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A NEGOTIATED DIALOGUE: PROMOTING ACTION
RESEARCH AS A CONSTRUCTIVIST REFORM IN A
ZIMBABWEAN TEACHERS” COLLEGE

presented by

JAMES MARTIN WEILER

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

 

 

 

 

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A NEGOTIATED DIALOGUE:
PROMOTING ACTION RESEARCH AS A CONSTRUCTIVIST REFORM IN A
ZIMBABWEAN TEACHERS’ COLLEGE
By

James Martin Weiler

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Teacher Education

2003

ABSTRACT
A NEGOTIATED DIALOGUE:
PROMOTING ACTION RESEARCH AS A CONSTRUCTIVIST REFORM IN A
ZIMBABWEAN TEACHERS’ COLLEGE
By

James Martin Weiler

Lecturers in the Professional Studies section of Belvedere Technical
Teachers’ College have attempted to bring about constructivist Changes by
implementing action research as an approach for the student research project,
Curriculum Depth Study (CDS). In the process of implementing the reform, a
dialogue developed. The constructivist reform aimed at encouraging student
teachers to deeply understand issues, develop their own ideas, and problem-
solve to create new opportunities in classrooms.

With the limitations imposed on the education system by over century of
racial hegemony, teachers' colleges are faced with a momentous challenge of
educating teachers as critical thinkers capable of promoting constructivist
thinking in their classrooms. When. forces of the various theoretical perspectives
are balanced, tensions arise. Stakeholders of various perspectives are
challenged to articulate their point of view, negotiate, compromise, and keep
sight of the crux of their point of view. Dialogue is the ideal process for the
negotiation of the various theoretical perspectives. When one perspective
becomes dominant, the checks and balances from other perspectives are

eliminated. The agenda it promotes often becomes distorted and essential

issues do not get addressed. In Zimbabwe’s history, theoretical perspectives
have been rarely in balance thus, discouraging dialogue of substantial
pedagogical issues. Currently, the state promotes an agenda of nation building
at the expense of other perspectives and, in the end; the ideals of nation building
have been compromised.

While the national context is not conducive to questioning and sharing
diverse ideas, a dialogue of significant educational issues has developed at
Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College. An environment of questioning, sharing
ideas, and negotiating for a compromise that satisfies all stakeholders has been
growing.

Action research as an approach to the Curriculum Depth Study reflects an
agenda of integrating action and reflection, dialoguing as a community, involving
all participants. and engaging in constructivist thinking. Rather than being a
dominating force, action research provides diverse ideas to question previously
unchallenged perceptions of how research should be done. The success of the
reform is not measured by the adherence to the ideals of action research in the
students' CDS project; rather, the triumph is that lecturers were able to share
their ideas and conceptual understandings of research. Through this dialogue, a
common language to discuss expectations for students and their supervisors was

created.

Copyright by
James M. Weiler
2003

For Bjoma, you will always be with me.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I have received much assistance along the way. Much of the fun comes
from working with others who are interesting, wise, supportive, and thoughtful.
Many thanks to all of you.

My wife Cassandra has been more than generous with her patience and
willingness to proofread many drafts. My sons Thando and Tumelo have also
provided inspiration and thoughtful questions. My sister Jill coined the phrase
“support and challenge” that I often use. She, my sister Dawn, brother Skip and
the rest of my family have helped me immensely. My mother and father,
especially, have always encouraged and inspired me throughout life.

Belvedere Technical Teachers' College did offer an ideal environment for
any researcher. The Principal of the college, Ms. J. Makawa, and Vice-Principal
Mr. C. Fumanda welcomed me and my research activities throughout my time
there. From the first day, l was accepted as a member of the college
community. I have been honored to be able to have had nearly four years of
sharing ideas, struggles, and hope together. Mr. Josh Chandauka was a driving
force for many of the reforms that sought my interest. Mr. Isaac Machera
followed him as the Lecturer in Charge for Professional Studies and, as a result,
acquired my pushing and prodding. The assistance from both gentlemen in
maneuvering through the political and administrative issues has been
immeasurable. Members of the Professional Studies and other sections have

also provided inspiration and perspiration in collaboration of improving the
vi

teaching and learning at the college. A special thanks goes to Mr. Mazanhi, Ms.
Mkondo, Ms. Chieza, Ms. Matchaba, Ms. Makumbe, Mr. Chikaponya, Mr.
Chitando, Mr. Nziramasanga, Mr. Maseleka, Mr. Gadzirayi, Mr. Nhau, Ms. Dube,
Ms. Thabete, Mr. Mhonde, Mr. Boedt, Dr. Makurah, and Ms. Matemachani.

Belvedere students proved to be accommodating, friendly, honest, and
insightful. While many students were helpful, seven were exceptional — Auther
Kachidza, Happiness Muzunze, Gloria Chirowodza, Patricia Nyamutendedza,
Shingarai Mtetwa, Phineas Zihowa, and Patience Dube.

I have been blessed with an advisory committee from Michigan State
University that was supportive enough to encourage me follow my own path,
smart enough to challenge me to think deeply, wise enough to help me when that
path became murky, and kind enough to make the process fun. Talking to Susan
Peters convinced me to come to MSU, and she has been my advisor ever since.
Debating political/social/economic issues with John Metzler has always been
fascinating. Suzanne Wilson was able to gently challenge me to stand firm with
the ideals l have set. Much thanks to Joyce Grant who was willing to step in at
the last moment to make my committee complete.

There have been many others at MSU who have helped me along the
way. David Labaree guided me in thinking deeply about tensions and
contradictions of theoretical perspectives. Anne Schneller’s skill of connecting
people helped make my research possible.

Peter Dzvimbo was instrumental in the arrangements for my coming to
Zimbabwe, and his insightful comments challenged me to think critically.

vii

Tom Bourdillon whose life was sadly taken in an accident was my mentor
in Zimbabwe and a shining light; he was the driving force Of much of the

progressive reforms in the country.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................ xii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................... xiii

KEY TO TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................. xiv
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1

Background ........................................................................... 2

Overview ............................................................................... 4

Bibliography ........................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO

Theoretical Perspectives in Context — A Historical Approach ..................... 9

Posing the Questions ............................................................... 9

Introduction ............................................................................ 9

Colonial Period ....................................................................... 12

Pre-Colonization (500 AD — 1888) ...................................... 13

The Beginnings of Colonialism - The Turn of the Century ....... 17

Colonial Expansion - 1900-1923 ........................................ 21

White Settlers Take Over - 1923-1939 ................................ 22

Rise of the Second (Manufacturing) Industry - 1939-1948 ...... 26

Fear of Resistance (1950’s - 1960's) ................................. 29

Role of Stakeholders’ Perspectives in Colonial Periods .................. 32

African Response - During the Liberation Struggle ......................... 36

Independent Zimbabwe ............................................................. 41

Zimbabwe Under Structural Adjustment — Neo-colonialism .............. 48

Zimbabwe Farm Invasions ........................................................ 51

Role of Stakeholders’ Theoretical Perspectives in Present Day......... 57
A Microcosm of National Politics — Belvedere Technical Teachers'

College ............................................................................ 69

More Questions ...................................................................... 72

Bibliography ........................................................................... 73
CHAPTER THREE

Action Research - Methods Reflecting Theoretical Perspectives ............... 78

Posing the Questions ............................................................... 78

Introduction ............................................................................ 78

What is Action Research? ......................................................... 80

Learning from African Experiences ............................................. 82

Learning from Western Experiences ........................................... 86

A Conducive Environment ......................................................... 91

Rethinking Teacher Education ................................................... 93

ix

 

 

Discussion ............................................................................. 96

Bibliography ........................................................................... 100
CHAPTER FOUR
The Setting and the Research ............................................................ 103
Posing the Questions ............................................................... 103
Introduction ............................................................................ 1 03
The College ........................................................................... 103
The Section ........................................................................... 106
The CBS (Curriculum Depth Study) ............................................ 110
The Research ........................................................................ 112
Bibliography ........................................................................... 1 17
CHAPTER FIVE
Four Students and Three Issues ......................................................... 118
Posing the Questions ............................................................... 118
Introduction ........................................................................... 1 18
Tobias: the Experience of “Did Not Get It” .................................... 122
Patience: the Experience of “Did Not Do It” .................................. 129
Auther: the Experience of “Got It” .............................................. 136
Grace: the Experience of “Had It” ............................................... 143
Analysis ................................................................................ 1 50
Issue 1: The Process of Choosing a Topic .................................... 153
Way Fonlvard — Topic Selection As a Process ...................... 160
Issue 2: Problems Conceptualizing the Research ........................... 165
Attitudes Towards Conducting Research ............................. 167
Rhetoric and Reality ........................................................ 170
Those Who “Got It” - A Minority ........................................ 174
Not Getting Started — Not Knowing the Next Step .................. 175
Not Doing Authentic Research .......................................... 177
Not Engaging in the Deep Thinking .................................... 178
Poor Evaluation of Topics ................................................ 180
Way FonNard ................................................................. 184
Issue 3: Problem of Preparation and Support ................................ 188
Disconnected Preparation ................................................ 188
Poor Preparation ...... . ..................................................... 191
Support — A Mixed Bag .................................................... 195
The “Horror Stories” ........................................................ 197
Relationship Between Overall Experience and Assistance ...... 202
C08 Guide — Figure It Out on Your Own ............................. 204
Way FonIvard ................................................................. 207
Conclusion ............................................................................. 21 1
CHAPTER SIX
Promoting the Dialogue ..................................................................... 214
Posing the Questions ............................................................... 214

X

Introduction ........................................................................... 214

Conceptualizing the Research ................................................... 221
Burning Issue ................................................................ 223
The Problem ................................................................. 223
Conceptualize the Problem .............................................. 226
The Research Plan ......................................................... 229
The First CDS Workshop — Coming together ................................ 230
The CDS Guide - lnstituting Change .......................................... 240
Discussion ............................................................................. 244
Where Do We Go From Here? ................................................... 246
Bibliography ........................................................................... 252
CHAPTER SEVEN
Conclusion ..................................................................................... 253
Finding Something Other Than the Expected ................................ 253
Re—Examining Questions Posed ................................................. 261
The Complexity of Dialogue ...................................................... 271
What Does This Mean? ............................................................ 275
The Way Forward ................................................................... 280
Bibliography ........................................................................... 289
APPENDICES
Appendix A — Model Topics Developed by Subject Area Sections .............. 290
Appendix B — Dialogue Report on CDS Progress Form and Description ...... 293
xi

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 — Theoretical Perspectives of Stakeholders During Pre-

Colonization Period ................................................................. 16
Table 2.2 — Theoretical Perspectives of Stakeholders During Early Colonial

Period .................................................................................. 20
Table 2.3 — Theoretical Perspectives of Stakeholders During Mid Colonial

Period .................................................................................. 34

Table 3.1 — Articles of Action Research Taking Place in Southern African 82

Table 4.1 — Schedule of Visitations with Section Lecturers ....................... 113
Table 4.2 - Schedule of Formal Interviews and Observations with Students.114
Table 4.3 — Schedule of Questionnaires Given ...................................... 114
Table 4.4 — Schedule of Other Formal Interviews .................................... 115
Table 5.1 -— Case Study Students and Their Schools ............................... 121
Table 5.2 — Lecturers’ General Statements from CDS Survey #1 ............... 179
Table 5.3 — Students” General Statements from CDS Survey #2 ................ 180

Table 5.4 - Students’ Ranking of Research Topics from CDS Survey #2 ..... 182
Table 5.5 - Six Students Responses with a Consistent Research
Approach from September 2000 Questionnaire .............................. 186

Table 6.1 - Workshop Evaluation: “The Best Things to Come Out of
Workshop” ............................................................................. 238

Table 6.2 — Workshop Evaluation “What Concerns Are Still Unresolved?”...239

Table 6.3 — Workshop Evaluation “Interest in Participating in Future
Workshops” ........................................................................... 240

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 - Model of Theoretical Perspectives During Mid-Colonial Period 35

Figure 4.1 — Photo of Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College Campus ....... 104
Figure 4.2 — Photo of Professional Studies Lecturers .............................. 108
Figure 4.3 — Professional Studies Mission Statement .............................. 109
Figure 5.1 - Chart in Tobias’s CDS Report ............................................ 128
Figure 5.2 - Process of Topic Formulation ............................................ 163
Figure 6.1 — Models of Approaches of Doing Research ............................ 218
Figure 6.2 — Model of Our Research Process ......................................... 222
Figure 6.3 - Conceptual Model of CDS at BTTC .................................... 228
Figure 6.4 — WOIkshop Group’s Concept of Good Research ..................... 235
Figure 6.5 — CDS Guide: Model of Project Proposal ................................ 243
Figure 6.6 - Tensions between following procedures and being innovative. 245
Figure 7.1 — Model of Debating Ideas ................................................... 273
Figure 7.2 — Model Of Sharing Ideas .................................................... 273
Figure 7.3 - Model of Dialoguing ......................................................... 273

xiii

KEY TO TERMS AND ABBRVIATIONS

Curriculum Depth Study (CDS) — research project where students are to examine
an aspect of their teaching

Tutor - college lecturer who advises particular students on the CDS

Supervisor — college lecturer who observes and evaluates students on teaching
practice

Teaching Practice (TP) - student teaching experience

Post Agriculture Diploma in Education (PADE) — teaching diploma program for
students with a diploma from an agricultural college

Lecturer — a college lecturer

Student — a student at a college

Pupil -- a pupil at a secondary or primary school

Teacher - a teacher at a secondary or primary school

Mentor — school-based advisor (a teacher) to the student

Form l — first year of secondary school, equivalent to grade eight

Form II — second year of secondary school, equivalent to grade nine

Form Ill — third year of secondary school, equivalent to grade ten

Form IV - fourth year of secondary school, equivalent to grade eleven

Ordinary (0’) level — British-based examinations that pupils take after Form IV

Forms V and VI — two additional years of secondary school primarily for pupils
planning on attending university

Advanced (A’) level — British-based examinations that pupils take after Form VI

College — an institution that offers diplomas upon graduation. They are
considered a lower level of tertiary education than universities that offer
degrees (bachelors and masters) upon graduation.

PS — Professional Studies

HOD - Head of Department

LIC — Lecturer in Charge

TP — Teaching Practice

CDS - Curriculum Depth Study

PADE - Post Agriculture Diploma in Education
BTTC - Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College

xiv

CHAPTER 1
Introduction

This dissertation is the story of how some lecturers in the Professional
Studies (PS) section of Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College (B'I'I’C)
attempted to bring about constructivist changes in teaching and learning and the
dialogue that ensued. In sharing the story of the reform at BTTC, I hope to
contribute to a better understanding of ways to support and challenge students in
reflective thinking as well as ways to improve students’ own teaching and
Ieaming.

Constructivist reforms aim at encouraging student teachers to deeply
understand issues, develop their own ideas, and problem-solve to create new
opportunities in their classrooms. However, teachers in Zimbabwe have not
been historically supported and challenged to promote critical and constructivist
thinking. With the limitations imposed on the education system by over one
hundred years of racial hegemony, teachers' colleges are faced with a
momentous challenge of educating teachers to be critical thinkers capable of
promoting constructivist thinking in their classrooms.

As protagonists in classrooms, teachers take leadership in making
teaching and learning meaningful. The classroom, school or college is a forum
for sharing and creating new ideas. When students are active in analyzing and
evaluating information for a clear and relevant purpose, not only are they able to
comprehend and retain more, but they are more apt to use the knowledge in
productive ways. Duckworth (1996), Meier (1995), Dewey (1900), Freire (1970)

and others describe strategies where students develop “their own way” of
1

working through problems where they develop the tools of looking at a problem in
context, see themselves in relation to those realities, create ideas and theories
for their understandings, as well as develop ideas to transform life
circumstances.

The Curriculum Depth Study, a teaching practice research project, was an
assignment that promoted constructivist thinking at BTTC. This reform was not
without compromises, tensions and negotiations. In examining how this reform
contributed to a dialogue at a teachers’ college, I hope to reveal issues of what it
means for a developing country like Zimbabwe to rethink teacher education in a
way that promotes deep, “reflective thinking.

Background

As a student at the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1986, I was given the
assignment to “Observe social change." I traveled to Zimbabwe for the field
study. While I had no teaching experience, I was given the task of teaching
economics and commerce to veterans of the liberation struggle. Zimbabwe was
six years into independence, and a spirit of a new beginning hung in the air.
While the students at Danhiko Secondary School would have preferred jobs or
money, they took their opportunity of education seriously. Every day they worked
hard at studying and preparing for examinations. They were not alone. The
whole nation had turned to education and the system expanded at
unprecedented levels.

In preparing to conduct research for my dissertation, I anticipated finding
the liberation pedagogy that was being espoused in the 1980's being practiced.

2

 

In 1999, thirteen years later, I returned. The social change was apparent. The
nation had changed international partners from the Socialist block to the West.
Rather than professing a socialist agenda, the state was pursuing a free market
approach to development. A year later, in 2000, state supported farm invasions
signaled another change in development agendas.

While the country went through dramatic changes in the twenty-three
years since independence, the education system does not look much different
than what it did in 1980. This is not to suggest that education has been
neglected in the national debate. On the contrary, education has been a priority
for the state and the peOple of the country. Not only had many more primary and
secondary schools been built, but there were many more colleges and
universities. Expansion continued to dominate the dialogue revolving around
education. Other, substantive pedagogical issues had not entered the national
discussion.

The Change towards the promotion of questioning and critical thinking was
more subtle. I found a core of lecturers at Belvedere Technical Teachers’
College (BTTC) who were thinking deeply about how to encourage student
teachers to engage in constructivist thinking. They were not using the language
of the liberation struggle, which included ideas of Paulo Freire, author of
Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970). Mr. B.J. Mahaka, Mr. 83. Mazanhi, and Mr.
J. Chandauka, leaders in the Professional Studies (PS) section at BTTC, were
attempting to institute action research as the mode for a student teaching
research project. While none of them had much experience with action research,

3

they believed that it could be used as a tool for students to reflect deeply about
their practice and to take actions to improve the teaching and learning in their
classrooms.

Action research marked a significant change in the college’s approach to
teacher education. Prior, to this the common belief was that research was a set
' of procedures for students to follow. However, the process was mystifying for
most of the students and a number of the lecturers. With action research, the
lecturer was no longer the guardian of all knowledge. Rather, his/her role
became to support and challenge student teachers in thinking clearly and
logically about issues and making improvements. The students were to develop
their own answers and ways of thinking.

Overview

Because teaching and learning involves a dialectic process, this dissertation
does not follow the traditional approach of building a single argument within a
five-chapter linear structure. My research spanned over three and half years,
and I include various issues of attempting to institute reforms that lead to
meaningful teaching and Ieaming. I begin each chapter by posing questions.
These are questions for further thinking rather than for answering. The dialectic
methodology for the dissertation reflects the dialectics involved in the study of
teaching and Ieaming.

Zimbabwe’s history demonstrates what happens when a particular
theoretical perspective expands to the point where the agenda being propagated
no longer reflects its ideals, that is, it becomes corrupt. Chapter two examines

4

different stakeholders’ perspectives in the historical context, and I point out that
equilibrium of various perspectives is a rare condition in the nation’s history. The
colonial state focused on maintaining racial hegemony, and it weakened other
perspectives that promoted development. The post-colonial state continued the
trend of allowing one perspective to dominate at the expense of greater
development. Thus, key pedagogical issues have not found their way to the
national education debate.

Action research is a current worldwide reform that is making its way to
Zimbabwean teacher education institutions. In chapter three, I use the published
literature regarding work that was done in asouthem African context to show that
action research is increasing in significance as a way for teachers to take control
of their practice through reflection and attempt to make changes. I include.
literature from the West to offer insights for a Zimbabwean context. One such
idea revolves around rethinking teacher education and teaching practice to be
less a test of survival and more an induction to a way of thinking and analyzing.

The next three chapters move to a more specific context, Belvedere
Technical Teachers’ College in Harare, Zimbabwe. In chapter four, I describe
the college, the section I worked with, the students’ research assignment, and
the research I conducted. While there were exceptional individuals at the
college, B'I'I'C represents a typical teacher education institution in Zimbabwe.
The Curriculum Depth Study (CDS) was a college-wide student assignment.

Students were to examine a particular issue in their teaching practice classroom.

In the following chapter, I describe how four students attempted to do their
CDS projects. They offered a range of experiences of: “not doing it,” “not getting
it,” “getting it,” and “had it." One student, like many others, turned in a report, but
it is uncertain that she actually conducted the research she reported to have.
Another common experience was for a student to go through the motions of
doing research without understanding how it relates to his teaching and Ieaming.
Another student “got it” in the sense that he learned that doing research was an
integral part of his learning to teach. The last student in the case study had
already acquired the skills required to do a research project before she began
her teaching practice. These four faced similar issues as their fellow students.
Three of the major issues related to 1) the process of choosing a topic, 2)
conceptualizing the research, and 3) coping with minimal preparation and
support. In describing what it means for students to do a CDS research project, I
show how a dialogue at the college was focused on the pedagogical issues.

The sixth chapter examines the dialogue of the CDS from the lecturers'
perspectives. Preparing and supporting students in doing action research is
something new for the lecturers at the college, and they come from various
experiences and points of view. lnstituting action research as a mode for the
CDS required much negotiation from leaders of the Professional Studies (PS)
section. Rather than trying to impose action research on lecturers, they
encouraged lecturers with varying points of views and interests to engage in the
dialogue. The PS section promotion of action research created a forum where
lecturers could discuss what was going well, what was not working, and ways

6

forward in terms of improving the CDS. The most interesting aspect of the PS
introducing action research as a method for thinking about the CDS had to do
with the process rather than a product. Tensions at the college were redirected
from non-substantive practical issues to address substantive pedagogical
concerns of students doing their CDS projects.

In the final chapter, I discuss howl did not find what I originally thought I
would. I was hoping to discover lecturers and students engaging in critical
thinking and a liberation pedagogical education. Instead, I discovered something
more complex - lecturers and students engaging in a dialogue about instituting
an education reform. The dialectical approach did not offer quick solutions or
easy answers. Pedagogical development took time, but essential issues were

addressed and lecturers were committed to finding ways forward.

Bibliography
Dewey, J. (1900) School and Society, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Duckworth, E. (1996) “The Having of Wonderful Ideas” and Other Essays on
Teaching and Leaming, New York: Teachers College Press.

Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy Of the Oppressed, New York: Continuum.

Meier, D. (1995) The Power of Their Ideas, Boston: Beacon Press.

CHAPTER 2
Historical Context of Negotiated Perspectives

Posing the Questions

Assuming the premise: A meaningful national dialogue regarding substantive
pedagogical issues requires the involvement of all stakeholders. How does a
national discourse of stakeholders from various perspectives develop in a
country with a colonial legacy of over one hundred years of oppression? How
does such a discourse assist reforms on the ground?

Introduction

In examining the national debate regarding education in Zimbabwe, I
examine the historical context behind the agendas that were negotiated. Groups
have their own perspectives for looking at the world, and they use these as tools
to interact in and with the world. Specifically, as a group, community, institution,
or nation, people develop a shared language, a way of understanding and
framing issues that represent beliefs and values about the world. Stakeholders
attempt to legitimate their perspectives by drawing on there beliefs and values,
an ideology emerges. The different groups and stakeholders that operated within
the context of Zimbabwean history negotiated tensions and contradictions within
and between their various ideologies.

The course Of Zimbabwean education system development was greatly
influenced by the negotiation and contestation between these various
stakeholders. First, the white settlers did not have singular interests, ideals, and
agendas. Throughout history, white settler stakeholders included: farmers,
miners, industrialist, skilled labor, missionary, and administrators. Second,
African stakeholders also represented diverse agendas, which included:

ethnicities, class, rural/urban, leadership, semi-skilled, and the educated. Third,

9

 

institutions also represented stakeholders. For example, the state and capital
interests advocated agendas of their own. Finally, the United Kingdom and
South Africa represent external stakeholders with globalization agendas in the
development of Zimbabwe.

Even though different ideologies came to the forefront at different periods,
these stakeholders’ opposing perspectives operated at the same time. I argue
that because the state often suppressed the voices of opposing points of view, it
has been unable to address crucial educational issues related to teaching and
Ieaming. Having competing theoretical points of view provides opportunities for
divergent voices and views to emerge. Contradictions are minimized, even if
tensions are not. Twenty-two years after Zimbabwe achieved liberation, many
issues and problems remain from colonial times. The state has promoted nation
building as the dominant force with little competition from the others -
globalization, free market, and liberation ideology. As a result, the ideals of
nation building have been distorted to ensure survival of the Mugabe regime.
Many important issues of the national education debate have been neglected
while the state pursues contradictory policies.

In this chapter, I look at the historical contexts; starting with early
colonialism, through white settler rule, liberation struggle, independence,
economic structural adjustment, and the current period dominated by farm
invasions by ZANU(PF) supporters. Some of the stakeholders’ theoretical
perspectives in play were different than those of today. For instance, African
traditional culture and colonial racial hegemony were two perspectives that

10

gained dominance in various periods of Zimbabwe’s history, however they are no
longer play a principal role in the current national discourse. In looking at the
present, I discuss how stakeholders’ perspectives operate on the micro level of
Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College. In the end, I make two conclusions 1)
the lack of the state’s involvement in many important educational issues allows
the college freedom in determining pedagogical issues and 2) because different
perspectives are allowed to flourish on the micro level, the college is in a position
to make effective pedagogical reforms.

During the colonial period the dominant perspective was one of racial
hegemony. Various white stakeholders joined in a common agenda of
maintaining political and economic dominance. While this policy advocated
neglect for many years and later limited African education, it was also in
contradiction to other forces, namely the African traditional culture perspective,
which developed through many years of complex social relations, and the need
for economic production. Nation/state building was a perspective that grew out
of this period. For the first time, settlers and Africans were forced to address
political and economic issues through the state on the national level.

Various African stakeholders had a common interest in resisting the
oppression that resulted from the dominant perspective of racial hegemony.
During the liberation struggle, liberation fighters/supporters attempted to create
alternative approaches to education. However, due to many constraints, they
were unable to create schools that reflected a liberation ideology. During the first
years of independence, the country attempted to continue on the path of

11

transcending its colonial heritage with a liberation ideology. However, this
perspective took the form of talk more than action.

During this period, no particular perspective was able to dominate the
agenda of national development. Stakeholders represented four theoretical
perspectives: free-market‘, liberation ideologyz, nation buildinga and
globalization“. In the late 1980’s another change, adhering to the structural
adjustment policies of the World Bank, led Zimbabwe more towards a free
market ideology. Until 2000, the free market had gained legitimacy at the
expense of other perspectives. The farm invasions starting in February of that
year signaled a major shift. Nation-building became the state’s overwhelming
priority and, as a result, not only Were the other perspectives neglected, the
pursuit of nation-building became so extreme that the ideal became distorted.
Colonial Period

In describing the tension and contradictions of colonialism/white settler
rule and their relationship to stakeholders’ interests, I will use Ian Phimester’s
historical framework (1988) in describing the time periods. However, I do begin

with a look at a pre-colonial Zimbabwe. Phimester’s first two periods of

 

' I use free market and not capitalism to focus on the ideal that open markets will lead to the
reatest efficiency.

The general idea of liberation ideology is that society in general and education in specific are
tools for people’s emancipation. People learn to become the protagonists in their lives and in
changing oppressive structures. Through his writings Paulo Freire (1970, 1973, 1978, 1985)
continues to be a leading advocate of liberation Ideology.

Nation building focuses on using education to strengthen the state including the creation of
stable institutions.

‘ Burbules and Torres (2000) discuss how globalization takes a free-market approach where
goods, labor, Ideas, culture are exchanged on an open market. However, it is more interested in
the exchange process, as Burbules and Torres defines globalization as “the intensification of
worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are
shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice-versa” (pg. 29).

12

colonization were a time of merchant and speculative enterprises combined with
exploitative and segregation practices. Mining (and later agriculture) dominated
colonial economic interests. In the third period, the white settlers gained control
of the state. They maintained similar practices including those of racial
hegemony. The following time frames are influenced by the rise of the
manufacturing industry, which forced more racial integration and dramatically
changed social relationships. The state’s intention Of racial hegemony supported
a continuation of the extreme exploitative and segregation practices; however
these actions were in contradiction with the new economic situation. In the final
period, the white settler regime feared losing racial hegemony so it took reactive .
measures.

Pro-Colonization (500 AD .1 1888);: '

It is important to note that prior to colonial rule, Africans in present day
Zimbabwe did have education. Although eddcation was an integral part of life for
most Africans, no formal education system existed.

While Zimbabwe has a history of pre-colonial empires, such as Mwene
Mutapas' (1420 — 1480) that spanned across most of central Africa and
conducted international trade, the majority of the Shona people were involved in
subsistence enterprises. Most people grew crops, kept cattle, and took part in
other daily activities such as pottery, basketry, and weaving. Each village
contained a few people who specialized in metal-smithing. These people made

tools and weapons out of iron for others and bartered for the goods they needed.

13

The traditional economy had little to do with individual competition. Education
revolved around maintaining the society.

Much of the child's education was concerned with the acquisition of
productive skills. As soon as Shona children were weaned, they began to learn
useful skills by observing and imitating their parents. The girls learned domestic
work from their mothers, while fathers and male relatives taught boys to hunt and
herd. Also, from an early age, children were taught to maintain the correct
relationship with others, the dead as well as the living (Grant and Mamutse,
1983)

Two types of education were passed down through the generations.

One was the body of knowledge which was necessary to carry out

daily activities and occasional rituals in the household and village

and secondly, the body of traditional lore concerning natural

phenomena, custom and tribal history. (Murphree, Cheater. Dorsey,

and Mothobi. (eds) 1975, pg.39)

During this “Iron Age”, education was not a battleground for different
theoretical forces. The teaching/leaming represented and reinforced the
dominant and only viable perspective at that time, one of African traditionalism.
Because there were no other agendas — economic, political, or nationalistic —
there was no need for schools to be the sites of these debates. As a result,
teaching and learning took place during this period, but there was no need for a
bureaucracy to mediate various interests.

The British missionaries from the London Missionary Society (LMS)

introduced formal education to Africans in the early 1860's. From the beginning,

the ideas of the European education administrators were in conflict with the

14

 

beliefs of the local culture. The British wanted to change the traditional ways of
the Africans.

Missionary observers were taken aback by the perceived ferocity of
Mzilikazi's rule (1822 -1867) and the harsh conditions in which his people lived.
As a means to some measure of social reform they turned to the promotion of
education (Atkinson, 1972).

Early missionaries followed a theoretical perspective of “cultural
civilization.” Their purpose of schooling was to bring religion and civilization to
the African. It was in their interest to view Africans as uncivilized heathens, so
mission schools could turn “savages” into “civilized”, “moral” leaders of the
people. Of course, civilization was narrowly defined in Western European terms.
Reports from colonists often contradicted this view of Africans being wild.
Charles Rudd negotiated with Mzilikazi and later with Lobengula for control of the
area.

[Rudd] admitted that he had been greatly surprised by the high

level of intelligence that the king demonstrated, adding, "He was as

sharp as a needle, and remembered everything. If you

gontradicted yourself, he was on you at once.“ (Mungazi, 1992, pg.

Because the missionaries’ view was in direct contradiction with the
traditional African cultural perspective, the two education systems did not overlap
in terms of interests or constituents. The education systems remained separate
with very few Africans opting for that of the missionaries. The first official African
school opened in 1861. By its third week the school closed because the students

stopped attending classes. Other early schools such as the ones in Inyati led by

15

Moffet or in Empandeni with Jesuit Fathers were also not effective (Atkinson,
1972)

Mzilikazi, the Ndebele king who had conquered the Shona people, and his
son Lobengula rejected the aims of British education, but they put up with them
for the many promises the British had made. However, they resented European
involvement in politics through the schools and did not see schools serving
needs of the people (Kumbula, 1979).

During this period the two dominant perspectives existed, traditional
culture and imposed European cultural hegemony. While varying African
stakeholders represented different levels of power, their ideals were articulated in
terms of maintaining traditional culture. The different white settler stakeholders

shared a common ideology of cultural/racial hegemony.

 

Table 2.1 — Theoretical Perspectives of Stakeholders During Pre-Colonization

 

 

 

 

Pedod
Stakeholders Interests Theoretical
Perspective
White Settler European
- State Administrators Garnering control of resources Cultural/
- Missionaries Converting Africans to Christianity Racial
Hegmony
African
- Leaders Maintaining control of people and resources Traditional
- Common People Daily living through maintaining social Culture
connections

 

 

 

There were no common interests between the white settler and the African
stakeholders. For example, each group had its own view of how knowledge is
created. In the traditional view, knowledge is created locally and passed down
through generations. The colonists who were pursuing a policy of European

cultural hegemony valued only the knowledge that they brought with them from

16

 

the west. As a result, dialogue and negotiations relating to the construction of
knowledge between the stakeholders Of the two perspectives did not exist.
The Beginnings of Colonialism - The Turn of the Century

In 1888 Cecil Rhodes and the British South African Company (BSA CO.)
turned its attention towards seeking “the second Rand” in present day Zimbabwe.
He and his entourage forced Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession (30
October 1888), a treaty that gave the British exclusive rights to the mineral
interests. From 1890-93 Rhodes invaded the country and took not only minerals
but land and livestock too. The Ndebele uprisings in 1893 and in 1896 were
suppressed and led to more repressive moves of taking land and livestock,
forcing people into reserves, and humiliating chiefs.

Two groups of colonial, economic interests developed; one Of speculative
interests in mining, and the other of settler and merchant interests. The latter
stakeholders were interested in exploiting immediate opportunities that required a
stability of economic and social relationships in terms of having long-term labor
pools and markets. The former stakeholders’ priority was to have cheap labor to
make labor-intensive mining profitable. To create a large pool of cheap labor, the
colonial state took many actions to destroy traditional economic and political
systems.

Between 1888-1889 Britain gave BSA Co. a royal charter to run the
colony. Since the control of the area was in the hands of a business enterprise,
the colonial state pursued a policy of creating cheap labor. Lobengula’s power
was destroyed and his wealth was taken away. The colonial state forced

17

Africans to pay taxes, and those that resisted were severely punished. Most
African men had to seek wage employment from the colonial sector to be able to
pay the taxes.

In 1896, the Ndebele and later Shona uprisings (the first Chimurenga)
sent a clear message to the white colonists; the Africans were not complacent.
The white colonialists and settlers lost much trust in the BSA Co. to protect them
and their interests. It was not until the development of the railroads a couple of
years later that speculative interests returned. Large-scale gold mining was
profitable with the cheap labor. Some Africans were productive in trading crops,
and as a result, they were able to generate income to pay taxes and avoided
working in mines. I

In 1901, the British combined Mashonaland and Matabeleland and called
the colony Southern Rhodesia. The BSA Co. continued to rule the area. The
local government headquarters was moved from South Africa to Salisbury. The
colonial state was faced with a tension of simultaneously promoting two
perspectives, those of racial hegemony and economic production. As Phimester
argues, during this period these two perspectives were compatible. The mining
and later the cash crop agricultural economy proved to be productive means for
enriching the small population of the whites and the colony while at the same
time limiting social mobility of Africans.

Education policies reflected the two separate realities. An education
ordinance in 1899 recognized two classes of schools, voluntary public and public
nondenominational schools. The former were managed by religious bodies and

18

the latter by the government. The voluntary public schools charged a small fee
with the idea that only those who truly wanted to attend would do so. These
were the schools for the Africans. The whites attended separate, better funded,
govemment—backed schools (Atkinson, 1972).

The government did not want the responsibility of educating Africans and
left it in the hands of missionaries. Some missionary interests were in conflict
with those of the state, that is the formers’ attempts to develop leadership skills
(including reading) in a few Africans. However, at this point in history, the state
did not wish to devote many resources towards African education. In 1901 the
government spent less than $400 for all Of African education (Kumbula, 1979). .
The government kept its schools (for white children) under a different department
in the Ministry of Education. The goals for each group's education represented
the govemment’s interest.

The education for Africans was intended, from the beginning, to

serve two purposes: to facilitate conversions to Christianity; and to

give Africans the training needed to fulfil European needs for

African Labour. [For Europeans] to inculcate the moral principles

on which the Empire was based, to provide an education equivalent

to that available in South Africa and to minimize ethnic tensions

among the Europeans themselves (particularly those resulting from

the Afrikaner defeat in the Anglo-Boer war). (Murphree, 1975, p.39)

During this period the colonial state attempted to create an aura of what
Crawford Young (1994) describes as “Bula Matari” or crusher Of rocks. Its power
and domination were not to be questioned. It imposed a governmental structure
that was a “pure model of alien bureaucratic autocracy.” This government

attempted to replace all traditional structures of power. Schools were one tool

used to undermine traditional practices and authority structures, and they
19

operated with the premise that the Europeans were intellectually superior. At
best the colonialists’ intentions could have been seen as being paternalistic; at
worst they could have been viewed as trying to destroy traditional institutions in
order to create and maintain a large pool of cheap labor.

In terms of examining theoretical perspectives from various stakeholders,
a common agenda of economic development was created. It overlapped with
interests of the previously dominant forces, African Traditional Culture and
European Cultural Hegemony. A few stakeholders within traditional culture
benefited from the economic development. Mamdani (1996) argues that colonial
powers gave local chiefs more authority and influence than they maintained
during the traditional era. Also, the Africans were able to enjoy a few (perhaps, a .
very few) of the products mass produced from the colonial power, especially
those of the petty bourgeoisie. There were more common interests with those
perpetuating colonial hegemonic power and those with economic development
interests. At this time, colonial stakeholders of settler farmer, mineral investors,
missionaries, and administrators shared the desire to pacify and co-opt the

Africans.

 

Table 2.2 - Theoretical Perspectives of Stakeholders During Early Colonial

 

 

 

 

 

 

Period
Stakeholders Interests Theoretical Common
Perspective Ground
White Settler

- State Administrators Garnering control of resources Racial
- Missionaries Converting Africans to Christianity Hegemony
- Mining Interests Creating cheap labor Economic
- Merchant Interest Exploiting a stable social relations Develop-

 

 

20

.‘JOI

or.“

 

 

African Develop-
- Leaders Maintaining some control of people Traditional ment

and resources Culture

- Common People Daily living through maintaining

social connections

- Laborers Economic mobility

 

 

 

 

Colonial Expansion -1900-1923

After the turn of the century, the colonial state and later the white regime
quickly squelched any African movements to advance themselves in economic or
political terms. In the first decade of the 1900’s, some Africans were able to
negotiate ideas of free-market capitalism with their traditional culture. Some
became successful entrepreneurs selling supplies to the workers in the mines
but, more often than not, colonists imported foreign goods to undercut traditional
trades. For example, dishes manufaCtured in England soon became cheaper to
import than for Africans to produce pottery.

Tensions between mining and agricultural industries developed during this
period. The former stakeholders represented large foreign capital where the
latter represented a growing settler population with domestic concerns. Both
were competing for cheap labor and, as a result, the state promoted consistent
policies. It forced Africans off good land, increased taxes including a land tax,
and recruited workers from the north to undercut local workers and disrupt social
standings. Most Africans lost their land and their herds in the process. The few
successful Africans with decent wages and successful entrepreneurs
represented a small population of the petty bourgeoisie; class lines were starting

to be drawn.

21

 

Many Africans began to see a value in schools in terms of providing one of
the few opportunities of social mobilization in a limited capitalist economic
system. At the same time, the colonial state maintained its imperative of racial
hegemony. An ordinance of 1903 legislated that the Africans' education in
English was to have a purely functional use; with it they could understand the
orders that they were given, but there was to be no reading or writing. Both the
state and the missionaries “enthusiastically approved” the vocational aspect of
native schools. The industrial skills taught were to be “simple” and “rudimentary"
(Atkinson, 1972, pp. 90-94). The Africans were less enthusiastic about learning
vocational skills. The few economic opportunities schooling provided were
primarily clerical and required “book learning.” Even though the Phelps-Stokes
commission report of 1923 advocated for more vocational training, traditional
trades provided few opportunities. Most Africans knew that as soon as a trade
proved profitable, their access to it would be denied.

In 1921 Dr. H.S. Keigwin became the first Director of Native Development,
and he set goals for African education. They were:

1. Primary (not secondary) education

2. Industrial (not literary) focus

3. Community funding from African reserves (not the government).

(O'Callaghan, 1977, pg.17)
White Settlers Take Over - 1923-1939

By 1923 the settlers gained some degree of sovereignty over the country,

and a white settler prime minister led Southern Rhodesia. The British

government maintained responsibility over defense, mining royalties, and

Africans affairs, but the local whites were in charge of all other governmental
22

activities. The settler regime supported the domestic agricultural sector, even to
the point of promoting unsustainable farming practices. Tobacco and maize
production increased greatly. These practices depended on stable international
markets and cheap labor, and at the same time maize crops were depleting the
soil of nutrients. Failure of international markets and the unionization movement
forced the settler regime to balance the continuing tension that was quickly
becoming a contradiction; how to encourage economic productivity while
maintaining white racial hegemony. By destroying local trades and by not
providing a livable wage, the settler regime failed to utilize the potential of African
production; the massive effort that went towards limiting African progress could
have been used for economic progress for the nation.

The issue of the government limiting what missionaries taught resurfaced
in 1927. The missionaries wanted to see literacy used strictly for religious‘
instruction and. the colonial officials needed semi-skilled workers. The
Commission of Inquiry into Native Education of 1927 made three

recommendations:

1. Literacy teaching was to be left in the hands of missionaries.

2. Natives were to be prevented from proceeding beyond South Africa for
educafion.

3. Industrial education was to be emphasized, i.e. agriculture and
elementary handicrafts. (Mungazi, 1992, pp. 23-24)

The 1928 Tate Commission guaranteed the division of white and black
schools and made sure superiority of the white race was taught (Kumbula, 1979,
pg. 59). The missionaries' were allowed to continue with their primary interests

of evangelical conversion. Their focus included teaching religious education,
23

literacy, and vocational (industrial) skills. Teaching the Africans to read caused
some controversy within the government. The whites resolved the debate with
the conclusion that it was "the responsibility of the 'dominant race' to impart some
measure of their cultural heritage" (Atkinson, 1972, p.93).

Since “book learning” Offered Africans one of a very few routes to
economic opportunities, demand for schooling increased. By the 1930’s so many
Africans were being educated that the whites thought it necessary to regulate the
speed of their intellectual progress. The regime was worried that the Africans'
education would run ahead of the social and economic progress that the
government wanted to allow. New policies encouraged the expansion of primary
school for a wider spectrum of the population rather than providing any advanced
education for a few of the Africans (Atkinson, 1972).

Finding qualified teachers was a major problem. In 1929, there were
1,723 Africans teachers in the system. Of that number, 1,624 had not passed
standard VI (graduated elementary school) and 1,260 had not finished standard
lV (sixth grade) (Atkinson, 1972). A teacher-training center was built, but it did
not provide an education at a level as high as secondary school. Wortd War II
created an even greater lack of qualified teachers, especially European.

Meanwhile, the whites continued to appropriate land. The Land
Apportionment Act of 1931 divided the land into white and African areas. The
government gave the blacks only thirty-one percent of the country that once was
all theirs (Needham, Mashingaidze, and Bhebe, 1984, pg.163). By then most of
the good land and cattle of the Ndebele had gone to the white men who fought in

24

the Shona and Ndebele “uprisings”. Other settlers took land in Mashonaland for
tobacco and tea plantations. Most Africans were unable to buy land and thus
were forced to live on the reservations. These places were notorious for
exhausted land, lack Of water, tsetse fly, long distances to railroad markets, and
poor schools.

Prior to World War II, trades done by whites were not taught to Africans.
Employment competition between races was unacceptable. All forms of
industrial training were to enable Africans to work only under whites. The
Industrial Conciliation Bill gave power to white artisans to determine who was
accepted for the one-year apprenticeship-type training (Moyana, 1988).

During the depression, international markets fell, making the growing of
most agricultural products — maize, cotton, tobacco, and beef - unprofitable.
Gold production kept the state afloat. The state’s involvement in the economy
grew with the creation of marketing boards, loans, and construction of roads. All
of these policies were to offer whites benefits that were denied to Africans.

Foreign interests were less concerned with maintaining white racial
hegemony than producing profits. Tensions grew due to the state providing
additional advantages for whites in sectors where they were not viable without
much government assistance. Other tensions grew out of the regime limiting
African progress. The state was dependent on taxes from Africans to subsidize
white farmers. On one hand, the more productive Africans were, the more the
white regime could tax them. On the other hand, the white regime wanted to limit
all African social mobility. Phimester (1988) shows how, when there were

25

opportunities, African entrepreneurs were able to respond. The white regime
used many methods to restrict Africans from any labor that would be in
competition with whites. For instance marketing boards were located near
whites’ farms and provided higher prices than that offered to Africans. Africans
were restricted from skilled jobs and required to carry passes that limited the
extent they could travel.

Rise of the “Second” (Manufacturing) Industry - 1939-1948

During the World War II period, international markets and trade routes
became even less stable. lntemational trading — while still the backbone of the
mining and agricultural industries — exposed many vulnerabilities of the nation.
For example, the state had to import food even with strong government support
for large scale, white farmers, and the regime became dependent upon the
African farmer being productive. The second industry started as manufacturing
supports for mining and grew into producinga variety Of light consumer goods
and processed food. For mining and agricultural interests, the state promoted a
large transient labor force. Owners of manufacturing industries had different
needs. They wanted a labor force that was urban, stable, and rationalized, i.e.
socialized into the norms of the workplace.

Living conditions worsened for the growing, urban population seeking
stable employment in factories. Overcrowding was a growing problem, and
wages did not keep up with inflation. Poor health and difficult working conditions
were the realities of most African urban workers. Their counterparts in the rural
areas were faced with their own difficulties; high density causing traditional

26

farming practices to destroy the soil, low prices for African produced maize,
drought, govemment’s policy of culling cattle (to limit spread of disease), and the
regime continuing to push Africans off good land into the unfertile land Of the
reserves.

African resistance became more organized during this period. Urban
workers participated in passive aggressive acts, such as work slows. In 1942,
asbestos miners were able to stage a successful strike, which led to mass
organization throughout the country. Africans in the reserves shared a common
enemy in the white settler regime and generally supported resistance
movements.

During this period, the state was faced with many tensions, some of which
became contradictions. The first industry, mining and agricultural interests.
depended greatly on trade with stable, international markets with no quotas or
tariffs. The emerging manufacturing industry could not compete on the
lntemational, open market and required state intervention restricting competitive
products. Much of this tension was resolved by South African policies, which
protected its domestic markets and undermined much of Southern Rhodesia’s
international trade. Thus, the state further developed the second industry.

By promoting the manufacturing industry, the state was faced with a
contradiction. In the past the state was able to promote policies of white racial
hegemony and economic production through segregation and limiting African
human capital. With the rise of manufacturing, the state was forced to change its
policies regarding how it dealt with Africans. The regime had to create a stable

27

labor force that was semi-skilled and socialized into the workplace. The white
settlers were always dependent upon the cheap African labor, but during this
period they could no longer ignore their interdependence. The welfare of
Africans was crucial for the welfare of white businesses. On the other hand,
treating African workers decently was a challenge to white racial hegemony.
Because racial domination was the priority for white settlers, they were faced with
a contradiction.

This contradiction was played out in the education sector by the state
realizing the need for education to help make Africans more productive; and, at
the same time, the state realized that education was a tool of social mobilization.
During this time the African demand for schooling was greatly increasing. The
state’s policy was one of expanding elementary schooling and limiting everything
beyond. Specifically, before 1939, there were no secondary schools of any kind
for Africans. Less formally qualified African teachers remained at the lowest
class of schools, which were called ”Kraal" (village) schools. By 1951, these
schools were responsible for educating 86,421 students. Their only educational
requirement was to teach the students an understanding of English. There were
two upper categories of African schools, which were run by Europeans. The
most intensive education was still not as high quality as that given whites. These
upper groups of schools educated a tenth of the African students (10,630) in
1951 (Atkinson, 1972). In 1952, 84,444 students started grade one, but by end
of primary school there were only 10,921. When this group started secondary
school there were 1,919. Only 386 of them reached ”0“ level, and 56 reached

28

pre-university level. The average white person at the same time had more than
10-11 years of schooling (Moyana, 1988).

As the state started to give into African demand for secondary school, it
took a more active role in regulating education including greater surveillance.
The first government supported secondary school was built in 1946 at
Goromonzi. The first class to take the Cambridge Certificate Exams (the British
standardized tests needed to graduate) shocked the territory with its results; out
of 34 students, 33 passed (Atkinson, 1972). Africans not being intelligent enough
could no longer be used as an excuse not to build more secondary schools.
Fear of Resistance (1950’s - 1960’s)

A reduced supply of labor that was permanent, semi-skilled, and
socialized, gave unions and workers much more influence in negotiations. Also,
the uneven capitalistic development had created a middle class of African
intelligentsia who were capable of forming organizational opposition. The 1951
Commission of Inquiry into Native Education, headed by Alexander Kerr,
articulated the fear the whites had of higher levels of African education.

The intelligent African who is denied equal opportunity will soon

become sour and embittered and be anything but a good citizen.
(Mungazi, 1992, pg. 51)

In 1953, the Kerr Commission made its recommendations for African
education. The government was to push for vocational education in response to
post-war industrialization, yet Africans’ interest in such schooling was not great.
Africans were still unable to compete with whites for skilled jobs. The education

system could provide jobs for skilled African clerks. Commercial courses,

29

business calculations, bookkeeping, typewriting, shorthand and commercial
English were offered in a few schools. Also domestic science courses were
available for a few women. Demand for these few opportunities was very high;
for example, in 1958, the school in Mzingwani had 862 applications for 100
seats. Prime Minister Godfey Huggins found it politically necessary to increase
education for a few. He saw the need “to create an African middle class as a
buffer against the proletariat“ (Mungazi, 1992, pg. 37).

Settlers in the region attempted to consolidate control over the large
migrant labor force by creating a federation of the neighboring territories,
Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland and Southern Rhodesia. The Federation lasted
from 1953 until 1963 when liberation came to other countries of the region. In
Zambia, sixty-four years of colonial rule left that country with only 1,200 school-
certificate holders to manage the nation (Needham, 1984).

The progress of self-rule was not as rapid in Zimbabwe as in its neighbors.
There were many more white settlers (approximately 200,000) and they were
little influenced by world Opinion. While many Africans joined the African
National Congress (ANC) and the (Southern Rhodesian) National Democratic
Party, the settler regime cracked down on the political parties. Their leaders
were either detained or exiled.

Ian Smith, an ultra conservative, took over as Prime Minister in 1965. He
illegally declared Unilateral Independence (UDI) from the British government.
The Commonwealth, the United Nations and the Organization Of African Unity did
not recognize Southern Rhodesia's independence from Great Britain. Smith took

30

a hard line against any African movements. He saw education as part of the
problem, as he stated:
We had our first encounter with terrorist incursions across the
Zambezi early in 1961. I believe that the African politicians were

looking for a cause, and education seemed to appeal to the African
masses more than any other. (Mungazi, 1992, p. 82)

Even with the state’s restriction of African education, enrollment had risen
to 663,371 African students in 1965. However, the government spent 1.5 pounds
for each black student compared to 26 pounds per non-black student (Kumbula,
1979). Smith's objective, a return to complete racial segregation, was carried out
through a lack of funding. School conditions continued to decline, and African
teachers were arbitrarily dismissed by the hundreds (Mungazi, 1992).

The New Education Plan of 1966, like the one adopted four years earlier,
was in favor of ”full primary education for all blacks who can reach a school..."
The non-black and the African schools received close to the same amount of
money (approximately 6 million pounds each), but the former needed to educate
a population of 236,000, while the latter was responsible for 4.5 million people
(Atkinson, 1972). The plan allowed for 12.5% of the African students who
completed primary schooling to proceed to secondary education. Thirty-seven
point five percent of the students could go into vocational training, and the
remaining 50% were to have no formal education at all (Mandaza, 1986).

The Smith regime lost support from countries around the world. Most
countries participated in a worldwide boycott of Southern Rhodesia.
Consequently, the state developed the second industry (manufacturing) to a

greater extent, moving further towards self-reliance. Contradictions increased
31

because the country was becoming more dependent on a qualified African labor
force; at the same time, Africans were being denied opportunities for
advancement. As a result, the liberation struggle and its ideologies gained
momentum.

Role of Stakeholders’ Perspectives in Colonial Periods

The forces that influenced the education system during the colonial/settler
rule experience represented contradictions rather than tensions that could have
been balanced. The dominant perspective coming from the various white
stakeholders was one of white racial hegemony. Missionary education
propagated the message that everything African was uncivilized, and thus
inferior. The state’s role wasone of limiting and restricting education. Because
education was one of the few sanCtioned routes to social mobility, the state’s
control of access to education restricted African advancement. By denying
Africans an opportunity to compete - fairly or otherwise — the state was able to
use education to keep Africans in an oppressed state. In other words, the door
to opportunities was held shut by the white regime.

Thus, education was highly prized. But what was this colonial education?
Throughout white rule, school structure and course content revolved around that
of the United Kingdom.

In high schools, students sat for an external British examination, the

Cambridge School Certificate. The Cambridge Syndicate prepared the

syllabus, and set and marked the examination. And here there was no

pretence of relevance. The geography syllabus (1960) assigned two

thirds of the course to British Isles, British Empire and Commonwealth. In
literature (1968) the list for junior high school consisted almost exclusively
of simplified versions of British literary classics like Oliver Twist, Treasure

Island, Monte Cristo, Coral Island and Jane Eyre. (Moyana, 1988, pg. 52)
32

The education system remained hierarchical and represented the view
that knowledge was created in England. Compliance was demanded and
questioning had no place. For the African students who did work their way
through the educational system, they received an ideology of European
supremacy.

This theoretical perspective of racial hegemony is full of contradictions. If
whites/Europeans were so superior, why did the state need to limit African
access to education or continuously offer whites unfair advantages? Also
unaccounted for was the state’s dependency on African labor. With no other
theoretical perspective in balance, the one of racial hegemony was able to
dominate for ninety years.

The idea of the value of economic production in terms of schooling was
also riddled with contradictions. Not until the rise of the manufacturing industry
did the state have any interest in mass education at the elementary level to
produce socialized, semi-skilled workers. Schooling might have produced “good
workers”, but the state continually tried to limit the numbers of Africans who could
become “good workers.” While the schools stressed the value of vocational
skills, such opportunities for economic benefits were nonexistent, mostly due to
Africans not being allowed to compete with white, trade workers. Schooling did
not promote an entrepreneurial spirit. Africans who did develop such skills most
often did it without the assistance of the schools.

The colonial state had the task of managing the contradiction between

white racial hegemony and African development in its efforts of nation building.
33

 

By assisting whites with unsustainable economic ventures, it is not clear if the
state was following a pursuit of improving the economy or simply attempting to
guarantee economic success to a few. The state’s denial of Africans’
opportunities to be productive suggests that national production was not as great
a concern as white racial hegemony. Each stakeholder had their own interests,
and common agendas could be identified on some level. In terms of economic
development and the building of national structures, the various groups had
interest in increasing productivity and developing a national forum to address

concerns.

 

Table 2.3 — Theoretical Perspectives of Stakeholders During Mid Colonial Period

 

 

 

 

Stakeholders . . Interests Theoretical Common
Perspective Ground
White Settler
- State Administrators Maintaining control over people and Racial
resources . Hegemony
- Missionaries Converting Africans to Christianity Economic
- Mining Interests , Creating cheap labor Develop-
- Merchant Interest Exploiting a stable social relations ment
- Farmers Maintaining cheap labor
- Industrialist Creating stable labor and protection . Develop-
for markets ment of
African national
- Leaders Maintaining local control of people African institutions
- Common People Daily living through maintaining Development
social connections
- Laborers Economic mobility
- Educated Economic and social mobility

 

 

 

 

However, the dominance of the colonial state in maintaining racial hegemony

came at the expense of the development of Africans and economic development.

 

[Figure 2.1 — Model of Theoretical Perspectives During Mid—Colonial Periodl

 

  
 
    
    

Nation
Building

 
   

   
  
 

 

   
 

White
Development - R301
(Liberation) Hegemony

/ Economic
Development

The conditioned capitalism of the white settler regime little resembled a
free market ideology. The state continually was involved in the market by
creating supports for white agriculture and mining and at the same time
systematically denying Africans’ access to markets. During the colonial period
African development was viewed in terms of resistance against white oppression.
There is little evidence that ending the oppression meant creating liberating
structures rather than increasing African access to the existing institutions.

Nation building during this period related to the advancement of the
colonial state and later the white settler regime. There was little attempt to unite
the interest across the nation. However, as Crawford Young (1994) argues, the
idea of the nation-state grew out of colonial action. The colonial state had
imposed this infrastructure of government and boundaries on regions and groups
of people that othenrvise had little or no relation; the national boundaries had
nothing to do with the realities of the people. Nonetheless, during this period the
colonial state imposed a structure that would determine how politics and
economics were to be negotiated, i.e. through the state on a national level. As |
show in the next part, nationalism became a key element for the liberation

struggle.
35

Global forces took a back seat in the national discourse. While interests
from the metro-pole UK played a powerful role in the colonization of Zimbabwe,
other world influences played a minor role in the country’s development. The
isolation of the Smith regime during UDI is one of very few examples of global
involvement.

African Response - During the Liberation Struggle

From 1977 to 1980 — the height of the liberation war - ZANU attempted to
develop its own system of education that responded to the interests of the
liberation fighters and the needs of a future Zimbabwe. In describing the situation
in Rhodesia at the time, the Minister of Education Fay Chung states in Socialism,“
Education, and Development: A Challenge to Zimbabwe (1995), “Blacks saw this
restriction of educational opportunities as a plOt to keep them subjugated. They
could not acquire the managerial, professional or technical skills that would allow
them to compete. with Whites. To make. matters worse, the curricula emphasized
White achievements and abilities. BlaCks needed education which would both
qualify them and emancipate them”. She highlights a tension between working
with and trying to change the system.

The schools in the liberation camps began to provide an alternative to the
white-settler education system of Rhodesia. However, a lack of resources was
one serious obstacle for the development of the schools. These schools were
based near guerrilla camps in Zambia and Mozambique. The threat of
Rhodesian troops attacking and bombing the camps was common and
devastating. As a result, groups of students and teachers traveled over a

36

kilometer away from the camp to congregate, often under a tree or in a makeshift
bungalow. Many camps did not have basic supplies of paper, chalk,
chalkboards, pencils, books, etc. Paulos Nare (1995), a former teacher, was
given the task of creating an education system for the many thousands of
residents at Victory Camp. Irrespective of age, all former students with at least a
form ll (two years of secondary school) level of education were to be teachers; all
others were to be students. Consequently, classes were quite large with 50 - 60
students. Enrollments fluctuated greatly with many new arrivals and departures
to the camp on a daily basis. The goals for this education were to:

1) equip students with practical productive skills;

2) prepare the refugees for a new, liberated, socialist Zimbabwe;

3) to avert boredom and stress that is associated with life in the camps;

4) to conscientize students against oppressive and exploitative ruling

systems.

Because it was so difficult to create something out of nothing, education
reformers in the camps used the Rhodesian model of education as the
framework for their new system. Due to a lack of highly qualified teachers or
teacher education capacity, teachers were unable to lead the way to reforming
classroom practices. Because many teachers were new and had few distinctions
from the students, issues of control continued to dominate much of the structure
of education. The schools did not rely on expulsion, but they did use corporal
and other types of punishments, as well as the monitoring system that included

two prefects and a monitor. As a result, the schools often reflected a hierarchical

suppressive system similar to the ones controlled by the Rhodesian state.

37

Part of the tensions came from the schools’ attempt to present liberation
ideals and at the same time gain legitimacy. Legitimacy could have come from
many sectors: 1) the system living up to the ideals of liberation ideology, 2) the
system providing opportunities for social advancement for individuals and social
efficiency for a future Zimbabwe, 3) the system responsive to the “traditional"
values of most of the residents of the camp.

It is not clear to what extent liberation ideology was actually put into
practice. References were made, such as “The Paulo F reire method was used”
(Chung, 1995, pg. 145) or “the political commissars carried out deliberate
indoctrination processes to cultivate and instil awareness” (Nare, 1995, pg. 135),
yet these authors provide little description as to how that instruction was different
from the standardforrns of teaching that were adopted from the Rhodesian
education system. Chung argues that the Denmark’s Development Aid from
People to People (DAPP) teacher education was disappointing because it lacked
specialization for students to engage in new endeavors. DAPP’s philosophy was
one Of “learning from life rather than from academic instruction" (1995, pg. 146).

Nation building concerns were relevant to the education reforms at
independence in 1980. The new state needed to create an education system
that would include everyone, and it needed to accommodate for the type of
opportunities that the Rhodesian system was denying. Since more Opportunities
for advanced education were opening throughout the world, the schools needed
to provide an education that would prepare students to be: a) accepted and b)
prepared for the challenge. As a result, the education reformers needed to

38

provide an educational system that met world institutional standards. Also,
ZANU was attempting to create a structure with people in place to take over the
education system at independence. This system needed to be recognized as
being legitimate by international donors as well as by the general population.

Another tension, between traditional and modern ideals, existed. Chung
states that it was “reflected in contrasting ideological manifestations, with one
group asserting its adherence to democracy, nationalism, modernism, and later
Marxism-Leninism, while the larger group of peasants clung to their traditional
ideology, dominated by the traditional resistance figures such as Nehanda,
Kaguvi, Chaminuka and the ancestral spirits” (1995, pg. 146). This tension
showed itself when primary school teachers, often youngsters who remained in
school, had authority over the older students. who had left school when they were
very young or never attended. Traditional age and gender roles were being
challenged.

Rather than trying to discount the traditional perspective, ZANU made
great efforts to win traditional support. Chung argues that members of both
perspectives tried hard to build understanding and collaboration. “Whilst the
spirit mediums remained the upholders of traditional values, such as respect for
life and preservation of the environment, they were able to accept modern trends
such as the use of sophisticated modern weapons and education. The spirit
mediums at no time opposed modern education, many of them having received

primary education themselves” (1995, pg. 146).

39

While the liberation ideology may have challenged some of the traditional
structures, African stakeholders found common ground in opposing the dominant
perspective of the Rhodesian state (that of maintaining white racial hegemony
through a distorted capitalism). Because the peasant population had been
denied access to the free market structures, i.e., fertile land, viable markets, and
fair prices, believing in the free market ideology made little sense for most of the
population. Liberation ideology questioned the redistribution of resources and
opportunities and advocated for more political participation and economic
equality - issues directly related to the oppression of the traditionalists and the
majority of the population.

Even with‘ a strong alliance between the two perspectives of free market
and liberation ideology, schools did not reflect a radical departure from those
created from the colonial experience. In some aspects schools adhered to a
liberation ideology, they promoted more production where learning practical and
academic skills were combined. There was strong emphasis on everyone being
involved, and the curriculum Changed using much of the Marxist literature from
the Soviet Union and China. However, how much schools could change was
dependent on the realities of the situation. The schools in the camps relied on
donors for all supplies. The structure of the organization was not well grounded
with experienced and trained educators, and the schools needed to maintain

legitimacy in terms of lntemational standards to send students abroad.

40

Independent Zimbabwe

In 1980 Ian Smith was forced to sign the Lancaster House Agreement,
which set up democratic elections. Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe African National
Union (ZANU, which later became ZANU-PF) became Prime Minister. The new
government made great efforts towards mass education making primary and
secondary schooling available to everyone. However, rather than transforming the
structure of education, the government expanded the existing system. In the early
days of independence, leaders were critical of the education being provided, and
they used language from liberation pedagogy. In Education, Liberation and the

Creative Act (1988) Toby Moyana quotes Fay Chung, the Minister of Education:

Colonial education is characterized by its lack of creativity, neatness,
rigidity, control, respect for tradition and authority. People educated
under this system can only be obedient to orders from above. They
cannot create and control reality for their own betterment. They
cannot solve the problems they face, but can only imitate the
solutions of others, unsuitable as they are to the present situation.
They excel in apemanship. Creative education on the other hand,
develops real intelligence and originality, and therefore can lead to
real solutions for pressing problems. The question is: what type of
education do we have today in Zimbabwe? (p. vi)

Chung's ideas were similar to Freire’s in terms of regarding education as

being political. In her book Socialism, Education, and Development, she wrote:

What this means is that there is no ideological neutrality in education.
All education systems serve the interests of particular classes and
social groups... Socialists have always understood the important role
of education in the process Of socialist transformation, for by making
people aware of their conditions of existence you release the power
that is in them, the power to change society for the better. (1985,
pp.87—88)

41

w

English remained the mode of instruction for upper elementary to
university as well as one Of the national languages. In his examination of
teachers’ goals for teaching literacy, Albert Natsa (1994) found a reality different
than the ideals Chung advocated. He shows that the greatest emphasis was
towards the teaching of basic skills such as grammar for the mastery of writing
and speaking “correctly." Critical thinking skills and social constructivist
perspectives were hardly existent. He has many explanations for this situation.
Teachers viewed learning English language as a tool for social mobility and not
for critical examination. Because of the legacy of colonialism, English was the
language of power, and learning the grammar to speak it “correctly" gave one
access to that power structure. Colonialism taught native Shona and Ndebele
speakers that they did not (couldnot) speak English properly. Natsa mentions
other limiting factors of the classrooms, such as large sizes, poor teaching and
learning materials, students’ lack of knowledge of English as a first language,
and insufficient teacher education of over half of the teaching force.

Natsa argues that the highly centralized curriculum that was exam-driven
and bureaucratic discouraged discourse among teachers in critically examining
the use of texts, the role of exams, and the meaning of critical thinking. In his
research he found that teachers depended primarily on the national exams and
textbooks to develop literacy goals (1994). As a result the curriculum continued
to be greatly controlled by the British external examination system in the name of
upholding legitimacy. Teachers rarely turned to the national syllabi for guidance.
He also found that teachers rarely if ever engaged in an academic or

42

professional discourse in the schools about the meanings and processes of
reading and writing.

K. Peter Dzvimbo was also pessimistic regarding the extent and influence
of national reforms. He writes, “While the government, politicians, and Ministry of
Education have advocated the creation of a teacher who becomes an agent of
changing a capitalist socioeconomic formation toward socialism, the environment
within which the teacher Operates has not changed” (1988, pg. 92). He states
that much Of teacher training was still greatly influenced by the 1977 Teacher
Education Guidelines that were developed during the racist Smith regime.

Like Natsa, Dzvimbo argues that examinations were a tool used to control
creative thinking.

“...testing and examinations still posit a serious problem in that some

students are unable to pass the competitive scholastic examinations.

Such an emphasis on examinations as a means of evaluating students’

and teachers’ worth tends to stultify innovativeness and group efforts in

both students and teachers. In Zimbabwe, it has led to a problem in which
teachers concentrate on drilling students to pass the examination instead

of mastering concepts. The socialist principle of comparing students to a

set criteria and a collective approach to knowledge rather than comparing

students to a group and individualism need to be emphasized.” (1991, pg.

302)

Dzvimbo criticizes the bureaucracy for having made it difficult for teachers
to become involved in the communities. Teachers were expected to work, not
only through members of the local community, e.g. church leaders, but also
through a whole host of local governmental figures, e.g. local council members,
school Officials, party officials, members of health ministry, etc. He asserts that

teacher education did not go far enough in providing teachers “with skills to

enable them to handle the new role as innovator" (1988, pg. 92). Also, he argues
43

that the examination structure and the role of supervisors were more of a
hindrance to creativity than encouragement of it. Other problems included:
alienation, poor salaries, large work loads, lack of staffing in teachers’ colleges
with high student-to-teacher ratios, and a lack of indigenous educational
materials. These conditions led to high levels Of teacher burn out,
discouragement of those most qualified to enter the field, and poor instructional
support for teachers.

Both Zimbabwean researchers (Natsa and Dzvimbo) show that liberation
ideology may have been in the minds of reformers, but the realities of the post-
colonial education system made any significant change difficult. Much of Natsa’s
and Dzvimbo’s criticisms revolve around the state’s nation building efforts. While
expanding education served all interests, the results were a higher level of
bureaucracy and more control and standardization of exams and the education
process. The state was also satisfying the popular demand for the type of
education many Zimbabwean’s had been denied in the past. By maintaining a
“legitimate" education structure, the state adhered to interests of nation building
at the expense of liberation ideology.

In their book Education and Social Transition in the Third Wortd, Martin
Camoy and Joel Sarnoff (1990) relate these issues of difficulties in implementing
a liberation ideology reform due to the political and economic conditions of a
country. They look at contexts where countries were in the process of changing
from a conditional capitalist (colonial) state to a transition state. While the former
stage had an economy that was influenced by western countries and a free

44

market perspective, they use the term of conditional capitalist because the
interest was extracting profits often at the expense of developing free markets.
The latter stage reflected a state’s striving for socialist ideals (liberation ideology).
While they did not include Zimbabwe in their case studies, they did mention that
it was a country that fit the criteria of being a transition state.

The authors describe the conditioned capitalist state in the realities and
history Of economic and political power and not in the ideals of free market. They
argue that individuals in power were able to use a hierarchy of knowledge to
guarantee their position in society. Schooling was used to reinforce the status
quo where a few had access to power and the majority was trained to be passive
and good consumers. Those in a revolutionary system attempted to focus on
making the construct of knowledge accessible to the collective including those
who had been denied access in the past, e.g. rural peasants. In a capitalistic
society, schooling was viewed as a.tool of mobility and the focus was on learning
skills, and schooling in the liberation ideology was focused in creating “a new
man."

Camoy and Sarnoff question whether it is possible for a country to work
for a collective good rather than individual consumption since the larger context
of the world is dominated by powerful capitalistic economies. A tension grows
out of the transition state's desire to grow in economic production and promote
equity in political participation. While this is an essential question with which a
state needs to grapple in terms of nation building, as mentioned above, the other
theoretical perspectives come down on either end of the spectrum. They argue

45

that education systems in transition (ones that reflect a liberation ideology) were
fundamentally more explicit in shaping a theoretical perspective because
conditional capitalist systems needed people to buy into it only on an
individualistic level of social mobility, i.e. “how will schooling benefit me."

While they were not overly optimistic about an education system’s ability
to implement a liberation pedagogy that would lead to the raising of the
consciousness of the masses, there were some things they argued that
education in this context tended to do. More people are brought into the political
arena through education, the government develops a mass education system
rapidly, knowledge becomes much more equalized, and the government
increases its capacity to self govern with its development of local leaders.
However, the authors argue that states tend to focus more on their desire for
making good on their promises of economic growth and, in the name of
efficiency, the state consolidates its power. The education system becomes
more bureaucratic and hierarchical. Rather than promoting an education that
raises peoples’ consciousness, the state advocates an academic and technical
education that is suggested by the free market ideology to create greater
economic growth. As a result, the creation of knowledge remains in the hands of
a few. They state that Freire’s ideas are more often cited than used. And in the
end, they suggest that liberation ideology gets compromised for the sake of
nation building and the free market benefits.

In his comparison of Zimbabwe to Cuba, Dzvimbo (1991) points to larger
social, political, and economic influences. His arguments are similar to Andre

46

Astrow’s in Zimbabwe: 3 Revolution that Lost its Way. The policy of
reconciliation, lack of land reform, and the whites maintaining economic power
caused Zimbabwe not to transform the economy/society. For the most part, the
white farmers kept the best agricultural land and black Africans remained in
Communal Lands, which were the reserves they were forced into during
colonization.

Dzvimbo argues that the whites were allowed to retain custody Of a
relatively strong economy while rural and the urban masses were never brought
into the modern sector. Cheap labor continued to be exploited, and the highly
stratified economic system changed little as a result of the revolution. A
liberation ideology in education had minimal effects because the realities of the
economic system remained an unfair distribution of power.

In the years shortly after the revolution, the govemment’s primary focus
was to expand the existing system rather than conscientization Of the adult
population by addressing the problem of adult literacy. The govemment’s
attempt to transform schools through Zimbabwe Foundation for Education with
Production (ZIMFEP) was short-lived. Dzvimbo blames its lack of success on
students having had to continue to write the same examinations from Cambridge.
Once the veterans of the liberation struggle graduated, the new wave of students
was not sympathetic to the idea of doing manual work when students in other
institutions were doing “book Ieaming" and getting decent jobs. Dzvimbo also
points to the continuation of private schools as a factor for the lack of
transforming the education system. Unlike Cuba, boarding schools were not

47

used by the state to help create “the new socialist person.” Instead, private
school continued to serve middle and upper class interests. While a few
benefited greatly from the dominant perspective Of the past, the new Zimbabwe
state had difficulty convincing most people to adhere to a liberation ideology that
was not linked to social mobility. Without a change in the political/economic
structure, “book Ieaming” continued to offer the best chance of individual
advancement.
Zimbabwe Under Structural Adjustment - Nee-colonialism

In 1991, Zimbabwe adopted a new economic program — from African
socialist to adhering to the World Bank’s Economic Structural Adjustment
Programme (ESAP), i.e., a free market approach. R.J. Zvobgo (1997) asserted
that the socialist economic strategy of newly independent Zimbabwe “plunged
the country into an economic nightmare” (pg. 43). While the government could
no longer maintain the expansion of schooling (as well as other institutions),
ESAP did not solve the nations’ problems. Zvobgo (1997) argues that ESAP not
only led to less money for education, student tuition fees, and thus higher
dropout rates, but it also directly influenced the thinking of the education system.
He continued in the same vein as Camoy and Sarnoff, pointing out that while
ESAP replaced past African-socialist, economic policies, it lacked an ideological
foundation to give a vision to the education system.

Involvement with the Wortd Bank and the lntemational Monetary Fund
(IMF) brought Western, technical advice. Zvobgo suggests that overseas college
training, computer technology, and Westem-sponsored reforms are a part of a

48

neo—colonialist relationship. The West controlled educational policies because
Zimbabwe did not have the resources to compete with a developed reform
industry. As a result, the education system never changed. “This explains why
there have been no serious curriculum changes since independence.
Zimbabwean education is not education for liberation but for the preservation of
the status quo" (Zvobgo, 1997, pg. 72).

Globally, “The New World Order" came from the fall of socialism in
Eastern Europe. The thought was that the only option left was the free market,
i.e. negating any alternatives. Zvobgo and Sarnoff and Camoy argue that the
dominance of the free-market ideology was a dangerous influence. Assumptions
went unchallenged as “truthsof the markets." Also, because its ideology is so
' tacit (i.e. promoting individual interests), it does not get negotiated in a public
forum. Conversely, liberation ideology requires an explicit, conscious vision" of '
the future people want.

What happened to the other theoretical perspectives during neo-
colonialism in Zimbabwe? While ESAP was a clear shift from liberation ideology
to one of free-market, nation building and globalization continued to play a role.
In terms of nation building, the state had to balance a support for greater
production without becoming overly dependent on the West. As Camoy and
Sarnoff argue, the state needed to also maintain some levels of equity and
participation to keep people in the country satisfied.

While the language used with liberation ideology was strong during the
nation’s eariy years, it had difficulties competing with the structures of the past

49

that allowed social mobility for a few. In terms of nation building, the ideal of a
liberated Zimbabwe for everyone was a way to mobilize support for the national
government. However, individuals were promised the lifestyle of the colonialists,
and the state had to fulfill some of those promises if they were to be seen as
legitimate. Also, a radical change in the structure of education would jeopardize
the country’s education system’s legitimacy. In the name of nation building, the
liberation fighters who struggled for the same educational opportunities had to be
offered credible schooling.

From 1991 to 1999, the policy of the free market ideology did not have to
address the same undermining influences that the prior liberation Ideology faced.
Social mobilization Of a few was more consistent with the free market ideology.
In the early years, students expected thatthe government would provide
opportunities for them. ‘With the free market way of thinking, those who failed to
find a job could be blamed for their own lack of effort or skill. In terms of nation
building, the country had to deal with the many educated citizens who greatly
outnumbered formal employment opportunities. Leading people to believe that
everyone had a realistic shot to individual progress, the state allowed the
informal market (with few restrictions) to grow.

In the national discourse, there were few stakeholders who advocated for
liberation ideology, and as a result, it no longer played a significant role in the
debate on education. On the other hand, the stakeholders of free market
ideology expanded their agenda without challenge. Eleven years was too short
for Zimbabwe to develop institutions that reflected the liberation ideology. The

50

assumptions and realities of free market ideology went unchallenged, and as a
result, the ideals of free market became distorted. The conditional capitalist
institutions of colonial days were revitalized, and power structures became more
hierarchical.

Zimbabwe Farm Invasions

The failure of the referendum of the new constitution in February Of 2000
was the first voter setback for the ruling party ZANU (PF) in its post independent
Zimbabwe history. With President Mugabe’s tacit support, ZANU PF supporters
under the guise of war veterans began an invasion Of commercial farms
(predominately held by whites) throughout the country. Land redistribution had
been a key issue during the liberation struggle, yet little was done in that area.
The government with Great Britain’s support attempted to rectify the imbalance
with a “willing buyer - willing seller” policy, but it had little impact for the larger
population.

Tensions grew leading up to the June 2000 parliamentary elections. Over
twenty people were killed through political violence during that time. Most of the
victims were white, commercial farmers and their laborers or supporters of the
newly formed opposition party, Movement for Democratic Change (M00). The
role of the central government in the violence has always been in question. The
police remained amazingly silent on the crimes committed showing little effort to
apprehend the perpetrators. To the present time, there have been no convictions
for any of the murders and very few arrests. Mugabe issued a general pardon for
political crimes during the period. With tacit government support, in April 2001,

51

the war veterans began to expand their invasions to industries in urban areas.
Asserting to be settling disputes between employers and workers, war vets
interrupted board meetings, took top level managers to ZANU PF headquarters,
and demanded companies to reimburse employees who had been retrenched as
long as six years prior.

The effects of the invasions and subsequent government policies have
had great impact on the economy. Tobacco production, the largest foreign
exchange earner, was hurt due to many of the commercial farmers being evicted.
In 2000, there were 1,750 large-scale tobacco farms. The following year the
number shrunk to a mere 400, and exports were expected to decline by 75%
(Nyakunu, 15 October 2002). Supplies of petrol continuously were disrupted
causing long queues at service stations and blackouts throughout cities.
Agricultural production of winter wheat declined forcing the country to begin to
import the crop in 2001. Coupled with a poor rainy season of 2001-2002, the
country faced famine of six million people, over half of the population, and
depended heavily on lntemational food aid.

Leading up to the June 2000 parliamentary and March 2002 presidential
elections, opposition party demonstrators in Harare and residents in high-density
suburbs were beaten, kidnapped, and tortured by police, war veterans, and other
ZANU PF supporters. However, the majority of the violence took place in the
rural areas where the opposition was less organized due to intimidation.

A man who delivers The Daily News related his troubles to me when he
attempted to go to his rural home in Mutoko for his uncle’s funeral prior to the

52

March 2002 elections. He told me that upon arriving at the town center, ZANU
PF supporters questioned him and searched him and his bags looking for a
membership card to the opposition party. Contrary to their belief that all Harare
residents are MDC members, this man indicated no desire to engage in political
activities beyond casting his vote. Even though they did not find any evidence,
they took this man to the house of the leader of the area’s ZANU PF Youth Wing.
He described how he was detained and questioned. His money, identification
card, and the gifts (basic commodities) he had brought were taken, and he was
threatened to be beaten. He explained how he was able to escape in the middle
Of the night but was unable to return to his rural home for several months. Many
more similar cases have been reported in the independent press.
Schoolteachers and headmasters were also the target of much of the
violence. The intimidation of teachers grew greatly just prior to the June 2000
parliamentary elections, but it continued afterwards. On 22 March 2001, The
Daily News described how war veterans accused teachers of teaching MDC
slogans and closed two schools west of Bulawayo.
The war veterans harassed and humiliated them in front of their students
and then forced them to abandon their lesson and flee to Bulawayo. “They
never gave us a chance to lock our houses they were very rowdy,’ said a
female teacher. ‘Unless our security is guaranteed, it will be very risky for
us to return.’ (pg. 11)
During my visits to the schools around the region, most teachers related
stories of war veterans’ intimidation. They forced Auther (a student to be
introduced later) to write a proposal for raising goats for them. All teachers had

to be careful of what they said and to whom. Teachers, being better educated

53

than most rural people, were naturally suspect for being partial to the opposition
party and often harassed. A newspaper article described how teachers were
being forced to pay $2100 for ZANU PF Women’s League, $2100 Mugabe’s
birthday celebrations, and $250 for Independence Day festivities (The Daily
News, 4 April 2001, pg.1). In a study conducted by the lntemational Union of
Students, Zimbabwe was ranked as the most intolerant of students of all African
countries (The Standard, 22-28 April 2001, pg. 3). During this period of
intimidation, not much education reform took place on a national level. In a news
analysis, Percy Makdmbe states,

In truth the Education ministry has produced more policies than it has

been able to digest. Constant educational policy flip-flops have left

teachers confused. In 1997 the Commission of Enquiry into education
and Training was appointed. That commission, headed by renowned
scholar, Dr Caiphas Nziramasanga, looked into the future direction of

Zimbabwe’s education system. The commission was appointed at a time

when the country’s education system was being criticized for being too

academic and exams-oriented. No sooner had the nation digested the

Nziramasanga Report than the government announced a new curriculum

policy for primary and secondary schools which has now been followed by

on foreign exams. (30 March 2001, pg. 12)

Makombe states that the issues that did get addressed were the shortage
of qualified teachers and localizing exams and not more substantial issues of
teaching and Ieaming.

The need for determining a Zimbabwean identity was part Of the language
used for localizing the Ordinary (O) and Advance (A) level national examinations.
However, the debate rarely followed such issues. More practical issues were
highlighted. The Zimbabwe Schools Examination Councils (Zimsec) asserted

that the standards would not be compromised and the country “will make huge

54

savings on foreign currency" (The Herald, 13 April 2000, pg. 9). It was unclear
whether private schools — including the ones where Mugabe sends his children —
were required to ban the British exams. Parents had voiced their dissatisfaction
with the idea Of compulsory “O” and “A” Level Exams (The Daily News, 27 March
2001, pg. 12). Also, Zimsec was accused of mismanagement on several
occasions leading to a lack of funds and poor standards (The Daily News, 28
April 2001, pg. 2, and The Herald, 30 October 2000, pg. 7).

In terms of the other issue being addressed, the Ministry of Education,
Sport, and Culture vacated their role of assigning new teachers to schools. The
hiring of teachers was directed to a more local level, and teachers applied to the
schools/districts of their choice. As a result, teachers migrated to urban areas,
leaving rural areas with shortages (The Herald, 21 January 2000). The problem
grew in 2001 when the government dismissed many of the temporary teachers
mostly from remote areas who had not met the required qualifications (The Daily
News, 14 February 2001).

During the same period, the Ministry of Higher Education and Technology
cut funding for students at colleges. Students had been receiving small
government stipends with food and shelter being provided free of charge. With
the budgets of 2000, catering was no longer included, and as a result most
colleges resorted to some system of privatization. Demonstrations including
hunger strikes, rallies, boycotts, and violent protests erupted at colleges around

the country. At Hillside Teachers College, police fired live bullets to disperse the

55

students (Mathuthu, 28 November 2000). And students in two colleges in
Masvingo were reported to be starving (Chikede, 16 October 2000, pg. 16).

At Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College, like many of the other colleges,
students were unable to afford the $26000 that they needed to pay for food.
Students rallied, boycotted classes, and several were reported to be sleeping out
in the open (The Daily News, 13 September 2000). Students complained about
not having a choice in purchasing the meal plan and the lack of transparency in
how the figure of $6000 was determined. Rather than truly privatizing the
catering, the college made arrangements with a local caterer to retain college
employees. After a couple of weeks of protests, college administrators returned
the money collected to the students.

A string of protests at universities ensued at the beginning of 2001.
Students at Catholic University of Zimbabwe demonstrated against
mismanagement when their school fees increased from $260,000 to $Z90,000
(The Daily News, 24 April 2001, pg. 3). University of Zimbabwe (UZ) students
cited an increase of fees from $23,000 to $230,000. Two students were killed as
a result Of police crackdown on protesters at UZ. Students began to attack cars
of “sugar daddies" after a woman student committed suicide. Women have
allegedly had to turn to prostitution because they were unable to live on the
government stipends (The Daily News, 9 April 2001, pg. 1). As with other
student protests at the university, the riot police beat the students with batons,

fired teargas, and arrested many (The Daily News, 10 April 2001, pg. 1).

56

R0"

:~
and

Role of Stakeholders’ Theoretical Perspectives in Present Day

In their introduction, Nicholas Burbules and Cartos Torres (2000, pg. 4)
ask the question: “To what extent is the educational endeavor affected by
processes of globalization that are threatening the autonomy of national
educational systems and the sovereignty of the nation-state as the ultimate ruler
in democratic societies?"

In a personal interview, Thompson Tsodzo (2002), the Permanent
Secretary for the Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture, gave an example of
global forces that he viewed as interfering with the state’s national policy. He
refused US-donated condoms being made available in schools. He argued that
abstinence was a part of culture, and that having condoms available would
suggest that the state would be consenting for youths to engage in premarital
sex. However, people not discussing sex issues openly, especially between the
generations, Is Often the case. It is doubtful that abstinence is cultural in a
society where AIDS/HIV is growing rampantly, infecting an estimated quarter of
the population.

lnforrnational technology is another globalization process that the state is
trying to negotiate in a way to maintain local authority. Tsodzo (2002) asserts
that his ministry is in favor of technology, especially when it is being donated by
the UK. However, his support for the lntemet is limited. He argues against
Africans being only consumers of the information and not producers of it. This
criticism is justified in the light of Western dominance in the lntemet, but his
approach to addressing the problem leads to more state control rather than

57

supporting individuals to be writers/organizers of information. He advocates for a
council to restrict information so that it is appropriate for the national context.
Such a body would be contradictory to the ideals Of the free exchange of ideas of
the Internet.

A more contentious issue is localizing the “O” and “A” level exams. There
could be much political significance in the state exerting independence from the
formal colonial power. The exams have had along history of being more
appropriate for British citizens than Zimbabweans. Other than political-economy
and history courses of the past, there has been very little discussion about
altering the syllabi. Zimbabwean exams are extremely similar to the British ones.
The primary factors motivating the Change come from the foreign currency crisis. .
Stories of schools requiring students to pay their exam fees in foreign currencies
' circulated throughout the country (The Herald, 24 January 2000). With the
economic pressures - including the fuel shortage — using foreign currency
reserves for exams is not a priority for the government.

The globalization issue being debated is one of legitimacy. Ironically, the
Zimbabwe education system is considered legitimate because of its wholesale
adoption of the British education system of the past. The Cambridge Ordinary
and Advance Level Exams have much more global recognition than the
Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council (Zimsec) Exams. Parents who can
afford to send their children to private schools understand very well the
significance of lntemational standards, especially during the current time when so
many young people are leaving the country for opportunities overseas.

58

The government exerts much effort in maintaining control, yet little
significance is directed towards the curriculum and pedagogy. When asked in a
personal interview (Tsodzo, 2002) about such reforms, the Secretary of the
Ministry of Education discussed a return to a colonial “F-2" system that focused
on practical work and production. Rather than using past terms of “productive
workers” or “education with production", the ministry is using language of
“science" and combining “theory and practical.” Tzodzo also discussed “teaching
patriotism.” As he noted, these reforms have been recycled throughout the
country’s history. To combat an overly “academic” education system, the
government has often pushed .for more vocational/technical/practical education.
'In the past the reform has held very little interest for students, and there is no
evidence that the current case is any different.

When asked what were the major issues for the Ministry of Education,
Tsodzo (2002) identified discipline of students and teachers. While discussing
the issue he did not relate the state’s desire to suppress any opposition to its
rule; instead, he returned to culture as the justification.

We [The Ministry of Education, Sport, and Culture] are also saying it is

cultural for our students to Obey regulations. It is to be a part of a civilized

community. If you do not Obey rules, you are on your own...you are a

rebel. It is very un-cultural.

He continued to explain what did happen to those who did “rebel". “There
are very few rebels in our culture. They were there, but they were sunk. They
were tossed aside.”

Tsodzo’s views are a demonstration that the state does not tolerate

dissention. Administrators, teachers and students thought to be speaking out
59

against the ruling party are “chased away” from schools. While it is the war
veterans and party supporters and not ministerial inspectors involved, a national
educational policy is being implemented. Teachers know what subjects to avoid
in their classroom. They also are aware of the possibility of a disgruntled student
or former student complaining to the war vets.

It is the riot police and not war vets who make their presence known on
the University of Zimbabwe’s campus. An example of the ferocity of the police
beating students is when the police entered the dorms at night with tear gas and
batons on 9 April 2001. One student was killed after he was allegedly assaulted
by seven riot policemen (Mudiwa, 10 April 2001, pg. 1). The force used by the
state suggests that it is not open to dialogue and the airing of opposing views.

The current situation could be viewed in terms of various stakeholders
advocating for different agendas of: globalization, nation building, free market,
and liberation ideology. Again, the dominance of one theoretical perspective and
the marginalization of the others has allowed for the ideals of the dominant one
to become distorted.

If there was equilibrium of all these forces at work, reforms could be
effective. In the face of globalization pressures, a localized curriculum could help
schools develop a national identity. The economic reality is that the government
can no longer afford to pay another country to set exams and subsidize many of
the expenses of higher education. Using free market concepts, resources could
be used more efficiently while giving students and teachers more freedom of
choice. In terms of liberation pedagogy, stakeholders of teachers, students,

60

administrators and community members could join in a dialogue about what Is
meaningful schooling and how to bring it about.

However, there is no balance of these forces. Liberation pedagogy or any
type of pedagogy remains excluded from the debate. In the current period,
questioning and proposing opposing ideas is viewed as a direct challenge to the
ruling party.

In terms of globalization, the Mugabe regime has alienated itself from
most countries in the world. Sanctions from the European Union and the United
States restrict many government officials’ travel and financial dealings. Mugabe
has accused the British Prime Minister of trying to re-colonize Zimbabwe. In a
speech given on 12th of August, 2002, the President stated, “Each one of these
lives will remind you with the harshest Of language that there is no price big
enough to fetch this Nation; no gold, no silver, precious enough, to buy its
sovereignty. We are not for sale; Zimbabwe is for Zimbabweans; we are not for
the highest bidder, indeed, we are not for the British bidder.”

In the same speech, Mugabe continued:

Britain, Europe and America can impose sanctions, or do worse devilish

things. Let Europe banish all holy men who obey their conscience and

stand by our cause; let Europe banish all the disabled; banish all wives,
banish all children, all brothers, all sisters, all cousins. Let Europe’s list
grow by another fifty, another hundred, another one thousand, another
million, grow by all but the stooges they sponsor here, stooges who
gladden them. But we shall not budge; we shall not be deterred on this
one question. The land is ours! Shame to them!" (12 August, 2002, ZANU

PF Homepage).

Mugabe’s language suggests that the Zimbabwean state views the West

as an enemy, and those who oppose Mugabe’s policies and tactics are termed

61

as “stooges” of western powers. This rhetoric attempts to invalidate views in
opposition to that of the state.

Mugabe also blames the Western press for the negative images in the
country. At the September 2002 UN World Summit in South Africa, he clearly
told the Western powers that their involvement in national issues was unwelcome
(Swams, 2002). This speech was given at a time when Zimbabwe is greatly
dependent on Western food aid.

Economic issues are discussed, but there is little evidence of the state
following a cohesive plan. Witness Chinyama (20-26 March 2003, pg. 32) has
criticized the state’s National Economic Revival Programme (NERP) as being
unrealistic. The Minister of Finance had projected double digit inflation for his
2003 budget; however by March 2003, the annual rate has reached an all-time
high of 220.9%. The official exchange rate has remained at fifty-five Zimbabwe
dollars to one US dollar since October 2000. In March 2003 the exchange rate
for exporters was increased to 800 Zimbabwe dollars to one US, however, the
parallel market offers a rate of 1400 Zimbabwe dollars to one. Members of the
government-business-Iabor Tripartite Negotiating Forum (TNF) have advocated
for better fuel procurement and pricing, exchange rates, and a lifting of price
controls with little success (Dzirutwe, 20-26 March 2003, pg.5). Most basic
goods such as bread, cooking oil, and mealie-meal can no longer be found on

the shelves.

62

The World Bank and IMF have severed ties with the country. By May
2002, Zimbabwe owed the Bretton Woods institutions over $US 118 million. A
staff reporter of the Financial Gazette forecasted dire effects.

The defaults on the external loan commitments have also cost Zimbabwe

crucial economic aid worth several million American dollars, triggering a

crippling balance-of-payments crisis and severe shortages of fuel and

other essential commodities." (2-8 May 2002)

A United States Department of State report points to Mugabe and his
ruling party as the cause of the crisis in the country.

Zimbabwe is in a state of crisis today because those who govern the

country have systematically Undermined the rule of law. Through their

actions, President Robert Mugabe and his colleagues in the ZANU-PF

party have placed themselves above the law; rather than serving the state, .

the state now serves their personal interests. Although they have

employed the rhetoric. of liberation to portray their actions as a defense of

the Zimbabwean people, their real agenda has been and remains the .

defense Of their own privilege. (12 March 2003)

The report identifies government policies as undermining the judiciary,
cracking down on political parties and civil society organization, suppressing the
independent media, diverting food aid, disrupting of farming, and intimidating
rural people.

The invasions of large-scale, commercial farms and industries have
attacked the income generating backbone of the country. Coupled with a
drought, agricultural production decreased greatly for most crops. For instance,
production of Maize fell from 810,000 tons in 2000 to 80,000 in 2003. Between
2001-2002 wheat fell from 280,000 tones in 2001 to 115,000 in 2002. However,

during the same period, barley production increased from 32,000 to 50,000 tons.

63

The price set for barley was $2100,000 a ton compared to wheat at $270,000
(Chabarika,19 March 2003, pg. 16).

Maintaining high levels of intimidation expends much of the nation’s
resources. In his January 2003 economic analysis, John Robertson discusses
how the government expenditures have increased partly in order to pay war
veterans and party supporters.

Expenditure has averaged Z$1 billion a day this year and will average

more than Z$2 billion a day next year. As tax revenue averaged only

Z$726 million a day this year and will average about Z$1 400 million a day

next year, government has had to borrow the difference. In the coming

year, domestic debt will increase by an average of Z$600 million a day,
and possibly much more if the tax revenue sources shrink in the coming
months. .. . . . - '
As a result the government cannot sustain the funding for education, health and
social services that it allocated in the past.

According to the United States Department of State’s report (2003), the
primary interest of the state is to ensure the perpetuation of the ruling party.
Nation building becomes the only perspective the state considers and, as a
result, it has taken a distorted role — rather than building unity and national
identity, the state is attempting to hold on to power by suppressing any
opposition — real or imaginary.

In 2002 The Mugabe regime replaced the Law and Order (Maintenance)
Act that had been established during the Smith regime to combat against the
liberation struggle. The new Public Order and Security Act (POSA) maintained

laws that repressed oppositional voice. In a statement published on their web

64

page, the Legal Resources Foundation (2003) published a summary of the act.
POSA makes it illegal to:

1.) Publish or pass on a statement which is untrue and which may incite or
encourage public disorder or violence; or adversely affect Zimbabwe’s
defense or economy; or undermine confidence in the Police Force, the
Defense forces or the Prison Service.

2.) Publicly criticize the President.

3.) Hold meetings (in public or in private) that are likely to disturb the
peace.

4.) Say anything in public that may make people hostile, contemptuous, or
disrespectful to the police.

5.) Hold public gatherings without at least four days advance notice to the
police.

6.) Not carry an identity document in public places.

The police can:

7.) Order a dismissal ofpublic gathering to maintain public order.

8.) Prohibit a public gathering if they believe, on reasonable grounds, that
the gathering will cause public disorder, and they may disperse illegal
meetings and demonstrations.

9.) Establish a cordon to contain, or protect an area from, any public
disorder or public violence. A written permit from a police officer is
needed to leave the area.

Many parallels can be drawn from the past. The government of 1962—
1979 attempted to use education to maintain white racial hegemony, while the
opposition demanded more access. Similar to the past, the state’s actions lead
to a limiting of a national debate. Substantial pedagogical issues do not get
addressed. Starting with the run up to the 2002 Presidential election, schools
became field grounds of politics, especially in the rural areas. Schools may have
been a forum for questioning and challenging the government or only an
imaginary threat of it. No matter how justified this perception is or was, the
results are the same — teachers and headmasters are being victimized.

While Tsodzo (2002) asserted that there was only one legitimate case of

intimidation brought to the Ministry of Education, the Progressive Teachers’
65

Union of Zimbabwe reported much different figures. They accounted for 20,994
teachers kidnapped and later released, 15,659 assaulted or harassed, 14,442
displaced, and 4,926 given death threats between February 2001 and April 2002.
Also 107,503 teachers were forced to pay protection fees during the same period
(Mangwende, 2002, pg. 1). Teachers’ pay had been reduced greatly due to
inflation. They did not receive the same increases awarded to other civil
servants, as a result, a newly trained teacher grosses $223,716 a month. After
taxes, the figure was reduced to $210,666, which is below the poverty line for the
nation (Staff Writer, The Financial Gazette, 25—31 July 2002, pg. 2).

The state’s policies. are focused on maintaining control to the extent that
the other foci of education are neglected. Because the agenda is so singularly
focused, there is no space in the national debate to attend to curricular and
pedagogical issues central to education. Instead, the education issues that do
come up revolve around maintaining the party’s hegemony and not teaching and
Ieaming. For example, in May of 2002, the Education and Culture Minister
Aeneas Chigwedere announced a common uniform for all of the nation’s schools.
After an uproar from parents unable to purchase new uniforms, the minister
backed down (The Financial Gazette, 30 May-5 June 2002, pg. 2). However, he
did not yield with his other reform, to change the names of all schools with British
names.

A further example of the ruling party’s focus concerns a major reform
coming from the Ministry of Higher Education and Technology. This reform
requires students to engage in national service at The Border Gezi National

66

Youth Service Center. The center indoctrinates school-leavers into the ideals of
the ruling party. Graduates, known as “green bombers”, have been accused of
“wreaking havoc in the country in the run-up to the presidential election held in
March, manning illegal roadblocks, intimidating, assaulting and raping suspected
supporters of the opposition" (Mudzingwa, 24 June 2002, pg.1). In June of 2002,
the state ordered all teacher-training colleges to reserve enrolment placements
for the Border Gezi graduates, regardless of their qualifications.

Overall, education’s role in the national, political debate has been
diminished. There are several reasons for this. First, in the past, education was
the singular credentialing process for obtaining employment. It was common
knowledge that a student needed passes in five “0" level subjects to be eligible
for most jobs. That situation changed with the influx of school leavers atthe
secondary level: Zvogbo writes, “Important lesson that was learnt is that more
education does not mean more jobs" (1994, pg. 95). School-leaver
unemployment was marked at 200,000 each year prior to the economic decline
starting in 2000. In terms of credentialing, social mobility comes from having a
degree, diploma or, in Zimbabwe’s case, the passing of five Ordinary Levels.
Phillip Brown (1997, pg. 741) describes how education expansion leads to
credential inflation. Today, there are so many school leavers with O’Levels that
the credential loses its value. Also, in the age of globalization the nature Of work
has changed. If there was international investment, many jobs would be either
de-skilled and require minimal formal education (e.g. working in an automated
factory) or highly skilled requiring advanced degrees (e.g. working for an

67

international NGO). The result is that completing five “0" levels does not carry
the significance it once did.

Second, for the most part access to schooling (primary, secondary, and
tertiary) has been achieved. In 1979 there were 2,401 primary schools and 177
secondary schools. A decade later, those numbers increased to 4,504 primary
and 1,506 secondary schools (Gatawa, pg. 18). There is no side in the political
debate that is overtly attempting to limit access to education. It has become a
non-argument. Even with the tensions with university students, the government
has opened new universities in the past two years - Midlands State University,
Bindura University, and Masvingo University College. Also, private universities
such as Africa University in Mutare and Great Zimbabwe University in Masvingo,
distance education with Zimbabwe Open University and University of' South
Africa have become an option for students with resources.

Third, liberation and education were thought to go hand in hand. In the
past, secondary schools and universities were sites where the seeds of
revolution were sown. Today, schools no longer play such a role due to
repressive acts from the state. Instead, political voices come from party
supporters and war veterans.

An overriding fourth reason education is no longer central to the national
debate is that the state no longer views education as vital in promoting its
interests. Chenjerai Hove (2002), a celebrated Zimbabwean writer, wrote how
education has become the victim of government actions. He does mention the
school closings and the attacks on teachers, but his focus is on how the state

68

never organized a serious literacy campaign in the country. ZANU (PF)’s support
comes from the rural areas, where illiteracy is the greatest. Instead of trying to
develop the population, Hove accuses the government of maintaining intimidation
to keep a stranglehold on the people.

A Microcosm of National Politics - Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College

On a micro level, the student protests in second term of 2001 at Belvedere
Technical Teachers’ College reflect the larger national context in terms of the
various theoretical perspectives. The issue of the college no longer providing
free catering services to the students could have been a part of a movement
towards free market policies. ' Students paying their expenses and being given
; opportunities to engage in income generating activities at the college could have
been a part of a sustainable plan. In terms of liberation ideology, the -
administration could have used the opportunity to engage in a dialogue with
students regarding power relations at the college, and new possibilities could
have been created. Using ideas of globalization, the college could have
attempted to build ties with educational institutions in other countries to access
resources.

Rather than eliciting other perspectives, the administration reflected the
state’s policy of attempting to maintaining control of the situation (i.e. nation-
building) at the expense of dialogue. Privately, many lecturers asserted that
even though the administration was acting with good intentions of trying to solve
a problem under time pressure, stakeholders with various interests should have
been involved to create a lasting solution.

69

Administrators made arrangements with a local caterer to retain
employees and provide food for students cheaply. At the time the solution
seemed reasonable; only hindsight revealed flaws. Students voiced their
displeasure because they were excluded from the debate and they had no choice
in the matter — they had to purchase a meal plan for $26 000 for the term. For
several days, students boycotted classes and held rallies demanding
“transparency” in the decision making process.

Fortunately, BTTC’s resemblance to the ruling party only went so far.
Many lecturers were quick to listen to the students and gave their support in
addressing the administration. Unlike the state, the college administration
showed good intentions. They allowed lecturers and students to question the
policy, and in the end many stakeholders were involved in creating a solution that
worked for all. The college reimbursed students for the food that was not eaten,
and students were able to pay for individual meals.

This situation at Belvedere did not elevate to a level where an amicable
solution was out of reach. In their argument for school choice, Chubb and Moe
(1990) demonstrate how parents’ and students’ voices in debates of what should
happen in their schools get drowned out when issues get politicized. More
powerful stakeholders such as politicians, union leaders, and lobbyists bring
issues to a level where those involved on the ground level are unable to
participate in the debate; that is, the voices of local stakeholders Often get lost
when the debate escalates. Easily, the food issue at BTTC could have drawn in
more powerful players and the dialogue could have become a more politicized

70

issue. One side reflecting the interests of the Ministry of Higher Education could
have pushed the issue to one of supporting the state, and another side reflecting
student unions and opposition parties could have directed an opposing side of
demanding a change at multi levels of government. The voices of college
students, lecturers, and administrators might not have been heard and the
problem might not have been addressed. However, the dialogue did happen on
the college level and the issues were resolved.

Like most issues at a local level, those making policy decisions at BTTC
were not distant from those affected by it. After the initial confrontation, the
administration allowed space for other policies to be negotiated. No one
perspective dominated. Because the stakeholders at BTTC had the
freedornlroom to allow various possibilities they were able to engage in a
dialogue with others. Lecturers, students, and administrators were constantly
engaged in the debates, and each was supported in expressing views even if
they were in opposition. Morning teas were often battlegrounds where ideas and
views got aired. Through the dialogue, an amicable solution was created and the
college got on with its mission of teacher education.

However, the college was not immune from national policies. On 21 May
2001, Nkululeko Sibanda (pg.6), the president of Zimbabwe National Association
of Students’ Unions (Zinasu) called for a national demonstration against
privatization of food services and inadequacy of Vocational Training Loans
(VT Ls). The following week students from colleges around the country, including
Belvedere, began boycotting classes, marching into towns, and protesting.

71

Belvedere students reported being tear-gassed, beaten, and barred from leaving
campus during the process, and their concerns were never heard by the Ministry
of Higher Education and Technology.

On the national level, the education debate excluded most pedagogical
issues. As a result, the college was left to its own devices to determine how best
to promote teaching and Ieaming. In the following chapters I argue that many of
the qualities needed to make education reforms effective existed at Belvedere
Technical Teachers’ College, particularly Openness to dialogue and commitment
to work together.

More Questions .
lf meaningful reform can happen on the micro level in spite of a supportive
national context, what external forces are important in assisting them? Without a

positive national context, what IS the hope for a micro level reform having an
impact on the larger education system?

72

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CHAPTER 3
Action Research — Methods Reflecting Theoretical Perspectives

Posing the Questions

Assuming the premise: educational reform in teaching and learning should
include a collective negotiation which includes various views/agendas from
various theoretical perspectives. Is it possible for action research to create a
forum for this negotiation to take place on a micro level (individual teachers in
classrooms)? On a macro level (Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College or
national level)?

Introduction

Action research is a central theme in my research. The Curriculum Depth
Study (CDS), a research study students do while on teaching practice, was the
focus of the study. The students were to identify a problem in their classroom,
find ways to address it, and reflect about the process — the basic tenets of action
research. In conducting my research I also used aspects of action research, i.e.
working with the Professional Studies (PS) section at Belvedere Technical
Teachers’ College (BTTC) to try to improve the way lecturers support and
challenge students in doing the CDS. I collaborated with various lecturers,
students, and administrators in reflecting about the problems revolving around
the CDS, developing ways to address those problems, and dialoguing throughout
the process.

In this chapter, I examine action research in the context of Zimbabwean,
Southern African, and Western countries’ literature. While I find that the national
dialogue has been very limited, i.e. very few articles have been published
describing what it means to engage in action research in a Zimbabwean context,

lessons regarding teacher education can be learned. Two key points are: 1) a

conducive environment is needed to make action research effective and 2) action
78

research can be a centerpiece of reform that assists teacher educators in
rethinking and making education more meaningful.

Action Research is the current buzzword in many educational circles.
While it was introduced in the 1940’s, in the past decade, action research has
become a worldwide trend for programs in teacher education. Torres (1995)
argues that action research is sweeping the world as an effective method of
teacher education and transforming classrooms. The term is passed around with
its many promises of teacher reflection, liberation, critical consciousness, and
problem solving. Without a dialogue of what action research means for the
Zimbabwean context of teacher education, action research simply remains
jargon.

Programs in Zimbabwe have begun to implement action research projects
in various capacities. For the past six years Belvedere Technical Teachers'
College (BTTC)in Harare has required students to complete a Curriculum Depth
Studies (CDS) project where they pursue an in-depth study of an aspect of
Ieaming in the classroom while they conduct their teaching practices. At the
beginning of the first CDS Workshop (1999) many lecturers were uncomfortable
with action research being the favored approach for the CDS. Since that time,

together college lecturers have developed a more clear vision of what action

 

5 Student-teachers of academic subject areas engage in teaching practice (TP) for one year
while student-teachers of vocational/technical and agricultural subject areas engage in teaching
practice for one trimester of the school year. After TP, they complete the writing of the project at
college before graduating.

79

research means for the college. Through dialogue it was discovered that most of
the disagreements were over jargon and terminology and not the ideas.

Even though most teacher education programs in the country require
students to complete a research project that resembles action research, there is
little acknowledgement of this trend in the Zimbabwean literature. Ndamba
(1999) quotes Professor Gebeda, “Action research does not seem to be
understood well yet. This in not unique to Nyadire [college] but general In tertiary
education at this stage” (pg. 29).

While much has been written about the implementation of action research
in general, very few articles are written about Africa in general and Zimbabwe in
particular. Two authors, P. Pashapa (2000) of Mkoba Teachers’ College and G.
T. Ndamba (1999) of Masvingo Teachers’ College, have advocated for action
research to be the approach used for the CDS. These authors do give a clear
explanation of action research in general, however, I have found no account of
what it means to do action research in a Zimbabwean context.

What is Action Research?

Action research is different from most of the other kinds of research in its
open approach. In traditional research approaches, access of conducting
research is closed; it requires special university training. Once trained, the
researcher is considered “an expert”, and becomes distanced from those s/he is
working with in the field. Action research, or teacher research, respects the
teacher as an expert, not because s/he has any secret knowledge and skills, but
because of his/her role in the classroom. S/he is most aware of what is

80

happening in the classroom, why it is happening, the significance of the actions,
and s/he is the best position to effect change. The particular methods of
research design, data collection, analysis, and write-up varies depending on the
context and the researchers’ aims and interests. Rather, the factors that
distinguish action research from other approaches to research are:

1. The teacher examines his or her own practice

2. The teacher attempts to create change to improve the

Ieaming/teaching situation

Most good teachers naturally do action research; they identify a problem
or issue in their classroom that interests them, examine it in depth, and attempt
to implement solutions. As in doing any research, the researcher is explicit about
what s/he does in the process. The intention'of action research is not to create
experts who can tell others what to do - it is to create teachers who reflect
deeply on their own practice to make it better.

There are different levels of action research. They include:

1. Technical / trying to fix a particular element of teaching/Ieaming

2. Changing the structure Of teaching and Ieaming

3. Political / making connections between what happens in the classroom

and the larger socio-political context

In practice, it is difficult to distinguish the various levels. Something may
seem technical (e.g. giving girls more wait time to be able to answer questions),
but it reflects a philosophy of teaching that produces a particular environment
(e.g. giving equal opportunity to succeed). And as Paulo Freire (1970) points

out, everything is political, e.g. the belief of what is fair and just for girls.

However, often the deeper issues are not explicitly addressed.

81

Learning from African Experiences

There has been relatively little written on action research taking place in

Africa. In Monk’s (1997) review of literature of in-service teacher development in

Sub-Saharan Africa for the time period of 1983 to 1997, he identified only two

articles that referred to action research — both being written by the same author

(Walker, 1994 and 1993). Van der Wethuizen (1993) discovered that the South

African Journal of Education had never published an article written by a teacher

nor one using action research.

More recently, there have been articles written about conducting action

research in other countries in the southern African region. Below are examples.

 

Table 3.1 — Articles of Action Research Taking Place in Southern African

 

 

 

Journal Author/Researcher Context/Cohort Topic and Issues
Reference

Stuart et al The Lesotho Action Team of secondary Student passivity -
(1997) Research Group (LARG) teachers in Lesotho “Challenging students will

encourage them to develop
thinking skills” (pg. 171 ).
Students were included in
conducting the research
project, e.g. organizing
field trips, examining
teacher/student talk.

 

Mahlape Morojele

Primary Teachers’
Certificate Course at
National Teachers
Training College in
Lesotho

Higher order thinking skills
of students - “Students
show a lack of higher order
skills such as
comprehension,
application, analysis, and
synthesis. Students
believe that knowledge is
closed or fixed; it is a thing
which they are given,
rather than an exploration
in which they can take part
of" (pg. 183).

 

 

Pulane Lefoka

 

District Resource
Teachers and National
University of Lesotho

 

Self-reflection skills for
primary school teachers.

 

82

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Zeichner et Alina Amukushu Teacher Education in Created a reading corner
al. (1989) Namibia - B-Ievel to motivate students to
course for 34 Namibian read in their mother tcggue
Michael Ochurub educators requiring Contradictions in calling for
action research - teacher involvement in
organized by curriculum development
University of Umea in and the reality of excluding
Sweden teachers
Peggy Shilamba Attitudes of students
regarding study skills
Miriam Muukenga Problems students had
using English language at
Oggwediva College
Benthsai Uakumbua Teaching of Otjiherero
language — being
“bastardized through
translation form European
languages” at Windhoek
College
Scholastika Hausika Difficulties of using English
among primary school
teachers in the north.
Van der MEP Mathematics To improve teaching
Wethuizen Education Project at strategies of primary and
(1993) University of Cape secondary school
Town, S.A. mathematics teachers
M. Walker Primary Education Feasibility of using action
W. Flanagan Project at University of research to assist teachers
Cape Town, SA in improving schools
P. Naidoo Science Education Assisting thirteen high
Project at University of school science teachers to
the Witwatersrand, improve the syllabus in
SA. three “black" schools in
Natal
Cowan, Davids, Savahi, Masters in Action Research work as a part of
Brown, Papier, Najjaar, Research Project at a master’s course.
Isaacs, Hartman, the University of the
Cleophas, Thuynsma, Western Cape, S.A.
Van Louw
Van den Soweto Parents Crisis Committee, National Education change for a
Berg and Education Crisis Committee, People’s Education new South Africa. To
Meerkotter Committee redirect education struggle
(1993) from the streets to the
classrooms.
Stuart and Kunje (1998) Teacher training in Teachers found the
Malawi process useful, but support
from facilitators was vital
Mokuku (2001) A program of Reflecting on the meaning
environmental of teaching environmental

 

education workshop to
help Lesotho science
teachers

literacy

 

 

83

 

Important insights for a Zimbabwean context can be drawn from these
studies. For instance, Mokuku (2001) found that teachers were reluctant to move
out of their preconditioned traditional role of teacher to use a more dynamic,
constructivist approach. He also discovered that there was not a culture of
outside reading and professional development in many schools. Similarly, Stuart
et al. (1997) question whether action research is appropriate for an African
context — where most of the education systems are hierarchal and bureaucratic
and there is not much support for teacher professionalism. Van der Wethuizen
(1993) points out that in many places teachers have not been encouraged to
question and attempt to influence change in the classroom. He states, “The lack
of teacher initiated work is indicative of the extent to which teachers in South
Africa are disempowered” (pg. 13).

Morojele (in Stuart, 1997) also considered the importance of cultural
norms when she queried, “Some student teachers showed the potential for using
cognitive skills But why were they not applying these skills? Was it because
their education — or perhaps cultural norms - had not encouraged them to
question and analyze?” (pg. 189).

Stuart and Kunje (1998) argue that action research is possible in an
African context, but supports are necessary to make it effective. The theme
continued from the earlier article; “One should not lose sight Of the fact that
action research has its own demands which may conflict with the day-to-day

operations of the college. For example, with teaching and Ieaming that is

84

examination-oriented, tutors may not have sufficient time to follow up on issues
identified in various cycles” (Stuart, et. al. 1997. pg. 187).

However, supports do not come without their own complications. Van der
Wethuizen identifies most often supports come from tertiary institutions or non-
govemment organizations. He argues that the interests of the teacher/research
are Often compromised by the larger body’s agenda.

The success of action research can be measured in a variety of ways.
Zeichner et al. (1988) claim, “Although in several cases the research did not
result in concrete solutions to the problems studied, but to a deeper
understanding of the researchers situation, all 6 of these action researchers took
an important step in becoming active interpreters of the broad principles
underIying the educational reforms” (pg. 196). As an example, Pulane Lefoka (in
Stuart, 1997) did not have success at first. She states, “As teachers engaged in
this [first] stage, we observed that they focused on students instead of their own
practice or on instructional problems... emphasis onto self-reflection and self-
evaluation in solving classroom problems" (pg. 189). However, she describes
how the teachers did take steps towards greater reflection.

While none of the authors suggest that action research will solve all
education problems, Stuart et al. (1997) continue to advocate action research as
a tool for social change in South Africa. They argue that it supports teachers “to
take some control over their own practices and change it” (pg. 166). Van den
Berg and Meerkotter (1993) also describe how action research has been used as
a counter-hegemonic tool against apartheid education. Changes come in many

85

different forms, and action research can take various forms in different contexts
and be effective.
Learning from Western Experiences

Learning lessons from the West does not imply blindly accepting western
reforms part and parcel. Bruce Fuller (1991) describes the effects experienced
when a developing country adopts a Western system of schooling and its way of
thinking. Institutional theory explains that people have a general view of what
schooling should be — not because it serves any particular purposes — but
because it is simply an institutional norm. For instance, what is a classroom
without desks in rows, and a chalkboard? Teachers, students and administrators
are expected to act in a certain prescribed manner. The purpose of using cases
from the West is to critically examine what is being done - not to copy, but to
learn lessons so Zimbabwean teacher education institutions can selectively
choose ideas worth developing within the context of their own programs.

Current literature has numerous examples of teacher education programs
that have used action research to promote deep, reflective thinking. What
follows are a few that provide insights into what it means to promote action
research as a part of teacher education.

McEwan et al. (1997, “Learning to teach through Action Research”)
attempted to create a different approach to the student teaching practicum
through means of “infusing such elements as critical inquiry and collaboration
into the experience" (pg. 47). Using a team approach, the classroom teacher, a
university professor, and two student teachers collaborated in planning, teaching,

86

and Ieaming from students. They met weekly and developed openness and
trust, a common language, and a climate of critical reflection and reflective
awareness. Clearly, the endeavor required commitment, time, and a willingness
to trying new ideas. The researchers were challenging the traditional view of
teaching practice where “the implied message is that the student should learn to
do as the teacher does" (pg. 49). Two years after the study, members of the
team have maintained the dialogue — “We still communicate, offer each other
advice, and share new ideas. It’s amazing” (pg. 55).

Kosnick (2000, “Looking Back: Six Teachers Reflect on the Action
Research Experience in Their Teacher Education Programs”) described how she
designed a teacher education program that supports new teachers to engage in
action research. “In order to develop the action research process, we modeled a
collaborative style of work, interconnected all assignments, team-taught,
developed evaluation rubricsfor the integrated assignments, and planned
various modules spanning across courses” (pg. 134). She showed how her
program gave students opportunities to: 1) develop a personal philosophy of
education in practice and principle, 2) attempt something different in their
teaching, 3) collaborate and create a community of inquiry, and 4) become an
expert in a specific area.

Grimmett (1996, “The Struggles of Teacher Research in a Context of
Education Reform: Implications for Instructional Supervision”) discussed issues
of facilitating action research in British Columbia in terms of stmggle (intellectual,
moral, personal, social, and political). To support teachers' struggles towards

87

professional growth, he identified important elements: a trusting environment,
collaboration, and the teacher viewing their role as protagonists in addressing
key issues of Ieaming. “In the final analysis, the teacher research process
appeared to give teachers permission to create spaces in which the experiences
of their daily lives as classroom practitioners could be detailed in all their
complexity" (pg. 43). He continues, “Teachers take pains to address the vexing
questions and perplexing dilemmas inherent in the daily messiness of practice"
(pg. 45). He puts much value on collaboration whereby colleagues challenge
each other’s thinking and assumptions — “The collaborative nature of the inquiry
process opened new perspectives on classroom action. It enabled teachers to
see their students through different eyes. Also, it provided them with different
ways of looking at central aspects of their role as teacher and facilitator” (pg. 48).

Keating et al (1998, “A Collaborative Action Research Model for Teacher
Preparation Programs") describe efforts at California State University San
Marcos to implement a teacher preparation program that supports action
research. They developed the program with the goal of producing reflective and
critical thinking teachers who are problem solvers and researchers. Two key
elements to which they continually made reference were: collaboration and using
reflective joumals/portfolios. Students in schools worked together in teams. “In
this study, they make decisions collectively on such research issues as
individuals to speak with, information to seek, methods of collections and
analyzing data, and results and implications. Each team shares its findings in
writing and orally at a presentation with other cohort members" (pg. 383).

88

Students were also required to maintain a journal throughout the process. “The
reflective joumaling process helps preservice teachers develop the skills to take
a broad view of events in their classes, determine which are of particular
importance, and attempt to understand the whys and the hows of the event of
what future actions they should undertake. They continually check their
assumptions, ask themselves critical questions, and refine their practice based
on the answers to their questions. They learn that reflection is an active process
providing an opportunity to look at past experiences and relate them to future
action” (pg. 383). Having faith that student teachers were capable of doing
research was-central to the program, as stated, “The belief that teachers can
design objective studies with rigor and clear direction is inherent in the
assumption about the value of action research” (pg. 381 ). Unlike many
traditional univerSity professors, Keating was willing to abdicate his role as the
sole expert in order to supportstudents in also becoming experts.

Dinkelman (2000, “An Inquiry into the Development of Critical Reflection in
Secondary Student Teachers”) describes two vital conditions in promoting
reflective teaching in his teacher education methods course; creating
Opportunities to leam/reflect/act and seeing it modeled by experienced teachers.
He described the mentoring: he personally oversaw five school visits for clinical
supervision, four retum-to-campus seminars, five journal assignments, and two
peer observations. In addition there was the role of cooperating teachers who
worked closely with each student teacher. A critical element was central to the
program. “Because schooling practices are never neutral in relation to the larger

89

social order, educators should strive to develop a democratic vision of the good
society based on the ideals of community, equality, caring, and freedom. This
vision can then be used as a referent in making the difficult curricula and
instructional decisions that would help their students take part in social
transformation... Critically reflective teachers see the connections between what
they do in the classroom, other school practices, and the broader social and
political contexts surrounding their work" (pg. 199).

In his research, Dinkelman found that the students in his sample ranked
journal assignments as having the greatest influence on their learning to critically
reflect. Students claimed that the journals forced them to address issues that
would have otherwise been ignored. The students also valued their participation
in the study as a way of growing professionally. Dinkelman interviewed them at
the beginning, midway, and at the end of their teaching practice. One student
identified the process as “a continued opportunity to build a trusting relationship”
(pg. 220).

Moore et al. (1997, “Preservice Teachers Engaged in Reflective
Classroom Research”) described their approach of integrating action research in
their teacher education program. A small group of student teachers and a
university professor focused on a particular issue: how to implement a truly
inquiry-based classroom. The group collaborated in teaching an elementary
classroom once a week. They developed a classroom environment and lessons

that completely used the inquiry approach. They continually reflected, collected

90

data, and discussed what was and was not working and why. They also further
developed their own definitions of “inquiry.”
A Conducive Environment

Valli (2000) states, “Action research can promote the inclusion of teacher
and community voice in the generation of professional knowledge, create
personally satisfying and collegial work environments, and mobilize action
around a social justice agenda. Or it can be used as a bureaucratic instrument of
staff development, reinforce the individualistic norms of the profession, become a
burdensome mandate that further intensifies the work of teaching, or deteriorates
into intellectualized theory with little laboratory action" (pp. 715-6).

Most authors agree that action research Is not a panacea for all problems
concerning teacher develOpment and reflection. In itself, there is nothing special
about action research. Monk (1997) argues that in an African context, “Action
research is no more easy to use as a tool for teacher development and change
than other tools such as supportive coaching in classes or structured release
programmes” (pg. 10). Rather than asking if action research is effective, the
question should be “how can action research be most effective in a particular
context?” Valli (2000) discusses the Importance of a conducive environment.
She quotes D. Hopkins from A Teacher’s guide to Classroom Research (1993),
“There is little school development without teacher development... there is little
teacher development without school development” (pg 725). She also argues
that action research cannot be successful as a “stand-alone" reform strategy
without being consistent with and a part of the administrations goals.

91

For action research to be effective, stakeholders need to share a common
agenda. Dinkelman (2000) found that promoting critical reflection was more an
aim of the teacher education program than it was of the cooperating teachers,
who assisted more in areas of support, lesson ideas, resources, and advice on
particular students. Yost et al. (2000) note the importance of mentors. “Without
a substantial knowledge base and mentoring by teacher educators to move
novice teachers’ thinking beyond a descriptive level, higher levels of reflection
will be difficult to achieve for many novice teachers” (pg. 47). Too often mentors
are neglected in the dialogue in how to promote critical reflection.

To construct a conducive environment requires institutions to rethink
teacher education by: creating opportunities for cognitive dissidence to challenge
student teachers’ thinking; having a commitment and willingness to question and
develop one’s own ideas, and fostering a collaborative spirit. Action research is
at the core of this change. Gitlin et al. (1999. “Pre-Service Teachers’ Thinking on
Research: Implications for Inquiry Oriented Teacher Education") identify the
benefits of action research as both functional, i.e. getting answers to problems in
the classroom, and epistemological Iconstructivist, i.e. developing own ways of
Ieaming/reflecting. “First, preservice teachers can begin to understand what it
means to do research through their participation in a research project. This
insider view is more consistent with their experiential approach to knowledge
production. Second, because preservice teachers rely on experience as a form
of knowledge, but do not necessarily reflect on the assumptions underpinning
this approach to knowledge, their implicit theories are often hidden. Action

92

research is uniquely positioned to expose and examine these theories because
the person doing the research is studying their own educational context. Third,
action research can provide knowledge that is context specific, allowing the
teacher researcher to not only focus on questions they feel are critical to the
success of their classroom, but also to examine the implications of the research
for a particular group of students" (pg. 766).
Rethinking Teacher Education

In the past, teaching practice was seen as a “sink or swim” experience -
an initiation into teaching. The goal was survival. Unfortunately, this situation is
slow to change in many teacher education programs. Dinkelman (2000)
discovered that critical thinking is not the priority for beginning teachers. “The
technical and practical demands of first Ieaming to teach result in the dominance
of non-critical forms of reflection. In a sense, inexperience surfacesas an
influential factor in supporting or impeding the development of critically reflective
preservice teachers” (pg. 220). This view concurs with Lanier & Little’s (1986)
“Research on Teacher Education” where the literature suggests that student
teaching experiences calls for management and short-terrn solutions rather than
intellectual development. The reality is that student teachers are most often
isolated within the classroom without the encouragement or positive opportunities
to self-reflect.

In “An Examination of the Construct of Critical Reflection: Implications for
Teacher Education Programming in the 21St Century” (2000) Yost et al. point to
the need Of changing how we view teacher education. “Teacher education

93

programs must consider shifting their emphasis from transmission of information
to transformation Of student thinking through dialogue.” This view is similar to the
perspective Tom Bourdillon shared at the first Belvedere Technical Teachers’
College CDS workshop (2000) and on many other occasions. He stated that it is
unreasonable to believe that any teacher education program can give beginning
teachers all the skills and knowledge they will need for the next forty years.
Rather it is more useful to assist the student to become a thinker who will
continue to develop over the next forty years. He identified four areas to promote
what he called “self-developing professionalism”; 1) skills in self-reflection, 2)
skills in theorizing, 3) research skills, and 4) commitment to enquiry and self-
improvement.

Yost et al. (2000) suggest teacher education programs look at law school
as an example of an education program that “uses Socratic methods to open:
students to a new way of thinking and analyzing arguments” (pg. 46). They
advocate for teacher education programs to inculcate student teachers with
reflective and critical thinking skills required for the field of teaching.
“Opportunities to construct a personal knowledge of learning theories and
discuss issues relating to diversity and social, political, and economic forces that
impinge upon schools will provide preservice teachers with a firm knowledge

base from which they can critically reflect on the practice of teaching” (pg. 47).

94

Pulling ideas from many of the leading educationists”, they identify
characteristics of reflection to simply state, “Critical reflection involves thinking
and problem solving” (pg. 40). They define problem solving as the process of
making sense of a challenging situation, identifying aspects of practices that
require scrutiny, creating a vision Of what is good, and pursuing the actions to

bring the change about.

These higher thought processes [critical reflection] involve reflection
on the assumptions underlying a decision or act and on the broader
ethical, moral, political, and historical implications behind the
decision or act. A reflective/analytic teacher is one who makes
teaching decisions on the basis of a conscious awareness and
careful consideration Of the assumptions on which the decisions are
based, and the technical, educational, and ethical consequences of
those decisions. The end result of critical reflection for the
individual is cognitive change (Yost et al. 2000. pg. 41).

Four areas of teacher education to promote critical reflection were

identified; constructive methods’, dialogue/collaboration“, action research

 

° Dewey: “An active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of
knowledge in light of the grounds supporting it and future conclusions to which it tends” (pg. 39).
Shulman: “to teach in a way that includes an account of why you do as you do, while tacit
knowledge may be characteristics of many things that teachers do, our obligation as teachers
educators must be to make the tacit explicit" (pg. 40).

Van Manon: three stages of reflection — first, the skills and technical knowledge of the classroom;
second, questioning the underlying assumptions of classroom practices; and third, examining the
moral and ethical dimensions of such practices.

Schon: Reflection-on-action, reflection-In-action, reflection-for-action.

7 Evidence shows that even though student teachers are traditionally taught alternative
philosophies in teacher education programs, they most often revert to the old view of teaching.
They suggest that student teachers must first acknowledge their personal beliefs and
assumptions about teaching as a step towards cognitive Change. “Constructivism stresses the
importance of examining prior experiences and knowledge. Fixed beliefs often work against the
epistemology of reflection, which stresses the multiple viewpoints. To promote reflection,
preservice teachers must have opportunities to understand how their beliefs measure against the
philosophy of their teacher education programs, so that cognitive change can occur“ (pg. 42).

8 Through dialogue students identify and extemalize what they stand for, how their views are
different than others, and aspects of commonality. Through “critical-thinking dyads" students are
95

projectsg, and writing experiences“). Each part supports the others to create a
holistic program. The goal is being able to make meaningful
changes/improvements in schools as well as professional growth.
Discussion

Referring to the model in chapter two which includes the major theoretical
perspectives of the day - free market, liberation ideology, nation building, and
globalization —- action research can play a vital role in the dialogue of teacher
education in Zimbabwe. As described in chapter two, liberation ideology has
been marginalized in the dialogue since the liberation period. While action
research can find common ground with the other three perspectives, it primarily
promotes an agenda of liberation ideology. Free market interests include the
individual choice, entrepreneurial spirit, and ability to respond to students’ needs
as the teacher addresses important issues. As discussed in this chapter, action
I research has much global influence, and it can promote a stronger national
education system. In terms of liberation ideology, action research more clearly
promotes the critical consciousness for teachers to be involved in the social
construction of knowledge and change in school and society. I am not

suggesting that action research be the only agenda for education reform in

 

supported and challenged to collaborate to deepen personal understandings, to question
assumptions that often get overlooked, and to build ideas from each other.

9 Through action research, teachers learn to link prior knowledge to situations, ask questions, and
systematically look for answers. “The focus of the inquiry approach is that reflection on one’s own
experiences is the only way to improve one’s teaching. It also highlights Ieaming as a process
that continues throughout one’s career” (Yost, pg. 43).

1° Through reflective journal writing exercises, beginning teachers can be supported and
challenged to probe deeper in their own thinking of their practice, philosophy, and praxis. “Writing
can be construed as a social Ieaming tool, in which a competent mentor (the professor) moves
students along the reflection continuum" (pg. 44).

96

Zimbabwe. However, it can play an active role in bringing liberation ideology
back in to the national dialogue.

If Zimbabwe is to develop teacher education programs to reflect the ideals
of a liberated country, teacher education needs to be more dialectic,
collaborative, and promoting opportunities for constructivist learning and critical
reflection. As discussed in the previous chapter, many Zimbabwean authors
(Dzvimbo, 1990; Zvobgo, 1994; Nziramasanga, 1991) note that teacher
education has not changed fundamentally since the colonial era. Education
remains for the most part hierarchal and didactic. Paulo Freire’s (1970) term
“banking" relates to a situation in which the lecturer/teacher has all the .
knowledge and deposits slips of information into the empty vessels, the students.
Some lecturers at BTTC tried to control the student research process by not
approving topics, dictating the methods of data collection and regulating the
research design. While working with students in the field, I assisted them in
developing topics that they thought were worthwhile researching during teaching
practice. One particular student had her topic rejected each time she returned to
college. Her advisor gave little direction as to how to improve current topics.
With two weeks left in TP, she had no choice but to stick with her third choice for
a topic.

My research, which I discuss in more detail in following chapters, revealed
that the CDS is different things to different people. In a 2001 questionnaire of
197 Vocational/Technical students at Belvedere Technical Teachers' College, the
largest number of students (86 or 44%) was ambivalent about the experience

97

saying that it was neither positive nor negative. Thirty-two students (16%)
claimed that the experience was not positive. They mostly identified not
understanding the research process and not receiving assistance as the major
problems. Seventy-nine students (40%) rated the experience as being a positive
or an extremely positive experience. These students focused primarily on having
a good feeling that they accomplished something constructive in the classroom
and that they learned much in the process.

Interviewing lecturers revealed that there is much variance as to what they
expect of the CDS and their own comfort level with supervising a research
project. Some were eager to pave a new way of thinking about research that
supports and challenges students to develop their own ways Of thinking. Others
were fearful of external assessors confronting them about students’ use of
particular strategies or terminology.

The lack of common views of the CDS is not an impediment for
meaningful reform. These voices of differing perspectives and backgrounds are
needed in this growing dialogue about action research in Zimbabwe. The West
has its own dialogue of action research. Much discussion revolves around the
critical element of action research (i.e. how the classroom reflects the
political/social reality) and experiences of progressive, experienced teachers
conducting classroom-based research. The issues and realities in Zimbabwe are
different, and thus the dialogue should follow suit. For Instance, the tension from
teachers being encouraged to be innovative problem-solvers in a hierarchal,
post-colonial, education system must be addressed.

98

In terms of promoting ideas of collaboration, commitment to change,
reflection on practice, and wiliness to be involved, action research is a model for
how a research method can promote a dialogue of key issues of improving
education. Action research does not alleviate tensions describe in the previous
chapters. Rather than building unequal power relations where a researcher
discovers answers for others to accept, it attempts to bring more stakeholders to
the forefront of the dialogue. Because different perspectives are encouraged, the
tensions between them tend to be more balanced. Commonalities are sought for
the purpose of taking action, however this is after the perspectives have been
discussed and negotiated. ,

The CDS research project is one of the few chances for students to take
initiative and control of their Ieaming and to be creative and innovative. Because
It is a college-wide assignment, the CDS is a unique opportunity for constructive
dialogue for lecturers and students about the meaning of reflection, professional
growth, and action research. In the following chapters I examine this opportunity
for dialogue - what perspectives are the students and lecturers coming from,
which issues are getting addressed, which issues are being marginalized, and

how are these issues being negotiated.

99

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Studies.” CDS Workshop Presentation. Belvedere Technical Teachers' College.
Harare.

Dinkelman, T. 2000. “An Inquiry Into the Development of Critical Reflection in
Secondary Student Teachers." Teaching and Teacher Education. Vol. 16. No.2.
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Dzvimbo, K. P. 1990. A Critical Analysis of the Planning and Implementation of
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Fuller, Bruce. 1991. Growing-Up Modem: The Western State Builds Third-World
Schools. New York: Routledge.

Freire, Paulo. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.

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Thousand. 1998. “A Collaborative Action Research Model for Teacher
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Mokuku, Tsepo. 2001. “Encounters with Action Research in the African Context:
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102

CHAPTER 4
The Setting and the Research

Posing the Questions
Assuming the premise: the CDS is an Opportunity for meaningful dialogue to
enhance teaching and Ieaming at Belvedere. What conditions at the college are
needed to create a conducive environment for effective teaching and learning?
Do these conditions exist and promote dialogue or did the dialogue happen in
spite of the conditions?
Are the ways of doing action research - that exist in practice — compatible with
the ideals of constructivist and reflective teaching and Ieaming that the CDS is
trying to promote? In what ways are they incompatible?
Introduction

My research project examined the Curriculum Depth Study (CDS) at
Belvedere Technical Teachers' College (BTTC). The organizational setting of '
the CDS includes the College and the Professional Studies section. In this brief
description of the CDS’s placement in the college, I will include factors that
influenced its evolution. In the latter part of the chapter I give an overview of my
research methodology including data collection methods and a description of the
populations.
The College

With United States government funding, Belvedere Technical Teachers’
College was built in 1982, a time of great expansion of education in the country.
The college is situated in a low—density residential neighborhood three kilometers
west of the center of Harare. BTTC is one of six colleges that prepare students
to teach in secondary schools. All are situated in major cities and towns around
the country and are under the auspices of the Ministry of Higher Education and

Technology. The universities around the country also have teacher education

103

programs, however they tend to specialize in degree programs for in-service
teachers. The majority Of initial teacher preparation comes from the teacher
colleges where students earn a diploma of education.

Under the scheme of association, the University of Zimbabwe Department
of Teacher Education (DTE) ensures that teacher colleges meet the minimum
standards of the University. Syllabi, schemes of work, marks (grades),
enrollment records, and exams are submitted to DTE for approval. External
assessors, organized by DTE, visit the college in the third term to evaluate each
section’s progress. Also, one member of DTE is a “link person” for
communication between the University and the College.

BTTC was to specialize in preparing teachers for vocational/technical
subject areas as well as academics. Originally, all students were required to
study one vocational/techniCal area and one academic subject. However, once
students entered schools, most often they were forced to choose between the
two, or a particular school did not offer the vocational/technical subject the
student studied. As a result, students specialize in academics - either math and
science or the humanities/social sciences including: English, geography,
development studies, business studies, and physical education — or they study
one of the following vocational/technical subjects: agriculture, wood technology,
clothing and textiles, mechanical engineering, technical graphics, computer
studies, building technology, and hotel and catering.

Students’ education at BTTC is divided into four areas: subject area,
teaching practice, theory of education, and professional studies. In terms of

104

subject area, students study only the area in which they specialize, however, all
students take common courses in the other three mentioned areas. Teaching
practice consists of one term/trimester for vocational/technical and one year for
academic areas. Theory of Education (TOE) includes: philosophy of education,
educational psychology/sociology/anthropology, history of education, and
curriculum studies. PS differs from TOE in being more grounded in the practical
elements of learning to teach, such as: teaching methods, classroom
management, lesson planning, meaning of professionalism, and reflecting on
practice.

Most of the 1,500 students live on campus in one often hostels. A
handful of the 100 faculty members also have accommodation on site. BTTC
boasts of quality physical education facilities; including two soccer fields,
swimming pool, gymnasium, tennis, basketball, netball, and volleyball courts.
Classrooms and offices are spread out in twenty separate buildings. The library,

great hall, and lecture theatre (photo below) are among the best in the nation.

 

Figure 4.1 — Photo of Belvedere Technical Teachers’ CollegeI

 

 

105

The Section

Professional Studies (PS) section has had a prominent role in teacher
education at the primary level since the period of expansion in the early 1980’s.
However, In the teacher colleges for the secondary level, professional studies
has had a more tumultuous history. It was not until a conference in Mkobo in
1985 and the subsequent Teacher Education Review Committee Report in 1986,
that there was a concerted effort to give professional studies equal status as the
other aspects of teacher education. Many colleges had been giving lip service
claiming to be integrating pedagogical issues with the content area. The new
recommendation was that PS 'should become its own entity separate from
subject areas. According to the late Professor Tom Bourdillon, some colleges
were more resistant than others. They regarded PS as a primary college thing
“playing little games." They continued to do what they had always done, but
Claimed to be attending to the pedagogical issues of PS.

The Communication Skills Project (1992) with British support came in time
to reinforce the ideals of PS. Its focus was to improve the communication in
classrooms with an aim of promoting questioning and thinking. During this
period, the University Of Zimbabwe Department of Teacher Education (DTE)
articulated requirements for PS in the colleges: syllabi would have to be
upgraded and approved, marks for the CDS projects would have to be in the
hands of PS, and there would have to be more cooperation between subject
areas and PS. Workshops, the development of modules (study guides), and the
formation of committees were ways of promoting the reform.

106

In 1993 BTTC created 3 PS section headed by Mr. B.J. Mahaka, a lecturer

who had background with professional studies in a primary teachers college. His

task was to “transform applied education11 into professional studies." The stated

aims for the section were:

1.

To equip students with the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes
that will enable them to participate fully in the economic, social and
cultural life of Zimbabwe through their role as effective classroom
practitioners.

To enable students to play an active and responsible part in their own
intellectual and professional development, both during their course of
study in college and throughout their teaching career.

To develop a perceptive and thoughtful teacher, capable of reflecting
on experience and relating this to theory.

TO encourage an innovative approach to teaching, where new ideas
are tried out and are seen as complementing well-established
methods. , ‘ -' .

To produce an informed, responsible and committed teacher who is
able to make a substantial contribution to the teaching profession and
to the educational system in Zimbabwe (BTTC 1992.)

Mr. Mahaka felt resistance from subject areas claiming to be teaching

methodology for their content. They regarded him as pushing a “primary school

thing.” Section lecturers from various areas (subject and theory of education)

joined PS. Mr. Chandauka, Mr. Mhonde were also brought from other

departments to boost the PS expertise in vocational/technical areas. The section

developed modules and booklets for various study areas, including

communication and study skills. As the section attempted to find ways to find

alternatives to lecturing, lecturers developed materials that were more interactive.

 

1' Applied education refers to specific subject methodology, i.e. ways of teaching the subject

matter.

107

When I joined PS in 1999, Mr. J. Chandauka (right side in photo) had
replaced Mr. S. Mazanhi as Lecturer-in-Charge (LIC) of PS, and Mr. Mahaka had
left to work on a population project for the Ministry of Higher Education and

Technology.

 

 

The section included lFigure 4.2 — Photo of Professional Studies Lecturersl
twelve lecturers, including 1 I I I V I
myself, who specialized in
academic,
technical/vocational, and

educational media

 

technology. Later, in 2001,
Mr. I. Machera (center in photo”) took over as LIC.

By the end of 1999 the LIC and I had begun to organize a series of
workshops and visits to subject area sections. While the focus was on the CDS,
Mr. Chandauka’s larger intention was to break the barriers between PS and other
sections.

In preparing for the workshops, I facilitated a meeting where PS lecturers
developed their mission statement. As a whole, they viewed PS as a link
between sections and learning to teach. Below is how the section articulated

(verbally and visually) their role in the college.

 

’2 Written permission to use the above photo of BTTC lecturers has been obtained and is
available upon request.
108

 

[Fioure 4.3 —Prnfessinnal Studies Mission Stafemefl

Professional Studies Section
Mission Statement

To integrate educational theory, subject matter, and teaching methods to

produce a reflective, innovative, and effective teacher engaged in life-long
learning, personal growth, thereby maximizing teacher and student Ieaming.

-‘-~---~—n‘v~~—n-‘— v—c—‘g—una *~—-——--—-- u—c—a—c—nu-umg—uu-n—n—e—u

 
      
     
    
  

 
 

Th 0
ofe ry . General Methods/Basic Skills 20m?“
Education 0 Thinking Dbeper oh Teaching ma
. Creating/Managing Learning
Environments ' Matter

. Setting Sta'ndardsI
0 Promoting :Action Research

...-—-.——-——---u—-—_

Subject I

To Maximize Teacher and Student Learning
Creating Teachers as Problem
Solvers and Life-long Learners

 

The lecturers realized that PS is not an area that could be taught in
isolation. The section attempted to develop linkages with lecturers and subject
areas. Since PS lecturers worked with all students in the college, they worked
with subject areas in which they had familiarity. For example, Mr. Mazanhi had
studied science at the university and he taught PS to science and math students,
and Mr. Machera had been a lecturer in technical graphics and he worked with
that group when he joined the PS section. The purpose was for the PS lecturer
to make connections with the subject area and work collaboratively. Some PS
lecturers were more successful than others in this endeavor.

109

In terms of curriculum, PS was responsible for covering four basic areas:

Classroom Communication Skills (CCS)

Educational Media and Technology (EMT)

Curriculum Management and Administration (CMA)

Curriculum Depth Study (CDS)

Three lecturers specialized in EMT. They organized their own curriculum
and taught topics ranging from the importance Of audio-visual aids in the
classroom to handwriting on the chalkboard to all BTTC students. While the
EMT lecturers collaborated with others in the section to set examination
questions, organize students’ marks, and deal with administrative issues for the
sections, their content remained isolated from the other areas of the curriculum.

The other PS members were responsible for teaching CCS, CMA, and the
CDS to students of all subject areas. Typically, each PS lecturer collaborated
with one or more particular subject area(s) for the year. For example, Mr.
Mazanhi taught CCS, CMA, and CDS to students studying natural science, and
Mrs. Mkondo the same PS topics to hotel and catering and computer science
students. The lecturers usually began teaching communication skills as well as
study skills to the first year students. As the students prepared for their teaching
practice, lecturers then turned their attention more towards the management
(CMA) and CDS issues. Lecturers would collaborate to set the syllabus for each
term for the academic and vocational/technical students.

The CDS (Curriculum Depth Study)
In November 1994, the BTTC academic board approved a policy

document regarding the CDS. The aims were stated as:
1 10

1. To enable students to undertake a major detailed study of a specific
aspect of the curriculum which is directly related to the classroom
situation and, in doing so, enhance their awareness of the issues
involved.

2. To provide the Opportunity for students to focus on an area of the
curriculum in which they have a particular interest.

3. To develop the knowledge and skills in research and write-up
techniques necessary to present an objective yet perceptive academic
investigation.

4. To enable students to contribute to the body of academic research at
both college and national levels.

It was also decided that the CDS would be the only major research project
required by students. In the past, subject area sections required students to do a
research project in their content matter, e.g. a mathematical research project.
With the CDS, students are to focus more on methodologies than on content.
Ideally, students are to identify an aspect of their teaching they wish to improve,
and use that as the basis for their research.

While each subject area sections supervise, tutor, and assess CDS
projects for their students, the PS oversees much of the process. The section is
responsible for developing standards for research and format of write-up,
ensuring quality topics are chosen, making sure moderation (reports with very
high and very low marks are to be reviewed by other lecturers) takes place, and
organizing all final marks for CDS projects. Throughout the college, lecturers
represent a wide range of understanding of research and different expectations
of the CDS. Also, prior to 2000, there was no guide describing how to do the
CDS or articulating a vision of it. As a result, many lecturers and students often

referred to the projects as, “What is this animal called ‘CDS?’”
111

When I arrived at B‘I‘I'C in October of 1999, Josh Chandauka was trying to
make a deliberate move towards using action research as a model for the CDS.
The most common approach was for students to compare two teaching methods
and identify one as being superior, e.g., group discussions are more effective
than the lecturing method. The supervisors were not satisfied with the students’
results, but they had been unable to make improvements.

I discovered that the CDS was a unique Opportunity for the College to
support and challenge students to reflect on their practice, question and think
deeply, and develop their own ideas about teaching and Ieaming. Lecturers from
different sections were forced to Collaborate and build common understandings
about what it means to do research and how that is an integral part of teaching.
Before this dialogue could take place, Chandauka and later Isaac Machera had
to break many barriers, as I discuss in chapter six.

The Research

During my tenure at BTTC, l was able to observe how this dialogue got
organized — amongst lecturers and between them and students. Many important
issues related to doing action research surfaced and were addressed. While
there has been some very good work produced at the college, the focus of my
attention at the college and? this dissertation has been more on the process of
how things change. Professor Noel McGinn once told our education systems
planning class that he could develop a model for a nation’s education system on
the back of an envelope during the flight over. His point was not to boast but to
indicate that coming up with “the answers” is the easy part — making those ideas

112

LV'I

.‘UU

 

work is the real challenge. When discussing the CDS, another distinguished
professor, Torn Bourdillon, stated:

Deal with the problematic. And don’t imagine that the solution you come

across is going to be a permanent solution. It’s a modus Operandi that

you continually try to improve. And you know, you might solve it for a

couple of years and then you... suddenly a member of staff comes and a

territory thing [develops]... something that happened to work for a couple

of years will not work so well any more, and you’ll have to renegotiate the
whole thing. That’s how it’s going to go on.

With Bourdillon’s words of wisdom, I began my research process in
October of 1999. For three and a half years I listened, Observed, wrote field
notes, interviewed stakeholders, joined discussions, met with section lecturers,
administered questionnaires, facilitated workshops, taught lessons, and attended
various meetings. Through these processes I became involved with the dialogue .
at Belvedere relating to the CDS. The charts below indicate when the Visitations,

formal interviews with students, and questionnaires were conducted, who was

involved, and the purpose.

 

Table 4.1 - Schedule Of Visitations with Section Lecturers

 

 

 

 

 

Sections included and (Facilitatog Date Purpose

All Academic and Vocational/Technical January Listening to sections’ concerns with

sections (Mr. Chandauka, PS LIC) 2000 the CDS prior to the CDS
workshop.

VoclTech Sections - lecturers November Share findings of questionnaire #

(Mr. Machera, PS LIC and Monde, Voc/Tech 2001 Discussion of issues related to

HOD) CDS

Academic Section - lecturers May-June Share findings of questionnaire #

(Mr. Machera, PS LIC) 2002 Discussion of issues related to
CD8

 

 

 

113

 

 

Table 4.2 — Schedule of Formal Interviews and Observations with Students

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Student(s) Date Purpose
1 Four PADE 9 students used March Three to four formal interviews per student
as case studies 2000 — discussing personal/professional background,
April 2001 interests, goals, research experience, and
emeriences and insiflts in doing the CDS
2 Four PADE 9 students used May — July Two to four formal observations of students
as case studies 2000 teaching and engggIrlg in research activities
3 Sample of 25 May 2001 Formal interviews discussion of progress of the
Vocational/Technical CDS at the begin of term
students beginning TP in
Harare area schools
4 Same sample of 20 (as #3 July 2001 Formal interviews discussion of progress of the
with five students not CDS at the end of term including change of
available) topics, assistance received, lessons learned,
Vocational/Technical and overall experience
students completing TP in
Harare area schools

 

 

 

 

 

Table 4.3 — Schedule of Questionnaires Given

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Subjects taking Date Mics covered #
1 Lecturers attending the end of 2 December Survey of CDS including: Students’ 38
year meeting I 1999 work, lecturers expectations,
experiences, and roles
2 All agriculture students (PADE 17 January Students’ understanding of research: 58
9) prior to engaging in TP 2000 self-assessment, evaluation of
research topics, comparing
approaches, identifying purpose of
doingresearch
3 All lecturers who participated in 16 June Evaluation of CDS Workshop: best 21
the first CDS workshop 2000 things, concerns, next steps
4 The same agriculture students 10 Students’ understanding of research: 40
(PADE 9) from #2 after they September self-assessment, description of their
completed TP 2000 topic, assistance received, and
overall Experience
5 New cohort of agriculture 13 March What is CDS? 80
students (PADE 10) prior to 2001 What is Research?
engaging in TP
6 Sample of Vocational/Technical April 2001 Experiences with the CDS: self- 26
students beginning TP in Harare assessment, description of topic,
area schools assistance received, and overall
expedence
7 Same sample as #7 of July 2001 Experiences with the CDS: self- 26
Vocational/Technical students assessment, description of topic,
beginning TP in Harare area assistance received, and overall
schools experience
8 All Vocational/Technical 9 Experiences with the CDS: self- 211
students who completed TP September assessment, description of topic,
2001 assistance received, and overall
expedence
9 All Academic students who 2 May 2002 Experiences with the CDS: self- 157

 

completed TP

 

 

assessment, description of topic,

 

 

114

 

 

 

assistance received, and overall
expedence

 

 

 

 

 

 

Total number of questionnaires administered and returned 657

 

 

Table 4.4 — Schedule of Other Formal Interviews

 

 

 

 

 

 

Person Position Date

Mr. Tom Bourdillon Chairperson of Department of Teacher Education, 25 October
University of Zimbabwe 1999

Mr. Josh LIC Professional Studies section, BTTC 15 March 2000
Chandauka 12 April 2000
Mr. M.N. Maseleka Professional Studies lecturer, BTTC 13 March 2000
Dr. Thompson Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education, Sports, 19 May 2002
Tsodzo and Culture

 

 

 

Using elements of action research, I was upfront about wanting to collaborate in
developing ways to improve the CDS at Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College.
I enjoyed a unique role of being both an insider and an outsider. From my
arrival at BTTC, l was accepted as a member of the Professional Studies section.
I was welcomed in all meetings and enlisted to join several college committees.
However, by not having a formal appOintmentby the Ministry of Higher Education
and Technology, I had much freedom that other lecturers did not enjoy. For
instance, I was able to work with students without being responsible for their
assessment. Also, I was fortunate enough not to have to carry the bulk of
administrative work that kept my colleagues very busy. By nature of being the
only member of staff from the United States and one of six non-Africans, I
received special status. Most often this status meant little in being able to get
things done. For instance, I was greeted by the principal when our paths met
walking on the campus, but I still had to beg, plead, and borrow to get a piece of

chalk.

115

 

 

Trying to be open with my biases, I began the research process telling my
colleagues and students that I was looking for examples of the CDS working.
While the saying focuses on Ieaming from our mistakes, I believe our successes
have more to offer for our Ieaming. Knowing why something worked is more
important than knowing why it did not. The failures were there, and in many
cases they were Obvious. The triumphs took more effort to uncover, but they did
exist. By focusing on the strengths, l was trying to collaborate in building positive
models of how to support and challenge students to do meaningful research.

In the next chapter, I will share insights I have gained by being a member

of the Professional Studies section at BTTC and collecting the above data.

116

Bibliography

Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College. (1992) “Applied Education Syllabus."
Harare: BTTC.

Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College. (1994, November) “Applied Education
- College Policy Document: Curriculum Depth Study.” Harare: BTTC.

McGinn, Noel. (1994, Spring) Strategic Planning for Education Systems. Course
presentation. Cambridge: Harvard Graduate School of Education.

Bourdillon,Tom. (1999, October 25) Personal Interview. Harare: University of
Zimbabwe, DTE.

117

CHAPTER 5
Four Students and Three Issues

Posing the Questions
Assuming the premise: Students will take advantage of the opportunity to
engage in dialogue about their work. To what extent do individual students
engage in dialogue and critical thinking regarding their action research on
teaching and Ieaming in their classrooms?
What issues concerning the context and conditions of students’ teaching and
Ieaming get addressed in this dialogue? What role do these issues play in the
larger dialogue of education reform? That is, how does the micro-level dialogue
of students engaging in the CDS at B'I'I'C reflect or impact on the macro-level
dialogue at the national level?
Introduction

In the first part of this chapter I introduce four students who reflected a
range of experiences. In terms of understanding the research process, the
students demonstrated: “did not get it,” “did not do it,” “got it ”to “had it". In the
second part Of the chapter I describe three major issues regarding the CDS that
evolved from their and other students’ experiences. The issues revolved around
1) the process of picking a topic, 2) how students conceptualized the research,
and 3) the preparation and support the students received. I examine how these
issues were a part of the dialogue and negotiation of the CDS, i.e. how they got
organized and were debated. While tensions did exist and perspectives were
negotiated, Often common ground could be found. Sometimes the agreement
was more in terms of reaching a common understanding than taking action. In
the following chapter, I explain the implications of how the dialogue of the CDS
for the College and for teacher education is general.

All four students came from the same cohort, Post Agriculture Diploma in

Education (PADE) group of 2000. The PADE program was different from others
118

at the college due to the students having learned the subject area prior to coming
to Belvedere. All PADE students graduated from an agricultural college after
completing secondary school, and nearly all had some teaching experience. As
a result, most PADE students were Older and more mature than others at BTTC.
Also, the program was completed in one year and a term, whereas
vocational/technical subject programs spanned over four years, and three years
for academic areas. The longer curriculum allowed for in depth study in the
particular subject area. These groups spent much Of their time at the college
studying their content area as well as teacher education. Teaching practice (TP)
took place over the second trimester for PADE and Vocational/Technical
(vac/tech) programs and the whole second year for academic subjects.
The four students I have chosen as case studies reflect the range of

experiences I observed in my three and half years research at Belvedere. l was

originally looking for students who “got It" so I could observe what it means for
1 students to engage in research (for a first time) in a meaningful way. Each
student was highly recommended by an agriculture lecturer as someone who
was bright and likely to do a decent research project. Two of the students,
Auther and Patience, approached me about being in the study. And the other
two, Grace and Tobias, were willing to assist when asked. (I used pseudonyms
for all the students except for Auther who requested otherwise.) I wanted a mix
of types Of locations and schools where they were to do their teaching practice
(TP). Two were in urban schools in Harare — Auther in a high-density and Tobias
in a low-density suburb. The other two were in rural schools in Mashonaland

119

North — 100 to 150 kilometers from the capital. Patience’s school was a religious
boarding school and Grace’s was a government day school. One rural and one
urban school had very good facilities, for example computer labs and swimming
pools - Patience’s and Tobias’s schools. The others taught at government
schools that had minimal resources and larger class sizes. I interviewed these
four students prior to, during, and after their TP experiences. Also, I observed
them teaching in their classrooms and working with pupils in their gardens (i.e.
practicals) a minimum of three times throughout the thirteen-week term.
Because transportation to the rural schools was difficult, I made fewer trips but
spent longer periods of time with Patience and Grace. I would arrive late in the
morning and stay for the remainder of the teaching day (typically four hours)
observing lessons and discussing issues. For Auther and Tobias, I typically
arrived half anhour prior to their lessons and remained half hour to an hour
afterwards for discussion purposes.

I have found that the type of school or the location had minimal effect in
terms of the students’ experience in doing their CDS research project. For
example, students were supposed to be observed/supervised by college
lecturers at least two times per term. During the fuel crisis of 2001, more
students in Harare went without observations than did those in rural areas
because van trips with several lecturers were organized to travel to the various
schools outside the city region. Lecturers were supposed to organize their own
transportation to schools in and around Harare, and as a result, many were
unable to find a way. While the school-based mentors varied from each school,

120

all were generally supportive without being involved in the day-to-day activities.
Each student teacher took the role of sole classroom teacher from the beginning
of the term without engaging in any team-teaching with their mentor. No mentor
took an active role (positive or negative) in the students’ CDS research project.
This was typical for all BTTC students engaging in teaching practice.

What follows is a description of the experiences of Tobias, Patience,
Auther, and Grace doing their CDS research project during their teaching
practice. Tobias represented students who attempted to conduct the research,
but missed the point of doing it. I categorized this as “did not get it.” Patience
did turn in a report and claimed to do the research, but in reality, she did not do
the project. This, I categorized this. as “did not do it.” Auther represented the
successful student who Ieamed throughout the project and produced something
worthwhile. l classified this as “Got it.” While Grace was successful and very
bright student, she began the process already having the skill and knowledge to
do research well. I refer to her experience as “Had it.” The table below identifies
each student with his/her category and characteristics of the school where each

did their teaching practice.

 

Table 5.1 — Case Studj Students and Their Schools

Student Category Location of School Type of School
Tobias “Did not get it” Urban/Low Density Private
Patience “Did not do it” Rural Missionary
Auther “Got it” Urban/High Density Government
Grace “Had it" Rural Government

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

121

Tobias: the Experience of “Did Not Get lt”

Tobias did his practice teaching at a secondary school on the outskirts of
the capitol city. The school was built with foreign donor assistance after the
liberation struggle to assist war veterans, but since then it has focused on helping
school-aged kids with physical disabilities. Like most other student teachers in
the PADE program, Tobias was a graduate of a Zimbabwean agricultural college
and had taught (without teaching credentials) for five years. He was born in 1966
in a rural area of Chipinge, but did not start a local government primary school
until liberation in 1980. Later, he moved and attended another government
school in Hippo Valley. It was not until he attended a secondary school in
Chiredzi, in the southern part of the country,.that he was able to study where
there was electricity. Because he did not have funds to study for Advanced (A’)
level exams, he moved in‘ with an aunt in Chitungwiza to study at a local
agricultural college. After graduating, Tobias started teaching in high-density
schools in and around Harare.

Prior to starting his teaching practice (TP), he mentioned that he would
have liked to use the opportunity to try some new things he had Ieamed at BTTC,
such as simulations and feedback strategies. However, instead of focusing on
methods, his view of good teaching was primarily directed to his relationship with
the pupils.

I think good teaching comes from how you handle your pupils. You should

not be a teacher who is very rough; you have to take into consideration a

lot of things about different pupils because they will be from different
backgrounds”.

 

'3 All quotes from Tobias come from typed transcriptions of interviews on 4 April 2000 and 21
122

When asked about methods of instruction of good teaching, he mentioned
that it was not good to only lecture - it was better to use a variety of approaches
including using work cards, group work, charts, and models. When asked to
describe the teaching of the best teacher he ever had, he discussed how the
teacher gave short and precise notes that summarized the necessary

information.

His views of good research were based upon concepts of action research.

I think good research is that type of research that is actually obtained from

an individual; say seeing a problem for himself, not just having a topic

given to him. He has to actually find the topic for himself, identify a

problem, and then to solve the problem, and see how he can actually

tackle it, and how you can come up with the solution to that problem.

In terms of bad research, Tobias discusses the researcher not being
critical.

I think bad research is whereby a person just thinks of an interesting topic

and just tackles it without looking at it in depth or whether it will be very

useful or nothing. He just takes and does it.

Tobias’s stuck with the same CDS topic throughout the term. He wanted
to compare the effectiveness of teaching agricultural concepts with three-
dimensional models versus two-dimensional charts. Originally, he was planning
to use these aids to cover the topic of a two-stroke engine. His approach was

straightforward with dividing the class into two groups, teaching one group with

models and the other with charts, and then testing the pupils afterwards.

 

June 2000 or from typed field notes of observations of lessons conducted on 21 June 2000, 30
June 2000, and 6 July 2000.
123

He had used charts before but had never tried using models in his
teaching. He thought that models would be helpful in pupils understanding the
very complex topic of a two-stroke engine. An agricultural lecturer and later Ms.
Matchaba, a professional studies lecturer, had introduced him to models. In fact,
he was so excited about using models that he was convinced of their
effectiveness. Tobias stated that after Ms. Matchaba’s demonstration was “when
I came to realize that these models are better."

In the first and second interviews, I suggested that he already knew the
answer to his question of which is more effective between models and charts. l
encouraged -him to, stick with the models but try to find ways of using them more
effectively, for example having students construct their own models. Tobias
listened politely to my advice, but he did not stray from his original plan.

Once engaged in student teaching, Tobias continued his faith in models
stating that, “There are some certain complex ideas which then can be easily
acquired when you use these models.” He had used a chart to show crop
rotation and felt that it was not effective for pupil understanding. Tobias began to
develop a theory about models:

Firstly, a model would actually motivate those pupils and from that central

point of motivation, the pupils will actually grasp data because they will be

doing it with their own selves, unlike diagrams where they just see and will
not do anything.
He also faced a real problem in his teaching practice. Here is how he described
it:

Tobias: If you actually say that you have some work cards and then you

give [them to] these groups, if you do not have any source where they

can look for answers, they do not participate. SO every time you give
124

them group work they need a textbook where they can source out the
answers they’ll give you.

Interviewer: So they are good at finding answers, but in terms of
creating...

Tobias: In terms of creating their own answers, they cannot. They cannot
stand on their own, they need a base and, if they are given that base,
they just relax because they have that base and, in the end, they fail.
Because all the information they can get from the textbook.

Nine days later when I observed Tobias’s form I (first year of secondary
school) class. Twenty-five students (with similar number of boys as girls) sat in
three rows Of benches facing the front. Most of the students, but not all, wore
gray uniforms; the boys wore pants or shorts and matching short-sleeve button
shirt, the girls wore a skirt with a white blouse. Some wore matching sweaters or
sport jacket. Other than a chalkboard, rows of benches with tables, and some
agricultural posters on the wall, the room was sparse - no audio-visual
equipment, bulletin boards, or displays.

The problem of pupils not thinking on their own was apparent. The topic
was on growing cabbages. Pupils were looking in textbooks for answers to
questions without thinking about the questions or the answers. While I concurred
with Tobias about the problem, it seemed that his teaching strategy discouraged
the understanding he desired. The tasks were set up for pupils to copy from the
text, and recall the answers. Discussions were mostly for specific answers and
not deeper thinking or comprehension. There were no questions beyond deeper
than recall on Bloom’s taxonomy.

When Tobias asked the class, “what is the reason for leveling?” One pupil

responded by discussing “lumps.” Instead of encouraging a discussion of the

125

effects Of lump in terms of leveling, Tobias asked for the correct terminology.
During group work, he told one pupil, “You don’t have to explain, just write it
down.” When the group presented their answers, Tobias told them to “read what
you have on the paper" and there was no time for further discussion. Another
time, the class indicated that they did not know what acidity was in terms of Ph.
Rather than using the Opportunity to explain, he continued to the next issue. At
one point, he did ask if the pupils had seen a cabbage seed. They were not
sure, and again he did not discuss the point. The second period of the class was
for the practical part of the lesson, and the topic was “bedding.” In the first ten
minutes, Tobias gave the pupils the definition and asked questions relating to the
sources and benefits, while ignoring a pupil’s question if bedding is necessary.
Aftenrvards, he assigned tasks, for groups of pupils. There was no apparent
connection between the theory (classroom) part of the class and the practical
(field) work.

Perhaps a model (or diagram) of a cabbage or a plot could have been
used to promote understanding in the lesson. Earlier, Tobias had thought that
using models would be a way to address the problem. Unfortunately, he waited
for the last topic of the term’s curriculum to introduce the use of models. I
observed that lesson also.

The topic was the “Yoke.” The class was divided into two groups - one
remained in the class and the other did practical work in the garden. Both groups
started their lessons the same way with group work to answer questions on “job
cards” that related to the parts and functions of yokes. In the first Class, Tobias

126

used the “Chart" - which was a diagram of a yoke — as a revision tool. The
diagram was the same as the one in the textbook. In the other class, Tobias
showed a “model" — which was missing clamps, stokes, chains, and notches —
instead of the chart.

After Tobias showed the chart/model, he asked 58.3% more questions to
the model group than to the chart group. Nearly all the questions were recall
Ifactual from notes pupils wrote, e.g. the lengths of rope depending on activity,
identifying parts of the yoke, and its functions. In both cases, pupils answered
questions with short precise statements. The chart group gave two answers that
were incorrect compared to the model group that gave one incorrect answer, but
the latter group also gave two respOnses that Tobias accepted as alternatives to
the correct answer. None of the pupils elaborated on answers, and they did not
ask questions when Tobias gave them the Opportunity.

While discussing the outcome of the lesson with Tobias, he claimed that
the chart group had less motivation. He could tell by how they responded. The
example he gave was the definition of a yoke.

The students [in the chart group] were struggling and they weren’t able to

define it so I reworded the questions as to describe the yoke, and students

still had troubles. The model group was able to say something on the first
question.

The depiction may have been accurate however; he had not introduced
the chart or the model at that point in the lesson. He continued to state that the
model group was more confident, and that the other group’s confidence was not

very high. Also, he pointed out that the model group was able to a)

conceptualize the ideas and b) answer the questions better than the other group.
127

I was unable to Identify any differences between the groups during my
observations.

To address the conflict between what happened in the classroom and
what Tobias wanted to happen, he created his own reality. In his completed
CDS report (submitted to the Agriculture section, October 2000), he continued to

describe a difference that did not exist. He created the chart below.

 

 

Figure 5.1 - Chart in Tobias’s CDS Report

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6 - A Motivation Assessment Card

Area of concern Method Ratings (Number of pupils)
Very Average Very High
Low

Pupils involvement Chart 5 3 4

and gestioning Model 1 3 8

Punctuality Chart 4 2 6

Model 0 2 10

 

 

 

 

 

 

In neither the lesson nor the follow-up discussion, there was no indication
that he was keeping such records. He also wrote that there were two sets of
tests where the model group scored 13.4% and 13.8% higher than the chart
group. However, he produced no evidence that such a test was ever given.
When we discussed his project, he had not recorded any of the figures used in
the report.

In the end, Tobias’s PADE supervisor gave his CDS project a 67% -
which was close to average for his group. His report was straightforward and
clear. While he did not give a description of what happens when using a model

instead of a chart in a lesson, he followed the prescribed format of the report.

128

l labeled Tobias’s research efforts as “did not get it" because his
understandings of the use of models never went deeper from his first impression
prior to teaching practice. He went through the motions, followed the steps. and
produced a report, but he did it all without thinking, reflecting on his practice, or
trying something different in his teaching. He was not challenged by his mentor
at the school, and his CDS tutor accepted the work without question. My
questioning had little impact.

Even though he described good research as though the researcher has
ownership of the process, he conducted research as though it is a black box —
where one mysteriously creates answers. Because he did not have an idea
where the evidence comes from, he created a reality that gave easy answers.
By delaying the use of models until the last topic taught, the research remained ,
something separate from his teaching. He was unable to use what he learned to
improve his teaching. He had such faith in models, that he did not learn how to
make their use more effective.

Patience: the Experience of “Did Not Do It”

Like the others, Patience felt she received a sound education. All her
primary and secondary schooling were in group “A” schools — these were the
government schools reserved for the whites prior to liberation. These elite
schools remained intact with the requirement that they open their doors to black
Africans. While the schools followed the same curriculum, the resources are far
superior. In her primary school, Patience learned how to play the piano, swim,
and play tennis.

129

It was from her experiences in these group “A” schools that she
formulated her view of what is good teaching.

Good teaching is whereby teachers leave pupils to discover for
themselves. At least that way the pupils get attached to what they are
doing. You have to have the pupils understand the concepts and getting
the job done“.

As an illustration, she remembered using a computerized piano that she punched

a combination of keys to create words.

While she wanted to teach in such a way that would promote discovery
Ieaming, she realized obstacles to the approach when she began teaching for
nine months after completing a diploma in an agricultural college.

You can want to be a teacher who wants pupils to discover for

themselves. The problem comes when you are in a situation when you are

forced to dish-out the information to the pupils. . .Just like Agriculture
syllabuses, so the contents matters to the pupils because they have to
learn this in short space of time. They will be forced to take notes rather
than making them learn their own way, which they want. It's because you
will be rushing to finish the syllabus, because they have to write Form

Four [Ordinary Level Exams] after finishing the syllabus.

In terms of her view of what is good research, Patience responded that it
was something that was done "wholeheartedly.”

You want to do research - you are trying to fill a part in yourself, that you
have a need to do that. You want to do this research, and you have to
fulfill this good research.

Her view of bad research was when it becomes some requirement and the
researcher is not honest about the work.

Some researchers do the research for the sake of doing it. In the end you
don't put yourself into it. You just do the research to just come up to the

 

1‘ All quotes from Patience come from typed transcriptions of interviews on 17 March 2000, 6
April 2000, 15 June 2000, and 30 November 2000 or from typed field notes of observations of
lessons conducted on 15 June 2000 and 11 July 2000.

130

due date. In the end people tend to duplicate or they write what they didn't

research about. So when reading the research you can just tell that this

person was just lying. This person didn't get the information because
mainly you would be having your followers and whoever wants to read that
research, they are putting all their trust you have done the research, and
they find out that you have done this just to beat the deadline, which is
bad.

Ironically, Patience did not have much interest in her original research
topic - comparing field trips with simulations. She was planning to have her
students participate in a simulation and then test them. Afterwards, she would
take them on a field trip and again test to see how well they were able to
conceptualize concepts.

Later Patience confessed, “I only picked this topic but that's not what I
wanted.” She picked it because it seemed like it would be easy to get done.

It sounds easiest of all the topics because if you tried to open up your

mind, you find there is no time to do what you want. What you really want!

So you have to do CDS to get a mark at the end.

Through some discussion, Patience revealed what she was more
interested in doing. She wanted to spur student interest in the subject by having
them develop a “dream plan” for a farm they would like to operate in the future.
She preferred the new topic because, “I get to do what I want to do...I am trying
to sell my subject to my pupils.” And she asserted that the research was now
more meaningful.

Her college CDS tutor thought the topic was a bit vague, but he approved
it. And Patience was planning to start as soon as the term began.

Her placement was at a mission school in the northern rural area. Like

most mission schools in the country, the religious order managed admissions,

131

finances, and the grounds, while the teachers, paid by the national government,
followed the standardized curriculum. The boarding school may not have had all
the facilities of an elite group “A” school, but it could boast having: orchards,
cattle, ostriches, chicken, fields of crops, computer lab, swimming pool (although
not used), tennis courts, and many buildings.

In the lesson I observed, there were relatively few pupils (approximately
fourteen) due to agriculture being an elective class. All of the form Ill pupils (third
year in secondary school adolescence ranging from 14 to 16 years old) wore the
burgundy school uniform. Like Tobias’s class, there was an equal mix of boys
and girls, and the room was sparse. The desks were a bit smaller and easier to
move, but there were no additional resourcesin the room.

The pupils in Patience's class were quick and well versed with most of the
agricultural concepts and terms. She began a lesson with writing, “Investigating
the % pore space (air) in the soil” and asked why it is important. Immediately
pupils raised hands and gave answers relating to, “water penetrating the soil,”
“percentage aeration of different types of soil,” and “water holding capacity of the
soil.” Later in the lesson, pupils in groups experimented combining soil with
water to measure the increase in space. She explained the formula for
determining the percentage of pore space in soil. Afterwards, pupils wrote in
their diaries/joumals what they had discovered. For the practical part of the
lesson, pupils worked in the garden preparing their beds for planting beans.
While they were less enthusiastic with the manual work, they did manage to
complete the task. They needed little guidance; for preparing garden beds was

132

something they have had much experience over the years. Patience stated that
this group was the least interested in the study of agriculture, but I was
impressed with how well versed her pupils were in agricultural concepts and how
quickly they prepared the garden.

Perhaps, these pupils were on their good behavior. Patience complained
that this group had been giving her problems including issues of disrespect.
They had looked her out of the classroom twice. As a result, she became more
strict, and she believed there was an improvement. However, it was clear to see
some tension existed. While trying to keep command of the group, she had
personal chats with some groups about .which pupils were the most popular at
the school.

I made a return journey to the school later in the term to see the pupils
present their “dream plan.“ Unfortunately, Patience was feeling ill and had '
cancelled classes. While no pupil had turned in their plan at that point, she
stated that they were prepared to do their presentations. She was planning on
evaluating their efforts, number of people consulted, and the relationship of the
plan to their own garden. She pointed out that some students were using their
garden plots (at the school) as a microcosm of their plan, for example hiring other
students to do some of the tasks. She was also planning to give them one more
questionnaire to see if they indicated a change in attitude towards agriculture.

We made arrangements for her to contact me to discuss her impressions
of the presentations. However, I did not hear from her and we did not meet again
until after she submitted her CDS report.

133

Gaps in her report led me to the conclusion that the “Dream Plans”
remained a dream and not a reality. There were no descriptions of what the
students did in their dream plans. However, she included graphs for such things
as progress (how well pupils were following their plans) and how well students
did. All the data was simply presented in a quantitative form, and as a result
there was no description of what the numbers actually represented. No dream
plans were included in the body or appendix of the paper.

She asserted that the project was successful, yet there was no evidence
of what role the dream plans played in ‘any of the courses she taught. She wrote:

Initially students had a negative attitude towards Agriculture practicals as

they associated them with cheap labour — work done with out any '

payment. Later as the term progressed and the projects were underway,
they realized they could enjoy the subjects as they were given the floor to

make decisions on what they wanted to do with a justification. *

Her tutor questioned if she actually carried out the dream plans. On the
evaluation form, he wrote that the literature review was vague and did not
mention anything about “dream plans.” He also wrote, “Implementation of the
chosen projects in such short period of time is very doubtful.” She received a fifty
percent, which is just passing. She did enough work that a supervisor would not
want her to fail the whole program (the CDS is required for graduation), but by
giving her a bordedine-pass sent the message that she just got by.

Further indication that Patience did not complete the research project was

when I asked how useful the research project was in her teaching. She had

agreed that it was useful, but stated that it was not necessary to write anything

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down. At the final interview she did indicate that participating in my research
study kept her somewhat accountable.

If I hadn't participated in your research, I think I wouldn't have done my

series the way I did it. I would have just maybe taken up somebody else's

series, and you know copied it and just reproduced it like that.

A month after she completed her program, she reflected on doing the CDS
research project and found that the process was not very useful.

The CDS...I would like to think that in our cases PADE, I think it is a waste

of time...Because we have been teaching when we came to Belvedere

and we know all the problems and what is happening and really someone

tells me to go out there and try to look for a problem of which you really

know the problems and you know how to solve them. Anyway, problems

come day in and day out and you have to solve them as you are go on.
She also did not see any change in the way she taught.

I do not see my teaching 'changing, because while we go there, back into

the system, the system is just the way we left it. And with the new

methods that we were taught at Belvedere, they don't fit into the system.

While, Patience did not show bitterness towards her program at Belvedere
during this interview, she just felt that she did not experience much growth
because of factors regarding the way the education system was organized and
from having taught and having had agricultural experience prior to coming to
Belvedere.

While the problems of the education system were realities young teachers
had to face, Patience appears to have missed an opportunity for professional
growth. She was articulate and quick enough to identify how doing research is
incorporated in good teaching, e.g. “By investigating an issue wholeheartedly a

teacher is able to improve the learning situation. The teacher discovers with the

pupils the new ideas that make Ieaming exciting.” However, in the end she
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simply did what she had earlier described as “bad research” - just doing the
research to complete the task, not caring about it, and making up information.
Auther: the Experience of “Got It”

Auther did his student teaching at St. Peters’ Kubatana, a secondary
school not far from the primary school he attended seventeen years earlier.
Located in Glen Norah C, a high—density suburb south of the capital city, both
schools were built to accommodate a large number of pupils. Even though he
had relatives in the suburb, he lived like many others in a rooming house where
he rented a single room in which he slept, cooked, and planned his lessons.

Before he turned twenty-four years old, Auther completed his secondary
education, attended an agricultural college, and taught for three years - all in
rural government schools. St. Peter’s was once a reputable school, but those
days were over before Auther started his TP. While officially a missionary
school, the administration and teachers were all government employees and a
community-based “school development committee” oversaw the running of the
school. The enrollment was far below the two thousand-pupil capacity.

Auther believed that dialogue was an integral part of good teaching.

I think this is whereby a teacher would give the children time to interact

among themselves allowing a conversation time between teacher and the

pupils and also among the pupils themselves, giving the freedom to
express there own views, their own perceptions and all in all they should

get freedom from what the teacher would present. They should be
exposed to what freedom actually is”.

 

‘5 All quotes from Auther come from typed transcriptions of interviews on 17 March 2000, 10 April
2000, 7 July 2000, and 9 April 2001 or from typed field notes of observations of lessons
conducted on 22 May 2000 and 28 June 2000.

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When asked to give an example of good teaching, he described a
mathematics teacher who told jokes before and after lessons. Sometimes the
teacher told stories, some of which had related to the subject matter. However,
Auther could not think of any examples of teachers who engaged in the type of
education that he described as being “good.”

Auther was less clear with regard to his view of what is good research.

I think good research is mainly one that has got proper tools that are used

and that comes up with something that can be tried... that can be put into

practice.

Originally, Auther chose “Code switching in the Ieaming and teaching of
agriculture” as his first CDS research topic. He knew that language issues were
a problem in the classroom, and by his using terms in ChiShona, the native .
language of the area, pupils might learn concepts better. He had done some
“code switching” in his teaching before and saw pupils increase their
understanding, including some “ah ha” experiences. Also, he viewed research in
terms of functional purposes. When asked how he saw research influencing his
practice, he said “this would help me in identifying the problems that the pupils
are facing and I should immediately solve these problems.”

Even though he had articulated a plan to conduct this research, he stated
that this topic was not what he was most interested in doing. By the second
interview (still prior to TP), Auther decided to change topics. During a visit to the
school, he realized that the pupils were not completing the practical aspect of the
subject. Very little was being produced in the school's garden. Auther thought
that the problems started with the school disempowering the department and

137

pupils. The agricultural department received occasional funds to purchase seeds
and other inputs, but once the crop matured, it was sold by the school. The
teacher and pupils saw little results of their hard work.

Auther changed his topic to investigate the reasons for absenteeism
during practicals (the time when pupils were to do the physical work in the
garden.) Later, he decided to look at types of rewards. In the end, he developed
his topic to examine the role of responsibility and ownership in pupils doing
practical work. He wanted pupils to feel ownership of a single plot whereby they
would choose what to grow, care for the plants, harvest the crop, and then
decide what to do with the profits.‘

The reality of the. pupils’ ownership was more limiting than what Auther
had envisioned. While Auther had over forty students enrolled in his Form Ill
class (third year of secondary school), just over thirty attended lessons. Many
were “chased away" from the School because they were unable to pay school
fees. The students did not have a choice of what to plant (the school had covo
and rape seedlings) or where to plant it (the class was allocated a particular
section of the school’s plot.) Pupil decision-making was even more restricted
when I visited Auther’s class during practical work. While the students chose
their partners, Auther dictated the size of the plot, the spacing of the seedlings,
and the process of preparing and planting. Over the term, the pupils were
responsible for watering and tending their plots, often using time outside
agriculture lessons. In terms of pupil accountability, Auther was able to tell which
pairs were caring for their plots and which ones were not. At times a particular

138

plot went untouched and dried-up. At the same time, other plots flourished and a
place card naming the pupils and crops was displayed.

Throughout the term, Auther introduced topics that would assist the pupils’
plots, e.g. use of fertilizers and pesticides. In one lesson he asked the pupils if
they had discovered any pests in the garden. One pupil claimed to have seen
snails and another saw aphids. Rapidly asking questions, Auther gave a mini-
lesson on precautions to take when using chemicals; then he demonstrated
spraying the garden.

Once the covo started to grow, Auther noticed that some of the leaves
were taken. The pupils had called his attention to it. It appeared that other
pupils were stealing from the garden. Auther had the pairs harvest their crOp»,
and he recorded the number of leaves collected. Some came up withmore than
seventy leaves while others had twenty or less. The pupils were visibly excited
about having their own produce. When Auther asked what they were going to do
with it, nearly all said they would take it to their parents and a few mentioned
selling it. When I asked why he thought some plots did better than others, he
identified that some pupils stopped coming to school due to being unable to pay
school fees. He also discussed some groups were not watering or did not water
immediately after using the fertilizers. He did notice that the pupils “running
away” from doing practicals had been greatly reduced from the beginning of the
term when he found seven pupils not present.

Auther maintained a high level of excitement for this research project
throughout the term. He was eager to have someone come to discuss and

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observe what was happening with his project. He asserted that he benefited
from our interviews together. "It helped me a lot.... A lot of the questions that you
were asking in the interviews were some of the questions sort of relating to what
we’re doing in our CDS.” I had not suspected Auther as one who would
plagiarize, but he stated that it would have been a possibility if he did not
participate in my study.

If I wasn't a part of the study, I could have done it differently. I could have
copied from someone else. I could not have succeeded in my CDS.

When I asked if there was much copying going on, he stated, “There is a
lot of copying. There is a lot of duplication of documents and a lot of making up
information and something like that... People are not doing their original things.”

Auther was less positive about the supervision from the college. Instead
of support, he felt conflicts. between what different lecturers told him.

One who will come to supervise you whilst you are on TP is different and

will tell you different things, ".... this is wrong...what you were taught is not-

the right thing, it’s not what we agreed upon...." You see if there can be
some agreements with people holding several seminars [among]
themselves, the lecturers agreeing on what they do will help a lot.

I found extensive evidence of Auther’s openness to Ieaming from working
with him. In an interview nearly a year after he completed TP, he clearly felt
pride in completing his CDS research project.

I Ieamed that if you try something and you do think that it does not work,

you don't have to think that it doesn't work until you work it out. You try it.

You experiment it. You have got to work on it very very highly so that you

can achieve it. So by doing that CDS project, I did it that so many things

can happen in achieving what pupils would be looking for — the hidden
things that people do not know — would come up only if one person works
hard. So in doing the CDS it helped me a lot: taking myself as someone
who has worked so hard in achieving something.

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Auther believed that it was the teachers’ responsibility for ensuring
Ieaming in the classroom. He saw research as being integrated with the type of
teaching he hoped to continue to do.

It's all about experimenting with pupils. Not that what you read from books

is what you should always follow or the laid out methods of teaching are

the only ways of teaching, making pupils understand, so you have to try
new things.

He became conscious of changes in his view of teaching and Ieaming
towards a more dialectical and constructivist approach.

I now know that I can experiment with pupils on what they want. I had

been listening to the pupils' problems, rather than manipulating them,

something like that, and l. canlnow talk to pupils and pupils can now talk to
me freely, unlike what used to be when I thought a teacher was a teacher
who is above the pupils... So, I think I have changed greatly.

Auther reflected that being open led to his Ieaming how to construct new
ideas from his experience in the claSsroom.

You know, you get some experience; you get some new ideas in attacking

new things or solving problems: We solve problems in different ways. You

are open. Your mind is open as .long as your head (the mind) is open and
knows how tosolve problems especially when dealing with people, school
kids. '

When I first asked him if he had developed his own theory about teaching
and Ieaming, he was hesitant. However, by the end of the interview he stated,
“Like now I know what a theory is like, you can develop your own, you can come
up with your own ideas, you organize them, something like that.” The theory that
he was developing related to the idea that students learn best through discovery
and experimentation, but for that Ieaming to happen, the teacher has to do many

things including being open to listening to students, building trust, and willing to

address the real problems of the classroom.
141

Having conversations with Auther where he shared his willingness to
develop new ideas and observing him listening to students, I realized that he had
“gotten it” in terms of understanding the purpose of doing action research during
student teaching. Through the research process, he became more reflective
about his practice and role as a teacher.

While we had intensive discussions prior to his writing the CDS report, I
did not see what he had written until after he submitted the report to his tutor. I
was surprised to see that the qualitative aspect to the report was absent. He
spent much time listening to students and observing them, but he did not include
' their voice in the report. Instead, Auther used quantitative values to describe the
pupils’ feelings. ,

The researcher had to randomly select pupils for interviews from the

group. A total of twenty-one pupils were sampled to answer the

questions. It came out clearly that 100% of the pupils selected were in
discontentment with the way practicals were being carried out at the-
school. Seventy-five percent of the pupils indicated that their parents '
encouraged them to do practicals subjects. The remaining percentage

(twenty five) probably indicated their discontentment in the manner the

lessons were being carried out.

Nowhere did he describe what the discontentment looked like, how pupils
expressed it, or what it meant for pupils doing agriculture. Also left out were
descriptions of what pupils did in their groups, what responsibilities they had,
what their “ownership” entailed.

In our final interview, I asked Auther why he excluded the qualitative
aspect of the project in his write up. He recognized the contradiction, and

claimed that he wanted to include things like pupils’ feelings, understandings,

and attitudes, but did not know how to present them in written form.
142

I think the major problem was on trying to come up with the numbers and
so forth on qualitative. You talk of pupils’ feelings being good, something
like that, but I wouldn't rate how much they have feeling, like five over five
something like that? What if, in future for example, what would you do
to some feelings that you get from pupils? How would you present them in

your write-u p?

Auther’s tutor from BTTC was not as critical. The only criticism on the
evaluation was related to a mixing of verb tenses. The CDS report earned a
score of seventy-five percent. Even though it did not give him a distinction, it was
one of the highest in [his class. 1

Auther embodied many of the characteristics necessary for a successful
teaching practice experience. First and foremost, he was willing to address the
hard work straight on, never shying from doing what had to be done. He also
was willing to take risks — often he tried things not knowing the outcome. Thirdly,
. he viewed research as a process 9 his topic continued to evolve as he thought
deeper about the research and saw some of the effects. And lastly, he searched
for people, myself included, to dial09ue with about research, teaching, and
Ieaming. .

Grace: the Experience of “Had It”

Grace attended rural government schools, similar to the one where she
conducted her teaching practice in Chiweshe, about 125 kilometers north of the
capital city. However, one difference was that the primary school she attended
was a council school — where the government hands over some of the
responsibility (of construction and operation) to the parents. She was one of the

top students of her class and could have studied any subject, but she decided to

follow her fathers’ footsteps - an extension worker — and pursue a career in
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agriculture. Briefly she worked as a farm manager. Because the hours were
grueling and pay low, she decided to go into teaching. After three years, she
decided to get her diploma in education so she would be a qualified teacher.
Grace viewed agriculture as a practical subject. As a teacher she wanted
pupils to work effectively in groups to complete tasks. Demonstrations and
questioning were also methods that she planned to incorporate in her teaching.
She acknowledged that she taught the same way she had been taught, but
rather than sticking with one method, she experimented in her teaching.
When I got into the field of teaching, I copied what the lecturers and the
teachers in secondary schools were doing; then I tried it and I would learn
from that. If I used the group method, then I would say there was lack of
exchange of ideas In the classroom, then6 I would say I tried this and I '
failed. What other method? I would try it16
When asked to describe“ “good teaching”, she did not discuss any ‘
particular teaching strategy. She focused on what she wanted the pupils-to do.
So good teaching is that teaching which brings up a pupil who is able to
think and to apply concepts learnt in teaching into other programs or into
the outer world.
In terms of viewing good research, she looked at issues of having a clear,
methodical plan to produce results.
If you are doing research, you want to find out something, you should
have a strategy, a method on how you are going to conduct your research.
So a good research should have a good methodology to be followed
during the research process and not just jump from one point to the other.
Also you have to produce results.
Grace approached her research with a clear topic, and that topic did not

change throughout the process. She decided to look at the issue of “corrections

 

'6 All quotes from Grace come from typed transcriptions of interviews on 3 April 2000 and 14
June 2000 or from typed field notes of observations of lessons conducted on 14 June 2000.
144

that pupils were supposed to make after they take a test. She based her topic on
a problem she experienced in her teaching.

What you do is you teach, after teaching you give an exercise for the
pupils to write, then they get things wrong. They have to make corrections
of what they have done wrongly so they do the correction. After doing the
corrections, what I have noticed is if you give them that same test after
three days or so, they will not have 100%. Why? Because the corrections
were not done properly or they were done for sake of doing... so I am
doing a research on that.

Not only did Grace identify a precise problem, she had begun to think of
ways to address it. She classified how she had observed other teachers
addressing the issue of corrections into systems.

What I want to look at is the systems .of writing corrections because some
teachers will come and say, “Okay, for the test we wrote yesterday the
answers are as follows...” The answers are written on the board, and the
pupils will copy the answers into their books. And some teachers will
come and say, “For the test which we wrote yesterday, go and use your
notes to write corrections.” Then others will say “Okay, let’s discuss the
corrections in class.” And they discuss the corrections as pupils will write
them. Some of them will just say “Okay, go and ask your friends,” or
“Check with your friends for the corrections.”

She then developed the different systems of corrections that she planned
to use in her research.

80 I am going to use different methods. I am going to have four groups;
the first group will just go and do the corrections at home. The other
group, the teacher will just provide the answers. The other group the
teacher and the pupils are going to discuss, read the question, analyze the
question and get the answer, and then they write the corrections. And the
last group will do it individually in the class, reading notes, reading the
question and answer individually. Then after that take three days and
come in with the same test. Get all the pupils from the four groups to write
the test, and then we will see the performance.

She viewed the research she was doing as an extension of her teaching
and not something separate from it.

145

I think they work hand-in-hand because with the teaching is normal way of
teaching when you have to teach and make them write corrections, mark
the corrections and to monitor the corrections. So it’s not out of teaching
it’s one and the same thing.

Grace planned to start conducting the research in the second week. She
wanted the first week to get acclimated with the school. Her Form ll class, which
she used for her CDS study, had twenty-eight pupils, but other classes had up to
thirty-seven. Like the other schools, students wore uniforms and the classrooms
were sparse — not much other than pupils’ benches and a chalkboard.

She planned on discussing with her Head of Department (HOD) to get an
idea of the general behavior and attitude of the pupils. Using that information,
she figured out how to putthem into heterogeneous groups for corrections. Like 1
the others, Grace had not begun. her literature review; she was hoping to start on
it once on TP. Her only concern with concluding the research was how to do the
data analysis. Otherwise, she was confident‘about doing what was ahead of her.

When I visited a few weeks into the term, Grace had the groups firmly
established. For the most part, she used time after school for the groups to work
on their corrections. She posed questions to the pupils in groups to better
understand why they made the same mistakes on a test after they did corrections
of the very same test. The groups discussed questions such as: which
questions were tricky, which questions were simple, what were the problems you
faced, and how you discussed the corrections.

Grace knew that the problem rested deeper than the pupils being slow,

dull, or forgetful. She was perplexed when some pupils would miss twenty-four

out of twenty-five in multiple-choice questions. She looked deeper to understand
146

the problem. Through questioning, she discovered that language, i.e. pupils not
understanding the questions was the root of the problem.

What I have found out is that most pupils, their problem was on

understanding the question. They say the problem is one - the language,

so they were not understanding what the question really required because
of language. So they were saying English is difficult for them, but you
cannot teach in ChiShona [the local language]. That’s the problem. But the
other group suggested that just simple English should be used. That’s why
they found some of the other questions tricky, because they couldn’t
understand exactly what was required. Then after rephrasing the question
into simpler words, they say “Ah ha”, saying they are knowing the answer
to the question, but they’ll not be understanding the question.

While exploring in groups, pupils thought that questions that asked pupils
to “discuss” were tricky because they did not know what it was they were
supposed to discuss. They thought that “which” questions were simple because
they could more easily guess the correct answer. Grace also understood that:
language was a problem in not just understanding the question but for pupils
giving answers too.

They may not be able to express themselves in English. They may write -

something, which, if you read, you will know that he is trying to say this.

But if you put a wrong word the sentence may mean something else -

very different from what you want to say. So that’s the problem. They get

some of the things wrong, not because they don’t know but because they
are not able to express what they know in an exact way.

Some of the time, the pupils had no idea what a particular term meant.

On the particular test which the pupils were doing the corrections, all the group
members had failed to give the definition of “percolation.” Only one pupil had
managed to write something on it. When Grace asked, all of them had claimed
to have heard of the term, but none of them could say where or when they heard
it. Then they were asked what they should do if none of them knew anything

147

about the answer. Their responses — discuss it in the group, ask another group,
look in their notes — did not seem to lead to an easy solution. No one mentioned
the idea of asking the teacher who was right there with the group.

In another group, one student seemed to have most of the answers.
When asking for answers in English, other group members continually turned to
him. However, when the group discussed the question in ChiShona, all group
members participated. When discussing this situation with Grace after the
lesson, she theorized that pupils view English and ChiShona languages
differently. English was for “getting it right”, i.e. giving correct answers, and
ChiShona is‘for discussion and understanding.

When they start talking Shona they will explain something until it is got by
everyone, unlike in English. Someone will just say, “Okay, percolation is '
the getting of water into the ground to the bedrock,” and he or she will not
understand that but will just say “Okay” and that is that. Full stop. But if
they start to discuss in Shona, they maybe even [begin] some argument.
If someone is saying “Ah no, that one is not true. That one is infiltration .
because percolation goes deep, deep down and will not be used by plants
but with percolation the water just gets down and will be used by plants.”
Then you will see now that they aretrying to get the differences between
the two.

Grace used the test scores as well as observations and interviews for data
collection. She was critical that some of the interviews might be biased.

It’s very difficult to find out exactly the truth. So maybe if I pick a sample
from the pupils, then there are pupils who tell their truth, so maybe if I pick
those and ask them. Say, “Okay, I want to help you. Tell me, tell me did
you exactly understand what this question was looking for?" Then he will
tell you exactly what he knows or whether he understood or not, but if you
do it as they were in groups, they will lie to you. That I know. So maybe if
you take them individually, then sit down with them, and ask them, and
you say “Okay, I am helping you.” They will say out openly.

148

Grace did see improvements in most groups when they did the
corrections. She noticed an increase in “sensible” corrections in all groups.
Contrary to expectation, the group working independently showed improvements
equal to or greater than the one she was leading. Rather than refuting the data
or changing it to fit her previous hypothesis, she looked for explanations.

Maybe if they are doing this on their own, they take much better time to

concentrate...because some of the slow learners. It’s not that they do bad,

but the pace at which they understand is a very slow pace. So maybe if
you are discussing it when you are in class, if the time is not enough for

them to conceptualize all the factors you are talking about... Maybe if he
or she is doing it all, he or she will give themselves more time.

Grace’s report was straightfon/vard and she gave clear evidence to
support her case. She included several graphics — five tables and eight graphs,
some of which were redundant. Missing was a description of what happened in
the four different groups, [i.e. how were pupils’ experiences different in each
group. However, her tutor did not make this observation. Like Auther, she
received a seventy-five percent and very few critical comments.

The assistance I gave to Grace was minimal. She had her topic well
defined prior to meeting with me. During interviews and observations, I probed
her with questions that she had obviously thought out beforehand. She had
developed a clear research plan and followed it. Even with uncertainties of data
analysis, she was critically examining what the information meant — looking
deeper than the obvious. Unlike the other three student teachers, Grace began
the process with the necessary tools to complete an action research project. She

understood that research and teaching were a dialectical relationship of reflection

and action. She also was able to conceptualize her research project to
149

understand what she needed to do to get the project going and to collect
valuable information. Clearly, she knew what she was doing, and as a result she
was able to discuss her research in a productive manner. Rather than
reinventing the research topic, she looked deeper into the problem and the
solution she was attempting to implement. These valuable skills and attitudes
were not the ones the college developed. Grace came to teaching practice
prepared, that is, she “had it.”
Analysis

Tobias, Patience, Auther, and Grace were not unique students at BTTC.
There were many others who could have fit into each of the previous categories.
In terms of “not doing it”, Joyce and Tafadzwa stood out as two different
examples. They were teaching mathematics and history, respectively, at the
same school. Their cases were much different, but both students did not do the ‘
actual research project. Joyce was always vague about her topic when we
discussed it. She identified her problem'as some pupils had been previously
taught some mathematical concepts while others had not, so she wanted to know
how to deal with the discrepancies in background knowledge. She planned on
giving an “assumed knowledge test”, which she knew could have been an
indicator of pupils’ lack of revision, not understanding topic, or simple errors.
Each time I asked when she was going to begin her approach, Joyce gave me
different reasons for not being able to start. Finally she stated that she would

begin the study with “Sets and Pythagorean theorem,” a topic that did not come

150

up until the last term of the year". We never discussed what the next steps
would be, i.e. how would she teach differently to meet the needs of the pupils
with a variety of experiences with the topic.

Tafadzwa was much more open about discussing her CDS project, but
that was not enough for her to do the work in earnest. She began TP with a
general idea for a topic; pupils not attending lessons or pupils not writing their
work. Within the first weeks she felt compelled to address a real problem that
she was observing in her classroom: a pupil with HIV/AIDS was being ostracized
by classmates in the classroom. I encouraged her to use the issue as her CDS
topic because it was a real problem of which she was concerned. I thought that
the parallels of bullies in the classroom .were too similar to those in World history
to be ignored; I believed that it would be a good issue to initiate the CDS '-
process. While we discussed what was happening in her classroom in relation
to the bullies, Tafadzwa however, never started the process of developing
curriculum to address the issue of bullying.

Like Patience, Joyce and Tafadzwa turned in a CDS report and graduated
from BTTC. However, none of them could claim to have actually have done the
research project. They all came up with a topic and used some tools to collect
data, but they did not implement a different strategy in their teaching to address
the problem of their topic. Their intent of actually doing the project is unknown,

but the result was that they did not attempt to change their practice. As will be

 

'7 Student teachers in academic subject areas engage in teaching practice for a entire school-
year.
151

discussed later, students not doing the project is a common perception among
many lecturers and some students.

At the other end of the spectrum, there were other examples to join Auther
in “getting it.” Patricia, a Geography student teacher, knew she could not get
through the whole year-curriculum for Form Threes during her TP year. Instead
of trying to race through the different production sectors of Zimbabwe, she
organized pupils into groups where each researched one area in depth and then
shared with the rest of the class. While cooperative learning techniques have
been common practice in many US schools and teacher education programs for
over the past two decade's, Patricia and most Zimbabwean teachers have not
been exposed to it. Patricia developed a portfolio of assignments for the pupils
to complete, organized time for groups to meet outside of class lessons, and .
continued to assess groups” progress. Like Auther, she did not have a clear
vision as to what the whole project would entail. They both continued to struggle. .
and learn along the way and, in the end, they succeeded in doing something they
would not have otherwise attempted.

There were many more examples similar of Tobias “Not getting it” than
there were similar to Grace "Had it.” In the following section, I describe how
many students chose topics like Tobias’s that were obvious. Analysis of
questionnaires shows that most students did not “get it” in terms of
understanding the research process. Three major issues emerged from looking
at the four case studies of Auther, Grace, Patience, and Tobias that reflect
common experiences at BTTC. They are:

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1. Choosing a topic is a process, but it was not recognized by many students
and tutors

2. Many students (and lecturers) did not conceptualize research and connect
it with Ieaming to teach

3. Preparation and support were minimal and inconsistent

For the most part, students were on their own to figure out what was
commonly referred to a “this animal called the CDS.” In some vital ways the
students needed assistance in understanding the research process in order for it
to be a meaningful aspect of their becoming reflective and effective teachers. In
the following sections, I will discuss each above issue in more detail.

Issue 1: The Process of Choosing a Topic

Often students chose topics that for one reason or another led to poor
research projects. Tobias, Patience, Auther and Grace were given the task of
identifying a problem in. the classroom and developing a topic. Then they
submitted their topics to their CDS tutors for approval. This process of
generating a focus for a study without assistance was setting up many students
for failure.

Two of the focus students changed their topics while they participated in
the study -— “Comparing field trips with simulations” to “Effects of having pupils
develop farm dream plans” for Patience and from “Codeswitching” to “Rewards”
to “Absenteeism” to “Pupil ownership” for Auther. These two were not the only
ones. The following year (2001), I interviewed and discussed topics with twenty
students doing their CDS research project during TP. Of those, only five did not

change their topic from their original plan. Auther’s and Patience’s topic

development followed a common trend. They started with topics that they
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viewed as being feasible or easy to do. They knew that the topics had been
done before and would be approved by their advisor, but they did not feel any
great interest in pursuing it. There was no passion or curiosity when they
described their original topics, but that changed when they started to think and
discuss their actual interests.

Of the twenty interviewed in 2001, ten made changes to their topics that
were improvements in terms of being connected to a real problem and/or solution
that they cared about. Like Auther and Patience, some completely changed how
they approached the research. For example, some changed their topic from
comparing two teaching, strategies to looking at a real problem in their .
classrooms. One student began with “An investigation into the effectiveness of '
the demonstration method versus field trip” and replaced it with “Examining lack
of detail in practical diaries.” Other students kept their original area but became
much more specific. One student started with “Effects of streaming on
performance” and developed to “To investigate the effectiveness of using slow
learners as leaders in heterogeneous groups in building studies.”

Not all students improved their topic with their change. Three students
changed their topics, but did not develop ones that more effective. For example
one student began with, “Effects of resources on pupil performance” and
switched to “Effects of staff turnover on pupil performance.” Both of the topics
offered no solution to a fairiy large problem. Two students changed to topics that
were less practical for a CDS project. For example, one original topic was:
“Individual other than group work can help improve appreciation of work in

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garden” and was altered to “To investigate why pupils drop agriculture at the
school.” The new topic was on an issue that she was not prepared to address
during her teaching practice term.

The other student selected a new topic that she already knew the answer
to: “An investigation into whether Form ll pupils practice what they are taught on
dietary guidelines.“ (Her original topic was “An investigation on how extrinsic
motivation instill hygienic safety precaution to Agriculture Junior Certificate
pupils.”) In both cases, the changes were initiated by their advisors, who
rejected the first topics. Rather than‘helping the students work through their
ideas of a topic to researchgtheir tutors sent them away to come up with a new
. topic. For many students it was a "hit or miss” process, where many students
opted for an easy way out by picking a common, uncontroversial topic.

On the other hand, receiving assistance in the process of developing a
topic, did not guarantee that the project would be a success. Patience and I
worked together to create a topic that she was interested in, but she did not
complete her project. Conversely, Grace had'stuck with the same topic from
beginning to end, and it was something that she internalized and felt compelled
to pursue.

Many more students had similar experiences to that of Tobias. While 75%
of the students I worked with changed their topics from their original plan at the
beginning TP, their cohorts reported a much different story. In a questionnaire
administered to all vocation/technical and PADE students who had just
completed TP (June 2001), only 22.3% (47 out of 157) reported changing their

155

topics. Of the academic students (May 2002), the figure was only 16.6% (35 out
of 21 1 .) Perhaps students were more reluctant to write about changes in a
questionnaire than they were to discuss it in an interview. However, another
explanation could be that students did not change their topics from the ones they
submitted to their tutors because no one challenged them to try something new
and interesting.

An examination of the topics reported in the questionnaires, showed that
they were greatly lacking in terms of being vague/ambiguous, not proposing a
solution to the problem, .and the answer being obvious or known. In the 2001
vocational/technical and PADE questionnaire, the largest group (39.8%) of the
reported topics I classified as vague. l categorized vague research topics as
being so general that they could have covered a wide range of areas to study.
Examples are “Pupilparticipation in class (group work)” and “Effective methods
when teaching buttonholes.” There could have been a dozen possible topics .
focusing on how group work could have been made more effective, e.g. size and
longevity of groups, organization of tasks, and identification of roles of group
members. The same is true with effective methods of teaching buttonholes.

Even more of the academic students (57.4%) in their questionnaires gave
topics that were also ambiguous. These topics include: "How to motivate pupils
through the use of incentives,” “An investigation on the most effective method of
teaching reading comprehension,” “Socio-economic status on pupil
performance.” Some subject area sections reported to have given their students
areas of study. For example, the Mathematics lecturers gave their students four

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areas to pick from: Gender, Codeswitching, Socio-Economic Status, and
Streaming. From those areas, students were required to develop a topic,
however, most of them simply took the area of study as their topic.

The second largest classification of topics in the vocational/technical and
PADE questionnaire (30.3%) focused on specific problems in the classroom, but
they did not present possible ways of addressing them. Examples are "Causes
of tool breakages at form I", “Problem of lack of creativity in design”, “An
investigation to establish reasons why pupils are not doing their homework.”
These are fine problems to start the research process, but finding ways to
address these problems and gaining an understanding of why the solutions
worked or did not work is an integral part of the action research process. Fewer
(11%) academic students’ topics fell into this category. Examples include:
“Impact of inability to distinguish'between ’describe’ and ‘explain' in geography”
and “Causes for negative attitude towards History by pupils.”

Another significant problem with topics included students picking topics for
which the answer is known prior to the start of the project. Twenty-five .
vocational/technical and PADE students’ topics (11.8%) fell into this category.
Examples are: “The perception of pupils towards agriculture practicals,”
“Effectiveness of using models when teaching diagrams,” and “How shortage of
equipment affects performance.” For the most part, there is general knowledge
that pupils do not like agriculture practicals, that using models (or any teaching
aid or strategy) can be effective if done appropriately, and shortages of
equipment do not help the teaching/learning process. These topics could have

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been altered to be more effective, i.e. identifying activities that would help pupils
to enjoy agricultural practicals, identifying new ways of using models more
effectively, and identifying ways of making teaching/Ieaming effective with a lack
of particular resources. A similar percentage (1 1.6%) of academic students also
came up with topics with known answers. These examples include: “Importance
of teaching aids in the teaching of advertising in commerce” and “The
effectiveness of continuous assesSment.”

The lecturers complained that most students were comparing one
teaching method with another and then indicating which one is better. The
common example given was, “A-comparison of the lecture method versus the
discussion method,” and students find that the discussion method is more
effective. Issues of contexts of when using the methods or looking at how the
methods are being done .are ignored.

While this was a problem .in the past, by 2001, fewer students were still
choosing such topics. Only 3.3% of vocational/technical and 2.6% of academic
topics were labeled as such. Tobias’s topic of comparing the effectiveness of
charts versus that of models could have fit this category. Having interviewed
him, the topic could have also been classified with the one above — already
knowing the answer. Another example from vocational/technical is, “The
effectiveness of group versus lecture in teaching cultural pest control concepts in
agriculture AJC.” It is nonsensical to do such general comparisons of one
method’s effectiveness over another. Each teaching method can be effective if
done well at an appropriate time, but they accomplish different things in terms of

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teaching and Ieaming. Usually, a student preferred one method to another,
which was fine — all teachers are better at some ways of teaching than others -
but a student should not have confused the method with which they are most
comfortable with the “most effective” method. To improve the topic, they could
have identified ways to make one strategy more effective.

Examining the effectiveness of a particular strategy was one category that
contained several topics that seemed to meet the ideals of action research and
the CDS. Like Auther’s (examining if pupil ownership of plots leads to
improvement of attendance and attitude towards practicals) and Patience’s
(Effects of having pupils develop. farm dream plans) topics, some of these. -'
identified a specific problemand then tried something not normallydone to
improve the situation. Seventeen percent of. Vocational/technical and PADE
students’ topics were classified as such, however, not all the topics were clear-
and specific. Examples of the better ones include: “Use of slow Ieamers as
leaders in heterogeneous groups on performance in agriculture” or “effects of
different group sizes in pupil performance.” Some of the more ambiguous
examples were: “Group discussions effectiveness” or “Effectiveness of group
work to improve pass rates.” While only 7.9% of the academic students’ topics fit
this category, they were generally clear and specific topics, such as:
“Effectiveness of drama in teaching characterization in literature,” “Using
handouts in place of textbooks,” “Effectiveness of flexibility training in executing a
lay-up shot in basketball,” and “Effects of sitting arrangements on pupils’
performance.”

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Grace’s topic (comparing four strategies in improving how corrections are
done) belonged to another category that yielded some of the better topics —
comparisons of two similar strategies in teaching. Only 4.7% of
vocational/technical and PADE and 1.9% of academic students’ topics belonged
to this grouping. Some other examples included: “Individual homework
compared to group homework” or “The effectiveness of teacher-derived grouping
and pupil-derived grouping,” and “An investigation into the teaching of English
classics as compared to the teaching of African written English literature at
O’level with specific reference to O’Ievel pupils at _ School.”

Further, while most of-thelecturers stated that students’ topic selection
was generally poor, most students thought otherwise. On average,
vocational/technical and PADE students rated their topics a 3.7 and academic
students 3.5 on a five-point scale where 3=satisfactory and 4=good. Eventhe
academic students who had ambiguous topics rated theirs 3.4. For example,
one such student who rated his/her topic a 4 (Good) had a topic of “The
effectiveness of teaching aids.” The justification s/he offered was, “There is
literature from different authors.” The student could have produced a quality
CDS project, however, the topic did not give direction for a focused study. It was
unclear which teaching aids would be used, how and when they would be used.
Way Forward - Topic Selection As a Process

I joined Mr. Machera, the Lecturer in Charge of Professional Studies, in
visiting lecturers in each vocational/technical and PADE section in November
2001 and each academic section during May — June 2002. The goal was to

160

dialogue about problems and possibilities of the CDS. Topic selection was a
primary issue. Lecturers were quick to identify problems with topics. While many
lecturers did acknowledge an improvement in students no longer “comparing the
lecture method versus discussion method,” there was consensus that topics were
generally very poor. Their reaction to the list of students’ topics included that
they were: too vague or broad, shallow, repetitive, not authentic/plagiarized, too
theoretical/not based on real problems, without a specific intervention, something
that is already typically done in the classroom, and “non-sensible.”

Mr. Machera and I put the section lecturers to task and asked them to
develop model topics using students’ topics or their own. We believed that not
only did pupils needto see examples of good. topics, but also that the dialogue of
how to developa good topic needed to begin at the college level. The
vocation/technical and PADE sections were more receptive than the academic
sections. Most of the latter group'offered to-give us their topics in a couple
weeks after they had discussed it and developed it as a section. However, there
was no follow through.

The discussions with the sections that did develop topics followed a
similar pattern. The first step was identifying an issue that was based on or
related to a problem that occurred in the classroom. Most sections used
students’ topics to pick ones that were realistic and interesting. The second step
was focusing the issue on a specific problem. At this stage, the lecturers
theorized or made hypotheses regarding why the problem exists and what is the
crux of the problem, and then they decided which aspect of the problem is

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indicative of the larger issue. The next step was identifying possible ways to
address the problem, i.e. what can the teacher do? The lecturers brainstormed
as many possible solutions as they could; then they picked one to develop
further. The fourth and fifth steps, developing the possible research approach
and identifying possible theories that may come out of the research, were
discussed in the sections. In the former stage, the lecturers would have
discussed which research techniques would be effective. In the latter they would
have identified issues of why or why not their way of addressing the problem
would work and under which necessary conditions. However, only onegroup
proceeded to develop their to'pic to either of these stages.

An example. of a section’s lecturer-s that developed a topic from a real
problem wasthe co‘mputerrsection. They described how tests in the subject area
usually measure students’ ability to memorize and not their abilities to develop
software. They decided that developing appropriate assessment tools would be
a worthwhile CDS project that'addresses the problem of poor tests. See
appendix for the model topics offered during section visits.

To show the process that came out of the lecturers’ discussions in the first
session of the January-February 2002 CDS workshop, I developed the following

chad.

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Figure 5.2 - Process of Topic Formulation

 

 

 

 

TOP”? Passion
36160110“ In what are you truly interested?
What type of teacher do you want to
be? What do you want to do?

I

Problem
What is a real/important problem in classrooms today?

I

Sub-Problems
How can the problem be broken down into smaller parts?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Indicators - /\C;rses

How does the problem . ‘1_~ Why is it a LJ What are possible
show itself in the problem? factors that bring
classroom? : - , _ about the problem?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

. . Focusing/Narrowing the Problems
Selecting one aspect of the problem to research
(You will_,not solve “big” problems during your teaching practice term,
but you will be able to solve one aspect/slice of the problem) '
0 Which do you think'is an important aspect to the problem?
. Which do you think you can affect?
0 Which are you most interested in?

I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Brainstorm Solutions
What are ways you could address this particular aspect of the problem?
List as many as you can. Be creative.

 

l

Selecting one aspect of the solution to attempt in the research
Is this something you can do?

Will it address the problem?

Will it improve teaching and learning?

Is this something new - not normally done?

 

 

 

 

163

 

This new approach of viewing the development of a topic as a process is
much different from the common practice of an advisor telling his/her students to
submit their topic by a specific date without any consultation. One limitation was
the lack of experience the students had in viewing the classroom as a teacher-
researcher and as a result identifying real problems in the classroom. An
unresolved conflict throughout the college was deciding upon the deadline by
which students should have their topic.

Some lecturers and students argued that the topic should be developed
once the student had begun TP and experienced some of the problems of the
particular classroom. On the July: 2001 questionnaire, a vocational/technical
student doing TP in or around Harare stated, “Students should not be coerced
into getting/finding a CDS topic before exposed to the real classroom situation. I It
makes the CDS‘Iess effective and less practical but more theoretical.” -’

Others at the college reasoned that students did not receive much support
from their tutor once they left ”for TP and students were so overwhelmed in their
placement that they neglected to develop a topic until the term was nearly over.
On the same July 2001 questionnaire, a different student wrote: “Students should
have their topics approved before leaving college for teaching practice so that
they complete their projects earlier during the course of the term.” While I
supported the latter view and added that it was easier for students to develop
and change their topics than it was to begin the process during TP, I believe that
improvements in preparation and support was needed (as discussed in the
following sections.)

164

Issue 2: Problems Conceptualizing the Research

Related to the problem of students and tutors not viewing topic selection
as a process is the ways in which students and tutors view the whole research
process. Students had very few models of what a quality research project looks
like. Rather than having a general understanding of how the whole research
process fits together and assists teaching and Ieaming, many students searched
for a set of procedures to follow or a past project to copy — figuratively and
literally. Grace was one of the few students who picked a topic that related to a
real problem she experienced as a teacher, used the research project to develop
ways to improVe that problem, and‘then reflected deeply about her practice and
how to better assist pupils. She understood the pertinent issues involved before
she started conducting the-research. She knew that teachers primarily use four
approaches to get pupils to doicorrections. She also knew that not all the
approaches were effective for. pupils to understand the mistakes they made on
tests. By doing the research, she wanted to understand pupils’ experiences in
doing each approach —- not to find out which one is “the best” but to have a better
understanding of ways to improve pupil Ieaming. The questions she asked as a
researcher, e.g. “Which questions are tricky?” were the same ones that helped
her improve as a teacher.

A requirement of good research does not necessarily involve charting the
course of the research project from beginning to conclusion. Did Grace know
that issues of language would become prevalent when examining how pupils
understand doing corrections? l have no evidence that she did. She did suggest

165

that she was more concerned with pupils’ attitudes towards doing corrections and
their abilities to analyze information. Also, conceptualizing the research does not
suggest knowing the findings beforehand. I believe the contrary is true. If the
researcher truly understands his/her research and how it fits with his/her
teaching, s/he would be more open to a wide variety of possibilities to come out
of the experience. The difference is knowing what one is looking for and not
knowing what one will find.

The other three students (Auther, Patience, and Tobias) did not have as
clear, holistic vision of their research projects and how they fit into their teaching.
Through time and engaging in the. research, Auther realized that he' was
. essentially examining the issue of pupil ownership and identifying a‘dialectical
relationship between teacher‘and pupil responsibility. After completing TP, he
was able to reflect and see how experimenting, listening to pupils, and continuing
- to search for solutions became a partofhis teaching.

Conversely, Patience started off with clear goals but ended up failing to
see the purpose of doing research. She was unambiguous why she wanted her
pupils to do a “dream plan.” From the first conversations with her, she wanted to
improve pupils’ interest in the subject of agriculture. She was well aware of their
negative attitudes and beliefs that agriculture is a low status course of study.
However, by the time she completed TP, she had not developed further
understanding of pupils’ attitudes or ways to integrate improving attitudes into her
teaching. The research process remained isolated from her teaching and, in the
end; she found the exercise a waste of time.

166

Tobias represents the case of conceptualizing research in a way that the
answer is a foregone conclusion. There was little ambiguity in his research. He
was impressed with models and he wanted to prove that models were more
effective than charts. By knowing what he was going to find, he knew what he
was looking for; models are more effective. The methods of collecting data were
perfunctory. Knowing the answer left little reason to ask the question. With this
limited conceptualization of research, Tobias was not open to exploring deeper
issues, such as what is it that pupils Ieam from models that they do not from
charts, or what does it mean for pupils to interact effectively with models.

Even though “the four students used a variety of approaches of data ‘
collection including quantitative and. qualitative methods, none of them gave
narrative descriptions of pupils’ behaviors, attitudes, or feelings. The students
relied on quantitative measures as evidence for their findings. This suggests that -
the analysis part of the research process remained partly mystified for students.
Rather than having used observations or comments from pupils, the students
teachers developed charts, tables, and graphs from numbers, some of which had
questionable origins. Either the students’felt that numbers gave a more
convincing argument for their findings than did the voices of the pupils, or, like
Auther, they did not know how to go about including qualitative research in the
analysis and write-up.

Attitudes Towards Conducting Research

Patience was the only one of the four students to openly display a

negative attitude toward the CDS project, describing it as a waste of time.

167

However when I interviewed twenty-five students engaging in TP the following
year (2001) in a variety of schools in the Harare area, I discovered other students
who questioned why they had to do this CDS project. When the question was
turned back to them, most often they could give a decent justification, but they
still did not seem convinced that it was a worthwhile endeavor. One student
offered that doing research led to wide knowledge about something, that is trying
to find solutions to problems. I suggested to her that it would help her to think
about what works and why it does so she would always be improving her
teaching and Ieaming in the process-

Another student was not so easily convinced of the efficacy of the CDS.
He argued that:

It [the CDS]vis not taken seriously —. the way it’s done doesn’t serve any

purposes. The tutors are not qualified — the CDS gets guidance from PS,

but tutors are from various subjects and [they are] not informed of PS‘.

Tutors aren’t experienced. There is no follow-up with lecturers. The

guides are misleading — not serving the purpose of guiding.

Students were more candid onanonymous questionnaires. I gave such
questionnaires to the same twenty-five students I interviewed during TP of 2001,
eight of which rated their overall experience of doing the CDS research'as “not
good.” When asked why, most wrote about problems related to doing the
research, e.g., “Because I am not experienced in the CDS” or “I do not have
enough time to gather necessary information.” The seven students who rated
their overall experience as “good” or “best possible” gave clearer indications that
they understood the purpose of doing the research. Some focused on having the

opportunity to make changes and/or do something different in the classroom,

168

e.g., “This enables one to come up with specific problem-solving tactics one
initiates or acquires.” Others stated that they understood what was expected in
the process, e.g., “So far the concepts I’ve done I understood clearly.”

On another questionnaire administered to all (211) vocational/technical
and PADE students who had completed TP in September of 2001, a student was
even more direct on the last question, which asked if there was anything else
they wanted to include. The student wrote, “No understanding of 'why' the CDS
project is doneor who does it benefit afterwards. It's just an exam gimmick.”
Three other students made similar remarks on the same question.

One clear finding is that the students who claimed to have a positive
experience also indicated a better understanding of the purpose of the research .
and how it is an integral part of their learning to teach. The finding was further
. supported with many examples. 'On the-2001'questionnaire to 211
vocational/technical and PADE students, 1.9% and 13.3% rated their overall
experience as “terrible/ a mistake” and “not good” respectively. Most of these
blamed the lack of assistance in preparation and during TP (to be discussed in
the next section.) One of these 18 students mentioned, "I am always facing
problems but I get no assistance.” Others focused on not having enough time
and not understanding the process, e.g., “I am- failing to make sense out of it.” A
similar questionnaire for academic students given the following year yielded
similar results with 3.3% and 15.3% rating their overall experience “terrible/ a
mistake” and “not good” respectively. Other than criticizing the supervision,
common comments related to not seeing the point of doing the CDS, e.g., “I

169

Ieamt nothing new. It was a formality to do it. Not interesting but rather a bother
as it was cooked” and “I Ieamt nothing and does not even see the important part
it played in my Ieaming to become a teacher.”

Of the 40.1%, 32.2%, and 5.2% of vocational/technical and PADE
students and the 43.3%, 33.3%, and 4% of academic students who rated their
overall experience as “satisfactory,” “good,” and “fantastic/ best possible”
respectively, most focused on Ieaming something, being able to accomplish
something, and understanding how to do the research. The 142 students who
wrote about Ieaming something about teaching and/or doing research indicated
that they understood the purpose of the CDS; .For example, one student wrote, “I
have Ieamt from- my mistakes that if given a next chance, I will choose a relevant
topic which I will be able to solve skillfully.” Other comments providing evidence
of understanding the pUrpose of'the CDS were:

It enables me to solve problems practically in a logical and diplomatic
manner.

Gave me the insight on confronting problems and try to find ways of
solving them and how toimprove on weaknesses.

I have Ieamt to appreciate pupil’s weaknesses and their variations.
Abilities differ so one has to be objective.

It gives an insight on researchers on how he should look for problems in
classroom situation which may help him to improve them.

It instills a critical thinking and rationalizing of classroom activities.
Reduces generalizations in teaching various concepts.

l have ideas and methods to use to solve the failure of girls in science at
Zim sec schools.

170

The sixty-six students who wrote about accomplishing something in doing
the research gave comments ranging from simply being able to do the work, e.g.
“Was doing the expected thing at the right time” and “At least I could write my
own CD8 and was approved” to being innovative, e.g. “It was something that no
one had ever attempted” and “I managed to grasp enough information on how to
handle certain problems in the teaching process such like the need to critically
look into problems concerning pupils’ performance, discipline etc.” Several
students discussed being given the opportunity to do something not normally

done, e.g. “Because I got to put into practice things I had Ieamt in theory, proving

‘ . whether they were right or wrong.”

All except one of theseven vocational/technical and PADE students who
rated their overall experience as the best possible wrote about understanding
how to do the research. They gave comments as: “I have experienced very little
problems through out”'and “I found it easy to write my CDS after reading the
CDS guide.” Ironically, these students seemed to equate ease with having a
positive experience. Conversely, I believe that struggle is a vital part of action
research and Ieaming to teach. Thus, the obvious conclusion is suspect; just
because students claimed to have a positive experience does not necessarily
mean they were able to conceptualize how the research process was an integral
part of teaching and Ieaming.

Rhetoric and Reality

It is one thing to state the values of doing research, and something much

different to actually engage in or support a research process that reflect those

171

values. Throughout my research at BTTC, students, lecturers and administrators
openly discussed the benefits of doing research, and very rarely did anyone
criticize the idea of attempting to do research. It is difficult to separate what was
mere rhetoric from what had become internalized views, especially on a large
scale. Nonetheless, I asked large groups of students what they thought about
research: what is it, what is the purpose, why is it important.

In general students offered a functional view of doing research. Similar to
the findings of Gitlin et-al. (1998), which argued that student teachers doing
research for the first time view the. experience in terms of getting short term
answers rather than a way of sharing “ways of thinking.” Of the PADE cohort a
year following Auther’s, just over half (53.7%) of the 80 students defined the CDS ‘
as identifying a problem and solving it. Most comments were similar to, “A
research aiming at identifying a problem at a school and try solutions to end that
problem.” Fewer students (46.3%) wrote a similar statement for defining
“research,” e.g. “Finding information on a certain aspect and finding possible
solutions of the problem.”

Some students described the CDS and research using concepts of
constructivist thinking. Twenty-four out of eighty students (30%) wrote definitions
of research as an investigation, e.g. “A continuous process of investigating on an
issue of concern.” Seventeen others (21.2%) wrote of research as seeking
knowledge or truth, e.g. “A process of discovering new facts or concepts through
interaction with the environment.” In describing the CDS, three students
mentioned creating new ideas, e.g. “Finding new information or modify existing

172

trends of information about teaching and learning process.” And two other
students included developing theories, e.g., “Finding a problem in teacher-pupil
relationships or leaning and finding or developing own theories which might
combat the problem.”

Most of the definitions were clear and straightforward. Only two students
used technical jargon to explain their views, e.g. “A study which can be done by a
scholar which might be qualitative or quantitative having objectives and
hypotheses as its components.”

Another questionnaire given to twenty-five vocational/technical and PADE
students a month later revealed similar results. The most common response
(44%) to “Why is it important to do research?” reflected functional thinking of
solving a problem. Most wrote something similar to, “I can identify a problem in
class and research on it'with intention to solve.” Eight students (32%) discussed
improving understanding of an issue, e.g. “To have a wide knowledge on the
problems encountered in teaching and learning.” And two used concepts of
constructivist thinking in their reply, e.g., “Because I should be in a position to
discover new things on my own,” and “It leads to reconstruction of ideas in
certain situation hence development.”

In terms of looking at the rhetoric, students were able to clearly identify
valuable reasons for doing research. While most often they focused on the
functional value of solving a particular classroom problem, some did focus on the
learning that was developed in the process. Unfortunately, the reality of
students’ work did not fit their articulated views of research.

173

Those Who "Got It” - A Minority

Even though some students reported finding the research process as
“easy” or “understandable”, I came across very few students like Grace, who
were able to demonstrate how all the pieces of the research process work
together to grasp the major issues involved. In a September 2000 questionnaire
given to the forty-student cohort of Grace et al. — which had just completed TP — I
came across only six responses that presented a consistent approach where
their topic, problem, and methods of data collection corresponded with each
other. I also looked at what the students Ieamed from the experience. The
responses are shown at the end of this section. Not all of these six students had
as coherent understanding of their research as Grace. For example student #58
had a fairly vague topic - “An inVestigatio‘n into the causes of absenteeism and
.its impact on teaching and learning process,” and s/he did not include anyway of
addressing the problem or indicate much learning through the process.

The following year, when I visited twenty-five students in their TP
placements, I found students reflecting a wide range of understanding how their
research fits together and assists their teaching. One student who shared
deeper insights realized that pupils were not doing homework assignments in
technical graphics. Rather than focusing on the common issue of motivation and
rewards, he tried to re-think project work so that it would be more conducive to
homework. He made his assignments more open-ended so pupils could use
tools from home. Also, he began to develop theories about giving pupils
opportunities to succeed.

174

At another school, all four BTTC students had their own t0pics at the
beginning of the term, but within a couple weeks they all decided to work on the
same topic in their respective subject areas. They examined “The effectiveness
of using slow Ieamers as leaders in heterogeneous groups” in building, computer
studies, and agriculture. They met weekly to discuss research practices as well
as how to organize pupils into teams and how to support the team leaders.
While they found some controversy when pupils who had been isolated in the
past were made team leaders, they observed substantial changes in the
confidence and performance of some of the slower pupils.

Not Getting Started -' Not Knowing the Next Step

Even though some of the twenty-five interviewed seemed to “get it”, they
all seemed to sthggle at the beginning. An indication of students not viewing
their research holistically was that they had a difficult time getting started. My
first visit to the'twenty-five students came during the first three weeks of their
2001 TP. None of them had begun doing the research. All had identified a
problem or a topic, but each gave various reasons for not moving ahead. The
most common reason given was'not being able to do the literature review —
actually, none of the students I had worked with had done one prior to TP. They
could not find their topic in the library, they did not have access to a library, or
they did not know how to go about looking up their topic.

The students’ primary problem was that they did not have a clear idea of
their next step in the process. Jumping in and “just doing it” did not happen with
any of these twenty-five students. While most of the students had clear topics

175

that they were able to discuss, the approach used to collect data was
predominantly technical and complicated. None of the students identified using
qualitative research approaches in their initial stage. Many were trying to find
ways to measure and quantify things rather than find ways to describe what was
happening. I suggested strongly that each student keep a journal for writing field
notes of observations and reflections, however the idea was novel.

In two separate instances, students wanted to compare extrinsic and
intrinsic rewards. They wanted to measure a change in attitudes, so they
organized questionnaires and an experiment where they gave an intrinsic reward
to one group. of pupils and an extrinsic reward to another group. Then they .
compared test scores and/or completionof assignments. They were not sure
how they could elicit information from questionnaires and tests to make
conclusions about pupils’ feelings.

Both of. these studentsneglected to address the issue related to the
complexity of human attitudes and motivation, and they treated all intrinsic and all
extrinsic rewards as a monolith. There. is much different meaning between giving
a pupil a handclap, a piece of candy, or a large sum of money - all extrinsic
rewards. It was not clear how they treated intrinsic rewards other than the
teacher doing nothing.

At times, some students appeared to try to make the research overly
academic. For example, one student was trying to improve how she did
demonstrations in clothing and textiles. Rather than talking to the pupils and
asking them how they were Ieaming and if they were enjoying the process, she

176

created a “social-gram” of keeping track of where the pupils sat and with whom.
By using a particular tool she lost sight of a real issue of her research/teaching.
Not Doing Authentic Research

Lecturers were aware that students were not understanding the research
process as a whole. When visiting the vocation/technical and PADE sections,
the most recurring problem identified was that students were not doing authentic
research. Lecturers reported that students were duplicating research projects of
the past and/or fabricating the data collected. After the one term of TP, lecturers
were seeing students returning to college without having done the research. In
the third term (after the students had completed teaching practice), many of them
sought guidance on how to do the research, including what data to collect and '
. how to collect it. The exercise became academic and artificial; it lost all practical .
purposes of Ieaming from trying to implement a new solution to a problem.

Lecturers from several sections relayed that students wanted to be
“spoon-fed” each step of. the CDS. Building section lecturers indicated that
students were “not grasping the most simple concepts and terms; for example,
what is a hypothesis.” The Technical Graphics section claimed that students did
not back their arguments with logical evidence they found in the field and, as a
result, the students did not take ownership of the research - and they missed the
point of doing the project. Some lecturers discussed how students and external
examiners focus on superficial elements of the CDS, e.g., using specific terms in

a particular way, having their report typed, or having figures labeled in a

177

particular way. In the end, the substance of what had been Ieamed in doing the
research was neglected.

The academic sections’ lecturers related the same problem of students
not doing the research while on TP, even though their placements lasted a whole
year or three terms. Many lecturers reported that students did not even
formulate their topic until they returned to college. Nearly all sections discussed
how the projects become too theoretical because the students were not dealing
with real problems in the classroom.

Interestingly, very few students related the problem of not doing authentic
' research in the questionnaires. However,'three out of the three hundred sixty-
eight of the vocation/technical, PADE, and academic students who completed TP
" in 2001 mentioned the issue,-and they concurred with the lecturers“. One student
simply stated, “Most people are just reproducing previous CDS.” The other two
discussed “cooking up” the data: “Some ppls [pupils] are told in their final year .
that their topic is wrong. Therefore they "cook” information for the sake of doing
CDS” and "A follow up should be done (where students were doing TP) to make
sure that students are not “cooking” information.”

Not Engaging in the Deep Thinking

A questionnaire administered to lecturers in December of 1999 reflects similar
attitudes that their students were not getting the benefits of doing research. Out
of nineteen questions, the two lowest rated (both rated slightly above being
“inadequate”) were ones that asked if students were developing personal
theories about teaching and if students’ research provided useful information.

178

The chart below shows results the questionnaire. Lecturers were asked to rate a

series of statements and rate each on a scale of one to five with the following

descriptors: “1) non-existent”, “2) inadequate”, “3) adequate”, “4) good”, and “5)

excellent.” The chart below shows the average points each statement received

from the lowest rated to the highest.

 

Table 5.2 — Lecturers’ General Statements from CDS Survey #1

 

Eta
0V

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Statement Average
In general, the students developed personal theories about .

teaching 2.39 0.871
In general, the research provided useful information (something

not already known, and it deepened thinking on a real

educational issue) 2.43 1.0939
My understanding of CDS research in other sections is 2.46 1.0100
In general, the students’ editing of the research projects was 2.54 . 0.6477
The communication with" the Professional Studies Section and

my Section was . 2.58 1.1307
Students’ ability to present evidence to arrive at a logical ' ' ‘

conclusion 2.68 ' 0.7836 .
My knowledge pf how students are prepared to do CDS is 2.71 ' 1.0109 '
In terms of usefulness, the students developed research ' - -

proposals that were 2.76 0.8301
In general, the projects were able to integrate theory with 1

practice 2.78 0.8542
The access I have to resources relatingto CDS is 2.78 0.8542
The originality of students’ work (they did not copy/plagiarize) 2.82 0.8631
In general, the research methods used by the students were 2.86 0.7874
In general, the research projects’ organization was 2.97 0.7988
In general, the research topics the students identified were 2.97 0.7632
The students’ contact and supervision during the CDS were 3 1
My understanding of how CDS is organized in the college is .14 1.0994
My knowledge/background of education research

methodologies including action research is 3.55 1.0577
My understanding of the standards and expectations of the

students’ CDS is 3.57 0.9291
My understanding of my role with CDS is 3.58 0.9481

 

179

 

Fifty-eight PADE students concurred with the lecturers in a questionnaire
given a month later. On average they rated developing theories as the lowest of
their self- assessment. It was rated 2.78 on a 1-5 scale, and it was the only
aspect rated under 3.0 (adequate). On the other hand, students rated their
“ability to integrate theory and practice” as the highest at 3.56, suggesting that
they feel more confident at using established theories than creating their own.
The table below shows the results from the students in a similar questionnaire to

the one above.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5.3 — Students’ General Statements from CDS Survey #2

Statement Avg Std dev

My abilitLto develop personal theories is ' 2.78 0.743948
My understanding of analyzing .data is ' . 3.02 0.909154
My understanding of research methods is 3.24 0.671107
My ability to effectively organize a project is . 3.31 0.790516
My understanding of the research process is . 3.36 0.703526
My ability to use evidence to get logical conclusions is 3.36 0.703526
The research topic that I have choSen is 3.44 0.839287
My understanding of how to use thework/idea of others 3.47 0.741.733
My ability to integrate theory and practice is 3.56 0.765077

Nine months later — after TP, the same group on average self-evaluated
themselves more critically — they indicated a reduction of ratings in six of the nine
areas covered. Developing personal theories was one of the few categories that
did not decrease. It saw an improvement from 2.77 to 2.92 and rated higher than
“My understanding of research methods” (at 2.73) and “My understanding of
analyzing data” (at 2.76).

Poor Evaluation of Topics
The way students evaluate possible research topics was another indicator

that students were not conceptualizing how the CDS research project relates to
180

Ieaming to teach. As described previously, many of the students’ topics were not
based on a specific problem, did not identify a way to address the problem, or
they focused on a problem with a known solution. When asked to evaluate
possible CDS topics, students more often than not chose topics based on issues
of feasibility of doing the topic rather than solving problems or finding new
ideas/information. By far, the most popular issue evaluated on any questionnaire
was “The effectiveness of using teaching aids in the classroom” administered in
2002 to one hundred fifty-seven students academic students who completed their
TP. Ninety-seven (61 .8%) chose that topic as the best of four. The other topics
and number of students who rated it as the best were: “Use of models versus
charts in the effectIVeness in teaching concepts” (25 students), “Do pupils-
remember mathematical concepts longer after they handle objects that utilize
that concept?”(-20), and “How does having pupils design a bulletin board improve
classroom management?” (12). I 1

When asked to give justification why they considered the teaching aids
topics as the best, most students offered reasons of feasibility in doing the study
or they wrote about their importance. Thirty-one students discussed how the
topic would be easy to do, e.g., “It is easy to collect data on” or “Researchable.”
Another twenty-eight students wrote reasons why teaching aids should be used,
e.g., “Improves Ieaming in the classroom” or “Helps pupils to conceptualize.”
Very few students identified a problem within the topic that needed solutions or
identified areas of new knowledge that would be gained from the study. Four
students wrote that the problem was that teachers were not using teaching aids.

181

Only one student indicated that the results would not be a foregone conclusion
(that teaching aids are effective.) S/he wrote, “Because it is after whether aids
are necessary or not — if so, what do they help and [what] will happen if they are
not used."

I shared these results to Mr. Mazanhi, the PS lecturer who was teaching
the science students who took the questionnaire. He had a different perception
of why the students preferred the teaching aids topic. He stated that teaching
aids is a topic that is familiar to them, and they hear from their lecturers that
teaching aids are good, innoVative things that improve teaching and learning. He
doubted that students were critical as to why it would make a good CDS topic.

Previous questionnaires yielded similar results. On a questionnaire given
to PADE students in January 2000, the highest evaluated topic out of five was,
“Does the use of charts as teachingaids improve pupils’ understanding of a -
subject.” The lowest rated question was, “What are the effects of reflective
journals in terms of student involvement in class discussion?” The chart below

shows students’ ranking from best to worst of research topics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5.4 — Students’ Ranking of Research Topics from CDS Survey #2
vg.
Research Topic Ratifl Std dev
Does the use of charts as teaching aids improve pupils’
understanding of a subject matter? 2.52 1.501
Which incentive — token or praise — is more effective in
improvingperformance? 2.52 1.27
How does working within a group affect students’ Ieaming
of a particular concept? 2.74 1.049
Attitudes of teachers and parents towards ability-grouping
versus mixed-ability grouping. 3.3 1.609
What are the effects of reflective journals in terms of
student involvement in class discussions? 3.93 1.061

 

 

 

 

182

Students used the same justifications of the former topic being
“researchable” and improving learning. On the other hand, students were
generally unfamiliar with reflective journals and had not considered how it could
be a part of a research project.

Some students tended to evaluate the topics by the foregone conclusions
they could make. On the same questionnaire, twenty-four percent of the
students chose their favorite topic and thirty-three percent picked their worst topic
by giving reasons related to the conclusions they assumed the research would
make. One student selected the topic “Attitudes of teachers and parents towards
ability-grouping versus mixed-ability group” as the best. In his/her response to
why, s/he wrote, “Parents and teachers favor the traditional ability grouping.
However mixed-ability grouping has some advantages of uplifting the mental .
capacity of slow learners hence need for research.”

Other students were more critical and questioned the value of doing
research with a known outcome. Of the few (10 out of 58) students who evaluate
the topic on charts was the worst of the grouping, most (8) discussed that it was
obvious and known, e.g., “Charts are a well established teaching aid that helps
pupils’ understanding. The question was proven and there’s no need to dwell on
such topic.”

On a questionnaire administered to twenty-five vocational/technical and
PADE students in April 2001, the highest rated topic was, “Use of models versus
charts in the effectiveness in teaching concepts.” This topic follows the trend of

something that is very common to students yet not a real problem or contentious
183

in any way. The least favorite topic, “Does involving pupils in planting and
rewarding carrots curb theft?” also follows the trend. It is more innovative, less
common, and in this case addresses a real problem.

Way Forward

When dealing with the reality of doing a CDS project, students considered
a host of issues, which were different than those discussed in the rhetoric of
doing research. Rather than having focused on attempting to use a new
approach to address a problem in the classroom and trying to develop personal
theories from it, students tried to determine the most expedient way to
accomplish an aesignment that was vague and complex. This tension exists on
many levels. For instance, many student. teachers in the US can articulate a -
vision of good teaching that theywish to engage. However, once they meet the
reality of the classroom, their idealism quickly vanishes and they use teaching
strategies contradictory to their beliefs. The way to address this tension is not to
compromise one side for the other, e.g., to not bother having students develop
personal theories of what is good teaching or to have students teach only in
environments conducive to their approaches. Some level of tension is healthy for
personal and national development.

A dialogue of what is the ideal is important. However, in Zimbabwe, there
is little debate about what is good teaching. When I asked Auther, Grace,
Patience, and Tobias to describe “good teaching”, they gave answers that were
general. They discussed teachers who were considerate to their pupils, learning
that was fun and connected, but they were unable to give specific ideas of what it

184

would look like in the classroom. Patience was the only one who could give a
tangible example when she discussed the discovery learning she did in early
primary level. However, she was unable to transfer the approach to the upper
levels that she taught. Concepts of cooperative learning, Socratic questioning,
problem-based Ieaming, as well as others are not a part of a national dialogue of
what is good teaching. As a result, the actual methods of instruction in the
classroom are not being examined on a national level.

On the other hand, what is good research has progressed into a
productive dialogue at BTTC, as discussed in the following chapter- The way
' forward is to continue to develop the dialogue building from the tensions between
rhetoric and reality. Through more dialogue, students and lecturers will develop
clearer visions of what is good research- Models of approaching research are
: available - two are‘prdvided in the next chapter, but it is more important for -
students and lecturers to internalize their own model of good research. Through
discussion of what it means to do good research and discussions of the reality of
doing research in Zimbabwean classrooms, the gap between the rhetoric and

reality becomes the sphere for forging new possibilities.

185

 

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187

Issue 3: Problem of Preparation and Support

Auther, Grace, Patience, and Tobias were basically on their own to figure
out how to do the CDS research project. The preparation and support were
minimal for BTI’C students trying to do research for the first time. The
preparation from the college is short, disconnected, and abstract. Once students
were in the field, contact with their tutor was negligible. With little to no
assistance while conducting research, students were left to their own devises.
When seeking advice from tutors, some students reported “horror" stories that
led to their frustration and discouragement. With the minimal support, some
students were able to succeed and learn from the process, but many more
remained confused and failed to see the connection between doing research and
learning to teach.
Disconnected Preparation

Each Professional Studies (PS) lecturer introduced research and the CDS
to their classes in their own ways. In early November 1999, Mr. Maseleka
initiated Grace, Author, Patience, and Tobias’s cohorts by discussing the
scientific approach. He included terms such as: observations, variables,
generalized statements, hypothesis, deductive reasoning, implications, and
testing to describe a process he called “research." To illustrate his meaning of
research, he included an example of a crying baby. An excerpt from the class
discussion follows:

Maseleka: Let's just follow that in a simple example of a child crying [on]
first observation. When we see a child crying what do we do?

188

Female student: Check napkin for dampness.

Maseleka: You already have the hypothesis. State the hypothesis.
Female student: Babies cry when nappy is wet.

Maseleka: That's a conclusion.

Male student: Maybe the nappy is wet.

Maseleka: The implication is that the nappy is wet. How do you solve the
problem?

Male student: Check the nappy.
Maseleka: What is checking the nappy?
Students: ,(not audible)

Maseleka: That is the experiment. Okay, you find the nappy is wet, what
do you do?

Male student: (not audible)

Maseleka: Let's write the implication, some babies stop crying when their
nappy is changed. So you do the experiment, and you change the
nappy and the baby stopped crying. So what is that?

Students: (not audible)

Maseleka: No, that's your empirical data. So what is your conclusion?

Female student: In conclusion, you could say the child was crying due to a
wet napkin.

Male student: You could conclude maybe the baby was crying.

Maseleka: We have any new information?

Male student: Maybe babies stop crying when change nappy.

Maseleka: How do you know it has to be wet? Maybe the experience of
changing nappy - being naked stops. So you need a control study to

narrow the doubt that it was the dampness of the nappies. Because
the scientific approach systematically describes or measures reality in

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an objective way, it is a better source of knowledge than any other
source that we have come across so far. Do you agree?

Students: Yes/no.

Maseleka: Now we open the floor to those who disagree or have a better
approach.

Students: No response.

Almost three years after that discussion took place, I was working on a
preliminary draft of this dissertation bouncing my month old baby, Tumelo, on my
knee. Later, in the middle of that evening, trying to rock a crying Tumelo to
sleep, he looked up to me, and I realized that Mr. Maseleka’s scientific approach
was lacking in dealing with the complexity of my situation. Being a father meant
something far greater to this relationship than could be measured by getting a
baby to stop crying (not that it was an easy trick.) Like being a teacher -— it also
requires looking into the complexities of manynuances of‘a classroom with
grown-up minds. 3 ' .

Kerr and Kemis (1986, Becoming Critical: Education, Knowledge and
Action Research, Philadelphia: The Falmer Press) argue that educational
research cannot run away from the demands of a scientific enquiry. However,
they point out that such a positivistic approach neglects to examine deeper
issues related to contexts, understandings, frameworks, and alternatives. (They
suggest building from scientific inquiry and interpretive approach to create a
critical educational research that is participatory and collaborative in attempts to

create “research in and for education" pg. 156.)

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While working at my computer, I was able to get Tumelo to stop crying by
bouncing him on my knee or by putting a pacifier in his mouth. However, when
he looked up at me as I talked to him later that night, I realized that there was
much more to human relations than can be measured by single variables as
crying or not crying.

Having a set of procedures to follow to test hypotheses of what is
happening to specific variables was initiating students into a view of research that
is contradictory to the action research approach described in chapter three. In
the two subsequent lessons on research, Mr. Maseleka continued with research
terminology such as: population, SamplingTechniques, validity, and reliability.
He also discussed data Collection tools of: questionnaire, interview, observation,
and documentation. Some he just mentioned by name and others he discussed
in more detail. in explaining interviews - structured and unstructured -— he
pointed out that the interviewer should avoid complex questions, use straight-
fonlvard language, specify what form of respOnse is wanted, allow sufficient time
for a response, avoid suggesting answers, not show signs of surprise, and
carefully listen to the interviewees. While, Mr. Maseleka told his students
worthwhile information about conducting interviews, there was no discussion or
practice involved. Overall, his approach lacked in preparing students to examine
and reflect on the complexities of a classroom in a systematic manner.

Poor Preparation
in questionnaire after questionnaire students claimed that the preparation

they received was inadequate to conduct a research project. One PADE student

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completing his/her CDS in 2000 wrote, “If we had been taught thoroughly before
going on TP on how each and every step is done. As it is lecturers just browsed
through without an example at all.” Another gave the following comment,
“Students should be assisted up to chapter'3 and 4 [before] going for TP.
Lecturers should say what is expected - not to ignore students when they need
assistance.” When asked about assistance received in the same September
2000 questionnaire, thirty-one out of the thirty-eight responses discuss how
preparation and assistance were lacking in general or in specific areas, e.g. the
“writing of background and methodology.” 1 On the September 2001
questionnaire to all vocational/technical and PADE students who completed TP,
twenty-seven (12.8%) wrote—comments about the lack of preparation when given
the space to write about “anything else not addressed“ on the questionnaire.
Comments included, “CDS project should be simple, i.e. language used at times
difficult to understand” or “We should be taught in general how to collect data and
analyze it before going for TP.” Very close to the same percentage of academic
students (12.3% or 19) gave similar- responses on their May 2002 questionnaire,
e.g. “There is need to adequately prepare students for research since this will be
the 13“ experience. Lecturers/ tutors who are really conversant with research
should teach students with more depth than is being done” and “Before going for
TP, great assistance should be given to students so that when they leave the
place for TP they know what they are doing.”

Most students did not have a clear idea of what was expected from them

in doing the CDS. While they may have been taught some of the technicalities of

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doing research, such as terms of hypothesis, assumptions, and variables, they
were not prepared in a way to understand the whole process. In my and Mr.
Machera’s (the LIC of PS) visits to subject area sections (academic - May 2002
and vocation/technical — October 2001), we discovered that most lecturers were
aware of the lack of preparation students were receiving. The issue often started
to become a “blame game” where subject area lecturers questioned the role of
PS in coordinating the preparation. Luckily, the PS LIC was well adept at
diffusing the situation.

Our visit to the Science section on 29 May 2002 was typical. When the
' issue of preparation came up; aJecture'r stated that it was not clear how much PS
does in preparing student in research methods. Mr. Mazanhi, an experienced PS
lecturer, was there, and he explained the role of PS in introducing and sensitizing
students to the basics of research.’ Then he pointed out that the subject area
tutor was to go in-depth on the specific work of developing a particular topic and
a research plan with the student. Like in most sections, the science lecturers
then declared a need for a workshop where further collaboration could create
common expectations throughout the college. Every section did argue the need
for better coordination and collaboration, including a workshop. The consensus
was that all lecturers should participate, not just representatives from each
section - as was done in the first workshop.

In the sectional meetings, lecturers quickly focused on the core issues.
They were sensitive to the reality that students experience two unknowns during

TP — Ieaming to teach and doing research. There was consensus that the two

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should be integrated on many levels — not just students using the research
process to reflect on and improve their practice but also in the way lecturers
prepare and support student-teachers. During the Vocational/Technical and
PADE section visits, four sections (Technical Graphics, PADE, Hotel and
Catering, and Clothing and Textiles) stressed the value of fostering students’
interest in doing the CDS project. The belief was that if students saw the value in
finding a solution (and Ieaming from the process), they would appreciate the
research process. It was discussed that many students viewed research as a
drawn-out list of procedures to follow to complete an assignment and not an
integral part of teaching: As a member of. the Technical Graphics section stated, *
“Research methods are not being property handled...bits and pieces are taught
here and there.” Lecturers in the Building Technology section pointed out the
focus should not be on teaching specific methods, but rather helping students
determine which data collection method is most appropriate for their situations.
The academic sections concurred with these sentiments. Geography lecturers,
like many others, stated that better assistance was needed for students to
understand what they are doing and why, otherwise they go through the motions
without thinking or knowing why.

Some section lecturers reported being more involved in the preparation
than others. A lecturer from the English section suggested that PS take
complete responsibility in handling the CDS and leave the subject area
completely uninvolved. Mr. Machera argued that doing so would be a big step

backward, and the lecturer did not pursue the idea. On the other hand, Wood

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Technology lecturers claimed to have given an intensive preparation program,
including lectures on each chapter, providing handouts, and guidance regarding
how to go about doing research.
Support - A Mixed Bag

Like most of the other student teachers, Auther et al. were visited by
supervisors twice during their TP. Auther was disappointed with the first visit and
pleased with the second mostly because of the scores he received on his
evaluation. He, like the others, did not discuss their CDS project with their TP
supervisors. They did not know when the‘visits would occur or by whom.
Concerns of TP supervision were addressed in another study (see Weiler,
Gadzirayi, and Mkondo,” “Teaching Practice Supervision: A Need fer a New
Model.” The ZimbabWe Bulletin of :TeacherEducation. University of Zimbabwe,
Department of Teacher Education. Vol. 11. No.2. September 2002. pp 53-65.) ‘
Other than .initial conversations with their school-based mentor teachers, there
was no evidence that the mentors were involved in the research of any of the
four student teachers. When visiting schools in and around Harare, more often
than not, I discovered that the mentor was unaware that the student had a
research requirement during TP. Very few had even heard of the term “CDS”
when asked about students’ progress.

While Auther, et al. received some support from my visits; I also
maintained contact with their college tutors. Grace, Auther, and Tobias had Mr.
Gadzirayi, one of the leading voices for promoting action research at BTTC and a

well-respected lecturer. Other students were not so lucky to have a tutor as

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competent. Once they began TP, students reported a wide variance of
experiences in terms of support. Some gave their tutor credit for helping them
along the way to gain a deeper understanding of the research process, and
others related horror stories.

First the positive: when asked to describe the best aspect of ODS
supervision, Vocational/technical students wrote:

Coming up with the research topic

It helps me to understand my CDS well

Setting up questionnaires and general guidance

Data analysis — formulating of the tables

When tutor discusses and points out aspects that you don’t think about

Even though there was much variance with the responses, on average, - .
the students rated the assistance they reCeived as “satisfactory.”

On the same question, academic students gave similar responses. ‘

The tutor used to clarify most parts of the CDS that were confusing

Whenever I make mistakes, I am corrected and given hints on what to

write ‘ ' '

Good and clear explanations given on mistakes done

Personal or'face-to-face discussions with my tutor

The marking did not take long. People are supportive

My mentor was very cooperative and ready to assist whenever I had

problems

Also, thirty-eight academic students (24%) did not indicate any “worst”
aSpect of assistance. In general, students indicated that they appreciated
assistance in terms of discussions that clarified and gave direction. They wanted
a tutor that was supportive and available. Of course, lecturers generally believed

that they were fulfilling their role. On a December 1999 questionnaire, lecturers

identified their role to include: supervision, guidance, mentoring, and facilitating.

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Eighty-two percent of the respondents declared that they were able to fulfill their
role in assisting students do the CDS project.
The “Horror Stories”

Some of twenty-five students I worked with during their 2001 TP
experienced extreme frustration trying to get their topics approved. Six students
had their topics rejected by their tutors after they had begun doing the research.
In one case, Makwacha began her TP with the topic of “learning aids.” Through
discussions, she identified a problem of pupils not being able to do mathematical
calculations in agriculture. She also mentioned that the department was to
receive one hundred chicks that the pupils were responsible to care for. She
believed that it was important for pupils to see farming as a business that needs .
to be managed;- ln the-end, Makwacha decided to change her CDS topic to
“Using a farming business proposal to improve mathematics in agriculture.” The
students were to Calculate the costing, projected expenses. revenues, and profits .
for breeding one hundred broilers. Thinking that her topic was greatly improved,
I encouraged her to begin collecting data. When i visited her towards the end of
the term, she informed me that her tutor rejected the topic. She was unable to
explain why. The new, approved topic was “Attaching deviance with
responsibility to teach in improving pupils’ performance in practicals.” Makwacha
kept a positive attitude throughout the experience and claimed that the
experience was “an eye-opener.” She previously thought that punishment was
the only way, but then she realized that pupils carry those negative labels with

them. Nyirenda was unable to maintain such a positive attitude. Her tutor

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rejected her topic four times before she refused to change it again.
Unfortunately, she had only a few weeks to complete the project.

In a questionnaire with the same twenty-five students, most students (20)
claimed there was a need for more assistance from their supervisor. Some
asked for general support, e.g. “To be guided on how to tackle the problem and
how to go about the CDS.” Others were more specific about the aid they
desired, e.g. “Clear explanation on the instruments to collect data.”

When asked what was the worst aspect of the assistance received,

vocational/technical and PADE students (September 2001) wrote comments

such as:

Being told that “you have done nothing”
Initially being forced to change topics by tutor
Being told to go and rewrite whilst what I have written has not been

marked
There was confusion on the aspectof hypothesis, assumptions, and sub .

problems

The academic students were more critical of the assistance they received.

Their questionnaire responses (May 2002) included:

Supervisor should not write CDS for students in the form of corrections but
should direct them adequately so that they conduct the study with little or

no supervision
The lecturer said that it is not his duty to help me. His duty is to mark and

sign

Tutor did not discuss anything about the CDS — only said go and write the
finalone

Tutor telling you the draft is not well written and not guiding on how to do it
correct

Unfair discussions - tutor is sort of a dictator — tells you what to do but you
can’t argue

Being made to change the topic by a second tutor when the first had
approved “my” topic

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Twenty-eight students did not indicate any “best” aspect of assistance, or
the gave comments such as, “None. My supervisor is too busy to attend to my
problems.”

When asked if there were any other issues not discussed, fifty-one
(24.2%) of vocational/technical and sixty (38.7%) of academic students wrote
about lack of supervision. Many were pleading for more support and less
confrontation. Statements include:

Lecturers/tutors should put more effort in helping students but not dictate
what to be written as in some cases.

Supervisors should learn to have a-soft hand when advising students. Let
them be patient.

Tutors should not make students write what they want as this would no :
longer my CDS but our CDS. Give students room to make their
initiative.

All lecturers should be well versed in the CDS everyone has their oWn
interpretation and the student ends up being confused.

Some of the tutors are lazy. They keep on postponing times to meet until
you lose hope.

Some of our tutors are not available for consultation and damper our zeal
by constant change of topics approved by them.

Some tutors are too strict that students re-write their work more than 5
times which is very demoralizing.

Students cannot help each other since the departments do not have
agreed way of writing the CDS. The lecturers differ greatly on their

policy.

In general, students reported that the supervision they received was a)
minimal, b) inconsistent, c) misguided, or d) de-motivating. While students were
seeking support and guidance, they did not want to lose control of the process.
Many students indicated that they simply wanted clear expectations so they
would know what they were supposed to do. Students never indicated that they
wanted an easy way out of doing the work, but they were very clear that they

needed help in completing the research project. Several comments suggest that

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the supervision was an impediment to the students’ progress rather than a
support.

A recurring theme was related to power and control of the research
process. At times it was ambiguous where the locus of control resided. Was the
CDS the students’ project with the role of the tutor being to assist and support?
Were tutors justified in taking more control to make sure students stayed on track
with the process? Some tutors argued that students were not willing to take
responsibility for their own' project. An example was when a Wood Technology
lecturer stated that students were demanding step-by-step guidance with the
tutor telling them-exactlywhat to do throughout the process with the result of the
students never taking initiative. * 2 I

An agricultural lecturer took thestudents' point of view when he explained .
why some tutors changed students’ topics and dictated approaches. He gave
the following reasons: .1) some tutors think that the people from the University of
Zimbabwe (who conduct external assessment of BTTC programs) are looking for
a certain type of topics/research that is more “academic”, 2) some tutors have
never engaged in action research and their comfort zone with what students do is
limited, and 3) some tutors do not have a conceptual understanding of the
research and end up mystifying the process to cover-up their lack of knowledge.

Through discussions with lecturers in their sections, PS lecturers
articulated the ideal tutor-student relationship. They pointed out that the

research project belongs to the student, thus s/he should take responsibility and

initiative to complete it. They should be able to justify or explain why they are

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choosing their topic, using a particular method of data collection, or why they are
presenting the information in the form they choose. If they give reasons that are
logical, then the student should proceed. The tutor is free to make
recommendations with the understanding that there are many ways to do any
aspect of research.

The Computer Studies section claimed to take a more “adult approach” to
supervision. The only deadline they gave their students was for the final product.
The lecturers tried to keep students focused on trying to improve some aspect of
teaching, rather than proving something already known. When their students
had problems, the lecturers were accessible (including weekends and holidays),
and they discussed a way forward . Most of the students were deployed in and
around Harare, which made it more convenient for them to consult with their
tutors at the college.

Unfortunately, most students did not have access to their tutors during TP.
Teaching Practice supervision was not organized in a way that CDS tutors visited
their students in the field. TP supervisors were drawn from a pool of all lecturers
at the college, and usually one lecturer/supervisor observed all students in a
particular school. Lecturers have commented that they were hesitant to remark
on CDS topics and research activities of students who they were not supervising
or who were not in their subject area section. They argued that they did not want
to undermine the direction being given by the student’s tutor.

Again, this problem was indicative of students not “owning” the research

process, and allowing tutors and other lecturers to have control of the process.

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The Technical Graphic lecturers suggested that TP supervisors should assist
students by helping them think through their research, i.e. asking questions
rather than giving answers, or giving specific assistance in an aspect of research
methods, e.g. helping with the wording in a questionnaire. Another suggestion
came from other sections and Mr. Monde, Head of the Vocational/Technical
Department. They wanted to see members of each section do the first round of
supervision visits for their students as opposed to the random approach in
existence, where any supervisor could see any student.
Relationship Between Overall Experience and Assistance

As mentioned previously, there was a direct relationship between the
students claiming to have a positive or negative experience and their
understanding of the research process. Overall experience had an even stronger
relationship to the assistances students claimed to have received. On
questionnaires administered to vocational/technical and PADE students
(September 2001) and academic students (May 2002), four students (1 .9%) and
seven (3.3%) respectively rated their “overall CDS experience” as low as
possible on the scale indicating it was “Terrible/a mistake.” All but one related
their experience in one way or another to supervision. Comments included:

No assistance as lecturers proved incompetent.

Topic was changed at college, but I found it suitable while I was on TP.

Impractical and fictitious because the students are not adequately

prepared and the time is too short for the conducting of realistic
research and drawing conclusions.

It’s too laborious especially with little assistance and with supervisors
imposing their minds on you.

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Of the twenty-eight (13.3%) of the vocational/technical and PADE and
twenty-three (15.3%) academic students who rated their overall experience as
“not good”, over half focused on inadequate assistance.

I had the zeal to do my research thoroughly but the supervisor kept on

delaying, postponing appointments.

My tutor was less cooperative than expected. He pushes you around and
at the end I got confused.

It’s a matter of following instructions without being independent especially
if a tutor instructs me to change my own topic and take his/her - the
thing is not mine then.

Because I was twisted and tossed from one tutor to the other. I had
discovered a real classroom problem but was forced to change.

Studentswho did. not discuss assistance directly wrote about not
understanding the research process or not having enough time to do the work.

More students indicated that their experience was “satisfactory” than any
other category - (65 or 40.1% of vocational/technical and PADE and 65 or 43.3%
of academic students.) Most of these students considered factors other than
supervision when evaluating their experience. However, twenty-six did continue
to focus on a lack of assistance and gave comments such as: “It is fairly difficult if-
assistance rendered isn’t adequate but it is interesting” and “Students at this
college are sent out on teaching practice before they have adequate knowledge
of how to conduct research.” Conversely, five vocational/technical and PADE
students gave comments that they found assistance available.

When it came to those students who reported to have a “good” or
“Fantastic/best possible” overall experience, they focused less on the supervision

they received. The few (Eight or 10% of vocational/technical and PADE and zero

academic) students that did attribute their positive experience to assistance given

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by tutors wrote comments such as: “I got more assistance from the supervisor
and mentor” and “The lectures on CDS were quite good and enough to prepare
me to face the challenge.” It appeared that students were more apt to blame
lecturers for negative experiences than they were to give them credit for positive
ones.

Some students and lecturers have identified the problem of support
stemming from tutors’ inexperience with doing research. One Mathematics
lecturer stated, “Out of ninety-six lecturers, sixty are not well versed in research.”
Several students’ comments have pointed to their perceived incompetence of
lecturers. In general, lecturers showed much interest in ways to improve their '
understandings of the research process. After the first CDS workshop (June
2000), 45% of. the participants indicated that they were “very interested” and an '
additional 35% were “so interested [that they were] willing to help organize”
additional workshops related to the CDS. andresearch. This indicated that
several lecturers were not satisfied with their level of expertise in supervising
research.

CDS Guide - Figure It Out on Your Own

Nearly every lecturer and most students were generally positive about the
CDS guide being produced and available. While the compliments were .
gratifying, some complex issues developed. The guide did create a common
language, which a lecturer from the Hotel and Catering Section recognized as
“providing a common ground for lecturers of different sections to dialogue about

the CDS and research.” On the other hand, some lecturers used the guide to

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neglect their responsibility to advise students. On the September 2000
questionnaire, a PADE student wrote, “Please explain how this CDS is done in
detail and approve topics before pupils leave for TP, not just giving study guides.”

In the first year it was available (2000), 40% of PADE students (Auther, et
al.’s cohort) indicated they used most or the entire guide. Only one student (3%)
wrote s/he didn’t use it at all. When asked what information was missing, just
over half (21 out of 40) did not write anything or wrote “nothing”. Of those that
did identify something, just over half (11 out of 19) wanted more detail on
analysis of data, the point where most of them were in the research process
when they completed the.questionnaire. The following year (2001) in the .
questionnaire conducted with 25 students engaged in TP in and around Harare,
ten (40%) claimed to have used the entire gUide, and another three claimed to
have used most of it. Again, only one student-declared not to have used the
guide at all. '

Lecturers have indicated a larger variance in their use of the guides. In
our visits to subject area sections, we discovered that some sections, like
Computer Studies, viewed themselves as an experimental group and felt
compelled to use the guide to assess its effectiveness. In other sections, some
lecturers had not even seen the guide. Each department purchased so many
guides and distributed them to the lecturers in charge (LIC). In some cases, not

enough guides were bought or the LIC did not make them available to section

lecturers.

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In our visits to subject area sections, most lecturers showed appreciation
in having a standardize approach to the research process. The majority
mentioned the value of being able to discuss research and CDS issues across
sections. In the past, sections had disagreements about who was responsible for
submitting the marks (scores) for the completed projects, and issues of the
substance of the projects were neglected on the college level. With the guide,
sections continue to have authority to make their own policies, however there
was a standard from where they could diverge.

Some students and lecturers questioned how much the CDS guide
actually provided guidance for students doing their project. A Geography lecturer
mentioned a discussion she had with a student. They “made reference to the
guide but couldn’t find guidance.” Some lecturers indicated that students would
not have been'able to come up with a research project using the guide because
the guide used a more general approach, and it did not lead students through the
research. The guide offered a general understanding of research and the CDS,
but the specifics were left for individual sections to address. In many cases,
section lecturers complained that there were not enough details for particular
procedures they wished to highlight. For example, Technical Graphics lecturers
wanted more attention on the construction of questionnaires. At the same time,
Building Technology and Clothing and Textiles lecturers argued that there was
already too much emphasis on questionnaires.

Others have argued that the guide was too complex. Lecturers in the

Mathematics section claimed that it was confusing to students, and they believed

206

that there was a need for more practical examples. Some students also gave
similar statements. One came from a May 2002 questionnaire of academic
students: “In the CDS guide chapter 4 [Data Presentation, Analysis, and
Interpretation] was not clearly stated. It should have been clearly stated for us to
understand it better."

Ideally, the guide would have been used as a lecturer from Building
Technology argued; “Lecturers and students should go beyond it [the CDS guide].
and not follow it sheepishly.” In a proposed second edition of the guide, the PS
section advocated for more examples and'models from various sections.
However, no guide would be ableto do everything — give clear understanding of
how to do research but not be overly directive, or being relevant for students in
each subject area while allowing sections the flexibility to develop different ‘-
expectations.

Way Forward.

Coming up with solutions to the problems of support was not difficult —
implementing those solutions was the challenge. There was general consensus
that better assistance was needed for students to understand what they were
expected to do and why they were doing it. Otherwise, students would continue
to go through the motions of doing the CDS without it affecting how they reflect
on and improve their teaching. Lecturers have made suggestions to improve the
preparation and supervision, however few have been implemented. The
following issues have been discussed throughout the college:

0 Re-organizing the time frame of completing the report

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0 Developing tools of accountability

. Rethinking TP supervision to include the CDS with the deployment of
tutors to observe students

. Collaborating and coordinating subject area sections with PS to
introduce the CDS

. Promoting more dialogue between tutor and student

Most of the ideas were thoughtful and would have improved the CDS. For
example, lecturers from several sections (Geography, Computer Studies, Hotel
and Catering, and Building Technology) proposed having students do structured,
field observations prior to TP. The thought was that students needed to
experience a classroom situation to identify real problems. Students would have
' been given specific assignments during the observations, e.g. interview the
teacher on a particular problem and make observations of how the problem « .
manifests itself in the classroom. Also, many section lecturers have advocated
that PS identify a link person to work with the particular subject area lecturers to.
coordinate timing, terminology, and approaches of preparing students to do
research. Unfortunately, these suggestions remained in their infancy and had
not developed during my time at B'l‘l'C.

One attempt to address some of the above issues was the creation of the
Dialogue Report on CDS Progress form below. The form was born out of a
series of CDS workshops (January-February 2002) for all vocational/technical
and PADE lecturers. As the title of the form suggests, the intention was to
promote dialogue between the tutor and the student. In the second term of 2002,

the form was introduced with moderate success. Unfortunately, instead of

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dialogue developing, in most of the preliminary cases, the forms were returned to
tutors indicating that the students had not developed a topic and thus had not
begun doing the research. Evaluating the effects of the form will need to be done
on continual bases.

The success of the report form or any of the other proposed changes to
improve the preparation and support of the CDS depends on the will of
lecturers/tutors throughout the college. Unless the PS Section organizes
workshops and section visits, the commitment of implementing the reforms is.
dependent on the interest of particular individuals, which is not enough to
institute change. Underdosh Chandauka, the first CDS workshop for
representatives of all subject areas was conducted in January 2000. And
subsequent workshops (January-February 2002 and May 2003) took place under
the leadership olesaac Machera. All workshops were considered a success. not
as much for accomplishing great feats, but for paving a way for greater .
communication and collaboration. When asked what was the best thing to come
out of the first workshop, twenty-six comments included issues of: collaboration,
dialogue, cooperation, collective responsibility, agreement on a way forward,
partnership of ODS as a college thing and not a PS thing. For example one
lecturer wrote, “Spirit to speak up and dialogue issues.” Creating something
tangible should not be regarded as unimportant. Sixteen Iecturer’s responses
showed value for producing the CDS guide, marking scheme, interrogatives to

give guidance for particular chapters, and a supervision check list. Nine other

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comments related to gaining a greater understanding of aspects of research
and/or the CDS.

Most of the unresolved concerns from the workshop includes: developing
ways to standardize supervision (7 comments), giving lecturers more support in
research methods (6), dealing with negative attitudes and behaviors of some
lecturers (6), implementing the decisions made (6), coordinating with PS
members (5), and maintaining dialogue (3). As (will be) discussed in the
following chapter, the dialogue and commitment that was promoted through the
workshops were the key ingredients in making the reforms of the CDS effective.
The intention was not to find the answers toall the problems, but to involve more
lecturers in the deepthinking necessary, to share ideas of ways forward, and to
work together to make improvements. ~

With a collaborative spirit, lecturers would be able to build ideas and
actions from each other and create ways of supporting and challenging students
to do meaningful research. Otherwise, lecturers would grope in the dark asking,
“What is this animal call the ‘CDS’?” In turn, the assistance they give their
students would be inconsistent, unclear, and dependent on the knowledge of
each individual tutor. And in the end, the student too would grope in the dark
trying to figure out “this animal called the CDS.” A few, like Grace, did not need
assistance from their tutors. But many, many more did need better preparation
and support in their first attempt; trying to figure it out on their own did not lead to

meaningful experiences for them.

210

Conclusion

The dialogue revolving around the CDS was in the process of developing.
The dialogue on the micro level, i.e. the individual student, influenced the
dialogue on the larger level, i.e. at the college. Examining the realities of the
students leads to a deeper understanding of what this dialogue means for their
conducting research. Tobias, Patience, Auther, and Grace show how this
dialogue played out for individual students and their research. The three issues
of the day — the process of picking a topic, conceptualization of research, and the
preparation and supports — have different meanings for the different students.

. Auther was the only student who-willingly and eagerly engaged in the dialogue '
process. By sharing field notes and discussing various phases of his research, '
he was able to develop a deeper understanding of the research process. Grace,
who was pre-equipped to tackle a large research project, might nothave needed
to engage in dialogue as much as Tobais, who showed no progression in his .
thinking about research, to be able to complete the project. Patience showed
how some students engaged in a dialogue without doing the actual research.
Instead of developing praxis where her theory was reflected in her practice, she
developed a rhetoric that was just enough to pass.

These four students had different experiences in participating in the
dialogue. However, their experiences shaped the dialogue. As discussed in the
second chapter, a dialogue is strengthened when the participants come from
different perspectives. In the next chapter, I will examine the lecturers’ role in

this dialogue.

211

While students and lecturers come from different perspectives, within each
group there was much variance. There is evidence that some students found the
project as a deeply reflective and rewarding process, while others found it
frustrating and a waste of time. Different experiences and expectations add
complexity into the dialogue regarding what the CDS is, what is should be, and
how it should be improved.

As discussed in the third chapter, action research primarily represents
liberation ideology. While the students engaged in action research type of CDS
project, few of their conversations explicitly reflected a liberation ideology
perspective. There were elements of “reflection and action” in Grace’s practice.
By deeply examining the issue of pupils doing corrections, she was able to
address issuesof language. in her class. She developed ideas about pupils not '
understanding the question as an obstacle todemonstrating what they know-
Auther also engaged in constructivist thinking as he pointed out the importance
of being “open”. in developing new ideas to solve problems. His focus of pupil-
ownership of the gardens and what they grew was also an element of liberation
pedagogy, i.e. challenging traditional views of workers’ role in production. In
general, the other two focus students’ projects primarily reflected a free market
perspective. Patience’s pupils’ “Dream plans” focused on preparing good
entrepreneurs, and Tobias used a technical, functional approach of finding the
more efficient teaching aid between charts and models.

None of the focus students addressed the political issues immersed in

their projects. In a time of land reform through farm invasions, I did not observe

212

any student make explicit connections of these issues with their CDS project.
Also there were no discussions regarding the hierarchal nature of knowledge and
the classroom structure.

The elements of liberation ideology were more subtle. By listening to
pupils, these students were challenging the traditional, hierarchal nature of a
classroom where knowledge is one-way directed from the teacher to the student.
Also, by developing their own ideas and ways to solve problems in the
classroom, they were being protagonists in their classrooms.

The three major issues addressed also have liberation ideology
implications. Most of. the dialogue revolves around making research a more
democratic process and less hierarchical and-technical. The ideas of having
students take more ownership of their research and lecturers providing support -
leads to a more constructivist view of knowledge. Students, with assistance,
were developing their ideas of how to become an effective teacher. How this

issue is negotiated at the college is discussed in more depth in the next chapter.

213

CHAPTER 6
Promoting the Dialogue

Posing the Questions

Assumption: The dialogue is to begin with the current perspectives and realities
of the lecturers at the college. What is the tension between supporting a
variance of perspectives and promoting some over others that are more
conducive to a dialogue? What is the role of advocates from one perspective
trying to convert those from another perspective? Are all perspectives equally
legitimate as long as they have supporters?

Who else needs to be included to make the dialogue more meaningful in terms of
promoting effective change? What should be the role of students, of university
professors, of central administration, of politicians in this dialogue?
Introduction

External examiners representing the University of Zimbabwe’s Department
of Teacher Education came to Belvedere in November of 1999. When they
presented their findings 'of the quality of the college’s programs, one after
another, they discussed the CDS. Nine of the fourteen external examiners
related common problems in the various subject areas. The issues included—
areas of coordination, marking, and lack of quality.

The staff at BTTC did not need someone from the outside the college to
come and tell them that there were problems with the CDS. There was
consensus throughout the college that the CDS was not living up to its potential
stated in The Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College: Applied Education
Syllabus. Rather than focusing on a particular problem in their classroom and
trying to find possible solutions, year after year, many students compare “the
lecture method” and “discussion method” only to come to the conclusion they had

in mind prior to starting. Students, college lecturers, and school mentors have

claimed to be unprepared to conduct and/or support an action research project.

214

“What is this animal called ‘CDS’?” was a comment often heard by our research
team during the first years of this study. In surveys (discussed in chapter five),
college lecturers and students routinely indicated that conducting the action
research project and developing personal theories were the areas least
addressed during their teaching practice.

Promoting action research that develops critical thinking, problem-solving,
and constructivist thinking is a challenge for any teacher education program. In
Zimbabwe, that endeavor is complicated by a history of colonial imposition of a
hierarchical education system that demanded compliance rather than
questioning. 'Most of traditional teaching and research involves following a set of
procedures in hopes of obtaining results. Because African teachers are often not
viewed as professionals, many education reform$ have been designed to
“teacher-proof” the curriculum so the teacher passively follows instructions.
Introduction to research is often taught in thesame way with a list of procedures
for researchers to follow. Progressive educational reforms focus on what Henry
Giroux (1988) refers to as “Teachers as Professionals” where teachers are to be
innovative problem-solvers in the classroom to make teaching and Ieaming
meaningful. Now, twenty-three years after Zimbabwe’s independence,
Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College is making bold strides in rethinking
teacher education.

My research with the PS section did not lead to a neat set of conclusions
where we can present answers regarding what teachers’ colleges should do.

This research was ongoing; it was a complex and ambiguous journey. By

215

attempting to model the research process we are professing for our students, we
seek questions and deeper understandings rather than purporting answers. The
PS section views research not as a means to a product (answers) but as a
process to deeper understandings, increased dialogue, and more meaningful
actions. In this chapter, I examine how the PS section promoted the CDS
dialogue, how it was negotiated at the college level, and what this dialogue
means in terms of promoting reform at BTTC.

The goal for the PS section was for all its lecturers to engage in a process
of action research and to integrate it into the way it does business at BTTC; that
is, to create a culture of inquiry, dialogue, self-reflection, and change. What
follows is a description of how the PS. lecturers (including myself) attempted to
integrate our beliefs about research with how we prepare and support students to
do their research. .While ‘I was responsible for most of the data collection in thIs '
process, other PS members were involved in other ways. Mr. J. Chandauka, the
lecturer in charge (LIC) of PS, Mr. I. Machera, who later became the LIC of PS,
Ms. I. Mkondo; and Mr. Mazanhi and I formed the core of a research team.
Throughout my three and half years at BTTC, we met informally to discuss which
issues we wanted to address and which data collection activities would be useful.
After I had collected data from primarily questionnaires or interviews, I would
present the findings to the group for analysis and discussion purposes. As a
group we would decide which steps to take to address problems we faced, e.g. to

visit other sections, meet with students, or have a workshop.

216

The PS section presented an alternative perspective in how college
lecturers viewed research. Mr. C.T. Gadzirayi, an agriculture lecturer, and Mr. J.
Chandauka, and I developed the chart below to show how we at BTTC are
viewing the changes in how we conduct research. In creating this dichotomy of
research approaches, our intention was to show that there was more than one
way to view research. Most of the lecturers with university research experience
followed a positivistic perspective. That approach was the model promoted for
as long as many lecturers could remember. The alternative approach being
offered was used to spark a dialogue regarding what is research, what should it

do, what can it do, and what can it not do.

217

 

 

Figure 6.1 — Models of Approaches of Doing Research

 

 

Traditional Way

of Doing Research
(Positivistic)

. Follows Specific
Procedures

Tests Hypothesis
Isolates Variables
Relies More on the

Quantitative Methods

“Objective”

Disinterested
Non-biased
Makes
Universal
Generalization
s
o Accepts/Proves
Traditional
Theories
o Perpetuates the
Status Quo
. Linear - A
\ Beginning and
an End
0 Top-Down

0 Knowledge is Constant

and Predetermined

Uses Scientific Methods

Researcher as Outside :

Cormomries

Research Plan
Research
Question(s)
Systematic Data
Collection '
Logical Analysis

‘ Deep Reflection

Examines
Reality

lm proves
Professional!
Staff
Development

Alternative Approach
of Doing Research
(Post Modernist)

Finds Evidence to Make
Arguments

Critical/Self-Reflective

Researcher as Insider

Participant-Observer

Relies More on Qualitative
Methods

Applies to Specific
Situation l Context-Bound

Challenges Existing
Theories l Creates New
Theories

Practice Informs Theory

. Rational Reactive /

Proactive
Problem Solving
Changing Reality
Immediate Application
Cyclical / Continuous /
Flexible

. Bottom-Up/ Participatory
. Democratic
. Knowledge Continuously

Being Constructed and
Reconstructed

While the PS section did not dismiss one approach for the other, we

understood that the traditional quantitative approach was where most of the

college lecturers were coming from and that action research is more linked to a

progressive qualitative approach. “Being objective” was a concern for the more

traditional lecturers to accept the action research approach of the CDS. John

Elliot, an action research advocate, argues, “Quantitative methods, which are

designed to produce aggregated data in depersonalized and decontextualized

218

form, appear to constitute the perfect solution to the ‘insider researchers’
dilemma. They generate public knowledge in a form which makes it impossible
to use for the purpose of calling individual practitioners to account” (1991, pg.
64). We believed that it was more important that students got intensely involved
in change than to remain unbiased.

While the PS section advocated a changing in thinking about research, we
identified common ground in which all lecturers could agree upon what is good
research. Our intention was not to convert all the lecturers to one particular way
of thinking about research. Rather, by offering an alternative model, key issues
could be addressed and gain consensus in promoting the commonalities. As
discussed in chapter two, advocates of different perspectives are needed for a
robust dialogue.

The PS section was following a liberation ideology perspective, and
constructivist thinking was a primary element for us advocating action research.
Constructivist thinking is a process whereby knowledge is viewed as being
socially constructed. Phillips (1995) shows that, on many different levels,
students can make sense of knowledge and analyze it to make new knowledge.
In this view of schooling, students are encouraged to engage in higher-order
thinking to use evidence from various texts to develop their own ideas and
theories, rather than passively acquiring prescribed knowledge and skills. When
students are active in analyzing and evaluating information for a clear and
relevant purpose, not only are they able to comprehend and retain more, but they

are more apt to use the knowledge in productive ways. Duclwvorth (1996), Meier

219

(1995), Dewey (1900), Freire (1970) and others describe strategies of
constructivist thinking. Students develop “their own way” of working through
problems where they develop the tools of looking at a problem in context, see
themselves in relation to those realities, create ideas and theories for their
understandings, as well as develop ideas to transform life circumstances.

Elliot (1991) describes how constructivist and critical thinking reflect the
ideals of action research. In his perspective of education, teaching, Ieaming, and
research are all a part of the same process. The focus is uncovering deeper
understandings and meanings in attempts to improve teaching and Ieaming.
This process of “praxology” integrates practice and theory to generate deep
reflection so that one’s actions and philosophies build on each other.

I believe that good teachers naturally engage in action research (perhaps
informally) and constructivist thinking activities. Carlos Torres (1995) describes
how action research is gaining interest and legitimacy worldwide as a strategy
that combines action and reflection where teachers and others in the field examine
their own practice, engage in the research process, and become change agents in
their classrooms, schools, and systems. He argues that this research approach is
increasing international momentum as a major contributor to improving education
systems. However, in Zimbabwe, these teachers are most often a lone voice in
the woods. Our goal is to create a BTTC community culture of inquiry, problem-
solving, and democracy— the ideals of action research. Dialogue is essential for

establishing this community.

220

In their book Educational Action Research, Noffke and Stevenson describe
the importance of modeling action research in their classes. They suggest that
by also being engaged in action research, the teacher educator is more prepared
to share the complexities with the students. The argue against a prescriptive
approach to teaching research, as they state, “We also have seen frequently the
encouragement by teacher educators of recipe-driven and mechanical
application of the steps in the action research spiral and a failure by teacher
educators to make distinctions about the quality of work that is produced through
teacher research” (pg 16). Like Noffke and Stevenson, we are using action
research to help us better understand and find ways to improve students’
research. In this chapter, I describe our approach to addressing the problem of
the CDS project and the steps we implemented.

Conceptualizing the Research

One of our concerns with students doing research was that they were
trying to start in the middle of the process. For instance, they may have had a
particular instrument they wished to use or have a strategy they wished to
implement in the classroom. However, they often did not have a particular
question or issue they wanted to address. And more importantly, they rarely ever

identified a “burning issue"”

that they were compelled to address.
The research process the PS section used was similar to model of topic
selection presented in previous chapter. The idea was that lecturers should

advocate a process that they use themselves. The process starts with a “burning

 

18 The term “burning issue” was developed by Doug Campbell in Michigan State University
Teacher Education course, TE 931, Fall 1997.

221

issue” or a passion of a particular concern, that is identifying what the PS

lecturers really care about. The next step is to distinguish a real problem that is

related to the burning issue. Then the following stage is understanding or

conceptualizing the problem. At this point, we were prepared to develop a

research plan of how we plan to find out more about the problem, what we can

do to address it, and how we know what changes. The model below illustrates

the process we used in addressing the CDS at BTTC. While the stages took on

a linear form, there was much attention in reexamining our burning issue, real

problem and conceptualization of the problem once we started working on the

research plan. This reflection is indicated by the dotted lines in the model.

 

Figure 6.2 - Model of Our Research Process

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conceptualize I Problematize the
' Problem
in :heRClaals:ggr':m Why is it a problem? What is the
Burning Helps What is a problem in Research problem? How are we lookIng at It?
Issue - - - What factors are Involved? How
Wh t IdentIfy & the Problem IS _ _

a. are we define classroom lcollege based in does our problem. fit Into the big
passmnate . - pIcture? Which slIce of the problem
about and problem that. realIty d t t dd ?
committed to? . Is a problem p c we wan o a ress
33d critical It £5322: Some of the following may help to

3909)’. I e- ' , answer the above questions:
lcng leamlng. $23321? to . Conceptual Framework
liberation Aff ptsl , 0 Literature Review

.. ' 3:: teaiahrirrii'gg . Hypothesis 8. Assumptions
Reassess what it . Working Theories
is we are committed""'-.._ ‘ ’3 the plan helping ‘ . .
. . Has the real as address the - The definItIon of

to and questions If the ,
plan addressing it .2. problem problem m the . the problem affects

conceptualized; problem

it?
V

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Research Plan

How are we going to examine this problem? How are we going to address this problem?

 

The following sections describe our efforts at each stage of the process.

222

 

 

Burning Issue
As a section, the PS lecturers decided to spend much time reflecting about
who we were and why we were interested in conducting research. If we were
going to examine a college-wide issue, we believed that we needed to start by
looking at ourselves as a section. In our discussions, we began by focusing on
our burning issue. By agreeing upon what we were committed to, we could start
to understand the issues we wanted to address, which issues we could address,
and how we could address them.
The members of the PS section composed the following mission
statement:
To integrate educational theory, subject matter, and teaching methods to
produce a reflective, innovative, and effective teacher engaged in life-long
Ieaming, personal growth, thereby maximizing teacher and student Ieaming.
(See page 109 for a more visual description.)
The Problem
After looking inward at who we are and what we are about, we began to
identify the problem. We already knew that there were real problems with the
CDS project, but we needed to figure out what aspects of the CDS were
problematic and why. To find out, we asked questions. Starting in January
2000, the LIC and I visited each subject area section to ask lecturers to share
their views in a more personal manner. We discovered a concurrence of

concerns; many sections voiced the same issues. Nearly all comments fit into

three areas: supervision, coordination and standardization, and preparation

223

needed for good projects. The sections’ comments are bulleted and follow each

heading.

Supervision (There is a lack of dialogue and structures of how to
support and challenge students doing CDS during teaching practice
(TP), and PS Lecturers should share in supervision.)

Need for training of CDS supervisors

Need for guides for observations in the field

Need to make students accountable during each stage of research
process.

Need to set the amount of contact time with students

Want representatives of PS to supervise CDS projects

Coordination/Standardization (There is a lack of a common
understanding of what is expected with the CDS and a lack of
accountability.)

Need to inform subject area lecturers how PS prepares students for
CDS

Need for better coordination between sections with preparing students
and approving topics

Need for uniform marking schemes among sections

Need for PS lecturers to be more represented in subject area sections
Need for more communication among sections

Need for clear standards of expectations in terms of how CDS is
organized and assessed

Preparation (There is a lack of common vision in terms of how to
prepare students to do good research.)

How should we view the project - big theories/ideas/discoveries
versus specific classroom issues?

How can students come up with better topics?

When is the most appropriate time for students to choose topics?
Need to clarify research terms (e.g.: hypothesis versus assumptions)
Need to improve the quality of students’ work in terms of originality,
editing, presenting evidence, and making logical conclusions

Need to work more with the returning third-year students in terms of
the writing up the project

Need for standardization in terms of referencing

Need to have model projects

Need to have a standard format for presentation of CDS (e.g., typed)

Other Issues

Lecturers should engage in their own research
How can working in groups be used in the project?

224

0 Need for PS lecturers to fully occupy students [i.e., keep them
meaningfully engaged] during scheduled lectures

We began to formulate a more clear understanding of the problems we
hoped to address. We discovered that there was a lack of common expectations
of the CDS. While the PS section viewed the project as a tool for reflective and
constructivist thinking, many lecturers and students pointed out that such
elements rarely addressed in doing the CDS. We also discovered that lecturers
wanted more preparation in research skills, yet they were hesitant to admit a
need for it.

A key issue was the communication between sections at the college. The
CDS was a unique opportunity to cross boundaries at the college level. It was
one of the few concrete, student assignments that spans across sections and
departments. However in the past, some subject area sections were resentful
about handing over the marks of students’ projects to the Professional Studies
section when the former group had supervised and evaluated the project.

The PS LIC, Mr. Chandauka put much energy in defusing the issue of
students’ marks. Other concerns emerged. The structures of accountability
were fairly weak. In interviews, many subject area lecturers complained of not
knowing how PS lecturers had prepared the students to conduct research and
questioned the sections’ involvement in the supervision of the projects.

Several sections indicated that a representative from PS should attend
their section meetings, supervise a load of students doing their CDS, and
become a de-facto member of that subject area section. PS lecturers, in turn,

complained that subject area lecturers were not effectively preparing and

225

supervising for students to produce a quality action research project. Lecturers
have identified inconsistency in marking across the section as another issue.
Conceptualize the Problem

The next step in our research process was to conceptualize the above
problems in a way that shows how we see the various factors coming together.
Paulo F reire (1970) describes the process of “problematizing” where one defines
a problem in a way that s/he can address it. By using this process, we not only
understand the problem in our own terms, we can identify possible areas we can
influence.

We started our model with the three main stakeholders: the students,
subject area sections, and the PS section. We wanted to show dialogical
relationships. Thus, we began with the diagram with arrows going in both
directions to each group to form the triangle on top. Teaching Practice (TP)
section was included next to the PS section because both sections were
responsible for the general preparation and support of all students conducting
teaching practice. The dialogue between subject area sections and PS was to
include expectations, standards, and ways of collaborating in supporting and
challenging students doing their CDS. Arrows between sections and the
students indicated the roles and responsibilities. While TP and PS were to focus
on general preparation and support, each subject area section was to go in depth
with the students who specialize in that particular content area. In this model, the
students were supposed to offer responses in terms of comments, evaluations,

and suggestions for lecturers in the various sections.

226

On the bottom was our view of the action research process where student-
teachers continually ask questions; examine their classroom and their role in it;
use evidence to create ideas of why certain things work well and others do not;
share their ideas with others; reformulate their questions; and try to use the ideas
they have Ieamed. Once we put the key elements in the model, we were able to
identify where relationships needed to improve. The model below shows how we
saw the lecturers and the students relating to each other in terms of effective

preparation and support of the CDS.

227

 
 
 

 

Figure 6.3 — Conceptual

Model of CBS at BTTC Dialogue

  

 

 

oWhat is effective teaching and Ieamin ?

 
  

 

 

 

oHow can we most effectively '
support and challenge S-T? Subject Area
oHow to be protagonists in education . .
Teaching Practice Section reform? sutggisma Sections
. n
. 0r anizatjon of acements oWhat are our standards for teachIng ' ,
. Co?nmunication pwith schools, and Ieaming? ' Stile“ ale? pedagogy
mentors, and college oWhat are our standards for ' CntIcal """kmg '"

. Preparation of ST for placement reflection/action r 9593”“?

teaching and Ieaming
in subject area

 

 

 

 

 

 

Professional Studies Section
- General pedagogy \ -
0 Critical thinking Develop supports for lecturers
. Management/Ieaming
environment r\Feedback Feedback

    
    
 

(General Support

a Resolving

At 9301‘4 issues/problems
stage General Preparation

0 Teaching methods

0 Action research

gSupervision

\ /

Student-Teachers

 

 

Engaglng in

l

O % 0 Reflection in teaching

and Ieaming in
subject area

 

 

 

Support in subject
specific area
0 Teaching/

innovation/ St39°

reflection
Supervision

neflective, Innovative, Meaningfnl\\

Teaching and Learning (T&L) through Action Research \\

 

Developing
Questions regarding
Learning and

TeachIng
Interacting with Pupils in . Which T&L issues
the Classroom (T&L) are S-T most
concerned about?

. Which problems
S-T want and are

 

 

 

 
    

Dialoguing

 

 

 

 

Revising T&L

. Modify Learning
Environment
. Implement new

 

 

 

 

 

  
 

 

 

Listening , d t dd 7
- CollectIng Data/Info. rea Y 0 a ress.
Observmg On T &L
Reflecting on T&L
Analyze Data

 

oEvaluation of T&L \Developing personal

 

 

 

Developing new T&L
Strategies appropriate
for context

 

 

 

228

o Self-evaluation Theories re: TgL /

I structures/supports

. Modify T&L Strategies

 

 

 

 

 

P, Publish

 

Sharing Findings with:

o Colleagues

o Pupils

. Larger education
communitv

. Supervisors/mentors

 

 

 

Of course, actions do not always follow the course prescribed by the
model, but it is important to identify how we expected the parts to fit. Both the PS
and the Subject Area Sections prepare and support students during the CDS
project process, but their roles were slightly different. Because we had a
common goal of preparing and supporting students, much dialogue needed to
take place between the sections to make sure they reinforce what is learned,
rather than giving students conflicting messages. If scaffolding - which involves
students Ieaming concepts and skills that continually build off each other (Collins
et al., 1989) — was to be effective, much consensus and coordination was
needed between sections. However, there were not many descriptors for the
arrows returning from the students to the sections. This model identifies that
weakness, and perhaps it will be an issue to be addressed at a later time.

We believed that we needed to make our thinking explicit in order to share
a common language with lecturers from other sections and to invite them to join
in the examining of problems related to the CDS. We hoped that this process
would help us create a community of inquiry through developing a shared vision.
The Research Plan

We spent much time trying to figure out what the problem was and our
relationship to it before we started making a research plan of concrete steps to
take. However, I would like to reemphasize that this process was not completely
linear. While we engaged in our research activities, we were also re-examining

our conceptual thinking of the problem and our role in it.

229

Because we believe that action research should be ongoing, there were
many parts to our plan. We tried to make reflection, dialogue, initiating new
approaches, and more dialogue an integral part of PS standard business. In this
section, I highlight two endeavors, the first CDS Workshop and the CDS Guide,
which have helped us address the problems of the CDS.

The First CDS Workshop - Coming together

The first CDS Workshop (7-11 February 2000) was a significant step in
furthering the dialogue on how to better prepare and support our students in
doing their CDS project. As mentioned in the previous chapter, J. Chandauka
(LIC), and other PS lecturers made a point to officially meet with each of the
other BTTC sections. The intention was to sort out administrative concerns so
the workshop could focus on more substantial pedagogical issues.

The meetings lasted for approximately two hours. Each section’s LIC and
any other available members attended. At times, the meetings would include two
sections at the same time. Mr. Chandauka started each meeting explaining that
he wanted to understand the concerns of the CDS by the section. From that
point, each meeting’s discussion depended on the views of the section members.
Some meetings were more collegial than others. For example, when Mr.
Chandauka and I visited the Science section on 17 January 2000. Ms. Nkala
(LIC) and Ms. Dube (HOD) spoke the whole time and the other three lecturers
did not say a word. It was not clear if there was a tension between them and Mr.
Chandauka, who was also outspoken, but they complained about the PS section

not taking on their responsibilities of communicating and collaborating with their

230

 

56C

me

do'

IIC

rn

(II

section. They wanted PS lecturers to regularly come to Science section
meetings to be abreast of what is going in the section and share what they are
doing with science students. They also related dissatisfaction in the PS “doing
nothing” and then getting the credit for presenting the marks of the CDS. Mr.
Chandauka did not even attempt to respond to the accusations made. He took
note and listened to what was being said.

Two days later, Mr. Chandauka and I met with a combined Building
Studies and Technical Graphics sections. Lecturers shared their confusion over
the differences between hypothesis and assumptions, and asked for clarification.
They also discussed problems they and their students faced, such as typing the
final report. Like the Science section, these sections indicated that there was a
need for more communication between the PS section and theirs. However, they
posed the issue as needing more uniformity throughout the college and a
genuine interest in knowing what the students have Ieamed about the CDS. The
tone was less hostile. Rather than blaming the PS section, they showed
appreciation to Mr. Chandauka for initiating the conversation.

Before the workshop even started, a tone was set. The process began
with listening. While we all knew that the CDS was not meeting high standards,
PS representatives were willing to hear what lecturers thought was wrong with
the process. Rather than trying to defend PS in the sessions that seemed like a
barrage of finger pointing and complaining, we tried to better understand the
section. At the end of each meeting, there was a greater sense of friendship and

willingness to work together to address problems of ODS.

231

The objectives, as stated in the workshop proposal, was to enable the

participants to:

A) Have an understanding of the following questions

99”.”?

5.

What is CDS?

What is Action Research?

What is the relationship between CDS and Action Research?
What are the respective roles of PS, Subject Area Sections, and
Student in CDS?

What is a good CDS project?

B) Identify the critical elements of CDS including:

NP’S’IPP’N.‘

Topic formulation

Project proposal

Literature review/referencing
Project design/methodologies
Project presentation/report
Project supervision

Project evaluation

C) Develop a vision for each of the critical elements of CDS

D) Develop guidelines to enable students to achieve the envisaged vision
for each of the critical elements of the CDS

E) Compile the guidelines into a module, the CDS Guide for BTTC.

A representative from each subject area section, all PS lecturers, and five

additional organizers participated. The workshop was to take place on the

college campus.

To promote a feeling of professionalism, Mr. Chandauka made a point to

cordially invite each section to send their representatives to the CDS workshop.

He also went to great lengths to have tea and lunch included in the workshop.

While funders were more ready to finance outside consultants to lead sessions,

we believed that we at the college needed to view ourselves as the experts of the

workshop. We felt that by providing tea and lunch, we were treating the

232

participants as the valued professionals they are. More important than the
convenience and enjoyment were the opportunities to continue discussions on a
more informal and personal level; as a result, the lecturers shared insights and
debated views between sessions.

The first day included Mr. Tom Bourdillon of University of Zimbabwe,
Department of Education giving background information about the history and
relationship of the CDS in teachers’ colleges. He discussed the values of self-
reflection, personal theorizing, collaborative action, action-oriented investigation,
and a commitment to inquiry and self-improvement. Belvedere’s Mr. C.T.
Gadzirayi followed with a description of action research. Both presentations
were focused on a paradigm shift towards promoting constructivist and critical
thinking in teacher education.

Mr. Gadzirayi began with writing Shona proverbs on the chalkboard —
“Kare haagari ari kare” (Things change - there is nothing static), “Kare aramba
ari kare” (Sustaining traditions), and “Rume rimwe harikombi churu" (Unity is
strength). He opened the discussion with asking, “W hat influences the way
people teach?”

He suggested the need for college lecturers to change how they view
research and presented the model of approaches to research — similar to the one
presented at the beginning of this chapter. The two approaches were labeled
”Traditional Way of Doing Research” and “Action Research.” Mr. Gadzirayi
suggested that action research was the alternative approach that the college

should follow.

233

Even though the presentations were well received, tensions were
beginning to arise. Action research was the only approach that was introduced.
Some lecturers argued that the paradigm was being imposed on them, a
contradiction to a democratic approach. They stated that they did not want to be
limited to a single approach to research. During lunch the participants continued
to discuss their apprehension about abandoning one way of doing research for
another.

To circumvent the debate getting framed as “does the CDS have to be
action research,” in the afternoon we focused on building a common vision of
“good research.” Using a brainstorming method borrowed from Noel McGinn of
Harvard Graduate School of Education, we had all the participants work in
groups to identify various elements of good research. Each person in each
group wrote as many. elements of good research on a slip of paper. Ideas
ranged from details of page numbering to issues of originality. Next, each group
discussed the elements and categorized them. Then they organized the
categories to show how the elements of good research relate to each other.

A transformation happened during that first day! The participants were
willing to take on the role of expert. Rather than sitting passively while others
told them how they should prepare students to do CDS, they reflected on their
own experiences to identify aspects of good research and meaningful teaching.
The professors from UZ, the only outsiders, were placed in groups and
participated in the discussions as an equal member. Each group was immersed

in dialogue regarding which elements contribute to good research and how those

234

elements are connected. The groups started to present their ideas in a linear
format. However, when they were challenged to rethink how the aspects related
to each other, they moved towards more a holistic approach of doing research.

One group created the model below to show their thinking.

 

 

Figure 6.4 — Workshop Group’s Concept
of Good Research Data Won

 

 

 

 

    

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

   
   
 

 

 

  
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Clear; linked to the problem;
M authentic; orderly/relevant
Relevant, related illustrations
Topic to topic; current;
Specific; concise; clear; critical anaIySIs;
researchable; straightforward; Wide 00W. W. t , t .
relevant; well defined; real life Infonnatlve 3.“ ”mm e, explana OW'
related; related to activities in 9'“ '23: 5;” '"gim
the researchers classroom quanfic 3:17: “:3” ' ve-
/ Problem thodology

 

 

 

Researchable; significant; genuine;
clear; concise; justifiable; classroom

 

   
 

 

  
 
 

 

 

 

 

orlented. Data A"! ‘3
Conclusion Not manipulated; focused on
Relevant providing solutions main ideas of research; critical
summarising what was done analysis
and found.
W

 

   

 

Paving way for further studies

 

 

 

Like most others, this group organized their thinking of research to revolve
around a real problem. The above model and the others created were different
than the ones PS section created. This was seen as a positive sign. The models
presented earlier in this chapter (figures 6.2 and 6.3) focus more on how to
conduct research and the ones presented at the workshop dealt with aspects of
what makes good research. While these are similar issues, the workshop model
(figure 6.4) demonstrated lecturers coming together to construct a common way

of thinking. There had been a consensus that lecturers were tired of supervising

235

projects that compared one teaching method with another and that students
should be challenged to think deeper about significant classroom issues. The
models developed signaled a first step in rethinking how the college should
approach the CDS.

In the remainder of the workshop, participants joined teams reflecting on
critical elements identified the first day, which included: project proposal,
literature review/referencing, design/methodology, presentation, supervision, and
evaluation. The first task of the teams was to develop general overview and
understanding of key aspects of their topic to share with the whole group. What
were supposed to be twenty-minute presentations turned into two-to—three hour
discussions leading to deeper understandings of what it means to do each
element well.

All of the presentations came from BTTC lecturers. An air of respect for
each other emerged, Ideas were presented‘and discussed in a way that
promoted deep thinking. Those who had accused Mr. Chandauka and the PS
section of not living up to their responsibilities did not attempt to detract from the
discussions. They and others joined in the dialogue of how to improve the CDS.
Lecturers listened attentively during the presentations and as soon as they
concluded heated discussions would begin.

Ms. Thabete, a lecturer in the Science section, offered her group’s insights
on research methods. She presented a traditional, quantitative research
approach of testing variables to see if there is a change. Her explanation was

very clear and concise. Other participants were able to understand her approach

236

and in the end, they were ready to recognize her as an expert in setting up a
quantitative research project.

Mr. Makore, another lecturer, thought his debriefing on his team’s work on
how the CDS project should be presentation would be straightfonlvard. Instead, it
led to the whole group building common definitions for research terms that had
previously been used without clear understanding. Terms such as “hypothesis”,
“assumptions”, “justification”, “significance”, and others had been thrown around
in discussions but, until this point, it was not clear that lecturers were talking
about the same things. At times a lecturer would offer a textbook definition of
one of the terms. The participants were not willing to simply accept the definition
on the authority that it was “official.” Instead, lecturers dialogued and began to
trust the understandings of research concepts that they were constructing
together.

By the last day of the workshop, all the participants approved each team’s
draft of elements to be included in the CDS Guide. Being successful in building a
community of inquiry did not mean that we resolved all tensions. Debates
continued. Some of the issues were: how to balance the theoretical and the
practical aspects of the CDS; how much to defer to university, external
assessors’ opinions of research; how binding should decisions made in the
workshop be compared to the level of decision making in the individual sections;
and how prescriptive should the process be for students. Different points of view
added to the dialogue and, in the end, contributed to deeper thinking on teacher

education and research issues.

237

At the end of the workshop, I asked the twenty-four participants to
complete a survey to evaluate the week’s activities. The response was very
positive. One question asked them to list three of the best things that came out

of the workshop. A compilation of their responses is below:

 

Table 6.1 — Workshop Evaluation: “T he Best Things to Come Out of Workshop”

The Best Things to Come Out of Workshop # of
Responses

 

 

Themes of: collaboration, dialogue, cooperation, collective 26
responsibility, agreeing on a way forward, partnership of CDS as
a college thing (and not a PS thing)

 

Themes of: actual documents that were/will be generated - BTTC 16
guide to CDS, marking scheme/guide, interrogatives for ch.1,
supervision checklist

 

 

 

 

 

 

Themes of: greater understandings of aspects of research and CDS 9
Other comments 4
Themes of: clarification of role of PS and members assigned to 2

sections
Total Comments 57

 

The largest proportion of comments related to “how things were done.”
There was a general appreciation that the process was one of collaboration
where various views were respected and encouraged. Also, there was a large
number of comments valuing a future tangible product, i.e., the guide that would
support lecturers in preparing, supervising, and assessing students doing the

CDS.

238

 

The PS section also wanted to know what issues and concerns remained

with the participants throughout the workshop. We asked them to list three

concerns that were still unresolved. A compilation of their responses follows:

 

Table 6.2 - Workshop Evaluation “What Concerns Are Still
Unresolved?”

 

Unresolved Concerns

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

# of
Responses
Themes of: standardization of supervision — ways of doing, loads, 7
consulting
Themes of: lecturers need more support in research methods 6
Themes of: attitudes and behaviors of some lecturers in terms of 6
not supporting a positive movement towards implementing a
new CDS
Themes of: implementation of some of the decisions from the 6
workshop— marking guides (in sections & application), mid-term
consultations, selection of topics before exposed, method of
citation . ‘
Themes of: PS coordinating with sections 5
Themes of: continuance of the support and dialogue 3
Themes of: the timing of conducting CDS, especially for the PADE 3
and TechNoc groups
Themes of: presentation of CDS to external assessors 2
Total Comments 38

 

While participants were generally positive about the experience, there

were concerns about our being able to maintain the momentum in terms of

commitments and working out further details, especially in the area of

supervision. Participants indicated a need for further support and training in

research practices.

In addition, I wanted to get a sense of whether the participants wanted to

stay involved in furthering their experiences from the workshop. I asked them to

239

 

indicate their interest level in participating in future workshops focusing on

research practices. The results follow:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6.3 - Workshop Evaluation “Interest in Participating in
Future Workshops”
Interest in Participating in Future Workshops on Research Percentage
Practices
Not interested 0 %
Could be interested 5 %
Somewhat interested 15 %
Very Interested ' 45 %
So interested that would be willing to assist in the organizing 35 %

 

 

 

Eighty percent of the participants indicated that they were very interested
or so interested that they would be willing to assist in organizing future
workshops. I took this response to suggest that the participants felt strongly
about the usefulness of the workshop as a tool of professional development. 7

In our research plan, we did not expect the workshop to be a “one-shot
deal” that would fix all the problems with the CDS research project. Our hope
was that it would be a starting point for dialogue. We wanted to frame the debate
so that the college would be addressing issues related to the substance of
research, i.e., the deep thinking and questioning aspect of the process. We
wanted to divert the discussion from a turf battle where a logistical issue such as
who receives the students’ marks becomes the primary issue.

The CDS Guide - lnstituting Change

The most tangible outcome of the workshop was the Educational Action

Research CDS Guide’g. Using ideas that came from each group’s presentation

during the week, I edited the guide, which was published in September 2000. In

 

'9 A copy of the CDS Guide can be obtained through Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College,
PO. Box BE 100, Belvedere, Harare, Zimbabwe.

240

general, the students and lecturers have been very interested in having the
guide. It is the first time the college, as a whole, has laid out expectations for the
CDS. One student piloting the guide approached her research differently. She
stated:

When you pick a topic, you should have a problem first... when I first

heard about CDS I wanted to have a topic, not a problem... That is why

I came up with this one, corrections, because I first heard that problem

of students getting the same problems wrong time and time again [even

after they make corrections from their returned exams], so I said, “Okay,

this is a problem. What may be the solution?’ That’s when I came up

with this [proposal]. So it’s helped.

While I was delighted to have a substantial product from the workshop,
tensions have persisted. Thegoal of the guide was to capture everyone’s
deeper understanding of research in a way that would support and challenge
students to engage in doing better CDS projects. Some lecturers wanted the
guide to be a rulebook for students to follow. Since lecturers for all the sections
were represented, it made sense to make decisions that would be binding for the
whole college in terms of the CDS. Also because this represents the first time
most of the students will be doing research, we ought to be explicit about the
expectations. For instance, Lisa Delpit (1988) describes how African-Americans
students in the US. often struggle and fail because teachers have an
understanding of expectations but, for fear of being overly directive of student
thinking, they never explicitly explain it to these students.

On the other side of the debate were the lecturers who wanted the guide

to promote a general and conceptual understanding of research practices so

students could decide which approach(es) would be most useful for their needs.

241

The compromise was to include the procedural aspects with the understanding
that students and lecturers would dismiss them once they understood what they
are and, at the same time, include heavy doses of the conceptual and alternative
approaches. Like most compromises, the guide has aspects with which each
group was less than satisfied. For instance, the guide does not break out of the
traditional five-chapter report structure, but the explanation of the proposal is
more conceptual and less formulistic. In “Part 2 - Project Proposal”, the main

part is the model below.

242

 

 

Figure 6.5 — CDS Guide: Model of Project Proposal

 

 

What is the problem?

 

    
 
     
     

Problem

 

Address the
Problem
(Improvement)

How to tell what is
happening?!
Is there change?
(Data Collection)

Em—<mm mmca>mmA—r

 

 

 

Logistical Issues:

a) What is the time frame for the project?

b) What is the budget for the project?

Why is It a problem?
How does it affect Ieaming?
Criteria:

Is it a real problem?

Does it affect Ieaming?

Is the student truly interested?

Is this a problem that the student-
teacher can affect?

How do you propose to address

the problem? Explain why.

Criteria:

Is this something the student
can do?

Will it address the problem?
Does this have to do with
teaching and Ieaming?

Which ways/methods are you
going to use to:

Better understand the

problem

Tell if your solution is doing

what it was intended to do

Tell what your solution is

doing (unintentionally)

Criteria:

. Do the methods fit the
problem?

. Are the various approaches
taken into account?

a)
b)

C)

c) What resources are needed to carry out the

research?

This approach was a clear movement away from the common practice of

presenting the first three chapters of the report as the proposal. The intention

was for students to think first about a real problem, then to think of ways to

address it, and then to think about data collection. While supervisors agreed

upon the conceptual part, they were unclear on the desired format and structure

for students’ proposals. For fear that students will pay more attention to following

243

a prescribed format at the expense of conceptualizing their research, we did not
include such a structure in the guide.
Discussion

Without tensions, dialogue would not be needed, and the opportunity for
growth would be limited. Most of the above issues result from a tension between
following procedures and being innovative. David Labaree (1997) argues that
having strong advocates from various sides of a debate is a much more healthy
state than having any one side dominate. When one side becomes too
dominant, vital issues can be easily neglected. In our case, having students
merely follow procedures would not help them become critical problem-solvers.
Being innovative without having structure would not help them take concrete
steps in examining real problems, and their great ideas would not translate into
meaningful Ieaming activities in the classroom. The figure below shows how the
tensions at each end of the spectrum are incompatible with no compromise
evident. However, there is an area where interests overlap, and getting to that

place is our goal.

244

 

 

Figure 6.6 — Tensions between following procedures and being innovative

 

 

Tensions too great to
resolve - ends up
being contradictions /
an “either-or" situation
with poor results

 

 

Following
f Procedures

 

 

i - Being
lnnovafive

Guide not useful -
Students looking
for recipes to
follow

Overlap I Dealing with the
Tensions -

Having an understanding of
accepted practice of
research, knowing the “rules
of the game”, having a
conceptual understanding of
the research, able to
determine which
practices/strategies are
useful, able to create own
ways of doing, own ways of
thinking.

 

 

The goal - Good
learning I students
being critical and able
to change reality

 

 

Guide not useful -
Students having
“big ideas” of
research/ teaching
/ learning, but not
realistic about how
to do it

The figure above shows how an overlap can produce positive results —

where students learn basic procedures of research practices and develop their

own ways of thinking. I believe that it is at this juncture that students can be

most critical, and this is the goal for the Educational Action Research CDS

Guide. Ideally, the guide would provide students with some concrete examples

of research strategies in order for them to build a conceptual understanding of

245

what it means to examine a problem or issue in depth. From that point, students
would develop their own tools and ways of thinking that would assist them in
improving teaching and Ieaming. Had I, as editor of the guide, gone to one end
or the other of the above spectrum of following procedures or being innovative,
the guide would not be useful for our context. At one end, a recipe book for
students to follow would not encourage students to develop their professional
skills of problem solving and critical thinking. At the other end, students being
completely innovative, the guide is doomed for failure. Being able to implement
innovative thinking requires building from existing knowledge and skills. While
the PS section leaders hope that students are able to think critically enough to
determine which practices are useful and which ones are not, we believe they
need to have an idea of what they are rejecting.

Where Do We. Go From Here?

To promote these skills for our students, everyone representing all points
of the spectrum needs to be involved and become advocates. Hopefully this
tension will maintain a healthy debate about how we should prepare and support
our students at BTTC. However, this dialogue will not continue simply because
we produced a guide. There are many tasks college lecturers must do to further
our thinking. Students’ voices being absent in the workshop and the production
of the guide was an obvious oversight on our part. If our goal is for our students
to be problem-solvers and critical thinkers, there was no good excuse for us not
including them more in the process. Since then, I have asked them to evaluate

the guide and share their thinking about the CDS project with us. While we

246

continue to support students in their research projects, we need to listen better to
them.

Further workshops are needed. These are rare opportunities for people
throughout the college to engage in a dialogue focused around a particular issue.
To maintain a culture of reflection and action, the PS section needs to continue to
establish structures where lecturers to come together to share our thinking, to
organize, and take action. Those of us at the first CDS workshop were
successful in these endeavors. Unfortunately, only one person from each
section attended. Additional workshops for all subject area section members
have been organized. Three weekly workshops for all vocational/technical
subject lecturerstook place in January and February 2002. Workshops for
academic subject lecturers are being planned for March 2003. Also PS visits to
sections have continued throughout 2002.

While boundaries between sections, in particular with Professional
Studies, have decreased, the process is far from complete. If the college is to
effectively prepare students to engage in meaningful teaching and Ieaming, the
faculty needs to continue to share a common commitment to construct a vision of
teacher education. Lecturers have indicated interest in developing a research
group where faculty members support and challenge each other in engaging in
our own research. If we are to be effective teachers of research, then we should
also view ourselves as researchers.

As mentioned in chapter three, action research does not separate the

research process from teaching and Ieaming. As a community we need to

247

challenge ourselves to think deeper and clearer as well as support each other in
asking difficult questions and taking steps in action. The PS section’s research
endeavor is far from over. As the models of action research suggest, the
process is a continuous cycle of deeper reflection, making innovations, and
Ieaming. My effort to share our insights is not to profess having particular
answers, but to open the dialogue to a wider community.

However, this dialogue has remained limited to BTTC. Voices of key
stakeholders have been absent. University involvement has been minimal. In
December 2000, Tom Bourdillon, a leading advocate of progressive reforms died
in a car accident. Mr. Bourdillon had been the chairperson of the U2 Department
of Teacher Education, and he was always eager to support BTTC lecturers in
dialogue about rethinking teacher education. .As mentioned earlier in this
chapter, he attended the first workshop. He also attended subsequent meetings
to review the CDS Guide, where he continually challenged lecturers working on
the guide to not fall back into being overly prescriptive of the research process.
The following year DTE’s Link Person with BTTC changed. Within months, the
person left the country without making arrangements for her responsibilities to
BTTC. As a result, proposals for workshops were lost and shuffled from one
person to another.

Another voice conspicupusly quiet was that from the Ministry of Higher
Education and Technology and the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. Not
only did representatives not attend any workshop, meeting, or discussion relating

to the CDS, rarely did they ever come to the campus. These two major players

248

in the national debate of education not being included in the BTTC dialogue
could be a sign of their lack of interest or isolation on the part of BTTC.

The then Minister of Higher Education and Technology Mumbengegwi,
who oversaw the nations’ colleges and universities, had a more confrontational
relationship with the lecturers at the college. As an example, at the end of the
2002 school year, he eliminated future English and Development Studies
programs at the college. College lecturers were not involved in the decision-
making process, and they were given minimal justification for the action. In a
letter to the college, he said that the sections were not consistent with the
Ministry’s effort to make BTTC more “technical” and more “scientific.”

In the second chapter, I argued that BTTC had space to have a
pedagogical dialogue because the national'debate was preoccupied with other
issues, most notably concerns of nation building. I also discussed how issues
from the larger society can enter this space. The Minister’s decision was
contrary to the dialogue regarding the CDS at B'I'I'C. For instance, lecturers had
voiced a concern about students’ lack of writing skills. Eliminating the English
section meant that there would be no study of any language. ChiShona and
SiNdebele, the two major indigenous languages, had not been offered since the
mid 1980’s. As a result, advocates to promote more meaningful and rigorous
language standards in the CDS and throughout the college have been reduced.

As I discussed in chapter three, action research primarily reflects a
liberation ideology. However, the dialogue in the college shows that there are

tensions within each of the perspectives. While some lecturers are following an

249

agenda of liberation ideology more than others, the issues are related to the
realities of the perspective. How much to change, challenge status quo, and
promote innovation needs to be balanced with how much to keep stable, accept
current standards, and offer procedures that can be followed. These are some
of the tensions that need to be addressed within a liberation ideology
perspective. By having some lecturers with perspectives other than liberation
ideology, these tensions get negotiated. Had all the lectures believed in one
perspective, key issues would not have been addressed. The innovation from
students would have missed much of the foundational skills and knowledge of
doing research or students w0uld be blindly following meaningless procedures to

complete their CDS.

250

Bibliography

The Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College: Applied Education Syllabus, (1992)
Harare: Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College.

Collins, A., Brown J, & Newman, S. (1989) Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching
the Craft of Reading, Writing, and Mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.) Knowing,
Learning and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser, Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Delpit, L. (1988) The Silenced Dialogue: Power and Pedagogy in Educating
Other People’s Children, Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 58, No. 3. pp. 280-
298.

Dewey, J. (1900) School and Society, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Duckworth, E. (1996) “The Having of Wonderful Ideas”and Other Essays on
Teaching and Learning, New York: Teachers College Press.

Elliot, J. (1991) Action Research for Educational Change, Buckingham: Open
University Press.

Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, New York: Continuum.
Giroux, H. (1988) Teachers As Intellectuals, New York: Bergin & Garvey.

Kruger, J. & Dunning, D. (January 22, 2000) “Incompetent People Rarely Know
They Are: Study”. The Herald. Reuters. pg. 3.

Labaree, D. (1997) Private Goods, Public Goods: The American Struggle Over
Educational Goals, American Educational Research Journal. Vol. 34, No. 1, pp.
39-81.

Noffke, S. & Stevenson, R. (1995) Educational Action Research, New York:
Teachers College.

MacLean, M. & Mohr M. (1999) Teacher-Researchers at Work, Berkley: National
Writing Project.

Meier, D. (1995) The Power of Their Ideas, Boston: Beacon Press.

Phillips, D. (1995) The Good , the Bad, and the Ugly: The Many Faces of
Constructivism. Educational Researcher, Vol. 24, No. 7. pp. 5-12.

Torres, C. (1995) Participatory Action Research and Popular Education in Latin

America, in P. McLaren and J. Giarelli (Eds.) Critical Theory and Educational
Research, Albany: State University of New York Press.

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252

CHAPTER 7
Conclusion

Finding Something Other Than the Expected

While the reforms at Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College did not follow
the dialogue of critical pedagogy l was expecting to find, I discovered valuable
lessons regarding democratic changes at a teacher college level. There is no
pre-ordained path to follow in charting the way through democratic change. The
going is usually complex, messy, slow, and filled with tensions. Those involved
in the dialogue come to the table with various backgrounds, experiences, and
perspectives, which determine the formulation and direction of dialogue. Then,
along the way, tensions stemming from each person’s difference are continually
being negotiated and renegotiated. At times, it seemed like there could have
been a different model that would have been more efficient in terms of getting
things done. Especially in an exam-based education system that focuses on
“giving the right answers”, it would have been easier to appeal to a higher source
of knowledge and simply tell lecturers the “right” way of supporting and
challenging students doing research. However, in the end, that process would
have been simply giving legitimacy to such a hierarchical power structure, rather
than challenging it.

At the beginning of this three and a half year research project, I was
expecting to find critical pedagogy taking place at BTTC. I wanted to gain a
deeper understanding of what critical thinking looks like on a level larger than an
individual classroom. I had seen and read about some amazing teachers

promoting critical thinking in their classrooms, but once it became elevated to a

253

school-wide, district, or national level there were fewer examples. The issues
seemed to become more abstract and, in the end, it is less clear what critical
pedagogy looks like on those levels.

In this research, I have not focused much on critical pedagogy because it
exists under layers of other issues, not because I was no longer interested in it. I
found the realities of BTTC different from those of the Western teacher education
institutions that have propagated this dialogue of critical thinking/pedagogy in
regards to teacher education. Rather than using the language of “critical
thinking/pedagogy”, lecturers and students at B‘I'I'C discussed similar issues but
in the language of encouraging students to think for themselves in solving
problems of the classroom. -

There were many discussions/debates in the staff rooms regarding the
oppressive nature of the state, and there were several lecturers who discussed
the problems of the hierarchical structure of education. These lecturers were
self-reflective; they experimented and advocated for more democratic structures
regarding supervision of teaching and research. In general, the majority of
lecturers I worked with did listen to the students and were advocates for their
causes. While these dialogues were very similar to those of critical pedagogy,
they neglected to draw direct links between the power/political structures of the
classroom and those of the larger society.

The elements that I was expecting to find (but did not) were those that
were critical of how the structure of schooling reflected oppressive aspects of

society. I did not observe anyone discussing the irony of teaching “pedagogy” in

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a “lecture theatre,” for instance. While the exam structure at the college was not
as rigorous as that for secondary school level, there were still many reasons to
be critical. While questions for final examinations were set at the college level,
the Department of Teacher Education at University of Zimbabwe approved each
exam and students’ marks. The Professional Studies section put much effort in
making the exams a thinking exercise for students; however in the end, much
continued to depend on students giving the “right” answer. (Similarly, many
students viewed the CDS as a process of trying to figure out what their
supervisor wanted.) There are many limitations when an exam is developed
prior to the teaching 'of the course, there are large numbers of students, and
students in different classes taught by different lecturers take the same exam.
Also, I did not come across discussions questioning the legitimacy of the “O” or
“A” level exams for the secondary schools and how they perpetuate the power of
knowledge remaining in the hands of a very few.

Rather than questioning the power structure of an exam-based system
and oversight by university assessors, lecturers and students focused their
discussions at a different level. They did not advocate for a complete change of
the power structure; they argued for the current structure to be more amiable to
their interests. For instance, instead of questioning the validity of assessing
student-teaching practice through two unannounced observations, students and
lecturers attempted to find ways to integrate methods of support prior to the
evaluations. The lecturers would maintain their power to independently generate

a score for the student through a single observation, and the students still would

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not be able to challenge the score they received. The change would be that the
students would have an opportunity to meet with and be observed by a
supervisor once or twice without being assessed.

The CDS was a unique opportunity for students and lecturers to engage in
teacher Ieaming that challenged traditional notions of power in the classroom. In
theory, the students were encouraged to be innovative in solving a classroom
problem. They had more control of the research process — including choosing
the topic and deciding when and how to do the research. At times, these aspects
of action research were challenged by lecturers with more conservative views of
the classroom, and tensions regarding power structures existed. Most lecturers
with research experience had been trained in a traditional, positivistic quantitative
approach to educational research.

The idea of having the research “belong to the student”— their having
control of much of the process - was discussed and, as a result, the college
debated and negotiated the power-structure between students and lecturers.
Also discussed were issues related to power structures from above. Some
lecturers complained of having to require students to have a “hypothesis” and
“assumptions” when they did not appreciate a difference between the two.
Because university assessors will demand that hypotheses and assumptions be
presented in a particular way in the name of academia, lecturers were leery of
allowing their students to submit a report without the terms being included.
Through dialogue, the lecturers began building a common language of what

these terms meant. Rather than depending on an outdated research manual to

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give the definition, lecturers shared their understandings of the terms and their
relevance to writing a research report. Once a common understanding was
organized and written in the CDS guide, lecturers stated that they felt more
comfortable in defending the structure of students’ work to the university
assessors.

Since the dialogue at the college did not take the form of identifying the
political relationships of the structures involved, I did not focus on the critical
thinking aspect. Instead, I examined the constructivist thinking aspect. This is
the process whereby individuals and/or groups develop their own ideas and ways
of thinking.

Doing research and supervising it were relatively new activities for other
lecturers, and as a result, many of them were not entrenched in a particular way
of doing research. Thus, dialogue encouraged individuals to share their ideas of
what it means to do good research, and there were fewer assumptions that ’
everyone agreed on what leads to good research. As a result, lecturers engaged
in constructivist thinking to build common understandings of what is good
research. However, tensions continued to exist. Even though lecturers could
agree on a common vision of research as shown in chapter six, they maintained
various views of the level of authority a student-teacher should have in doing
research.

While these issues were discussed, on the ground, lecturers and students
had much latitude to do what they wanted. While the Ministry of Higher

Education and Technology and the University of Zimbabwe had controls over

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BTTC, the former groups rarely showed interest in the dialogue developing
around the CDS. As a result, each teacher college and each section within a
college had much room to determine how they would carry out the CDS. This
latitude was also available at the student level. Depending on their supervisor,
students had much flexibility in how they did their research. However, having the
space does not necessarily lead to a meaningful research project.

Some students were innovative in doing their CDS. Auther challenged the
traditional way agricultural practicals had been done in most secondary schools.
Rather than a learning tool, practicals were more often used as a means to elicit
free labor for schools’ garden plots. Auther listened to his pupils and, in the end,
he Ieamed the importance of their involvement in making school activities
meaningful. While this is a valuable lesson in itself, I wonder why Auther did not
draw connections between his CD8 and the larger political/economic structure of
the nation. As mentioned in chapter two, pupils have been critical of practical
subjects throughout the country’s formal, education history. While ZANU PF
continued to use rhetoric of land being the primary issue of the day, why did
Auther not discuss the relevance to his project? He could have viewed himself
as being on the forefront of creating a new farmer for Zimbabwe — one that is no
longer a mere farmhand on a large commercial farm. He could have discussed
with his pupils what it meant to have “ownership” of a farm — including the
responsibilities to the land, community, and state. The fact that these

discussions did not take place does not take away from Auther’s learning to

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become a teacher, but it is an example of how the critical element of making
connections between the classroom and society rarely took place.

Grace, the most organized and clear thinking of all the students in the
study, did not challenge the structure of school at all. While her work was well
thought out, it did not question the power of knowledge structure embedded in
the examination process. In fact, her research could be seen as promoting
exams by making the process more efficient by making pupils better test takers.
While much of her research revealed that exams were not an indication of what
pupils understood, she never suggested that the exam structure be altered or
eliminated. She could have used her research to show that exams perpetuate a
hierarchy of knowledge. Pupils’ common, everyday understandings of tools and
practices became transformed in an academic process where they were stripped ‘
of their knowledge. For example, many of Grace’s pupils had been using a hoe
and shovel for many years but were unable to define the tools and state their
functions on a test.

Just because the critical pedagogy/thinking element was not as prevalent
in the dialogue as I had hoped does not suggest the changes taking place were
not meaningful and did not challenge the power structure. In subtle ways, the
Professional Studies approach to the CDS did challenge power structures
because of its democratic approach. Lecturers’ questioning the need for having
both “hypotheses” and “assumptions” in a research project is an important first

step in questioning who decides what is required for legitimate research.

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The dialogue that did take place did a number of things to make Ieaming
more meaningful at BTTC. Firstly, it involved every lecturer at the college. By
visiting each subject area section and conducting workshops for lecturers, the PS
section made a concerted effort to bring all lecturers into the dialogue. The
message was that everyone’s view was valued, and that everyone played an
important role in making improvements at the college.

Secondly, the dialogue re-framed the issue to focus on teaching and
Ieaming issues. In the past, debates of non-substantive practical issues
dominated discussions regarding the CDS. For example, there had been heated
discussions on which section — the PS or the subject area — would submit the
marks for the written reports. The focus has shifted to issues such as: what
makes a good topic; how to prepare students to understand expectations of the
CDS; and how lecturers can best supervise students when they are in the field.

Thirdly, the process promoted democratic and constructivist values. Those
with various points of view were encouraged to share their ideas and thought
processes with the intention that together, all those involved could succeed in
making the CDS anything they wanted it to be. Outsiders were not necessary in
dictating what should be done or how to go about doing it. Those issues were
discussed on the ground level with little outside involvement. Rather than waiting
for someone from the University or Ministry with the answers, the leaders of the
PS section used a dialectic process to promote the idea that each individual

should get involved to do their part in pursuing the way forward. Dialogue, by its

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nature, is democratic. The intention is not to win others to one particular
perspective as much as to pursue a common, deeper level of understanding.
Re-Examining Questions Posed

At the beginning of chapters two through six, I pose questions to
encourage thinking of the issues discussed. As mentioned in the introduction, I
did not intend to give “answers”. Rather, I hoped to encourage deeper reflection
on the questions themselves. In this final chapter, I revisit the questions from
each chapter to share my thinking.

The questions for chapter two:

Assuming the premise: A meaningful national dialogue regarding

substantive pedagogical issues requires the involvement of all

stakeholders. How does a national discourse of stakeholders from various
perspectives develop in a country with a colonial legacy of over one
hundred years of oppression? How does such a discourse assist reforms
on the ground?

Brown et al. (1997) argue the value of understanding the competing
interests, values, and power relations. They point out that there is more conflict
than consensus when addressing the key issues of Western education. They
state that education has been intimately linked to concepts of democracy and
that education could be viewed as a “site of struggle” (pp. 12-13). Most often,
advocates of any one perspective would prefer not having to engage in tough
negotiations for their agenda to be instituted. However, that situation would not
lead to a robust dialogue of key issues.

While various stakeholders’ perspectives had dominance at different times

in Zimbabwe’s history, few periods enjoyed a balance between different

perspectives. For a brief period following the liberation struggle, different

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agendas were incorporated into the national dialogue on education. Rhetoric of
liberation ideology linked the development of education with the liberation of the
country. At the same time, concerted efforts of nation building attempted to bring
different groups together within one state. Also, international sanctions were
lifted and the state attempted to join the global economy through trade. The
different perspectives were needed to address the complexity of issues facing
the country. At that time, the leaders of the state were willing to attend to the
difficult issues of the day.

The present period is more typical of Zimbabwe’s history. Rather than
dealing with key issues directly, the state attempts to maintain dominance of one
particular perspective. What will bring about a willingness of leaders to
encourage opposing points of view in addressing the key issues of the day? As
there have been movements towards democratic practices throughout history,
there have been those attempting to obstruct such progress. Currently in
Zimbabwe, many groups are working for democratic change. Forums for
opposing points of view such as trade unions, independent media, and non-
government organizations have attempted to bring voices of different
perspectives into a national dialogue. How long the state will be able to silence
these voices is yet to be known.

Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College demonstrates that on a micro level
it is possible to create a culture of listening to opposing points of view, committing
to work with all who are involved, and negotiating important issues. However,

there is always room for progress. The fact that students were not as

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represented in the dialogue as we had wished is an indicator that the power
relationship between student and lecturer/administrator continues to be an issue.

In the larger context, complexities increase, and the task of changing
culture is that much more difficult. Many Zimbabweans are grappling with the
issue of how to promote democratic structures in an oppressive context. The
solution will come from the struggle of many people.

The questions for chapter three:

Assuming the premise: educational reform in teaching and Ieaming should

include a collective negotiation which includes various views/agendas

from various theoretical perspectives. Is it possible for action research to
create a forum for this negotiation to take place on a micro level (individual
teachers in claseroms) ? On a macro level (Belvedere Technical

Teachers’ College or national level)?

As I discussed in that chapter, action research is often viewed in
conjunction with larger reforms of rethinking teacher education to be a more
critical reflective process. ”Action research promotes ideas of dialogue, ‘
collaboration, and constructivist thinking; however, action research does not have
a monopoly over these concepts. It is a mistake to believe that any one reform is
capable of making significant changes in isolation. An environment that
promotes action research is an environment that supports and challenges
teachers and students in joining a dialogue of critical reflection. Action research
does not offer any special promise; it is not a “magic bullet.”

Action research does provide a forum for teachers and lecturers to engage
in a critical reflective process that begins with oneself. I believe that effective

teachers naturally engage in self-reflection processes. They examine their

classrooms with an eye towards better understanding what is happening,

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reasons why, and ways they can make improvements. However, these teachers
often do not record their findings in a way that is easily shared. lnstituting
structures where teachers and lecturers are encouraged to share their insights
continues to be a challenge at the college and national level. The more teachers
and lecturers share their experiences and insights on substantial pedagogical
issues, the more the dialogue develops into something capable of addressing
such problems. However, the question of what action research is and can do will
be resolved by those engaging in the practice.

The questions for chapter four:

Assuming the premise: the CDS is an opportunity for meaningful dialogue

to enhance teaching and Ieaming at Belvedere. What conditions at the

college are needed to create a conducive environment for effective
teaching and Ieaming? Do these conditions exist and promote dialogue or

did the dialogue happen in spite of the conditions?

Are the ways of doing action research - that exist in practice - compatible

with the ideals of constructivist and reflective teaching and Ieaming that

the CDS is trying to promote? In what ways are they incompatible?

Key elements for most progressive reforms to be effective include: a
commitment to change, a willingness to take risks, a genuine interest in sharing
ideas, and an ability to work together. The administrators and lecturers at
Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College demonstrated some of these qualities.
Some leaders took the initiative to establish stronger links of communication
while promoting an agenda that supports the ideals of the sections and college.
While many lecturers were thoughtful, reflective, and effective, this dissertation is

not a story of exceptional people. BTTC is not an unusual teachers’ college. In a

personal interview Tom Bourdillon (1999), the head of the Department of

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Teacher Education at the University of Zimbabwe responsible for evaluating all
national teachers’ colleges, identified other colleges he believed to be more
advanced than BTTC in terms of instituting the CDS.

Tensions between those promoting change and the structures that are
obstacles to change existed at BTTC. Like other bottom-up approaches, the
reform of the CDS required support and challenge among colleagues as much as
it did from administrators. Cooperation and trust were essential, and these
qualities existed at different levels at the college. The dialogue was complex;
and it would be false to portray a situation where all the members of the college
openly joineduin a common dialogue. For example, Mr. Chandauka visited each
section simply to ease tensions and open doors for more meaningful discussions.
Some lecturers simply opted out and chose not to engage in dialogue about the
CDS.

In the process of instituting action research as an approach to the CDS,
many lecturers shared ideas about research and participated in developing
college-wide expectations. By engaging in constructivist thinking activities,
several lecturers took the role of protagonist in listening to students and
discussing ways of improving the preparation and support of the research
project. It remains unknown how much the lecturers changed their
epistemological views from believing knowledge only comes from sources of
higher authorities to holding a more constructivist perspective. However, the

willingness of lecturers to discuss ideas and create solutions through dialogue

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suggests that, to some extent, they were willing to view themselves and their
colleagues as experts.

The CDS is not without its contradictions. As mentioned earlier, students’
role in the process of developing expectations was minimal. They were given a
difficult task of doing the CDS. While engaging in the complex assignment of
teaching practice, they were required to construct and carryout a research project
with no previous experience. Many lecturers indicated that they were not clear
about “what is the CDS.” Lecturers worked collaboratively and engaged in
dialogue to create deeper understandings of research and the CDS. On the
other hand, students were often left to their own devices to figure out what they
had to do. Without support, the CDS-guide was no different from other
references that purport to tell students how research should be done. Identifying
ways to have students more involved in the dialogue is vital for addressing these
contradictions. The environment can always be improved to be more conducive
in encouraging other stakeholders to have a voice in the dialogue. Thus, the
question of how to address the student/lecturer power relations in order to make
conditions more favorable for effective teaching and Ieaming needs to be a
continuous part of the dialogue.

The questions for chapter five:

Assuming the premise: Students will take advantage of the opportunity to

engage in dialogue about their work. To what extent do individual

students engage in dialogue and critical thinking regarding their action

research on teaching and Ieaming in their classrooms?

What issues concerning the context and conditions of students’ teaching

and Ieaming get addressed in this dialogue? What role do these issues
play in the larger dialogue of education reform? That is, how does the

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micro-level dialogue of students engaging in the CDS at BTTC reflect or
impact on the macro-level dialogue at the national level?

The CDS was one of the few assignments that required students to create
their own solutions. Their success was on many different levels. For example,
Patience and Tobias were able to organize a research project and submit a
report. Neither one identified ways their teaching had changed due to engaging
in action research. While both were willing to discuss their teaching and
research, they did not demonstrate an openness to critically examine their
teaching practices. Tobias was determined to compare models to charts when
he already believed that models were more effective. Questioning him on the
value of such research on his teaching did not change his approach. Patience
was more savvy in engaging in discussions, yet after the process, she reported
not having learned anything new and not changing her teaching practice. While
it would appear that these two students did not benefit from dialoguing about
action research, there are possible benefits that they may have obtained. This
may have been the first time these student teachers were supported and
challenged to think critically about their own practice. While the dialogue may not
have borne fruit in terms of critical reflection at that point in time, my hope is that
these teachers will be supported and challenged to engage in reflection of their
teaching practice through ongoing dialogue.

Prior to teaching practice, Grace had been prepared to think deeply about
her research project and engage in critical reflection on how it influenced her
practice. She was posing questions to herself. She wanted to know how a pupil

could miss nearly all the questions on a multiple-choice test. Rather than

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grasping at the easiest answer, she thought deeply about the role of language in
thinking and knowing. She discovered that English was used for getting the
“right answers” without questioning and Chi-Shona was used for discussing and
thinking. She came to this realization through dialogue — partly an intemal one
and partly with others supporting and challenging her.

Auther, the most receptive to the dialect process, understood the
relationship between doing the CDS and critical reflection on his practice.
Through a dialectical process, he articulated that he Ieamed that through
experimenting and listening to pupils, he could solve most classroom problems.
He had Ieamed to be the protagonist in the classroom.

Some lecturers reported dialoguing with students regarding the CDS. At
the same time, most students indicated the value of having such discussions.
Many students showed a genuine desire to have someone help them identify
problem areas and give direction for improvements. The most common
complaint students had regarding their supervision was related to lecturers not
spending enough time in meaningful discussions with them.

The message from the students is unambiguous; they want to be more
actively engaged in dialogue regarding the CDS. If they did have a more active
role in the dialogue, then there could be a more critical reflection regarding the
context and conditions of the students’ Ieaming. For the CDS to become more
effective, the supervision should focus on how to better listen to students and

engage them in dialogue. Increasing the role of the students’ perspective will

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compel the negotiated dialogue to address the issues most pertinent to the
students’ experiences.

The questions for chapter six:

Assumption: The dialogue is to begin with the current perspectives and

realities of the lecturers at the college. What is the tension between

supporting a variance of perspectives and promoting some over others
that are more conducive to a dialogue? What is the role of advocates
from one perspective trying to convert those from another perspective?

Are all perspectives equally legitimate as long as they have supporters?

Who else needs to be included to make the dialogue more meaningful in

terms of promoting effective change? What should be the role of

students, of university professors, of central administration, of politicians in
this dialogue?

Because the dialogue is still in infancy, the focus should be on expansion
in regards to how to make action research a meaningful part of supporting and
challenging students to critically reflect on their practice. Including various
perspectives means that the dialogue will become more complex, and more
negotiation will be required. Tensions will increase. However, the dialogue will
be more capable of addressing issues in ways that work for more of those
involved. As discussed earlier, democracy requires having faith that people will
think deeply and support the views that are productive for all involved. Attempts
to marginalize any particular perspectives runs contradictory to the concept of
having a dialogue.

In the current national context, progressive groups have the added
responsibility of incorporating views of those whose voices’ have been silenced.

If the opposition is to provide a libratory alternative to the present regime,

different perspectives need to be negotiated in an open dialogue. There is a

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need for a new culture that demands responsiveness and accountability of self
and others, as well as a commitment to work together for a better future for all.

In his 1994 Planning for Education Systems class at Harvard Graduate
School of Education, Noel McGinn argued that it is easier for different groups to
agree on a vision than it is for them to agree on more immediate issues on the
ground. Once the vision is agreed upon, then it is possible to gain consensus as
to what structures are needed. In terms of action research and teacher
education, it is possible for all stakeholders to agree on a vision of
effective\reflective teaching and Ieaming. This dialogue can take place at the
college and\or the national level.

As long as the dialogue takes place, visions for effective and reflective
teaching and Ieaming will evolve to address the context of Zimbabwe. Dealing
with tensions from the perspectives of various stakeholders is what gives value to
the dialogue. Sharing ideas, finding commonalities, and understanding
differences lay a foundation for different groups to work together to address
substantial pedagogical issues. Through this process, individuals from each
perspective are challenged to reflect on and articulate the essential elements of
their agenda. As a result, individuals engaging in dialogue gain a deeper
understanding of other perspectives as well as their own, and chances of any
one perspective becoming dominant and distorted are minimized.

The questions posed in chapters two through six do not elicit easy
answers. If the dialectic process continues, some of the answers will evolve from

a process of addressing substantive pedagogical issues. While other questions

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will become irrelevant and continue to be unanswered, more important questions
will arise. If the dialectic process does not continue to develop, then the
questions will lose their value.

The Complexity of Dialogue

The dialogue at BTTC embraced a difference of perspectives from within
the college. However, the impact of this dialogue did not expand beyond the
boundaries of the campus. As discussed in chapter two, those involved in the
national debate were preoccupied with nation building. I am not suggesting that
liberation ideology had to be the dominant perspective for the dialogue of the
CDS to reach the radar screen of the national debate. Rather, there needed to
be a balance of perspectives (liberation ideology, free market, nation building,
and globalization) for the debate to focus on substantial pedagogical issues. Had
the national debate focused on such issues, there would have been a greater
relationship between the dialogue on the micro level (at BTTC) and on the macro
level (the nation).

The message of the BTTC dialogue is symbolized in Tom Bourdillon’s
quote from chapter four. “Deal with the problematic. And don’t imagine that the
solution you come across is going to be a permanent solution. It’s a modus
operandi that you continually try to improve.” By encouraging different
perspectives in the dialogue, B'l'l'C lecturers were able to make significant steps
in addressing issues of the CDS. The current solutions will need to be re-visited,
re-debated, and re-negotiated. As long as this dialogue is the “modus operandi,”

lecturers will be able to address the issues of the day.

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The national context was not conducive for this particular education
reform, as noted in chapter two. Rarely, if ever has the national debate on
education revolved around the substantial pedagogical issues. The reality is that
on the national level, those holding different perspectives have not been
encouraged to join in dialogue. As a result, institutions such as BTTC need to
organize their dialogue in spite of the larger context. Most of the time, BTTC had
the space to promote the CDS dialogue, but at times, outside factors complicated
the process. Police forcing students to remain on campus; the Ministry of Higher
Education and Technology eliminating English and Developmental Studies; and
the government reducing subsidies to students are some of the realities that the
college had to address while trying to negotiate what is the CDS and how it
should be supported. -

Rarely has a liberation ideology been promoted wholeheartedly by the
state. While the rhetoric was used during the liberation struggle, the agenda of '
this perspective has had a minimal role in the national debate. In this
dissertation, I have argued that it should have a role in the dialogue — not
necessarily as the lead but as an active participant. As discussed, the reforms
described do primarily take a liberation ideological perspective. It is through such
reforms that the perspective will be brought to the floor.

While the dialectic process has many benefits, it is complex, messy and
slow. At one level, debating (or arguing), ideas and information get presented,
but the understandings usually go no further. In the model below, side A

presents a case and side B presents another case. There is no direct need for

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either side to listen to the other, and one will finally win out, usually due to issues

revolving around power.

 

Figure 7.1 - Model of Debating Ideas

At another level, the two perspectives share ideas. lnforrnation and ideas

 

 

 

go back and forth to each side. Each side listens to the other, yet there is no
need to do anything with what they have understood. The model below shows

the sharing of ideas and information.

 

 

 

Figure 7.2 — Model of Sharing Ideas
07—.

The third and final model shows dialoguing as a way of sharing ideas and

 

information in attempts to build new ones. Responses are not only directed
towards the original perspectives but also to the new ideas. Both sides A and B
create new ideas together, and new ideas generate more ideas. At some point
an overlap of ideas and their agendas takes place, which creates a basis for

which action could take place.

 

Figure 7.3 — Model of Dialoguing

 

 

 

 

Finding areas of common
interests in which to take action

 

 

 

 

Building new ideas off each other

 

 

 

 

Sharing ideas

 

 

 

 

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The purpose of showing this model of dialogue is to show how complex
the process becomes. Not only is a person talking with another person sharing
ideas back and forth, but also one person’s ideas respond to the other person’s
ideas. The ideas are no longer a result of an individual’s thinking but the dialectic
result of people building ideas off of other ideas. It is possible to see how quickly
this relationship becomes more complex over time and with more perspectives
involved.

I am not suggesting that with more dialogue different perspectives would
or should develop into a single common one. As discussed earlier, I believe that
it is healthy for tensions to exist. I do believe that commonalties and differences
should exist at the same time to maintain a healthy tension between various
perspectives. Common interests are necessary in order to have consensus for
taking action, and the differences will ensure that no one interest is allowed to
become dominant and distorted.

Also indicated in the model is that the dialogue begins with individuals
sharing their ideas and knowledge; that is, it grows from where the individuals
are. A dialogue cannot be forced to take a particular direction. Just because I
wanted a particular kind of critical pedagogy to be discussed, does not mean that
I could have coerced it. A dialogue is like a dance with many partners and all of
them are trying to lead. The contexts (the college and national level) constitute
the many layers of the music. In the process, many toes get stepped on and it
gets messy, but at some point a rhythm gets going and something happens. It is

different every time, but it would not happen if they stayed in their seats.

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What Does This Mean?

Commonly, reforms are introduced by Western institution or handed down
through one of the ministries of education. Some of these reforms are effective
and some are not, neither being the focus of this dissertation. Rather, I am
advocating for an alternative to that approach, one that is democratic. In chapter
three I argued that if Zimbabwe is to develop teacher education programs that
will address the needs of the nation and reflect the liberation ideals, then
democratic reforms in teacher education must be supported.

Amy Gutmann (1987) has argued that democracy requires two major
principles: nonrepression and nondiscrimination. The idea is that an open
deliberation is to be encouraged, and everyone should be included in the
process. However the terms she uses are too passive for the pursuit of
democracy. A lack of repression and a lack of discrimination do not necessitate
meaningful, active participation.

I have been advocating dialogue as a tool of reform for Zimbabwean
education throughout this dissertation. Dialogue is a tool of democracy, and it
requires active involvement in terms of commitment, taking risk, sharing ideas,
and negotiating.

Mark Twain (1883) compares a river to democracy in his novel Life on the
Mississippi. Both are continually changing and require negotiating perpetual
forces. In this dissertation, l have not attempted to map out a course for that
river of democratic education in Zimbabwe. Rather, I am proposing that

engaging on such a journey is in the interest of those involved and of the nation.

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Democracy means many things and operates on many levels. I am using the
term of democratic processes to mean the promotion of more stakeholders’
voices in a discourse of the substantive issues of the day.

It is easier for international organizations and governments to impose
reforms than to get their hands dirty with the hard work of getting involved in a
democratic change on the ground, that would be to risk having their toes stepped
upon. However, there is great value in promoting such reforms. Through a more
dialectic approach, stakeholders are forced to address the complexities of the
issues. It is dealing with the complexities that leads to a deeper examination of
the core issues. Each group is‘ challenged to better understand the perspectives
of others involved and question the ideals of their own; thus, issues are
examined through many lenses. Through the dialectic process, ideas and ways
of thinking are shared, and new possibilities are discovered.

The change may be slow, it may be muddled, but it can have a strong
impact. Supporting and challenging one to be the protagonist in one’s own life
while collaborating with others is the goal. Ideally, through a dialogic process,
people take control of their own lives by being involved in the process of
improvement for all, and they gain better understandings of others.

The constructivist reform at Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College
provides an example of what a democratic reform looks like on the ground and
the dialogue that resulted. Rather than having someone else explain what the
reform is about and what it is supposed to do, those at the college decided those

issues. As a result, meaningful discussions developed regarding the relationship

276

of the reform to the ideals of teaching and Ieaming, thus leading to the
substantive pedagogical issues of the day. Also, those involved have a
responsibility to model the change they expect. As was the case with the CDS,
lecturers who promoted the idea that research should be a process of deep
thinking, had a challenge to engage in thoughtful dialogue with their students as
well as other lecturers regarding the CDS.

This reform at BTTC was constructivist because it was the lecturers (and
also should have been students) who determined what the CDS research project
would be, how ideas of action research are applicable to it, and how the dialogue
would ensue. Because the dialogue was inclusive and lecturers were willing to
collaborate, the college was more prepared to address the key issues it faced.
This reform is a model showing that a democratic process may get murky, but it
is a way to involve those on the ground for positive change. If teachers are to be
treated and expected to act as professionals and if students are to be respected
and have their ideas valued, then democratic reforms need to be more used as a
tool for addressing the needs of the nation.

Other Zimbabwean teacher education institutions could benefit from
Belvedere’s model of reform. In the current political-economic situation, many
people feel powerless in being able to make significant improvements in teaching
and Ieaming in the country, let alone in their own lives. Action research and
other democratic reforms on the ground show that the change does not have to
begin on a large level. The modest changes in how the lecturers address the

CDS and research in general, has fueled larger changes in the college; that is, a

277

spirit of collaboration and dialogue to develop new ideas. In The Fifth Discipline,
Peter Senge (1990) argues that if one had a lever big enough, s/he could lift the
world. The point being, many of the most significant transformations in the world
have been brought on by important but relatively minor changes. The changes at
BTTC in terms of the CDS began with lecturers talking and listening to each
other.

As discussed in chapter three, there are three levels to engage in action
research - technical, structural, and political — and the boundaries of each are
blurred. A technical topic can easily expand to address structural and political
concerns. A teacher-researcher needs to begin somewhere in the process. The
starting point is not as important as the journey taken.

Developing a culture of constructing ideas and of negotiating communal
standards through dialogue is a part of what Paulo Freire (1970) refers to as-
naming the world to be able to change it. For instance, lecturers at Belvedere
Technical Teachers’ College did not rely on the “experts” to tell them what the
CDS is or should be. That was a dialogue that challenged previously conceived
notions of what is appropriate research for student teachers. Describing the
research that lecturers wanted from the students was the first step in making that
standard of research the norm for the college.

Rather than viewing the act of creating knowledge as a process done from
“above”, teacher education institutions could model the process for their students
who will become the nation’s teachers. The hierarchical education system that

Zimbabwe inherited from its colonial past remains with the challenge of preparing

278

its students to be active, constructivist thinkers. Perhaps the current government
is not prepared to tolerate critical thinkers who identify the political implications of
daily life on the larger national power structure. Even so, the need for individuals
who are constructive thinkers, that is, able to develop personal ideas and
independent ways of thinking, is important in addressing the needs of the
country.

I am not suggesting that the critical thinking aspect is not important for the
nation. Sub-Sahara Africa remains the slowest developing region in the world in
spite of having many natural resources. There are many explanations for this,
one of which relates to the region’s power relationship with the rest of the world.
In terms of political, economic, and cultural influence in world affairs, Sub-
Saharan Africa has had marginal influence. Promoting constructivist and critical
thinking throughout the population, will assistthe citizenry to a) identify
oppressive relationships (internally and externally) and b) be able to create new
relations that are more beneficial to a wider population.

Promoting action research at Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College was
an important step in developing a dialogue of constructivist thinking. Successful
dialogues do not end; they continually evolve. The direction of the one at BTTC
depends on those who are included, the social/political/economic issues of the
day, and the level of commitment. If those involved continue to be committed to
examining the vital issues of the day, the dialogue will continue to be a tool in

negotiating the ideals and complexities that will address those issues.

279

The Way Forward

I have minimized my role as an action researcher in this dissertation. As a
collaborative research endeavor it has been difficult to distinguish my
contributions from others’ involved. To do so is contrary to the spirit of
collaboration and community. Throughout this dissertation, I have
conscientiously tried to provide a balance and comprehensive perspective of
participants’lstakeholders’ voices. However, there have been elements of my
role as insider/outsider that have assisted in the changes at BTTC. By
associating myself with BTTC and not the University of Zimbabwe or the Ministry
of Higher Education and Technology, I was accepted as a fellow lecturer. Three
and a half years of working, planning, and socializing with lecturers at the college
has led to my understanding of what it means to be an insider at BTTC. On the
other hand, I was the only non-Zimbabwean in the Professional Studies section,
and having knowledge and experience with action research distinguished me
from the others. In other situations, this knowledge could have been used to
make me the “expert” who determines which ideas are valid and which ones are
not. However, action research mitigates such a role. Because action research
values the voices of those involved on the ground and because ideas are
constructed through interaction with others, no one person plays the role of
expert. The ideal of action research is that everyone involved becomes an
expert in one way or another.

Within this context, my role took two forms — a facilitator and an advocate.

In the former role, I played the “peace-maker.” Prior to my arrival, lecturers from

280

various sections were openly hostile to the idea of being subservient to the PS
section by being required to supervise CDS projects and then submitting marks
to PS. While visiting sections and listening to lecturers’ concerns, I stressed that
the CDS project was a collaborative effort of all members of the college. It did
not belong to PS any more than it belonged to the individual supervisor. It
belonged with the student, and we all were working together to support and
challenge all students to become effective and reflective teachers.

In workshops, I contributed to a focus on building a common vision of
good research. This approach was to encourage dialogue rather than to
distinguish between those who had knowledge of particular research methods
and those who did not. Throughout my stay- at BTTC, various group discussions
focused on related issues such as: what is expected of students doing their CDS
projects, what are elements of a good CDS project, what makes a decent topic,
and how best to support students. While I did share my ideas on the issues in
these discussions, I tried to promote a dialogue that reflected the views of those
involved. It mattered little what I thought was the most appropriate way forward.
The lecturers were the ones supporting, challenging, and evaluating the students
doing their CDS. And they would continue doing so after I left. In a rare case of
voiced persistence, I argued for a policy of requiring students to have a proposal
completed prior to leaving the college for teaching practice. While I believed that
it was important for students to have a clear picture of how they planned to

approach their research, I was happy to see that the majority of lectures

281

disagreed with me. They argued that students needed to engage in participation-
observations in the context prior to identifying a topic.

In my role as facilitator, I also shared data that I collected from the
students and lecturers. In a sense, I became a “knowledge broker" bringing
information I collected from my survey research about students' concerns, hopes,
and expectations to lecturers, and vice-versa. Rather than attempting to use the
data to make judgments, my purpose of sharing it was to create a starting point
for discussions. “Are these genuine concerns?” was my opening question. Most
often lecturers would quickly agree with the students’ issues and move to a
discussion of why this was the case and what we could do about it.

I also was an advocate. While every lecturer at the college had some
involvement with the CDS, I was the only person who promoted the CDS as my
primary focus. The Iecturer—in-charge for PS had many other responsibilities. It
was not feasible for that person also to organize workshops, edit the CDS Guide,
and collect and present data, as well as perform the rest of his/her duties. It was
a collective effort by a cadre of leaders that these things got done, but I provided
continual encouragement. By promoting in the above-mentioned activities, I was
advocating for the importance of the CDS as the center of a dialogue at the
college.

The dialogue regarding the substantive pedagogical issues of the CDS
has been established. Action research is a continuous process and it is my hope
that it will continue to flourish without my personal involvement. For that to

happen, more supports and challenges need to be addressed and be put in place

282

in order to institute changes taking place. Five possible strategies in support of
this process include:

- producing the next edition of the CDS guide

- establishing a research support group for lecturers

- institutionalizing workshops on research throughout the college

- producing a journal for lecturers’, teachers’ and students’ research

- creating working labs for students engaging in action research.

The second edition of the CDS guide was developed in 2003, three years
after the first one. The changes were minor in the sense of the content. More
examples were included as were more explanations of how to do specific
research activities. The value of the second edition is that it signified that the
process of thinking about and improving the CDS is continual. As a living
document, my hope is that a third edition will be produced in the near future.
With the mindset that there will always be a next edition, BTTC lecturers will read
and use the current edition with a critical eye for improvement. Also, working
collaboratively in making contributions and reviewing the guide creates a forum
for meaningful dialogue and action.

Throughout my work at BTI'C, many lecturers have indicated interest in
engaging in research. Many have been conducting research projects through
local and long-distance universities. A research support group of lecturers who
share experiences, insights, and obstacles could go a long way in promoting a
community of inquiry, which I have Ieamed is critical for perpetuating reform.
The group could elicit support and technical knowledge from local universities

when needed. The establishment of such a group requires facilities and

incentives. For example, lecturers need to be able to use a computer to print

283

their data to share with the group. In terms of incentives, more opportunities of
further education and publication need to be available.

As mentioned in chapter six, the CDS workshops were a forum for
dialogue, negotiation, and constructivist thinking. There is a need for workshops
to be institutionalized so they are conducted at least once a year. They require
much time, effort, and resources to organize. Supports need to be more readily
available for the organizers.

As a researcher in Zimbabwe, I had attempted to publish articles in the
two local educational journals. Upon submission, the process took several years
for publication. Both journals are located at the University of Zimbabwe. I
believe that BTTC could produce an educational journal that reflected
practitioners’ deep thinking about pedagogical issues and their attempts to make
improvements. The journal would expand the dialogue of action research in
Zimbabwe by inviting lecturers, teachers, and students to contribute. Again, such
an endeavor requires much support and resources. Lecturers are already
overloaded with duties and under-supported. Establishing and editing a journal
requires a full-time position, and someone capable would need to be recruited.

Supports for students are also necessary. Other than those in computer
studies section, students do not have access to computers to work on their
research. Also, there is no resource center where students can go for
assistance. A lab for students would help change the perception of students
feeling like they are left to their own devises to sink or swim in doing their CDS

research project.

284

As discussed earlier, action research promotes a democratic process. By
democratic, I mean that it attempts to bring in voices of various stakeholders into
the discourse. However, the context of the Zimbabwean education system is
hierarchical. Many colonial power structures remain in place, such as the rigid
adherence to the O’ and A’ level exam system and the many oversight bodies
responsible for external assessments. Within this power structure, democratic
processes can be co-opted. Examples include government forces and ruling
party supporters intimidating voters and opposition party supporters, as well as
threatening, kidnapping, and beating students and teachers because they are
presumed to be critical of the Mugabe regime.

Even in this oppressive, national context, there were countervailing forces
that challenge the hierarchy of power. Lecturers were willing to share ideas and
admit lack of knowledge in particular areas. Auther posed questions and valued
pupils’ voices with minimal support from his mentor. And Patience was able to
critically examine the schooling structure as unsupportive of progressive teaching
methods.

Action research and its discourse can contribute to challenging the
prevailing structures. As discussed in chapter three, there are three levels in
which to engage in action research — technical, structural, and political. The first
level examines a specific element in ones teaching and Ieaming. While teaching
is not a technical craft, there is much technical knowledge needed. It was on this
level that most of the BTTC students engaged in action research. The second

level addresses the structure of teaching and learning. Students at the college

285

indicated a desire for their classroom to be more “pupil-centered” and
“interactive”. At the third level, teachers make connections between the teaching
and Ieaming in their classroom with the larger socio-political context. Ideally, the
research would transcend these levels. The technical aspects of one’s teaching
should challenge the structure of the classroom. For example, how a teacher
poses questions to pupils could be a springboard into transforming the role of
pupils’ voices in the classroom. While the critical/political element was
nonexistent in my research, I do think it could be a vital link in challenging power
structures.

The city of Harare is brimming with people who are critical of the President
and the ruling party; however, that examination could be directed to the
structures on the micro-level. Blaming all problems — economic, political, social,
and educational — on Robert Mugabe neglects the complexity of power relations.
A teacher's examination of his/her role in the larger power structure context is a
first step in being able to transform those structures. Auther valuing pupils’
voices in his teaching and Ieaming was an important step in challenging
oppressive structures in his classroom that attempted to silence pupils. And
through a dialect process with students and colleagues, Auther became more
prepared to address the complexities of the issues in his classroom, many of
which will be political in nature.

This process of developing a negotiated dialogue was rewarding,
insightful, and fun; however, it was also a struggle. I have come to understand at

a deeper level that struggle is a necessary element in the teaching/Ieaming

286

process. The struggles existed on many levels - logistical/technical, structural,
and political. In terms of logistics, the economic crisis of the nation made
arranging meetings, making photocopies, and acquiring chalk a challenge.
People spent much energy on daily survival concerns. For example, collecting a
paycheck from the bank required standing in several queues over many hours
and/or days. Often Iecturers’ spirits would be so dejected that discussing the
CDS would be far in the recesses of their minds. On the structural level,
lecturers had to struggle to find ways of transforming “lectures” into meaningful
interactions with classes of as many as one hundred students. Reorganizing the
CDS so that students took ownership of the process was a goal on the political
level. Rather than accepting a hierarchy of knowledge, power to determine what
is a good topic, appropriate research methods, and how to share findings was to
be shared with the students. The supervisors who lacked the technical
knowledge of conducting research were often resistant to share such power with
the students. In the and, students received a mixed message about the power
issues related to the CDS.

However, the struggle to produce critically reflective teachers also took
place on an intellectual level. Changing perceptions of how research should be
done required an open mind and a dialectic process that included various
perspectives. I have learned that there is no one right way, but there are
processes of posing questions, listening, thinking, trying, reflecting, discussing,

and sharing that leads to a deeper understanding. This dialectic process does

287

involve much struggle, energy, and thought — which are essential to improving
teaching and Ieaming.

Action research is not the only reform that promotes this progressive
agenda. However, it has gained momentum on a global scale as a way of
addressing complexities of teaching and learning on the ground. I hope that the
in-depth descriptions of action research at Belvedere Technical Teachers’
College in Zimbabwe has contributed to the knowledge base, national, and
international discourse of how to make teaching and Ieaming more meaningful.

In spite of a national context of repression of divergent ideas, BTTC was
able to develop a dialogue of substantial pedagogical issues. Parallel to the
teacher in the classroom, it is important that the B'l'l'C community critically
examines its practice in terms of its role bf challenging and perpetuating political
relationships on the micro level: By promoting ideals of action research, lecturers
are challenging traditional normsof hierarchy of power that are exploited by the
ruling parting. Dialoguing, questioning and critically examining realities are tools
necessary to put dictators in check. With the absence of a national dialogue
regarding substantive pedagogical issues, it is up to teacher colleges like

Belvedere to take the lead in promoting such a discourse.

288

Bibliography

Brown, R, Halsey, A., Lauder, H., and A. Wells. (1997) “The Transformation of
Education and Society: An Introduction.” In Brown, R, Halsey, A., Lauder, H.,
and A. Wells (eds.) Education, Culture, Economy, and Society. New York:
Oxford University Press. pp. 1-44.

Bourdillon, Tom. (1999, October 25) Personal Interview. Harare: University of
Zimbabwe, DTE.

Friere, Paulo. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.

Gutmann, Amy. (1987) Democratic Education. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press.

Senge, Peter. (1990) The Fifth Discipline: the art and practice of the Ieaming
organization. New York : Doubleday.

Twain, Mark. (1883) Life .on the Mississippi. Boston: J. R. Osgood.

289

APPENDIX A

Model Topics Developed by Subject Area Sections

 

 

 

problem

0 Which aspect of the
problem is indicative of

the larger picture)

 

 

 

_T“ step - start 2mI step - focus the issue to 3fistep - identify 47'r step 5rstep -
with an issue a specific problem possible ways to - possible
(based onlor (theorize/make hypothesis address problem and possible theories
related to a regarding narrow to one or two research to come
real problem) . Why the problem exists (What can the teacher approac out of

. What is the crux of the d0?) “95* research’

 

“Then the student teacher is to investigate how effective the technique is and how to make it

more effective.

' Student develops own ideas such as: why it worked (or didn’t work) with this particular group,
when it should work and why, when it most likely won’t work and why?

 

#37 — “Pupils
having
difficulties in
visualizing /
thinking
abstract"

(This is a real
problem but still
vague)

solqdeis Ieoruuoel

Pupils not understanding

the relationship between 3

dimensional and 2

dimensional presentations

of drawings

(To make the problem
more focused)

There is a need to
compare and
investigate the problem,
e.g., are there
differences in learning
concepts in 2 and 3

Use learning aids

(This solution is vague)
Using real objects, i.e.,
having pupils make a
model and then draw the
model

 

 

students use this
topic — it is too
general/broad)

 

 

parents

(Many reasons why —
need to narrow)

 

dimensions?
2 #52 - “Poor Time/teacher/exposure/ba Highlight concept with
8 performance in ckground/too fieldtrips in industry;
a. Woodwork abstract/group construct a project that
;l theory" ignored/lack of textbooks/ focuses on theory aspect;
3. (Too many attitudes of students and more emphasis on the

introduction of the
concept; more time for
preparation

 

 

 

290

 

 

 

and there is a
real problem of

1, #149 - Looking at ratios of - Revisit basic math skills
36 “Problems in fertilizer for a set area - Liaise with math
In calculating math department to team
problems” teach
(The problem is - Students paired to
real, but needs discuss/work out math
to be focused) problems
- Give more time to work
solutions
- Make real -
problematize a
practical problem, e.g.
students determine
amount of fertilizer for
own plot
0 #281 — “Ways of Students not adhering to Pupils wrote their own (Theory)
3 instilling the rules regulations with students
a discipline in the (How is discipline a discussions and put them ownership
§ computer lab” problem?) into reality of rules.
3, (It's good
3 because it is
g,- appropriate for
8 the age group

 

 

schools have

pupils playing
around)
#251 — “Group Students are not a) monitor time and group
work” effectively sharing on computers, b) different
(Shortage of computers teaching approach, i.e.
computers is a (Why is group work a discovery, c) organize
real problem) problem?) groups with specific tasks
and specific roles for each
member.
(How to make group work
more effective)
I #288 — Way of thinking/attitudes Demonstration with
9. “Integration of need to change traditional equipment,
2 modern and compare results,
3 traditional (Why traditional discussion of advantages
3 equipment in equipment not used) and disadvantages, focus
3 schools” on the skills of cooking.
a (This is a real In schools that do not
5 problem - some have any equipment,

students could make

 

 

 

confuse the stitches

 

(Why the problem exists)

traditional tradition equipment, e.g.
equipment but it Dutch oven, iron pots in
is not used) fire pits
o #49 — “Problems Making a handiwork Have students use thick
5‘; faced in button hole requires a fabric/thread/material (e.g.
g3 handiworked particular skill, i.e. button wool) or different color
[9 button holes” hole stitch versus blanket threads to Ieam the knot
2 (A good problem stitch - a certain loop/knot
g - it is focused) is required and student

 

 

 

 

291

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

tn #40 - a) time being wasted - A) Organize preparation,
g “Management of Time too short delegate responsibility
2 practical b) skills not mastered B) Practice on several
5 lessons” (A particular skill) walls, students do own
3 (Too general) plumbing/ walls not up assessment/marking
3, right — (reasons) 1) tools own and justify,
need servicing or 2) lack emphasize skill with
of skills reading demonstration
instruments.
(What is the problem)
3 #51 - “How best Students find it difficult to Students produce models
3 learners can be understand/interpret 2 out of paper, teacher
h, assisted in dimensional into 3 shows original object/has
lg coping up with dimensional objects pupils sketch it/and then
5' illustrative (real problem) make the object from the
8 graphic sketch
3° communication” (conversion/projection).
'9 (It is not a
problem)
0 Pupils have Pupils having difficulties Have pupils construct a 3
3 troubles with distinguishing between dimensional map that
to contour maps real life and two show the change in
5 dimensional in terms of elevation
E contour lines, e.g.
confusing spur and valley.

 

292

 

 

 

APPENDIX 8

Dialogue Report on CD8 Progress Form and Description
Dialogue Report on CDS Progress
During Teaching Practice
Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College

 

 

 

 

 

 

Student CDS Personal Tutor

School Section/Year Date
Subject Class being researched
Topic

 

Description of Progress to Date

 

 

 

Nature of Difficulties

 

 

 

Nature of Assistance Needed

 

 

Suggestions Agreed Upon

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Further Remarks
Wm tummy

 

Indicate Student’s Progress (tick the appropriate box)
0 Student is meeting all expectations and research is Progressing well
0 Student is meeting most expectations and research is on track
0 Student has begun the research but needs to proceed with more diligence
o Student’s work thus far is inadequate

(Use the back if additional space is needed)

293

Dialogue Report on CDS Progress
During Teaching Practice
Belvedere Technical Teachers’ College

Directions: While the visiting tutor and the student dialogues about CDS Progress, the
tutor/supervisor completes the form in duplicate. The students will remain with the
original. The copy is to be returned to the Teaching Practice Office where it will be given
to the student’s personal tutor for CDS. A Dialogue Report is completed each time a
student is supervised during teaching practice.

Use the back of the form, if there is not enough space for comments.

The tutor is not to impose his/her views on the students. The CDS research project belongs to
the student — not the tutor. If the student can justify what s/he is doing, s/he should be
encouraged to follow suit. If the tutor does not believe that the student’s research is
reasonable, s/he should make a follow-up meeting with the student’s CDS Personal Tutor to
inform him/her of the concern.

Description of Key Issues:

Description of Progress to Date: The student is to describe how far s/he has gotten with the
research, i.e. what s/he has done and attempted to do thus far.

Nature of Difficulties: The student is to discuss problems they have come across - what
they are, how they dealt with them, how they are thinking of addressing them, etc.

Nature of Assistance Needed: Discussing together, the student and tutor figure out what
assistance/help the student needs. The tutor should not feel as though s/he has to have
all the answers for the student. Identifying what help the student needs and how to get it
would be more useful.

Suggestions Agreed Upon: Through dialogue, the student and tutor should agree on ways
forward for the research to progress. If major changes are needed for the research, it is
appropriate to suggest that the student has a face-to-face dialogue with his/her personal .
tutor.

Further Remarks: Any additional comments the tutor or the student wishes to make.

Rationale: The purpose of this endeavor is to promote dialogue between the student and visiting
tutor/supervisor. Thus, the priority is on assisting the students — supporting and
challenging them to think deeply about their research and to move fonlvard. This is not
an evaluating or assessment exercise.

In the past students have indicated that no one enquired as to their progress in
conducting research in general (including furthering developing a topic, collecting data,
and beginning the analysis and write-up) during teaching practice. As a result, several
students returned to college without data collected and some without a research
question. The Dialogue Report is to challenge and support students to engage in
research practices from the beginning and throughout teaching practice and to identify
possible problems early enough to be rectified effectively.

The CDS is a college-wide assignment that involves all sections. The goal for the CDS
is for students to think deeply about the teaching and learning that is happening in their
classrooms. The research should be seen as a tool in assisting students in becoming
effective teachers, i.e. developing their ability to reflect on their practice. While students
are conducting their teaching practice, they are the responsibility of the whole college —
not one section or one supervisor. Even without knowledge of a particular content area,
visiting tutors/supervisors should be able to engage students in a dialogue about their
progress.

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