. a H...

E.

  

33“”

 

 

 

 

‘ “."Myc

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE EFFECT OF GENDER AND OTHER PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ON THE ATTITUDES OF POLICE CADETS IN SOUTH KOREA

presented by

.Eui-Gab Hwang

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M.S. degree in Criminal JUStiCB

Mia/Was

Major professor

 

 

 

’7'

Date "‘ “/7 2474200;
I J

 

0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

___..___‘, ~

‘— 4' ——' .

A—c-f—w— .

 

 

 

LIBRARY

Michigan State

University

 

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due.
MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

DATE DUE

DATE DUE

DATE DUE

 

DECoa

2003

Matrices i

,. (~1—
Ucfig’g We

 

E113

'03

 

en 2&4 2095

 

"v-‘V Ff U

U"

FEB O 6 2007

 

’992

806

 

{“7“

 

V1
uke'

: A VJfl?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6/01 CIICIRCIDaleDuepGS-p. 15

THE EFFECT OF GENDER AND OTHER PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ON THE ATTITUDES OF POLICE CADETS IN SOUTH KOREA

By

Eui-Gab Hwang

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
School of Criminal Justice

2002

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECT OF GENDER AND OTHER PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ON THE ATTITUDES OF POLICE CADETS IN SOUTH KOREA

By
Eui-Gab Hwan g

The main purpose of this study is to examine gender differences in five areas of
police cadet attitudes: l) perspectives on the role of the police, 2) evaluations of the
police, 3) perceptions of citizens, 4) occupational integration, and 5) perceptions of the
role of female officers. Hypotheses are derived from theories of gender differences found
in the literature. The data were obtained from the Korea National Police Agency through
self-administered questionnaires completed by a sample of 532/1158 (46 percent) police
cadets at three police academies in South Korea.

The results provide only partial support for major, theoretical, gender differences
among these cadets with respect to their attitudes, which suggests a certain ambiguity in
cadet attitudes along the lines of gender differences. There are few differences in the
ways in which both genders perceive or conceptualize the role of the police and the way
in which the two genders are integrated into the policing system. However, female cadets
have a significantly more favorable perception of the role of female officers and citizen
support of the police than male cadets, while they are significantly less positive than their
male counterparts in their general evaluation of police officer behavior, and in comparing
Korean police with foreign police forces. The results are compared with those of
previous research in the United States. Beyond gender, this study also examines the
effect of age, education, training affiliation, police family background, residence, job

experience, and socioeconomic status, on the attitudes of police cadets.

Copyright by
EULGABIDNANG

2002

To my wife Yun and our children Jeeseon and Joonyeon

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many people I need to acknowledge who have been a very important
part of my research and personal life at Michigan State University. I would like to
express my sincere gratitude to my committee members: To Dr. Frank Horvath, chairman
of this thesis committee, who always had time to offer the proper guidance, critique, and
encouragement toward the completion of this study, I am deeply grateful to him for his
caring and superb guidance. To Dr. Vincent Hoffman, who has given me continuous
support and encouragement. To Dr. David Carter for his guidance, support, and insight
into this study. Their critical comments and useful discussions aided greatly in
improving the quality of my thesis.

Special gratitude must be expressed to police cadets and my colleague officers in
Korea: To the police cadets who voluntarily participated and sincerely responded. To the
staff officers of the Korea National Police Agency and the three police academies, whose
unselfish cooperation and assistance made this study possible. My appreciation is also
owed to my friends: To B yon gook Moon and Yunghyock Lee, whose advice and insights
added greatly to the success of this study. To Penny Gardner, a true feminist, who spent
countless hours discussing and completing the necessary final drafts of this study. I give
personal and heartfelt thanks to all of them.

Most of all. primary acknowledgement goes to my family. To my wife, Yun, and
our children, Jeeseon and Joonyeon, who gave me constant encouragement and support
although I spent many hours away from them. To my mother, Jung-Ja Park, and parents

in law, Ki-Moon Chae and In-Soon Yang, who have long supported all of my educational

endeavors with enthusiasm and confidence. To them all I say thanks because without

their love and commitment this work would have never been completed.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. X
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
I. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................... 1
II. PRESENT STUDY ........................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 2 - A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................................ 7
1. THEORY OF GENDER DIFFERENCES ................................................................................ 7
II. POLICE CADET ATTITUDES AND GENDER DIFFERENCES ............................................. 10
III. GENDER DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES IN POLICE ATTITUDES ............................. 16
Perspectives on the Role of the Police ........................................................................ l6
Evaluations of the Police ............................................................................................ l6
Perceptions of Citizens ............................................................................................... 17
Occupational Integration ............................................................................................ 17
Perceptions of the Role of Female Officers ................................................................ 18
CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 20
1. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES .............................................................................................. 20
II. OPERATIONALIZING THE VARIABLES .......................................................................... 25
Measure of Independent Variables .............................................................................. 25
Measure of Dependent Variables ................................................................................ 27

1) Measure of variables regarding perceptions of the role of police ....................... 28

2) Measure of variables regarding evaluation of the police .................................... 29

3) Measure of variables regarding perceptions of citizens ...................................... 31

vii

4) Measure of variables regarding occupational integration ................................... 32

5) Measure of variables regarding attitudes of female officers ............................... 34

III. DATA COLLECTION AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE ....................................................... 36
Data ............................................................................................................................. 36
Sampling Procedure .................................................................................................... 36
The Police Recruiting System in Korea ..................................................................... 38
l) The Line Officer Course ..................................................................................... 39

2) The Police University .......................................................................................... 40

3) The Police Staff Candidate Course ..................................................................... 41
Female Officers in Korea ............................................................................................ 41
CHAPTER 4 - DATA ANALYSES AND RESULTS ....................................................... 44
METHODS OF ANALYSIS .................................................................................................. 44
I. DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF FEMALE AND MALE CADETS ............................................ 46
II. CADETs’ GENDER AND ATTITUDES ............................................................................ 50
III. TEST OF HYPOTHESES ............................................................................................... 55
Hypothesis 1. .............................................................................................................. 55
Hypothesis 2. .............................................................................................................. 57
Hypothesis 3. .............................................................................................................. 59
Hypothesis 4. .............................................................................................................. 60
Hypothesis 5. ..................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ....................................................... 65
I. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................ 65
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 65

viii

Discussion 1: Cadet attitudes toward the role of police ............................................. 66

Discussion 2: Cadet Evaluation of the Police ............................................................. 68
Discussion 3: Cadets’ Perceptions of Citizens ........................................................... 70
Discussion 4: Occupational Integration ...................................................................... 72
Discussion 5: Cadet Attitudes toward the Role of Female Officers ........................... 74

II. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ....................................................................... 76
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 76
Implications and Policy Recommendations ............................................................... 78
Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................... 80
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 83
APPENDIX A - ANALYSES EXCLUDING THE VALUE “UNDECIDED” .............................. 84
APPENDIX B - QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................... 91
APPENDIX C - APPROVAL OF THE UCRIHS ............................................................... 105
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 106

ix

LIST OF TABLES

1. Measure of independent variables. ............................................................................ 25
2. Measure of Dependent Variables ............................................................................... 28
3. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample (Sex) ................................................... 46
4. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample; T—test for Age by Gender ................... 46
5. Crosstabulations of Gender and Demographics:

Training Affiliation, Marital Status, Education, Employment History,

Police Family Background, Residence, and Socioeconomic Status ......................... 47
6. T-test of Cadet Attitudes by Gender .......................................................................... 51
7. OLS Regression of Cadet Attitudes toward the Role of Police .................................. 56
8. OLS Regression of Cadet Evaluations of the Police .................................................. 58
9. OLS Regression of Cadets’ Perceptions of Citizens .................................................. 60
10. OLS Regression of Measures of Occupational Integration ........................................ 61
ll OLS Regression of Cadet Attitudes toward the Role of Female Officers .................. 63

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1. Background

Policing was very much a male-oriented occupation. Females have long been
excluded from this traditionally male dominated world of policing mainly because people
perceive women as too soft to do police work (Golden, 1981; Martin, 1980). More than a
decade ago, for example, Martin (1989) lamented that, in the United States, only ten
percent of police officers were females and they were virtually excluded from upper-level
management. Their roles were restricted to performing clerical duties, responding to the
needs of juveniles, and consulting female crime victims (Martin, 1989; Worden, 1993).
Golden (1981) observed that females have often felt uncomfortable (sometimes even
hostile) in traditional police environments, which curtailed the potential of female
officers to contribute to law enforcement work. There is little indication that this trend
has changed significantly in the course of the last 10 years. Most importantly for our
purposes is the fact that the situation is even worse in countries where the role of females
is traditionally restricted to domestic affairs. Nevertheless, female roles in and attitudes
toward policing are growing in importance with the strategy of community policing as
well as in the ongoing of maturation of modern society with respect to the achievement of
greater levels of equality between men and women in the political sphere. Since the
community policing model embraces some traditionally feminine qualities and applies
them to police work—in contrast to the crime fighting model, which focuses on
‘masculine’ enforcement of the law—the roles and attitudes of female officers have come

to be considered as highly important by police managers (Miller, 1998). What is

extremely clear, as argued by female criminologists, is that female officers play an
extremely important—although often unrecognized—role in the criminal justice system
including policing, and females concerns and attitudes, therefore, must be studied as an
especially critical issue (Miller, 1998; Ore, 2000).

3 Some researchers have provided empirical evidence to suggest that there is no
significant difference between female and male performance in policing (Morash &
Greene, 1986); many police managers, as well as many citizens, however, continue to
believe that officers think and behave differently depending on their gender (Fry &
Greenfield, 1980). Most research in this area in the United States, conducted prior to the
early 905, was concerned with the way in which the traditional exclusion of women from
the police department and the gender specific socialization of society have shaped
different attitudes towards policing on the part of women and men (Fry & Greenfield,
1980; Worden, 1993). Contrary to these researchers’ expectations concerning gender
differences in police attitudes, however, research findings from the United States did not
provide any significant evidence for assumptions of major gender differences in police
attitudes. It is especially worthwhile to address this issue in the context of South Korea,
furthermore, because a collectivistic Asian culture, such as that of Korea, based on
traditional Eastern and/or Confucian values, may result in meaningful findings that will
help us to better understand some of the gender issues in policing that need to be
addressed at least on an international, if not a global, level. The example of South Korea
is especially helpful because the country’s political leadership has decided to pay
extensive, positive attention to the pursuit of reforms that will result in greater levels of

gender equality in the police force. The example of South Korea may also be more-or-

less representative of Asian cultures insofar as the concept of female roles is rapidly
changing, from the traditional view based on Asian religion and philosophy to modern

concepts of equal duty and reward.

II. Present Study

This study uses data collected by the National Police Agency in South Korea.
The survey sample consists of cadets who attend three different police academies in
South Korea. Through analysis of survey data collected using self-administered
questionnaires completed by police cadets, this “studyatte'm’pts to Identifythe gap
between female and male police cadets in their attitudes toward the world both inside and
outside the police organization, including the role of police, police service, female
officers, and citizens. This author assumes that female and male police cadets have
different attitudes because they have experienced different processes of socialization
before and after entering the police academy. This assumption is based on theories of
gender differences which suggest that women and men have different attitudes
originating from early childhood as a result of different processes of socialization and the
subsequent development of different perspectives concerning standards of morality
(Gilligan, 1982; Worden, 1993). The hypotheses presented herein were developed on the
basis of previous research based on theoretical frameworks dealing with gender
differences. A review of the literature with respect to the police suggests there are at least
some areas where a gender difference exists with respect to the police as well. This study
is based on a modified form of the four categories suggested by Worden (1993), adding
the category of cadet attitudes towards female officers. This study, therefore,
hypothesizes that there are gender differences in five areas of police cadet attitudes: 1)
perspectives on the role of the police, 2) evaluations of the police, 3) perceptions of
citizens, 4) occupational integration, and 5) perceptions of the role of female officers.
The attitudes of police cadets, under the process of occupational socialization in a police

academy. 9.8.0-139? Adriance 'our understanding of gender differences in the attitudes of

people joining the police force. This study is also designed to serve as a catalyst for
future research concerning how police recruits’ attitudes change through experience in the
field, on the basis of a longitudinal examination of police attitudes. This type of study is
critically important for the development of ideas concerning how to improve police
policy and management by providing the information necessary for the development of
reasonable policies concerning gender issues in policing.

In addition to gender, this study also examines the effect of age, education,
training affiliation, police family background, job experience, and socioeconomic status,
on the attitudes of police cadets towards the five categories under consideration. This is
based on the assumption that the attitudes of cadets will differ according to their age,
prior job experience, having relatives in the police force, and differences in
socioeconomic status. One of the aims of this approach is to critically examine the
attitudes, perceptions, values and beliefs of police cadets. That is, based on cadets’
demographic characteristics, we examine the attitudes, values, beliefs and expectations
that police cadets have and what they believe about policing. This will help us to analyze
the extent to which selection or training procedures employed by police forces are
successful in finding or educating cadets who fit established profiles of police values and
beliefs, as well as how police cadets view policing and its place in the community.
Earlier research suggests that early organizational learning is a main determinant of one’s
later organizational attitudes and behaviors (Cheurprakobkit, Bouley, Hadjicostandi, &
Huang, 2000; Gorgeon, 1996). The findings of such multi-factorial studies have provided
useful suggestions to design more effective forms of police recruitment. The results of

this study, it is hoped, will also provide useful information for improving the design of

training programs that meet the expectations of today’s democratic society, since this
study examines the values and attitudes of cadets just prior to being sworn in as police
officers. Furthermore, a multi-factorial approach is necessary to investigate to what
extent gender represents an important factor in influencing cadet attitudes. Despite
cadets’ lack of actual experience in police departments, this study is important not only in
assessing police cadets’ attitudes as new members of the police force but also insofar as it
may serve to inspire a similar kind of analysis using longitudinal methodology. Such
research designs will provide profound knowledge about the socialization processes of
police cadets from police academies to police departments and examine how their

attitudes change in policing.

CHAPTER 2
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
1. Theory of Gender Differences
Some people tend to see fundamental differences in abilities and attitudes
between women and men, and they generally consider these differences to be
unchangeable. Such a viewpoint is based on essentialism, which suggests that genetic,
biological, or physiological mechanisms predetermine human behaviors and attitudes
and, thus, are not subject to change (Ore, 2000). Essentialism leads people to perceive
biological differences between women and men as central to the organization of human
society. Other thinkers, however, argue that people are socially constructed to think that
women and men are different in their attitudes and behavior. The principle assumption of
social construction theory is that what we see as ‘real’ is the result of human interaction
(Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2001; Ore, 2000). Social construction theorists, therefore,
suggest that we are not born with a sense of what it means to be male or female. Rather:
“We learn about these categories through social interaction, and we are given meanings
and values for these categories by our social institutions, peers, and families” (Ore, 2000,
p.5). Both essentialist and social construction theories, therefore, would suggest that
women and men have different attitudes towards policing even though the basic
assumptions guiding these theories are very different.
Carol Gilli gan’s psychological research provides an empirical basis for the
assertion of gender differences in attitudes. According to her work on the development
of morality among young people, there are significant, even profound, differences in

conceptions of justice between males and females; many other researchers have also

observed such differences (Menkel-Meadow, 1989; Tronto, 1987). Gilligan (1982)
performed a longitudinal study concerned with the moral development of people, which
was based on the self-descriptions of women, men, and children concerning conceptions
of self and morality, experiences of moral conflict and choice, and judgements of moral
dilemmas. The study focused on providing a clear representation of women’s identity
formation and their moral development in adolescence and adulthood. She included
differences in boys’ and girls’ relationships with their parents as well as women’s actual
and anticipated maternal experiences. She concluded that one’s psychological mindset is
formed quite differently depending on gender. Psychological differences from early
childhood formation lead males and females to develop different conceptions of morality,
which provides a basis for a theory of gender difference (Gilligan, 1982; Tronto, 1987;
Worden, 1993). According to this perspective, the morality of males is understood in
terms of rules and rights, while that of females is defined as an interconnected web of
personal relationships, summarized as the “morality of justice” for males and “that of
care” for females (Gilligan, 1982; Worden, 1993, p. 205). Gilligan and her followers
theorized that men emphasize the importance of individual rights, the preservation of
personal autonomy, and the use of logic and deduction in the uniform application of
formal rules, while women emphasize attention to problem solving, the importance of
consensual solutions, and the need to preserve relationships among individuals (Menkel-
Meadow, 1989; Tronto, 1987; Worden, 1993). Gilligan and others maintain that men and
women are inclined to adopt different perspectives according to their different
socialization experiences (DuBois, Dunlap, Gilligan, MacKinnon, & Menkel-Meadow,

1985). Work in this field leads to the hypothesis that one could find significant gender

differences in police attitudes in various areas. One could hypothesize, for example, that
male police officers would be more likely to focus on enforcing the law according to a
morality of justice, while female police officers would be more likely to follow or be

swayed by a morality of care, in service to the community.

11. Police Cadet Attitudes and Gender Differences

How police personnel see themselves, their departments, and the citizenry
depends on various socializing influences, some beginning early in life, their
occupational training, and experiences after entering the police force (Maghan, 1988).
Hopper (1977) found that police cadets had an ambiguous status somewhat like that of
adolescents. Police cadets have not finished required training and most of them have not
had any practical experience and, therefore, they know less about policing than
experienced police officers. On the other hand, cadets know more about policing than
most ordinary citizens by virtue of their interest in the police profession and the amount
of training they have already completed. Police cadets enter the police force with a wide
range of attitudes and values and experience changes of their attitudes as a result of
training and continuing education. Police cadets as well as officers undergo a process of
socialization, as with all members of social and professional groups. Occupational
socialization for police cadets is defined as the process of acquiring attitudes,
expectations, and perceptions associated with the police (Ellis, 1991). Police training is a
process of occupational socialization that is quite vigorous and intensive, and, in many
respects, is deliberately designed to have a direct impact on trainee attitudes, beliefs, and
values (Ellis, 1991). Fielding (1988) explained the occupational socialization of the
policing as follows:

Formal socialization concerns the planned efforts of the organization to transform

recruits into novice members, while informal socialization occurs in contacts with

existing members. The prime source of formal socialization is the training school

and the prime source of informal socialization is the occupational culture of police

10

officers. The influence of the formal element is greatest at the beginning of the

socialization process. Therefore, training is an important time for the organization

to secure the commitment of recruits to the values it endorses. (p. 1)
Rafky, Lawley, and Ingram (1976) have argued, for example, that cynical perspectives
developed in the academy may become a fixed behavior pattern, representing a
delinquent police subculture or way of life. Although organizational socialization occurs
at all career stages, the occupational socialization of police cadets should be considered
as especially important insofar as early organizational learning is a major determinant of
one’s later organizational attitudes and behaviors (Cheurprakobkit et al., 2000; Ellis,
1991; Gorgeon, 1996).

Some researchers have observed that police cadets in police academies learn the
ideal attitudes and behaviors that the police organization requires. Hopper (1977)
examined the socialization of police cadets in a police academy with the purpose of
studying the shifts in perspective that take place as young men moved from the status of
private citizens to that of police officers. The findings indicate that cadets coming to the
academy with different background information conceming the law enforcement
profession adopt a very idealistic perspective by the end of the training. During training,
cadets became very much aware of the fact that police work is a service profession.
According to Hopper (1977, p. 164): “Cadets were made keenly aware of the fact that
they were working for the public, and that it was the public that they had to satisfy.”
Cheurprakobkit et a1. (2000) examined cadet attitudes at the Thai Police Cadet Academy
with respect to the role of the police. The results suggested that academy training had a

significant effect on cadet attitudes and that cadets were supportive of the police role,

11

tending to focus on the aspect of service to the community. The findings also suggested
that cadets’ family background had little to no effect on their attitudes, illustrating the
way in which cadets tend to have a positive attitude towards community service
regardless of their different backgrounds. However, Cheurprakobkit et al. did find a
statistically significant difference between those officers with prior police experience and
those with none, with respect to views of the police role and attitudes reflecting concern
for the community. The findings indicate that training did not have any influence on
cadets with more than one year of police experience; their attitudes remained consistent
as they progressed through the curriculum. “The cadets with police experience already
knew what police work would include and so the academy training had no effect on their
attitudes” (Cheurprakobkit et al., 2000, p. 368).

Other researchers have focused on identifying the gap in attitudes between cadets
in training, as a process of formal socialization, and those gaining actual experience or
informal socialization. These researchers explained the gap tracking the attitude shift of
trainees or directly comparing attitudes between trainees and experienced officers.
Fielding (1986) evaluated shifts of attitude in English police recruits with a longitudinal
examination. An attitude survey was administered to police recruits in the first week of
training and again after about 12 months of experience in the field. The result indicated
that recruits for the police academy demonstrated a broader role orientation and showed
higher levels of loyalty than they did after actual experience in the field. Rafky et al.
(1976) examined a local police academy whether police recruits were found to be cynical.
The findings indicated that recruits entered the local academy with an idealistic image of

law enforcement and that this image was moderated by training, which, according to the

12

authors, did not suggest that the academy impact was negative; rather, they argued that
training resulted in the appropriate replacement of unrealistic perceptions with common-
sense-based beliefs. Ellis (1991) compared attitudes among Canadian police recruits and
experienced constables. The questionnaire was administered to new recruits, trained
recruits, and experienced constables. New recruits and trained recruits showed higher
levels of service orientation, greater acceptability of rules and authority, and higher
reliance on the citizenry than experienced constables. On the other hand, experienced
constables showed more enmity against the press as being too critical of the police and
tended to see the promotion system as being unfair. Promotion expectations were
lowered as a function of increased training and experience. There is generally a seven
rank system in Canada: Constable, Sergeant, Staff Sergeant, Inspector, Superintendent,
Deputy Chief, and Chief. The highest proportion of new recruits (32%) hoped to reach
inspector, the highest proportion of trained recruits (33%) to staff sergeant, and the
highest proportion of experienced constables (37%) to sergeant. For all groups, the
preferred function at the end of their career was criminal investigation and the least
preferred was uniform patrol.

Researchers have also observed that the effects of formal socialization in police
academies tended to be easily changed during informal socialization in police
departments. They also found that formal socialization through training of police recruits
is highly persuasive, as it provides the first encounter with the organization; however, the
effect quickly declines with increasing policing experience as informal socialization takes
over (Fielding, 1986; Maanen, 1975; Maghan, 1988). Maanen (1975) found attitude

changes among police recruits to be initially swift, but also pointed out how formal

l3

training is only one influence on the attitudes of recruits. Using a longitudinal
examination of job attitudes in an urban police department, Maanen observed that the
recruits joining the police highly motivated and committed to their new organization
through field experience. Paradoxically, the study also indicated that less-motivated
recruits were perceived by their supervisors to be better police than their more motivated
peers, and that recruits were socialized in such a way as to lose their high level of
motivation. Fielding (1986) also suggested that formal training appears to be of less
lasting important than the influence of the informal occupational culture. The findings
indicated that police recruits are rapidly socialized through practical experience as well as
the training by which they learn the required behaviors and supportive attitudes necessary
to participate as a team member of the organization. Manning (1977) also emphasized
the necessity of actual experience in explaining police socialization, arguing that the
essential basis of occupational knowledge is experience and that people who lack work
experience in the real world cannot know what it is like to be a police officer. Poole and
Regoli (1979) examined the effects of field experience onthe level of professionalism
among police recruits, assessing their attitudes immediately after their appointment to the
force and again six months later. They also observed that after a police officer had been
on the job for six months, her or his level of professionalism was significantly reduced.
Only a very few researchers have given even slight attention to gender differences
in the attitudes of police recruits. Some of these researchers have suggested that recruits
experience training differently according to their gender (Maghan, 1988), while others
see no significant differences in the development of attitudes through training between

females and males (Rafky et al., 1976). Maghan (1988) even found that female cadets

l4

that had higher educational backgrounds were less service oriented than male cadets
among recruits in New York City. A majority of female cadets in New York (71.9%) had
some college or higher education compared to 67% of male recruits. The trend was
consistent even in higher educational level: “14.7% of female and 8.1% of male cadets
had at least a 4-year college degree” (Maghan, 1988, p. 104). Maghan did not expect to
find that, at the beginning of training, female cadets were more enforcement oriented than
male cadets. However, by the end of training, female and male cadets showed similar
attitudes towards the function of the police. Rafky et al. (1976) observed no significant
differences between female and male recruits in terms of attitude development and levels
of cynicism. Throughout the course of training in the police academy, the attitudes of
most recruits were found to change from professionalism or idealism towards a neutral or

common-sense-based role orientation to their occupation, regardless of their gender.

15

111. Gender Differences and Similarities in Police Attitudes

Perspectives on the role of the police

Bell (1982) found that when focusing on service to the community, females
tended to have a broader range of role orientation rather than only enforcing the law,
which is consistent with the theoretical notion that females tend to prefer providing
altruistic service to people. Davis (1984) found that females seemed to be less concerned
with autonomy and more accepting of restrictions, which is inconsistent with the theory
that females are less comfortable with rules and authority. Worden (1993) tested officers’
attitudes regarding the variables in the area of the role of police and concluded that there
were no significant differences between females and males except with respect to
accepting legal restrictions. Females were more inclined to accept legal restrictions than
were men. These findings, therefore, are consistent with some of the notions outlined by

Gilligan, but not all.

Evaluations of the police

Some argue that females are more negative than males about police officers in
general, police organization, and police services as a result of females’ historical
exclusion from police subculture, disapproval on the part of their male colleagues, and
the masculine aspects of police work (Balkin, 1988; Bell, 1982). This is consistent with
the idea that females feel uncomfortable with the masculine and hierarchical
characteristics of society (Gilligan, 1982). However, Fry and Greenfield (1980) found

some contradictory results where many female officers positively evaluated their work

16

environment. Worden (1993) also found that females evaluated their coworkers and

departments as favorably as did males.

Perceptions of citizens

Police officers are generally considered to believe that citizens are disrespectful
or sometimes even hostile to them. McGeorge and Wolfe (1976) found that both female
and male officers showed negative attitudes towards the citizenry and that female officers
thought that citizens were respectful and cooperative only slightly more often than males.
Worden (1993) also found that female officers are less negative than their male
counterparts about citizens even though the difference is not significant. These
differences, while slight, are consistent with the difference theory that females tend to
ascribe a higher value to having good relationships with the people around them.
Worden (1993, p.228) found that especially white females were “slightly more positive
toward citizens than their male counter parts although experience changed females’ views

to be similar to males.”

Occupational integration

Occupational integration or commitment is the degree to which officers identify
with and aspire to success within the police role (Lim, Teo, & See, 2000). This is related
to people’s perceptions of their place and their adaptation to the work environment. The
level of one’s occupational integration can be estimated by level of rank at retirement, job
satisfaction, and loyalty (Lim et al., 2000; Worden, 1993; Zhao, Thruman, & He, 1999).

Gilligan claimed that females are less well adapted to being police officers than males

17

and are considered ‘outsiders’ to the place because of the masculine characteristics of
police work (Gilligan, 1982; Worden, 1993). Lord (1986) found that females have
difficulty in choosing and adapting to the police force as their career because of gender
images. However, Davis (1984) found that females have the same level of organizational
commitment or job stress as males, despite their difficulties adapting to a male
environment. Worden (1993) found that female officers were slightly less well integrated
into the occupation than males with lower expectations for career advancement, lower
likelihood of joining police associations, and relative lack of confidence in their

performance on the job.

Perceptions of the role of female officers

Males may have negative attitudes towards women’s role in policing because of
the highly masculine aspects of policing. Several researchers have observed, however,
that females think they can do well in policing because they perceive themselves as
strong enough for police work, which comes from their pursuit of greater gender equality
in society (Homant & Kennedy, 1985; Martin, 1980; Morash & Greene, 1986; Worden,
1993). Such an attitude may originate from females’ strident rejection of any
presumption of their weakness. Balkin (1988) found that male Officers think female
officers are too compassionate and not very competitive. Vega and Silverrnan (1982)
also found that males Show more negative attitudes than females regarding female
officers’ performance. Bloch and Anderson (1974) concluded that male officers’
attitudes toward female officers’ performance tended to be negative even though female

officers did perform quite well in police work. In sum, studies have consistently

18

indicated females’ positive and males’ negative attitudes toward the role of female

officers.

l9

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
1. Research Hypotheses

H1) In the area of the role of police, female cadets are less accepting of legal
restrictions, less comfortable with rules and authority, less favorable to uniform
(nonselective) enforcement, and have a broader range of role orientation than male
cadets.

This hypothesis is based on the assumption that female and male cadets have
different attitudes regarding the role of police in light of the masculine or hierarchical
aspects of police work. Based on Gilligan’s psychological analysis, many researchers
have argued that there are differences between females and males in their conception of
justice because of their different experiences and socialization processes (DuBois et al.,
1985; Gilligan, 1982; Worden, 1993). The findings of such research bolster this
hypothesis because male and female cadets might have observed and experienced issues
in society and in police academies in different ways.

Korea has a long history of being a male dominated society, especially with
respect to policing. The woman’s role is more traditional than in America, and there is a
smaller proportion of females among officers as a result of historical role restrictions in
policing. Female officers’ roles have been restricted to the ‘feminine’ tasks of handling
juveniles, domestic violence, and administrative work even though more and more
female officers are now assigned to the ‘masculine’ tasks of detective and a patrol work.
Gilligan’s theory, in fact, becomes especially applicable to the traditional circumstances

of gender role (Worden, 1993). In the context of Korea especially, and in light of gender

20

difference theory, one might assume that female cadets would be less accepting of legal
restrictions, less favorable to rules and authority, and less comfortable with nonselective
enforcement, and that female cadets may also have a broader range of role orientation
than male cadets, focusing on altruistic service to the community in accordance with a

morality of care (Gilligan, 1982; Worden, 1993).

H2) With respect to evaluations of the police, female cadets will have more
negative attitudes than male cadets towards police officers, police organization, police
services, and in comparing Korean with foreign police.

Gender difference theory indicates that females are often uncomfortable with
masculine characteristics in people, organizations, and culture. From this author’s
perspective, women’s roles have been even more restricted to feminine tasks in Korea
than in America, especially in the field of policing. Traditional gender role conceptions
leave women with a negative perception of masculine society according to Gilligan’s
theory. Therefore, it is assumed that female cadets would be more negative than male
cadets regarding the evaluation of police officers, police organization, police services,

and comparing Korean police with foreign police.

H3) Female cadets are more positive than male cadets in their attitudes
concerning citizen support and cooperation with police.

This hypothesis is based on the assumption that female cadets will have more
positive attitudes toward citizens than their male counterparts because females would

tend to focus more on service rather than enforcing the law (Gilligan, 1982; Worden,

21

1993). According to Gilligan’s theory, women are more attentive to interpersonal
relationships among people, from which one may assume that females would place
greater emphasis on maintaining good relationships with and show more positive
attitudes towards the citizenry. In Korea, the career of a female officer is more highly
evaluated by the community than that of a male officer. For women, becoming an officer
is very competitive, and the general acceptance rate for applications is about fifty to one
for the Line Officer Course, while it is about twenty to one for men (KNPA, 2001). In
accordance with women’s tendency to place a high value on good relationships with
people (Gilligan, 1982), the high evaluation from citizens may result, at least in part,

from female cadets’ positive evaluation of citizens, the central thrust of this hypothesis.

H4) In the area of occupational integration, female cadets expect to retire at a
lower level of rank, they will be less satisfied with their career as police officers, and will
have less loyalty than male cadets.

This hypothesis is based on the assumption that females are less well adapted to
being police officers than are men, and are considered ‘outsiders’ to the place because of
the masculine characteristics of police work, developed on the basis of difference theory
(Gilligan, 1982; Worden, 1993). In Korea, there are only three female senior
superintendents, the highest rank held since women were first accepted into police
departments fifty-five years ago. There are 2,400 female officers, which is about 2.7
percent of all officers (KNPA, 2001). The ratio of female to male officers is lower than
in America where 10.3 percent of officers are women (KNPA, 2001). The lower number

of high-ranking female officers and their ratio in the police force indicate that women are

22

seen as outsiders in Korea even more so than in America. This study assumes, therefore,
that female cadets will tend to be less satisfied with their careers than their male
counterparts, have less loyalty to their profession, and expect lower levels of rank at time

of retirement.

H5) Female cadets will tend to have a more positive evaluation of women’s
effectiveness on patrol or detective work, will be more accepting of women as a work
partner, and have a higher evaluation of female officers’ competence than male cadets.

The research findings in America consistently indicate positive female and
negative male attitudes towards the role of female officers, which reflects a strong female
desire for equality in terms of gender. In Korea, female officers generally request police
executives to assign them the same work opportunities as males, arguing that they can
perform just as well as male officers in these roles. Nevertheless, female officers have
been excluded from many ‘masculine’ tasks such as detective work, patrol work, and
night shifts. The situation is changing somewhat these days because female officers want
to be considered equal to male officers. The Korean National Police Agency reformed
the police code in order to permit women to work the night shift on request of the
representatives of female officers (KNPA, 2000). The KNPA also makes clear that there
are no restrictions placed on the roles of female officers in its policy; there is a female
SWAT team and a female detective team in Korea. Female officers are also dispatched
to the beaches for lifesaving duties or to the front line in riots/protests to defend the
police line. Female officers have struggled to demonstrate their potential to society and

obviously have asked for complete equality in terms of gender. Based on the research

23

findings in America and recent trends concerning the role of female officers in Korea,
this study hypothesizes that female cadets will tend towards more positive evaluations of

the role of female officers than male cadets.

24

II. Operationalizing the Variables

Measure of indgendent variables

This study uses gender (item 4) as a main independent variable. Gender is
measured on the basis of respondents’ self-identification as male or female. Other
demographics such as age (item 1), training affiliation (item 2), residence (item 3),
marital status (item 5), education (item 6), job experience (item 7), police family
background (item 8), socioeconomic status (items 12 through 15) are also used to
describe cadets’ characteristics and backgrounds. Table 1 displays the major independent
variables.

Table 1. Measure of independent variables.

 

 

Independent Variables Categories Items
Age Scale Item 1
Training Affiliation The LOC, The PU, The PSCC Item 2
Residence Big city, Midsize city, Rural area Item 3
Gender Male, Female Item 4
Marital status Not manied, Married Item 5
Education High school ~ Master’s or above Item 6
Job experience Yes, Tried but could not find, No Item 7
Police family background Yes, No Item 8
Socioeconomic status Low, Middle, High Itemle,14,15

 

Age was measured according to respondent self-description. Training affiliation
was measured by responses to three categories: the Line Officer Course, the Police
University, and the Police Staff Candidate Course. Residence was measured by
responses to three categories: big city, rnidsize city, or rural area. Marital status has two
categories: not married or married. Education was measured on a continuum of five
categories from high school to master’s or above. Cadets from the Police University
were categorized as 4-year college degree holders because all of them get a bachelor’s

degree when they are being sworn in. Job experience has three categories: yes, tried but

25

could not find, or no. Police family background has two categories, yes or no, depending
on whether or not a cadet has a family or a relative in the police force.

The socioeconomic background survey of the respondents was composed of
three parts: educational level of father, family income, and self-evaluation. Tarng, Hsieh,
& Deng (2001) assessed Taiwanese police cadets’ socioeconomic status with a variable
composed of five items: educational level of father, educational level of mother, family
income, occupation of father, and occupation of mother. For this study, the educational
level of the mother and the occupations of both parents were excluded. The educational
level of the mother is likely to be low regardless of cadets’ socioeconomic status because,
in the past, the role of most Korean women has been restricted to handling domestic
matters in the home. It also seemed unreasonable to rank-order numerous occupations.
Instead, self-evaluations of socioeconomic status were used since cadets’ perception of
their socioeconomic status is also a very clear indicator of socioeconomic background.

Therefore, socioeconomic status was measured comprehensively according to
responses to three items: father’s education, parents’ annual income, and self— evaluation
of her or his socioeconomic status. The item “father’s education” was divided into four
levels: elementary school or below (1), middle school (2), high school (3), and college or
above (4). The item “parents’ annual income” was broken down into five separate parts:
below $8,000 (1), $8,000-$16,000 (2), $16,000-$25,000 (3), $25,000—$35,000 (4), and
above $35,000 (5). The item “self—evaluation of socioeconorrric status” has five rank-
ordered categories: below poverty line (1), low (2), middle (3), high (4), and extremely
high (5). The respondent received a total score ranging from “3” to “14” according to the

total of the respondent’s answers. This was divided into three categories: low (scores

26

3~6), middle (scores7~10), or high (scores 11~14). If the respondent got a score from
“3” to “6”, socioeconomic status was defined as low, “7” to “10”, middle, and “l 1” to

“14” as high socioeconomic status.

Measure of dependent variables

The dependent variables are police cadets’ attitudes in five areas: 1) perceptions
of the police role, 2) evaluations of the police, 3) perceptions of citizens, 4) occupational
integration, and 5) perceptions of the role of female officers. Previous researchers, who
have developed theories about gender differences, focused on these areas to observe
difference between female and male attitudes toward policing. Most items used to
construiét dependent variables in this study were developed from previous studies.
Worderi (1993) tested items through factor analysis and assembled highly related items to
construct a variable. For this study, the selected items, which yielded high reliability
coefficients through factor analysis in the present and previous research, were used for
the composition of a variable. Most items were formatted on a Likert-type scale and the
police cadets were expected to indicate the degree of agreement/disagreement that they
felt about each concept according to the scale “Strongly disagree” (1), “Disagree” (2),
“Undecided” (3), “Agree” (4), and “Strongly agree” (5). A high score indicates that a

cadet is supportive of that concept. Responses to the items constructing a variable are

summed to create a composed variable. Table 2 presents the major dependent variables.

27

Table 2. Measure of Dependent Variables

 

 

Dependent Variables Items Score Range
Attitudes toward the role of police
,1 Acceptance of legal restrictions Items 60, 61 2~10
Breadth of role orientation Items 63 through 65 3~15
Acceptance of rules and authority Items 66, 67-_ 2~10
Uniform (nonselective) enforcement Items 69, 70 2~10
Evaluation of police
Evaluation of police officers Items 73 through 84 12~60
Evaluation of the police organization Items 85, 86 2~10
Evaluation of police services Item 87 1~5
Comparative evaluation Items 88,89 2~10
Perceptions of citizens
Perceived citizen support Items 46 through 48 3~15
Perceived citizen cooperation Items 51, 52 2~10
Occupational integration
Expected rank at retirement Item 34 l~7
Job satisfaction Items 41, 43, 53, 56 4~20
Loyalty Items 57 through 59 3~15

Attitudes toward female ofi‘icers

Women on patrol or detective work Items 101a through 105 5~25
Acceptance of women as partners Items 107, 108 2~10
Perceived competence of female officers Items 114 through 124 11~55

 

1) Measure of variables regarding perceptions of the role of police

This area consists of four variables. Following factor analysis, four acceptable
factors were created to measure police cadets’ attitudes toward acceptance of legal
restrictions (items 60, 61), breadth of role orientation (items 63 through 65), acceptance
of rules and authority (items 66, 67), and uniform (nonselective) enforcement (items 69,
70). The composed factors have the reliability coefficients (alpha) of .54, .60, .58, and
.74, respectively. The items for these four variables were generated from Worden (1993)

and modified to be suitable for the Korean context. For example, a modified item for the

28

breadth of role orientation asked the cadets how they felt about the police service of
opening restrooms for the public and lending the public umbrellas in case of rain, items
that are especially suitable to the Korean context since they are currently subjects of
debate in Korea.

For each item, respondents were asked to agree or disagree with the statement
given. The variable “acceptance of legal restrictions” was measured by responses to two
items: acceptance of the legal restrictions on the role of police and on the police use of
force. The variable “breadth of role orientation” was measured by responses to three
items: the role of police should be broadened in personal matters, domestic problems, and
services, which are not directly related to enforcing the law. The variable “acceptance of
rules and authority” was measured by responses to two items: following orders from
supervisors and observing precise guidelines on police work. The variable “uniform
(nonselective) enforcement” was measured by responses to two items: officers should
have discretion to decide when and how to enforce the law and officers should be obliged
to follow indicated process. Some items were reverse coded. The values for the items
were: 1 2 strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = agree, 5=strongly agree.
Scores for each variable range from the lowest “1” to the highest “15” depending on the
number of itenrs used to measure the variable. High values indicate high acceptability of
legal restrictions, broader role orientation, high acceptability of rules and authority, and

preference of uniform (nonselective) enforcement.

2) Measure of variables regarding evaluation of the police

This area consists of four variables. After factor analysis, four acceptable factors

29

were created to measure police cadet attitudes towards evaluations of police officers
(items 73 through 84), police organization (items 85, 86), police services (item 87), and
comparative evaluation (items 88,89). The composed factors have the reliability
coefficients (alpha) of .88, .52, and .82, respectively. The basic principle of these
variables was derived from Worden (1993) but every item was modified to be suitable for
the circumstances of this study. For example, Worden measured officers’ perceptions of
the workplace but the sample of this study is police cadets. Hence, the factors focusing
specifically on officers, such as attitudes concerning supervisor flexibility, were
excluded. Evaluations of colleagues and departments are modified to measure cadets’
evaluations of police officers and police organization because cadets are not yet
dispatched to specific departments but, as new members of the police force, most
certainly do have perceptions of police officers and police organization.

For each item, respondents were asked to agree or disagree with the given
Statement. Some items asked respondents to select the level of evaluation of the police.
The variable “evaluation of police officers” was measured by responses to twelve items:
officers treat all citizens equally, protect civil liberties and rights, are restrained in their
use of force, are knowledgeable in the law, are reliable and competent, are trust worthy,
are ready to put public interests above their own, perform a vital role in maintaining
social order, are competent in handling various emergency situations, are highly
dedicated to their job, are adequately prepared to provide quality services, and have a
high work ethic. These items were selected on the basis of having been used by previous
researchers to compose variables measuring officer evaluation of their colleagues (Lim et

al., 2000; Worden, 1993). The variable “evaluation of police organization” was

30

measured by responses to two items: there is a good work relationship among
departments within the police organization, the promotion system is thought to be fair.
Hence, evaluation of the organization focused on the work relationship and the promotion
system, among others. The variable “evaluation of police services” was measured by
responses to only one item: evaluation of overall police services. The variable
“comparative evaluation” was measured by responses to two items: evaluation of the
quality of Korean police and quality of police service compared with that of foreign
countries. The values for the items were: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 =
undecided, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. For the variables “evaluation of police
services” and “comparative evaluation,” the values for items were: 1 = very poor, 2 =
inadequate, 3 = adequate, 4 = good, 5 = outstanding. The scores of variables range from
the lowest “1” to the highest “60” depending on the number of items used to measure the

variable. High values indicate positive or favorable perceptions and evaluations.

3) Measure of variables regarding perceptions of citizens

This area consists of two variables. After using a factor analysis, two acceptable
factors were created to measure police cadets’ attitudes towards perceived levels of
citizen support (items 46, 47, 48) and citizen cooperation with the police (items 51, 52).
These factors have reliability coefficients (alpha) of .57, and .55, respectively. Worden
(1993) tested officers’ perceptions of citizens according to both factors but most items
focused on experienced officers and citizens of a specific jurisdiction. The items used in
this study were constructed and modified to measure cadets’ perceptions of citizens in

general, which is suitable for cadets without experience in the field.

31

For each variable, respondents were asked to agree or disagree with the given
statement. The variable “perceived level of citizen support” was measured by responses
to three items: citizens are suspicious of police officers, respect police officers, manifest
negative responses to law enforcement. Hence, citizen support was measured by citizen’
reliance, respect for officers and acceptance of law enforcement. The variable “citizen
cooperation with police” was measured by responses to two items: citizens are willing to
report a crime to the police when they are victimized and they call the police if they see
something suspicious or come upon a crime scene. This variable measures citizen
cooperation with the police as both victim and a witness. Some items were reverse coded.
The values for these items were: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 2 disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 =
agree, 5 = strongly agree. The scores of a variable range from “2” to “15” depending on
the number of items used to compose the variable. High values indicate cadets’ positive
perception of citizen support and high levels of citizen evaluation of and cooperation with

police service.

4) Measure of variables regarding occupational integration

 

This area consists of three variables. After using a factor analysis, three
acceptable factors were created to measure police cadets’ attitudes toward expected level
of rank at retirement (item 34), job satisfaction (items 41, 43, 53, 56), and loyalty (items
57 through 59). These factors have the reliability coefficients (alpha) of .80, and .69,
respectively. Worden (1993) tested officers’ occupational integration using four factors:
number of police associations joined, expected rank at retirement, preparedness for

routine encounters, and preparedness for other encounters. For this study, only the factor

32

of expected level of rank at retirement was derived from Worden (1993) and was
modified to be suitable for the ranking system in Korea. Other factors were excluded
because the number of police associations as well as preparedness for practical work was
not suitable for this sample of police cadets. Instead, two factors of occupational
integration, job satisfaction and loyalty, were adapted from other research studies
concerned with police attitudes. Job satisfaction was assessed using three items adapted
from a job-description index used by Zhao et al. (1999) to test officer satisfaction. The
items employed in this study focused on cadets’ satisfaction with their career choice of
police officer. Some items, such as satisfaction with supervision, were excluded on the
basis of sample characteristics. Loyalty was assessed using three items, which were
developed by Porter and Smith and used by Lim et al. (2000) to assess the organizational
commitment of Singaporean officers.

The variable “expected level of rank at retirement” was measured using seven
ranks depending on cadets’ expectation of their rank at retirement. For other variables,
respondents were asked to agree or disagree with the given statements. The variable “job
satisfaction” was measured in terms of general satisfaction and intention to quit. The
following four items, highly correlated according to factor analysis, were constructed for
this variable: police work is worth doing, is better than most other job opportunities
nowadays, is a satisfying job, is a career one should leave after some time. The variable
“loyalty” was measured in terms of the likelihood of respondents recommending police
work as a career to friends, willingness to put forth extra effort to help the police
organization, and their concern about the fate of the police. The expected rank at

retirement was measured from Sergeant (1) to Senior Superintendent General (7). With

33

the other variables, the values for the items were: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 =
undecided, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. Some items were reverse coded. The scores of
these variables range from “1” to “20”. High values indicate an expectation of high level

of rank, high satisfaction and loyalty.

5) Measure of variables regarding attitudes of female officers

This area consists of three variables. After using a factor analysis, three
acceptable factors were created to measure police cadets’ attitudes toward assigning
women on patrol or detective work (items 101a through 105), acceptance of women as a
partner (items 107, 108), and perceived competence of female officers (items 114 through
124). These factors have the reliability coefficients (alpha) of .90, .76, .86, respectively.
Some items were adapted from Vega & Silverrnan’s (1982) assessment of officers’
attitudes toward female officers. Other items were generated from Golden (1981), who
assessed officers’ attitudes of assigning women to patrol work.

For each variable, respondents were asked to agree or disagree with the given
statements. The variable “attitudes towards assigning women on patrol or detective
work” was measured by responses to five items: women are not strong enough, are too
emotional, need assistance, patrol or detective work is too dangerous for women, and
female officers are not suitable for handling violent situations. The variable “acceptance
of women as colleagues” was measured by responses to two items: willingness to accept
a female officer as a partner on patrol and on a felony call. The variable “perceived
competence of female officers” was measured by responses to eleven items designed to

measure the perceived effectiveness of women on overall police work such as crowd

34

control, juvenile work, traffic control, arresting felons, dealing with firearms and other
weapons, etc. Some items were reverse coded. The values of the items were: 1 =
strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. The scores
of the variables range from the lowest “2” to the highest “55” depending on the number
of items used to measure the variable. High values indicate cadets’ positive attitudes
toward female officers’ role on patrol or in detective work, the acceptability of women as
a partner, a high perception of discrimination against women, and positive evaluation of

the competence of female officers.

35

III. Data Collection and Sampling Procedure

Qa_t2_r

This study compares male and female police cadets’ attitudes and perceptions
using survey data collected by the National Police Agency in Korea. Since this author
have served for the Korean National Police Agency (KNPA) as a staff officer, this author
requested KNPA permission to use the data set for the purpose of a master’s thesis, and
the KNPA responded affinnatively that it could be used for academic purposes.

The main focus of the survey was police cadets’ attitudes toward the police role,
citizens, the police organization, and the role of female officers. The survey also
examined police cadets’ reasons for choosing a career as a police officer. The data set
also provides other variables such as demographic characteristics and perceived level of
rank at retirement. The unit of analysis is police cadets attending three different police

academies in South Korea.

Sampling procedure

The Korea National Police Agency (KNPA) sent an official letter to three police
academies requesting distribution and collection of a questionnaire. The KNPA gave
clear directions in the letter indicating that the questionnaire should be administered
voluntarily and anonymously. The survey was carried out in the summer of 2001 at
auditoriums or living rooms of three police acaderrries: the Line Officer Course at the
Central Police Academy, the Police University, and the Police Staff Candidate Course at
the National Police Academy. Overall, the sample was 1,158 cadets, 829 males and 329

females. A total of 532 questionnaires were collected, 301 from males, 230 from

females, and 1 from a respondent who did not indicate her or his gender. The overall
response rate was 46 percent, 36 percent for males and 70 percent for females.

In the summer of 2001, 558 male and 300 female cadets were trained at the Line
Officer Course of the Central Police Academy. There was a meeting among the cadets,
instructors, and administrative staff members in an auditorium after class. At such
meetings, cadets share their opinions on training and adrrrinistrative services. At the end
of one of these meetings, an instructor explained the survey and requested that the cadets
who were interested in participating in the survey remain. The instructor then read the
cover letter from the KNPA and made sure that it was understood that responses were to
be voluntary. Cadets were asked not to write their name on the questionnaire. The
instructor then gave the questionnaires to two cadet representatives who distributed
questionnaires to cadets. The cadet representatives collected 410 completed
questionnaires, 199 from males and 211 from females. The response rate was 47.7
percent, 36 percent for males and 70 percent for females.

There were a total of about 480 cadets, from freshmen to seniors, including 48
females in the Police University. The sample included all juniors and seniors in the
Police University. There were 216 males and 24 females among juniors and seniors. All
cadets return to their rooms right after class and usually have free time until dinner. The
survey was administered in cadets’ rooms in which four cadets share a room. An
instructor made an announcement to juniors and seniors who were staying in their rooms
after class. The instructor explained the survey and requested that the cadets who wanted
to respond to the survey may voluntarily remain in their rooms. The instructor made sure

that participation was understood to be voluntary. A cadet distributed and collected the

37

questionnaires to ensure the anonymity of respondents. A senior cadet randomly
distributed questionnaires to juniors and seniors from room to room. Overall, 79
completed questionnaires were collected by the senior cadet one hour after they had been
distributed: 64 from males, 14 from females, and 1 from a respondent who did not
indicate her or his gender. The response rate was 33 percent, 30 percent for males and 58
percent for females. Among the 79 respondents, there were 51 seniors, 25 juniors, and 2
sophomores. Two sophomores were not expected to respond to the questionnaire but
they did so because they mistakenly visited a junior or senior’s room during the survey
and were interested in the questionnaire. These two cases were excluded from the
analyses to maintain the sample characteristic of juniors and seniors.

There were 60 cadets, including 5 females, in the Police Staff Candidate Course
of the National Police Academy. The sample included all cadets of the Police Staff
Candidate Course. The cadets got together in the living room after class and an instructor
explained the survey objectives. The instructor made sure that all understood that
participation was voluntary. Then, a cadet rather than the instructor distributed and
collected the questionnaires to ensure anonymity. Following the announcement, the
cadet representative distributed 60 questionnaires after reading the cover letter from the
KNPA and collected 43 completed questionnaires, 38 from males and 5 from females.

The response rate was 72 percent, 69 percent for males and 100 percent for females.

The police recruiting system in South Korea

Generally speaking, there are three different ways to become a police officer in

South Korea. One is to apply to the Line Officer Course at the Central Police Academy

38

after finishing high school or higher education. Another is to apply to the Police
University after graduating from high school. Still another other is to apply to the Police
Staff Candidate Course at the National Police Academy after finishing college. Except
for some exceptional recruitment cases, these three sources of recruiting provide line
officers and administrative officers to all police departments in Korea. All of the cadets
take practical courses such as crime prevention and investigation. They also learn skills
needed for law enforcement tasks, such as shooting, martial arts, and swimming. Police
acaderrries also offer the cadets the opportunity to practice police procedures in
intemship-type programs at a police station. Cadets usually do not have previous police
work experience.

Over all, these cadets are divided into two groups: those in the line officer course
and those in the course for administrative officers. The line officer cadets are those from
the Line Officer Course of the Central Police Academy. The administrative officer
candidates are cadets from the Police University and the Police Staff Candidate Course of
the National Police Academy. The administrative officer candidates have college or
higher-level degrees at the time of being sworn in as a lieutenant and the recruiting
process is highly competitive. Many of the line officer cadets also have college degrees,
but the recruiting process is less competitive than that of the administrative officer
candidates. Cadets completing the administrative officer courses start their career at the
rank of lieutenant, which is the first-line supervisory position of the police hierarchy,
while cadets from the line officer course start their career at the rank of patrolman at the
beginning of the hierarchy. It takes at least six and generally more or less than ten years

for a patrolman to be promoted to the rank of lieutenant. For promotion, officers need to

39

meet several difficult requirements as well as pass written tests.

1) The Line Officer Course

The Central Police Academy was purposely established to train newly recruited
police officers through the Line Officer Course (LOC). Cadets for the LOC are recruited
from among high school graduates or holders of higher degree, through competitive tests
and interviews. Before applying to the course, all male applicants must finish their
military service, which is mandatory for all males in Korea. In the year 2000, more or
less than ninety five percent of the recruited cadets for this course had some college or
held a higher degree (KNPA, 2001). All newly recruited police cadets for this course
complete a six-month training program staying at the academy dormitory and start their
career as patrol officers in various police departments, at the starting point of the police
hierarchy. This Line Officer Course includes close-order drilling for three weeks,
preliminary education in physical training for seventeen weeks, and on-the-job training
for four weeks, as well as other extra curricula activities such as martial arts and

swimming.

2) The Police University

The Police University (PU) has been well known to the public as one of the good
colleges in South Korea. The PU recruits among high school graduates every year and
competition is tough since they choose only 120 cadets including 12 females, 60 for the
law department and 60 for police adrrrinistration. The PU provides a four-year training

and education to students who have successfully completed a competitive examination

40

consisting of physical and intelligence tests. The curriculum farrriliarizes cadets with all
police-related functions and cadets stay in the university dormitory during the education
period. Upon graduation, the cadets receive a bachelor’s degree and perform their
military service obligation for two years as lieutenants in riot police corps. Cadets are
then distributed to local police units as first line supervisors or leaders of police

departments throughout the country.

3) The Police Staff Candidate Course

The Police Staff Candidate Course (PSCC) of the National Police Academy is
well known to the public as the established career path for ordinary college graduates to
become police staff officers. This course recruits 60 cadets, including 5 females, from
among college graduates nationwide every year; this open recruitment is a highly
competitive process. Male applicants are required to finish their military service before
applying to the academy. Upon admission, cadets complete one-year of education and
training. The curriculum is very intensive requiring cadets to complete more or less than
one hundred academic classes and training programs in a year. Cadets are farrriliarized
with all police-related functions and they stay in the academy dormitory during the
education period. After graduation, cadets are appointed as lieutenants and then are
dispatched to the front line of law enforcement as first line supervisors or leaders of

various police departments all over the country.

Female officers in South Korea

Every year, the Korean National Police Agency celebrates Female Officers’ Day

41

and this year was the fifty-fifth celebration since women were first accepted into police
departments in 1946 (Kuon, 2001). According to the KNPA, the ratio (2.7%) of women
in the Korean police force is the lowest compared to China (12%), Hong Kong (11.3%),
America (10.3%), the Philippines (3.7%), and Japan (3.6%). The KNPA recruits female
officers mostly through the Line Officer Course and only small number of female officers
are recruited through administrative officers course: 12 for the Police University, and 5
for the Police Staff Candidate Course, every year. Since last year, the KNPA has
recruited more female officers through the Line Officer Course, according to a plan to
enlarge the number of women among officers to 4%, by the year 2003 (KNPA, 2001).
Becoming a female officer is highly competitive and the application acceptance rate is
about fifty to one for the line officer course. Three senior superintendents are the highest
rank holders among women and they serve as the chiefs of police stations where five to
Six hundred officers serve. One of them is’expected to be promoted to Superintendent
General in a short time.

Based on this author’s observation of Korean police departments, female officers
have been excluded from masculine tasks such as detective work, patrol work, and night
shifts. Recently, the situation is changing because female officers want to be considered
the same as male officers. Female officers’ representatives formally requested the KNPA
to change the police code restricting women from night shifts and the KNPA accepted;
the number of female officers is growing and they are increasingly seen as capable of
performing traditional masculine tasks. Female officers were accepted to the SWAT team
and perform VIP security service as well as special duty with the anti-terrorism squad

(KNPA, 2001). Female riot police are also beginning to play a crucial role with respect

42

to public demonstrations, to maintain public security and enforce legal order. The police
sometimes even move unarmed policewomen from office jobs to the front lines during
demonstrations to calm protesters. This strategy has helped to make demonstrations
more peaceful in Korea. A local police station in Seoul established a women detective
team consisting of five female officers and assigned them to felony cases and a provincial
police agency trained female officers and dispatched them to the beaches for lifesaving
duties (KNPA, 2001). Nowadays, many say that there are no longer any restrictions of

the roles of female officers in Korean police departments.

43

CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSES AND RESULTS

Methods of analysis

Most items were formatted on a Likert-type scale with police cadets expected to
indicate the degree of agreement/disagreement they felt about each concept according to
the scale “Strongly disagree” (1), “Disagree” (2), “Undecided” (3), “Agree” (4), and
“Strongly agree” (5). The value “Undecided” (3) has two different meanings: the
midway point between disagree and agree or do not know. Accordingly, analyses were
conducted two different ways; including and excluding the value “Undecided.” For
analyses excluding the value “Undecided,” the scores were recoded on a four-point scale:
“Strongly disagree” (1), “Disagree” (2), “Agree” (3), and “Strongly agree” (4). Many
cases were lost after excluding the value “Undecided” but not much difference was found
in the two different analyses. For this study, the results were explained using data
including the value “Undecided,” due to the huge number of cases lost when the value
was excluded. However, analyses excluding the value “Undecided” were attached as an
appendix. In both analyses, responses to the items constructing a variable were summed
to create a composed variable. For all variables, a high score indicates that a recruit is
supportive of that concept.

Descriptive statistics were obtained on all independent variables to analyze the
demographic characteristics of the samples. To search for different characteristics of
females and males, contingency tables and independent sample t-test were used for
gender and demographic variables. Chi-square and t distribution measured the statistical

significance of different characteristics between female and male cadets. As a method of

44

bivariate analysis between gender and attitude, an independent sample t-test was
employed to describe differences in attitude between female and male police cadets. The
mean values were obtained for female and male cadet attitudes.

Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses.
This serves to examine the extent to which recruits’ attitudes vary according to gender,
even when controlling for other variables. The multivariate analysis, using OLS-
regression, includes among the independent variables not only gender, but age, training
affiliation, residence, education, job experience, police family background, and
socioeconomic status. For OLS-regression analysis, all categorical variables were
modified to dummy variables. Respondents were coded according to the following
groups: female versus male, line officer cadet versus administrative officer candidate,
cadets who are from a big city versus those from a rrrid to small area, those who have a 4-
year college or higher degree versus those who hold a lower degree, those who have job
experience versus those who do not, those who have relative(s) in the police versus those
who do not, and those who are from a middle or higher socioeconomic status versus those
who are not. All dummy variables have two values: (1) or (O). The OLS-regression
analysis serves in order to test whether or not: 1) cadets’ gender affects their attitudes; 2)
age affects their attitudes; 3) being a line officer cadet affects their attitudes; 4) being
from a big city affects their attitudes; 5) having a relative or a family member in the
police affects their attitudes; 6) having a university degree or higher educational
background affects their attitudes; 7) having job experience affects their attitudes; and 8)

being from middle to high socioeconorrric affects their attitudes.

45

1. Demographic Profile of Female and Male Cadets

The female and male cadets of this study come from a wide array of educational,
residential, and socioeconomic groups. Tables 3 to 5 Show the demographic
characteristics of the sample. There were 529 cases used for the analyses. These data
were appropriate to handle gender issues because the sample contains enough females
(43.5% of the sample) as well as males (56.5%), as illustrated in Table 3.

Table 3. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample (Gender)

 

 

Gender N %
Female 230 43.5
Male 299 56.5

 

Overall, the average cadets’ age was in the mid twenties. On average, females
are 23.70 years of age and males are 25.54. According to the results of T-test in table 4,
the age difference between females and males is statistically significant at the .05 level.
The mean difference shows that females are almost two years younger than males.

Table 4. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample; T-test for Age by Gender

 

 

Gender Mean Std. Deviation
Female 23.70 1.52
Male 25.54 2.76
T-value (Equal Variances
Not Assumed) -9.77
Sig. .00

 

Table 5 shows other demographic characteristics such as training affiliation,
marital status, education, employment history, police family background, residence, and
socioeconomic status. The majority (77.5%) were line officer cadets while less than a
fourth of the cadets (22.5%) were administrative officer candidates (cadets from the
Police University and the Police Staff Candidate Course). Only a few cadets (2.7%) were

married.

46

Table 5. Crosstabulations of Gender and Demographics: Training Affiliation, Marital
Status, Education, Employment History, Police Family Background, Residence, and

Socioeconomic Status

 

 

X2 (df) FEMALE MALE TOTAL
N(%) N(%) N(%)

Training Afiiliation 47.8(2) ***

Line Officer Course 211 ( 91.7) 199 (66.6) 410 (77.5)

Police University 14( 6.1) 62 (20.7) 76 (14.4)

Police Staff Candidate 5( 2.2) 38 (12.7) 43( 8.1)
Marital Status 2.8 (1)

Single 227 (98.7) 287 (96.3) 514 (97.3)

Married 3 ( 1.3) 11( 3.7) 14( 2.7)
Education 14.4 (4) **

High School 5 ( 2.2) 15 ( 5.1) 20( 3.8)

Some College 19( 8.3) 40 (13.5) 59 (11.2)

2-year College 23 (10.0) 46 (15.5) 69 (13.1)

4-year College 180 (78.6) 195 (65.9) 375 (71.4)

Master’s or above 2 ( .9) 0( 0) 2( .4)
Employment History 7.8 (2) *

No 129 (56.6) 201 (68.4) 330 (63.2)

Tried but not found 16( 7.0) 13 ( 4.4) 29( 5.6)

Yes 83 (36.4) 80 ( 27.2) 163 (31.2)
Relative(s) in the police .7 (1)

No 141 (61.3) 193 (65.0) 334 (63.4)

Yes 89 (38.7) 104 (35.0) 193 (36.6)
Residence 1.3 (2)

Big city 132 (57.6) 167 (55.9) 299 (56.6)

Midsize city 87 (38.0) 112 (37.5) 199 (37.7)

Rural area 10( 4.4 ) 20 ( 6.7) 30( 5.7)
Socioeconomic status 2.6(2)

Low 48 (21.7) 79 (27.9) 127 (25.2)

Middle 155 (70.1) 185 (65.4) 340 (67.5)

High 18( 8.1) 19( 6.7) 37( 7.3)

 

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

All cadets must meet the requirement established for entry into the Korean police

force of at least a high school education. In general, cadets in the Police University and

47

Police Staff Candidate Course already have or should receive a bachelor’s degree by the
time that they are being sworn in as police officers after completing courses in police
academies; therefore, all of them are classified at a 4-year college educational level. The
majority (71.4%) have a 4-year college degree, only 3.8 percent of the respondents have
only a high school degree and 94.2 percent have some college or higher educational
background. The majority (63.2%) did not have any job experience prior to entering the
police academy, less than a third of the respondents (31.2%) had job experience, and a
few of the respondents (5.6%) answered that they tried to find a job but could not. More
than a third of the respondents (36.6%) had a relative or family member on the police
force and more than half of the respondents (56.6%) reside in a big city while 37.7
percent are from a rnidsize city, and 5.7 percent are from a rural area. The majority of the
respondents (67.5%) have a middle level socioeconomic status, while 25.2 percent and
7.3 percent of the respondents have a low or high socioeconomic status, respectively.

As shown in Table 5, some characteristics are vastly different between females
and males. Chi-square significance shows gender differences for cadet characteristics in
terms of training affiliation, education, and employment history. According to the
contingency table for gender and training affiliation, females are more likely to be from
the Line Officer Course than males. The vast majority of the females, 91.7 %, are from
the Line Officer Course compared to 66.6 percent of males, whereas 8.3 percent of
females are from the Adnrinistrative Officer Course (cadets from the Police University
and the Police Staff Candidate Course) compared to 33.4 percent of the males. As the
contingency table for gender and education shows, females are more highly educated

than males. Almost 80 percent of the females have a 4-year college or higher degree

48

compared to 66 percent of the males, while 2.2 percent of the females have a high school
degree compared to 5.1 percent of the males. The contingency table between gender and
employment history also indicates that females are more likely to have job experience or
have tried to find a job prior to joining the police force. More than a third of the females
(36.4%) have job experience compared to 27.2 percent of the males, and 7 percent of the
females compared to 4.4% males responded that they tried to find a job but could not.

In summary, significantly different characteristics were observed between female
and male cadets according to their age, training affiliation, education, and employment
history. Female cadets were more likely to be younger than male cadets, from the Line
Officer Course, more highly educated, and more likely to have job experience. There
were no statistically significant gender differences concerning cadets’ characteristics with

respect to marital status, police family background, residence, and socioeconomic status.

49

II. Cadets’ Gender and Attitudes

Table 6 presents the results of T test for gender and the five sets of attitude
measures. Female and male cadets’ attitudes were measured by examining the mean
values of each dependent variable. A higher mean indicates more supportiveness of that
concept. For the variable “acceptance of legal restrictions”, the score ranges from a low
of 2 to a high of 10. The mean scores were 5.6 for females and 5.2 for males. The
statistical significance of the mean difference indicates that female cadets tended to be
more positive toward accepting legal restrictions than male cadets. The mean scores for
attitudes toward breadth of role orientation were 10.2 for females and 10.2 for males,
suggesting no gender difference in this regard. The mean scores for accepting rules and
authority were 7.7 for both females and males, indicating no gender differences in this
attitude. The mean scores for attitudes toward nonselective enforcement were 4.1 for
females and 3.9 for males. The statistical significance of the mean difference indicated
that female cadets were more positive towards nonselective enforcement than male

cadets.

50

Table 6. T-test of Cadet Attitudes by Gender

 

Female (N: 230) Male (N: 299)

 

Attitudes toward the role of police

Acceptance of legal restrictions
(Range 2~10)

Breadth of role orientation
(Range 3~15)

Acceptance of rules and authority
(Range 2~10)

Uniform (nonselective) enforcement
(Range 2~10)

Perceptions of the police

Evaluation of police officers
(Range 12~60)

Evaluation of the police organization
(Range 2~10)

Evaluation of police services
(Range 1~5)

Comparative evaluation with foreign police
(Range 2~10)

Attitudes toward citizens
Perceived citizen support
(Range 3~15)
Perceived citizen cooperation
(Range 2~10)

Occupational integration
Expected rank at retirement
(Range 1~7)
Job satisfaction
(Range 4~20)
Loyalty
(Range 3~15)

Attitudes toward female oflicers

Assigning women to patrol or detective work

(Range 5~25)

Acceptance of women as a work partner
(Range 2~10)

Perceived competence of female officers
(Range 11~55)

5.6 (1.8)
10.2 (2.0)
7.7 (1.1)

4.1(1.3)

41.5 (5.6)
5.7 (1.4)
3.4 ( .7)

5.9 (1.1)

8.3 (1.9)

7.2 (1.5)

4.5 (1.1)
16.5 (2.5)

11.4 (1.9)

18.1 (3.4)
6.4 (1.7)

40.4 (4.5)

5.2 (1.9) *
10.2 (2.0)
7.7 (1.2)

3.9 (1.4) *

42.9 (6.5) **
5.8 (1.6)
3.6 ( .70) **

6.6 (1.2) ***

7.6 (1.8) ***

7.4 (1.3)

4.8 (1.2) *
15.9 (2.5) **

11.3 (1.9)

12.6 (4.2) ***
5.3 (2.1) ***

34.9 (6.9) ***

 

Notes: Entries represent mean values on each variable; numbers in parentheses are
standard deviations for subsamples on each variable. Asterisks indicate that the mean
difference is statistically significant; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 (t test).

51

The mean score for cadet evaluation of police officers was 41.5 for females and
42.9 for males and the mean difference was statistically significant, suggesting that
female cadets evaluated police officers more negatively than male cadets. The mean
scores for cadets’ evaluation of the police organization was 5.7 for females and 5.8 for
males; the mean difference was not significant, indicating no gender difference in cadet
evaluation of the police organization in terms of the fairness of its promotion system and
the work relationship among different departments. The mean scores for cadet evaluation
of police services were 3.4 for females and 3.6 for males; the difference was statistically
significant, which indicated a more negative evaluation of police services on the part of
females as compared to males. The mean scores for cadet attitudes toward comparative
evaluation were 5.9 for females and 6.6 for males; the mean difference was significant,
suggesting that female cadets compared the Korean police with foreign police less
favorably than male cadets. The mean scores for cadet attitudes toward citizen support
were 8.3 for females and 7.6 for males; the difference was significant. These results
suggest that female cadets were more positive than male cadets in perceiving citizen
support of police officers and officers’ law enforcement. According to the mean scores,
7.2 for females and 7.4 for males, without significant difference, female and male cadets
did not show significant difference in their attitudes towards citizen cooperation with the
police, as both victims and witnesses.

The mean scores for expected rank at retirement were 4.5 for females and 4.8 for
males, suggesting that cadets expect to be promoted to a rank between superintendent (4)
and senior superintendent (5) by the time of retirement. The statistical significance of the

mean difference indicates that female cadets expected to retire at a lower rank than male

52

cadets. The mean scores for job satisfaction were 16.5 for females and 15.9 for males.
The statistically significant difference indicates that female cadets were more satisfied
with their career as police officers than male cadets. The mean scores for cadet loyalty
were 11.4 for females and 11.3 for males, without statistical significance of the
difference. This suggests no gender difference in cadet loyalty in terms of their
willingness to put forth extra effort to help the organization succeed or to be always
concerned with the fate of the police.

Females, with a mean score of 18.1, were more favorably disposed to assigning
women to patrol or detective work than males, with a mean score of 12.62. The mean
difference between females and males was statistically significant. Female cadets, with a
mean score of 6.4, were more favorable to accepting women as a work partner than male
cadets, with a mean score of 5.3. The mean scores for perceived competence of female
officers were 40.4 for females and 34.9 for males. The statistical significance of the
mean difference indicates that female cadets perceived the competence of female officers
significantly more positively than male cadets.

In summary, female cadets tended to be more positive toward accepting legal
restrictions and more positive toward nonselective enforcement than male cadets, while
no gender difference was observed in attitudes toward the breadth of role orientation and
accepting rules and authority. Female cadets evaluated police officers and police services
more negatively, and compared Korean police with foreign police more negatively than
male cadets, while there was no difference in their evaluation of the police organization.
Females were more positive than males in their perception of citizen support, while no

difference was reported with respect to perceived citizen cooperation. Female cadets

53

expected to retire at a lower rank and were more satisfied than male cadets, while no
difference was found in their levels of loyalty. Female cadets were more favorable to
assigning women to patrol or detective work, more favorable to accepting women as a

work partner, and more positive in perceiving the competence of female officers.

54

JD

 

III. Test of Hypotheses

To determine the relative influence of cadets’ gender on their attitudes, multiple
regression was performed. Controls were included for age, training affiliation, residence,
education, police family background, and socioeconomic status. Categorical variables
were coded as dummy variables. This multivariate analysis, while controlling for factor
variables, also examined the extent to which the relationship reported in the bivariate
analysis (table 6) still holds, because the bivariate models used above do not statistically
control for the effects of multiple variables on cadet attitudes. This multiple regression
analysis does allow for a clearer examination of the factors, besides gender, that may
affect cadet attitudes. The aim here is to determine to what extent cadet attitudes are

contingent upon being female or male, as opposed to other characteristics of the cadets.

Hypothesis 1.

In their attitudes toward the role of police, female cadets are less accepting of
legal restrictions, less comfortable with rules and authority, less favorable to uniform
(nonselective) enforcement, and see a broader range of acceptable role orientations than
male cadets.

Table 7 presents the results of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses
of cadet attitudes toward the police role. The R square values of the models are .05, .02,
.07, and .05, respectively, for acceptance of legal restrictions, breadth of role orientation,
acceptance of rules and authority, and nonselective enforcement. This indicates that the
independent variables explain little variation in any of the attitudes examined here.

Bivariate analyses reported in Table 6 indicate that female cadets tend to be more positive

55

about accepting legal restrictions and less negative toward nonselective enforcement than
male cadets. However, as illustrated in Table 7, the significance of the relationships
disappears when controls were included in multivariate analyses. According to the
coefficient values reported (.22, .35, .04, and .02, respectively), being a female had both a
positive and a weak effect on these attitudes, which is statistically negligible. No
Statistical difference was shown in the coefficients between being a female and accepting
legal restrictions, rules and authority, nonselective enforcement, and breadth of role
orientation. Therefore, the hypothesis was not supported.

Table 7. OLS Regression of Cadet Attitudes toward the Role of Police

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Accept Breadth Accept (Uniform)
Legal Role Rules and Nonselective

Restrictions Orientation Authority Enforcement

(N=490) (5:489) (N=487) (N=488)

Female .22 (.22) .35 (.23) .04 (.14) .27 (.16)
Age -.10 (.05)* .13 (.05)** .06 (.03)* -.04 (.03)
Line Officer Cadets -.42 (.26) -.33 (.27) .54 (.16)** '-.57 (.19)**
Big City -.13 (.17) .05 (.18) .01 (.10) -.05 (.12)
4-year College or Higher D. .42 (.22) -.15 (.23) -.07 (.13) -.01 (.16)
Job Experience .18 (.21) -.44 (.22) -.12 (.13) .12 (.15)
Relative(s) in the Police .30 (.17) -.18 (.18) -.07 (.11) .02 (.13)
Mid to High Socioeconomic -.35 (.19) -.24 (.21) -.O7 (.12) .06 (.15)
S.

Constant 8.03 (1.11) 7.45 (1.16) 5.93 (.67) 5.38 (.80)
R Square .05 .02 .07 .05

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant
(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

Age and being a line officer cadet were identified as significant predictors of
some variables regarding cadet attitudes toward the role of police. According to the

significant coefficient values (-.10, .13, and .06 respectively), cadets’ age had a negative

effect on the acceptance of legal restrictions, while it had a positive effect on their

56

attitudes toward breadth of the police role and acceptance of rules and authority. Older
cadets tend to show more negative attitudes toward legal restrictions on the role of police
than younger cadets. Older cadets tended to have a broader concept of the police role,
such as being involved in domestic matters and providing services to the community
rather than narrowly focusing on crime fighting. Older cadets were also more likely to
believe that police officers perform better when they have clear rules and orders to
follow. Such results were statistically significant. According to the significant
coefficient values reported (.54 and -.57 respectively), being a line officer cadet also had
a positive effect on cadets’ acceptance of rules and authority, while it had a negative
effect on their acceptance of nonselective enforcement. Compared with administrative
officer candidates, line officer cadets were more likely to accept rules and authority, and
less accepting of nonselective enforcement, preferring to give discretion to patrol officers
in the street rather than regulating nonselective enforcement. Other independent
variables such as residence, education, job experience, police family background, and
socioeconomic status did not significantly change cadet attitudes toward the role of

police.

Hypothesis 2.

In evaluating the police, female cadets have more negative attitudes than male
cadets towards police officers, police organization, police services, and in comparing
Korean with foreign police.

Table 8 shows the results of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses of

cadet evaluations of the police. The bivariate analysis reported in table 6 indicates that

57

female cadets evaluated police officers and police services more negatively, and
compared Korean police with foreign police more negatively than did male cadets. In the
multivariate analysis, the relationship still holds for cadets’ evaluation of police officers
and comparative evaluation, while the relationship disappeared for cadets’ evaluation of
police services. According to the significant coefficient values (-1.60 and -.74,
respectively), a significantly negative relationship was reported between being female
and cadets’ evaluation of police officers and their comparing of Korean with foreign
police. Female cadets evaluated police officers more negatively and compared Korean
police with foreign police more negatively than did male cadets, while no significant
difference was shown in their evaluation of police organization and police services.
Therefore, the hypothesis was partly supported.

Table 8. OLS Regression of Cadet Evaluations of the Police

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Evaluation of Evaluation Evaluation Comparative
Police Police Police

Officers Organization Services Evaluation

(5:483) (N=485) (N=484) (5:483)
Female -1.60 (.71)* .06 (.18) -.15 (.08) -.74 (.14)***
Age .36 (.15)* .08 (.04)* .02 (.02) -.01 (.03)
Line Officer Cadets 3.39 (.85)*** -.O4 (.21) .26 (.10)* .36 (.17)*
Big City -.05 (.54) -.20 (.13) .02 (.06) -.16 (.11)
4-year College or Higher D. .23 (.69) -.22 (.17) -.14 (.08) -.09 (.14)
Job Experience -.16 (.67) -.06 (.17) .03 (.08) .20 (.13)
Relative(s) in the Police .42 (.56) .11 (.14) -.02 (.06) .03 (.11)
Mid to High Socioeconomic .13 (.64) -.04 (.16) .13 (.07) .02 (.13)
S.
Constant 30.93 (3.52) 4.07 (.88) 2.75 (.41) 6.73 (.70)
R Square .10 .02 .07 .10

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant
(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

Being a line officer cadet and age also had a significant effect on some variables

58

regarding cadet evaluations of the police. According to the significant coefficient values
reported (.36 and .08, respectively), age had a positive effect on cadet evaluations of
police officers and police organization. Older cadets evaluated the work ethic and the
competence of police officers more positively, and were more optimistic about the
fairness of the promotion system and work relationships among departments in the police
organization. The significant coefficient values (3.39, .26, and .36, respectively) suggest
that being a line officer cadet also had a positive effect on cadets’ evaluation of police
officers, police services, and comparing Korean with foreign police. Line officer cadets
were significantly more positive than administrative officer candidates in their evaluation

of police officers, police services, and in comparing Korean police with foreign police.

Hypothesis 3.

In their perception of citizens, female cadets are more positive than male cadets
with respect to their attitudes concerning citizen support and cooperation with the police.

Table 9 shows the results of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses of

cadets’ perceptions of citizens. The bivariate analysis reported in table 6 indicates that
females were less negative than males in perceiving citizen support, while no difference
was shown in perceiving citizen cooperation. In the multivariate analysis, the
relationship still holds for perceived citizen support, while a significant relationship
appeared for perceived citizen cooperation. According to the coefficient values reported
(.48 and -.35, respectively), being a female had a positive effect on perceived citizen
support and a negative effect on perceived citizen cooperation. Females were

significantly more optimistic than males about citizen support in terms of perceived

59

citizen respect of police officers and citizen responses to law enforcement by police
officers. However, females were significantly less optimistic than males about citizen
cooperation with the police as either victim or witness. Therefore, the hypothesis was
partly supported.

Table 9. OLS Regression of Cadets’ Perceptions of Citizens

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Perceived Perceived
Citizen Citizen
Support COOperation
(5:493) (Nz492)
Female .48 (.22)* -.35 (.17)*
Age -.04 (.05) -.04 (.03)
Line Officer Cadets .25 (.26) .34 (.19)
Big City .10 (.17) -.04 (.13)
4-year College or Higher D. -.01 (.22) -.02 (.16)
Job Experience -.05 (.21) .04 (.16)
Relative(s) in the Police .05 (.17) .10 (.13)
Mid to High Socioeconomic S. -.08 (.20) .43 (.15)**
Constant 8.63 (1.09) 7.96 (.83)
R Square .03 .03

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant
(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

According to the significant coefficient value (.43), having a mid to high
socioeconomic status had a significantly positive effect on perceived citizen cooperation.
Cadets at mid to high socioeconomic levels were more optimistic about citizen

cooperation with the police as a victim or a witness than those at lower socioeconomic

levels.

Hypothesis 4.

With respect to occupational integration, female cadets expect to retire at a lower

60

rank, are less satisfied with their career as police officers, and have less loyalty than male
cadets.

Table 10 shows the results of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses of
measures of occupational integration. The bivariate analysis reported in table 6 indicates
that female cadets expect to retire at a lower rank but are more satisfied than male cadets,
while no difference was shown with respect to their loyalty. In the multivariate analysis,
the Si gnificant relationship disappeared when controls were included. According to the
coefficient values reported (-.16, .12, -.11), being female had a negative effect on
expected rank at retirement and loyalty, while a positive effect was shown for job
satisfaction. However, the coefficients were not statistically significant for all variables,
suggesting that there was no statistical difference in cadets’ attitudes concerning
occupational integration. Therefore, the hypothesis was not supported.

Table 10. OLS Regression of Measures of Occupational Integration

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Expected Rank Job
At Loyalty
Retirement Satisfaction

(Nz489) (5:490) (5:490)
Female —.16 (.13) .12 (.27) -.11 (.22)
Age -.01 (.03) .06 (.06) .06 (.04)
Line Officer Cadets -.57 (.16)*** 2.59 (.31)*** 1.30 (.25)***
Big City .05 (.10) -.01 (.20) .08 (.16)
4-year College or Higher D. .16 (.13) -.52 (.26)* -.49 (.21)*
Job Experience -.08 (.13) -.18 (.25) .23 (.20)
Relative(s) in the Police .02 (.10) .07 (.21) -.09 (.17)
Mid to High Socioeconomic S. -.09 (.20) .18 (.24) .16 (.19)
Constant 5.48 (.66) 12.89 (1.33) 8.95 (1.07)
R Square .08 .23 .15

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant
(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

61

Being a line officer cadet and having a 4-year college or higher degree had
significant effects on the variables concerning occupational integration. According to the
significant coefficient values reported (—.57, 2.59, and 1.30, respectively), being a line
officer cadet had a negative effect on expected rank at retirement but a positive effect on
job satisfaction and loyalty. Line officer cadets expected a lower rank at retirement than
administrative officer candidates but they were more satisfied with their career as police
officers and showed higher levels of loyalty than administrative officer candidates.
According to the significant coefficient values (-.52 and -.49, respectively), having a 4-
year college or higher degree had a negative effect on cadets’ job satisfaction and loyalty.
Cadets who had a 4-year college or higher degree were less satisfied with their careers as

police officers and showed less loyalty than those with less formal education.

Hypothesis 5.

With respect to cadets’ perceptions of the role of female officers, female cadets
evaluate women’s effectiveness on patrol or detective work more positively, accept
women as a work partner more readily, and have a higher evaluation of female officers’
competence than male cadets.

Table 11 shows the results of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses of
cadets’ attitudes toward the role of female officers. The R square values of the models
were .37, .08, .20 for assigning women to patrol or detective work, acceptance of women
as a work partner, and perceived competence of female officers, respectively. These R
square values suggest that the independent variables explain little variation in any of the

attitudes examined here. The bivariate analysis reported in table 6 indicates that female

62

cadets were more positive than male cadets in assigning women to patrol or detective
work, accepting women as a work partners, and perception of the competence of female
officers. The relationship still holds even when controls were included. Female cadets
were more favorable to assigning women to patrol or detective work, more favorable to
accepting women as a work partner, and more positive in perceiving the competence of
female officers. According to the coefficient values (5.11, .94, and 5.14, respectively),
being a female had a positive effect on each attitude towards the role of female officers.
The coefficient values were statistically significant at the .05 level for all variables.
Female cadets were significantly more positive toward assigning women to patrol or
detective work, accepting women as work partners on patrol duties or felony calls, and
evaluating the competence of female officers. Therefore, the hypothesis was supported.

Table 11. OLS Regression of Cadet Attitudes toward the Role of Female Officers

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Assigning Women Acceptance of Perceived
on Patrol / Women as Competence of
Detective Work Work Partner Female Officers
(5:480) (5:474) (N=479)
Female 5.11 (.46)*** .94 (.24)*** 5.14 (.73)***
Age -.18 (.10) -.07 (.05) -.16 (.16)
Line Officer Cadets -.82 (.56) -.24 (.29) -.07 (.88)
Big City -.39 (.35) -.03 (.18) -.01 (.55)
4-year College or Higher D. 1.37 (.45)** .25 (.23) 1.50 (.70)*
Job Experience .77 (.44) .11 (.23) -.12 (.69)
Relative(s) in the Police .20 (.36) .08 (.19) .36 (.57)
Mid to High Socioeconomic -.14 (.42) .01 (.22) -.13 (.65)
Constant 16.94 (2.31) 7.10 (1.20) 38.49 (3.64)
R Square .37 .08 .20

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant
(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

63

Education was another factor that had a significant effect on cadets’ attitudes
towards the role of female officers. According to the significant coefficient values
reported (1.37 and 1.50, respectively), having a 4-year college or higher degree had a
positive effect on cadets’ attitudes toward assigning women on patrol or detective work
and perceiving the competence of female officers. Therefore, higher education resulted
in more positive attitudes on the part of cadets concerning the role of female officers.
Cadets with a 4-year college or higher degree were more positive than those with less
educational background about assigning women to patrol or detective work and

perceiving the competence of the female officers in overall police duties.

CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

1. Summary and Discussion

Summag

This study hypothesized that there are gender differences in five areas of police
cadet attitudes: 1) perspectives on the role of the police, 2) evaluations of the police, 3)
perceptions of citizens, 4) occupational integration, and 5) perceptions of the role of
female officers. The hypotheses were developed on the basis of previous research based
on theoretical frameworks dealing with gender differences.

The results showed that female cadets were almost as likely as males to accept
legal restrictions, to accept authority, and to favor non-selective enforcement. Female
cadets were not, however, significantly more likely than male cadets to define the role of
the police in broad terms. Female cadets did not differ from male cadets in their
evaluation of police services, the promotion system, or work relationships in the police
organization. Female cadets expected at least as high a rank as males at retirement, were
as satisfied as males with their career as police officers, and showed as much loyalty to
the organization as their male counterparts. On the other hand, female cadets had
significantly more negative evaluations of Korean police officers, as compared to foreign
police forces, than did their male counterparts. They were significantly more optimistic
than male cadets about citizen support in terms of perceived citizen respect of police
officers and citizen responses to law enforcement. Female cadets also had significantly
more positive attitudes than male cadets about assigning women to patrol or detective

work, having women as a work partner on patrol or felony calls, along with generally

65

more positive evaluations of women’s competence in policing. The findings of this study
do suggest, therefore, that there are indeed significant gender differences in the attitudes
of police cadets, in their evaluation of the police, perceptions of citizens, and perceptions
of the role of female officers, but not, however, in their general attitudes toward the
police role and occupational integration.

This study has also found that, not only gender, but such variables as age,
training affiliation, education level, and socioeconomic status are also important factors
in the explanation of cadet attitudes; including these factors in the analysis, therefore,
provides a more comprehensive insight into the attitudes of newcomers to the police
force. Gender, age, and training affiliation were found to be especially significant factors

affecting cadet attitudes.

Discussion 1: Cadet attitudes toward the role of police

The hypothesis that assumed there would be significant gender differences in
cadet attitudes concerning the role of police has not been supported by this study.
Contrary to Gilligan’s understanding of females as being uncomfortable with rules and
hierarchy, female cadets were almost as likely as males to accept legal restrictions, to
accept authority, and to favor non-selective enforcement. This result is consistent with
previous research findings in Worden’s US. study concerning the attitudes of
experienced officers. Worden (1993) reported positive attitudes in this regard on the part
of white female officers. This finding could be interpreted from a feminist point of view,
as does Worden, that, “females may value rules and authority more, and discretion less,

because clear guidelines clarify roles and standards for evaluation and reduce the

66

ambiguity that permits males to judge their performance negatively or unfairly” (1993, p.
228). In terms of the breadth of their role orientation, females were not significantly
more likely than males to define the role of the police in broad terms. This is also
inconsistent with Gilligan’s understanding of females as tending to help people and,
therefore, one might assume, that they would tend to value community service over
fighting crime. In Worden’s United States study of officer attitudes, female and male
officers showed a similar range of attitudes concerning role orientation. This might be
understood in terms of the police socialization process. In this era of emphasis on the
importance of community policing, formal socialization in police acaderrries and informal
socialization in police departments tend to promote the service-oriented role of police, for
cadets as well as officers, regardless of their gender. Consistent with this interpretation,
Maghan (1988) reported that, in New York City, at the end of academy training, female
and male cadets showed similar attitudes towards the role of police in terms of service-
orientation.

A cadet’s age and training affiliation also had significant effects on their
attitudes. Compared to younger cadets, older cadets tended to have more favorable
attitudes towards providing service to the community and tended to be more accustomed
to following clear rules and authority; they also tended to feel less comfortable with legal
restrictions on their roles. Line officer cadets had more positive attitudes than
administrative officer candidates about accepting rules and authority and more negative
attitudes concerning nonselective enforcement. They tended to favor giving greater
discretion to patrol officers on the street rather than regulating uniform enforcement.

Differences in terms of the rank and education of line officer cadets, on the one hand, and

67

administrative officer candidates, on the other, help to explain this finding. In South
Korea, line officer cadets usually begin their careers as patrol officers; therefore, they
may tend to prefer clear rules and authority so as to facilitate the performance of their
duties in a consistent and clear-cut fashion. Yet, they may also wish to be allowed a
certain level of discretion in performing their duties on the street. On the other hand,
administrative officer candidates begin their career as first-line supervisors who are in a
position to lead line officers or to regulate rules on the basis of their authority as
supervisors and, as a result, they may be less concerned about the clarity of guidelines
than are line officer candidates. It is also understandable, why, as compared with line
officer cadets, administrative officer candidates are more in favor of nonselective
enforcement, as opposed to allowing greater levels of discretion to patrol officers on the
street, because of their expectation concerning the difficulty of supervision that this

would entail.

Discussion 2: Cadet evaluLion of the police

Gender had significant effects on some variables with respect to cadets’
evaluation of the police. Female cadets had significantly more negative attitudes than
their male counterparts in the evaluation of police officers and in comparing Korean
police with foreign police. This finding is consistent with our hypothesis as well as
Gilligan’s observation that females tend to have negative attitudes towards masculine
culture and its hierarchical organization, in this case, that of the police force. This result,
however, is contradictory to Worden’s finding with respect to experienced officers in the

United States. She reported that female officers evaluated their coworkers and

68

departments just as favorably as their male counterparts. According to the differences in
policing in both countries, it can possibly be argued that females are treated more like
outsiders in South Korea than in the United States. Women make up only 2.7% of
officers in South Korea, while more than 10% of officers in the United States are women.
High-ranking female officers, in particular, are a much greater rarity in South Korea than
in the United States. More strident male dorrrination coupled with a more extensive
exclusion of females helps explain these negative evaluations of the police force among
female cadets in South Korea. However, contradictory to the hypothesis suggested here,
as well as Gilligan’s theory, female cadets were not found to differ from male cadets in
evaluating police services, the promotion system, or work relationships within the police
organization. In terms of promotion, the Korean police force is well known to have very
clear guidelines and promotion is based on competition in terms of written tests,
performance appraisal, and supervisor evaluation. The written test is one of the most
important criteria for promotion. Females may well prefer these clear guidelines for
promotion since they tend to be more highly qualified than their male counterparts (i.e.,
they have a higher level of education) in addition to the greater level of competition that
they face in joining the force.

Other than gender, age also had a significant effect on cadet evaluation of the
police. The evaluation of police officers and police organization tended to be more
positive among older cadets. Generally speaking, young people are more idealistic and,
subsequently, they tend to be more critical of the system, while older people tend to avoid
debate or criticism. The innovative nature of young cadets may contribute to the

generalization of a more critical perspective concerning the police work ethic, the

69

competence of police officers, fairness of the promotion system, and work relationships
among departments in the police organization. Training affiliation also had a significant
effect on cadets’ evaluation of the police. Line officer cadets had significantly more
positive attitudes than administrative officer candidates in their evaluation of police
officers, police services, and their comparison of Korean with foreign police. Both line
officer cadets and administrative officer candidates are considered to be well-qualified
members of the South Korean police, as a result of their educational background and their
competitive nature that led them to join the Korean police. Especially for administrative
officer candidates, the Korean National Police Agency offers the beginning rank of
lieutenant, so as to attract more highly qualified and innovative people to policing. They
are expected to lead the Korean police force in innovative, democratic, and increasingly
professional directions. Therefore, as an intrinsic part of their education, they are
provided with objective and analytical approaches concerning the present system and the
performance of police officers that serve to foster critical thinking, while line officer
cadets focus more on enhancing their job adaptability and learning the ideal values that
will help them to adjust to police work. These findings, therefore, should be interpreted
in light of the different educational emphases, backgrounds, and situations of line officer

cadets vs. administrative officer candidates.

 

Discussion 3: Cadets’ p_erceptions of citizens

Gender was found to have significant effects on cadets’ perceptions of citizens,
both positively and negatively. Females were significantly more optimistic than males

about citizen support in terms of perceived citizen respect for police officers and citizen

70

responses to law enforcement by police officers. This finding is consistent with our
hypothesis and Gilligan’s understanding of females as tending to think well of or having
good relationships with others. On the part of experienced officers in the United States,
Worden (1993) also observed that female officers were slightly more positive towards
citizens than their male counterparts, although, over time, experience resulted in the
views of females becoming very sirrrilar to that of males. As opposed to our hypothesis
and Gilligan’s theory, however, this study found that Korean female cadets were
significantly less optimistic than male Korean cadets about citizen cooperation with the
police as a victim or a witness. This may be due, at least in part, to the fact that female
officers have long been excluded from criminal investigations, where one comes into
extensive contact with victims and witnesses. This historically masculine image of
investigative work may well make female cadets’ uncomfortable with, or result in their
negative attitudes toward, citizens as victims and witnesses. Therefore, female cadets
were more likely to have positive attitudes concerning citizen support of the police than
male cadets, but they were less likely to think that citizens cooperate with police
investigations.

Socioeconomic status also had a significant effect on perceived citizen
cooperation. Cadets at mid to high socioeconomic levels tended to be more optimistic
than those at lower socioeconomic levels concerning citizen cooperation with the police
as a victim or a witness. This finding could be interpreted from the sociological point of
view that people tend to feel that the legal system and law enforcement tend to favor the
powerful rather than the powerless, the haves rather than the have-nots (Kirk &

Okazawa-Rey, 2001; Miller, 1998). Correspondingly, cadets’ perceptions of citizen

71

cooperation with the police might be influenced by their experience or situation as this is
related to their socioeconomic status. Therefore, cadets with higher socioeconomic status
are more likely to perceive the police as helpful and the citizen as cooperating with the
police, whereas cadets with lower socioeconomic status are less likely to see this as the

C356.

Discussion 4: Occupational integration

Cadets’ level or degree of integration into or commitment to the police force was
measured in terms of expected rank at retirement, loyalty, and job satisfaction. Gender
was not found to have any significant effect on these variables. No difference was found
between female and male cadets’ attitudes with respect to expected rank at retirement, job
satisfaction, or loyalty to the police institution, which is contradictory to both our
hypothesis and Gilligan’s observation that females are less likely to become integrated
into a masculine-dominant organization such as the police force. Statistically speaking,
female cadets expected at least as high a rank as males at retirement, were as satisfied as
males with their career as police officers, and showed as much loyalty as their male
counterparts to the institution. This may reflect the fact, at least in part, that, for females,
police work represents a better alternative than other available jobs, while males have a
wider range of potential employment prospects. The much higher level of competition
involved for females, as opposed to males, in the process of becoming accepted by the
South Korean police force adds force to this interpretation. In Worden’s study

concerning the attitudes of officers in the US, she observed a slightly negative

72

association between being a female officer and expectations concerning career
advancement, but it was not statistically significant.

Training affiliation and education had significant effects on the variables
concerning occupational integration. Line officer cadets expected a lower rank at
retirement than administrative officer candidates but they were more satisfied with their
careers as police personnel and showed a higher level of loyalty than administrative
officer candidates. It is quite understandable that line officer cadets expect to retire at a
lower rank than administrative officer candidates because it takes at least six and
generally around ten years for a patrolman to be promoted to the rank of lieutenant where
the administrative officer candidate begins her or his career. Despite this lower
expectation concerning career advancement, however, line officer cadets showed higher
levels of satisfaction and loyalty than administrative officer candidates. This might be
interpreted in two meaningful ways. First, this survey was conducted following a shorter
period of training for line officer cadets than for administrative officer candidates: after
only two-months in the police academy for line officer cadets, after four months for the
cadets at the Police Staff Candidate Course, and after three years for the cadets at the
Police University. It is arguably understandable that people who have just recently joined
the police institution are more likely to show higher levels of satisfaction or loyalty as
compared to those who have been in a police academy or university for some time.
Rafky et al. (1976) support this interpretation with their argument that recruits enter the
police academy with an idealistic image of law enforcement and, subsequently, manifest
very high levels of loyalty, but that this image is moderated as training progresses. In

addition, the training period is much shorter for line officer cadets (six months) than

73

administrative officer candidates (one year for the Police Staff Candidate Course and four
years for the Police University). This shorter training period serves to enhance vocational
adaptability and the retention of ideal values, while the longer training period serves to
replace ideal perceptions with practical values that are based in the critical use of
common sense (Rafky et al., 1976).

Education level also had an effect on certain variables regarding cadets’
integration into the police force. Cadets who had a 4-year college degree or higher were
less satisfied with their career as police officers and showed less loyalty than those who
with lower levels of education. This result is consistent with previous research findings
concerning the disadvantages of being a highly educated officer. Carter et al. (1989)
noted that: “Police executives reported that college educated officers are more likely to
leave policing, question orders, and request reassignment” (p. xxiii). This does not mean,
however, that highly educated officers are not good at policing. Police executives in the
United States also reported many advantages that accrued to college educated officers,
such as better communication with the public, writing better reports, perforrrring more
effectively, receiving fewer citizen complaints, being more professional, using discretion
more wisely, and having fewer disciplinary problems. Clearly, more highly educated
officers have a broader range of alternative employment opportunities, which may result

in lower levels of satisfaction or loyalty than their less educated colleagues.

Discussion 5: Attitudes towards the role of female officers

Gender had significant effects on cadets’ attitudes toward female officers. Female

cadets had significantly more positive attitudes than males toward assigning women to

74

patrol or detective work, having women as a work partner on patrol or felony calls, and
evaluating women’s competence in policing. These results were consistent with our
hypothesis and previous research findings of generally more positive attitudes on the part
of US. females concerning the role of female officers (Homant & Kennedy, 1985;
Martin, 1980; Morash & Greene, 1986; Worden, 1993). This finding might be
interpreted in light of the fact that females often tend to react strongly to any presumption
of their weakness and tend to seek to demonstrate their capabilities in any given role,
while males tend to think that women are too compassionate and not very competitive in
policing (Balkin, 1988).

Education was another factor that had significant effects on cadet attitudes
concerning female officers, with higher levels of education resulting in more positive
attitudes. Cadets with a 4-year college degree or higher had significantly more positive
attitudes than those with less educational background with respect to assigning female
officers to patrol or detective work and in their perceptions of the competence of female
officers. Generally speaking, education inspires people to a more positive evaluation of
the role of females. Higher education mi ght provide greater opportunities for cadets to
meet such an issue head on and correct biased views that they may have, which may help
to explain the more positive attitudes of the more highly educated cadets toward the role

of female officers.

75

II. Conclusion and Recommendations

mm

The findings of this Study do not provide any clue for gender differences in police
cadet attitudes with respect to the role of the police or in terms of occupational
integration. However, the findings do suggest that there are gender differences in police
cadet attitudes in the evaluation of the police, perceptions of citizens, and perceptions of
the role of female officers. Hypotheses were not supported with respect to cadet attitudes
toward the role of police and occupational integration, partially supported with respect to
the cadets’ evaluation of the police and perceptions of citizens, and clearly upheld with
respect to cadets’ perceptions of the role of female officers. According to the findings
and the results of the tests of these hypotheses, this study, provides only partial, but not
clear, support for the contention that there are important, significant gender differences
among the attitudes of police cadets in South Korea.

These findings must be approached cautiously because a statistically significant
difference was reported only with respect to specific attitudes and not with respect to
global attitudes, even in areas that showed gender differences. Readers should
understand that the analyses reported here have been based only on certain aspects of
cadet attitudes. It should also be pointed out that the small R square values in the models
in multivariate analyses used here suggest that there are probably other important
variables that have an effect on cadet attitudes that were not considered in this study.
Therefore, the hypothesis tests performed in this study, especially in consideration of the
statistical situation mentioned above, suggest a certain ambiguity in cadet attitudes along

the lines of gender differences.

76

Cadets showed a clear gender difference only in their attitudes toward the role of
female officers. There were, however, a few minor differences in the ways that female
and male cadets see the role of the police and the way that they are integrated into their
occupation. Female as well as male cadets were somewhat ambivalent in their evaluation
of the police and their perceptions of citizens, showing some attitudes that were
consistent with the theory of gender difference and other attitudes that were not. This
suggestion of a certain ambiguity involved in the existence and explanation of gender
differences in the attitudes of police cadets in South Korea is meaningfully compared
with the results of Worden’s research on officer attitudes in the United States. Her
research on gender differences in officer attitudes illustrated the general failure of gender
to explain variation in the array of attitudes she examined. Her study of officer attitudes
in the US, uncovered very few differences in the ways that women and men saw their
role, their clientele, or their departments. In this Korean study, however, cadets, even
though it was ambiguous in explaining gender differences in a broad aspect of cadet
attitudes, showed minor gender differences with respect to certain aspects of their
attitudes. As indicated above, for example, female cadets tended to be less positive in
their evaluations of police officers, while they tended to be more positive in their
perceptions of citizen support than their male counterparts. Of greatest importance is the
way in which the perceptions of female cadets were much more positive concerning all
variables serving to measure attitudes toward the role of female officers. This is
undoubtedly due, at least in part, to the way in which Korean culture is based on Eastern
or Confucian values of male superiority in or domination of society, and policing is

certainly no exception; this may help to explain a certain level of gender differences

77

observed in Korean cadet attitudes in this study as compared with few gender differences
observed in US. officer attitudes in the Worden (1993) report.

Furthermore, even though the theory of gender difference has not been clearly
upheld in this study, gender, along with age and training affiliation, was one of the most
robust factors examined that did have an effect on cadet attitudes. This study found that
gender, training affiliation, age, education, and socioeconomic status are all statistically
related to cadet attitudes; gender was related to seven cadet attitudes, training affiliation
to eight, age to five, education to four, and socioeconomic status to one variable, out of
the total of sixteen dependent variables. Among these independent variables affecting
cadet attitudes, gender, age, and training affiliation were found to be the most influential.
Cadets’ place of residence, employment history, and police farrrily background, on the
other hand, were not found to have any significant effect on any of the dependent

variables.

Implications and policy recommendations

As suggested above, female cadets’ perceptions were significantly more positive
than their male counterparts concerning the assignment of women to patrol or detective
work, having a woman as a work partner, and with respect to the competence of female
officers. While these results were not sufficient evidence for suggesting that there are
major and/or widespread gender differences in attitudes among Korean police cadets,
they do suggest very strong self-evaluation on the part of females, which is consistent
with research findings in the United States, where females have registered a significantly

negative response to presumptions of their weakness (Homant & Kennedy, 1985; Martin,

78

1980; Vega and Silverrnan,l982). These findings suggest that male cadets are less
willing to team up with women, or they tend towards a more negative evaluation of the
role of female officers than their female counterparts. This is especially important insofar
as these negative perceptions of female officers on the part of male cadets suggest that
females in police departments may receive less support and advice from their male
coworkers or supervisors. Females in police departments may also receive less positive
reinforcement than their male coworkers, even when they perform well. Since this
significant gender gap in attitudes toward female officers may tend to result in sexual
harassment or other problems related to gender differences in the police force, it seems
reasonable to suggest that police educators or executives consider employing training
programs that are geared towards enhancing the perceptions of male cadets and officers
to a greater level of appreciation for the roles and performance of their female colleagues.
It is also recommended that policies designed to accelerate, enhance, and in fact
guarantee, gender equality in the work place be set in place in police departments, not
only in South Korea but in other contexts as well, which, hopefully, will in time lead to
more positive attitudes on the part of male cadets and officers towards the contributions
made by women to the work of the police force as a whole, especially as guardian and
servant of the rights and needs of all citizens.

Unlike Worden’s findings in the United States that white female officers
evaluated their coworkers and departments just as favorably as did their white male
counterparts, this study found that female cadets in South Korea had significantly more
negative attitudes than male cadets in their evaluations of police officers and in

comparing Korean with foreign police. This indicates that females may feel more like

79

outsiders to policing in South Korea than in the United States. Even though this finding
stands in tension with the evidence that female cadets are at least as satisfied as males
with their career in policing, as Worden (1993) indicated, females’ job satisfaction in
policing is quite possibly related to the comparative difficulty that a female has in getting
a good job, especially in a traditionally male-dominant field. Their level of personal
satisfaction, therefore, may not be indicative of the fact that the culture is favOrable to
females, generally speaking. Personal job satisfaction is one thing and negative
perceptions of the police quite another. Police educators and executives need to
determine, therefore, what is responsible for female cadets’ more negative evaluations of
the police than their male counterparts. Such an analysis could serve as a basis for the
development and implementation of policies or programs that could make working for
the police an equally desirable experience for both females and males.

In addition to gender, age, training affiliation, education, and socioeconomic
status were also important factors affecting cadet attitudes, especially age and training
affiliation. This suggests that cadets may tend to develop and hold various opinions
about certain issues depending on these factors. It is recommended, therefore, that police
educators and executives pay special attention to the relationship between cadet
characteristics and their attitudes. Since such attention provides invaluable information
about the various values that cadets of different backgrounds bring with them to policing,
this would surely help in the design of enhanced programs and policies for police

education and management.

Recommendations for Future Research

80

Some limitations to this research, along with a few recommendations for future
research are presented here. First, this sample was of police cadets with no practical
work experience in police departments. Yet, informal socialization through practical
work experience is considered to be at least as important as formal socialization in police
academies for the development of police attitudes, especially over time. It could be
argued that police cadets are not yet socialized into policing and so do not reflect the
attitudes of actual police personnel and their relationships to the variables under
discussion. Clearly, therefore, similar types of studies need to be performed with
experienced officers in order to address this weakness. Longitudinal methodology, in
particular, is strongly recommended for future research in this field. Such a research
design would permit the tracking of socialization processes of police cadets from police
academies to police departments and examine how gender differences reflect changes in
attitudes, if at all, over time in police attitudes throughout the socialization processes.
Such an assessment of these processes offers suggestive evidence concerning the extent
to which experience has differential effects on female and male attitudes. Using a
longitudinal methodology, hypotheses on occupational socialization and gender
differences could be tested simultaneously. Next, this study did not include variables
serving to directly measure cadets’ perceptions of the causes of gender differences in
attitudes. Identifying such causes might provide better recommendations for police
practitioners to assist in the design of reasonable and effective policies.

Finally, it might be beneficial to include more or different independent variables
that may affect cadet attitudes. In OLS regression analyses in this study, the R square

values of the models indicated that the independent variables explained very little

81

variation in attitudes. Some may even question, therefore, the validity of the modest
conclusions that have been drawn concerning gender differences. Admittedly, small R
square values limit the strength of whatever conclusions are drawn and suggest that
potentially confounding variables were not taken into consideration. It is strongly
recommended, therefore, that future researchers include a broader array of variables that
may have an effect on the attitudes of police cadets or officers. Military experience or
religious background, to cite just a couple of examples, could be important factors, yet,
this study did not generate any data in this regard. A more inclusive approach to the
many theoretically important variables related to attitudes would serve as the basis for a

more robust and meaningful analysis.

82

APPENDICES

83

Appendix A. Analyses Excluding the Value “Undecided”

3

Most items were formatted on a Likert-type scale as follows: “Strongly disagree’
(1), “Disagree” (2), “Undecided” (3), “Agree” (4), and “Strongly agree” (5). The value
“Undecided” (3) has two different meanings: the midway point between disagree and
agree or do not know. Accordingly, analyses were conducted two different ways;
including and excluding the value “Undecided.” For this study, the results were
explained using data including the value “Undecided,” due to the huge number of cases
lost when the value was excluded. However, analyses excluding the value “Undecided”
were attached as the appendix 1. For analyses excluding the value “Undecided,” the
scores were recoded on a four-point scale: “Strongly disagree” (1), “Disagree” (2),
“Agree” (3), and “Strongly agree” (4). Tables 6-1 to 11-1 show the results of the

analyses excluding the value “undecided”.

84

Table 6-1. T-test of Cadet Attitudes by Gender

Attitudes toward the role of police

Acceptance of legal restrictions
(Range 2~8)

Breadth of the role orientation
(Range 3~12)

Acceptance of rules and authority
(Range 2~8)

Uniform (nonselective) enforcement
(Range 2~8)

The evaluation of the police

Evaluation of police officers
(Range 12~48)

Evaluation of the police organization
(Range 2~8)

Evaluation of police services
(Range 1~5)

Comparative evaluation
(Range 2~10)

Perceptions toward citizens
Level of citizen support
(Range 3~12)
Citizen cooperation with police
(Range 2~8)

Occupational integration
Expected rank at retirement
(Range 1~7)
Job satisfaction
(Range 4~16)
Loyalty
(Range 3~12)

Attitudes toward female officers
Women on patrol or detective work
(Range 5~20)
Acceptance of women as a partner
(Range 2~8)
Competence of female officers
(Range 11~44)

Female (N: 230) Male (N: 299)

4.71 (1.24)
8.29 (1.35)
6.12 ( .73)

3.73( .91)

35.29 (3.95)
4.86 (1.00)
3.42( .73)

5.92 (1.11)

6.89 (1.31)

5.88 ( .95)

4.53 (1.13)
13.52 (1.63)

9.43 (1.30)

14.90 (2.56)
5.45 (1.21)

32.46 (4.04)

4.39 (1.32)*
8.36 (1.39)
6.20 ( .82)

3.51 ( .98)*

36.23 (5.27)
4.89 (1.25)
3.59( .69)**

6.56 (1.19)***

6.45 (l.11)**

5.94 ( .85)

4.77 (1.18)*
13.03 (1.72)**

9.24 (1.23)

10.73 (3.23)***
4.47 (1.51)***

27.74 (5.59)***

Notes: Entries represent mean values on each variable; numbers in parentheses are
standard deviations for subsamples on each variable. Asterisks indicate that the
difference is statistically significant; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 (t test).

85

Table 7-1. OLS Regression of Cadet Attitudes toward the Police Role

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Accept Breadth Accept Uniform
Legal Role Rules and (nonselective)
Restrictions Orientation Authority Enforcement
(Nz382) (N=324) (N=395) (N=412)
Female .18 (.18) .23 (.21) -.04 (.10) .24 (.13)
Age -.08 (.04)* .08 (.04)* .04 (.02) -.09 (.03)
Line Officer Cadets -.29 (.21) -.20 (.23) .30 (.13)* -.24 (.15)
Big City -.17 (.13) .10 (15) .04 (.08) -.14 (.09)
4-year College or Higher D. .39 (.17)* -.15 (.20) -.03 (.10) -.03 (.12)
Job Experience .11 (.17) -.30 (.20) -.12 (.10) .08 (.12)
Relative(s) in the Police .20 (.14) .15 (.15) -.08 (.08) .03 (.10)
Mid to High Socioeconomic -.27 (.15) -.09 (.18) -.06 (.09) .06 (.11)
S.
6.54 (.88) 6.44 (1.03) 5.02 (.52) 3.94 (.63)
Constant .07 .02 .05 .03

R Square

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant

(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

86

Table 8-1. OLS Regression of Cadet Evaluation of the Police

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Comparative

of Police of Police of Police

Officers Organization Services Evaluation

(N2104) ( 2233) (N=484) (Nz483)
Female .64 (1.21) .18 (.19) -.14 (.08) -.74 (.14)***
Age .58 (.24)* .10 (.04)* .02 (.02) -.01 (.03)
Line Officer Cadets 2.75 (1.42)* -.15 (.23) .25 (.10)* .36 (.17)*
Big City -.27 (.92) -.21 (.15) .02 (.06) -.16 (.11)
4-year College or Higher D. -.89 (1.09) -.27 (.19) -.14 (.08) -.08 (.13)
Job Experience -.26 (1.05) -.16 (.19) .03 (.08) .19 (.13)
Relative(s) in the Police .02 (.93) .16 (.15) -.02 (.06) .03 (.11)
Mid to High Socioeconorrric -l.06 (1.05) .06 (.17) .13 (.07) .00 (.13)
S.
Constant 20.21 (6.32) 2.73 (.95) 2.75 (.41) 6.72 (.70)
R Square .15 .04 .07 .10

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant

(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

87

Table 9-1. OLS Regression of Cadets’ Perceptions of Citizens

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Perceived Perceived
Citizen Citizen
Support Cooperation
(N=243) (N=372)
Female .27 (.20) -.17 (.13)
Age -.04 (.04) -.02 (.03)
Line Officer Cadets .39 (.24) .20 (.15)
Big City .16 (.16) .02 (.09)
4-year College or Higher D. -.16 (.20) .03 (.12)
Job Experience -.19 (.20) -.07 (.12)
Relative(s) in the Police -.19 (.16) .03 (.10)
Mid to High Socioeconomic S. -.19 (.18) .33 (.l 1)**
Constant 7.65 (1.07) 6.13 (.63)
R Square .06 .04

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant
(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

88

Table 10-1. OLS Regression of Measures of Occupational Integration

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Expected Rank Job
At Loyalty
Retirement Satisfaction

(N=489) (N=345) (N=309)
Female -.15 (.13) .17 (.24) .09 (.19)
Age -.01 (.03) -.02 (.05) -.06 (.04)
Line Officer Cadets -.57 (.15)*** 1.77 (.31)*** .69 (.23)**
Big City .05 (.10) -.02 (.18) .02 (.15)
4-year College or Higher D. .16 (.13) -.20 (.21) -.21 (.18)
Job Experience -.08 (.13) -.25 (.22) .19 (.18)
Relative(s) in the Police .02 (.10) .03 (.18) —.19 (.15)
Mid to High Socioeconomic S. -.09 (.12) -.09 (.21) .03 (.17)
Constant 5.48 (.66) 12.39 (1.25) 8.96 (1.01)
R Square .08 .14 .07

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant
(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

89

Table 11-1. OLS Regression of Cadet Attitudes toward the Role of Female Officers

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Assigning Acceptance of Perceived
Women on Women as Competence of
Patrol/ Detective Work Partner Female Officers
(N2276) (Nz352) (Nz191)
Female 3.92 (.47)*** .76 (.21)*** 3.97 (1.03)***
Age -.10 (.10) -.08 (.04) -.20 (.21)
Line Officer Cadets -.84 (.61) -.06 (.21) -.28 (1.22)
Big City -.27 (.35) -.02 (.15) -1.56 (.72)*
4-year College or Higher D. 1.20 (.43)** .30 (.19) 2.29 (.98)*
Job Experience .58 (.44) .07 (.19) —.56 (.92)
Relative(s) in the Police .16 (.36) .16 (.16) .45 (.74)
Mid to High Socioeconomic S. .02 (.44) -.12 (.18) -.38 (.87)
Constant 13.26 (2.36) 6.39 (.99) 32.67 (4.96)
R Square .39 .12 .26

 

Notes: Entries represent unstandardized regression coefficients; numbers in parentheses
are standard errors. Asterisks indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant
(* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

90

Appendix B. Questionnaire

A. Please read each question carefully and circle or write down your answer.

1. Age?

 

2. Training affiliation?
1) the Police University ( ___th) 2) the Police Staff Candidate Course ( _th)
3) the Line Officer Course ( ___th)

3. Where have you lived before your entering this academy?
1) big city ( be specific _) 2) midsize city(be specific )

3) rural area (be specific _)

4.Sex?

1) male 2) female

5. Marital status?

1) not married 2) married 3) other (be specific )

6. Education?
1) high school 2) some college 3) 2-year college (major: )
4) in the Police College (major: ) 5) 4-year college (major: )

6) Graduate or above (major: )

7. Job experience?

1) yes (type of job: ) 2) tried but could not find 3) no

8. Are there any police officers among family or relatives?

1) no 2) yes

91

9. If yes, who is the police officer?

1) parents 2) siblings 3) relatives 4) others (please be specific )
10. Father’s Job? (be specific )
11. Mother’s Job? (be specific )

12. Father’s education?

1) elementary school or below 2) middle school 3) high school 4) college or above

13. Mother’s education?

1) elementary school or below 2) middle school 3) high school 4) college or above
14. Parents’ annual income?
1) below $ 8,000 2) $8,001 - 16,000 3) $16,001-25,000 4)$25,001-35,000

5) over $35,000

15. Family’s social and economic status based on your view?

1) below poverty level 2) low 3) middle 4) high 5) extremely high

B. The following questions ask why you decided to join the police force and who
affected the decision.

16. Influence of parents?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

17. Influence of other relatives?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

18. Influence of close friends?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

92

19. Influence of teacher?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

20 Influence of siblings?

1) Strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

21. Need for a steady salary?
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

22. Early retirement and good pension?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

23. Good salary and fringe benefits of the job?
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

24. The security of the job?
1) Strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

25. The excitement and adventurous character of police work?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

26. The chance to fight crime?
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

27. Working on your own with autonomy?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

28. The prestige and status of the occupation?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided

93

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

29. Enforcement of the law?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

30. The authority and power associated with the job?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

31. Because there is no other choice?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

32. The opportunity to help people?
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

33. The opportunity of promotion?

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

34. How far do you think you can be promoted at your retirement?
1) Lower than'Assistant Inspector 2) Inspector 3) Senior Inspector 4) Superintendent
5) Senior Superintendent 6) Superintendent General 7) Higher than Senior

Superintendent General

C. The following statements ask your perception toward the police. Choose one

answer in each question according to your level of agreement to the question.

35. Police work is an occupation highly respected in the community.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

36. Police work provides good opportunity for advancement.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

37. The public generally looks down on police officers.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

94

38. The police profession is low in status and prestige.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree
39. Police work is generally less prestigious than other uniform professions such as the
armed forces.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

40. Most parents would not want their children to choose policing as a profession.

I) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

41. Police work is a satisfying job which is worth doing.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

42. Basically, police officers are just glorified security guards.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

43. A job in the police force is better than most other job opportunities nowadays.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

44. Policing is “dirty work”.
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

45. Police officers are generally not very well paid. ®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

D. The following statements ask you about the citizens’ perception toward the

police.

46. Generally speaking, the citizen is suspicious of police officers. ®
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

95

47. Most citizens in the community respect police officers.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree
48. Many citizens show negative responses against law enforcement from police
officers.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

49. Many citizens say that police services are adequate and perfect.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

50. Many citizens say that police services have a lot to be corrected. ®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

51. Most citizens are willing to report a crime to the police when they are victimized.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree
52. Most citizens are willing to call the police if they see something suspicious or a crime
scene.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

E. The following statements ask your level of satisfaction choosing a career as a

police officer.

53. I’m satisfied with choosing the police as my career.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

54. I’m satisfied with the social and financial status of a police officer.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

55. I’m satisfied with the prestige of a career with the police.

96

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

56. I’ll probably leave the police vocation after some time and look for a new job. ®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

57. I will recommend the police organization to my friends as a place to work.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

58. I will put forth extra effort to help the organization succeed even though it’s not
assigned to me.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

59. I’m always concerned about the fate of the police organization.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

F. The following statements are about the duties and the roles of the police.

60. If police officers in tough neighborhoods had fewer restrictions on their use of force,
many of the serious crime problems in those neighborhoods would be greatly reduced. ®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

61. When a police officer is accused of using too much force, only other officers are
qualified to judge such a case. Prosecutors, judges, and reporters should not take the
case.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

62. The police should handle problems only related to law enforcement. ®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

63. The police should help to quiet family disputes if they get out of hand.
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

97

64. The police Should handle calls that involve social or personal problems.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

65. Police service in which the police station and the police box open the restroom to the
public and lend umbrellas in case of rain is also a role that the police should do.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

66. A police officer should keep in mind to do the job by following the orders of
supervisor officers. 3

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

67. Police officers do a better job when they follow clear, precise guidelines in handling
incidents.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

68. The command and discipline found in a military organization is a good model for a
police department.
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

69. Patrol officers on the street are more effective if they are able to decide on their own
when to enforce particular laws. ®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree
70. Each police officer should have the right to decide about law enforcement rather than
be obliged to follow the indicated process. ®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

71. Better pay is the most important factor in getting a better police force.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

98

72. The police should do their best to provide better service whether the pay is good or
not.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

G. The following statements are about your perception toward police officers and

the police departments.

73. Police officers treat all citizens equally.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

74. Police officers protect civil liberties and rights.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

75. Police officers are restrained in their use of force.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

76. Police officers are knowledgeable in the law.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

77. Police officers are reliable and competent.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

78. Generally, police officers are trustworthy and do not abuse their rights and privileges.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

79. Police officers are ready to put public interests above their own.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

80. Police officers perform a vital role in maintaining law and order in society.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

99

81. Besides investigation, police officers are also competent in life-saving skills and in
handling various emergency situations.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

82. Police officers are highly dedicated to their job.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

83. Police officers are adequately prepared to provide quality services.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

84. Police Officers’ work ethic is quite high.
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

85. There is a good working relationship in our police organization among different
departments and jurisdictions.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

86. The promotion system used in the police is fair to all candidates for promotion.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

87. How do you evaluate the overall police service?

1) very poor 2) inadequate 3) adequate 4) good 5) outstanding

88. How do you evaluate the quality level of Korean police compared with that of foreign
countries?

1) very poor 2) inadequate 3) adequate 4) good 5) outstanding
89. How do you evaluate the quality of police service compared with that of foreign

countries?

1) very poor 2) inadequate 3) adequate 4) good 5) outstanding

lOO

H. How well will you be prepared to handle each of the following cases after

finishing all courses in this police academy?

90. Traffic accident investigations.

1) not very well prepared 2) not prepared 3) undecided 4) prepared

91. Family disturbances.

1) not very well prepared 2) not prepared 3) undecided 4) prepared

92. Handling drunken citizens.

I) not very well prepared 2) not prepared 3) undecided 4) prepared

93. Court appearances.

1) not very well prepared 2) not prepared 3) undecided 4) prepared

94. Burglary investigations.

1) not very well prepared 2) not prepared 3) undecided 4) prepared

95. Treating civil disorders.

1) not very well prepared 2) not prepared 3) undecided 4) prepared

96. Drug cases.
1) not very well prepared 2) not prepared 3) undecided 4) prepared

97. Juvenile cases.

1) not very well prepared 2) not prepared 3) undecided 4) prepared

5) very well prepared

5) very well prepared

5) very well prepared

5) very well prepared

5) very well prepared

5) very well prepared

5) very well prepared

5) very well prepared

1. The following statements are about the role of women in society. Choose one

answer in each question according to your level of agreement to the statement.

98. Women should focus on home affairs such as raising a child.

101

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

99. Generally, women are discriminated against in the labor force as well as in choosing a
job.
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

100. A husband and a wife should have equal voice in home decisions.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

101. “Equal work and equal pay” for women.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

J. The following statements are about the role of women officers for patrol or
detective work. Choose one answer in each question according to your level of

agreement to the question.

101a. Women are not strong enough for patrol or detective work.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

102. Women are too emotional to do patrol or detective work.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree
103.Women officers need men officers’ assistance when women officers are assigned for
patrol or detective work.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

104. Patrol and detective work are too dangerous for women to do.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

105. Women officers are not suitable to handle violent situations.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

102

106. I think female officers perform effectively regardless of the type of departments.
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

107. If I were a patrol officer, I would not want a female officer to be my partner on
patrol.®
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

108. I would not want a female officer to be my partner in a felony call such as
burglary.®
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

109. Women should be given an equal opportunity to be selected for and to perform
police patrol or detective work.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree
110. Most citizens would probably give a female officer the same degree of respect as a
male officer.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

112. Female officers are discriminated against in salary or work assignments.

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

113. Female officers are taking advantage in a promotion or a work assignment.®

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

K. Do you agree that women officers can work effectively in the jobs described

below?

114. Crowd Control
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3)undecided 4) agree 5) strongly agree

103

115. Handling Violent Females

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

116. Juvenile Work

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

117. Handling the drunken citizens
I) strongly disagree 2) disagree

118. Arresting a Female Crirrrinal

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

1 19. Undercover

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

120. Traffic Control

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

121. Arresting Felons
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

122. Domestic Disturbance

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

3)undecided

3)undecided

3)undecided

3)undecided

3)undecided

3)undecided

3)undecided

3)undecided

123. Treating Firearms and Other Weapons

1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

124. Treating Rape Victims.
1) strongly disagree 2) disagree

3)undecided

3)undecided

104

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

4) agree

5) strongly agree

5) Strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) Strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

5) strongly agree

Appendix C. App

 

GRADUATE
STUDIES

WWW
mam
WWW
ZGWW
Eastlarairnw
48824-1046

51715-21!)
FAX 517353-2916

“St! is :1 Wm.
WM Wm

roval of the University Committee on Reseagh involving Humap

 

 

 

Subjects (UCRIHS)
MICHIGAN STATE
U N I V E R S I T Y
January 7. 2002
T0: Frank HORVATH
512 Baker Hall
MSU

RE: 1R8! 01-855 CATEGORY: EXEMPT 1-E
APPROVAL DATE: January 3, 2002

TITLE: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN POLICE CADET S' ATTITUDES: AN EMPIRICAL
STUDY OF POLICE CADETS IN KOREA

The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) review of this
projedlsounpleteandlmnpleasedbadvbematmerlghtemdwmamm
subjedsappearbbeedequatelyprotededandmeflndsbobblnhtamedoonsauare
appropriate. Therefore, the UCRIHS approved thls project.

RENEWALS: UCRIHSappmvalisvalidfumemlendayearJeghnhgwlflrheapprwaldate
shownabove. Projedsoonfinumgbeymdmeyearmustberenewedmmegreenrerml
form. Amaximumoffoursuchexpedited renewals possible. lnvestigatorswishingtooontinuea
projectbeyondthattimeneedtosubmititagaintoraoornpletereview.

~ REVISIONS: UCRIHSmustreviewanydrangeshprooedureshvdvinghumansubjeets.prior

toinitiationoftheehange. lfthislsdoneatthetimeofrenewal,pleaseusethegreenrenewal
form. Toreviseanapprovedprotoodatanyomertinedunngmeyear.sendyourmiuen
requesttothe UCRIHS Chair. requesting revised approvaland reterenclng the project‘s IRB#
andtitle. lndudehmrequestadesaipfionotthedrangeandmyrevisedhsuuments.
consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.
PROBLEMSICHANGES:Sherid1erofmetoqungarisedmthmumeofmewk.
notify UCRIHS promptly. 1) problems (unexpected side effects. oomplalnts. eta) Involving
humansubjedsu2)drmgeshmereseamhawhmmeManewhfumafionhdioafing
MMbummmmmmmmmmam
approved.

If we can be of further assistance. contact us at (517) 355-2180 or via email:
UCRIHS@msu.edu. PleasenotethatallUCRlHSformsareloeatedontheweb:
http://www.insueduluserlucrlhs

Sincerely.

/r’\

h Kumar. MD.
UCRIHS Chair

AK- bd

oc: Eui—Gab Hwang
1567A Spartan Village
East Lansing, MI 48823

105

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ackerrnan, TH. (1994). An examination of the selection and training of police
commissioners and patrol officer recruits of the Swedish national police force.
Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Michigan State University.

 

Balkin, J. (1988). Why policemen don’t like policewomen. Journal of Police
Science and Administration, 16, 29-38.

Bell, D. J. (1982). Policewomen: Myths and realities. Journal of Police Science
and Administration. 12, 47-58.

Bloch, P. B., & Anderson, D. (1974). Policewomen on patrol. Washington, DC:
Police Foundation.

Carter, D.L., SaPP. A.D., & Stephens, D.W. (1989). The State of Police
Education: Policy Direction for the 21St Century. Washington, D. C.: Police Executive
Research Forum.

Cheurprakobkit, S., Bouley, E. E., Hadjicostandi, J., & Huang, S. (2000). The
attitudes of Thai police cadets toward the role of police. Police Practice and Researchpl
L3), 345-371.

Davis, J. A. (1984). Perceptions of policewomen in Texas and Oklahoma.
J oufll of Police Science and Administration, 12, 395-403.

DuBois, E. C., Dunlap, M. C., Gilligan, C. J., MacKinnon, C.A., & Menkel-
Meadow, C.J. (1985). Ferrrinist discourse, moral values, and the law: A conversation.
Buffalo Law Review. 34, 11-87.

Ellis, R. T. (1991). Perceptions, Attitudes and Beliefs of Police Recruits.
Canadian Police College Journal, 15 (2), 95-117.

Fielding, N .G. (1986). Evaluating the Role of Training in Police Socialization: A
British Example. Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 319-330.

Fielding, NC. (1988). Joining Forces. New York: Routledge.

Fry, L., & Greenfield, S. (1980). An examination of attitudinal differences
between policewomen and policemen. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 123-126.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s
Development. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

 

Golden, K. (1981). Women as patrol officers: A study of attitudes. Police
Studies, 4(3), 29—33.

 

106

Gorgeon, C. (1996). Professional socialization of police: the role of school.
Criminology, 29 (2), 141-163.

Homant, R. J., & Kennedy, D. B. (1984). A content analysis of statements about
policewomen’s handling of domestic violence. Amerfin J ourrr_a1 of Police. 3. 265-283.

Hopper, M. (1977). Becoming a policeman: Socialization of Cadets in a Police
Academy. Urban Life, 6 (2), 149-168.

Kirk, G., & Okazawa-Rey, M. (2001). Women’s lives: multiculturfl
perspectives. Mountain View, California: Mayfield publishing company.

Korea National Police Agency. (KNPA). (2001). w [Korean Police
Annual Report 2001]. Seoul, Korea: Korea National Police Agency.

Kuon, J. H. (2001, July 2). 235% HISSfil Ola-9| 53c!” [Koran National Police
Agency celebrates the 55’” Female Officers’ Day]. gag; pp. A1.

Lim, V. K. 6., Too, T. S. H., & See, 8. K. B. (2000). Perceived job image among
police officers in Singapore: Factorial dimensions and differential effects. The Journal of

Social ngchology, 140(6), 740-750.

Lord, L. K. (1986). A comparison of male and female peace officer’s stereotypic
perceptions of women and men peace officers. Journal of Police Science a_ng
Administratiop, 13, 83-97.

Maanen, J .V. (1975). Police Socialization: A Longitudinal Examination of Job
Attitudes in an Urban Police Department. Administrative Science Quarterly, 20 (2), 207-
228.

Maghan, J .L. (1988). The 21”1 Cent_ug Cop: Police Recruit Peggptions as a
Function of Occupational Socialization. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. City

University of New York.
Manning, PK. (1977). Police work. Boston: MIT Press.

Martin, S. B. (1980). Breaking and Entering: Policewomen on Patrol. Berkeley:
University of California Press.

Martin, S. E. (1989). Women on the move?: A report on the status of women in
policing. Women & Criminal Justice 1 2-40.

 

McGeorge, J., & Wolfe, J. A. (1976). A comparison of attitudes between men
and women police officers: A preliminary analysis. Criminal Justice Review. 1. 21-33.

107

MenkeI-Meadow, C. (1989). Exploring a research agenda of the ferrrinization of
the legal profession: Theories of gender and social change. Law and Social Inquiry.
14(2), 289-319.

Miller, S. L. (1998). Crime control and women: Feminist implications of
Criminal Justice policy. California: SAGE publications, Inc.

Morash, M. and Greene, J. R. (1986). Evaluating women on patrol: A critique of
contemporary wisdom. Evaluation Review, 104 230-255.

Ore, T. E. (2000). The social construction of difference and inequality: race,
clasgéender, and sexuality. California: Mayfield publishing company.

Poole, E. D. and Regoli, R. M. (1979). Changes in the professional commitment
of police recruits: An exploratory case study. Journal of Criminal J ustice. 7. 243-247.

Rafky, D.M., Lawley, T., & Ingram, R. (1976). Are Police Recruits Cynical?
Journal of Police Science and Administration. 4(3). 352-360.

Tarng, M., Hsieh, C., & Deng, T. (2001). Personal background and reasons for
choosing a career in policing: An empirical study of police students in Taiwan. Journal of
Criminal Justice, 29. 45-56.

Tronto, J. C. (1987). Beyond gender differences to a theory of care: Signs.
Joumal of Women in Culture and Society, 12, 644-663.

Vega, M. and Silverman, I. J. (1982). Female police officers as viewed by their
male counterparts, Police Studies, 5(1), 31-39.

Worden, A. P. (1993). The attitudes of women and men in policing: Testing
conventional and contemporary wisdom. Criminology, 31(2), 203-241.

Zhao, J., Thurman, Q., & He, N. (1999). Sources of job satisfaction among police

officers: A test of demographic and work environment models. Justice Quarterly, 16(1).
154-173.

108

IIIIIljjllllifll‘lifilljllljil