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THE EFFECT OF A RATION LOW IN CALCIUM ON THE GROWTH AND
HEALTH OF DAIRY EF‘LIFERS

THE EFFECT OF A RATION LOW IN CALCIUM ON THE GROWTH AND
HEALTH OF DAIRY HEIFERS

THESIS

submitted to the faculty of the Michigan Agricult ural
College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Science.

by

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William Jiméweetman
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author takes great pleasure in acknowledging
his sincere appreciation of the hearty and helpful sug-
gestions of Mr. C. F. Huffman, Research Assistant in
Dairy Husbandry, Mr. O. E. Reed, Professor of Dairy-Hul-
bandry, and Dr. R. C. Huston, Associate Professor of

Chemistry, in the writing of’this thesis.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

General Discussion and Review of‘Literature

1.

2.

3.

4.

Growth

(a) Relation of minerals to growth
Riokets

(a) The relation of exercise and sun-

light to rickets.
(b) Relationship of cod liver oil to

rickets

(0) Relation of vitamins "D” to calcium
retention

Tetany

(a) Low calcium in tissues the cause
of tetany

(b) Ion antagonism as the cause of
tetany

The Calcium Requirement

(a) The effect of withholding calcium
from the ration

(b) The reason cows need an ample
supply of calcium

(0) Lime essential to reproduction and
vitality

(d) Lime in ration increases feeding

. gains

Experimental Work

1.
2.

Object of Experiment
Plan of Experiment

Page
a-b

11

13
15
1.
18

19

21

23
29
29
3O
33
33

Page

(a Choice of animal 35
(b Care, shelter and feeding 35
3. Collection of Experimental Data 37
(a: Weighing 37
(b Measurements 37
(c) necord of feed 38
(d) hecord of growth 38
(e) Health observations 38
(f; Photographs 38
(g Metabolism 38
(h) Analysis 38
(1) Alkaline reserve of blood- 39
4. Experimental Data 40
(a) Observations of growth and health 40
5. Discussion of Experimental Data 42
(a) The effect of a ration deficient in
calcium on body weight 42
(b) The effect on measurements of a ration
deficient in calcium 44
(c) The effect of exercise on alkaline.
reserve after confinement 44

(d) Effect of a ration low in calcium on
calves as compared to those on a

normal diet ' 46

(e) Effect of a ration low in calcium on M

the body temperature . 46

(f) Evidences of tetany and rickets 46

6. Discussion of Results 48

7. Conclusion 50
Biblicgraphy 51

Appendix 59

INTRODUCTION

Instinct and appetite have long been the guiding
factors in the nutrition of dairy cattle, but due to the
development of the dairy cow to her present high state of
efficiency these factors can no longer guide us. Dairy
cattle are new fed a ration high in concentrates, which
are very low in calcium, while the cow in her early state
pastured and lived primarily on roughage, the chief source
of this element.

Calcium and phosphorus are the chief constituents
of the animal body; they are,also, quite as important as
plant foods and in the latter relation demand very promi-
nent consideration as elements of soil fertility. A

.Many of our soils are benefited by liming andlnost
of them are improved by applications of phosphate fertili-
sers. As the stores of these elements in the soil beccme
depleted they come to be limiting factors in the growth of
plants. Not only is the yield decreased but the calcium
and the phosphorus content of the orcp grown on soils defic-
ient in these elements is decreased by the poverty of the

soil. Further, when these crops are used as food for

animals, their low calcium and phosphorus contents become,
in certain cases, limiting factors not only in.production
of bone, muscle, eggs and milk, but also in the maintenance
of normal conditions in other fundamental physiological
processes.

Eckles, while at the Missouri Experiment Station,
carried on an experiment with.two Jersey heifers, one on a
low calcium ration, the other on a high calcium ration. The
heifer on the low calcium ration gained in weight and grew
Just as fast as the one on the high calcium.rationt However,
at the end of thirteenumonths on the experiment the heifer
on the low oalcium.ration showed symptoms of an abnormal con-
dition. The first indication was a stiffness in the Joints
and abnormal gait in walking, which gradually became worse.
This ration was derived almost entirely from the corn.plant
and it has been definitely shown that the corn plant does
not form a complete ration even though it is low in calcium.

These results do not bring out the exact effect of
a ration low in calcium on a dairy heifer because Eckles had
‘more than one factor entering into the results. This lead
to the selection of the problem, namely, the effect of a
ration low in calcium, but otherwise adequate, on the growth

and health of dairy heifers.

GENERAL DISCUSSION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Growth

Growth is probably the most important factor that
may be influenced by . ration low in calcium. The major
purpose of this problem was to determine the effect of a
ration low in calcium on the growth of dairy heifers, be-
cause, after all, what does it matter if an element is lack-
ing in the ration if its deficiency has no bearing on the
grOWth.

We know that people grow, animals grow,but why do
we grow? What causes us to grow? What is the nature of the
substance, if it is a substance, that causes us to grow? We
know that people and animals grow but*we very seldom stOp to
think in terms of why, the nature and cause of it. How is
growth defined? “model (1) defines it as a resultant of an
inherent growth impulse - an internal factor and a suitable
environment. Armsby (2) defines growth as an increase of the
structural elements of the body - chieffiy by cell multiplica-
tion resulting in a gain in size andnweight. Huxley (3) says
growth is an increase in volume or siee. Eokles (4) says
growth is usually understood as an indicatice of that series
of physiological changes by which an individual of any species
develops from the fertilized egg to maturity. The fertiliza-
tion sets free the growing impulse.

Growth in.the language of a chemist is exempli-
fied in the contention that growth appears to be, "the
expression of autocatalytio chemical reaction", and par-
ticular cycles of growth of an organism are accordingly
shown to obey a precise mathematical formula.

We have defined growth to the best of our know-
ledge. Now we will try to see what is the cause of growth.

There are a number of theories of growth but none
of them seem to fit the case. It has been alleged that
growth is stopped because an animal can digest only a lim-
ited quantity of food, and that the adult (stage) size is
that stage of equilibrium.between the amount of food digest-
ed and the amount used. Experiments however condemn this
theory. (Aron (5) says the force which induces growth, re-
sides in the skeleton (growth tendency). It is more notice-
able in the skeleton than any other part of the body because
the skeleton of a fasting animal grows at the expense of
the rest of the body.

Growth.may be divided into two main factors ~ in-
ternal and external. The internal factors are inheritance,
internal secretions and hormones. The external factors
are those controlled to some extent by man, as nutrition,

heat, light, age, period of gestation, period of lactation

and early breeding. Going back to the internal factors

we have first inheritance. This limits the capacity for
growth. This can not be controlled after fertilization

of the egg. It sets the limit of growth. The internal

secretions produced by the thyroid gland, pineal gland,

etc. all influence growth; if removed stunted growth is

the result .

Hormones also influence growth. .Killicott (6)
thinks that the growth of each gland or tissue depends on
a specific hormone - a growth regulator - by inhibition
of acceleration. .

The external factors can only give free scope to
the inherent tendency to grow. In nutrition in order to
give the growth impulse free sway the animal must have car-
bohydrates, adequate protein, mineral salts, vitamines and
water. Aron found that an animal could grow for some time
without calcium and phosphorus.

Growth is a very important problem because we are
always endeavoring to get maximum growth, and in order to
do this we must understand the factors entering into it.
The production of plants and animals alike are based upon

growth.

It may be well to take up the nature of growth,
that is, follow its course from beginning to end. .Minot
(7) says the decline in growth power is rapid at first
and gradually slows up until growth stops entirely. ‘The
size of the germ of the mammal at the start is from .8
to .3 milligrams. In the human species, the germ at the
end of the first month has increased one million percent.
According to Jackson (8) the increase in size of the human
fetus at end of the first month is ten thousand times,
second month, seven hundred times, third month, eleven
times, fourth month, forty-five hundreths times. This
shows very clearly the rapid decline in rate of growth.

According to Minot (7) rate of growth in rabbits
in fetus from nine to fifteen days increase in weight
seven hundred per cent. Fifteen to twenty days increase
in weight two hundred and twelve per cent. He estimates
that ninety-eight per cent of the power of growth has been
lost at birth or hatching in the case of rabbits and chicks,
which is equally true of man. In the case of guinea pigs
a lessening of growth is shown for several days after
birth, due to physiolOgical shock suffered when born. They

recover in three or four days and have capacity to grow

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five per cent per day. At seventeen days only able to
gain four per cent and at the end of twenty—four days
less than two per cent. At forty-five days a little over
one per cent. The average weight of a colt at birth is
one hundred and twelve pounds, the average daily increase
the first three months is two and two tenths pounds per
day. From three to six months one and three tenths per
day. From six months to three years seven tenths pound
per day. Horses grow until six years of age. A calf at
birth weighs seventy-seven pounds, average daily gain first
two years one and five tenths pounds. . f
Prieddenthal (9) has develoPed the following figures
to show the per cent of increase of the foetus in human

beings up to birth.

 

Age in Days Per centhncrease Per Day

8 90,000

17 307

20 16

26 6

35 7.5

100 3.0

196 1.1

280 0.5

Minot (7) made the following analyses of the milk
of different species to show the relationship to the rate

of growth.

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Species Days needed to Pprts perploo parts mother's milk
double geight Proteid Ash ‘Ca Ph acid

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(man 180 1.6 .2 .0328 .0473
Horse 60 2.0 .4 .124 .131
Cow 47 3.5 .7 .16 .197
Goat 19 4.3 .8 .21 .322
Pig 18 5.9 '- - ‘ -
Sheep 10 6.5 .9 .272 .412
Cat 9.5 7.0 1.0 - -*
Dog 8 7.3 1.3 .453 .493
Rabbit 7 10.4 2.4 .8914 .9967

This is an example of correlation and not causation
because if’we feed cosh milk or sheeph milk to an infant it
grows at the human rate and not at the rate of the calf or
lamb.

According to Minot (7) protOplasm is the physical
basis of life but an undue increase in protOplasm in prOpor-
tion to the growth of nucleus seems to cause an alteration
in the condition of the living cell; which causes old age.
Rapidity of growth depends on the relation of protoplasm.to
nucleus. The larger the nucleus up to a certain point the
more rapid is growth. In the cell of the salamander when
muscle development begins until adult life there is a seven
fold increase of protoplasm over nuclei. Fertilisation of
the ovum is followed by an enormous synthesis of nuclear
matter, and each nucleus is the same size as the parent

nucleus. Loeb concludes from this that the nucleus itself

or one of its constituents acts as a cataliser in the
synthesis of nucleus in the fertilized ovum.

According to Lee (10) growth is brought about
by three main processes. (1) Cell multiplication,which
is the important factor from time of fertilization until
birth, because after birth very little cell multiplication
takes place. (2) Cell enlargement, which is the impor-
tant factor after birth until maturity. (3) Disposition
of intercellular matter, which also is one of the factors
considered after birth. The first two are the most impor-
tant.

There are three main types of growth. Different
tissues have unlike power of growth in the sense of cell
multiplication, as

(1) Testes multiply their cells throughout life
but their function is delayed at first followed by accel-
erated growth.

(2) muscles and nervous system show growth or de-
velopment only in the embryonic stage.

(3) Brain shows very rapid growth followed by
very slow growth while others such as heart, kidneys, etc.,

show even growth.

 

1‘1 . l.

Rubner (ll) formulated two general laws of growth.

(1) The law of constant energy consumption. To form
one killigram of animal weight requires 4808 calories of
food while for man.six times as much is needed.

(2) Law of constant growth quotient. In mammals ex-
cept man the same fractional part of the entire food energy
is utilized for growth. Growth quotient is 34 per cent in
mammals, that is out of every 1000 calories used for food
340 are used for growth. In man the growth quotient is 5
per cent.

According to Rover (12) cell division is regulated by
the proportion of chromatin material to cytoplasm. Growth
stops when the ratio of chromatin to cytoplasm reaches a cer~
tain point.

Relation of Minerals to Growth. The old assumption was
that domestic animals secured sufficient mineral matter from
any ordinary rations. This is true only to a certain extent
depending entirely on the kind of roughage included in the
ration. We are endeavoring always to secure maximum growth
with dairy heifers. This makes it very important that we
consider all the things necessary for the free exercise of

the growth impulse.

At present as a result of extensive investigations
of Forbes, Hart and McCollum, and others, the tendency is
to raise the question of possible deficiencies in mineral
matter in the rations of all farm animals. The work pre-
sented in this thesis was conducted for the purpose of ob-
serving the effects of a ration deficient in lime on the
growth and health. of the dairy heifer.

The functions of'mineral elements in animals nutri-
tion have not kept pace‘with the advancing knowledge along
other lines of nutrition.

There are a number of reasons for this: first,
animals need comparatively little of mineral nutrients in
their food; second, the animal body serves as a vast supply
of these nutrients in times of.need, so that a ration de-
ficient in mineral nutrients is not noticed fer considerable
time or may never be noticed as time goes on and the animals
are changed from one kind of’feed to another.

Forbes (13) of the Ohio Experiment Station and Ehrt
(14) and Moconnm of the Wisconsin Station have found that
milch cows invariably show a negative calcium balance when
producing heavily. But on the other hand Meigs (15) of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture found that milch cows store

large amounts of these materials during a dry period or

LU

period of rest if properly fed. Then again redigestion and
reassimilation of mineral matter from certain waste products
which have been excreted into the intestine may help to stave
off the critical point. These facts all go together to make
up the question of the possible deficiency of minerals that
may not be noticed. It may be possible to obtain more growth
and possibly larger and more efficient production with dairy
cows with the proper use of minerals.

It is estimated that about eighty-five per cent of the
mineral matter of bone or at least three-fourths of the entire
ash of the body consists of calcium phosphate. Probably over
ninety-nine per cent of the calcium in the body belongs to
the bones, the remainder occurring as an essential constituent
of the soft tissues or body fluids. According to Lusk (16)
about seventy-one per cent of the magnesium in the body is in
the bones. The muscles contain considerably more magnesium
than calcium, and the blood contains more calcium than magnesium.
That calcium salts are necessary to the coagulation of the
blood has long been known and frequently cited as an example
of the great importance of calcium salts to animal economy.
Equally striking is the function of these salts in regulating

the action of the heart muscle.

11

Rickets

According to the results of many investigators,
rickets has been found to be due to a deficiency of calcium
in the ration, which suggested the possibility that dairy
heifers fed a diet extremely low in calcium may deveIOp this
disease.

Rickets has been known to writers for years but was
confused with skeletal deformities. Glisson (17) in 1650
gave the first accurate definition and description of the
disease. Rickets is defined by Park (18) as a disturbance
in the metabolism of the growing organisms of such a nature
that the salt equilibrium, in particular as regards the calf
cium and phosphorus, in the circulating fluids is disturbed,
and lime salts no longer deposit in the bones. Lime salts
may not deposit because the ionized calcium in the blood is
low, or because the ionixsd phosphate is low or because both
are low.

Rickets occurs chiefly in Europe and North America.
It is a disease found in cities. and is most prevalent in
those nations whose wealth and industrial development have
brought about most fully the substitution of artificial con-
ditions of living in place of the simple conditions which

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12

nature intended. The disease has never been found in
peOple who tend to live under natural conditions. It occurs
rarely in the tropics and is very rare in the artic regions.

Jost and Kock (19) state that rickets is a common
disease among pigs, puppies, lambs, and kids, but less com-
mon among colts, calves and rabbits. lt manifests itself
with comparative.frequency among carnavorous animals and also
among monkeys in captivity. The striking facts concerning
the occurrence of rickets among animals are as follows: The
disease appears only among whose animals which man has been
able to make captives and upon which he has been able to im-
pose artifical conditions of environment and diet. The dis-
ease never develops among animals living apart from man and
probably can not develop in animals or in man in'a wild state.
Hansemann (20) points out that the cat, in contrast with the
dog, never develoPs rickets. He gives as his reason the fact
that the cat, though tamed can never be made to relinquish
the habits natural to its species. Rickets develop frequent-
ly in the monkey when he is in the zoological garden‘but
never when he is at liberty.

According to Park (18) rickets is so common in the
large cities of America and Europe that few children among

the poorer classes are untouched by it.

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There are several theories concerning the cause of
rickets. Gilsscn believed that rickets was the result of
over eating. Heitzmann proposed that the disease was caus-
ed by an acidosis which brought about a decalcification of
the bones. The theory that rickets is due to defective diets
is gaining ground. It is maintained that rickets is due to
lack of calcium salts in the diet, or a lack of prOper utili-
zation of calcium. There is also a theory that lack of
exercise or sunlight causes rickets.

TheBelation of Exercisp and Sunlight to Ricketa.

The idea that the primary cause of rickets lies in the in-
ability of the animal to gratify a natural impulse for ex-
ercise is difficult to accept because some years ago Howland
and Park (21) and later Baldwin confined puppies in small
cages for two or three months but could not obtain rickets
in that way. Mellanby (22) also showed clearly that confin-
ed puppies will not develop rickets provided the diet is
preperly constituted.

Hess and Unger (23) were able to protect rats from
rickets by sunlight, on a diet deficient in phosphate.

The seasonal variation shows that it is largely cli-
matic and is due almost entirely to a lack of sunlight.

This is shown by the pathological studies of Schmorl (24).

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These studies showed that rickets may begin at any time
but the highest percentage of early manifestations of the
disease is between Hovember and say. The percentage of
cases with signs of healing increased as the summer pro:
greased and reached its highest point in the autumn only
to fall again as the winter months came.

There is no doubt that rickets is not only hygenic
but also dietetic disorder. This is clearly shown because
rats fed an ideal diet do not develop rickets when kept in
the dark. But on the other hand a poor diet and lack of
sunlight is nearly sure to develop rickets. The amount of
sunlight required to prevent or cure rickets depends entire-
ly on the diet, rate of’growth and the pigment of the skin.
More sunlight is required for protection when the diet is
poor, also when the rate of growth is rapid.

In June 1919 Huldschinsky (25) reported that the
ultra violet ray exerted a curative action in rickets. He
treated four children who had advanced rickets with the
mercury vapor quarts lamp and found that at the end of four
weeks it was possible to demonstrate with the X ray deposits
of limestone at ends of the long bones of the extremities.

After two months the healing seemed almost complete.

15

The discovery by Huldschinsky of the curative
action of light in.human rickets has been corroborated
by Putzig. Korger, Hess and Unger, and by Huldschinsky
himself in numerous additional experiments. Powers,

Perk, and Shipley, cooperating with McCollum and Simmonds
(26) report that rats fed a diet capable of producing
rickets at ordinary room light were prevented from showing
any signs of the disease by exposure to sunlight.

It seems from the review of literature that sunlight
has the same effect in the prevention of'rickets as does
vitamine ”D”. of course if the calcium intake is too low
vitamine "D" can only aid in the retention of the calcium
taken in and will not prevent rickets alone. However, it
has not been proved whether a liberal supply of vitamins
”D" With a very low calcium supply will prevent the devel-
opment of rickets.

Relationship of Cod Liver Oil to Rickets. Cod liver
oil has been used from time immemorial as a folk-remedy on
the coasts of England, Holland and France. The direct proof
of its curative action, however, was first obtained by
McCcllum and Simmonds (27). These investigators discovered
that cod liver oil caused deposition of lime salts to form
in the cartilage of the rachitic rat. Rowland and Park (28)

proved by means of the X Ray that the administration of cod

16

liver oil to rachitic children.was followed by the deposition
of lime salt in the cartilage and bone after a period of from
15 to 21 days.

Relation of Vitamine "D" to Calcium Retention.
McCcllum has Just recently suggested that we call this factor
in cod liver oil, vitamins ”D". Holt, Courtney and Tales (29)
kept a child on a diet containing vegetable fats, which was
practically free from fat soluble "A". The child stOpped
growing, but remained in good general condition, which indi-
cates that the anti-rachitic factor may be separated from fat
soluble ”A”. A

In January 1922 McCollum, Simmond ( 26) and Shipley
and Park (30) made the following statements. "The results of
this series of experiments was so consistent and decisive that
we can deduce no other conclusion than that cod liver oil con-
tains an abundance of some substance which is present in
butterfat in but very slight amounts, and which exerts a di-
rect influence on the bone deveIOpment, and enables animals
to deve10p with an inadequate supply of lime much better than
they could otherwise do. This substance is apparently distinct
from Fat Soluble "A" which is essential for growth and which
is associated definitely with the prevention of ophthalmia.”

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I .

 

In June 1922 McCollum, Simmonds, Becker and Shipley
(31) succeeded in obtaining striking evidence of the exis-
tence of a substance in cod liver oil distinct from butter
fat which causes the deposition of lime salts in the bones
of rats rendered rachitic by the diet. In this experiment
fat soluble "A” in cod liver oil was destroyed first. This
was proved by the fact that when it was fed to rats it
failed to cure xeropthalmia but when fed to rats rendered
rachitic by means of the diet it caused lime salts to be de-
posited in the bones. It was very difficult to escape draw-
ing the conclusion that the factor in cod liver oil causing
the deposition of lime salts is distinct from fat soluble
"a”. McCollum concluded that there was a fourth vitamins
and suggested that we call it Vitamins "D".

Hart, Steenbooh and Hobart (32) obtained a negative
calcium balance when cabbage was fed to goats and orange
Juice also failed to alter calcium metabolism which led them
to conclude that the anti-scorbatic factor was not instru-
mental in producing calcium assimilation. But when fresh
green cats were compared with dry oat straw the green oat
straw increased the amount of calcium assimilated. Like re-
sults were obtained with cat hay, dried out of direct sun-
light but in a fairly well lighted attic.

18

They concluded that the same factor effecting cal-
cium assimilation was in green oats and grasses as is
found in cod liver soil. It is evident that some green
plants contain the anti-rachitic factor but it is not a
constituent of all green plants.

The whole thing can be summed up to the fact that
there are three factors concerned in the utilization and'
assimilation of calcium and phosphorus in the ration. (1)
an ample supply of calcium, (2) an ample supply of phos-
phorus. (3) the presence of vitamins "D" which aids in
their assimilation. Without the latter there is only
limited use made of the calcium and phosphorus in the

rat ions

Tetgny

Tetany is closely connected with rickets in that
both are due to a deficiency of calcium. Rickets is due
to lack of calcium in the bones while in tetany the muscles
and nerves suffer due to a deficiency of’this element. This
also suggested the possibility of tetany deve10ping in
heifers fed on a diet very low in calcium.

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fed: at eJeXci7 dntw nedosuuc-

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.mnieico u: uni

19

Low Calcium in Tissues the Cause of Tetany;_ That
tetany is caused by a low calcium content of the tissues
seems to be the most widely accepted theory. Sabbatani
(33) first suggested that the decrease in content of cal-
cium in the brain caused the irritability of the nervous
tissues, since he had observed that when calcium chloride
was applied to the cortical surface the irritability was
immediately reduced and with antagonistic reagents such as
sodium citrate the reverse was true. Following the above
suggestion Quest found that the calcium content of the
brains of patients dying from tetany was greatly diminish-
ed when compared to the normal brain of the same age.

McCollum and Voegtlin (34) were able to stOp/éym-
toms of tetany by giving 100 c.c. of 4.3 per cent of cal-
cium lactate by the stomach pump. Their results show that
calcium administration in tetany is very similar no matter
whether given intravenously, subcucaneously or by stomach

tube.
There are few writers that have carried on experi-

ments and state that tetany is not due to a deficiency of
calcium but is due to some other factor as a poison in the
blood but the balance of evidence and most accepted theory

is that it is due to lack of calcium in the blood and tissues.

20

Ion Antagonism as the Cause of Tetany. There has
been advanced a theory that tetany is due to an irritant
effect of certain ions on the body tissue. Loeb (35) ex-
perimenting with frogs found that certain ions coming in
contact with the nerves, a tetanus condition resulted
while other ions if present tend to counteract the irri-
tative effect. Tetany seems to be a condition in.which
the normal balance between calcium and magnesium on one
side and potassium and sodium on the other is disturbed
so that when the ratio of sodium and potassium to calcium
and magnesium becomes large enough the potassium and sod-
ium set up irritability and the inJection of calcium will
resbre this normal condition.

The two theories seem to have the same cause.
If the calcium in the tissues becomes low than the potas-
sium and sodium ions set up irritability causing tetany;
however, as long as the calcium in the tissues is at the

proper level tetany does not result.

21

The Calcium Requirement

The body is made up of a number of different elements.
According to Sherman (36),who takes his figures from various
writers, the average elementary composition of the human

body may be presumed to be approximately as follows:

Oxygen about 65. per cent
Carbon " 18. "
Hydrogen " 10. ”
Nitrogen " 3. "
Calcium. ” 2. "
Phosphorus l. "
Potassium" .35 "
Sulphur I e 25 fl
Sodium ' .13 "
Chlorine " .15 "
Magnesium" .05 "
Iron " .004 "
Iodine (Very
Fluorine (minute
Silvion (quantities

Also, traces of some other elements such as manganese
and aluminum may perhaps be normal constituents of the body,
and even arsenic has been discussed as a possible essential
element.

All these substances in the body are continually
undergoing disintegration and renewal. Therefore, it follows
that there must be a constant metabolism or exchange of

every element which enters into body tructure. Kore or less

22

of each element must be metabolized and eliminated each
day; and if equilibrium is to be maintained an equal
amount must be supplied.

The simple proteins furnish only five of the fif-
teen chemical elements which are known to be essential to
human nutrition, while carbohydrates and fats are composed
of but three of these five. Ten of the fifteen essential
elements, or seven of the twelve which are essential in
amounts sufficiently large to be measurable by present
methods, must therefore be furnished by some ingredients
taken in other than simple proteins, carbohydrates and fats.

It can easily be seen that the calcium is the most
important of the mineral salts or inorganic elements. The
phosphorus is next in importance because they are very
closely associated to a large extent in calcium phosphate.

The elements concerned in "mineral metabolism" may
exist in the body and take part in its function in at least
three different ways.

(1) As bone constituents, giving rigidity and rela-
tive permanence to the skeletal tissues. This is the place
that most of the calciwm is found.

(2) As essential elenents of the organic compounds
which are the chief solid constituents of the soft tissues

such as muscles, blood cells, etc.

23

(s) As soluble salts held in solution in the fluids
of the body, giving these fluids their characteristic in-
fluence upon the elasticity and irritability of muscle and
nerve, supplying the material for the acidity or alkalinity
of the digestive juices and other secretions, and yet main-
taining the neutrality or slight alkalescence of the inter-
nal fluids as well as their osmotic pressure or solvent
power.

The Effect of Withholding Calcium from the nation.
is has been pointed out a larger prOportion of the body is
composed of calcium than of any other inorganic element.

In studying the effects of’insufficient calcium,
Voit (37) kept a pigeon for a year on calcium-poor food
without observing any effects attributable to the diet un-
til the bird was killed and disected, when it appeared that,
although the bones concerned in locomotion were still sound,
there was a marked wasting of the calcium salts from other
bones such as skull and sternum, which in places was per-
forated.

Hart, McCollum and numphrey (38) fed an 1150 pound
cow producing about 30 pounds of’milk daily a liberal ration
except that it lacked lime. It was found that there want

into the milk daily about 20 grams of lime and into the
solid excrement and urine, principally the former,about

30 grams, the latter loss being due to normal changes
(metabolism) taking place in the body. In all about 50
grams of lime disappeared daily from the body of this

cow, only one half of which could have been furnished by
the lime in the food. During the trial which lasted 110
days this cow maintained a good flow of“milk and.continued
to put the normal amount of lime into it. It was calcu-
lated that during the trial she gave off in milk and ex-
crement 5.5 pounds more lime than she received in her food.
It was estimated that her skeleton contained about 24.8
pounds of lime at the start and this being true this cow
gave up in 110 days about 25 per cent of all the lime in
her skeleton.

Thus an animal may continue to lose calcium from
the bones going to the blood and tissues without any defi-
nite symptoms developing for considerable period and then
the time is not definitely known.

The injurious effect of’an insufficient lime intake

is more noticeable in fast growing animals then with full

25

grown animals. Nelson and Williams (39) have recently
found the calcium output of four healthy men on normal)
unrestricted diet to range from .68 to 1.02 grams of
calcium per day. here as in the case of protein the

rate of metabolism to be expected in a normal man on un-
restricted diet and well fed, according to American
standards, runs from 50 to 100 per cent above the amount
which would probably suffice to meet the actual require-
ment. 0n sixty-three experiments with ten subjects, (six
men and four women), showed calcium outputs ranging from
.27 to .78 and averaging .45 gram calcium per man per day.
These were all based on uniform weight of 70 killigrams
per person.

Kellener recommends feeding one half ounce of com-
mon chalk daily to calves on milk based on the studies
with pigs by Hart, MoCollum and fuller of the Wisconsin
Station. It is reasonable to recommend one half ounce of
ground rock phosphate given daily to calves in place of
chalk or ground bone.

Luck (40) also emphasizes the importance of a.diet
rich in calcium for pregnant women, especially during the
last ten weeks of pregnancy when the fetus is storing

calcium at a rapid rate.

26

Forbes and Beagle (41) in studying the mineral
metabolism of the milch cow found a heavy less of body
calcium, notwithstanding the fact that the food was be-
lieved to supply liberal amounts of all essential ele-
ments. According to Forbes it may be necessary to con-
tinue high calcium feeding for some time after the ces-
sation of lactation, in order to replace the calcium
lost during heavy lactation and.during gestation.

The Influengekpf Function on Calcium geguirement
of Animals. Steenbock and Hart (42) state that the
level of lime intake necessary for maintenance is depen-
dent upon the functional activity of the various organs
of the body. A daily intake of about .3 grams of CaO per
100 pounds body weight covered the metabolism losses of a
mature barren pig. From .4 to .5 grams of CaO per 100
pounds body weight covered the loss of a mature dry goat.
These figures are not absolute and general, but vary with
the character of the ration.

The mamary gland during its actrity constitutes a
severe drain upon the skeletal lime supply during periods
of insufficient lime assimilation and during periods of

27

insufficient phosphorus assimilation, it indirectly
causes a waste of lime from the skeleton. ,The above
authors state that an allowance of one gram of lime in
the ration per pound of milk produced by a cow should
theoretically be ample. This is in addition to the main-
tenance requirement. But twice this amount is better
and safer.

The above author concluded that the walls of the
intestine with normal secretion may cause the loss of a
sufficient amount of lime to lower its coefficient of
digestibility during periods of sufficient lime ingestion.
Also that under normal conditions with a low lime inges-
tion the usual intestinal losses may in themselves be the
cause of a.negative lime balance. They state also that
liberal assimilation of nitrogen does not imply an assim-
ilation of lime even when the animars supply of lime is
considerably depleted. These are separate and distinct
functions of the elementary tract.

Source cf;Minerals for Dairy Heifer. In the case
of cows and other herbivorous animals, dependence for min-
erals rests almost entirely upon the roughage that is used.

The character of the roughage with reference to its content

28

of mineral matter is becoming of increasing importance.
It has been demonstrated very clearly that a cow receiv-
ing a dry roughage low in lime content and supplemented
with grain may abort her calf. This situation has been
demonstrated time and time again with the straws which
are generally low in lime. 0n the other hand, if to such
a ration a certain amount of lime salts are added there is
marked improvement in the character of the offspring but
the offspring produced are not as fine as those produced
when the roughage is a natural one rich in lime, such as
clever or alfalfa hay. Here again is where the soil is
the dependent factor because the plants growing on an acid
soil are low, in fact very low in lime content. The alfal-
fa and clovers are very sensitive to soils low in lime and
will not grow. In this case it is necessary to add lime
to the soil and also to the ration of cows until the lime
content of the soil is raised.

The grains form a large source of phosphorus for
animals. They are sufficiently high in this element to
supply an adequate amount, but they are exceedingly low in

calcimm.

2a

Th9 h'eason Cows Need An Apple Supply_cf Calcium,

As has been pointed out lime is the main.constituent of
bone and for this reason it is necessary to keep up the
strength of the bones. Cows fed on rations high in lime
are not so apt to have broken bones as those fed on rations
lacking in this element.

Lime is a vital constituent of milk, and heavy
milk production brings about a very heavy drain on the lime
of the body of the cow. According to Slipher (43) the an-
nual milk production of the average milch cow (4,000 pounds)
contains as much calcium as is found in 150 bushels of
wheat or 300 bushels of corn. This amount is equivalent
to a lime exhaustion represented by twelve acres of“wheat
or corn.v This heavy depletion of lime asset of the soil
makes it doubly important that lime be added to the soil
and to the ration of a heavy producing cow.

Lime Eseential towheproduction.and.Vitaligz;_
Experiments carried on at the “isconsin Experiment Station
have shown that cows fed on rations low in lime give birth
to dead offspring and often inmature offspring. Feeds such
as alfalfa which carry a good prOportion of calcium have

been found to be very efficient roughage for reproducing cows.

30

Normal offspring of’good weight and vigor are obtained
from such hays. A very good example of a region having
soil well supplied with lime is to note that the blue
grass region of Kentucky is noted for its nutritious grass
and remarkable horses. This probably due to the fact that
the soil of Kentucky is very rich in lime and hence the
' grasses are higher in lime content.

Lime in Rations Increases Feeding_Gains. At the
North Carolina Experiment 5tation lime used in mineral
mixtures assisted in increasing in the feeding gains of
hogs. Hogs which were fed with mineral supplements gained
.66 pounds per day as against .46 pounds when the mixture
was omitted from a ration otherwise identical. This large
or gain was made at lower cost for feed. If this can be
brought about in hogs why would it not be very important
in obtaining maximum growth of’dairy heifers? We want our
dairy heifers large and strong in as short a time as
possible, that is providing the cost of such operations
is not in excess of long time growth of feeding on a lower

plane.

31

Growth is a subject that is not very well under-
stood because it is not known just what causes it. But
it is known that the growth impulse lies for the most
part in the skeleton of the animal. It is also an estab-
lished fact that the rate of growth at the time of ferti-
lization of the egg is very rapid and this rate declines
very rapidly until finally it stops entirely.

Minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, play
an important part in animal nutrition because they are
the main constituents of the bones and they also add in
the maintenance of a slight alkaline condition of the body
and blood. In the maintenance of a slight alkaline condi-
tion each day a certain amount of these minerals are
metabolized and excreted from the body. If the amount of
calcium and phosphorus necessary in the body and necessary
to growth of bone is to be maintained an equal and large
enough amount of these minerals must be supplied in the
feed.

The majority of investigators have found that
rickets is a disease that is due to a deficiency of the
elements calcium and phosphorus in the diet. This means

that enough calcium or phosphorus has not been supplied

52

to keep the body in equilibriwm; that is the amount of
these minerals metabolized and excreted was in excess of
the amount supplied in the feed. It has also been devel-
oped that there is a factor termed vitamins "D" that aids
the animal in the retention of calcium. If this factor
is supplied, the animal's efficiency in the use of cal-
cium is much increased.

Tetany is a disease that investigators have
found to be due also to a deficiency of calcium in the
ration. In the case of tetany the muscles and nerves
suffer due to a deficiency of this element. The propor-
tion of potassium to the calcium in the muscles and nerves
becomes much larger and the potassium sets up irritabil-
ity causing tetany.

The animal body has been found to contain about
two per cent of calcium which means that the calcium re-
quirement is relatively high. It is computed that it is
necessary to supply twenty-one grams of Ca0 and eighteen
grams of 2205 per day to the growing calf during the

first year.

33

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Object of ngeriment

The importance of mineral elements in the nutri-
tion of farm animals has not until within the last seven
or eight years received the attention which it deserves.
It is just within the last three or four years that any
special attention has been called to the possibility of a
deficiency of calcium and phosphorus in the ration of
dairy cows. It has long been a recognised fact that
cattle should receive an abundance of salt but no atten-
tion has been placed on the other mineral elements. Per-
haps it has not been necessary to pay any attention to
these elements until recently because the soil of America
is fairly new in point of years as compared with that of
European countries and the supply of lime in the soil was
large enough to give the crops grown a comparatively high
content of lime. But the lands now are becoming depleted
in lime and this makes the crops grown very low in calcium
and when these crops are fed to livestock they become de-
termining factors in growth, reproduction and production.

It is the object of this experiment to determine

the exact effect of a ration low in lime, but otherwise

 

entirely adequate, on growth and health of dairy heifers.
In experiments conducted by Eckles on the effect of a
ration low in calcium the ration was derived almost en-
tirely from the corn plant. It has been shown time and
time again that the corn plant does not make a ration en-
tirely adequate fOr normal growth. In this experiment we
have endeavored to eliminate all the possible chances of
error and to make the ration complete in every respect ex-
cept that it is very low in calcium.

A great deal of stress is being laid on the amount
of calcium that animals should receive,and it is the ob-
ject of this experiment to determine whether this, or other
factors closely connected with calcium are the determining
ones.

Plan of Experiment

Two calves, when old enough to eat grain, were
fed a ration made up of the following grains which are low
in calcium. Yellow corn was used to furnish energy and
vitamins ”B"; rice to furnish energy alone; butterfat to

furnish Vitamins ”A"; straw treated with HCl to furnish

35

roughage; peanuts to furnish protein and vitamins "B".
Minerals minus calcium.and distilled water were also
fed.

Each calf was run in metabolism crate for ten
days before feeding potatoes and for ten days while re-
ceiving potatoes.

The alkaline reserve was determined from time
to time.

The effect on alkaline reserve of exercise af-
ter confinement in metabolism crate was determined.

Choice of Animal. Two grade Holstein heifers
were used in this experiment.

Cars, Shelter and Feeding. The animals were fed
and handled by a competent feeder under the supervision
of the writer. They were kept in individual stalls in a
small experimental barn and allowed to exercise in a lot
which was free from edible material. Shavings were used
for bedding.

During the metabolism period the feed was all
weighed on balances graduated in grams. During these
periods the writer weighed and fed all feed. During the
rest of the time milk scales were used graduated to tenths
of pounds. The minerals used were always weighed on the

gram balances.

36

The following was the mixture used: peanuts,
rice and corn. The proportions of each were varied as
time went on and rate increased. The butterfat was al-
ways kept at five per cent of the ration. Straw treat-
ed with HCl was used as a roughage until potatoes were
fed. .flinerals in the form of’sodium phosphate, sodium
carbonate and magnesium phosphate were fed at different
intervals as indicated in the tables showing the amount
of feed consumed.

The butterfat was added to make the ration ade-
quate in vitamins "A". The yellow corn and peanuts fur-
nished an adequate amount of vitamins ”3", and as vitam-
ins "C" is not absolutely necessary to normal growth no
attention has been paid to the amount of it in the ration.

In experiments carried on by Daniels and Laughlin
(44) in feeding peanuts they found that in feeding rats
the peanut needs only to have added suitable inorganic
elements and fat soluble food accessory to make it a com-
plete food. The proteins of the peanut furnish the essen-
tial amino acids in sufficient amounts for normal growth
and reproduction when fifteen to eighteen per cent protein
levels are fed. Peanuts were found to be lacking especial-

ly in calcium, potassium, magnesium and sulphur.

37

Corn and rice were added to the ration to fur-
nish energy. One hundred pounds of corn furnishes 88.88
therms and rice furnishes 77.33 per hundred pounds.

These calves were fed twice daily. Distilled
water was used, no tap water being given after the first

month of the experiment.

Collection of Experimental Data

Weighing. Each animal was weighed three days in
succession at the first weight period of each month and
once at intervals of ten days thereafter. The average
of the three days weighings was used as a true weight of
the animal. The weights were taken early in the morning
before feeding or watering.

Measurements. The following measurements were
taken the first of'each month: height at rump and highest
point of“withsrs; circumference of chest just behind the
shoulders; also, depth of chest; greatest circumference
taken at largest point of middle; width at hoofs and
thurls; length of rump and length from point of shoulder
to hook point.

38

Record of feed. Feed consumed was recorded
each day on a sheet provided for that purpose.

Record of Growth: The weights and measure-
ments were taken at the intervals mentioned above.

Health Observations: The animals were observ-
ed every day by the feeder and.writer. The body tem-
peratures were taken each day as a guide in recording
the health of the animal.

Photographs: Photographs were taken from time
to time at a place especially adapted for that purpose,
having a background divided off into six inch squares.
The background for the later photographs was divided in-
to ten centimeter squares.

Metabolism: The animals were placed in the
metabolism crate, the time being observed, and were re-
moved at the same time ten days later. The animals were
weighed and alkaline reserve taken before they were plac-
ed in the crate. After the animals were placed in the
metabolism crate all intake and outgo were carefully
weighed on balances graduated in grams.

‘égglzgig; A representative sample of the feed

to be received each period was run for calcium and

39

phosphorus. The feces and urine combined were weigh-

ed each day or in some cases two days. This was
thoroughly mixed and a sample taken. The per cent of
moisture was determined each time the feces and urine
were weighed. This gave the amount of dry matter ex-
creted. The same amount of excreted matter of each

day was put in a container so at the end of a ten day
period the composite sample was complete and calcium

and phosphorus determinations were made from this sample.

The modified McCrudden Method for analysis of
calcium was used and the standard American Association
of Chemists flethod was used for phosphorus.

Alkaline heserve of Blood. The alkaline reserve
was taken from time to time and before the calf was plac-
ed in the metabolism crate; also, immediately after re-
moving from crate. The animals were given moderate
amounts of exercise immediately after removing from crate
to determine the effect of exercise on the alkaline re-

891‘79 .

Experimental JJ'atg,

Two calves were placed on this experiment October
18, 1922 and will continue as long as possible to determine
the effect of a low calcium ration on reproduction and pro-
duction in addition to health and growth. These two
calves are designated by numbers 208 and 211. 208 was born
June 26, 1922 and 211, July 14, 1922.

Observations of Growth and Health: Both animals
continued to gain in weight at a normal rate until the
second month of the experiment when they both continued to
gain, but very slowly, as is shown in Table I and II.

The height growth of 208 was under normal at the
start of the experiment and continued that way until the
writing of this thesis. 211 was slightly above normal at
the beginning of the experiment and until the beginning
of the second month when she fell slightly below normal
and continued so.

The depth of chest, circumference of chest and
greatest circumference show practically no change after
the first two months of the experiment. In other words
the long bones which have been growing at the expense of
the rest of the body are the only ones which have continued

to make normal growth. This conforms with.Mendel's theory

41

that the skeleton grows at the expense of the rest of
the body. After two hundred and ten days on the exper-
iment 211 showed stiffness of joints and a very thin
appearance. 208 while not as bad as 211 also showed
similar conditions.

After one hundred and ninety-five days on the
experiment heifer 208 was fed potatoes in the place of
straw for roughage and showed a.marked improvement in
appearance immediately. The hair became glossy and
smooth and the general appexance was much improved. But
in the case of 211, who was fed potatoes at the end of
two hundred and fourteen days, the change was not so
marked. .
m At the end of the experiment heifer 211 appear-
ed to be in quite a healthy condition. They were both
very much below normal in weight and showed a lengthy
condition, that is they did not show normal constitution
nor normal middle, but except for this they were other-

wise normal.

42

DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The Effect of a Ration Deficient in Calcium on

 

Bodz Weight. Both animals in this experiment showed a
marked decline in per cent normal growth as shown by
weight from the beginning of the second month until they
startedto receive potatoes. Cal 208 showed a marked in-
crease at this time, her general condition becoming much
improved. This may be due to the fact that the succu-
lence offered in the form of potatoes increased the apps-
tite thus increasing the amount of feed consumed. The
incfeassd gain, however, was not of long duration, last-
ing four ten day periods when a marked decline was again
shown. In the case of Calf 211 the period of gain follow-
ing the feeding of potatoes was only one ten day period
in length when she continued to decline.

It seems from the observations of both animals
that there are periods at which they showed marked in-
crease in appetite and at these periods the gain in weight
was much greater. These periods seemed to come about at
the same time in the case of both animals. The calcium

deficiency seems to make the animals lose their appetite

43

and hence a falling off in gain in weight or even a

loss in weight. These results do not conform with those
of Aron and Sedauer (45) who state that calcium require-
ment is at least 1.2 per cent of the augmentation of
body weight, but in general the organism is only slight-
ly effected by calcium deprivation. Increase in weight
occurs normally, only at times are digestive and nervous
disturbances evident. The injury rests almost entirely
with the bony tissues. With the calves in this experiment
the increase in weight has not occurred normally but di-
gestivs and nervous disturbances have been known to some
extent. The faces were at all times liquid.

Each animal was run in the metabolism crate two
ten day periods and in all cases showed negative calcium
and positive phosphorus balances. This conforms with
the results of Patterson (46) who conducted an experiment
with rabbits fed on oatmeal and cornmeal, a diet which
led to calcium starvation. The ratio of calcium in the
total ash in the blood remained about the same as in nor-
mal animals. The ratio of calcium to the total minerals

in the bone, however, was not consistent and when the ani-

. imal was placed on a diet poor in calcium there was an

actual loss of it from the body.

£.J

44

The Effect on Measurements of a Ration Deficient

in Calciwm. The height measurements have shown almost

 

normal growth throughout the experiment. But the depth
of chest, circumference of chest, greatest circumference,
width of thurls and hooks, and length of rump have all
fallen below normal. The normal figures for these meas-
urements have not been published as yet. All these
measurements have been taken once a month on all growing
heifers and bulls at the Michigan Agricultural College.
The probable reason for the growth of the long bones is
that it is the tendency of the animal for self preser-
vation and the long bones are more effective for this
than any others.

The Effect of Exercise on Alkaline nessrve After
Confinement. in all cases,sxcept onethe alkaline reserve,
a marked drop after exercise was noted, as in shown in
the table. In one case with calf 208 the alkaline reserve
was higher after exercise than it was before. This is
probably due to the fact that in this case the calf was
given a longer and more strenuous exercise than in any
other cases and the proteins were brought into action and

produced alkaline compounds in the blood, thus neutralizing

45

the acid produced so that the alkaline reserve did not
go down. If this animal had not been exercised so long
she probably would have shown a drop in alkaline reserve.
Effect of a nation.Low in Calgium on Calves

as Compared to Those on a Normal Diet. Calves 213 and
214 were given a normal diet which.consisted of whole
milk, whole corn and oats and alfalfa hay up until two
months of age when the skim milk was substituted for the
whole milk. They received this ration until six months
of age when the skim milk was taken away, silage, alfalfa
hay and a mixture of ground corn, ground oats and cotton
seed meal being fed for the rest of the period. The
milk and alfalfa make this ration relatively high inrdn-
erals. '

Calf 215 was born July 27 and 214, July as, 1922.
They are somewhat younger than calves 208 and 211 used in
this experiment. it will be noticed that they are some-
what smaller at the beginning of the experiment as is shown
in photographs 3 and 4, but at the end of the experiment
are considerable larger throughout. Calves 213 and 214 are
not used as checks but simply to compare a calf receiving

a normal ration with one receiving a ration low in calcium.

46

Effectrof a Bapipn.Low in«0alciumgon 39°,ngl.
Tepperature. The temperatures of the animals were taken
every day throughout the experiment and it was found that
the temperatures remained normal not being influenced by
the ration. The fluctuations in temperature were no more
than those found in a normal calf.

Evidsnpgs of_Tetgny:gnd'§icketg. There were no
evidences of tetany shown by these calves. They at no
time showed any tendency towards convulsion even when
they became excited. From this can be seen that the cal-
cium content of the blood and tissues must have been high
enough to prevent tetany. This calcium supply must have
come from the bone because the feed at no time supplied
enough calcium to equal the requirements as set down by
sxpsrimentors. Ksllner computes the calcium and phos-
phorus retention of the growing calf as 21 grams of CaO
and 19 grams of P205 per day during the first year and
states that the food should contain 40 to 60 grams of
each. Weiske studied the metabolism of calcium phosphate
with two five to six months old calves. One calf retain-

ed about one half of the 12 grams of calcium phosphate

47

added to the ration per day while the other did not re-
tain any of the added calcium phosphate, the difference
in results apparently being due to the greater consump-
tion of the basal ration by the latter calf, the food
furnishing the entire calcium and phosphorus require-
ments. wsisks considered that 16.85 grams of CaO and
21.88 grams of P205 probably represents the full daily
requirements of calves for these elements.

From the review of literature it can easily be
seen that the calcium content of the ration used in this
experiment was very low when compared to the normal re-
quirement.

There were some very slight evidences of rickets.
The animals showed slightly swollen joints and when walk-
ing or running appeared to be slightly stiff in the joints
but these were the only evidences noted that indicated

the possibility of a deficiency of calcium in the bones.

48

Discussion of Results

The results of this experiment indicate that
calcium is not as necessary to the maintenance of nor-
mal height growth and health as has been previously
pointed out. These heifers while not in perfect condi-
tion or exactly normal in every respect are in fair
condition and do not show any indications of coming
down with tetany or rickets. the two diseases due to a
deficiency of calcium.

The poor condition in respect to weight, devel-
opment of middle, constitution, etc. is in all probabil-
ity due to a lack of food consumption rather then the
lack of calcium in the ration. If the animals had con-
sumed more food they probably would have maintained nor-
mal growth in every respect. But on the other hand the
observations and results seem to indicate that the de-
ficiency of calcium in the ration causes the animals
to lose their appetites and hence they are unable to main-
tain normal growth in every respect because they did not

consume enough feed.

49

The feeding of potatoes had no effect on the
amount of calcium and phosphorus excreted. The succu-
lence offered in potatoes, however, increased the
amount of feed consumed and hence an increase in rate
of weight growth for a time.

The effect of moderate exercise on alkaline
reserve was clearly showns Exercise decreased the al-
kaline reserve quite markedly in all except one case.

The reason for this has been pointed out.

50

Conclusions

(1) Calcium is not as necessary for mainte-
nance of'growth and health as has been previously point-
ed out.

(2) The animals maintained practically normal
growth in height throughout the experiment.

(3) The poor condition of the animals in this
experiment is due to a lack of food consumption rather
than a deficiency of calcium in the ration.

(4) The feeding of potatoes has no effect on
the calcium excreted or retained.

(5) .Moderate exercise has a marked effect on
the alkaline reserve of animals after confinement.

(6) A deficiency of calcium in the ration has

no effect on the body temperature.

 

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(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

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52

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53

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Same as reference (10)
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Kember, R. F.
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Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. No. 565.
Hart, E. B. and McCcllum, E. V.
The metabolism of the milch cow.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 287.
meigs, E. B. and Woodward, T. E.
1921 The influence of Ca and Ph in the feed on the
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U. S. D. A. Bulletin 945.
Dusk.
Science of nutrition. 5rd Ed.
P. 215-222 - 558-561.

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54

Glisson, F.

1650 De Rachitide, sive morbc puerili qui vulgo.
"The Rickets" dictus, tractatus - 2nd Ed. London
The Etiology of Rickets - cited by Park.
Physiological Reviews
v. 5 - No. I - p. 105

Park, E. A.

1923 The Etiology of Rickets.
Physiological Reviews - v. 5. No. I. -p 106.

Jost, J. and Kock,.fl.

1914 Cited by Park. See reference (18)

Hansemann, D.

1906 Uber rachitic als volkskrankhert.
Cited by Park - See reference (18)

Rowland and Park. See reference (20)

Mellanby, E.

1918 The part played by an ”accessory factor"
in the prevention of experimental rickets.
Jour. Physicl. v. 52 - p.11.

Hess, A. F. and Unger, L. J.

1920 The care of infantile rickets by artifical
light and by sunlight.
Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. and Med. v.28 -p.298

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55

Schmorl, G. - cited by Park

1909 See reference (18)

Huldschinsky, R. - cited by Park
See reference (18)

Powers, G. F., Park, E. A., Shipley, P. G.

McCollum, E. V. and Nina Simmonds.

1922 The prevention of the development of
rickets in rats by sunlight.
Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc. v. 78- No. 5 - p 159.

McCollum, E. V. and Nina Simmonds.

1922 Studies on experimental rickets
Jour. Biol. Chem. v. 50 p. 5.

Park, E. A. and Rowland, J.

.1921 The radiographic evidence of the influence

of cod liver oil in rickets.
John Hopkins Hosp. Bul. v. 52 p. 541.
Holt, L. E., Angelia Courtney and Hellen Pales.
Eat metabolism of infants and young children.
Am. Jour. Dis. Children, v 18 p. 157.
Shipley, P. G. and Park, E. A.
Studies on experimental rickets. The re-
lative effectiveness of cod liver oil as
contrasted with butterfat for protecting
the body against insufficient calcium in
the presence of a normal supply of phosphorus.

1921 Amer. Jour. Hygeine i - p. 512.

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OD

McCcllum, E. 7., Nina Simmonds, Becker, J. E. and

Shipley, P. G.

1922 Studies on experimental rickets. An ex-
perimental demonstration of the existence
of a vitamins which promotes calcium
deposition.

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Hart, E. B., Steebcck, H. and Hoppert, C. A.

1921 Dietary factors influencing calcium
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Sabbatani - cited by Watonabe.

1918 The change of phosphate and calcium content
and sugar in the blood in tetany.

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McCollum, W. G. and Vcegtlin, Carl.

1919 On relation of tetany to the parathyroid
gland and to calcium metabolism.

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Loeb. J.

1901 On an apparently new fonm of’muscular
irritability produced by a solution of
salts (preferably sodium salts) whose
anions are liable to form insoluble
calcium compounds.

Awe Joure PMSiOle Vs 5 ' Po 5620

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57

Sherman, H. C.

1919 Chemistry of Food and nutrition.
Second Edition - p. 254.

Voit, E. - cited by Sherman

1880 Significance of calcium in animal nutrition.
Zeitschrift fur. Biologic. v. 16 - p. 55

.McCollum, E.7., Hart, E. B., and Humphrey.

1921 The effect of withholding lime from the
ration.
Jour. Biol. Chem.

Nelson, C. F. and Williams, J. L.

1916 The urinary and fecal output of calcium
in normal man.
qur. Biol. Chem. v. 28 - p. 251.

Lusk
Science of nutrition. 5rd Ed. p. 589-590.

Forbes and beagle.
The mineral metabolism of the milch cow.
Ohio Agr'l. Exp. Sta. Bul. 295.

Steenbock, H. and Hart, E. B.

1915 Influence of function on the lime requirement
of animals.

Jour. Biol. Chem. v. 14 p. 59.

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58

Slipher, J. A.

1925 Uses of Lime on the farm.
National Lime Assccation - Bul. 176.

Daniels, A. and Rosemary Laughlin.

1918 Feeding experiment with peanuts
Jour. Biol. Chem. v.55 (p. 295.

Aron, H. and Sebauer, B.

1908 Investigation of the importance of Ca
salts for the growing organism.
Biochem. v. 8 - p. 1
Chem. Abs. v. 2 -.p. 2117

Patterson, 3. M.

1908 A contribution to the study of calcium
metabolism.

Biol. Chem. Jour. v. 5 - p. 59

APPENDIX

59

60

 

 

 

   

 

 

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62

Table 3. Description of Calves Used in Experiment.

‘v—i

Description

 

Calf Calf
._ 208 _v 211

Age at beginning of experiment 124 days 106 days
Age at end of experiment 375 days 365 days
Weight at beginning 248 lbs. 232 lbs.
Weight at end 355.7 " 354 "
Percent normal weight at beginning 96.8 102.5
Percent normal weight at end 64.4 64.2
Height at beginning 91.5 95.0
Height at end 109.8 112.3
Percent normal height at beginning 98.9 103.8
Percent normal height at end 95.9 98.8

63

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59*

Table 10. Effect of Exercise on Alkaline Reserve
After Confinement.

 

w i f

 

Date Calf Alkaline Reserve Alkaline Reserve
Number before Exercise after Exercise

April 21 208 60 55

May 86 211 58 50

June 14 208 67 68

Table 11. Average Body Temperatures for Each Ten Day
POtiOde .

 

V

 

Period Avera 0 Tem erature
031? E11 551? 208
1 101.65 101.57
2 101.30 101.25
3 ' 101.19 101.66
4 101.49 102.08
5 102.53 102.17
6 102.41. 101.50
7 100.98 101.38
8 101.54 101.75
9 100.85 101.58
10 101.38 101.23
11 101.54 101.49
12 101.24 101.25
15 101.25 101.41
14 101.50 101.14
15 101.48 101.13
16 101.16 101.07
17 101.41 101.04
18 101.14 101.81
19 101.13 101.35
20 101.24 101.41
21 100.92 101.28
22 101.22 101.37
23 101.18 101.43
24 100.91 101.10
25 100.91 101.45
26 100.95 100.92

 

Table 12. Digestible Crude Protein and Net Energy Values
Per 100 Pounds for Ruminants.

 

Feed Digestible Net
w_ _‘ Crude Protein gfi Energy
Corn 6.9 85.20
Rice 4.7 77.33
‘Peanut kernel 24.1 109.04
Wheat straw 0.7 7.22
Potatoes 1.1 18.27
Timothy hay 3.0 43.02
Alfalfa hay 10.6 34.33
Oats~ 9.7 67.56
Cow's milk (whole) 3.3 29.01
Cow's milk (centrifugal 3.6 14.31
skimmed)

Butterfat .0 422.20
Corn silage 1.1 15.90

*Armsby, H. r. The Nutrition of Farm Animals (1917) .
P880 715-7210

 

Table 13. Mineral Elements of Feeding Stuffs - Per
100 Pounds of Dry Substance.*

—.—v V—

 

Feed Calcium Phosphorus
" ‘ ‘Percefit’ ‘“' ’Percent
Corn .014 .303
Rice .009 .104
Peanut kernel .068 .399
Wheat straw (not extracted .017 .038
with H01)
Potatoes .027 .270
Timothy hay .192 .123
Alfalfa hay 1.130 .238
o... .112 ’.434
cow's milk (whole) 1.336 .979
Cow's milk (centrifugal 1.336 .979
skimmed)
Corn silage .507 .102

 

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*Armahy, H. P. Nutrition of Earm Animals (1917).
Pgs. 723-724.

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