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ABSTRACT
PARENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF THE NON-CUSTODIAL

FATHER'S POST DIVORCE INFLUENCE
0N CHILDREN

By

Barbara Gerber Berkman

This study examined the non-custodial father's relationship
with his children following a divorce. Differences and similarities
between the perceptions of mothers and fathers were analyzed.

The sample consisted of twenty pairs of custodial mothers
and their former husbands. Participating families included at least
one child no younger than three at the time of separation and no
older than fourteen at the time of the study. The source of data
was a structured interview conducted with each parent.

The data were analyzed using the Wilcoxin, Mann-Whitney,
Fisher's exact and chi-square tests. The following conclusions were
drawn:

1. Mothers and fathers do not differ in their perceptions

of the degree of the fathers' post-divorce influence
on the physical, social and psychological aspects of
parenting nor in their perceptions of the importance
of that influence.

2. Mothers perceived that fathers have less contact with

the children than fathers perceive they have.

—__~_

I‘i'iZESJL-‘B

 

 

('1

(“I

 

 

Barbara Gerber Berkman

Mothers and fathers do not perceive differences in the
regularity of child support payments nor is regularity
of child support payments a significant factor in the
amount of parental influence.

Regular support payments were not a significant factor
in the fathers' perceptions of the importance of their
influence; however regularity of support payments was a
significant factor among the mothers. Mothers who did~
not receive child support regularly or not on time felt
that the father‘s influence was of greater importance
than mothers who received payments regularly.

Neither mothers nor fathers perceived changes when com-
paring the fathers' pre and post-divorce influence

with the exception of two aspects of parenting:
decreases in influence over financial affairs and
decision-making and increases in influence over religious

development were perceived.

PARENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF THE NON-CUSTODIAL
FATHER'S POST-DIVORCE INFLUENCE
ON CHILDREN

By

Barbara Gerber Berkman

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Family and Child Ecology

1982

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dissertations can not be completed without the assistance,
guidance and support of teachers, friends and family. I would like
to thank those individuals who made the completion of my doctoral
program a reality.

Beatrice Paolucci served as advisor and chairperson of my
doctoral committee. She encouraged me to pursue the topic of the
post-divorce role of the non-custodial father. Her ideas, her
knowledge and, most important, her ability to quietly move students
to higher levels of development are deeply appreciated.

Marilyn Nagy gave the direction and guidance necessary to
integrate data and ideas into a completed research project. Her
willingness to provide support and ideas throughout my doctoral pro-
gram is truly valued.

Other members of my doctoral committee, Jane Oyer and Larry
Lezotte, have contributed to my doctoral education in unique ways.
Their individual expertise is reflected in my own thinking about
families and research. Although Barbara Ames was not a member of
my advisory committee, her friendship, support and encouragement
provided additional help and motivation.

A study such as this one required special participants-
individuals with enough openness and confidence to involve themselves

in a situation that required the participation of a person who might

ii

by an "adversary." Special thanks to the forty "co-parents" who made
the completion of this project possible. Gratitude must also be
expressed to the numerous people who provided names of potential
participants.

Several people were instrumental to the completion of this
dissertation. Katrina Simmons' knowledge of statistics as well as
her ability to convey that knowledge with patience and good humor
were invaluable. Cindy Jennings' competence as a typist was com-
plemented by her knowledge of form and her ability to reassure
"anxious" graduate students. Two special friends, Judy Little and
Shoshana Garber, provided intellecutal and emotional support neces-
sary for the completion of a dissertation.

Finally appreciation must be expressed to the people closest
to me. My parents, Max and Fay Gerber, have given of themselves in
many ways over the years. My sons, Eric and Josh, demonstrated the
ability to be helpful and understanding in ways far beyond what
might be expected. Although they did not understand the entire pro-
cess, they did understand the importance of the task. I hope that
their response of "never" when asked if they wanted to complete
graduate program or task of equal difficulty will change as they

mature.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . I

Need . . T
Objectives . 5
Assumptions. 6
Definitions. . . . . . . . . . 7
Conceptual Framework. . . . . . . . . ll

CHAPTER II - REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . l3
Application of Exchange Theory to the

Post- Divorce Family. . . . . 13
Definitions of Rewards and Costs. . . . l4
Reciprocity. . . . . . . l5
Social and Economic Exchange . . . . l7
The Need for Research on the Post-Divorce
Family . . . 20

Roles of Parents in Two- Parent Households. . 24
Areas of Parenting in which Father Might
Participate. . 24
The Impact of the Father-Mother Relation-
ship on the Father-Child Relationship. . 26

Changes in the Parent-Child System Resulting

From Divorce . . . . 28
Financial Situation Following Divorce . . 3l
Post- Divorce Role of the Non- Custodial

Father . . . 34
The Fathers Felt Need For A Continuing
Relationship With the Children . . 36

The Benefits for Children When A Relation-

ship is Maintained . . . . . . . . 37

Smmmw . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
CHAPTER III - PROCEDURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Selection of Participants and Data Collection 40
The Interview . . . . . . . . . . 43

iv

Tlfli‘ifi:

 

 

 

 

 

CFAPTER IV .

 

 

 

Description of the Sample. . . . . . . 44
Age of Children . . . 46
Age of Parents At the Time of the Inter-
view. . . . . . . . . 46
Education of Parents . . . . . . . 46
Income . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Occupations . . . . . . 50
Marital Status of Fathers. . . . . . 52
Time Lapse Since Separation . . . . 52

Selection and Description of the Instrument. 52
Human Subject Approval. . . . . . . 58

Research Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . 59

Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . 63

CHAPTER IV - FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Descriptive Data. . . . 67
Contact Between Fathers and Children . . 67
Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Child Support. . . . . . . . . . 72
Alimony. . . . 73
Perceived Adequacy of Financial Support . 75
Perceived Importance of Father' 5 Influ-
ence. . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Hypothesis l . . . . . . . . . . 80
Hypothesis 2 . 81
Hypothesis 3 . 83
Hypothesis 4 . 87
Hypothesis 5 . 88
Hypothesis 6 . 9O
Hypothesis 7 . 9l
Hypothesis 8 . 93
Hypothesis 9 95

Hypothesis lO. . . . . . . . . . 97
Hypothesis ll. . . . . . . . . . 98
Hypothesis 12. . . . . . . . . . lOO
Other Findings . . . l02
Responses to Questions Regarding Satisfac-
tion Change in Influence Over Financial

Affairs - Fathers . . . l03
Fathers Who Did Not Have "High Contact"
With The Children . . . l03
Fathers Who Had "High Contact" With The
Children . . . . ll2
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . ll9

I‘lrILIi‘SJIf

CHAPTER V -

APPENDICES

 

 

REFERENCES _

 

 

 

CHAPTER V - SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

APPENDICES

REFERENCES .

Sumary .

Purpose . .

Methodology.
Discussion .
Conclusions. .
Limitations of the Study
Implications for Practical Use .
Implications for Theory and Research

APPENDIX A
Instrument. .
Contact Score Weights
APPENDIX B
Table 20. --Sources for Locating Partici-
pants . .
Table 30. --Summary of Sources Contacted
to Obtain Sample .
Table 3l. --Summary of Reason for Non-
Participation
APPENDIX C
Human Subject Approval Materials.

vi

Page

123

123
123
124
126
135
137
138
140

145
155
156
157
158
159

169

 

 

Fan.
the

 

 

TABLE

.9

GDNOIU'I

'10

11

12

13

14

15

LIST OF TABLES

Summary of Areas of Parenting Over Which Fathers
May Have Influence. . . .

Family Size and Number of Children Participation in
the Study. . . . .

Ages of Children at Time of Separation and at Time
of Interview. . . . . . . .

Ages of Parents at Time of Interview.

Level of Education Completed By Mothers and Fathers.
Total Household Income of Mothers and Fathers.
Occupational Status of Mothers and Fathers.

Time Lapse Since Separation As Reported By Each
Parent. . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Statistics Used In Testing Research
Hypotheses . . . . .

Monthly Contact Scores for Each Child as Reported By
Mothers and Fathers, Based on No. of Letters, Phone
Calls and Visits by Non-Custodial Parent

Resolution of Divorce Issues as Reported by Divorced
Mothers and Fathers . . . . . . . .

Perceived and Desired Adequacy of Child Support Pay-
ments As Reported By Divorced Mothers and Fathers

Rank Ordering of Importance of l0 Aspects of Child-
rearing As Reported By Mothers and Fathers. .

Results of Wilcoxin Test for Family Contact Scores
Reported By Mothers . . . . . .

Median and Mode of Mothers' and Fathers Reports of
Fathers' Influence Over Aspects of Parenting .

vii

Page

27

45

47
48
49
51
53

54

66

69

71

77

79

82

84

 

 

 

TABLE

20

22

23

24

25

26

27

38

Res
tid:
Ove-
Par

Mo»:
Fa:

Ran
Fat
Res

Fat
por

 

Mot
ASp
Chi

Surr

TABLE
16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

Results of Wilcoxin Tests for Difference In Percep-
tion of Pairs of Mothers' and Fathers' Influence
Over Physical, Social and Psychological Aspects of
Parenting. . . . . . . . . . .

Mode, Median and Range of Total Importance of
Fathers' Influence Scores for Mothers and Fathers

Range and Median of Contact Scores of Fathers Who
Did Not Make Regular Child Support Payments and
Fathers Who Did Make Regular Child Support Payments.

Results of Mann- -Whitney U Test In Contact Scores for
Fathers Who Did and Did Not Make Regular Child Sup-
port Payments .

Mothers' Perceptions of Fathers' Influence Over
Aspects of Parenting Based Upon Regular Receipt of
Child Support Payments . . . . . .

Summary of Mann-Whitney Test for Fathers' Perceived
Influence Over Aspects of Parenting Based on Regu-
larity of Child Support Payments . . . .

Range and Median Importance Scores for Fathers in
"Not Regular" and "Regular" Support Payment Group

Results of Mann-Whitney Test for Differences in
Fathers' Perceived Importance of Influence Based on
Regularity of Child Support Payments.

Results of Mann-Whitney Test for Difference in Per-
ceived Importance of Fathers' Influence Over Ten
Aspects of Parenting by Mothers On Regularity of
Receipt of Child Support Payments.

Summary of Wilcoxin Tests for Fathers' Perceived
Changes in Influence Over Ten Aspects of Parenting .

Summary of Wilcoxin Test for Mothers' Perceptions
of the Change in Fathers' Influence Over Ten Aspects
of Parenting. . . . . . .

Father-Mother-Child Exchanges In The Post- Divorce
Family. . . . . . .

Summary of Hypotheses Tested and Decision Rule

viii

Page

85

87

89

9O

92

93

94

95

96

99

101

122
127

 

‘ TABLE

29
30

 

50:.
Su"
Sun

 

TABLE Page

29 Sources for Locating Participants. . . . . . . l56
30 Summary of Sources Contacted To Obtain Sample. . . l57
31 Summary of Reasons for Non-Participation . . . . 158

ix

(\L

TH".

 

 

-
1371
v,

.45

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Need

The American family is changing. The traditional family is
being replaced by a variety of family forms including the single-
parent family and the reconstituted family. An increasing number
of children are spending at least some of their childhood in a
single-parent family.

Demographic studies (Espenshade, 1974; Glick, 1979) indicate
that the largest increase of children under 18 in the United States
living in one-parent families has occurred among children who live
with a divorced parent as opposed to those who live in single-parent
households created by desertion, death or the fact that the parent
had never married. In 1980, 5.1 million children under 18 lived
with a divorced parent. This represents a 400 percent increase in
the number of children who lived with a divorced parent in 1970
(U.S. Bureau of Census, 1980).

While more children of divorce lived with their fathers in
1980 than in 1970, the largest proportion of these children continue
to live with their mothers. In both years, 1980 and 1970, less than
ten percent of all children whose parents were divorced lived with

their fathers. Of those who lived with a single parent,

11.837235)

 

 

 

approximately 90 percent lived with their mothers (U.S. Bureau of
Census, 1980).

It should be pointed out, however that not all children
whose parents divorce will live with a single parent from the time
the divorce occurs until they reach 18 or become independent. Many
divorced parents remarry. The reconstituted households include the
children of previous marriages. However, the fact remains that the
greatest proportion of children whose parents divorce remain with
their mothers and may be separated physically and psychologically
from their fathers.

Many changes occur within the mother-child, father-child,
mother-father, and sibling relationships as the result of divorce.
When the mother receives physical and legal custody of the child(ren),
the father is usually required to provide financial support.

He is also permitted to visit the children at specific times stipu-
lated by the court granting the divorce or as agreed upon by the
parents in the pre-divorce negotiations. Because the father no
longer lives in the same house as the children, the father-child
relationship may not have the same potential for spontaneity as it
did prior to the divorce. It is also possible that the nature of
the relationship with each child, in instances where there is more
than one child, will differ. In addition, the degree of influence
that the father retains or receives in decisions regarding the care
and upbringing of the child depends upon the custodial mother's

willingness to recognize the parental status of her former husband.

13:39!

 

Newsome (1976) found a positive relationship between the
mother's recognition of the father's parental status and his con-
tinued involvement with the child(ren). Newsome did not find a
significant relationship between amount of child support actually
paid and paternal involvement. However he did not consider the rela-
tionship between regularity of child support payments and paternal
involvement. Newsome did suggest that paternal outcomes might
influence paternal inputs. There is a need to examine this aspect -
of the father mother-child relationship particularly as it applies
to the regular payment of child support.

Much of the research on the impact of divorce focuses on the
psychological outcomes of divorce. Kelly and Wallerstein (1980);
Weiss (1979); Hetherington, Cox and Cox (1976) and Greif (1977) are
a few of the researchers who have studied the psychological outcomes
of divorce for parents and children. While they cited economic
factors as having an effect on the psychological outcomes, they did
not study those aspects of the relationship that encourage fathers
to make regular child support payments or provide the resources that
enable the child to maintain a level of living at or near the pre-
divorce level of living.

It is recognized that divorce usually has a negative impact
on the financial status of mothers and children as well as the father
when incomes must stretch to help meet the financial needs of two
households. Although divorced fathers are required by law to pro-

vide financial support for their children, only a small proportion

THERESA

 

 

 

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continue to do so for an extended period of time (Gordon, Jones and
Sawhill, 1978, pp. 17-20). In addition fewer than 50 percent of

the fathers, who do provide financial support, provide more than ten
percent of the total income of the mother-child household. Only
five percent of the women who received child support payments in
1976 received more than half of their family income from this source
(U.S. Bureau of Census, 1979).

The 1976 Survey of Income and Education (SIE) indicates
that only 25 percent of the 4.9 million single women heading house-
holds that include children under 18 receive child support payments.
This is of particular significance when one considers the fact that
when child support is excluded from family income, the poverty rate
for mothers who receive it increases from 12 to 19 percent. In
addition the poverty rate of those who receive child support is 12
percent while the poverty rate of those who receive no child support
is 32 percent (U.S. Bureau of Census, 1979). It is evident that the
financial contributions of fathers are necessary if the needs of
children are to be met.

While a large proportion of divorced fathers do not provide
financial support, a small proportion do provide support and continue
to do so for a period of five or more years beyond the time of the
divorce. Newsome (1976) concluded that there is a positive rela-
tionship between paternal inputs and outcomes using data based on
the mothers' perceptions.

There is a need for research to determine the degree to which

the perceptions of the visiting father and custodial mother are

 

congruent wit:
involvement. 1

of a study of

 

empirical res:I
children foll;

some fathers

T1

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01 Judges, at:

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Of divorce on
family SYStem
the mother and
the Impact of

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that It Is nec

the social , p5

family 5.l/Stem.

congruent with relationship to issues of support, influence and
involvement. In addition David Chambers (1979) in his discussion
of a study of the Michigan Friend of the Court System suggests that
empirical research on the relationship between fathers and their
children following a divorce would be helpful in understanding why
some fathers pay more regularly than others. Chambers points out
that much of the information on why some fathers meet this obliga-
tion better than others is impressionistic--based on the opinions
of judges, attorneys and counselors rather than empirical research.
Theresa Levitin (1979),in a review of research on the effects
of divorce on children, emphasizes the need to study the post-divorce
family system from perspectives other than that of the impact on
the mother and child. Levitin feels it is necessary to understand
the impact of the absence of the child on the father as well as the
impact of the father's absence on the child. Levitin also states
that it is necessary to consider the perspective of both parents on
the social, psychological and economic effects of divorce on the

family system.

Objectives
This study was designed to answer basic questions regarding
the relationship of the divorced non-custodial father and his child-
ren from the perspective of both the custodial mother and the father.
The post-divorce relationship is defined as the amount of contact
the father has with the children, the amount of influence the father

has over selected aspects of childrearing, the perceived importance

of his role on childrearing and the consistency of financial

support. The perceptions of the custodial mothers were compared with

those of their former husbands. The answers to the following ques-

tions were sought:

1.

The

Do custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers have
similar perceptions regarding the fathers‘ involvement
and influence over the children?

Do divorced, non-custodial fathers who make regular
child support payments differ in the extent of their
involvement with their children from fathers who do
not make regular child support payments?

Do divorced non-custodial fathers who make regular
child support payments differ in their perceptions

of the importance of a fathers' influence over the
children from fathers who do not make regular child ,
support payments?

Do custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers perceive
differences in the father's pre and post divorce

influence over the children?

Assumptions

 

following assumptions underlie this study:

The father's absence from the home affects the
extent of his involvement with the children.
Fathers have the resources with which to make child

support payments.

3. The father's remarriage does not diminish his desire
to maintain a relationship with the children of an

earlier marriage.

Definitions

 

Custody. Control over the child.

Physical Custody. The right of the parent to have the child

 

live with him or her.

Legal Custody. The right of the parent to make decisions

 

regarding the child's upbringing.

Joint Custody. The sharing of the rights and responsibili-
ties of parenthood by both mother and father. Joint custody may be

physical, legal or both.

Child Support. A specified amount of money transferred from
the non-custodial parent to the custodial parent in order to provide

financially for the children.

Parent Roles. Greif (1977) identifies the roles and func-

 

tions parents perform in order to meet the physical, social and
psychological need of the children. These ten functions include:
1. Routine daily care and safety of the child. Activities
include feeding, attending to grooming needs, adhering
to the necessary activity schedule and providing trans-

portation when needed.

T119889

 

 

 

Intellectual development. Activities include reading
to the child, attending to the child's education, dis-
cussing possible options regarding education and
career alternatives.

Physical development. Activities include participating

 

with or providing the opportunity for the child to
engage in physical activities and encouraging the child
to take an interest in his or her body.

Recreational Activities. Activities include encouraging
the child to pursue hobbies and/or cultural interests
and taking vacations together.

Teaching the Child How to Behave. Activities include
disciplining the child, teaching manners and deter-
mining chores and responsibilities.

Emotional Development. Activities include helping the
child to overcome fears and discussing feelings and
worries.

Religious Development. Activities include discussing
religious beliefs, establishing traditions, saying

prayers and attending religious services and school.

.1 Moral Development. Activities include teaching the

 

child between right and wrong, the importance of telling
the truth and instilling values.
Giving the Child a Sense of Being Part of the Family.

Activities include participating in larger family

11.111133

 

 

 

 

 

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gatherings and discussing relationships within the
nuclear family as well as the extended family.

10. Financial Decision-Making Affecting the Child. Activi-
ties include giving the child an allowance and making

minor or major financial decisions affecting the child.

Resources. The time, energy and money used by a parent in

meeting the physical, social and psychological needs of a child.

Contact. The number of times in a typical month that the
father has contact with the child. Contact includes letters,
phone calls and visits. A contact score was calculated by weighting
the number of letters, phone calls and visits. The weighting sys-
tem was developed by Greif (1977) (see Appendix A for Contact Score

Scale).

Importance of the Father's Influence. For each of ten
aspects of parenting developed by Greif, each parent was asked to
rate the extent which he/she believes it was important that the
father have influence. A range “of very high importance“ to "of very
little importance" was provided. A total importance score was derived

by summing the parents' ranks on each aspect of childrearing.

Satisfaction. Each parent was asked to rank his or her

 

satisfaction with the father's current influence over each aspect
of childrearing. Three responses, positive, neutral or negative,

were possible. Degree of satisfaction with each aspect of

1.111135;

 

 

 

10

childrearing was asked and a composite satisfaction score was

derived by summing the individual ratings.

Conflict. The degree of conflict was determined by the way
in which five issues surrounding the divorce were resolved. The
five issues included child support, alimony, custody, living and

visitation arrangements.

Degree of InfluenCe. The ranking of "very high" to "very low"

 

on each of the ten aspects of parenting provides an estimate of each
parent's perception of the degree of influence the father had in
that particular aspect just prior to the divorce and at the time of

the interview.

Regularity of Child Support. The regularity of child sup-
port payments represents the number of times per year that the
father had missed or was late in making his child support payments.
Each parent was asked to indicate how often this had happened since

the divorce.

Degree to Which Child Support Payments Meet the Costs of
Child Rearing. The perception by each parent as to the extent that

 

the support payments actually cover the costs of childrearing. This
response is an estimate made by each parent with estimates ranging
from "less than 25 percent", "25-50 percent", "50 percent", "50-75

percent", "75 to 100 percent", and "100 percent".

13335511

 

 

 

 

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Mother's Use of Own Resources. Each parent was asked to
indicate the extent to which he or she believed the mother used her
own resources, ie. time, energy and money to meet the needs of the
children. The parents responded within the "very high" to "very

low" framework.

Conceptual Framework

Newsome (1976) found that the post-divorce, co-parental
relationship could be explained through the application of the
exchange theoretic framework. Using data obtained from 84 divorced
mothers in a mail survey, he found that bargaining does occur between
parents in those aspects of the post-divorce situation that concern
the children. The outcomes of the father (closeness to and influ-
ence over children) are directly related to the contributions he
makes to the children and the former wife. Newsome recognized that
one of the limitations of the study was that the perceptions of the
father with regard to his inputs and outcomes were not included.

In addition, he posited that the perceived outcomes of the father
may influence his sentiments and concurrent inputs to his children
(and former wife).

While Newsome's research was one of the first attempts to
apply exchange theory to the post-divorce situation using empirical
methods, others have implied that exchange and bargaining does
indeed occur. Bohannon (1974), Chambers (1979), Fulton (1979),
Greif (1976, 1979), Longfellow (l979), Scanzoni (1979), Weiss (1975,
1979), and Westman and Cline (1971) are among the writers and

111111322

 

 

 

 

 

12

researchers who indicate the need to explore further the applicabi-
lity of exchange theory in understanding the post-divorce parental
relationship.

Foa and Foa's (1974) resource exChange framework includes
six basic interpersonal resources: love, status, information,
.money, goods and services which are exchanged among family members.
They view resources as particular and abstract, universal and con-
crete. Love, status and information are particular and abstract;
money, goods and services are universal and concrete.

From a family ecological perspective, both parents exchange
resources with one another and with the child. The exchange of
these resources may take place in the family environment in which
a divorce has occurred as well as when the mother, father and
child reside in the same household. (A more detailed discussion
of this resource exchange model as it applies to both intact fami-
lies and families in which a divorce has occurred is included in

the review of literature.)

11113.21}

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The literature important to this study is reviewed under
the following general headings: the application of exchange theory
to the post-divorce family; the need for research on the post-
divorce family; the role of the parent in two-parent homes and
changes in the parent-child system resulting from divorce.
Application 9f Exchange Theory
to the Post-Divorce Family

Exchange Theory has its roots is psychology, sociology, and
economics. It was first introduced as an explanation for human
behavior and interpersonal relationships by Simmel (1950). Various
explanations have been offered by Blau (1964), Ekeh (1974), Foa and
Foa (1974), Homans (1961), Nye (l979), Rettig (1980), Scanzoni (1972),
and Thibault and Kelley (1959).

Nye (1979) provides one general explanation of exchange
theory. He said:

...humans avoid costly behavior and seek rewarding statuses,
relationships, interaction and feeling states to the end that
their profits are maximized....0f course, in seeking rewards
they voluntarily accept some costs; likewise in avoiding costs,
some rewards are foregone, but the person, group, or organiza-

tion will choose the best outcome available, based on his,
her, its perception of rewards and costs (pp. 5-6).

13

 

1111285

 

 

 

14

Definitions of Rewards and Costs

Thibault and Kelley (1959) offer the following definition
of rewards. They state rewards are, "...the pleasures, satisfac-
tions and gratifications the person enjoys." Nye (1979) adds
statuses, relationships, interactions and feelings that provide
gratification to this definition. Costs are defined by Thibault
and Kelley as any status, relationship, interaction or feeling
than an individual dislikes. In addition costs include alternatives
foregone because an individual chooses to invest in competing alter-
natives. The individual compares the rewards and costs of invest-
ing in a given relationship with the rewards and costs of investing
in alternative relationships.

Nye expands upon this theory by indicating that it is neces-
sary to take future outcomes into account. Relationships or posi-
tions with negative current outcomes can be predicted. Conversely
choices that promise immediate rewards may be foregone because they
endanger relationships or statuses likely to be profitable and

effective in the future.

Custodial mothers may be willing to acknowledge the role of
their former husbands in the lives of their children because they
see the potential of his financial resources in providing for the
needs of the child(ren) over the long run. In addition mothers may
perceive that allowing the father to function as a co-parent will
allow them (the mothers) to invest in themselves to a greater degree

than if they maintained total control over the child. Fathers may

 

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15

perceive that the investment of time and dollars in the child may

be a positive investment in that it lays the ground work for a
filial relationship in later years. While Boulding (1973) points
out that elderly parents are less likely to receive money from adult
children than they were in the past, one aspect of reciprocity is
that individuals help those who have helped them. In addition
children can provide immediate direct rewards in the form of affec-
tion and respect when their physical and emotional needs are met.
While negative societal sanctions in the form of possible imprison-
ment may be forthcoming if a divorced father fails to meet finan-
cial obligations to his children, perhaps the threat of loss of
status as a parent as well as loss of the children's love are better

motivators.

Reciprocity

Gouldner (1960) states that reciprocity is a norm found in
all cultures; people help those who help them and should not injure
those who help them. He believes that the norm of reciprocity and
the difficulty of determining when a social act has been repaid
lock individuals together with moral claims that add stability to
the larger social structure. Interaction with an individual occurs
until he or she has been repaid for a past service or gift. How-
ever even when repayment does occur it is difficult to know whether
repayment was equal to or greater than the original service or gifts.

Because exchange is of an ambiguous nature, reciprocities continue.

 

- 1‘
1%

1.1811

 

 

 

16

In relating the concept of reciprocity to the post-divorce
mother-father-child system, the ambiguities of the relationship are
apparent. Both mother and father may be unsure of what proportion
of the children's financial support should be provided by the father.
The father may be unsure of what his parenting role should be. In
addition he does not know how much status he holds as a father
either in the perceptions of his former wife or of his children.

Like most parents, he is unsure as to what kind of relationship he
will have with his children when they become adults.

The custodial mother who is responsible for the children
physically invests much of her time caring for them--possibly to the
exclusion of her own needs for personal development. 00 the monetary
contributions of her former husband repay her for the time she has
invested? What will be the effect on her own influence as a parent
if she allows the father to substitute for his monetary contributions
with time investments in the physical, social, and psychological
aspects of parenting? What role will she continue to have in the
lives of her children? Finally, what type of relationship will she
have with the children when they become adults? Depending upon what
caused the divorce and the way in which the adults restructure their
lives, the importance of parental status as well as a continuing
relationship with one's children may be of greater or lesser impor-
tance to the adults involved.

Scanzoni (1972, 1979) provides additional support for the

application of exchange theory in attempting to develop an

17

understanding of the post-marital relationship (particularly those
aspects of the relationship related to parenting). He said:

Exchange or reward-cost theory presents a theoretical
explanation for divorce as well as the post-divorce rela-
tionship between spouses....Reward-cost theory assumes
that persons (Actors) have goals that bring them into inter-
dependence with others. At times the interdependence exists
in the form of peaceful exchange, in which both Actor and
the Other perceive their association to be fair and just,
each believing that he or she is receiving the benefits
they should receive relative to their inputs in the rela-
tionship. At other times the interdependence is better
characterized as a 'regulated conflict' or a situation
where by virtue of greater power, the Actor is able to
impose a reward-cost ratio that the other deems unjust
(1979, p. 20).

Social and Economic Exchange

 

One characteristic of exchange theory that is applicable
to the post-divorce parental relationship is that the exchange that
occurs includes elements of both social and economic exchange. The
non-custodial father provides money and in some instances goods--
both measurable in value terms. In return he receives recognition
of his parental status-~a non-measurable resource. It is difficult
to determine how much recognition he must receive in exchange for
the money and goods he provides for his children. Perhaps part of
the answer can be found in Rettig's explanation of the cleavage
between social and economic exchange (1980). It has already been
stated that economic exchange involves a two-way transfer of measur-
able resources between two persons who are in agreement upon the
specific obligations of both and who complete the transaction in a

specified time period. It is possible to calculate the benefits of

 

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18

this exchange without difficulty in determining whether or not the
exchange is just and equitable (Rettig, 1980).

On the other hand, social exchange behavior involves the
transfer of non-measurable resources with non-specified obligations,
but with some expectation of direct or indirect reciprocity some
time in the future. In reality, then, the exchange that occurs is
not solely between father and mother. The children must be brought
into the exchange. While child support payments are intended to
provide for the material needs of the children, they are received
by the mother who, in turn, is supposed to use them to meet the needs
of the children in her custody. The mother must then recognize her
former husband's status as a parent by allowing him access to the
children. In turn the children recognize that their father does
care for them and in their own way demonstrate that they care for
their father.

Foa and Foa (1974) indicate that this range of exchange is
what occurs in the family setting. The particularistic resources--
love, status and information-~as well as the universal resources--
money, goods, and services--are exchanged among and between family
members. The divorce decree alone does not sever the bonds between
the non-custodial father and his children; thus it is possible to
apply the principles of intra-family exchange to this relationship.

Exchanges from all resource categories are needed to satisfy
the particularistic and universal needs of mother, father and child-

ren. Because the mother and father are no longer related except

11m

 

 

 

19

through their children, both adults must look elsewhere for poten-
tial exchanges to provide for needs that cannot be met through the
parent-child exchange relationship.

The Foa and Foa resource theory emphasizes that the exchange
of the particularistic resources such as love and status does not
ordinarily diminish the ability to give love and status in other
relationships. Therefore the child could have separate relation-
ships with both parents. This position conflicts with the position
of Goldstein, Freud and Solnit (1973). They maintain that:

Children have difficulty in relating positively to,

profiting from, and maintaining the contact with two
psychological parents who are not in positive contact
with each other. Loyalty conflicts are common and normal
under such conditions and may have devastating conse-
quences by destroying the child's positive relationship
to both parents (p. 38).

The position of Goldstein, Freud and Solnit represents a
major difficulty in integrating social and economic exchange in the
family system under consideration. Whatever social exchange does
occur between divorced parents is usually highly restricted. Ekeh
(1974) characterized restricted social exchange in the following
way:

1. unusual attempts to maintain equality and strong

emotional reactions when the equality rule is breached;

2. a quid pro quo attitude that common investments and

goods from which individuals can usually gain directly

and ultimately are not workable; and

1111-232

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20

3. a brittle nature of the relationship resulting in

mechanical solidarity and frequent lack of trust.

In summary, the post-divorce parent-child relationship can
be described to some extent by a generalized approach to family
exchange as presented by Foa and Foa. However this relationship is
qualified by the sometimes "brittle" or tenuous nature of the rela-
tionship that exists between the mother and father.

The Need for Research On The Post-
Divorce Family

The search of literature on the impact of divorce on fathers, ‘
particularly that which deals with his role as a non-custodial,
visiting father, is very limited. In fact, rather than exploring
what role the divorced father has in the lives of his children,
much of the literature deals with the impact of father absence on
children. In addition, much of what has been written about the
impact of divorce on fathers is primarily impressionistic rather
than empirical data. _

Atkin and Rubin (1974) provide guidelines for the part-time
or visiting father. These guidelines are based on impressions
developed from their clinical practices. Seagull and Seagull (1977)
discuss the psychological problems of the non-custodial father based
on impressions from their experience with clients.

Nye (1967) stated that most of the studies concentrate on
the period of the divorce process rather than the period of adjust-

lnent and reorganization. Although this has changed somewhat, reviews

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21

of literature consistently point out gaps in the literature covering
the post-divorce role of the non-custodial father and his relation-
ship with his children.

Price and Bonham (1976) developed an extensive bibliography
on fathering and related issues. They include sections on the
impact of father absence and the situation of the father alone but
no section on the role of the non-custodial father. Pederson
(1976) indicates the need for study and conceptualization of speci-
fic components of the father-child and father-mother relationship
in place of the "deficit-oriented" global classification of the
environment.

Moore and Davenport's 1979 review of literature on custody
and visitation found contradictory opinions, little empirical evi-
dence and no conceptual framework for addressing the issues.
Levitin (1979) stated that the major deficit in the literature on
the impact of divorce on families is its failure to consider the
impact of divorce on fathers. Most of the research focuses on
mothers and children. In addition most of the research that does
focus on the non-custodial father is based on information provided
by the mother which may be biased.

The general literature concerned with the impact of divorce
on the family system does point out the devastating financial impact,
particularly on women and children (Bane, 1976; Brandwein, Brown,
and Fox, 1974; Chamber, 1979; Glick, 1979; Espenshade, 1979; Hoffman,
1977; Sawhill, 1975; Sawhill and Ross, 1976). The statistics which

22

illustrate the extent of the problem are drawn primarily from census
data. Chambers (1979) conducted an extensive study on the Michigan
Friend of the Court System which is the agency that oversees all
official matters pertaining to divorce and paternity. He contends
that "even if we assume a link between visitation and payments the
nature of the link is not fully clear" (p. 128). Chambers stated
that research exploring the nature of this relationship is warranted
in order to develop appropriate policy on issues related to child
support. In attempting to understand this relationship it is neces-
sary to consider the role and interaction of the mother and father

in both married and divorced family systems.

Roles of Parents in Two-Parent Households

Although the roles of both men and women as parents have
changed in recent years, the mother has been defined partially by
the fact that she is the one who bears and nurses the child. For
physiological reasons the father does not have an active role in
these aspects of parenting. Biller and Meredith (1974), Lynn (1976),
Benson (1968), and Lamb (1976) all point out that mothers and fathers
have somewhat different roles in parenting. Fromm (1956) states
that fathers and mothers stand for two different modes of loving
the child. The love of the mother is usually unconditional; the
mother loves the child merely because it exists. 0n the other hand,

the father's love must be earned and it cannot be taken for granted.

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23

Parson and Bales (1955) state that the father's occupational
role is central to his family role whereas the parenting role of
the mother is more expressive:

In our opinion the fundamental explanation of the alloca-
tion of the roles between the biological sexes lies in the
fact that the bearing and early nursing of children establish
a strong presumptive primacy of the relation of mother to the
small child and this in turn establishes a presumption that
the man, who is exempted from these biological functions,
should specialize in the alternative direction (p. 23).

In essence, the mother assumes the homemaker role and con-
sequently is more involved with the children than the breadwinner-
father whose work place is usually removed from home and family.
The defined gender roles are not peculiar to the United States.
Reiss (1980) states that female ties to childrearing and male ties
to economic and political power are the salient features of gender
roles in many cultures.

While recent Social and political movements, particularly
the Women's Movement, and to a lesser degree the Men's Liberation
Movement as well as the movement of women into the paid work place
have done much to alter the viewpoint that men and women have dis-
tinct family roles, this notion still exists to some degree both in
the work place and in the family. Even Parsons recognized that
these roles are somewhat flexible. He stated:

In the distribution of instrumental tasks the American
family maintains a more flexible pattern than most societies.
Father helps mother....Mother can supplement the income of
the family by working outside. Nevertheless the American
male, by definition must “provide" for his family. He is
responsible for his wife and children. His primary area of
performance is the occupational role, in which his status

inheres; and his primary function in the family is to supply
an "income", to be the "breadwinner" (p. 339).

 

 

1.15133)

 

 

 

 

24

This role distinction still exists in many families although it is
now recognized that both parents can have instrumental and expressive
roles.

Although the role of the mother is still associated primarily

with expressive functions, many fathers have indicated and have been
urged by psychologists and sociologists to express a desire to
become more involved in the "expressive aspects of parenting".
Benson (1968) distinguishes between two dimensions of fatherhood.

The survival dimension includes the male role in reproduction and

 

the provision of material support. In addition he serves as a
teacher, a censor, and a promoter of the roles of social interaction.
He teaches survival skills and transmits basic health habits. He
"symbolizes Manhood" (p. 54), handles crises, and teaches the child

to cooperate with others. The expressive dimension of fatherhood

 

includes providing bodily comfort to the children, showing love and
respect, playing with them, and giving their lives a sense of immedi-
ate significance.
Areas of Parenting in Which
Fathers Might Participate ‘

In his book, The Father's Role In Child Development, David
Lynn delineates four specific areas of parenting that are enhanced
by paternal involvement: scholastic aptitude, achievement motiva-
tion, moral development and sex role identification. He cites
studies that indicate the importance of paternal involvement in

these aspects of parenting.

25

Biller and Meredith (1974) identify nine aspects of child
development in which the father might be a source of influence.
These nine areas include: sexual identity; self confidence and
achievement; nurturance; moral and discipline; social and sexual
relationships; physical growth and body pride; intelligence and
competence; school and education; and work and career choice.
Michael Lamb's (1976) review of research identifies four aspects
of the fathering role: sex role adoption; moral development;
academic performance; and adjustment and interpersonal interaction.

One of the earliest systematic research studies on the
activities and attitudes of fathers in regard to their paternal role
was conducted by Louise Tasch in 1952. She studied 85 fathers of
160 children to determine the different ways in which fathers inter-
act with their children. In descending order of importance the
categories of report involvement include: routine daily care and
safety; development of motor ability and skills; development of
intellectual abilities; recreational activities; development of
social standards and control; emotional development; moral and
spiritual development; maintaining the family unit; assignment of
chores and allowance; development of artistic interests; development
of personality characteristics; radio, movies and comics; giving
material objects and presents.

Judith Brown Greif (1977) derived ten parameters along which
a father might influence the growth and development of children upon

which she based the questionnaire for her research on the post-divorce

T131135}

 

 

 

 

26

father-child relationship (see Appendix A). These ten parameters
include: routine daily care and safety; intellectual development;
physical development; recreational activities; teaching the child
how to behave; emotional development; moral development; religious
development; giving the child a feeling of being part of the family;
and financial decision making affecting the child (see Table l
for a Summary of Parenting Roles).

Understanding the dimensions of fatherhood is essential.
However it is necessary to understand both the impact of the rela-
tionship between the father and child and the impact of the rela-
tionship between the father and mother on the father's relationship
with the child.
The Impact of the Father-Mother
Relationship on the Father-
ChTTd Relationship

Maureen Green makes the following statement regarding the
rewards for the father who seeks to be actively involved with his
children: "If a man can find a way to enjoy, as well as work at,
the task of bringing up his children, he will not only make his own
life more satisfying but guarantee satisfactions ahead for his child-
ren (1976, p. 180). Feigen-Fasteau (1976) said, "The rewards of
taking care of a child are real, but essentially hard to hang on
to" (p. 98).

The impact of the father-mother relationship on the father-
child relationship are somewhat easier to define than the impact

of the child on the father. LeMasters points out that it is

 

 

 

237

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28

difficult for a man to be a good father if he is not a good husband.
He states, "The father's parental role in the United States is
peculiarly tied to the success or failure of the pair-bond between
himself and his wife" (1970, p. 145). Lamb provides additional
support with his statement:

...the father-child relationship is but one in a network

within and outside the family, that the father's role is

defined in part by his relationship with the child's mother,

that the child's perception of the father is influenced by

it; mother's attitude toward him, and vice versa (1976, p.

34 .
This final statement appears to be true for both married and divorced
fathers.

Changes In The Parent;§hild System
Resulting_From Divorce

 

The major change that occurs in the parent-child system
following a divorce is the new living pattern for all concerned.
New households are formed. This change has implications for the
person with legal and physical custody and the way in which the

child(ren) are financially supported.

Physical and Legal Responsibilities. In his article "The
Six Stations of Divorce", Paul Bohannon (1976) distinguishes between
physical and legal responsibility for children following a divorce.
"Physical custody“ is defined as the right of the parent to have
the child live with him or her. With physical custody go the res-
ponsibilities of maintaining a home, feeding, clothing and caring

for the child in general. If the parent is employed outside of the

 

Tuna

 

 

29

home, the available time and human resources may be stretched to
the limit. Buehler and Hogan (1980); Kohen, Brown and Feldberg
(l979), Stack (1974), and Weiss (1979) all discuss the stress that
results in the single-parent household when the work formerly
accomplished by two adults must now be handled by one adult. 0n
the other hand Kohen, Brown and Feldberg and Weiss also found that
in some instances the mothers were relieved because they were no
longer responsible for meeting specific needs of their former hus-
bands. In addition they had greater feelings of being in control
of their own lives.

Although the trend toward joint custody--a form of custody
in which both parents share legal and possibly physical custody--is
increasing, most children continue to live with their mother follow-
ing a divorce. Much of the recent literature concludes that a joint
custody arrangement or an arrangement similar to joint custody can
be beneficial for parents and children (Abarbanel, 1970; Ahrons,
1980; Blood and Blood, 1970; Galper, 1978 and Roman, 1978). One
benefit of joint custody (legal as well as physical) is that parents
may share the burdens as well as the rewards of caring for and nur-
turing a child.

"Legal custody" is defined as the right of the parent to
make decisions about the lifestyle of the child as well as educa-
tional, recreational, and cultural choices. The parent with sole
legal custody may or may not choose to involve the other parent in

these decisions.

 

 

1.181%

 

3O

Kohen, Brown and Feldberg (1979) conducted a study of 30
divorced mothers in the Boston area. They found that these women
felt both relieved and burdened in having sole responsibility for
the lives of their children. However, even those mothers who felt
that having sole responsibility for their children was somewhat of
a burden did not indicate a desire to share this responsibility with
the father.

If the feelings of the Boston mothers are typical, the rights
of the parent who has neither physical nor legal custody are gen-
erally limited to the right to visit the child at reasonable times.
There are varying viewpoints on what rights the non-custodial parent
should have. Galper (1978), Roman (1978) and Stack (1976) are among
the growing number of researchers and practitioners who advocate
joint custody as a means of facilitating a continuing relationship
between the child and both parents following a divorce. However,
many clinicians, attorneys and judges continue to be skeptical with
regard to the workability of joint custody and whether or not such
an arrangement is truly beneficial for children. In their influen-
tial book, Beyond The Best Interests of the Child, Goldstein, Freud
and Solnit state:

Once it is determined who will be the custodial parent,

it is that parent, (not the court), who must decide under
what conditions he or she wishes to raise the child. Thus,
the non-custodial parent should have no legally enforceable
right to visit the child, and the custodial parent should
have the right to decide whether it is desirable for the
child to have such visits (1973, p. 38).

Roman (1978) perceives that a relationship between custody

and economics exists. Although not referring to the payment of child

31

support, per se, he is of the opinion that many property settlements
award the parent with greater control over the children, a smaller
"slice" of the marital economic pie. This pattern in divorce
settlements is one factor in the reduced economic status of divorced

mothers with custody.

Financial Situation Followinngivorce

Situation of the Mother. Studies by Bane and Hoffman indi-
cate that divorced mothers are usually less well off financially
following a divorce than when they were married (unless the husband
was a poor provider). Bane (1976) stated that one reason for the
economic slide is that even those women who were employed during the
marriage are likely to have lower incomes because two households
must be supported by the income that formerly supported one house-
hold. In addition the earned income of women has always been lower
than that of men because of irregular labor force participation and
work in lower paying occuptaions (Levitin, 1981). Hoffman (1977)
stated that women's incomes decrease in spite of alimony and child
support. Child support, even when it is paid, does not compensate

for the actual costs of childrearing.

Child Support. Divorced women may receive a portion of their

 

income from their former husbands in the form of alimony, child sup-
port, or both. Child support is defined as.a transfer of money from
the non-custodial parent to the custodial parent in order to meet

the expenses of rearing a child. Bohannon feels it is based on the

 

 

 

 

32

principle that ”as long as he is able to do so, the responsibility
for rearing children lies with the father". There is a trend to
view childrearing costs as a joint responsibility, with each parent
contributing proportionately (Melson, 1979). The actual amount may
be set by the court or it may be negotiated by the divorcing parents.
The payment of child support is legally enforceable via garnishment
or court order. In a few jurisdictions a man might be jailed if he
refuses to pay, but few states resort to this tactic.1
Alimony like child support is awarded on the basis of a
court order. The idea behind alimony is that the husband is obli-
gated to help support his ex-wife. Although alimony may be granted
to the husband in some instances, the frequency with which this
occurs is relatively low. In addition as women's roles have changed
so that women are increasingly expected to support themselves follow-
ing a divorce, the frequency with which alimony is granted is declin-

ing. When alimony is granted, it may be temporary to allow a period

of rehabilitation. For example the woman who has been a homemaker

 

1Michigan does have a mechanism for enforcing the payment of
child support. The Friend of the Court System is responsible for
the collection of child support and transferring the payment to the
custodial parent. David Chambers' empirical study of the Michigan
Friend of the Court system found that the degree to which the Friend
of the Court exercises its authority to enforce the payment of child
support varies from county to county.

A second study In the Best Interests of the Child: A Study
On The Friend Of The Court In Michigan completed by the Michigan
Women's Commission in 1979 also found that enforcement varies from
county to county. Both studies found that Genesee County was the
most effective in collecting child support. Genesee County has a
collection rate of 80 percent. Ingham County was not eXplicitly
discussed in either of these studies.

33

may be granted temporary alimony in order to return to school to
prepare herself for employment.

Judith Brown Greif (1976) found that 92% of the 40 divorced
fathers in her study did make child support payments. She briefly
discussed their feelings about child support in a general way but
did not relate attitudes toward child support to other aspects of
the father-child relationship.

In their study of the post-divorce adjustment of children
over the five year period following the divorce of their parents,
Wallerstein and Kelly (1980) found that 68% of the fathers paid
regularly and only 13% were totally delinquent. They found that
there was a relationship between the emotional stability of the
father and the payment of child support but did not discuss the
relationship between regular child support payments and involvement
with the child.

Several studies including those by Coletta (l979), Desimone-
Luis, Mahoney and Hunt (1979) and Kelly and Wallerstein (1980) indi-
cate the need for regular, adequate child support payments. Kelly
and Wallerstein found that insufficient income or decreased economic
resources of the custodial mother had a direct relationship to the
adjustment problems of the children when the parents divorced.
Coletta (1979) studied 72 mothers (both married and divorced). She
found that there were no significant differences in childrearing
practices between the two groups except when income was taken into

consideration. In a similar study on the adjustment of children to

34

divorce, Desimone-Luis, Mahoney and Hunt (1979) asked the parents
of 25 children between the age of seven and thirteen to complete a
behavioral checklist. Five children received "deviant“ ratings
from their parents. Each of these children lived in a household
where income declined at least 50 percent following the divorce.

In summary not one study reviewed indicated that divorced
mothers heading households were able to make ends meet without
seriously reducing their pre-divorce level of living unless they
received child support payments. This was true even in situations
where the mother had income from employment. The fact that not all
fathers pay with regularity can be gleaned from census data as well
as data obtained from research on various aspects of divorce adjust-
ment. While the reasons for the absence of payments are not totally
clear, changes that occur in the father-mother and father-child
relationship after divorce may provide some clue.

Post-Divorce Role of the Non-
Custodial Father

 

Access and Visitation. The non-custodial father's access

 

to his children following a divorce is limited by the visitation
agreement decided upon in the pre-divorce negotiations. Variations
from the agreement or additional time with the children are subject
to the mother's willingness to be flexible on access and visitation.
Much of the literature indicates that mothers are often unwilling

to be flexible although it may be to their benefit.

35

Weiss (1975) found that custodial mothers generally felt:
that visitation limited their control over the children. Because
such a limitation of control is a contradiction of the meaning of
custody some custodial parents try to impose rules and limitations
regarding visitation. In this situation the non-custodial father
might react by limiting his investment in the children.

Fulton (1979) conducted a study involving 250 fathers and
310 mothers. Ninety-four of the mothers had custody and were awarded
child support. By the end of the second year following the divorce
only 48 percent of the mothers received the amount of money awarded.
Only 20 percent of the non-custodial parents visited regularly
following the divorce. However, 40 percent of the custodial mothers
refused to let their former husbands see the children at least once.
Refusal to allow visitation was more for punitive reasons than
because the children wished otherwise or because the mothers were
concerned about the child's well being. Most of the custodial par-
ents did not involve their former spouse in matters concerning the
children. These parents gave the impression that they did not intend
to involve the non-custodial parent.

Weiss (1978) found that while custodial parents acknowledge
the importance of the non-custodial parent's visits, their behavior
following divorce is often incongruent with what they believe is
important. These findings were based upon experiences with divorced

parents in counseling.

36

Robert Weiss (l979).provides an accurate description of the
visitation problem. He stated, "...most custodial parents find
non-custodial parents more nearly a burden than a resource" (p. 142).
He adds: ’

What is good for the children is not necessarily good
. for the mother.

She wants a situation in which the father has only the
most restricted access to the family. But this produces a
conflict of interest between the mother and the children,
for the children want contact with the father to be as
little restrained as possible (p. 159).

The Father's Felt Need For A
Contipying Relationship
With The Children

 

 

 

Much of the literature indicates that the salient problem
for women following divorce is the need to adjust to fewer economic
resources. For men the salient problem is coping with limited access
to their children. Jessie Bernard (1979) states that the social and
economic costs of divorce are higher for women while the psycholo-
gical costs are higher for men.

One of the findings in Hetherington, Cox and Cox's (1976)
study on the impact of divorce on pre-school age children and their
parents was the fathers' pervasive concern over the sense of the loss
of their children. The fathers in this study felt a lack of identity,
rootlessness and complained of a lack of structure in their lives.

Dominic and Schlesinger (1980) reported that the nine non-
custodial fathers in their study indicated that paying child support

was psychologically important because it gave them a feeling of

37

providing for their children. Greif (1976) found that 75 percent of
the 40 fathers in her study felt the same way.

_ Gersick (1979) compared fathers who had custody with fathers
who did not have custody. He found that those without custody felt
a sense of loneliness and abandonment. These fathers felt that home
was where their children were. Rosenthal and Keshet (1978) found
that fathers who spent more time with their children were better
able to work out the crisis issues of divorce.

Although most of the findings on the impact of divorce on
fathers are based on small samples, there is a growing body of evi-
dence that divorced fathers do care about their children and desire
to maintain a relationship with them even though the costs of main-
taining such a relationship may be high. Moore and Davenport (l979)
identify two needs of children following a divorce: a stable support-
ive environment, and attachment bonds with both parents. They point
out that the mother defends the first need and the father the second.
In the next section the benefits for the children and, to some extent,
the mother when there is a close relationship with the father will
be discussed.

The Benefits For Children When
A Relationship is Maintained

Hess and Camara (1979) studied children from divorced and
intact families. They found that the negative effects of divorce
were greatly mitigated when a positive relationship with both parents

was maintained. The child's relationship with the non-custodial

 

11-11:

 

 

 

 

38

parent was as important as the continuing relationship with the
mother.

The Kelly and Wallerstein (1980) study found that children
who made the most satisfactory adjustment to the divorce situation
had frequent contact with their fathers. They also found that it
was possible for close relationships to develop even when the pre-
divorce relationship between father and child was not a close rela-
tionship. Kelly and Wallerstein also indicate that the age and sex
of the child has bearing on the closeness of the father-child rela-
tionship following the divorce.

Hetherington, Cox and Cox (1976) found that frequent father
contact was associated with both the positive adjustment of the child
and positive interaction between the mother and the child. Rosen
(1976) interviewed 92 children between the ages of 9 and 28 whose
parents had divorced six to ten years prior to the study. The data
indicated that the children preferred frequent contact with the non-
custodial parent and felt more satisfied when access to the father
was not regulated by the mother.

Blood and Blood (1979) discussed the benefits of a post-
divorce restructuring of the family that is similar to joint custody
if not joint custody. They indicate that even though joint custody
is based upon the concept of equal sharing of the responsibilities
for childrearing--including the sharing of financial responsibility--
there may be occasions when a mother with low income is in need of

financial assistance from a higher income father. In this situation

39

the father is more apt to provide child support regularly if he does

not feel deprived of his role as father.

Summar

The review of literature related to the topic of the post-
divorce family system identified severa1.areas where additional
information is needed. Much of the research on the impact of
divorce is concerned with the impact on the mother-child unit.
While there is a growing concern with the impact of divorce on the
father, research in this area as well as that on the mother and/or
children is based on the perception of that parent. That is research
is either from the perspective of the mother or the father. This
study addressed the father-child relationship using the perceptions
of both parents. Hypotheses were developed to test whether mothers
and fathers had different perceptions of the father's post-divorce
influence over the physical, social and psychological aspects of

childrearing. In addition the regularity of child support payments

was used as an additional variable in exploring this relationship.

 

TH}:

 

 

CHAPTER III

PROCEDURE

The procedures used in this study have been divided into
five parts: selection of the sample and data collection, descrip-
tion of the sample, selection and description of the instruments,
statement of research hypotheses and data analysis.

Selection of Participants and
Data Collection

 

Twenty pairs of custodial mothers and their former husbands
who met the criteria for participation and who were willing to par-
ticipate were selected for the study. All of the participants
resided in a three-county area in mid-Michigan (Ingham, Eaton and
Clinton Counties). The criteria for participation were: a legal
decree of divorce; at least one child who was no younger than three
years of age at the time of the separation and no older than 14 at
the time of the interview; the mother not be remarried and the
father living within a 60 mile radius of the mother's home and
available to participate in the study.

The original intent was to identify potential participants
through records maintained by the Ingham County Circuit Court.

This method was not feasible because the court's recordkeeping

system did not provide information that identified individuals who

40

 

11.1w

 

 

41

met the research criteria. Also addresses on court records were
the addresses at the time the individuals filed for divorce rather
than current addresses. For these reasons it was necessary to
obtain the sample by other methods.
Contacts were made with single parent/single adult social
and support groups, the Women's Resource Center at the local univer-
sity and community college, extension home economists in the three
counties, three attorneys and three counselors. Three area school
districts were contacted and asked to place announcements in the
bulletins that were sent home to parents of elementary school child-
ren and to other appropriate groups within the school district.
Colleagues of the researcher suggested potential participants.
Announcements were placed in apartment complexes and shopping centers
throughout the area. An advertisement was placed in the personal
column of the local newspaper. Some individuals were also able to
suggest others who might be willing to participate.2
A total of 73 potential families were obtained from these

sources. Of these 73 families, 20 families met the criteria and

were willing to participate. The sample, a convenience sample,

 

2A recently published study by Keshet and Rosenthal (1981)
discussed the difficulty in obtaining samples of divorced fathers
for research purposes. Although their study was conducted in the
Boston-Cambridge area and limited to fathers whose children were
seven years of age or younger, court records, day care centers and
attorneys were not productive sources of participants. Advertise-
ments and individual contacts were the primary sources of data.

 

 

1w:

 

 

 

42

consisted of 20 pairs of divorced mothers and their former husbands3

(see Tables 29, 30 and 31 in Appendix B for a summary of sample
selection procedures).
The researcher attended meetings of single parent/single
adult organizations and explained the nature of the study. Those
in attendance who considered participating were given information
forms which they were asked to complete and return to the researcher
either at the meeting or by mail if they wished to think about it
further. Individuals who contacted the researcher after seeing a
notice were sent information forms which they were asked to complete .
and return to the researcher if they chose to participate. Self
addressed, stamped envelopes were provided for mail returns.
Potential participants suggested by colleagues were contacted
in one of two ways. In some instances the intermediary provided the
letter describing the study and asked the individual to return it
to the researcher. In other instances the intermediary provided
the name and the researcher contacted the individual by phone to
determine if the participation criteria were met and if there was

a willingness to participate. Participants were given the option

 

3Three families indicated that some type of joint custody
arrangement existed but that the father was not considered to be
the primary parent. A transfer of money from father to mother
occurred in two families. The third family with a joint custody
arrangement indicated that the children lived primarily with the
mother.

 

1‘1ka

 

 

 

43

of contacting their former spouses or having the researcher make

this contact.4

The Interview

Interviews were generally held at the home of the partici-
pant. However five fathers and one mother asked the researcher to
come to their place of work. One father and one mother asked to come
to the researcher's office. One father and one mother suggested that
the interview take place over lunch in a restaurant. In all, ten of
the 40 interviews took place outside of the participant's home.

At the start of the interview the purpose of the study was
reviewed with each participant. Those who had not signed the con-
sent form were asked to do so. In some instances children were
present. Participants were reminded that they would be discussing
issues pertaining to the children and given the option of having
the children remain in the room or leaving. Some did ask the children
to go into another room or outside; others indicated that the
children's presence did not bother them. The presence of the
children did not appear to affect the quality of the answers.
(Mothers who allowed children to be present indicated that there
was little they had not said to the children on the issues under
discussion.) However when children were present they made demands

on the parent that interrupted the interview. The telephone was

 

4McLanahan, Wedemeyer and Adelberg (1981) obtained a sample
of 45 divorced mothers using similar methods. They obtained the
names of 20 divorced mothers through a variety of sources. These
20 mothers were able to provide additional names of mothers whom
they knew through work, the neighborhood or social activities.

 

114:1:

 

 

1.11.1. .. .. 1111

 

44

also a frequent interruption during the home interviews. Those
interviews that took place in an office setting took less time and
had fewer interruptions than the home interviews.

The interviews took place during the five month period
between April and September of 1981. The mean interview time for
fathers was 74.5 minutes with a range of 50 minutes to two hours.
The mean interview time for mothers was 88.5 minutes with a range

of 70 minutes to two hours.

Description of the Sample

The sample included 40 individuals. A group of twenty
divorced mothers with custody of at least one child no younger than
three years of age at the time of separation and no older than
fourteen years of age at the time of the interview and a group of
non-custodial fathers, the former husbands of the mothers.

The 20 participating families included a total of 43 child-
ren. No family had more than three children. Three families had
one child, 11 families had two children and six families had three
children. Not all of the children in each family were considered
in the study. One of the requirements for participation was that
the children under consideration were no younger than three years
of age at the time of the separation and no older than 14 at the
“time of the interview. Each child under consideration was required
to live primarily with the mother or not primarily with their father
in a situation where joint custody existed. Thus the number of
(fliildren in each family considered in the study differs from the

total number of children in each family (see Table 2).

45

TABLE 2.--Fami1y Size and Number of Children Participating in the

 

 

 

Study.
No. of
Total Family Size Families %
1 Child 3 15
2 Children 11 55
3 Children __j§ _;g;
20 100
No. of Children No. of
In Study Families %
l 8 4O
2 10 50
3 __2 10

20 100

 

46

Age of Children

The children in the participating families were primarily
preschoolers or in the early elementary grades at the time their
parents separated. The mean age of the children at the time their
parents separated was 7.25 years for the first child, 5.33 years
for the second child, and 3.5 years for the youngest child in each
family. The mean age of the children at the time of the interview
was 11.1 years, 9.5 years, and 7.5 years (see Table 3 for a summary
of the ages of thechildren at the time their parents separated and
at the time of the interview).

Ages of Parents At The Time of
the Interview

The fathers who participated in the study were slightly
older than their former wives. The mean age of the fathers was
38.7 years; the mean age of the mothers was 35.7 years. Two mothers
and two fathers were under 30 at the time of the interview. Five
rnothers and seven fathers were 40 years of age or older at the time

of the interview (see Table »4 for a summary of the age of the '

parents).

Education of the Parents

The level of education completed by the fathers was slightly
liigher than that completed by the mothers. It should be noted that
:all of the participants completed high school. This sample was
(yver-representative of individuals with higher levels of education.

Over 50 percent of the mothers and fathers were college graduates.

 

 

11,42:

 

 

47

TABLE 3.—-Ages of Children at Time of Separation and at Time of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Interview.
Age of Children at Child 1 Child 2 Child 3
Time of Separation No. % No. % No. %
3 - 4 3 15 4 33.3 2 100
5 - 7 5 25 7 O
8 - 9 10 50 0 58.3
10 - 12 2 10 ‘_1_ 18.3
Total 20 100% 12 100% 2 100%
Age of Children at Child 1 Child 2 Child 3
Time of Interview No. % No. % No. %
6 - 8 3 15 4 33.3 2 100
9 - ll 7 35 6 50.0 - -
12--14 10 50 _2_ 16.7 _;_ -
Total 20 100 12 .100 2 100

Mean Age of Child at Time of Interview

Child 1
Child 2
Child 3

11.1 years
9.5 years
7.5 years

 

 

48

TABLE ll.--Ages of the Parents at Time of Interview (N = 40).

 

 

 

 

Mothers Fathers
(N = 20) (N = 20)

Age No. No. %
Under 30 2 10 2 10
30 - 34 5 25 3 15
35 - 39 8 40 8 40
4O - 44 5 25 5 25
over 45 _;;_ _;;_ _J;_ _19_
Total 20 100 20 100
Mean Age

Mothers 35.7 years

Fathers 37.8 years

 

 

 

1.14:1:

 

 

I
ll

 

 

49

Nationally, 27 percent of the men and 21 percent of the women
between 25 and 34 completed college, 25 percent of the men and 16
percent of the women between the ages of 35 and 44 are college grad-
uates, 20 percent of the men and 11 percent of the women between

45 and 54 are college graduates (U.S. Bureau of Census, 1980) (see

Table 5).

TABLE 5.--Level of Education Completed by Mothers and Fathers.

 

 

 

 

Mothers Fathers
(N = 20) (N = 20);
Level No. % No. %

12 years of H.S. l 5 3 15
l - 3 years college,
business or technical
school 8 40 3 15
4 years college 3 15 5 25
Post-Bachelor work 4 20 l 5
Master's Degree 2 10 2 10
Post Master's
course work 1 5 2 10
Ph.I)., Ed. 1 5 2 10
Professional Degree __;; __; __2 _19
Total 20 100 20 100

 

Income

Household incomes were reported by both the mothers and

fathers. The fathers' incomes were more widely distributed than the

 

1111’}!

 

 

lc:

50

mothers. Mothers included child support, alimony and welfare in
reporting their incomes. Fathers who were remarried included the
income of their present wives.

The sample was over representative of families in higher
income brackets. Over 65 percent of the mothers reported total
household incomes of at least $15,000 and 70 percent of the fathers
reported household incomes of $25,000 or more. This differs some-
what from the population. Nationally, 33 percent of the families
headed by white females have household incomes over $5,000 and 40
percent of the white households including a husband and wife have
reported incomes over $25,000 (U.S. Bureau of Census, 1980).
Nationally in 1980 36.7 percent of all white families had incomes
over $25,000. In this sample 37.5 percent had incomes over $25,000.
Nationally 75% of the white households headed by women reported
incomes under $15,000, while only 40 percent of the mothers in this
sample had incomes under $15,000 (see Table 6 for a summary of the

household incomes of the sample mothers and fathers).

Occupations

The sample was not representative of occupations as present
in the population. There was an over-representation in the manage-
rial/technical occupations and under-representation in the unskilled
labor and service worker jobs. Nationally 23 percent of employed
twomen are employed in professional jobs, (U.S. Bureau of Census,

1980) and 28 percent of employed men are employed in managerial or

 

 

11:19!

 

 

51

TABLE 6.--Total Household Incomes of Mothers and Fathers.

 

 

 

 

Mothers Fathers
(N = 20) (N = 20)
Level No. % No. %

Under $5,000 2 10 - -
$ 5,000 - $ 9,999 l 5 l 5
$10,000 - $14,999 5 25 l 5
$15,000 - $24,999 11 55 3 15
$25,000 - $29,999* 1 5 2 10
$30,000 - $39,999* - - 6 30
$40,000 - $49,999* - - 3 15
Over $50,000 - - 3 15
Not reported ‘__; ‘__; .__1 .__5
“Total 20 100 20 100

 

‘*Census reports combine these three categories.

 

 

 

115'}:

 

 

Ii?

Al

lie

fill.

the

52

professional jobs. Sixty percent of the mothers and 65 percent of
the fathers in the sample were employed in professional and manage-
rial positions (see Table 7 for a summary of the occupational status

of the mothers and fathers).

Marital Status of Fathers

Twelve of the 20 fathers had not remarried at the time of
the interview. Of the eight fathers who were remarried, four had
natural children with their present wives. Two fathers had step-

children in their present marriages, but had no children with their

present wives.

Time Lapse Since Separation
The number of years separated ranged from two to eight years.

Although there was some variation in the parents reports, the

largest proportion of families had been separated for approximately

four years (see Table 8).

Selection and Description of the Instrument

Careful consideration was given to the fact that partici-
pants would be sensitive to the fact that their former spouse was
also being interviewed. It was also thought that some questions
might cause discomfort for one or both parents. On the basis of
these considerations an instrument that focuses primarily on the
fahter's influence over the upbringing of the children was selected.

The interview schedule developed by Judith Brown Greif for

her research on the relationship of divorced fathers and their

 

Tlfl

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 7.--Occupational Status of the Mothers and Fathers

53

 

 

 

 

6O

Mothers Fathers

(N = 20) (N = 20)
Occupation Type No. % No. %
Professional 10 50 12
Manager 2 10 2 10
Salesworker - - l 5
Clerical 5 25 2 10
Skilled Craftsmen - - 3 15
Student 2 10 - -
Unemployed __;L __5- __; __;
Total 20 100 20 100

 

 

1111‘

 

 

 

he

54

TABLE 8.--Time Lapse Since Separation As Reported by Each Parent

 

 

 

 

Mothers Fathers
No. of Years N0. (N =20) % No. (N = 20)
2 4 20 4 20
3 4 20 4 20
4 6 3O 5 25
5 3 15 4 20
6 2 10 2 10
7 - - .. ..
8 _1_ _e_ _1_ _5_
Total 20 100 20 100
Mean:
Mothers 3.95 years

Fathers 4.0 years

 

 

 

11:13:

 

 

 

55

children was selected (see Appendix A for the complete instrument).
Permission was obtained from Greif to use this instrument. The
four parts of this instrument will be discussed as they relate to
the research questions.
'Eart_I: Part I of the interview schedule was designed to
elicit descriptive information regarding the number, sex
and age of the children, the living and visitation arrange-
ments and the amount of contact the father had with the
children. Contact was defined as the number of letters
exchanged, the number of phone calls and the number of visits.
that occurred between the father and each child in a typical
month. Greif devised a weight scale to derive a total
contact score. Letters received the lowest number of points
and visits the highest. Contact scores could range from
zero to 47 (see Appendix A for the derivations of the

contact score).

Part II: This section of the interview schedule was designed

to measure the parents' perceptions of change in the fathers'

influence over ten aspects of parenting as a result of the

divorce as well as both parents' satisfaction with this

change in each of the ten areas of influence that make up

the "father" role. The following questions were asked:

a) Just prior to the separation, do you feel you had
influence in this area of your child's growth and

development? (Yes - No)

 

111121

 

56

b) If yes, how much influence do you feel you had?
(Very High - High - Medium - Low - Very Low)

c) 00 you feel you have influence in this area now?
(Yes - No)

d) If yes, how much influence do you feel you have now?
(Very High - High - Medium - Low - Very Low)

e) How do you feel about that change (no change).
(Positive - Neutral - Negative)

f) Why do you feel that way?

Parts "a" through “e" provided a common base of information.
Part "f" allowed for greater depth in interpreting the answer to
Part "a" through "f". The question was repeated for each aspect of
parenting and two or three examples were given to clarify the meaning
of each aspect of fathering. A total "satisfaction score" was
derived by summing each parent's response to Part "e“ for each
aspect of the ten aspects of parenting. A "positive" response
equalled one point, a “neutral" response equaled two points and a
"negative" response equaled three points. Satisfaction scores could
range from ten signifying "high satisfaction" to fifty signifying

"high dissatisfaction".

Part III: This section was designed to measure the impor-
tance placed upon the influence of the father in each of
the ten aspects of parenting. Each parent was asked to

rate each area of parenting on a scale of one to five (“of

57

very high importance", "of high importance", "of medium
inmortance", "of little importance", "of very little impor-
tance"). A individual importance score (1-5) was derived
f0r each area and a total importance score (10-50) was
calculated. This section of the interview schedule ques-

tionnaire was completed in writing by each participant.

Part IV: This section examined various aspects of the
divorce process. Each parent was asked whether the issues
of custody, visitation, living arrangement, child support
and alimony were resolved mutually, with the assistance

or negotiated by the attorneys, or by court action. In
addition participants were asked whether the attorneys and/
or court system helped or hindered the fathers relationship
with the children. Each parent was also asked to indicate
what he/she felt were the most positive and negative
aspects of the fathers' post-divorce relationship with the
children and the positive and negative aspects of their own
post-divorce relationship with their former spouse. Ques-
tions pertaining to the regularity of support, the perceived
general adequacy of child support and the perceived use of
the mothers' own resources in meeting the needs of the child-
ren were asked at.this point in the interview. Demographic
information regarding the parents' age, income and religious

affiliation was requested at this point in the interview.

 

11:13.1

 

 

58

Validity and Reliability. Greif (1977) established content,

construct and face validity for the instrument. She tested Parts

II and III of the instrument for reliability by use of the test-
retest method. Responses to Part II were found to be reliable 92.9%
within one degree of difference and Part III 96% reliable to one

degree of difference (in testing for reliability Greif considered
responses the same if the respondent deviated by no more than one

answer on the continuum "very high", "high", "medium", "low" and

"very low").
Because Greif used only fathers in her research, she

included only fathers when testing for reliability. Because mothers

were included in the current research, the reliability of the instru-
ment with mothers was established by means of the test-retest method.

Spearman Rho Rank Order Correlation Coefficients were computed for

Parts II and III of the interview. The correlation Coefficient for

Part II was .714 and for Part III was .663.5

Human Subject Approval
Approval was received from the Michigan State University

Conmittee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) before fami-

lies were contacted to participate in the study. Consent forms

for use of human subjects are in Appendix C.

5The differences between the reliability coefficients in
Greif's study and in the current study can be explained by two fac-
tors. In the current study responses were considered to be correct
only if the same response was given at both administrations. In
addition three of the five mothers who participated in the reliabi-
lity study indicated that they might have been responding to stress-
ful events that had occurred during the week between the first and

second administration of the instrument.

‘8.)

 

THLIk

 

 

59

Research Hypotheses

In this section each of the twelve hypotheses tested is

stated in the null and alternative forms.

Hypothesis 1:
HO: Null Hypothesis

Cutsodial mothers and non-custodial fathers do not
differ in their reports of the amount of contact
the father has with the children.

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ in their
reports of the amount of contact the father has with the

children.

Hypothesis 2
H0: Null Hypothesis

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers do not differ
in their reports of the degree of influence the father
has over the physical, social and psychological aspects

of childrearing.
HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ in
their reports of the degree of influence the father has
over the physical, Social and psychological aspects of

childrearing.

Hypothesis 3
HO: Null Hypothesis

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers do not
differ in their reports of the regularity of child

support payments.

 

”1.11%

 

 

60

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers will differ
in their reports of the regularity of child support pay-
ments.

Hypothesis 4
. HO: Null Hypothesis

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers do not differ
in their perception of the importance of the fathers influ-
ence over the physical, social and psychological aspects

of parenting.

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ in
their perception of the importance of the fathers influ-
ence over the physical, social and psychological aspects
of parenting.

Hypothesis 5
HO: Null Hypothesis

Fathers who make regular child support payments do not
differ from fathers who do not make regular child support
payments in the amount of contact they have with their
children.

~HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Fathers who make regular child support payments differ
from fathers who do not make regular child support
payments in the amount of contact they have with their

children.

Hypothesis 6
HO: Null Hypothesis

Mothers who receive regular child support payments and
mothers who do not receive regular child support payments
do not differ in their perceptions of the amount of influ-
ence the father has in physical, social and psychological
aspects of parenting.

 

 

'1‘! "li-

 

61

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Mothers who receive regular child support payments and
mothers who do not receive regular child support payments
differ in their perceptions of the amount of influence
the father has in physical, social and psychological
aspects of parenting.

Hypothesis 7
H0: Null Hypothesis

Fathers who make regular child support payments and fathers
who do not make regular child support payments do not
differ in their perception of the amount of influence

they have over the physical, social and psychological
aspects of parenting.

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Fathers who make regular child support payments and fathers
who do not make regular child support payments will differ
in their perception of the amount of influence they have
over the physical, social and psychological aspects of
parenting.

Hypothesis 8
H0: Null Hypothesis

Fathers who make regular child support payments do not
differ from fathers who do not make regular child support
payments in their perceptions of the importance of a
father's influence over the physical, social and psycho-
logical aspects of parenting.

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Fathers who make regular child support payments differ
from fathers who do not make regular child support
payments in their perceptions of the importance of a
father's influence over the physical, social and psycho-
logical aspects of parenting.

 

l‘ldilt

 

 

62

Hypothesis 9
H0: Null Hypothesis

Mother's who do not receive regular child support payments
and mothers who do receive regular child support payments,
do not differ on the perceived importance of the father's
influence over the physical, social and psychological
aspects of parenting.

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Mother's who do not receive regular child support payments
and mothers who do receive regular child support payments,
differ on the perceived importance of the father‘s influ-
ence over the physical, social and psychological aspects 5

of parenting.

 

Hypothesis l0
H0: Null Hypothesis

Fathers who have not made regular child support payments
do not differ in their recognition of the mother's use
of her own resources from fathers who have made regular

child support payments.
HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Fathers who have not made regular child support payments
differ in their recognition of the mother's use of her
own resources from fathers who have made regular child

support payments.

Hypothesis ll
H0: Null Hypothesis

Fathers do not perceive changes in their influence over
the ten aspects of parenting at the current time as
compared to before the separation.

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Fathers perceive changes in their influence over the ten
aspects of parenting at the current time as compared to

before the separation.

11"!le

 

63

Hypothesis l2
H0: Null Hypothesis

Mothers do not perceive changes in their perceptions in
the father's influence over the ten aspects of parenting
at the current time as compared to before the separation.

HI: Alternative Hypothesis

Mothers perceive changes in their perceptions in the

father's influence over the ten aspects of parenting at

the current time as compared to before the separation.

Data Analysis

The data obtained from all the participants were key punched
on computer cards and verified with the aid of staff consultants in
the Office of Research Consultation (ORC) at Michigan State Univer-

sity. The Northwestern University Statistical Package for the

Social Sciences (SPSS) computer program was used in some of the

data analysis.

The Statistical tests used in this study included the chi-
square test, Fisher's exact test, Mann Whitney test and the Wilcoxin
test. These non-parametric tests were selected because the data
collected were ordinal in nature; hence parametric tests were not
appropriate measures for this study.

Chi-square is a test of statistical significance which helps
to determine whether a systematic relationship exists between two
rariables. The cell frequencies which would be expected if there
ere no relationship present between the two variables is compared
3 the actual frequencies found in the contingency table. When

era are large discrepancies between the expected and actual

Tldilk

 

64

frequencies, the value of chi-square increases. Large values of

chi-square indicate that some systematic relationship exists between

the two variables under consideration (Nie, et al, l975). While

the chi-square test can be performed with tables of any number of

cells, the small sample in this particular study required the use

of two by two tables in order to avoid empty cells.

When 2 x 2 tables are used, the Fisher's exact test is

computed to obtain exact significance levels. The formula used is

(F (-. 1)) (F (09 2))
F CL! 1) ffl, 2)

<F"(1. 1))
to calculate the probability of the observed 2 x 2 table and the

probability of all other 2 x 2 tables which display more association

between the two variables than the observed table (Midas, l976, p.

l8l).
The chi-square test was used to test Hypothesis 3; the
Fisher Exact test was used to test Hypothesis l0.

The Mann-Whitney test is a non-parametric test which indi-

cates if the scores in one population, NA are higher than the scores

in another, NB. The procedure by which this test is carried out is

as follows:

1. Designate the smaller group as N1 and the larger

group as N2.

Rank all of the scores in the combined sample. Scores

will range from l to NA + NB'

 

11:13}:

 

 

65

3. Compute ”A and U3; the smaller score is called U.
4. Determine whether the computed U is smaller than the
critical value of U for a sample size of N1/N2 at
the selected level of significance (Terrace, 197l).
The Mann Whitney test was used to test Hypotheses 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
The Wilcoxin test is used with matched scores to test
whether the scores in one set are higher than the scores of another.
In order to perform the Wilcoxin test, the difference between each
pair of matched scores is computed by subtracting each score in the
second group from the corresponding score in the first group. The
differences (d1) are ranked and given the sign of d1. (+ or -).
Each set of signed ranks is summed. T is the smaller sum of the
like—signed ranks.

The obtained T is compared to the critical value of N at
the selected level of significance. If the obtained T is less than
the critical value H0 is rejected. The critical value for all
statistical tests was set at a = .10. The Wilcoxin test was used
to test Hypotheses l, 2, 4, ll and l2 (see Table 9 for a summary

of statistics used to test each of the hypotheses).

 

 

 

1111‘:

 

66

TABLE 9.--Sumnary of Statistics Used In Testing Research Hypotheses.

 

 

Statistic Hypothesis(es)
Chi-square 3
Fisher's exact test l0
Mann-Whitney test 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Wilcoxin test l, 2, 4, ll, l2

 

 

 

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

This chapter presents the results of the study in three
sections. The first section includes a discussion of the descrip-
tive data related to the nature of the pre and post divorce situa-
tion of the families who participated in the study. The second
section includes a discussion of the results of the statistical
analysis for each hypothesis. The final section discusses responses

to open-ended questions which addressed specific issues of concern

in the study.

Descriptive Data
Contact Between Fathers and Children
A post-divorce contact score based on the number of visits,
phone calls and letters that were exchanged between the fathers
and children was derived for each father-child pair. The "contact

score" was derived from three questions:

"How many times do you have contact with your child in
an average month?"

By phone?
By letter?
By face to face visits?

Points were assigned for the number of phone calls, letters and

67

 

 

68

\risits (see Appendix A, for Actual Contact Scale). Contact Scores
could range from "O" to "47". A contact score of "0" indicated
that no phone calls, no letters and less than two visits occurred
in a typical month. A score of "47" indicated that at least 20
phone calls, three or four letters and l5 visits occurred in a typi-
cal month. Contact socres were derived from the responses of both
the mothers and fathers.

Scores were derived for each father-child relationship. In
families with more than one child an average score was derived for
the purpose of performing statistical tests. There was only a small '
discrepancy between the contact mean scores reported by the mothers
and the mean scores reported by the fathers. The means reported by
the mothers were 24 for the first child and 27 for the second child.
The mean scores reported by the fathers were 28 for the first child
and 30 for the second child. Both mothers and fathers reported
mean contact scores of 15 for the third child; however only two
families had three children in the study, thus the means are not
representative of the entire sample (see Table 'Hl). Over half of
the mothers and the majority of the fathers reported contact scores
of 2l or higher indicating that at least four visits and eight
phone calls occurred in a typical month. While comparison data is
not available, it does not appear that these fathers were isolated
from their children. Responses to open-ended questions lend further

support to this conclusion.

 

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Conflict

Each participant was asked to indicate the way in which five
basic issues pertaining to the children were resolved prior to the
finalization of the divorce. These issues were custody, child sup-
port, alimony, living arrangements and visitation. The possible
responses were "mutual", "by the attorneys", or "through court
action". The composite conflict score could range from "0" indicat-
ing that all issues were resolved mutually to "l0“ indicating that
court action was required to resolve all of the issues.

The mean conflict score for both mothers and fathers was
"2". The greatest degree of conflict occurred over the issue of
child support. Seven mothers (35%) and nine fathers (15%) indicated
that the involvement of the courts was necessary to resolve the
child support issue. While child support was an issue of conflict
for approximately 40 percent of the families, none of the families
reported conflict over the alimony decision. No conclusion can
really be drawn from those findings as only one respondent was
awarded alimony and that was temporary alimony (see Table ll for
a summary of the way in which each of these five issues were
resolved by the participating families). It appears that there was
little or no conflict in the areas of alimony, custody and living
arrangements and a moderate amount of conflict over visitation
arrangements. The decision over the amount of child support caused

the greatest amount of conflict for these families.

7'!

TABLE ll.--Resolution of Divorce Issues As Reported By Divorced
Mothers and Fathers

 

Agreements on Amount of Child Support Payments

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mothers Fathers
No No
Mutual 8 4O 9 45
Lawyer 3 15 4 20
Court Action 9 45 7 35
Total 20 lOO 20 100
m
Mutual 20 100 20 100
Lawyers -- -- -- --
Court Action -- .- -- --
Total 20 100 20 100
Custody of Childrgg
Mutual 16 8O l5 75
Lawyers 4 20 3 l5
Court Action -- -- l 5
Other -- -- l 5
Total 20 lOO 20 lOO
Living Arrangement
Mutual l8 9O 15 75
Lawyers 2 l0 2 10
Court Action -- -- 2 l0
Other -- -- . l 5
Total 20 lOO 20 100
Non-Custodial Egrgpts Visitation Arrangement
Mutual 13 65 13 65
Lawyers 4 20 l 5
Court Action l S 4 20
Other 2 lo 2 10
Total 20 lOO 20 100
Mean Conflict
Score l.750 2.000
Range 0-5 0-8

 

72

Child Support

Each participant was asked two questions regarding the pay-
ment of child support and the regularity of child support payments.
The two questions were:

I. Do you (pay, receive) child support? Yes No

2. How regularly have (you, your former husband made
these payments?

Has Never Missed a Payment
Misses or is late l-3 payments per year
Misses or is late 4-6 payments per year
Misses or is late more than 6 payments per year
Nineteen of the 20 families indicated that the fathers were
required to make child support payments. One family indicated that
child support payments were not part of the divorce settlement;
however the mother could not make ends meet without periodic finan-
cial assistance from the father.
Regularity of child support payments was not a problem for
l6 (80%) of the 20 families. These mothers and fathers indicated
that payments had always been made or received within a few days Of
the due date. With the exception of the one family where payments
were not a part of the divorce agreement, the other mothers indicated
that as many as six payments per year were late or missing. The
fathers' statements were congruent with those of the mothers.
It should be noted that the Friend of the Court in the county
where most of the families lived does make an effort to enforce

regular payments. It should also be noted that the Friend of the

1WD}

 

 

73

Court indicated that regularity of child support payments is gen-
erally not a problem when fathers are employed or do not have recur-
ring periods of unemployment. All of the fathers in this study had
stable employment records. (Seventeen of the twenty mothers were
employed at the time of the study. All but four had stable employ-
ment records. Three of these four mothers had been in school.) Fe

The families in this sample differ somewhat from the national 1
sample with regard to the number of divorced mothers who were awarded
child support and those who actually receive it. Ninety-five per-
cent of the mothers were awarded child support as compared to 79.8% .
of the currently divorced mothers in the national sample. The sample
differs slightly from the national sample with regard to actual
receipt of child support payments. Eighty percent of the mothers in
the sample received all of their payments on time; 73.3 percent of
the currently divorced mothers in the national sample actually
received child support payments (U.S. Bureau of Census, l980). Six-
teen (80 percent) of the mothers in the study received the full
amount of support awarded as compared to 49 percent in the national
sample.

In summary, respondents in this study were more likely to
have been awarded child support and to be receiving it regularly
than is true of the population as a whole. However they were fairly

'typical of mothers who receive child support regularly.

Al imony

To elicit the response about alimony, the following ques-

tions were asked. Each participant was asked the question:

1141‘

 

1.1»)

74

"Do you pay/receive alimony?" Yes No

"How do you feel about that?" Positive Neutral Negative

None of the fathers indicated that they were paying or had
ever paid alimony. (It should be noted that two mothers indicated
that they were receiving or had received alimony on a temporary
basis.) All 20 fathers felt positively that they did not pay alimony.
In general they saw no reason to provide financial support for their
former wives.

Eight mothers felt positively about not receiving alimony
or having been awarded alimony only for rehabilitative purposes.
Ten mothers reported neutral feelings with regard to not receiving
alimony. Two mothers had somewhat negative feelings. One of these
two mothers was no different from the majority of the participants
with regard to age, income, or occupational level. The second
mother at the time of her divorce was younger than the majority of
the mothers, had less education and had very small children. Her
income was also lower than the median income of the participants in
the study. This mother indicated that rehabilitative alimony should
be part of the system.

Alimony was not a cause of concern for most of the parents
in this study. None of the fathers felt that it was incumbent upon

them to pay alimony and the majority of mothers preferred not to

receive it.

T1491

 

 

75

Perceived Adequacy of
Financial Support

In order to determine whether the participants believed
that child support payments were adequate the following questions

were asked:

1. To what extent do you believe child support payments
cover the costs of childrearing?

2. To what extent do you believe child support payments
should cover the costs of childrearing?

Possible responses to both questions were:

lOO percent

more than 75 percent, but less than lOO percent

more than 50 percent but less than 75 percent

50 percent

more than 25 percent but less than 50 percent

less than 25 percent.

Although the majority of the mothers and fathers indicated
that child support payments were always on time, there was less
agreement about the perceived adequacy of child support payments
as well as the extent to which these parents believed child support
payments should cover the costs of childrearing.

Eleven mothers (55%) indicated that child support payments
covered less than half of the expenses incurred in rearing children.
Eleven mothers also indicated that child support payments should
cover more than half of the costs of childrearing given the fact
that the fathers usually had higher incomes. All 20 fathers indi-

cated that they believed that their child support payments covered

'7 _,r

76

50 percent of more of the childrearing expenses. Half of the fathers
(l0) indicated that they felt child support payments should cover
exactly one half of the costs of childrearing. It should be noted
that both mothers and fathers indicated that the 50 percent figure
was equitable only when incomes were equal (see Table l2 for a
summary of the participants perceptions of the adequacy of actual
child support payments and the extent to which they believed child
support payments should cover the costs of childrearing).

Generally the fathers' and mothers’ perceptions of each
parent's role in financial support were similar. However, fathers
tended to underestimate the actual costs of raising children and
how much their payments actually covered as compared to mothers
estimates of what proportion of the costs were actually covered.
Perceived Importance of
Father's Influence

In order to determine the degree to which the participants
considered it important that the father influence the growth and
development of their children, the following set of questions was
asked:

Please consider how important you consider each of these
areas

Influencing the ROUTINE DAILY CARE AND SAFETY of the
child.

Influencing the INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT of the child.
Influencing the PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT of the child.
Influencing the RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES of the child.

77

TABLE lZ.--Perceived and Desired Adequacy of Child Support Payments
As Reported By Divorced Mothers and Fathers

 

 

 

 

Proportion of Proportion of
Expenses Covered Expenses Desired
Mothers Fathers Mothers Fathers
Percent of (N = 20) (N = 20) (N = 20) (N = 20)
Expenses No. % No. % No. % No. %
100 percent - - 3 l5 - - 3 l5
75 to lOO percent 2 l0 7 35 5 25 - -
50 to 75 percent 7 35 7 35 6 3O 7 35
50 percent 1 5 - - 7 35 l0 50
25 to 50 percent 6 30 2 l0 2 l0 - -

less than 25 percent 5 25 - - - - - - -

No response 1 5 l 5 L - - -

Total 20 100 20 100 20 100 20 100

 

 

78

Teaching the child MANNERS AND HOW TO BEHAVE.
Influencing the EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT of the child.
Influencing the RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT of the child.

Influencing the MORAL OR ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT of the
child.

Helping the child to experience BEING PART OF A FAMILY.

Influencing the FINANCIAL DECISIONS AFFECTING the child.

The possible responses were:

Very High Importance

High Importance

Medium Importance

Little Importance

Very Little Importance

In order to determine which aspects of parenting the sample
considered most important, points were assigned to each response
(1 = very high importance, 2 = high importance, 3 = medium impor-
tance, 4 = little importance, 5 = very little importance).

Both mothers and fathers indicated for the most part that
it was "of very high importance“ or "of high importance" that the
fathers have influence on all aspects of parenting with the exception
of religious development.

The combined rankings of both mothers and fathers were
highest in the same four aspects of parenting. These four areas
‘were: "intellectual development", "moral development", "emotional
development", and "giving the child a feeling of being part of the

family" (see Table 13 for a summary of the responses).

 

79

 

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80

It is interesting that both the mothers and fathers in the
current study evaluated the importance of the father's influence in
the ten aspects of parenting in very much the same way as the fathers
in Greif's (1976) study. In both studies "intellectual development",
I'emotional development", "moral development" and "giving the child
a feeling of being part of the family" were given the highest ratings
by all three groups. Influence over "religious development" was
rated less than "of high importance." Greif's sample was similar to
the current sample with respect to the fathers' education and occupa-
tions. The major difference was that those participants who indi-
cated religious preference in the current study were Catholic or
Protestant while those who indicated a religious preference in
Greif's study were primarily Jewish.

It appears that mother and fathers tend to agree on those
aspects of parenting that are most important for the father to have
influence over. The same four areas are consistently rated "of
very high importance". Only one aspect, religion, is not considered
to be an area of high importance for the greatest proportion of

divorced parents.

Hypotheses
This section presents the results of the study in relation

to each of the twelve hypotheses.

Hypothesis 1

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ in
their reports of the amount of contact the father has
with the children.

 

81

Mothers and fathers each reported the amount of contact the
father had with each of the children included in the study (for an
explanation see section 1 of descriptive findings). A mean contact
score was derived for each family with more than one child in the
study. Family means ranged from 9 to 40 for the mothers and 9 to
45 for the fathers. The Wilcoxin test was then used to determine
whether there were differences between paired scores using a two-
tailed test (see Table l4 ).

The analysis indicated that the contact scores reported by
the mothers did differ significantly from the contact scores reported
by the fathers.

The mothers reported less contact time than the fathers.

The null hypotheses that custodial mothers and their former husbands
will not differ in their reports of the amount of contact the father
has with the children is rejected. This result provides support
for the research hypothesis: Custodial mothers and non-custodial
fathers differ in their reports of the amount of contact the fathers

have with the children.

Hypothesis 2

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ in
their reports of the degree of influence the father

has over the physical, social and psychological aspects
of parenting.

Mothers and fathers were asked to rate the degree of influ-
ence the father currently had in each of the ten aspects of parent-

ing. Ratings ranged from "l" signifying "very high influence" to

 

82

TABLE l4.--Results of the Wilcoxin Test for Family Contact Scores
Reported by Mothers.

 

 

Median Obtained
Ranges Contact Score Value of T Critical Value of T
Mother 25 +39* 6 .05 = 52
Father 28.50 -l42.5 a .02 = 43

 

*Results are significant if obtained T is less than the tabled T.

1‘1de

 

83

"6" signifying "no influence". The Wilcoxin test was used to test
this hypothesis for each of the ten aspects of childrearing. Ten
separate tests were performed to complete this analysis (see Table 15
summarizes the degree to which each parent perceived the father

had influence in the ten aspects of parenting).

In all but two aspects of parenting, "giving the child a
feeling of being part of a family“ and "recreation" the mothers
reported that the fathers had less influence than the fathers
reported they had. However the Wilcoxin test, indicated that pairs
of mothers and fathers differed significantly in their reports of
the fathers influence in only two aspects of childrearing--"teaching
the child how to behave" and "giving the child a feeling of being
part of a family“ (Table l6 presents the results of the Wilcoxin
test for each of the ten aspects of parenting).

The research hypothesis that pairs of mothers and fathers
will differ in their reports of the father's influence over each of
ten aspects of parenting can be supported for only two of the ten
aspects of parenting--"teaching the child how to behave" and "giving
the child a feeling of being part of the family." Thus parents do
not differ significantly in their perceptions of the degree of
influence that the non-custodial father has in eight of ten aspects

of childrearing.

Hypothesis 3

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ in
their reports of the regularity of child support payments.

84

TABLE l5.--Median and Mode of Parents' Reports of Father's Influ—
ence over Aspects of Parenting.

 

Median Mode
Aspects of Childrearing Mothers Fathers Mothers Fathers

 

Daily Care and Safety 4.000 2.833 5 2
Intellectual Development 3.l67 2.833 3 2
Physical Development 3.lOO 2.389 3 2
Recreation 2.786 2.389 3 2
Behavior 2.833 2.056 2 2
Emotional Development 3.25 2.500 3 2
Religious Development 4.00 2.833 4 2
Moral Development 2.833 2.l25 3 2
Feeling of Being Part

of a Family 2.357 2.750 2 2
Financial Affairs 3.50 2.357 5 2

 

"Very High Influence" was assigned a rank of "I".

"No Influence" was assigned a rank of ”6".

85

TABLE‘Hi--Results of Wilcoxin Tests for Difference In Perception of
Pairs of Mothers and Fathers of Fathers' Influence Over
Physical, Social, and Psychological Aspects of Parenting.

 

 

Obtained Critical Value of
Aspect of Parenting Value of T T at .05 level
l. Teaching the child how to . ‘ 52
behave 47.5* 52
2. Giving the child a feeling
of being part of a family 38.0* 50
3. Daily Care and Safety 52.5** 52
4. Financial Affairs 63.5 52
5. Recreational Activities 104.5 52 ‘
6. Physical Development 62.5 52
7. Intellectual Development 96.5 52
8. Moral Development 64.0 52
9. Religious Development 66.5 52
lO. Emotional Development 69.0 52

 

* significant at p <.05.

-**significant at p <.lO.

86

Each participant was asked two questions in order to deter-
mine the regularity of child support payments:
1. Do you pay/receive child support? Yes No

. 2. How regularly have you/has he made child support
payments?

All payments are on time

Misses or is late l-3 payments per year
Misses or is late 3-6 payments per year
Misses or is late 6 or more payments per year

The frequency count indicated that all fathers (20) provided)
financial support. The majority (75%) made all payments on time.
Four fathers and three mothers indicated that not all payments were
made on time. The fourth mother received Aid To Dependent Children
(AFDC) benefits and did not know the degree of regularity with which
her former husband paid. (He was one of the four fathers who indi-
cated that payments were "not regular".) Given the small sample
size the data were recoded to form two groups: one in which fathers
made "regular" payments and one in which the payments were "not
regular".

The chi-square analysis indicated that there was no signifi-
cant difference between the mothers and fathers with regard to the
regularity of child support payments. With the exception of the
mother who received AFDC, there was complete agreement on the
regularity of child support. The null hypothesis that there is no
difference cannot be rejected and the research hypothesis cannot

be supported.

 

TIL-12

 

87

Hypothesis 4

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ in

their perception of importance of the father's influence

in the physical, social and psychological aspects of

parenting.

Mothers' and fathers' responses to Part III of the instru-
ment were totaled to develop an importance score for each partici-

pant (Table 17 provides a summary of the median, range and mode

importance scores for both mothers and fathers).

TABLE l7.--Mode, Median and Range of Total Importance of Fathers'
Influence Scores for Mothers and Fathers.

 

 

Mode Median Range
Mothers lO* 14.5 lO-3l
Fathers l4 l5.5 lO-26

 

*lO signifies father's influence was rated of "very high importance"
in all aspects of parenting.

The Wilcoxin test was used to determine whether pairs of
parents differed in their perceptions of how important it was for
fathers to have influence in each of the ten aspects of parenting.
‘The tabled value of T at the a = .05 level was 52; the obtained
value was 99. The obtained value of T was higher than the tabled
value the null hypothesis that mothers and fathers do not differ in

“the perceived importance of the fathers' influence in the physical,

1.11125

 

88

social and psychological aspects of parenting cannot be rejected.

Therefore the research hypothesis cannot be supported.

»Hypothesis 5

Fathers who make regular child support payments differ

from fathers who do not make regular child support pay-

ments in the amount of contact they have with their

children.

Fathers were divided into two groups based upon their
response to the questions. "Do you pay child support?" and "How
regularly have you made these payments?" Only four of the 20
fathers indicated that either they did not pay child support or had
not always made payments on time. Those l6 fathers who made regular
payments were placed in the group labeled "regular support" the
(other four fathers were placed in the group labeled "not regular
support."

The Mann Whitney test was used to determine whether the
fathers who made regular support payments had higher contact scores
than fathers who did not make regular support payments. Table
indicates the range and median of the Contact Scores for the two
groups of fathers. The range for the fathers who were not regular
was from 21 to 36 and the median was 25.5. The range for the l6
fathers who made support payments regularly was 9 to 45; the median
for these fathers was 34.

The Mann Whitney statistic was then calculated to test

the difference between the groups. The rank sums were 36.5 for the

”not regular" group and l73.5 for the "regular" group the tabled

Tl'i'fid

 

89

TABLE l8.--Range and Median of Contact Scores of Fathers Who Did
Not Make Regular Support Payments and Fathers Who Did
Make Regular Support Payments.

 

 

Group Range Median
Not Regular 2l-36 25.5
Regular 9-45 34.0

 

*Contact Scores could range from "O” to ”47".

 

17633

 

90

value of I was for N1 = 4, N2 = 16, the U for the "not regular"
group was 37.5 and the U for the "regular" group was 26.5. The
results of the Mann Whitney U for this hypothesis are sumnarized

in Table 19.

TABLE l9.--Results of Mann Whitney U Test on Contact Scores for
Fathers Who Did and Did Not Make Regular Support Payments.

 

 

Sum of Obtained Critical Value of
the Ranks Value of U U at .05 level
Regular Support 36.5 37.5 11
Not Regular
SuPport 173.5 26.5 11

 

Because the obtained value of U for both groups was higher
than the tabled value of U the null hypotheses cannot be rejected
and the research hypothesis that fathers who make regular child
support payments differ from fathers who do not make regular child
support payments in the amount of contact they perceive they have

with their children cannot be supported.

Hypothesis 6
Mothers who receive regular child support payments and
mothers who do not receive regular child support payments
will differ in their perceptions of the amount of influence

the father has in the physical, social and psychological
aspects of parenting.

The Mann-Whitney test was carried out using the mothers'
responses to the questions regarding the receipt of child support

and the regularity with which it was received to divide the mothers

 

1H?!

 

91

into two groups, "not regular" and ”regular". Mothers who did not
receive child support or did not always receive it on schedule were
placed in the "not regular" group. Those who always received their
payments on schedule were placedin the "regular" group. Ten Mann-
Whitney tests, one for the mothers' perceptions of the fathers' cur-
rent influence of each aspect of parenting, were performed. None of
the test results were significant. Thus the null hypothesis, that
mothers who receive regular child support payments and mothers who
do not receive regular child support payments will not differ in
their perceptions of the amount of influence the father has in the
physical, social and psychological aspects of childrearing, cannot
be rejected and the research hypothesis cannot be supported (see

Table 20 for a sunmary of the Mann-Whitney tests).

Hypothesis 7

Fathers who make regular child support payments and

fathers who do not make regular child support payments

differ in their perception of the amount of influence

they have over the physical, social and psychological

aspects of parenting.

The Mann Whitney test was carried out using the fathers
responses to the question on payment of child support and regularity
of child support to divide the fathers into two groups, "not regular"
and "regular". Fathers who did not pay child support and those who
had missed or were late with their payments were placed in the "not
regular“ group; fathers who always made their payments on time were

placed in the "regular" group. Ten Mann-Whitney Tests, one for the

fathers perceived influence in each of the ten aspects of parenting,

. -..ov'

 

92

TABLE 20.--Mothers'Perceptions of Fathers'Influence Over Aspects of
Parenting Based Upon Regular Receipt of Child Support

Payments.

 

Obtained Value of

Critical Value

 

Aspect of Parenting U (Na = 4, Nb = 16) .3; #63:]
Daily Care and Safety 30 11
Intellectual Development 31 11
Physical Development 20 11
Recreation 28.5 11
Teaching the Child How to

Behave 23 ll
Emotional Development 26.5 11
Religious Development 13 ll
Moral Development 27.5 11
Giving the Child a Feeling

of Being Part of a Family 16 11
Financial Affairs 22.5 11

 

 

Not regular.

01
II

0'
11

Regular.

 

1143:

 

93

TABLE 21.--Summary of Mann-Whitney Test for Fathers' Perceived Influ-
ence Over Aspects of Parenting Based on Regularity of
Child Support Payments

 

 

 

Obtained Value Critical Value

of U of U at
Aspect of Parenting (Na = 4, Nb = 16) .05 level
Daily Care and Safety 23 11
Intellectual Development 30 11
Physical Development 22 11
Recreation 28 11
Teaching Child How to Behave 22.5 11
Emotional Development 32 11
Religious Development 21.5 11
Moral Development ' 21 11
Giving Child a Feeling of
Being Part of a Family 30.5 11
Financial Affairs 15 11
Na = "Not Regular".
Nb = "Regular".

 

1.111.111

 

 

 

94

were performed. None of the test results indicated significance.

Thus the null hypothesis that fathers who make regular child support
payments and fathers who do not make regular child support payments
will not differ cannot be rejected. The research hypothesis cannot be

supported (see Table 21 for a summary of the Mann Whitney test).

Hypothesis 8

Fathers who make regular child support payments differ

from fathers who do not make regular child support

payments in their perceptions of the importance of a

father's influence over the physical, social and psycho-

logical aspects of parenting.

The Mann Whitney U test was used to determine whether dif-
ferences did exist between the two groups on the composite "impor-
tance scores". The "importance scores" for the fathers who were in
the "not regular" group ranged from 15 to 22 with a median of 17.5
the scores for the fathers in the "regular" group ranged from 10

to 26 with a median of 15.5 (see Table 22 for summary).

TABLE 22.--Range and Median Importance Scores for Fathers in "Not
Regular" and "Regular" Support Payment Groups.

 

Group Range Median

 

Not Regular Supporters
(N = 4) 15-22 17.5

Regular Supporters
(N = 16) 10-26 15.5

 

The results of the Mann Whitney U test for this hypothesis

arwe: the sum of the ranks for the "not regular" group was 49.5 and

95

the value of U was 24.5. The sum of the ranks for the "regular"
group was 160.5 and the value of U was 39.5. Table 24 presents
the results of the Mann-Whitney U test for this hypothesis.

TABLE 23.--Resu1ts of Mann-Whitney U Test for Difference in Fathers'

Perceived Importance of Influence Based on Regularity of
Child Support Payments.

 

 

Sum of Obtained Critical Value
Group the Ranks Value of U of U at .05 level
Not Regular Supporter
(N = 4) 49.5 24.5 1]
Regular'Supporter
(N = 16) 160.0 39.5

 

Because the value of U exceeded 11 the null hypothesis that
fathers who are regular supporters and fathers who are not regular
supporters do not differ in their perceptions of the importance of
the fathers influence over the physical, social and psychological
aspects of parenting cannot be rejected. The research hypothesis

that the two groups of fathers differ cannot be supported.

Hypothesis 9

 

Mothers who do not receive regular child support payments
and mothers who do receive regular child support payments
will differ on the perceived importance of the fathers
influence over the physical, social and psychological
aspects of childrearing.

The mothers were divided into two groups based upon the
regularity with which they received child support payments in order

to determine if the perceived importance of the fatherk influence

96

in the physical, social and psychological aspects of childrearing
differed. The median importance score for the "not regular" group
was 11.5 and the range was between 10 and 13. (A low score is
indicative of greater perceived importance.) The median importance
score for the mothers in "regular" group was 17.5 and the range was
between 10 and 31.

The Mann Whitney U test was then computed to test this
hypothesis. The rank sum for the "not regular" group was 18 and
the U for "not regular" was 56. The rank sum for "regular" was 192
and U was 8 (Table 24 summarizes the results of the Mann Whitney
U Test for this hypothesis).

TABLE 24.--Results of Mann-Whitney Test for Difference In Perceived
Importance of Fathers' Influence Over Ten Aspects of

Parenting By Mothers Based on Regularity of Receipt of
Child Support Payments.

 

 

Sum of Obtained Critical Value
Group the Ranks Value of U of U at .05 level
Not Regular
(N = 4) 18 56
11
Regular
(N = 16) 192 8

 

UB is less than 11 the tabled value of U for Na = 4, Nb = 16
at .05. Thus the null hypothesis that the mothers do not differ
in their perceptions of the importance of the father's influence is

rejected and the research hypothesis that there is a difference is

supported.

THU:

 

97

Hypothesis lO
Fathers who have not made regular child support payments
differ in their recognition of the mothers use of her
own resources from fathers who have made regular child
support payments.
Each parent was asked the following questions:

1. Do you use your own resources to meet the needs of
the children? (mothers) Yes No

2. Does your former wife use her own resources to meet
the needs of the children? (fathers) Yes No

3. To what degree?
Very high
High
Medium
Low
Very Low
Because of the small sample size the responses to these
questions were recoded into two categories. Fathers who indicated
that their former wives used their own resources to a "very high"
or "high" degree were placed in the "high“ category and fathers who
indicated that their former wives use of their own resources ranged
from "medium" to "none" were placed in the "low" category. Seven
fathers (35%) indicated that their former wives used their own
resources to a "high" degree. Of these seven, six always made their
payments as scheduled. Thirteen fathers (65%) indicated that their
former wives did not use their own resources to a “high" degree.
Three of these fathers indicated that their support payments were

not always "regular".

 

 

 

 

 

98

The results of the Fisher's Exact test were not significant.
Thus the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference
between fathers who do and do not make regular support payments, on
their perceptions of the mothers use of her own resources, cannot

be rejected. Therefore, the research hypothesis cannot be supported.

Hypothesis ll

Fathers differ in their perceptions of the influence

they have over the ten aspects of parenting at the

current time as compared to before the separation.

The Wilcoxin test was performed in order to determine if
the fathers perceived differences in their influence over the ten
aspects of parenting at the time of the interview as compared to
before the separation (see Table 25). Ten Wilcoxin tests (one
test for each aspect of parenting, were performed.

In all aspects of parenting, with the exception of religion,
the fathers perceived a slight decrease in their influence at the
present time. The fathers' perceptions of a change in influence
over the religious development was significant at the .10 level.

In addition the perceived difference in influence over “Financial
Affairs" and "Decision-making" was significant at the .05 level.
Thus with the exception of the changes in influence over "religious
development" and "financial affairs and decision making", the null

hypothesis cannot be rejected and the research hypothesis cannot be

supported (see Table 25 for summary of Wilcoxin tests).

1.19-1le

 

 

99

TABLE 25.--Summary of Wilcoxin Test for Fathers' Perceived Changes
in Influence Over Ten Aspects of Parenting.

 

 

 

 

Median Response Obtained
Before Value Critical Value
Aspect of Parenting Divorce Now of T of T
Routine Daily Care
and Safety .071 2.833 68.5 a .05 = 52
Intellectual Develop-
ment .5 2.833 73.0 a .10 = 60
Physical Development .2 2.389 88.5
Recreational Activities .318 2.389 76.5
Teaching the Child
How to Behave .0 2.056 90.0
Emotional Development .2 2.5 71.0
Religious Development .5 2.8 56.5**
Moral Development .9 2.125 98.0
Giving Child a Feeling
of Being Part of a
Family .125 2.750 95.0
Financial Affairs and
Decision Making .071 2.357 45.0*
* = Significant at a = .05.
**= Significant at a = .10.

100

Hypothesis 12
Mothers perceive differences in the fathers' influence
over the ten aspects of parenting the current time as
compared to before the separation.
The Wilcoxin test was performed to determine if the mothers
perceived differences in their former husbands' current influence,
over the ten aspects of parenting, as compared to the period prior

to the separation. Ten Wilcoxin tests (one for each aspect of

parenting) were performed. Mothers reported that the fathers' cur-

 

rent influence was higher in all but three aspects of parenting.

The decreases in influence occurred over "Routine Daily Care" and
"Safety", "Moral Development", and "Financial Affairs" and "Decision
making". Although there were slight changes in all aspects of
parenting not all changes were significant. The differences in
influence over financial affairs was significant at the .05 level.
Reported differences in influence over ”Intellectual Development",
"Recreational Activities" and "Religious Development" were signi-
ficant at the .10 level. Thus for mothers the null hypothesis cannot
be rejected for the change in fathers' influence over six of the ten
aspects of parenting. The research hypothesis can be supported for
three aspects of parenting (Intellectual Development, Recreational
Activities and Religious Development) at the .10 level and for the
change in influence over financial affairs at the .05 level (see

Table 26 for a summary of the Wilcoxin tests).

THE!

 

 

 

101

TABLE.26. --Summary of Wilcoxin Test for Mothers' Perception of the
Change in Fathers' Influence Over Ten Aspects of Parenting.

 

Median Response Obtained

 

 

 

Before Value Critical Value
Aspect of Parenting Divorce Now of T of T
Routine Daily Care
and Safety 3.54 4.0 90.5
Intellectual Develop-
ment 4.76 3.167 52.5* .05 = 52
Physical Development 3.5 3.1 81.0 .10 = 60
Recreational Activities 3.7 2.7 60.0*

Teaching the Child

How to Behave 3.071 2.833 83.0
Emotional Development 3.357 3.250 57.0
Religious Development 5.00 4.00 48.0**
Moral Development 2.786 2.83 93.0
Giving Child a Feeling

of Being Part of a

Family 2.83 2.357 62.5
Financial Affairs and .
Decision Making 2.33 3.5 34.5**

 

*Significant at .10
‘**Significant at .05

102

Other Findings

One objective of this study was to explore the relationship
between financial support and the fathers' involvement with and
influence over their children following the divorce. The results
of the study indicated several things of interest. Regularity of
support was not a problem for the majority of families who partici-
pated in this study._ Fathers and mothers did differ in their percep-
tions of the adequacy of support payments. There was general agree-
ments among the fathers and mothers that the fathers' influence over
financial affairs and decision making as it affected the children
had changed following the divorce. An important issue to address
is "How do parents (mothers and fathers) feel about the perceived
change in the fathers influence over financial affairs?" given that
the father transfers money to the mother but may have little or no
influence over how that money is used. The responses of both parents
to the question:

I'How do you feel about the change (or lack of change)
of influence over financial affairs?"

Positive

Neutral

Negative
and the open-ended question "Why do you feel that way?" provide
some insight to problem related to the perceived adequacy of finan-
cial support. A pair by pair analysis of the responses will be
presented in order to illustrate the feelings of the participants.

The literature (Chambers, 1974; Weiss, 1979) indicates that a link

T152:

 

103

between contact with the child and continued provision of financial
support exists. In order to address this issue the pairs of parents
were grouped into "high contact" and ”low contact" groups. "High
contact" fathers were those fathers whose contact scores ranged
between 32 and 45. "Low contact" fathers were those whose contact
scores ranged between 9 and 30. The median contact scores reported
by the fathers was 31 (see page 9 for a discussion of the manner by
which contact scores were computed). Because the median was used as

the dividing point between high and low contact, each group consisted

of ten fathers.

Responses to Questions Regarding Satisfaction
Change In Influence Over Financial
Affairs - Fathers

Fathers_Who Did Not Have "High
Contact" With The Children

.Pair_l.--This father indicated that his influence over finan-
cial matters had decreased since the divorce. His negative feelings
about the decrease in influence are expressed by the following state-
ment: "(There is) no guarantee child support is spent on (him). I
*would like to know support money goes for the child." He indicated
that his former wife used her own resources to a high degree but felt
she should "by virtue of the fact that he's (child) living there...
if she doesn't she's not assuming responsibility." Although this
‘father did not have the amount of contact that he would have liked,
rue did not indicate that his former wife limited his contact with

the child. The responses of the mother reinforce this. Although

 

11:128.:

 

104

she felt very negative about the father's low influence over finan-
cial affairs as well as the erratic provision of a small portion of
what she felt it costs to care for the child, she stated that "(She)
wants him (son) to have as much time with his father as possible."
This mother indicated that the "lack of involvement and general

caring bothered her more than money."

3315;2; The father indicated a decrease in influence over
financial affairs following the divorce--however he had neutral feel-
ings. He said, "She (mother) is responsible enough to do this. I
pay child support." He indicated that the mother did use her own
resources to a very high degree and felt negatively about this. He
said, "She's too wrapped up in him.‘ He felt that his contact with
the child was limited by the mother. One problem was the mother's
unwillingness to allow the child to spend extended periods of time
with him (the father) during the summer even though the mother worked
during the summer while he did not.

The mother in this situation was dissatisfied with the level
of support provided as well as the fact that the father had no
influence over financial affairs. She stated:

He pays child support and thinks it takes care of things

In reality it covers only babysitting and extras. (His)
attitude is that he's paying (me) to babysit (the child).
This mother admitted that she does present obstacles to contact

between the father and the child. However, she felt it was necessary

because of the child's problems adjusting to the divorce and restruc-

tured family.

 

11.533

 

 

105

Bair_z: The father in this situation indicated "high influ-
ence" both prior to and following the divorce over some aspects of
financial affairs but ”low influence” in other areas. He indicated
he provided the major proportion of financial support but that he
had no control over how it was used. He stated "(1) feel the kids are
getting the short end of the stick. (Their) clothing is inadequate.
The kids are earning money for this (clothes)." He felt positively
in the sense that he had high influence over the children's attitudes
toward money and they they were developing a work orientation.

The mother in this situation indicated that the father's
influence over financial matters had dropped. Her feelings were
neutral in that she felt he was not doing his share in providing "for
the financial well-being of the children" and her use of her own
resources was disproportionate given the differences in income. She
was pleased, however, that he was "instilling the work ethic" when

the children were with him.

Both parents expressed concerns over different parenting
styles that had an impact on the amount of time the father had with
the children. The father felt it was necessary to adhere to a regular
schedule of visitation; however, the mother indicated that this was
difficult as the children were older (11 and 13) and often their own

plans interfered with scheduled visits.

Pair 8: Both parents indicated a drop in the father's
influence over financial matters. The father had negative feelings

about this drop: He said, "I don't feel child support money is being

 

11.1135

 

 

106

used only for the kids." The mother's feelings on this issue were
somewhat ambivalent. She stated that she would like him to give
more money but not be involved in actual decision-making. Although
the father fell into the "low contact" group he did not indicate
that it was the fault of the mother. Instead he indicated that he
could not afford the gas money to see the children more frequently.
The mother indicated that while contact was "low", there was a need
for the children, particularly the son, to have more time with the

father.

Pair 10: The father indicated that his influence over finan-
cial affairs was "high" before but he did not know how much influence
he had at the present time by virtue of the fact that his former
wife was an Aid to Families With Dependent Children (AFDC) recipient.
He felt the support he provided was limited by his own financial
constraints--” (1) would like to have more to give them.“ This
father pointed out that there was unequal treatment of men and women.
He was threatened with jail for not paying child support while he
was trying to go to school at the same time his former wife was
receiving welfare payments that allowed her to go to school.

The mother,in this instance,indicated a slight increase in
the father's influence over financial affairs in general. She had
mixed feelings in that she did notnecessarily agree with (his) priori-
ties on this issue. Although contact with the children was not high,
the father indicated that he was not sure he would use more time to

everyone's benefit. The mother did not indicate that she placed a

1141':

 

 

107

limit on the father's contact with the children. Instead, she stated
that increased involvement with the children would be beneficial as
it would encourage a sharing of responsibilities and more free time

for herself.

Pair 13: This father indicated a decrease in influence over
financial affairs but was not bothered by the decrease. He stated,
"They can spend the money the way they want." He recognized that
his financial support was lower than it might be but felt that the
mother contributed more because, "She has the resources to do it."
He was c0ncerned about the limited amount of time he spent with the
child but indicated that the decisions over the amount of contact
were within his control.

This mother indicated that the father had little influence
over financial affairs before the divorce and none at the present
time. She had negative feelings in that she believed "He could do
better financially." She felt he was not doing his share either
moneywise or timewise. She indicated that the child would like to
see more of the father and do more with him but the father made

little effort to become more involved.

Pair 15: This father indicated a drop of influence over
financial affairs but did not indicate negative feelings. He said,
"IUs better to let her (mother) have influence here." He did not
feel the mother was using her own resources to the extent that she

should and that it was1wrtnecessarily fair that he "pays and she

1‘1th

 

 

108

gets" (one of the three children currently lived with the father).
This father was concerned about the lack of quality time he had with
the children. He said "You can't do much on an alternate weekend
basis." On the other hand he expressed negative feelings over the
mother's desire for him to spend more time with the child. He said
''She wants me to be the babysitter”.

The mother indicated a drop in influence over financial
affairs. She stated that the father's influence was not important.
"I make these decision--some things are best separate." The mother
felt negatively about the disproportionate use of her own resources,
both time and money. She indicated that the father could have the

child for vacations and/or holidays but usually did not do so.

Pair 17: This father indicated that his influence over finan-
cial affairs had increased as a result of the divorce. His influence
was limited to monetary contributions. He would have liked more
influence over the way in which the money is used as he differed
with the mother on this issue. He perceived that the mother was
not contributing her fair share and the kids needed things the mother
wasn't giving. He was upset over a recent court action that raised
the level of support payments and was not sure this was a good idea
because, "It took money from things (I) would have normally done."

The mother in this situation also indicated an increase in
influence over financial affairs. She viewed this negatively. She
said "His control makes a difference in what the kids have. Child

support controls things.‘I She indicated that her own resources were

109

being used to a high degree and felt it was hard not to have enough
for herself. (She was one of the mothers whose total income was
less than $10,000 a year.) Neither parent was concerned that con-
tact was not higher than it was given the ages of the children and
the distance between the homes. (The children were 10 and 14 and
becoming more independent and involved in their own activities.

The 20 mile distance between homes complicated visitation during

the school year.)

Pair 19: This father indicated a pronounced drop in influ-
ence over financial affairs. He feelings over the drop were ambiva-
lent in that he had no control on a daily basis but was doing long
term planning. This father was the one of three fathers who rarely
had contact with his children (Contact Score 9) but the only father
who indicated that he preferred it this way. He said that he would
prefer not to see the children at all, except for an extended period
in the summer, but would provide financial support. He was the only
parent who indicated that more frequent visitation would be "bounc-
ing the children back and forth." He also preferred to avoid con-
flict over different attitudes toward parenting. (Of the three
fathers who expressed a concern about the mother's possible move
from the area, this father was the only one who thought such a move
might be a good idea.)

His former wife expressed different feelings about his lack
of involvement. While she indicated that financial support was not

adequate she was more concerned about his lack of involvement. She

110

stated that his not seeing them has hurt the children. The mother
indicated that the father made little use of the flexible visitation

privileges.

Pair 20: This father indicated that while he had very high
influence over financial affairs prior to the divorce and now--his
feelings were amibvalent because

I have a lot of influence through support and my own

plans for future. However my impact on teaching about
finances is limited. There is conflict between the two
parents on philosophy and what I can control is highly
influenced.
He also said: "I have no control over the way the money is spent
and that child support could be spent on what is basically alimony.

This father was concerned about the difficulty of building
a close relationship with the children on a “weekend basis". He
did not attempt to have more involvement with the children although
increased involvement was possible.

The mother felt there was a decrease in the father's influ-
ence over financial affairs and was satisfied with this decrease.
She said

When married, he controlled the money. It was a source

of conflict. His attitudes about money prohibit him from
enjoying life. He was too security-oriented.
She felt she was using her own resources to a "high" degree and it
was "fair" given that she had these resources. She did indicate
that she would like the father to become more involved. He could

see the children whenever he wanted. She stated it was good that

he had assumed some responsibility for caring for the children, by

111

virtue of the fact that he had the children alternate weekends and
all day Sunday, but wished he would do more.

In summary, the fathers who did not have ”high contact” with
their children for the most part did generally perceive a decrease in
influence over financial affairs particularly when it came to way
in which the money was used. These fathers did not believe the
mother's use of money was always in the best interests of the child-
ren. In addition they tended to feel that they were doing more than
their share financially and had mixed feelings about the situation.
Although their contact was not "high" there was generally no indica-'
tion from either mothers or fathers that visitation was used as
leverage to assure continued financial support. Three of the fathers
who did not or had not provided financial support on a "regular“
basis were in the group where contact was "not high". They felt
that their influence in this area was not what it was prior to the
divorce and were not satisfied with the situation. On the other
hand those fathers who had always provided regular support payments
had negative feelings because they perceived a "lack of control",
and felt child support might be "alimony" to some extent. The way
in which these fathers compare to fathers who have "high contact"
with their children on issues related to financial support and con-
tact with the children will be discussed in the next section. The
mothers for the most part would have liked more contact between the
fathers and children. These mothers expressed resentment over the

way they were controlled by child support.

11m

 

112

Fathers Who Had "High Contact"
With the Children

£air_§: The father indicated an increase in influence over
financial affairs and felt positively over this increase. Control
over use of money was not the primary reason--he indicated that as
.his daughter matured there has been more need and opportunity for
an increase in influence. He felt that what he was contributing
financially to the child was equitable and felt positively that
there was a sharing of resources by both parents. He did indicate
that he had difficulty communicating with his former wife on issues
related to visitation but a system of flexible regularity had been
established with court assistance.

The mother also indicated that an unspecified visitation
arrangement caused problems that have since been resolved. The
mother indicated that the father's influence over financial affairs
had dropped slightly but was still "high". She felt positively
about the high influence because she was "satisifed with support”

and that the father "provides extras which I appreciate."

Egir_4: The father indicated that there was a slight
decrease in influence over financial affairs since the divorce but
felt positively because it "has ended up being more of a division
of labor." However he did feel that he bears the major burden of
the monetary costs but that he did not mind paying as long as there
was an income discrepancy.

His former wife indicated a decrease in influence over finan-

cial affairs but felt this decrease was positive because "he uses

113

money as a holdover; i.e. threats over allowances." She did not
feel his contribution was sufficient given the inequality of income,
however, she did enjoy spending on the kids. She did not feel it
was just that she receive no support in the summer when children
were with their father. She did feel positively about the amount
of time the children spent with their father although she did not

care for the differences in parenting styles.

Eair_§: This father indicated a decrease in influence over
financial affairs but had no real feelings about the decrease
because "We both have similar standards so I don't care how its
(money) handled." It was interesting that he felt he was not pro-
viding what he should be providing. He indicated that support pro-
bably covered 25 percent to 50 percent of the expenses but should
cover 50 to 75 percent of the expenses. He indicated that a "very
loose" visitation arrangement worked well although he missed “total
involvement" with the children.

The mother in this case indicated that the father's influence
over financial affairs was "medium" prior to and since the divorce.
She felt somewhat negative because of his attitude toward money.

She said, "He's (father) a free spender and this is a negative
influence." Like the father she indicated that less than 50 percent
of the children's expenses were covered by child support and more
should be covered. She was the only mother who felt that mothers

shouldinythave to work. She added that, "This is unrealistic given

1.1431

 

 

 

114

that the father has other responsibilities." She also indicated

that the flexible visitation arrangement has worked well.

‘Pgir_§: Both parents indicated that the father's influence
over financial affairs had been "very high" before the divorce and
has remained that way. Both parents had positive feelings about
the high degree of influence. The father indicated that

This area doesn't have emotional involvement for me.

What's good for me is good for the kids. I feel good

about helping the kids manage money.
The mother stated, "He does well and above his share and is very good
about this." She did indicate that college expenses scare her but
she felt the father would not end support when the children reach
18.

Both parents indicated that the flexible visitation arrange-
ment has worked well, particularly as the children have gotten older.
(This couple was the one couple that had been separated for eight
years. The children, who were 3 and 5 at the time, are now
middle school age. There was a discrepancy in contact time because
the father often dropped in during the week after school hours before

the mother returned from work. She did not always know when this

occurred or whether one of the children telephoned their father.)

Pair 9: The father (joint custody father) indicated that
influence over financial affairs has remained high and felt "posi-
tively" about this. He said, "I want them to have security and not

be disadvantaged as a result of the divorce." He indicated that he

115

believed he covers almost all of the children's expenses in that he
pays for private school, clothes, and medical care in addition to
actual support payments. He felt that he did more than his share

and stated, "Men end up this way because they have higher salaries."
He did recognize that the mother used her own resources to a

moderate degree. He felt positively about her using her own resources
and stated that "Men shouldn't have to finance everything."

The mother felt that the father's pre and post-divorce
influence over financial affairs was low but that, "It wasn't all
that important and she feels the girls will be well provided for."
This mother indicated that child support covered less than 25 per-
cent of the expenses of raising children but did not mind using her
own resources because "They're my children." This couple was one of
two couples that had a joint custody arrangement. Both parents

expressed satisfaction with the arrangement.

Pair 11: Both parents indicated that the father currently
had high influence over financial affairs and were satisfied with
this influence. The father felt positively because, "Children need
to learn money management and decision making". The mother felt
positively and stated, "I respect his way of dealing with finances."

This pair did not have a stipulated support agreement but
some transfer of money from father to mother did occur. Both felt
the transfer was relatively fair. The visitation arrangement was

flexible and was frequently rearranged to accommodate the needs of

1.1111

 

116

both the children and the parents. Each parent felt the other

compensated for his or her own weaknesses as a parent.

Pair 12: The father indicated that his influence over finan-
cial affairs had remained "very high" and felt positively because,
"Its just part of my role as a father." Even though a joint custody-
shared parenting arrangement existed, regular child support payments
were-made. The father stated "Child support is alimony but I cannot
take the tax deduction. However child support is helping her buy
a house and the kids live there." Although child support was paid
and parenting was shared, he indicated the mother used her own
resources to a "very high" degree and felt she ought to "if she is
independent."

The mother indicated that the father's influence over finan-
cial affairs had dropped from "high“ to "low". She preferred it
this way because, "He's very irresponsible financially. I can offer
a different example." She did indicate a high use of her own
resources but didn't mind because she liked being independent. She
felt that the amount of child support covers less than 25 percent
of the costs of childrearing but that this wasn't a real concern.

Both parents were fairly well satisfied with the "flexible
co-parenting“ arrangement and preferred not to use the term "visita-
tion" when describing the access of one parent when the children

were with the other.

1m

 

 

 

117

Pair 14: Both parents indicated that the father had little
influence over financial affairs at the current time. The father
felt negatively because, "I don't have a say so in this area. I
see a lot of buying now that wasn't done before. .I wonder if its
bribery."

The mother felt negatively for a different reason. She
stated that "She (daughter) needs this from her father as well as
her mother." Both parents were in agreement as to the proportion
of expenses that were covered by the child support and that the
mother used her own resources to a l'high degree." Both felt posi-
tively about this. The mother stated, "It is my responsibility" and
the father stated, "It is fair". The father indicated that he felt
he was particularly generous in that "I gave her the house making
it difficult for me to start over." However, he did not mind giving
the mother the house because it allowed the children to remain in

the same school district.

Pair 16: Both parents indicated that the father's influence
over financial affairs was "very high" before the separation. The
mother indicated that the influence has remained at the same level,
however, the father indicated a decrease. The father reported mixed
feelings over the decrease but generally felt positive in the sense
that, "I can provide support for a lifestyle similar to that of the
community." The mother felt that the father's influence in this
area was positive, "As long as it's related to the kids." The

original amount of child support was set by the court and there have

T191113

 

 

118

been few problems related to the payment of support. However there
was disagreement on the proportion of the expenses that were actually
covered by the support provided. Both parents indicated that the
mother used her own resources to a "high" degree and had positive
feelings about it (the mother's use of her own resources). However
the mother indicated she was currently unemployed and this did pre-
sent a problem. The father indicated that sharing the expenses to

a degree was "good". He said, "Both parents can provide better than
adequate housing and opportunities."

Both parents indicated that they felt the current flexible
visitation arrangements meet the needs of both the adults and the
children and that the children had the opportunity to do things
with one parent that they would not with the other parent. Finally,
both parents indicated that they can cooperate despite different

views of parenting.

Pair 18: The father indicated that he has maintained "high
influence" over financial affairs and felt positively about this
because of his "teacher" role. He has encouraged the children to
work and can discuss the value of money with them. He indicated
that the level of support was disproportionately high because his
former wife is a student. He felt she would contribute more evenly
when she completes her college education and enters the work world.
The mother felt that support was at an appropriate level but that

she still used her own resources to a "very high" degree. She did

"131.431

 

119

indicate that her use of resources "Gives her pleasure." Both
parents were satisfied with their visitation pattern which was rela-
tively flexible. The mother said, "It was good for the children to
be with the father and know him better."

The mothers in both groups--those whose former husbands
had "high contact" with the children and those whose former husbands
did not have "high contact"--indicated the children's involvement
with the father was important. However, the mothers in the "high
contact" group appeared more willing to overlook differences, were
less resentful about the use of their own resources and more satis-i
fied with the level of support provided even when it was not propor-
tionate. In addition the fathers who had "high contact” with the
children appeared less resentful even when they felt they were pro-
viding more than their share of financial support. In general the
terms "control" or "lack of control" were not as prevalent in the
responses of the parents where the father had more contact with the
children. The "high contact" fathers also indicated more than the
fathers who did not have "high contact" that they found their rela-
tionship with their children rewarding despite the difficulties that
occurred because they no longer lived in the same house. The fathers
who did not have "high contact" were more concerned about the arti-

ficiality of an "alternate weekend" visitation arrangement.

Summary

Fathers who were willing to give more of themselves to their child-

ren, despite difficulties, found their relationships with their

114111

 

120

children more rewarding. Their former wives also tended to express
more positive feelings toward them as parents than the former wives
of fathers who did not have high contact with the children. Although
there appeared to be greater dissatisfaction over the amount of child
support among both fathers and mothers in the group where the fathers
did not have high contact, there was no apparent tendency to use
access to children in exchange for money. The mothers, for the most
part, were pleased with the quality and quantity of the time the
fathers spent with the children even in those situations where they
would have liked additional financial support.

The mothers, on the whole, did not appear to be threatened
by the fathers' continued relationship with the children. Instead
they welcomed this relationship. They were willing to accept input
from their former husbands as long as that input pertained to the
children and not to the mothers themselves. Although all of the
mothers expressed this to some degree, those whose former husbands
were in the "high" contact group were most explicit in their views.
The willingness to accept the father's perspective on issues related
to the children implies acceptance of the father's parental status.

The quantitative analysis of the data indicated that fathers
and mothers both perceived it to be of "high importance" that fathers
be an influence on the lives of their children. Both fathers and
inothers perceived that fathers did generally have at least a moderate
annount of influence in childrearing matters. Furthermore, the
Inothers were of the opinion that the father's influence was not

destructive and they recognized the children's need and desire for a

THO!

 

 

 

121

continued relationship with the father. The mothers were not highly
threatened by this relationship even when their viewpoint differed
from that of the father, conforming their acknowledgement of the
fathers' parental status.

The finding of this study, would then confirm the belief of
Foa and Foa that the exchange of love and status in one relationship
does not prevent similar exchanges in other relationships. For the
child of divorce, particular and abstract resources are exchanged
with two environments: the maternal family system and the paternal
family system. While conflicting ideas between two parents might
exist, such conflict need not preclude the development of a satis-
factory relationship with both parents. The scope and quality of
the exchanges which might occur between mothers, fathers and child-

ren are characterized in Table 27.

122

TABLE 27.--Father-Mother-Child Exchanges In The Post-Divorce Family.

 

 

Father to Mother

Mother to Father

 

 

 

Money Child Support Payments

Time1 Time spent with children thatzallows Time with children to allow for direct
mother to meet her own needs. parent-child exchanges.

Information 1. Another perspective on issues andz l. That father's monetary contributions

problems related to childrearing. are in fact being used to provide for
children's needs.

2. That his desire to be with and care 2. Information regarding child's develop-
for children does not diminish ment and knowledge that his inputs
maternal role. are welcome.

Status Recognition of mother's parental status. Recognition that father is still a parent
and has right to be with and know about
children.

Goods

Services Care of children. Care of children.

Love

Parents to Children Children to Parents

Money Father's Child Support Payments While money exchanges are not the none
Mother's Supplements from own income. they may be appropriate in some instances.

Time1 Time spent by either parent with Time spent with either parent.
children in parenting activities.

Information Information that fosters intellectual, Possibly related to love and status:
social. moral, and physical development. children respond to both parents.

Status Like children whose parents are not Recognizes parental role of both mother
divorced, they have two caring parents. and father.

Goods Provision of food. clothing and As child develops. gifts may be exchanged
shelter as well as other goods that at appropriate times (ie. those made in
enable children to develop physically, school.
mentally, and socially. Father might
provide in addition to support payments.

Mother might supplement from other

income sources.

Services Both provide caretaking services. i.e. As child develops appropriate skills.
transportation. meal preparation, main- services can be provided to either parent,
taining a home. help with schoolwork. i.e. help with housekeeping tasks.

Love Father‘s desire to continue relation- Ideally love for one parent does not diminish

ship. Mother's willingness to defer
her own needs to meet those of children
(difficult to define precisely).

 

love for the other; appropriate (?)
responses to provision of resources by
parents.

1Time has been added because of the recognition by a growing number of economists that time is

valuable resource for both individuals and groups.
available for other activities.

Time used in meeting the needs of children is not
Generally the custodial parent makes the greater time commitment.

Methods for determining the appropriate levels of exchange of time and money inputs have not yet been

determined.

2Literature indicates that divorced mothers express that they are often overburdened by time
demands as well as the absence of the other parent's perspective on childrearing issues.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS,
LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Summary
Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the post-divorce
father-child relationship from the perspective of both the custodial
mother and the non-custodial father, her former husband. The pri- I
mary research objectives were:

1. To determine whether custodial mothers and non-

custodial fathers have similar perceptions regard-
ing the fathers' involvement with and influence
over the children.

2. To determine whether non-custodial fathers who
made regular child support payments differ in the
extent of involvement with their children from
fathers who have not made regular child support
payments.

3. To determine whether non-custodial fathers who made
regular child support payments differ in their
perceptions of the importance of a father's influ-
ence over the children from fathers who have not

made regular child support payments.

123

 

'L‘lrifii

 

124

4. To determine whether custodial mothers and non-
custodial fathers perceive a difference between
the fathert pre and post-divorce influence over

the children.

Methodology

 

The study was exploratory research using a convenience sample
of 20 pairs of divorced parents living in Ingham, Eaton and Clinton
counties, the three counties comprising the Lansing, Michigan metro-
politan area. The 20 sets of parents (custodial mothers and non-
custodial fathers) were obtained through single parent organizations,
a newspaper advertisement, announcements in community bulletins and
newsletters, and through personal referrals of colleagues and other
professionals who worked with families. The twenty sets of parents
met the following criteria:

1. The parents had a legal decree of divorce.

2. The families had at least one child who was three

years of age or older at the time of the separation
and no older than 14 at the time of the interview.
(Fourteen year olds were included if they had not
yet entered the ninth grade.)

3. The mother had not remarried.

4. The father lived not more than 60 miles from the home

of the mother and was available to participate in

the study.

TH)!

 

 

125

The 20 participating families had a total of 34 children
upon whom the study was based. Eight families had one child, ten
families had two children and two families had three children. At
the time of the interview the children ranged from six to fourteen
years of age. The mothers ranged in age from 28 to 42 years, with
a mean age of 35.7 years and the fathers ranged in age from 28 years
to 47 years with a mean age of 37.8 years. Both mothers and fathers
were generally well-educated and employed in professional or mana-
gerial positions. Over half (12) of the mothers and almost all (18)
of the fathers had total household incomes greater than $15,000 a
year. The modal income for mothers fell in the $15,000-$24,999
category and for fathers the mode fell in the $30,000-$39,999 cate-
gory. Less than half of the fathers (8) had remarried and four of
the remarried fathers had natural children with their present wives.

A structured personal interview was conducted by the
researcher with each parent. The instrument was originally developed
by Greif (1976) for her research on divorced fathers. It is a four-
part questionnaire designed to measure the parents' perceptions of
change in the fathering role as well as the perceived importance
of the father's influence with regard to the children. The instru-
ment was tested for reliability with fathers by Greif and was over
90 percent reliable. As part of the current research the instrument
was tested for reliability with mothers by means of a test-retest.

A reliability coefficient of .696 was obtained. The data were

analyzed using the Wilcoxin, Mann-Whitney, Fisher's Exact and chi

square tests.

'L‘ldLlI

 

 

 

 

 

 

126

Discussion

The significant findings of this study are generalized only
to the sample. Seven null hypotheses were accepted, two were
rejected and three were partially rejected (see Table 28).

Mothers and fathers did perceive differences in the amount of
contact the father had with the children. Mothers indicated that the
amount of contact the fathers had with the children was lower than
the amount of contact the fathers indicated they had. An examination
of the data indicated that in several families the father“s access to
the children was so unregulated that mothers did not know when the
father or children spoke to each other by telephone or dropped in on
one another during the course of a day or week. There is little evi-
dence of support for this finding in the literature. One objective
of this study was to determine if there were differences in the per-
ceptions of mothers and fathers in the amount of contact that existed.
This finding contradicts to some extent the finding of Weiss (1975)
that mothers felt free contact between father and child limited their
own control over the children.

A possible explanation for this difference is that the mothers
in Weiss' sample were in the transition stage while the majority of
the mothers in the current sample were well past the transition. In
addition Weiss' results were based on data obtained in the early
1970s when the number of divorces was beginning to climb and alter-
native family lifestyles had not yet gained acceptance.

The mothers' and fathers' perceptions of the degree of the

influence the father has over the physical, social and psychological

1.1%.?!

 

127

TABLE 28.--Sunmary of Hypotheses Tested and Decision Rule.

 

Hypotheses

Decision Rule Null Hypothesis was:

 

H othesis l: Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers will
digfer in their reports of the amount of contact the father has
with the children.

Hypothesis 2: Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ
in their reports of the degree of influence the father has over
the physical, social and psychological aspects of parenting.

H othesis 3: Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ
in their reports of the regularity of child support payments.

H othesis 4: Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers differ
in their perception of the importance of the fathers influence over
the physical, social and psychological aspects of parenting.

H othesis 5: Fathers who make regular child support payments
digfer from father who do not make regular child support payments
in the amount of contact they have with their children.

Hypothesis 5: Mothers who receive regular child support payments
and mothers who do not receive regular child support payments
differ in their perceptions of the amount of influence the father
has in physical, socila and psychological aspects of parenting.

Hyppthesis 7: Fathers who make regular child support pyaments
an athers who do not make regular child support payments
differ in their perception of the amount of influence they have
over the physical, social and psychological aspects of parenting.

H othesis 8: Fathers who make regular child support payments
a1§fer from father who do not make regular child support payments
in their perceptions of the importance of a father's influence
over the physical, social and psychological aspects of parenting.

Hypothesis 9: Mother's who do not receive regular child support
payments an mothers who do receive regular child support payments,
differ on the perceived importance of the father's influence over
the physical, social and psychological aspects of parenting.

Hypothesis lO: Fathers who have not made regular child support
payments di er in their recognition of the mother's use of her
own resources from fathers who have made regular child support
payments.

Hypothesis ll: Fathers perceive changes in their influence over

the ten aspects of parenting at the current time as compared to
before the separation.

Hypothesis l2: Mothers perceive changes in their perceptions in
the athers influence over the ten aspects of parenting at the

current tiem as compared to before the separation.

Rejected

Not rejected for 8 of 10 aspects
of parenting. Rejected for 2
aspects of parenting.

Not Rejected

Not Rejected

bNot Rejected

Not Rejected

Not Rejected

Not Rejected

Rejected

Not Rejected

Not Rejected for 2 of 10 aspects
of parenting (religious. finan-
cial affairs and decision making).

Not Rejected for 4 of 10 aspects

of parenting (financial affairs and
decision making, intellectual
development, recreational activi-
ties, and religious development.

Rejected for 6 aspects of parenting.

 

THO}

 

 

128

aspects of childrearing did not differ significantly in seven out of
ten aspects of parenting. The three aspects of parenting where signi-
ficant differences between pairs of parents in perceptions of the
father's influence occurred were: "Teaching the Child How to Behave",
"Giving the Child a Feeling of Being Part of the Family" and "Daily
Care and Safety." A possible explanation for this finding might be
that the father's opportunity to have influence over these areas are
less visible to the mother than they are to the father. The mother
may have little information regarding what actually occurs when the
children spend a weekend, a week or an extended vacation with their.
father. Other explanations may be the mother's feeling that she is
overburdened by having the major responsibility for the child(ren)
much of the time. Buehler and Hogan (1980); Kohen, Brown and Feldberg
(l979), Stack (1974), and Weiss (1979) all address the stress felt by
mothers who carry the major responsibility for maintaining a home,
feeding, clothing and caring for the child in general.

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers did not differ in
their reports of the regularity of child support payments. The com-
position of the sample might have had some relationship to the out-
come of this hypothesis. Sixteen out of 20 (80%) sets of parents
indicated that child support payments had always been made on time.

In only one case did the mother, who was on Aid to Families With
Dependent Children (AFDC) recipient, not indicate the degree of
regularity payments were made. Her former husband reported that he
did not make support payments regularly. He had in fact been threat-

ened with jail. Perhaps there would have been differences in the

'L‘HL‘I

 

 

129

reports of regularity of child support payments had the sample con-
sisted of a larger number of pairs in which irregularity of absence
of child support payments was more frequent than in the population
under study.

Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers did not differ
in their perceptions of the importance of the father's influence
over the physical, social and psychological aspects of parenting.
Using the same instrument Greif (1976) found that divorced fathers
considered their influence to be at least of “high importance“ in
all aspects of parenting with the exception of religion. The
fathers in the current study had similar perceptions of the impor-
tance of their influence. Although the Greif study did not include
mothers' perceptions of the importance of a father's influence over
the ten aspects of parenting, the mothers in this study had percep-
tions that were similar to those of both sets of fathers. More
important the three sets of parents were consistent in their rank-
ings of the areas over which they felt a father's influence were
most important. The four areas of highest importance were emotional
development, moral development, intellectual development and giving
the child a feeling of being part of the family.

Fathers who were "regular supporters" and those who were
not "regular supporters“ did not differ in the amount of contact
they had with their children nor did they differ in their perceived
influence over the ten aspects of parenting. Mothers who received

regular support payments and mothers who did not receive regular

130

support payments regularly also reported no difference in the amount
of influence the fathers had over the ten aspects of parenting.

These results must be considered with care because of the
small number of cases where child support payments were not made
with regularity. Although three of the four fathers whose child
support payments were "not regular" were in the group of fathers
whose contact with their children was "not high", they were not
among the fathers who had the least amount of contact with their
children. While there was no support for Chambers'(l980) hypothesis
regarding the possibility of a relationship between "high contact“
and "regularity of child support", this issue deserves further
exploration. It may be necessary to explore the issue as well as
other issues in connection with the relationship between paternal
involvement and influence and regularity of child support in research
that is not centered on pairs of divorced parents. This might
increase participation among fathers whose child support payments
are delinquent as well as mothers who prefer that the fathers have
little parental influence.

Fathers who make regular child support payments did not dif-
fer from fathers who did not make regular child support payments in
their perceptions of the importance of a father's influence over
the physical, social and psychological aspects of childrearing. On
the other hand those mothers who did not receive regular child
support payments did differ on the perceived importance of the

father's influence over the physical, social and psychological

Viki;

 

 

131

aspects of parenting. The small group of mothers who did not
receive regular support payments perceived it to be of greater
importance that the fathers have influence than those who did
receive regular child support payments. .Perhaps these differences
between the two groups of mothers can be attributed to their feelings
that they were doing the greatest proportion of parenting in addi-
tion to working, furthering their education or both. Three of these
four mothers felt that the fathers needed to be more involved as
parents. One indicated that "general caring was more important

than money"; another indicated that the father's involvement with
the children allowed her to pursue her own interests. A third
mother recognized that influence from both parents was desirable

in order to compensate for each other's "strengths and weaknesses."

An alternative explanation to the finding that mothers who
did not receive financial support on a regular basis may be based
on Newsome's (1976) finding that while economic considerations are
important,actual contact and involvement are more important. Again
care must be taken in interpreting this finding because of the small
number of cases where child support payments were not paid or
received on a "regular" basis.

There was no significant difference between fathers who did
and did not make regular support payments in their recognition of
the mothers' use of their own resources. Neither group of fathers
felt that mothers used their own resources to a high degree. Less

than half of the fathers who provided support on a regular basis

 

 

132

felt that mothers used their own resources to a "high" degree while
only one of the four fathers whose support payments were not regular
indicated that the "mother's use of her own resources" was high. On
the other hand 19 out of 20 mothers indicated a high use of their
own resources. Perhaps some explanation might be found in the indi-
vidual parent's interpretation of the term "resources." It is
possible that the fathers interpreted resources to mean money while
the mothers used a broader interpretation that included money, time
and energy. Additionally while the fathers were not isolated from
the children, perhaps the separation from the mother-child unit
"blurred" their perceptions of the time and energy required in
parenting in addition to the monetary expenses.

Fathers perceived changes between their pre and post divorce
influence over two of the ten aspects of parenting: religion and
financial affairs. They perceived a decrease in influence over
financial affairs and decision making and an increase in influence
over their children's religious development. The decrease in influ-
ence over financial affairs is consistent with their expressed con-
cern that they have little control over how the money is used.

This finding is consistent with Greif's finding that the fathers
were not sure that the money was used for the children. Open-ended
responses to questions related to financial affairs and decision
making reinforce this finding, particularly for fathers who did not

have "high contact" with their children. These fathers were more

133

concerned over their lack of influence in this area than were fathers
in the "high contact" group.

There is little in the literature to indicate that divorced
fathers experience an increase in influence over their children's
religious development. It may be that religious activities lend
structure to the weekend when the children are most likely to be
with their father. Another interpretation for this increase may be
that when children reach middle childhood the actual participation
in religious activities may be more realistic than when they were
pre-schoolers. A third explanation is that the fathers themselvesrfelt
a greater desire to practice their religion than they did before
the divorce. Two fathers did indicate that their interest in reli-
gion had been renewed since the divorce occurred.

Mothers perceived significant differences in the fathers'
influence in four out of ten aspects of parenting as compared to
before the separation. In general they perceived a decrease in
their former husbands' influence over financial affairs and decision
making. This is consistent with the findings that the fathers also
perceived a decrease in influence in this area. Unlike the fathers,
the mothers, particularly those whose former husbands' contact with
the children was not high, preferred that the fathers not have a
great deal of influence in this area. The mothers in the group
where the fathers did not have "high contact" expressed feelings
that the father's influence would be controlling. This is consis-

tent with the findings of Kohen, Brown and Feldberg (1979). The

134

mothers in the "high contact" group were less concerned about control
and more concerned about the example the fathers set for the child-
ren with regard to the handling of money; however, they did indicate
that the children could learn from both parents. Six of the ten
mothers in the "high contact" group indicated that they valued their
former husbands' influence in this area. One mother indicated that
"I respect his way of dealing with money.“

The mothers perceived an increase in the fathers' influence
over intellectual development, recreational activities and religious
development. The mothers " perceptions of the increase in the fathers' '
influence over intellectual development are of interest because the
fathers in this study as well as in Greif's study perceived "high" but
not statistically significant decreases in this area. Greif offered
the explanation that perhaps the fatherS' influence did not increase
to the extent that they would have liked as the children grew older.
It is possible that the mothers in the current study saw the fathers
asserting.more influence as the children grew older and the oppor-
tunity for influence in this area increased.

While the fathers did not perceive differences in their
influence over recreational activities the mothers did perceive a
significant increase in the fathers' influence over this area.

The mothers' perceptions of increased influence in this area are
consistent with the literature. Researchers and practitioners
including Kelly and Wallerstein (1980), Weiss (1979), Seagull and
Seagull (1977) and Atkin and Rubin (1974) all address the issue

THO":

 

135

of the divorced father's "over participation" in recreational
activities. Increased paternal participation in recreational acti-
vities was not a problem for the mothers in this study. They tended
to view it as beneficial to the children. Their only concern was
that they themselves often did not have the financial resources to
provide similar or complementary activities.

Like the fathers, the mother perceived an increase in influ-
ence over religious development. A small proportion (20%) of the
mothers indicated that their former husbands had become more chuch-

oriented in recent years.

‘ Conclusions

The following conclusions may be drawn from the results of

this study and pertain only to this study.

1. Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers do not
differ in their perceptions of the fathers' post-
divorce influence over the physical, social and
psychological aspects of parenting nor do they differ
in their perCeptions of the importance of this
influence.

2. CUstodial mothers and non-custodial fathers perceive
differences in the actual amount of contact the
father has had with the child(ren).

3. Custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers do not
differ in their perceptions of the regularity of child

support. Regularity of child support is not a major

1131*:

 

 

136

factor in the amount of contact the father has with
the children nor is it a major factor in the amount
of influence he has over the physical, social and
psychological logical aspects of parenting.

There was no significant difference between fathers

 

who did and did not make regular support in their 1
perceptions of the importance of their influence over 1
the physical, social and psychological aspects of g

i

parenting. However, their former wives did differ.

The mothers who did not receive "regular" child support
payments considered the fathers' influence to be of
greater importance than those mothers who did

receive regular child support payments.

Fathers who do and do not make regular child support
payments do not differ significantly in their percep-
tions of the mothers'use of their own resources. In
general the fathers did not perceive that the mothers
used their own resources to a very high degree. This
is in a direct contrast to the mothers' perceptions of the
degree to which they used their own resources. All of
the mothers indicated a high degree of use of their

own resources. Similarly the fathers tended to under-
estimate the actual expenses incurred in raising a

child when compared to the mothers'perceptions of what

1:151:11:

 

137

proportion of childreading expenses were actually
covered by the payments received.

Both fathers and mothers perceived changes between
the fathers' pre and post-divorce influence over the

physical, social and psychological aspects of parent-

ing in only two areas. Both parents perceived decreases .
in influence over financial affairs and decision making
and an increase in influence over religious development. 1

Limitations of the Study
The sample was a convenience sample and probably not
representative of the general population of divorced
parents. It was representative of mothers who received
child support regularly. The sample was over-represen-
tative of white upper middle class respondents. No
minorities were included. Care should be taken not to
generalize beyond the group represented by the sample.
Limitations placed upon the sample such as that fathers
and mothers live in the same general locale as well as
the fact that both parents be willing to participate
may have biased it in favor of those families who had
developed workable post-divorce relationships. Those
families who agreed to participate may have been more
accepting of the changes in the role of both parents

required by divorce.

138

3. The findings of the study represent perceptions of
parental influence and involvement rather than obser-
vations of interaction between fathers and children.

4. Data were obtained only from mothers and fathers.
Children's perceptions pertaining to the amount of
involvement and influence their fathers had were not

ascertained.

Implications for Practical Use

The results of this study could be useful to families who
are experiencing or have experienced divorce as well as professionals.
who work with both adults and children in facilitating adjustment to
divorce. There are implications for both custody decisions and
financial decisions necessitated by divorce.

Joint custody arrangements of one type or another are evolv-
ing as a method of restructuring families in which separation or
divorce has occurred. It appears that joint custody or an arrange-
ment like it was either implicitly or explicitly desired by the
majority of the parents who participated in this study. Those par-
ents who shared the non-monetary aspects of childrearing were more
accepting of one another than parents who did not share. They were
also more accepting of perceived inequities in financial arrange-
ments.

While the majority of parents who participated in the study
indicated that the regularity of child support payments was not an

issue of concern, most expressed a concern about the adequacy and

 

139

equity of actual support payments. More attention should be given
to the development of support schedules that take into account the
actual needs of children and the ability of both parents to provide
for those needs over a period that might extent for eighteen or more
years. The possibility of mediation in settling disputes related

to support payments should not be overlooked. Both mothers and
fathers expressed the concern that some of the inequities were

related to the greater earning potential of the father as well as

 

the impact of inflation on the adequacy of support payments. Per- ;
haps more attention should be given to the transitional needs of the

mother who has been a homemaker or who has been employed in a low-

paying occupation. When the spouse's finances permit, the mother (or

father) might be given the opportunity to retrain for more remunera-

tive employment that would eventually allow for the assumption of a

greater proportion of the financial support of the children.

Finally, there is evidence from this study that contradicts
the assumption that the non-custodial parent (mother or father) is
an absent parent. Unlike the Fulton (1979) study in which only 20%
of the fathers saw their children regularly after a divorce, over
75 percent of the fathers in the current study saw their children
on a regular basis.

Divorced fathers can and do play a significant role in the
lives of their children. Perhaps the term "single parent family" is
a misnomer when applied to families in which a divorce has occurred.
Professionals who work with such families to facilitate the transi-

tion might alter their objectives in order to facilitate the

~w‘

Tl'i’Ji:

 

 

 

140

development of a co-parental relationship. The transition might be
to that of a single adult who shares the responsibilities of parent—
ing with a former spouse rather than to the status of single parent.
The family system created by divorce does not operate in
isolation from other systems. The most salient example is the
interaction of the family system with the school system. School
personnel would be advised to recognize that children from families 3

in which a divorce has occurred usually have two concerned parents;

 

hence communication with and involvement of both parents by the
schools should be encouraged. In addition alternative family struc-.
tures should not be viewed as the source of learning difficulties.
School personnel might develop programs to sensitize teachers to the
needs of students whose lives have been touched by divorce as well

as to methods of involving both parents on educational decisions
affecting the child. There is a need that family and school pro-
fessionals recognize that the divorced family is not necessarily a

deprived or deficit family.

Implications for Theory and Research
1. Exchange Theory is of value as researchers and practi-
tioners attempt to understand the changes that occur
in families as the result of divorce. While money has
typically been transferred from one parent to the other,
closer attention should be given to other exchanges that

might occur. Attempts to measure the non-monetary

1110:

 

141

contributions of the non-custodial parent should be
made. For example are time and services adequate
substitutes for money? Researchers might develop
methods for measuring the time and money investments

of both the custodial and non-custodial parent.

Research could be conducted from a critical theory per-
spective. The researcher who studies both the custodial
and non-custodial parent might act as a mediator with
the parents in resolving issues pertaining to parenting.
This researcher (or research team) has access to infor-
mation pertaining to the concern of both parents as well
as knowledge of the perceptions of either parent of the
others parent's strengths and shortcomings. With the
consent of the participants this information might be
shared as a means of resolving problems related to parent-
ing issues.

While large samples are valuable for certain types of
research, in depth ethnographic studies utilizing case
studies could be of greater use in grounding theory.
Replication with families of different socioeconomic
levels and in different geographic areas would enhance
the development of theory as it pertains to a variety
of family lifestyles.

Both mothers and fathers indicated that a situation
resembling joint custody might be acceptable when

families are restructured following a divorce.

 

142

Although much has been written on the pros and cons

of joint custody further research comparing a variety
of possible shared arrangements is warranted.

One objective of this study was to determine whether

or not pairs of divorced parents concurred in their
perceptions of the extent of the non-custodial father's
relationship with and influence over the children as
well as the perceived importance of the father's rela-
tionship with the children. In general, both mothers
and fathers had similar perceptions regarding the nature
of the relationship as well as the importance of the
relationship with and influence of the father. However
the emphasis of this study on pairs of parents brings
forth additional questions. Did the requirement of the
participation of both parents limit participation to
families in which the regularity of child support pay-
ments was not an issue or to families who had for the
most part made adjustments that were acceptable if not
comfortable to parents and children? Further research
should involve pairs: however, larger samples of
unrelated mothers and fathers would add depth to the
understanding of the relationship between financial
support and continued involvement in parenting.

Divorce is becoming a more frequent occurrence among
middle and upper middle income families. More research

on the impact of divorce on middle and upper middle

 

 

1.13111:

 

143

class families is needed. Possible questions might be
directed toward the way in which child-related goals are
established, the determination of a post-divorce level
of living for the children and the division of labor
between the parents. Post-transition adjustment of the
children should also be studied.

The parents who participated in this study lived within
close proximity of one another. Research on families

in which either the parent-child unit or the parent
without custody has moved across the state or across

the country would be helpful in understanding the impact
of divorce on parents and children.

This study was based on the premise that the mother was
the custodial or primary parent. Replication with fami-
lies in which the father is the custodial or primary
parent and the mother is separated from the parent-
child unit would be of use in understanding the impact
of divorce.

There has been little research on the child's perspec-
tive of his or her relationship with either parent
following a divorce. There is also little research on
the child's perceptions of what material and non-material
resources are contributed by either parent to his or

her development. The development of an instrument to
measure the perceptions of children between six and

fourteen and children of high school age as they

TH):

 

144

relate to these issues would be of use in understanding
how children in traditional families as well as families
in which a divorce has occurred view the contributions
of their parents.

Divorce has an impact on the extended family as well
as the individuals directly involved (mothers, fathers
and children). Future research might examine the impact
of divorce on maternal and paternal grandparents as well
as the extent of the contribution of resources by either
set of grandparents to the father-child and mother-child
subsystems. I

10. The identification of divorced parents for research is
not an easy task because of changes that occur in the
lives of one or both parents, ie. relocation to another
community and/or remarriage. In addition court records
do not provide current addresses and agencies and pro-
fessionals who work with families are not at liberty to
provide researchers with names of potential participants.

This study has attempted to look at questions pertaining to
the relationship between the divorced non-custodial father and his
children. Continued research in this area will help professionals
who work with families to understand the nature and result of the
changes in family life that evolve from divorce. Research findings
might also assist all families as they attempt to live with and

understand those families whose structures differ from their own.

 

113:1}:

 

APPENDICES

 

APPENDIX A

 

111:2:

 

145

PARENT'S INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
Part I

As you know, the purpose of this study is to find out how parents view the father's relationship with
their children after a marital separation or divorce. I will therefore be asking you a number of
questions about yourself and your child. I do want to assure you that whatever you say will be kept
strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone.

Case I Mother Father

First we have some general background questions:

What is your occupation?

What is the highest level of education you completed?
(Socioeconomic Status )

l.

 

What was the date of your most recent marriage?
Were you ever married before this? Yes No
If yes. how many times?

 

 

What is your current marital status:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Separated Who initiated the separation:
When? Husband __ Wife __
Divorced Mutual
Date of Divorce Decree Remarried
When did you initially separate? Date of Remarriage
3. If remarried. do you have natural born children or stepchildren by this marriage? Yes _____ No _____
Natural born children _______________ Stepchildren
4. How many children do you and your (husband. wife) have? (The last marriage only). What are
their names? How old are they? What is their sex? With whom do they live? Where do they
live? Are any of them adopted? When interviewing mother: on the information form you indi-
cated that you had _________ children and go on to question 4.
Name Age Sex Lives With City Adopted
4)
DL
CL
d)
e)
f)
5. Let's now just talk about: a b c d e f
6. Who has custody? Father Mother Joint Other
7. What is the child's living arrangement?
8. What is the visitation agreement?
9. How many times (does yOur former husband, do you) have contact with your child in an average month:
By phone? Who usually makes the call?
By letters? Who usually writes?
By face to face visits?
(Does he, do you) visit on a regular basis, i.e., a set day and time. or is
it more flexible?
If more flexible, who usually sets up the time of visit?
10. Where (does he. do you) usually see your child now?

 

‘L‘H‘Jt

 

146

PARENTS INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE

Part II

One of the things we are interested in learning is the different ways that parents feel they influence
the growth and development of their children.
(you, or your former husband) may have had input into the life of your child before the separation. and
ways you feel you have input into the life of your child now.
same role in regard to their children, but I will be going through a range of possible areas in which

fathers could affect the lives of their children.

I will therefore be asking you about different ways

We realize that not all fathers play the

 

Very
High

High

Medium

Low

Very
Low

N.A.

OK

 

l.

a. In the period just prior to the
separation. do you feel (he, you) had
influence on the ROUTINE DAILY CARE

AND SAFETY of your child? (For example.
your child's grooming. bedtime, acti-
vity schedule...)

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had. you had)?

 

c. Do you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has, you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

OK

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

a. In the period just prior to the
separation, do you feel (he. you) had
influence on the INTELLECTUAL DEVELOP-
MENT of your child? (For example. read-
ing, homework. schooling, career choice

 

b. If yes, how much influence do you feel
(he had, you had)?

 

c. Do you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has. You have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

DK

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

1.1.1:":

 

147

 

Very
High

High

Medium

Low

Very
Low

N.A.

OK

 

3.

a. In the period just prior to the
separation. do you feel (he. you) had
influence on the PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
of your child? (For example. sports.
interest in one's body...)

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had. you had)?

 

c. 00 you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has. you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

OK

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

a. In the period just prior to the
separation. do you feel (he. you) had
influence on the RECREATIONAL ACTIVI-
TIES of your child? (For example.
arts. and crafts. cultural interests.
vacations...)

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had, you had)?

 

c. 00 you feel (he has. You have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has. you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

NS

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

a. In the period just prior to the
separation, do you feel (he, you) had
influence on TEACHING YOUR CHILD HOW
TO BEHAVE? (For example. discipline.
manners. chores and responsibilities

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had. you had)?

 

c. 00 you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has. you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

NS

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

'Ll'il':

 

148

 

Very
High

High

Medium

Low

Very
Low

N.A.

OK

 

6.

a. In the period just prior to the
separation. do you feel (he. you) had
influence on the EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
of your child? (For example. over-
coming fears. discussing feelings...)

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had. you had)?

 

c. 00 you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has. you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

 

 

NS

 

 

 

 

 

a. In the period just prior to the
separation. do you feel (he. you) had
influence on the RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT
of your child? (For example. prayers.
religious beliefs...)

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had, you had)?

 

c. 00 you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has. you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

 

 

a. In the period just prior to the
separation, do y0u feel (he. you) had
influence on the MORAL OR ETHICAL
DEVELOPMENT of your child? (For example.
the importance of telling the truth. not
to steal...)

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had. you had)?

 

c. Do you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes, how much influence do you
feel (he has. you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

NS

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

11.13:

 

149

 

Very
High

High

Medium

Low

Very
Low

N.A.

OK

 

9.

a. In the period just prior to the
separation, do you feel (he. you) had
influence on giving your child a feel-

ing of BEING PART OF A FAMILY? (For
example, discussing relationships within
the family. attending family gatherings...)

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had. you had)?

 

c. 00 you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has. you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

NS

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

10.

a. In the period just prior to the
separation, do you feel (he. you) had
influence on the FINANCIAL AFFAIRS of
your child? (For example. allowance. or
making minor and major financial deci-
sions affecting the child's life...)

 

b. If yes. how much influence do you feel
(he had. you had)?

 

c. 00 you feel (he has. you have)
influence in this area now?

 

d. If yes. how much influence do you
feel (he has. you have) now?

 

e. How do you feel about (this change
that has taken place?) (there having
been no change?)

 

 

 

NS

 

 

 

 

 

f. Why do you feel that way?

 

150

PARENT'S INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE

Case f

Part III

We have just discussed ten areas in which fathers can influence the growth and development of

their children. Below you will find a list of those ten areas.

you consider each of these areas.

Very High
Importance

High
Importance

Medium
Importance

Little
Importance

Please indicate how important

Very Little
Importance

 

Influencing the ROUTINE DAILY
CARE AND SAFETY of the child.

 

Influencing the INTELLECTUAL
DEVELOPMENT of the child.

 

Influencing the PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT of the child.

 

Influencing the RECREATIONAL
ACTIVITIES of the child.

 

Teaching the child MANNERS AND
HOW TO BEHAVE.

 

Influencing the EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT of the child.

 

Influencing the RELIGIOUS
DEVELOPMENT of the child.

 

Influencing the MORAL 0R
ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT of the
child.

 

Helping the child to experi-
ence BEING PART OF A
FAMILY.

 

Influencing the FINANCIAL
DECISIONS affecting the
child.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

111'):

 

151

PARENT'S INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE

Part IV

I'd like to go back and discuss more fully some of the areas we covered in the beginning of the interview.

1.

4a.

5a.

You explained your custody arrangement to me. Could you also tell me:'

a. How was custody decided: Mutually by father and mother
Negotiated via lawyers
By court action
Other (specify)
Not applicable
Doesn't know

 

 

 

 

 

 

b. What custody arrangement had you (mother. father) wanted?

Mother

Father

Joint Physical
Joint Legal
Joint Physical and Legal
Other

 

 

 

 

 

You explained your child's living arrangement. Could you also tell me:

a. How was that decided: Mutually by father and mother
Negotiated via lawyers
By court action
Other (specify)
Not applicable
Doesn't know

 

 

 

 

 

 

b. What living arrangement had you (mother. father) wanted?

With Mother

Primarily With Father
Alternating between Mothers and Fathers home
Other

 

 

 

 

You explained the visitation agreement.

a. How was that decided: Mutually by father and mother
Negotiated via lawyers
By court action
Other (specify)
Not applicable
Doesn't know

 

 

 

 

 

 

b. What visitation agreement had you (mother, father) wanted?

Just prior to the separation, how many hours. if any. did(you. your husband) spend with your child
alone in an average week?

 

b. And now?

 

c. How do you feel about (this change that has taken place?) (there having been no change?)

Just prior to the separation, how many hours. if anyu did(you, your, husband) spend with your child
together with others in an average week?

 

b. Who were the “others"?
c. And now? Who are the “others“?

How do you feel about (this change that has taken place?) (there having been no change?)

 

1w:

 

9a.

10.

12.

13.
14.

152

How many rooms are there in the apartment or house where you live now?

 

How many people share this apartment or house?

 

 

 

 

Does that living arrangement pose any problems in being with your child? Yes No
If yes, please explain:
p

00 you (pay, receive) child support? Yes No
How regularly have you (has he) made Has Never H15$“ a Payment
these payments? Misses or is late l-3 payments per year

Misses or is late 3-6 payments per year

Misses or is late more than 6 payments per year
How was the amount decided: E

Mutually by father and mother
Negotiated via lawyers
By court action

 

 

 

Are (you, your wife) currently receiving AFDC payments Yes No
Have (you. your husband's) wages been garnished? Yes No
Do you (pay. receive) alimony?

How do you feel about that?

How was the amount decided:
Mutually by father and mother
Negotiated via lawyers
By court action

 

 

 

To what extent to you believe child support 100% 75-l001 50-751 50: 25-50: less than 25!
payments cover the costs of childrearing?

 

 

b. To what extent do you believe child
support payments should cover the
costs of childrearing?

 

Custodial mothers often invest considerable amounts of time. energy, and money from sources other
than child support in caring for their children.

Do you (does your wife) use (your. her) own resources to meet the needs

 

of the children? Yes No

If yes. to what extent? Very high High Some Little
Very Little

How do you feel about this? Positive Not Sure Negative

Why do you feel this way?

Would you tell me your income?

 

 

(Social Class )
Oo (you,your husband) have periods of unemployment? Yes No
Would you tell me your religion Protestant Catholic Jewish Other

None

19.

20.

21.

22.

153

a. Were your parents divorced or separated? Yes No

b. If yes. how old were you at that time?

 

Separated and divorced parents often have considerable involvement with lawyers. Do you feel
that in your particular situation lawyers have helped or hindered your relationship (your former
spouse's relationship) with your child. or did they have no effect?

Can you explain?

Many separated and divorced parents are involved in court action around issues of child custody.
visitation, child support. etc.

Were you? Yes No

If yes. do you feel that in your particular situation your involvement with the courts helped or
hindered (you. your spouses) relationship with your child. or did they have no effect?

Can you explain?

This must have been a time of significant stress for you. Could you tell me: Have you developed
any physical problems or symptoms since the separation or divorce? Yes No

If yes. can you describe them?

Did you consult a doctor? Yes No

Have you or your child been hospitalized since the separation or divorce?

 

Mother: Yes No
Father: Yes No
Child: Yes No

 

If yes. for what reasons?

 

 

 

 

Mother: When?
Father: When?
Child: When?

 

 

Were you or your child ever hospitalized before the separation or divorce?

 

 

Mother: Yes No
Father: Yes No
Child: Yes No

 

If yes. for what reasons?

 

 

 

 

Mother: When?
Father: When?
Child: When?

 

 

a. What have you found to be the most difficult or troublesome aspect of (you, your husband's)
relationship with your child following the separation and/or divorce?

b. What have you found to be the most positive aspect of (you. your husband's) relationship with
your child following the separation and/or divorce?

What have you found to be the most difficult or troubling aspect(s) of your relationship with y0ur
(husband and/or wife) following the divorce?

What have you found to be the most positive aspect(s) of your relationship with your (husband
and/or wife) following the divorce?

 

 

154

Please indicate your age:

Under 25 _____
25 - 29 _____
30 - 34 ._____
35 - 39 ______
40 - 45 ______
45 - 49 ______
Over 50

Please indicate your approximate family income:
Under $5,000
$5,000 - $ 9,999
$10,000 - $14,999 _____
$l5,000 - $24,999 ______

$25,000 - $29,999______
$30,000 - $39,999 ______
$40,000 - $49,999 ______
Over $50,000

 

155

Contact Score Weights

 

 

Frequency Per Month Score
Phone Calls 0 0
1-3 3
4-7 6
8-12 9
l3-l9 l2
20+ 15
Letters 0 0
l-2 1
3-4 2
Visits 0-1 2
2-3 6
4-6 12
7-10 l8
ll-l4 24
l5+ 30

 

Judith Brown Greif. Child Absence: Fathers' Perception Of Their

Relationship To Their Children Subsequent to Divorce.
Ph.D. dissertation, Adelphi University, 1977.

Unpublished

 

 

T152?

 

APPENDIX B

 

156'

TABLE 29.--Sources for Locating Participants.

 

No. Who Number Who Did Not

 

Source Participated Participate
N = 20 N = 53

Newspaper Ad 1 8
Announcements on
Bulletin Boards and
Newsletters . l 2
Single Parent/Single
Adult Organizations 1 9
Community Contacts
(Colleagues, Acquaintances) 17 34
Attorneys, Ministers ._g I__

Tota1 20 53

 

 

157

TABLE 30.--Summary of Sources Contacted To Obtain Sample

 

 

Potential Actual
Participants Participated
Single Adult Groups:
9 Groups 9 1
Community Contacts:
5 Ministers 0 0
3 Attorneys 0 0
4 Extension Home Economists l 1
Other Colleagues 33 16
Newspaper Ad 8 1
Announcements on Community
Bulletin Boards and Newsletters ‘_2 ._1

Total 53 20

 

 

1132‘:

 

 

158

TABLE 31.--Summary of Reasons for Non-Participation (N = 53).

 

 

Reason No. %*
Father Lived too Far 9 17
Divorce Not Final 5 9
Mother Remarried 3 6
Mother Refused 13 25
Father Refused 9 17‘
Father Agreed/Mother Could Not
Be Reached 2 4
Mother Agreed/Father Could Not
Be Reached l 2
Children Did Not Meet Age
Requirements 6 11
Current Litigation Regarding
Custody Arrangements 4 8
Mother Did Not Know Whereabouts
of Father 1 2

 

*Percentages are rounded.

 

APPENDIX C

 

159

Information for Review of Projects
Involving Human Subjects

 

Mothers' and Fathers' Perceptions of Non-Custodial
Fathers' Post-Divorce Relationship To Their Children

1. This study is an investigation of the relationship between

divorced non-custodial fathers and children in the custody of their
former wives. This relationship will be examined from the perspec-

tive of both non-custodial fathers and custodial mothers. Steps in_

 

 

the study include developing the same design, establishing the sample,

developing the interview schedule, and collecting and analyzing the
data.

a. Assess the degree to which non-custodial
fathers indicate actually are involved in the
physical, psychological, and social-economic
aspects of parenting.

b. Assess the degree to which custodial mothers
indicate that the non-custodial fathers should
be and actually are involved in the physical,
psychological and social-economic aspects of
childrearing.

c. Compare the degree of congruency between the
responses of the non-custodial fathers and

custodial mothers.

160

d. Assess the relationship between the regularity
of child support payments and the degree of
involvement or desired involvement in the above-
mentioned aspects of childrearing based upon the
perceptions of the custodial mother and non-
custodial father.

2. The population under investigation includes divorced
parents of elementary school-aged children resident in the Lansing
area. To control for distance, both parents must reside within a
one-hour driving distance of each other. At the time the divorce was
granted, the child(ren) under consideration must have been no less
than five years of age. The child(ren) will be no older than 12
years at the time the parents participate in the study.

The sample will be drawn from court records of divorces
obtained in Ingham County during the years of 1977, 1978, and 1979.
These records are open to the public. A letter will be sent to
custodial mothers explaining the nature of the study. If the mother
is willing to participate she will be asked to complete and return
the enclosed information form and sign the consent form. The cus-
todial mothers will be asked to indicate whether they think their
former husbands would be willing to participate in the study and if
so, to provide information about their address and phone numbers.
Following the receipt of information from custodial mothers, a letter

explaining the nature of the study will be sent to non-custodial

 

11:12:

 

 

fathers.
to set up

3

161

The investigator will then contact both mothers and fathers
separate appointments for the interviews.

a. The risk to participants should be minimal since
they are free to refuse to answer any questions or
withdraw from the interview at any time. There
may be a slight risk to the custodial mother in that
she is being asked to provide information about her
former husband, however, the fact that the pro-
visions of this information is voluntary should
eliminate any persons who have reservations about
discussing relationships or providing the address
and phone number of a former husband.

b. All data will be held in strict confidence. Names
will not appear on interview schedules. Income will
be ascertained by having the participant mark a
slip and return it to the interviewer in an envelope.
The interviewer has been trained to respect the
confidentiality of participants. The research report
will be prepared in a way that individual partici-
pants cannot be identified.

c. The investigation will help identify the expectations
the divorced parents have of each other in their
efforts to meet the physical, psychological and
social-economic needs of their children. This

information will be of use to divorced and divorcing

 

‘1 HHS-Ln. I“. l““_

162

families as well as attorneys, the court system,
counselors, and other providers who may be involved

with these families.

The number of divorces that involve children increases
each year. The custodial mother and non-custodial I
father are often unsure of what role each parent has

in meeting the needs of their child(ren). As these '

 

parents review the post-divorce parenting system u
that has evolved, they may see themselves and/or
their former spouse in a more positive light or
begin to consider how they might work together as
parents wanting the best solution possible for their
child(ren).
The consent form will be mailed to custodial mothers
with a letter explaining the study. The signed form

as well as the completed information form will be

returned to the researcher in the envelope provided.

The consent form will also be mailed to the non-custodial
father with a letter explaining the study. The form will
be collected at the time of the interview. The inter-
viewer will have additional copies of the letter and
consent form in the event that the original has been
lost or misplaced.

Consent forms attached.

1.1119:

A
r
A

 

163

Interview Schedule attached.

The interview will be conducted by the investigator
or other trained interviewer individually with each
parent at a time and place convenient to the parent.
The interview setting will be the home or work place
of the parent, or any other setting convenient to the

parent (i.e. the researcher's office, library, etc.).

'1 H33.

 

 

164
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

COLLEGE OF HUMAN ECOLOGY EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824
DEPARTMENT OF FAMILY AND CHILD ECOLOGY

(LETTER FOR CUSTODIAL MOTHER)

I am a doctoral student at Michigan State University. As part of
the requirements for my degree, I am conducting a study that explores
the way in which divorced parents make decisions about childrearing,
visitation, and financial support. The information obtained from
the results of this study will be of use to divorced or divorcing
parents, attorneys, counselors, and court personnel in addressing
decisions regarding children.

I would like to visit you in your home, at your place of business or
at another location that is convenient. I would discuss your former
husband‘s relationship with you and your children on issues concern-
ing the children. Because I am interested in learning how both
custodial mothers and non-custodial fathers feel about childrearing,
support and visitation, I would like to conduct a similar interview
with your former husband. If your former husband lives no more than
one hour's driving distance from your home, his visitation privileges
have not been restricted by the courts in order to protect the safety
of you and/or the children, and you think he would be willing to
participate in this study, please write his name, current address,
and phone number in the space provided on the back of this letter.

During our visit you are free to not answer any questions, ask ques-
tions of me, and end our visit at any time. Our discussion will be
between you and me, with no one else seeing your answers, inclucing
your former husband if he participates in the study. The research
report will be prepared in a way that no participant is identified.

If you would be willing to participate in this study, please sign in
the space below, complete the information form on the reverse side
of this letter, and return it to me in the enclosed stamped envelope.
Following the return of the information form, I will contact you to
set up a convenient time for the interview. If you have any ques-
tions, please feel free to contact me at (517) 353-9578 or (517)
349-6113 (after 5:00 p.m.).

Thank you for your time and consideration.

Sincerely,

Barbara G. Berkman

I have read the above letter and understand what is asked of me. I

would like to participate in this study.

Date Signature

 

 

165

INFORMATION FORM

 

 

 

 

 

Name:

Current Address:

Phone Number(s): Home Work

1. You may contact me at work: Yes No

2. Please indicate the following information on each child of the

‘thQOU‘m

marriage that ended between 1977 and 1980.

First Name Age .ngf Lives With Adopted
(yes or no)

 

 

 

 

 

 

At the time of your divorce, was your
husband ordered to pay child support? Yes No

 

If your former husband was ordered to pay child support, with
what degree of regularity has he made this payment?

Has never missed a payment

Misses or is late 1 to 3 payments per year
Misses or is late 3 to 6 payments per year
Misses or is late more than 6 payments per year

 

 

Have his wages been garnished? Yes No
Does your former husband have periods

of unemployment: Yes No
Are you currently receiving AFDC payments? Yes No

Does your former husband live within a one-
hour driving distance from your home? Yes No

 

Name, Address, City and Telephone Number of your Former Husband.

Thank You For Your Assistance

 

11.116.

 

 

 

 

 

166
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

COLLEGE OF HUMAN ECOLOGY EAST LANSING ° MICHIGAN ' 48824

DEPARTMENT OF FAMILY AND CHILD ECOLOGY

(LETTER FOR NON-CUSTODIAL FATHER)

I am a doctoral student at Michigan State University. As part of

the requirements for my degree, I am conducting a study that explores
the way in which divorced parents make decisions about childrearing,
visitation, and financial support. The information obtained from the
results of this study will be of use to divorced or divorcing parents,
attorneys, counselors, and court personnel in addressing decisions
regarding children.

I would like to visit you in your home, place of business of at
another location that is convenient and ask you questions about your
realtionship with your children and your former wife on issues con-
cerning your children.

 

During our visit you are free to not answer any questions, ask ques-
tions of me, and end our visit at any time. Our discussion will be '
between you and me, with no one else seeing your answers, including
your former wife who is also participating in the study. The research
report will be prepared in a way tht neither you nor your children
might be identified by the reader.

I will contact you within the next few days to set up a convenient
time for the interview. Please keep this letter as I will be collect-
ing the consent form at the time of the interview.

Sincerely,

W%.MW

Barbara G. Berkman

CONSENT FORM - NON-CUSTODIAL FATHER

I understand the objectives of this study and would like to partici-
pate. I understand that the information I provide will be confiden-
tial and no individual will be identified. I further understand that
the information I provide will not be discussed with my former wife.

Date ‘ Signature

MS U is an A/ft'rmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

THE

167
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

COLLEGE OF HUMAN ECOLOGY EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824
DEPARTMENT OF FAMILY AND CHILD ECOLOGY

(LETTER FOR EITHER PARENT)

I am a doctoral student at Michigan State University. As part of

the requirements for my degree, I am conducting a study that explores
the way in which divorced parents make decisions about childrearing,
visitation, and financial support. The information obtained from

the results of this study will be of use to divorced or divorcing
parents, attorneys, counselors, and court personnel in addressing
decisions regarding children.

I would like to visit you in your home, at your place of business or
at another location that is convenient. I would disucss your former
spouse's relationship with you and your children on issues concern-
ing the children. Because I am interested in learning how both cus-
todial mothers and non-custodial fathers feel about childrearing,
support and visitation, I would like to conduct a similar interview
with your former spouse. If your former spouse lives no more than
one hour's driving distance from your home, his (your) visitation
privileges have not been restricted by the courts in order to pro-
tect the safety of you and/or the children, and you think he/she
would be willing to participate in this study, please write his/her
name, current address, and phone number in the space provided on the
back of this letter.

During our visit you are free to not answer any questions, ask ques-
tions of me, and end our visit at any time. Our discussion will be
between you and me, with no one else seeing your answers, including
your former spouse if he/she participates in the study. The research
report will be prepared in a way that no participatn is identified.

If you would be willing to participate in this study, please sign in
the space below, complete the information form on the reverse side

of this letter, and return it to me in the enclosed stamped envelope.
Following the return of the information form, I will contact you to
set up a convenient time for the interview. If you have any questions,
please feel free to contact me at (517) 353-9758 or (517) 349-6113
(after 5:00 p.m.)

Thank you for your time and consideration.

Sincerely,

155wuitwwk€kl~IESVAHnnxovvi

Barbara G. Berkman

I have read the above letter and understand what is asked of me. I
would like to participate in this study.

Date Signature

 

51.9“ is an Affirmative Action/Faun] nnhnrtunitv Institution

168

INFORMATION FORM

Mother's Name

 

 

 

 

Address

City

Phone Number: Home Work

May be contacted at work? Yes No

Father's Name

 

 

 

 

Address

City

Phone Number: Home Work

May be contacted at work? Yes No

Please provide the following information for each child

 

 

 

 

' Age at

First Present Time of

Name Age Separation Lives With Type of Custody
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

 

 

 

 

 

Thank You For Your Assistance

 

REFERENCES

 

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