graduate student's time would meet this purpose better than preparation for demonstrating a minimum ability to read one or two foreign languages.22 The major argument in favor of the language requirement is the contention that if the student intends to read much of the world's important 22Ibid., p. 57. 71 literature, the lack of a foreign language restricts this possibility. This point also is somewhat questionable today, since the bulk Of all printed material is either written in, or translated into, English.23 Obviously debates such as these keep the phenomenon of the doctorate in philoSOphy in a state of flux. However, the degree has been in past generations, and probably will continue to be in the future, the symbol of the academic efforts of American universities to provide qualified, dedicated, and well-trained men and women as college teachers and researchers to carry on the aims of education.24 The Professional (Non-Research) Doctoral Degrees The professional non—research doctoral degrees are those which do not require a research project and a thesis. In most cases these degrees are connected with the healing arts, the most common Of which is the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree. This degree today symbolizes the completion of basic training in the practice of medicine. In most cases it does not license a physician to practice; it simply certifies his fundamental preparation. It is a degree of the integrity and standards exacted during three or four years Of concentrated study following a regular four-year baccalaureate program.25 24 231bid., p. 58. Ibid., p. 60. 25Schweitzer, p. 21. 72 Two other such degrees are the D.D.S., Doctor of Dental Science, and the D.M.D., Doctor of Dental Medicine. The background required for these is usually two years of undergraduate work and a four-year dental program, although many who enter dental school do so after receiving a bachelor's degree. There are a number of other degrees in the healing arts which exist to meet particular needs in society. These as well as those previously mentioned are aimed at the clinical practice of a particular profession rather than research. They are simply acknowledged here in order to indicate their distinction from the academic research degrees. The Non-Earned Doctoral Degrees The non-earned or honorary doctoral degrees given in the United States are for the most part bestowed on individuals who have made some significant contribtuion to society, or who have done some type of exceptionally creative work. Although not infallibly the case, most universities and colleges presently maintain a high level of integrity in choosing recipients for their honorary 26 For the past several years, approxi- doctoral degrees. mately 3000 honorary doctorate degrees have been awarded annually. The most frequent Of these are the Doctorate of 26Ibid., p. 25. 73 Laws (LL.D.)*, Doctorate of Humane Letters (L.H.D.), Doctorate of Divinity (D.D.), Doctorate of Science (Sc.D.)*, Doctorate of Literature (Lit.D.), Doctorate of Letters (Litt.D), Doctorate of Music (D.Mus.)*, Doctorate of En- gineering (D.Eng.)*, and Doctorate of Fine Arts.27 Foreign Doctorates of the Present Day To achieve the doctorate in certain foreign countries, the path is much different from that in the United States. The time required for completion is some- what similar, usually from five to seven years beyond secondary education, but here the similarity ends. In Germany, Austria, and Italy, proceeding beyond what we consider high school means proceeding directly to the doctorate, there being no imtermediate steps or 28 In a number of other countries, however, there degrees. are one or more intermediate degrees or stages of qualifi- cation for doctoral work, in most cases only one. For example, "bachelor" is used in the United Kingdom and "licentiate" or a professional title in South America and Southern European countries. In Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Russia and Rumania, somewhat as in the United States, there are two intervening steps, the professional titles of *may also be earned. 271bid. 81bid., p. 28. 74 "specialist" and "candidate."29 Many of these systems perceive the doctorate dif- ferently than we do. In the English system one can earn the Doctorate of Philosophy by devoting two or three years beyond the undergraduate level to supervised research and thesis preparation. In addition to the Doctor Of PhilOSOPhY degree, however, there are the higher or senior doctorates, including the Doctorate of Humane Letters (L.H.D.), Doc- torate of Music (D.Mus.), the Doctorate of Science (Sc. D.), Doctorate of Laws (LL.B.), and the Doctorate of Social Science (D.Soc. Sci.). These degrees are awarded for 30 In published contributions submitted to the university. Germany, Poland and Belgium one can also do research beyond the doctorate which leads to additional recognition or a higher doctorate. Having looked at the historical, functional, and international aspects of the doctoral degree, let us now move to those doctoral programs specifically related to the field of Criminal Justice. 3O 291bid. Ibid. CHAPTER V DOCTORAL PROGRAMS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE This chapter presents the descriptive data on those institutions presently awarding a Criminal Justice related degree at the doctoral level. It includes the general history of the institution, the origin Of the department or program of Criminal Justice, the objective of the doc- toral degree, the general course Of study, and the require- ments for admission and completion of the degree. As previously mentioned, there are in the United States only nine institutions which award such a degree: 1. 2. Florida State University (Tallahassee), Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Criminology Michigan State University (East Lansing), Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Science (Criminal Justice/Criminology Option) Sam Houston State University (Huntsville, Texas), Doctor of Criminal Justice The State University of New York at Albany, Degree of Doctor of PhilOSOphy in Criminal Justice The University of California at Berkeley, Doctor of Criminology 1Appendix A contains a description of coursework available in the Criminal Justice doctoral programs of these institutions. 75 76 6. The University of Maryland (College Park), Degree of Doctor of PhilOSOphy in Sociology (Specializa- tion in Criminology) 7. The University of Montana (Missoula), Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology (Emphasis on Criminology) 8. The University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia), Degree of Doctor of PhilOSOphy in Sociology (Specialization in Criminology) 9, The University of Southern California (Los Angeles), Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Public Adminis- tration and the Doctor of Public Administration Degree (Emphasis on Criminal Justice). Each of these programs will be considered separately. The Florida State University History of the University The Florida Legislature, in 1851, passed an act authorizing the establishment of two state colleges--one east and one west of the Suwanee River--but it was not until 1857 that the school received its first student; at that time it was known as the Seminary West of the Suwanee. The institution progressed through a series of historical eras and changes in its educational missions, being known at various points in the latter half of the nineteenth century as the "West Florida Seminary," and as "Florida University," and in the first half of the twen- tieth century (1909-1947) as "Florida State College," "Florida Female College," and the "Florida State College for Women." 77 In 1947 the Florida Legislature made the institu- tion coeducational once more and designated its new title as "The Florida State University." In the years since, the University has experienced a four-fold increase in student enrollment and a rapid expansion of its graduate programs of research and study. The Florida State University's progress since 1947 has been termed by some educators as "a modern miracle." Although the University did not award a doctoral degree until 1952, it has reached the high level of dinstinction of those two-dozen public institutions in this country which produce more than one hundred doctoral graduates each year. By the end of the 1968-69 year, the University had awarded a total of 1,601 doctoral degrees. As one of the three oldest universities and the second largest university in the State System, The Florida State University has been designated by the Board of Re- gents for continuing leadership at the graduate levels of education. In 1947 there was practically no graduate program. In 1957 there were 888 students working toward graduate degrees. This number of graduate students had increased by 1969 to 3,340. Under the master plan Of development for the Uni- versity System, it is expected that The Florida State Uni- versity will have more than 10,000 graduate students of a total enrollment of 28,000 by 1975. Twenty years ago the University had practically no 78 support in contract and grant funds. Today it receives some $15,000,000 each year from local, state and national agencies, foundations, and industries. Nearly all academic divisions of the University are actively engaged in graduate research and graduate degree programs, with a majority of the research being conducted within the separate schools and colleges under the supervision and coordination of the University's Director for Research and Graduate Dean. In addition to research conducted in the various academic divisions of the University, a number of facilities and institutes are devoted to specific research interest in government, social science, human develOpment, human learning, molecular biophysics, nuclear studies, and computing. Additional University faculty engage in re- search in the field of education and in many areas of the fine arts-~from language and literature to music and drama. The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program The impetus for a Criminal Justice program at Florida State University, as mentioned earlier, came about in 1953, when, under the directorship of Dr. Vernon B. Fox, a Department of Criminology was formed within the School of Social Welfare. In this program a student at the under- graduate level had an option of a tracking system which led to a Bachelor of Science or a Bachelor of Arts Degree in either Law Enforcement, Criminology, or Corrections. From 79 this beginning a master's program soon emerged, providing for the Master of Arts or Master Of Science option. The doctoral degree at Florida State did not come about until 1956. In that year Dr. Fox submitted a proposal to the Florida Board of Regents requesting a Doctor of Philosophy degree to be awarded jointly by the Departments of Criminology and Sociology. This was ap- proved in December of 1956, and the program admitted its first three students in September, 1957. Under Fox's pro- posal, both departments had to agree on the admission of new students. The program required sixteen semester hours in sociology as a prerequisite to admission. Once the student was in the program the required courses consisted of nine semester hours in sociology; the remaining thirty- one or more credits were to be in corrections, law enforce- ment or other courses deemed advisable by the supervising committee. This program required two languages, a written and an oral comprehensive examination, and successful defense of a dissertation. However, due to internal problems at the University, the program was discontinued. In 1969 and 1970 friction between the Departments of Criminology and Sociology made cooperation difficult. At this point Dr. Fox, with faculty assistance, presented to the Board of Regents a new pro- posal for the creation of a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Criminology (not including the prior sociology Option). This program was approved in April of 1971 and Florida 80 State University today Offers the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Criminology. The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree Criminology, as the scientific and scholarly study of crime, criminals, and the Criminal Justice system is an interdisciplinary area of study of vital importance in solving major social problems. There is little doubt that crime is Of prominent local and national concern, clearly evidenced in coverage by news media, public Opin- ion polls, and legislation at all levels of government. Unlike other fields in which a saturation point is being reached in the matriculation of Ph.D.'s, there is a cri- tical shortage of qualified Ph.D.'s in the burgeoning science of criminology. There is a paucity of academically oriented criminologists to fill faculty positions in the numerous programs being develOped at the junior college and bachelor's level within Florida and around the nation. In addition, there is great demand for academically qualified researchers in criminology and for well trained experts in various segments of the Criminal Justice system. This shortage may be of long duration because of the limited number Of doctoral programs which exist in the field of criminology. Although Florida State's program is not aimed dir- ectly at training practitioners, this need is being met indirectly by providing the faculty needed by other 81 universities developing programs in this area. In the past, the criminology program at The Florida State Univer- sity has emphasized the preparation of practitioners for the Criminal Justice field. Now that other schools are beginning to fill some of the gaps in this area, the faculty of the Department of Criminology feels that its role should shift to doctoral training for positions as academic scholars in criminology, while continuing to pre- pare middle and higher level practitioners. Since crime is an extremely complex problem, en- compassing a large variety of phenomena, the study of crime must be equally broad. Criminology is an inter— disciplinary field of study, encompassing the contribu- tions and approaches of many of the social and behavioral sciences as well as areas of study such as law and ethics as they are related to the phenomenon of crime. The dis- tinctive task of the field of criminology is to provide a conceptual framework for the integration of contributions from the various disciplines in the study of crime. Be- cause Of the nature of the task, a very close integration of the disciplines is required. This integration Of various disciplines in turn demands an administrative struc— ture which is amenable to the development of an interdis- ciplinary program. Central housing of a criminology program provides a clearly discernible academic reward structure for faculty, reduces departmental competition, and permits greater flexibility in program development. Combining the 82 contributions Of several overlapping disciplines in an interdisciplinary department of criminology provides an academic program in proportion to the magnitude of the crime problem. In short, criminology as a field of study can be developed most intelligently and economically within a single academic department. The Department of Criminology at The Florida State University enjoys an excellent national and inter- national reputation among criminologists and professionals in all areas of the Criminal Justice system. It has had years of experience in providing the Doctor Of Philosophy in Criminology jointly with the Department Of Sociology. The Department of Criminology at The Florida State Uni- versity is perhaps the most academically oriented of the several criminology programs developing rapidly throughout the United States. The Department of Criminology is qualified to educate at the doctoral level the criminolo- gists sorely needed by universities and colleges in Florida and the rest of the nation. Therefore the principal ob- jective of the Doctor of Philosophy program is to produce critical scholars with thorough grounding in behavioral science and academic competence in, and orientation toward, research and teaching in the interdisciplinary field of criminology. 83 The General Course of Study for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Criminology The Doctor of PhiloSOphy in Criminology is a re- search degree designed to produce the critical scholar. Programs are administered on the basis of this concept and under the assumption that it will foster disciplined ef- fort and high endeavor on the part of the student. The degree is granted only to students who (1) have mastered definite fields Of knowledge so that they are familiar not only with what has been done in their specific fields, but also with the potentialities and op- portunities for further advances, (3) have demonstrated capacity to do original and independent scholarly investi- gation or creative work in their specific field, and (3) have ability to integrate their specific field of specialization with the larger domains of knowledge and understanding. After the student has earned a master's degree or forty-eight quarter hours of graduate credit, he must spend on The Florida State University campus a period of continuous enrollment of at least three quarters. In each of these he must be in full-time residence and must enroll for a minimum of twelve quarter hours of graduate credit. Because the Doctor of Philosophy degree represents the attainment Of independent and comprehensive scholar- ship in a selected field rather than the earning Of a specific amount Of credit, there is no departmental 84 minimum course requirement beyond that implied by the residence requirement. Individual programs are planned so as to maximize the likelihood that the student will have a sufficient mastery of his field before reaching the preliminary examination. Early in his doctoral program, the student should also consult with the Chairman Of the Department of Crim- inology and with the professors under whom he may be interested in working and from whose areas of competency a dissertation topic could be selected. The departmental chairman will appoint the major professor. He must be a member of the graduate faculty with doctoral directive status who has special competence in the student's pro- posed area of concentration. The appointment must be mutually agreeable to the student, major professor, and departmental chairman. Upon the request of the major professor, the departmental chairman will appoint the supervisory com- mittee which will be in charge of the work of the student until the completion Of all requirements for the degree. Membership on the supervisory committee must include ade- quate representation from the student's major field and a representative-at-large from the graduate faculty in an allied area. The Graduate Dean, the Academic Dean, and the chairman of the major department, if not otherwise members of the supervisory committee, may attend as nonvoting members. As soon as possible after notification of the 85 appointment of his supervisory committee, the student prepares with his major professor, for approval by the supervisory committee, a complete plan of courses to be studied. This program of studies must be signed by each member of the committee and the Chairman of the Department of Criminology. A copy of the student's program of studies is kept on file in the department. Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Program As previously mentioned, the Doctor of PhilOSOphy Degree in Criminology is a research degree designed pri- marily for persons interested in academic and scholarly careers in the field. Formal admission to the doctoral pro- gram requires the presentation of a master's thesis and a score Of at least 1000 on the Verbal and Quantitative Ap- titude Test of the Graduate Record Examination. When the master's degree is taken at The Florida State University in Criminology, the master's examination may be considered to be the qualifying examination for the doctoral program. Per- sons who have not written a scholarly research thesis as part of the requirement for the master's degree are required to produce a research paper equivalent to a master's thesis' before being formally admitted as a qualified candidate in the doctoral program in criminology. The faculty Admissions Committee considers the applications, and then prepares a general curriculum for each candidate accepted for the program. 86 Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of PhiloSOphy Degree in Criminology To complete the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Criminology at The Florida State University, the follow- ing requirements must be met. 1. Completion of the residency requirement consisting of three consecutive quarters of 12 term credits each. Completion of a core curriculum consisting of: CRM 500 Pro—Seminar in Criminology (3) CRM 501 Criminological Theory I (3) CRM 502 Criminological Theory II (3) CRM 503 Applied Statistics in Criminology (3) CRM 504 Introduction to Research Methods in Criminology (3) CRM 516 The Structure and Administration of the Criminal Justice System (3) CRM 601 Elements of Theory Construction in Criminology (3) CRM 603 Advanced Statistical Analysis in Criminology (3) CRM 604 Advanced Research Methods in Crimin— ology (3) Completion of an oral and written qualifying exam- ination by the end of the first year of course- work. Demonstrated reading knowledge of two foreign languages, usually German and French. (A computer language may be substituted for one foreign lan- guage at the recommendation of the supervisory committee.) Completion of a written and oral comprehensive examination in order to determine when the coursework has been successfully completed. Submission and acceptance of a prospectus for a dissertation. Completion of a dissertation and an oral defense thereof. Maintenance of at least a "B" average or its 87 equivalent for all work taken within the doctoral program. Michigan State University History of the University Michigan State University was founded in 1855 (as the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan), the first agricultural college in the nation, and the proto- type for 69 land-grant institutions later established under the Morrill Act of 1862. Under President Joseph R. Williams, classes began in the spring of 1857 with 63 students, four faculty, and three buildings; the curriculum during the first years emphasized farm science and rural leadership. Gradually the program of study was expanded to include engineering, home economics, veterinary medicine, and forestry; then education, journalism, history, chemistry, and music; and today the University offers more than 200 areas of instruction for undergraduates and some 300 areas for graduate students, taught by a faculty of approximately 3,000 in 16 colleges. In addition, the School for Advanced Graduate Studies and the Honors College provide extended 2All information concerning The Florida State Uni- versity was Obtained through personal interview and cor— respondence with Dr. Vernon B. Fox, Professor, Department of Criminology, School of Social welfare, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, and from the 1970- 1971 and 1971-1972 College Catalogs. 88 educational opportunities for the exceptional student. Among the University's 16 colleges are the Univer— sity College, introduced in 1944 to provide each student with a common core of learning wholly apart from the specialized disciplines, and the more recently estab- lished Justin Morrill, James Madison and Lyman Briggs Colleges, where students can obtain a liberal education in the small college setting but still retain the advantages Of the larger university. Beginning with the basic agricultural research of a century ago, the Michigan State University research pro- gram now has expanded to more than 2,000 projects which utilize such sophisticated research tools as a 56-million electron volt cyclotron and a complete computer center. Much of the research is housed in recently constructed chemistry, biochemistry, veterinary medicine, natural re- sources and food science facilities. Long known for its programs in botany, plant pathology, horticulture, and field crop science, the University has become a national center for plant research, having been selected by the Atomic Energy Commission as the base for its efforts in that field. Confidence in and recognition of the Univer- sity research program is demonstrated by the support of many research projects not only by industry but by prominent foundations, trade associations, and by several major fed- eral agencies. Recognizing almost a century ago its Obligation to 89 reach out to the people of Michigan, the University intro- duced the Outstate Winter Institutes, a concept which has grown now into the many dimensions of the Continuing Educa- tion and Cooperative Extension Services. And in following the natural course of this design in expanded education, Michigan State recently has taken its place as a leader among American universities in the field of international programs, offering a wide range of courses and research Opportunities through its new Center for International Programs, and participating in cooperative advisory and technical assistance projects throughout the world. Befitting its prominent role in national educa- tion, Michigan State University holds membership in sev- eral educational organizations; foremost among them are: The Association of American Universities, the American Council on Education, and The National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges. The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program As was discussed in Chapter III, Michigan State University also was one of the early institutions to de- velop a program in Criminal Justice. The program began in 1935 with an enrollment Of forty-five men who, along with their academic program, trained with the Michigan State Police. At that time the Bachelor of Science Degree in Police Administration was awarded. The program since then has shown great expansion (with the exception of the World 90 War II years) and continues to grow today. From this be- ginning a master's degree program eventually emerged which is designed to further the capacities of career people in law enforcement, correctional and security administration. The doctoral program, which leads to the Doctor of Philo- sophy Degree in Social Science, with a major emphasis in Criminal Justice and Criminology, came about in late 1968; the first degree was awarded in September of 1971. The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree A major premise of the doctoral program is that Michigan State University has both the responsibility and the capacity to provide a program of advanced graduate study leading to a Doctor of Philosophy in Social Science with emphasis in the field Of Criminal Justice and Criminology. The national need for such a program and the par- ticular directions it should take have been clearly out- lined by such sources as the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice, the Joint Commission on Correctional Manpower and Training, and the Manpower Administration in the United State Depart- ment of Labor in its review of "Manpower Development and Training in Correctional Programs." These views have been substantially supported by such other organizations as the National Council on Crime and Delinquency, the International Association of Chiefs of Police, and many national, state 91 and local organizations concerned with the understanding, prevention and control of crime and delinquency. All these sources point to the critical need for well con- ceived and executed innovative programs and practices as well as an increased body of research-based knowledge of both the "pure" and "applied" varieties. All these sources further point to the need for an increased understanding of, and for systemic changes in, the operations Of the myriad agencies involved in the prevention and control of crime and delinquency. The activities of these agencies should thereby form a more coherent system capable of increasing its effectiveness in the prevention and control of violations of the law while simultaneously increasing its fairness to offenders and to the public at large. In order for the College of Social Science to assist in this critical and nationwide effort, it is in- tended that the Doctorate in Social Science seek to produce three types of graduates in Criminology and Criminal Jus- tice: the researcher, the planner, and the teacher. A common core of course work is undertaken by the three specialists but additional sub-core courses are required of each individual type. The career requirements of these graduates point to certain common knowledge and skills but also point to the need for differing emphases on functions of the three. The researcher must acquire the skills of indepen- dently conceiving and executing research aimed at answering 92 the vexing questions concerning the existence, causation and control of crime. He may do so within a variety of organizational settings: centers of higher education, specialized private and public research organizations or within the agencies which have some responsibility for the prevention and control of crime and delinquency. The researcher must be capable of conducting research at com- munity or organizations levels in the form of either problem-defining or problem-clarifying research or of evaluative research in existing conditions and innovative demonstration projects. The planner must be prepared for working at dif- ferent levels of government as well as in a variety of types Of organizations. For example, each state presently is in the process Of developing statewide planning agencies to implement the conditions of the federal "Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968" and the "Juvenile Delinquency Prevention and Control Act of 1968." At the federal level there also exists a large need for personnel capable of translating legislation such as the above into workable dimensions. Additionally, separate state and local agencies in recent years have been developing plan- ning units without the benefit of leadership from trained specialists of the sort the Doctor of PhilOSOphy produces. produces. Such a planner must be capable also of under- standing and utilizing quantitative techniques in the development, implementation and evaluation of programs of 93 change. These same quantitative skills are requisite for the planner in organizing computer-based information sys- tems, management reporting systems and system design and modeling. The teacher will play a role in both graduate and undergraduate programs. Michigan State University will recruit some of the graduates of this doctoral program as will other universities Offering advanced degrees in Criminology and/or Criminal Justice such as the School Of Criminology at the University of California at Berkeley, The State University of New York at Albany, the John Jay School of Criminal Justice in the City University of New York, the Department of Criminology in the University of Montreal and other schools including the University of Indiana which are conducting long-range planning for the development of doctoral programs in the field. Given the existing state Of affairs however, the teacher graduates with the Social Science Doctorate in Criminology and Criminal Justice will find placement in universities, colleges and community colleges where their task would be more concerned with the preparation Of cur- ricula aimed at development of practitioners and especially with the development of the analytic or problem-solving skills and knowledge associated with planning for innova- tion. The teachers' skills and knowledge would overlap the above two specialists but would further entail a higher degree of skill in evaluating, synthesizing and 94 communicating the reported products and activities of the researchers and the planners. With the growth of federal, state and local organizations which sponsor short term institutes and conferences, the teacher might also play a quite significant role outside the formal boundaries of institutions of higher learning. It is Obvious from the above description of the three types of specialists that there is a good deal of appropriate overlap in the types of knowledge and skill required of each. This overlap also implies that graduates might combine functions such as the traditional teacher and researcher function or the planning and research function. It is to the social sciences that society is in- creasingly turning for a better understanding and response to the problems associated with law-violating behavior. And more than any other person, the social scientist is being asked to assume ever-greater responsibilities in providing both explanations Of these behaviors and recom- mendations for programs of prevention and treatment. By tradition, Michigan State University has com- mitted a significant part of its resources to the service of the larger society. As to its capacity to make a contribution in the fields of Criminal Justice and Crim- inology, the University has the advantage of possessing within the College of Social Science's departments and schools a number of individuals interested in and 95 qualified to deal with the area. Since social science has become increasingly important for the training of the specialist concerned with crime, the administrative rela- tionships found in the structure of the Social Science doctoral program are particularly felicitous for this pur- pose. The resources Of the University, organized in terms of the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Social Science, have the potential Of leading to outstanding careers in Criminal Justice and Criminology. The General Course of Study for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Social Science (Criminal Justice/Criminology Optioni The program leading to the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Social Science is for persons desiring to pursue advanced graduate study and research in several fields of the social sciences. The program provides a broader orien- tation than is usual in doctoral programs in the depart- ments and is based upon the principle that such a focus at the advanced graduate level, constitutes a desirable preparation for a growing number of careers. The Criminal Justice/Criminology Option offers the student a program of study directed at the application of social science methods and principles to the problem of understanding and reducing crime and delinquency. The student completes courses in basic social sciences as well as courses in criminology and criminal justice. In addi- tion, a required sequence of courses in research methods 96 and statistics, emphasizing the role research can play in action, will develop skill in conducting research and in- terpreting its findings. The Option allows the student to shape a program of study that is broad in sc0pe and as closely related to his needs and career aims as resources of the University permit. On completing his program, the student will understand the connection between theory and action, and the relatedness of the activities of the many agencies and professions involved in the administration of criminal justice. Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Program In general, admission to the Social Science doc- toral program requires that the student have a Plan A master's degree (i.e., including thesis) in social science or in one of the social science disciplines. A student who lacks such a social science background, but who is other- wise qualified, may be admitted on a provisional basis and will be given the Opportunity to make up this deficiency. Admission also includes the sending of a graduate application to the Office of Admissions and Scholarships together with all transcripts from institutions previously attended. Three letters of recommendation are required to be sent to the School of Criminal Justice. The applicant must also take the Graduate Record Examination although no grade is specified. His application, based on these fac— tors, is then reviewed by a screening committee composed 97 of three professors in the School of Criminal Justice. In some cases applicants may be accepted into the general program if they possess a bachelor's degree in an appro- priate field of study. Such an applicant's undergraduate work, however, should reflect considerable potential for the successful performance of academic work at the graduate level. Requirements for Completion of the Doctor Of Philosophy Degree in SociaTFScience (Criminal Justice/Criminoiogy OpEion) To be awarded the Doctor of PhiloSOphy Degree in Social Science under the Criminal Justice/Criminology Option, the following requirements must be met: 1. Completion of a three-term residency requirement at Michigan State University consisting of at least nine quarter credits per term. 2. Completion of the core program in Criminal Justice/ Criminology consisting of the following three courses: ‘ CJ 990 Readings in Criminal Justice and Criminology (3—5 quarter credits) CJ 930 Seminar in Criminal Justice and Criminology (3 quarter credits) CJ 992 Research Methodology in Criminal Justice and Criminology (3 quarter credits) 3. Completion of a total of 20 quarter credits in Criminal Justice/Criminology. 4. Completion of a specialist sub-core of 15 quarter credits in some area related to the student's interest. For example, education for prospective teachers. 5. Completion of 20 credits each in two additional social science disciplines. Those recommended are Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology and Political Science. 98 6. Completion of 15 quarter credits in Social Science Research Methodology and Statistics. 7. Completion Of a written comprehensive examination upon finishing the coursework. 8. Submission and acceptance of a prospectus for a dissertation. 9. Completion of a dissertation and an oral defense thereof. 10. Maintenance of at least a "B" average or its equivalent for all work taken within the doctoral program. Sam Houston State University History of the University Sam Houston State University was established in 1879 by the State Legislature as a two-year Normal Insti— tute, the first teacher training institution in Texas. By virtue of the rapid expansion and the advancing stand- ards of public education after the turn of the century, the curriculum was extended in 1918 by the Board Of Regents to include four years of college study, and the institution thus gained authorization to confer the bachelor's degree. Five years later the Legislature changed the name of Sam Houston Normal Institute to Sam Houston State Teachers 3Material contained in the section on Michigan State University was for the most part compiled for the author by Dr. John McNamara, Coordinator of the Doctoral Program, School of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University. Ad- ditional information was extracted from the 1971 MSU Book of Facts and the 1972 Michigan State University Graduate Catalog. 99 College, and in 1925 the school was admitted to member- ship in the Southern Association of Colleges and Second- ary Schools. During the decade following the First World War, many of the larger independent school districts began the practice of demanding study beyond the bachelor's degree for both administrators and teachers. Consequently, local school boards and superintendents contended that there was a grave need for more state colleges to Offer graduate work leading to the master's degree. In response to these demands the Board of Regents began to study the feasibility of permitting Sam Houston State to initiate graduate studies, and the President was invited to open the ques- tion for consideration by the faculty. In the winter of 1931 a graduate council was established for the purpose of laying the groundwork for the establishment Of a Graduate Division. On March 31, 1936, the Board of Regents decided that Sam Houston State was prepared to Open its doors to graduate students. In the summer of 1937, the first three graduate degrees were conferred. During the past ten years the institution has be- come a multi-purpose liberal arts institution. In addition to its traditional commitment to the training of master teachers, it has developed graduate programs to train re- search scientists and mathematicians, professional musi- cians, and business trainees. It has established a nation- ally recognized program for criminologists, penologists, 100 rehabilitation and correctional agents, and police adminis- trators. It has inaugurated programs Of graduate studies for pre-doctoral students and college teachers. In recognition of its broadened scope, the Legis- lature changed the name of the school in 1965 to Sam Houston State College. Almost simultaneously, the Board of Regents approved the reorganization of the College into six schools to provide the administrative, academic structure required for an expanding multi-purpose institution. The Graduate Division became a distinct entity as the School Of Graduate Studies along with the five undergraduate schools. In 1969 the Legislature again changed the name of the in- stitution to Sam Houston State University. Since the initiation of graduate studies at Sam Houston State in 1936, it has conferred 4612 graduate degrees (as Of December, 1970). Over 3600 students are currently purusing graduate studies leading to a master's degree. In 1970 Sam Houston State University received authoriziation to inaugurate its first doctoral program in the field of Criminal Justice. The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program The Institute of Contemporary Corrections and the Behavioral Sciences was established by the Texas State Legislature in July, 1965, at Sam Houston State University so that a close cooperative and collaborative relationship 101 could be developed and sustained between an institution of higher learning and the Texas Department of Corrections. Major units of the Texas Department of Corrections located in or near Huntsville are the administrative offices, clas- sification and diagnostic services, medical and psychiatric center, the institutional division of parole supervision, and institutions for youthful, adult male, and female Of- fenders. The Institute has extensive research facilities at both the University and Texas Department Of Corrections which include a large-scale, high-speed computer center coordinated with modern electronic data processing equip- ment of the Department of Corrections. Thus, laboratory and classroom are within walking distance of each other. Opportunities for reciprocal relationships between the Institute and other essential Operating units involved in the administration of adult and juvenile justice--police departments, adult and juvenile courts, family services, social service agencies, probation and parole divisions, and correctional institutions--are Offered. The Institute and the Texas Department of Correc— tions share responsibility in providing, developing, and promoting a broad program which includes: (1) training for graduate and undergraduate students interested in preparing for careers in the various correctional areas of crime control and in correctional administration; (2) work- shops and training institutes for the continued professional training of those already employed in specialized 102 correctional programs and in the management of correctional institutions; (3) consultation and technical assistance to correctional agencies in program develOpment, personnel training, and institutional management; and (4) promotion of research, demonstration projects, and surveys of pertinent problems in the field of delinquency, crime and corrections at both a state and national level. The Institute is an educational agency designed to serve at college level institutions of higher learning, departments and divisions responsible for the administra- tion of criminal and juvenile justice, non-correctional agencies such as the school, mental health clinics and psychiatric hospitals providing services to public offenders, social rehabilitation and social service agencies, graduate and undergraduate students, and correctional and social service practitioners in Texas, the Southwest, and nation— ally. The knowledge areas which provide the foundation for curricula development, technical and consultative services and research endeavors are rooted in the behavioral sciences but extend far beyond a single behavioral science, a single discipline, or a single profession. The programs of the Institute involve a multidisciplinary study of the behavioral sciences with special emphasis on social and psychological deviance and the responses of society to such deviance. The student in the Institute at Sam Houston State University may earn a degree or a specialized certificate. Degrees offered are as follows: 103 Doctor of Criminal Justice Master of Arts in: Police Science and Administration Criminology and Corrections Social Rehabilitation and Social Services Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science in: Law Enforcement and Police Science Criminology and Corrections Social Rehabilitation and Social Services Certificates are Offered in: Law Enforcement and Police Science Criminology and Corrections Social Rehabilitation and Social Services. The curriculum represents an orderly progression of course material from introductory courses for freshmen and sophomores to concentration in major areas during the junior and senior years, to seminars and practicums for the graduate student. The Objectives Of the Doctoral Degree The Objectives of the Doctor Of Criminal Justice degree awarded at Sam Houston State University are to pre- pare leaders, administrators, and teachers who are or will be charged with handling the complex problems and insti- tutional arrangements arising from the phenomena of crime and delinquency. The General Course Of Study for the Rgctor of Criminal Justice Degree Since the degree Doctor of Criminal Justice is the only doctorate awarded at Sam Houston State University, no 104 institutional guidelines as to what must exist in all doctoral programs preceded its inception. The general course of study for the degree is determined by the enter- ing student on an individual basis in consultation with a committee of the graduate faculty. Since this program has yet to award its first degree, many of these considerations are still in a state of flux. Requirements for Admission to the Doctoral Program To be considered for admission to the doctoral program, the student must complete and forward an appli- cation for admission, medical history form and graduate information sheet. Three letters of reference must be submitted to the Dean Of the Graduate School. Also he is required to write an essay concerning his reasons for de- siring entry into the doctoral program. The student must also file two complete official transcripts of all pre- vious college work taken. These forms must be on file in the Office of the Dean at least four weeks before the student's first registration. Only those students who can meet certain standards should apply. First, the student should have an under- graduate degree in law enforcement, corrections, social services, one of the behavioral sciences, in government or in economics. Candidates with degrees in other fields may be admitted under special circumstances if their trans- cripts show courses in advanced study in the behavioral 105 sciences. Second, he should possess one of the following post—baccalaureate degrees: Master Of Social Work, Bache— 1or of Laws, Doctor of Jurisprudence, or a Master of Arts or Master Of Science in one Of the fields mentioned above. Experience in writing a thesis is highly desirable and an Admissions Committee examines the transcript of the appli- cant for evidence of thesis preparation or its equivalent. In appropriate cases the student will be required to pre- pare and defend a thesis while at Sam Houston State. In special cases a mature student who has only a baccalaureate degree may be admitted directly into the doctoral program in Criminal Justice, but in this event the student must complete the requirements for the Institute Master of Science degree before being admitted to candidacy for the doctoral degree. Third, the student must have demonstrated profi- ciency in oral and written English and evidence of scholastic achievement and potential to satisfy the Ad- missions Committee. In deciding upon admission, the Admissions Committee considers the applicant's score on the Graduate Record Examination, the grade point average at the baccalaureate and master's level; professional experience and standing; contributions to the field Of Criminal Justice; and ability to do graduate study at a high level Of dedication and achievement. Applicants with a score on the Graduate Record Examination of less 106 than 1000 or a grade point average below 2.5 on a scale of 4 would be at a considerable competitive disadvantage in obtaining admission to the doctoral program. Requirements for Completion of the Doctor of Criminal Justice Degree Each candidate for the doctoral degree is held responsible for seeing that he meets the requirements out- lined below: 1. Completion Of 48-60 semester hours beyond the master's degree depending upon the student's academic preparation and professional goals in accordance with a degree plan prepared by a committee of the graduate faculty. At least 30 hours of coursework in residence, of which at least 24 hours must be consecutive. At least two semesters of supervised college level teaching above the Master of Arts degree or completion of a supervised research project or supervised field administration, exclusive of dissertation project. Teaching, research or administration must be in the field of Criminal Justice. Demonstration of competency in research method- ology. Demonstration of reading proficiency in two foreign languages, or in one foreign language and one computer language. Oral fluency in Spanish is strongly recommended. Passing of a preliminary written examination before admission to candidacy, and passing of a written comprehensive following completion of all coursework. Completion of and defense of a doctoral disserta- tion which will advance knowledge in the field. Completion of the degree within six years from the first semester of registration as a doctoral student. 107 9. Maintenance of at least a "B" average or its equivalent for all work taken within the doc- toral program.4 The State University of New York at Albany History of the University The State University of New York, established by the State Legislature in 1948, comprises 70 colleges and centers. In September of 1970, 69 were conducting classes: four University Centers (two of which, Buffalo and Stony Brook, include Health Sciences Centers), two Medical Cen- ters, 13 Colleges of Arts and Science, two Specialized Colleges, six two-year Agricultural and Technical Col- leges, five Statutory Colleges, and 37 locally-sponsored, two—year Community Colleges. State University of New York at Albany, the oldest unit and one of four university centers of the state-wide system, offers undergraduate and graduate education in a wide variety of fields from the freshman year through the doctoral degrees. It acknowledges the three traditional Obligations of the university--for teaching, for research and for service to its community. 4The information on Sam Houston State University was supplied by Dr. George G. Killinger, Director, Institute of Contemporary Corrections and the Behavioral Sciences, Sam Houston State University. In addition, information was also taken from the 1971-1972 Sam Houston State University Graduate Catalog. 108 State University at Albany provides opportunities for students to study in many academic fields. Bachelor's degrees are available in liberal arts and business studies as well as in programs preparing for nursing, and teaching in secondary schools and in colleges. The strong undergraduate program is augmented by expanding graduate programs in the major liberal arts and sciences, in specialized interdisciplinary fields, and in several distinctive professional areas. Master's degrees are available in the arts and sciences, business adminis- tration, criminal justice, education, library science, public administration and social work. Doctoral programs offer further opportunities in many fields through the Doctor of PhilOSOphy, Doctor of Education, and Doctor of Public Administration degrees. State University of New York at Albany consists currently of eight degree-granting schools and colleges. They are the College Of Arts and Sciences, the School of Business, the School of Education, and the Graduate School of Public Affairs, which Offer undergraduate and graduate programs; the School of Criminal Justice, the School of Library and Information Science, the School of Social Wel- fare, which Offer graduate programs; and the School of Nursing, which currently Offers undergraduate programs. One university-wide administrative unit, the Uni- versity College, coordinates undergraduate academic plan- ning and advisement for students in the first two years. 109 A second administrative unit, the College of General Studies, is generally responsible for part-time and con- tinuing undergraduate adult education. A third university- wide administrative unit, the Office of Graduate Studies, is generally responsible for the administration of graduate affairs, and for the coordination of graduate programs and supporting research and study conducted and offered by the several schools. The Origin of the Criminal Justice Program A graduate School of Criminal Justice was authorized for the State University of New York at Albany by action of the Board of Trustees on March 11, 1965. The idea for such a school had been under consideration for a number of years. One of the early embodying public statements was in the governor's message to the Legislature Of March 23, 1962: There is a real need in New York State for academic contributions through teaching, research and leadership in the administration of criminal justice. Some Of the more important areas of need include the training of administrators and those requiring scientific background in this field and searching inquiry into crime causation, juvenile delinquency, law enforcement procedures, criminal rehabilitation and judicial doctrine relating to the trial of criminal cases. This request by the executive of the State of New York for help in facing a problem confronting his adminis- tration has also had its parallel at the federal level, resulting in the establishment of the President's Law En— forcement Assistance Administration in the Department of 110 Justice. Establishment Of the School of Criminal Justice was an attempt to meet the current lack of meaningful research and educational programs relating to the Criminal Justice systems of the world. The school is academically unique in that it is structured around a problem rather than a discipline. There are three important characteristics of the School. First, it is internally interdisciplinary. Span- ning the entire Criminal Justice system from the nature of crime to organization and operation of police agencies to these same facets of parole, the faculty is, of necessity, interdisciplinary. None of the persons currently engaged in research on and teaching about crime problems has a sufficiently well rounded base of education and experience to cover this wide spectrum. For this reason, the con- tributions of a number of disciplines have been marshalled for the planning and implementation of a program that will produce scholars better prepared than any currently avail- able to meet the challenges of the future in research and teaching on and about the problems of crime and criminals. Second, it is a major center for scholarly research on all aspects of Criminal Justice administration. A strong research emphasis serves a number of purposes: it provides the basis for educational efforts; it addresses the current major need of all Operating Criminal Justice agencies for hard data; it serves to attract t0p-level 111 faculty members; and it gains the respect of the academic community necessary for fruitful collaboration. Every faculty member has a continuing program of research. Op— portunities are available for students to participate in these projects as well as to conduct their own independent research under faculty supervision. Third, it has a primary educational function on the graduate level. This school provides graduate level education for research personnel, university level teachers with research capability, and professional policy makers. The latter might function in any Of a wide variety of governmental capacities so long as their tasks are seen in the perspective of the entire Criminal Justice process. They will be persons who can go into the system not only to administer it as it stands but to evaluate, to analyze, and to change--pioneers to accelerate the shaping of rational and responsive Criminal Justice systems. The Objectives of the Doctoral Degree In view of the need for graduate education for the Criminal Justice system, the program at State University is oriented toward the entire field rather than toward specific jobs, toward problem definition and control mech- anisms rather than to specific current crises, and toward the development of analytic capabilities rather than toward the accumulation of information. It is firmly established that this educational program is both full-time and 112 graduate level. The School of Criminal Justice is not a training center for police, parole Officers or other practitioners who require additional technical skills Of the kind that can be developed by vocational education or by in-service training. Neither is the School primarily a center for institutes and conferences of Operating agencies, although this may be an ancillary function. The School educates a high-calibre scientific and action-oriented student body. This effort assumes that graduates will be best qualified if they are cognizant of crime as one variety of social problem, Of the varied mech- anisms of societal response, of the strengths and weaknesses of the current organization and operation of the Criminal Justice system, and of the principles involved in achieving planned change, both personal and institutional. The aim is to provide the background and skills necessary to col- lect and interpret data and to arrive at the conclusions or decisions which must be reached by those who study crime or who are responsible in any way for the administration of Criminal Justice. The sequence in skills and strategies of change stresses preparation for effective implementation of decisions requiring system change, a necessary final step heretofore ignored by higher education. Consistent with the purposes and educational policy outlined above, a program has been devised leading to the degree of Doctor of PhiloSOphy (Criminal Justice). This 113 program accepts liberally educated young men and women, provides them with a sound foundation for working in re- search, teaching, or administration, and releases them to careers in research, teaching, or administration of Criminal Justice agencies. Whatever the specific career choices, the aim of the academic program is to produce future scholars and policy-makers of the highest calibre. This program is necessarily experimental. There is no exact prototype on which to model, no Council on Crim- inal Justice Education from which to seek advice. Despite this, this program affords a sound educational experience by moving the student through an examination of social problems which are associated with crime and analysis of societal reaction to these problems (with emphasis on the factors involved in choosing the criminal process as Op- posed tO other social control mechanisms), to a careful assessment of the organization and Operation of the Crimi- nal Justice system as it now functions. Attention is paid to the determination of data needs for theory and decision- making, gathering and analyzing data, the incorporation of research into the literature of the field and into the decision-making process, and to strategies and skills for promoting individual, social and organizational change. Instructional technique is adapted to the specific class aim: lecture-discussion using both text and case materials; socratic dialogue; seminar; directed reading; data processing laboratory; study visitation to Operating 114 Criminal Justice agencies; and finally, for doctoral can- didates, completion of an independently conceived and implemented program of research reported in a dissertation, Field experience in a research setting is required of all Doctor of Philosophy candidates. A period Of supervised teaching is available for those whose career goal is college teaching. This program is designed tO Offer comprehensive education in Criminal Justice system theory and operation for holders of degrees in the social sciences, in the other liberal arts and sciences, in law, and in other related professional fields. It is designed to develOp in the student a fundamental understanding of basic fields in Criminal Justice and Of background material from supporting disciplines, to provide him with Opportunity for original research in his major field of interest, and to give him the stability to perform research of a high order and to transmit its results to others. Its graduates will be qualified for positions in higher education and for imme- diate employment as staff and operating personnel at intermediate levels in any of the Criminal Justice agen— cies. In addition, they will possess the base upon which to build professional advancement to positions of policy determination and agency leadership. 115 The General Course of Study for the Doctor Of PhilOSOphy Degree in Criminal Justice As a field of study, the academic program of the School of Criminal Justice leading to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Criminal Justice) is presented in the fol- lowing four areas (with additional support Offerings): The Nature of Crime A proseminar, courses and advanced seminars in this area are designed to present currently available in- formation about crime as a social phenomenon, and to cover contemporary thinking about criminogenic factors in society and the individual. General topics include the extent and significance of crime in our social order, the social and personality correlates of criminality, variations in pat- terns Of criminal conduct (including group violations of law, and sub-cultural and cross-cultural differences and similarities as illuminated by comparative studies), and the develOpment Of criminal careers. The area also includes material relating to individual and social change as they relate to deviance. Law and Social Control These offerings are designed to provide the basis for a systematic inquiry into society's reaction to crime through the framework of law and the legal process, with a major focus on the interrelationship of legal and other 116 social control systems. The proseminar, especially designed for those stu- dents not trained in the law, is a general introduction to the nature of law, legal institutions and legal processes and other multiple systems of social control. The special- ized courses give detailed consideration to relevant legal doctrine; legal decision making processes; the creation, functioning, and regulation of crime control agencies; and the interrelationship of the various participants in the Criminal Justice process. Advanced seminars focus on such topics as the comparison of the criminal process with other systems of law which sanction the deprivation of liberty; legal issues involved in the administration of social wel— fare; the cross-cultural analysis of Criminal Justice systems in their social settings through comparative re- search; legal norms and the correctional process; mental illness and the law; sanction law and public order; auth- ority and power; indirect social control mechanisms in Criminal Justice administration; and material relating to individual and social change as these phenomena relate to the operation of social control mechanisms. The Criminal Justice Process This area deals with the functional interrelation- ships of legislatures, courts, and enforcement, prosecutory and correctional agencies in the administration of Criminal Justice. Operational efforts to control crime are viewed 117 from overall perspective as a complex organizational system with diverse sources of authority and multiple decision- making stages in the process of defining criminal conduct, discovering crime, apprehending, convicting, sentencing and treating criminal offenders. Policies and practices of police, prosecutors and defense attorneys, trial courts and correctional agencies are described, analyzed and evaluated in relation to various kinds of crime problems and to var- ious types of suspects and offenders. Particular attention is given to matters of procedural regularity, evidence and the fairness and propriety of enforcement and treatment techniques. There will be continued emphasis on the ef- fectiveness of all phases of the Criminal Justice process. Detailed attention is also given to the impact on the person of Criminal Justice processing, from the point of jpolice contact through imprisonment. Treating the Criminal ~Justice system as a system allows analysis of the conse-