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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREE EXTRACURRICULAR
PROGRAMS ON THE PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF
EARLY ADOLESCENT GIRLS

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JENNIFER JO WALDRON

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREE EXTRACURRICULAR PROGRAMS ON THE
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY ADOLESCENT GIRLS
By

Jennifer Jo Waldron

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment Of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Kinesiology

2003

ABSTRACT
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREE EXTRACURRICULAR PROGRAMS ON THE
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY ADOLESCENT GIRLS
By

Jennifer Jo Waldron

Adolescence is a time of transition, which potentially leads to risks and liabilities,
including increased risk of tobacco, alcohol, and drug use, suicidal behaviors, and
disordered eating patterns. However, it is also an important time as youth begin to adopt
behaviors that have lifelong consequences. In order to help in this transition, it is
important that adolescents experience success, competence, and worth. The Model of
Competence Motivation (Harter, 1978) highlights how self—perceptions, such as
perceived competence and self-worth, develop and are influenced by both individual and
socialization factors. Sports are one arena where the development of competence can
occur through the learning of skills, accomplishing goals, and experiencing success. The
Girls on Track (GOT) program is a unique program for 6th, 7‘“, and 8"1 grade girls. It uses
training for a 5K as a means to teaching life skills. Therefore, the purpose of this study
was to examine the effectiveness of the GOT program using both quantitative and
qualitative methods in comparison to two groups with different purposes — competitive
soccer teams and the Girl Scouts. Some members of the GOT program also participated
in soccer. Thus, this combined activity group was added to the study. The first research
questions addressed the reasons participants gave forjoining the Girls on Track program.

The second question examined if participants in the Girls on Track program experienced

changes in perceived competence, self-esteem, and attraction to physical activity.
Exploratory analyses were conducted to examine differences in the dependent variables
among participants in the Girls on Track, a Sport program, and the Girl Scouts. Finally,
interview data were collected in order to address the question concerning the expeiiences
of the girls who participate in the three programs. At pre-test 135 girls and 98 girls at
post-test (Mage = 12.49 years, SD = 1.04) completed a demographic questionnaire, Self-
Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, 1988). Children’s Attraction to Physical
Activity (Brustad, 1993), and participation motives of Girls on Track questionnaires.
Nineteen of the participants were interviewed. Results showed that to have fun, liked
coaches, and liked to meet new friends were the top reasons girls joined Girls on Track.
Participants increased their perceived social, physical, and physical appearance
competence and their fun of physical exertion from pre- to post—season as hypothesized.
A series of ANCOVAS were conducted to determine differences among groups at post-
test after controlling for the pre-test level. Perceived physical appearance competence
was significant, F (3,91) = 3.04, p = .03, with post hoc tests showing Girls on Track
members having higher perceived physical appearance competence than the Girls on
Track plus soccer group. There were no differences among groups at post-test on the
other dependent variables. Interviews revealed that girls had positive experiences in their
respective programs and experienced positive peer and adult support. Furthermore,
interviewed girls discussed the gaining of interpersonal skills and positive feelings about
the self because of their involvement. The discussion focuses on the impact of program
involvement on the development of self-perceptions of early adolescent girls.

Implications for each of the three programs based on the results are also explored.

Copyright by
JENNIFER JO WALDRON
2003

For all the young girls who dare to challenge themselves.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My dissertation could not have been successfully completed without the help of
the administrators, parents, and participants of the Girls on Track program, soccer teams,
and the Girl Scouts. Their time and energy was greatly appreciated.

A thank you to Dr. Crystal Branta for getting me interested and associated with
the Girls on Track program.

To my friends and peers at Michigan State University, especially Peggy and
Kevin, for their constant support and encouragement. They were there with smiles,
laughs, and hugs when I needed it most.

Cheers to Sean who helped with the qualitative analysis of this study. I appreciate
all the time he spent with the interview transcripts and his insight was especially
valuable.

Much gratitude to Mary — she continually listened to my diatribes and allowed me
to stay at the townhouse when I was in Lansing . She also had the willingness to collect
completed surveys and deliver dissertation drafts to my committee. I could not have
completed the dissertation from Arizona without her help and support.

I am thankful of my committee members — Dr. Ewing, Dr. Feltz, Dr. Branta. and
Dr. Brophy. They challenged and encouraged me to create and complete a strong
research project and I am grateful for their helpful suggestions and enthusiasm
throughout the evolution of my dissertation

With great appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Marty Ewing. Her mentoring,

encouragement, and support have helped me to develop further my research and

vi

professional skills. I am especially thankful for the time and energy she devoted to
helping me complete my dissertation while I resided in Arizona. Her guidance and
knowledge have prepared me for my own future endeavors in academia.

To my parents and siblings in Minnesota. Their love and support was with me
throughout the process and will continue to sustain me as I enter the next phase of my
career. I am extremely grateful for their presence in my life.

Heartfelt gratitude to Brenda in her endless support of my goals and dreams.
Throughout this process she was called upon to keep the household running, collect data,
read drafts, provide constant support, and remind me to write with confidence. She did all

of this and more with a smile on her face, and for that I am blessed.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................ 12
Social Transitions ............................................................................... 14
Biological Transitions ........................................................................ 15
Cognitive Transitions ......................................................................... 17
Middle to Late Childhood ...................................................... 18
Early Adolescence ................................................................. 19
Middle Adolescence ............................................................... 19
Harter’s Model of Competence Motivation ....................................... 20
Development of Competence ........................................... ; ..... 23
Development of Self .............................................................. 25
Importance of Self-worth, Physical Appearance, and
Social Skills during Early Adolescence ............................................. 30
Role of Out-of-school Programs ........................................................ 33
Physical Activity and Sport Programs ............................................... 34
Girls on Track Program ..................................................................... 38
Purpose of Study ................................................................................ 41
CHAPTER 3
METHOD ...................................................................................................... 43
Participants ......................................................................................... 43
Girls on Track ........................................................................ 45
Girls on Track plus Soccer ..................................................... 46
Soccer ..................................................................................... 46
Girl Scouts ............................................................................. 46
Measures ............................................................................................ 46
Demographics ........................................................................ 46
Perceived Competence and Self-esteem ................................ 46
Attraction to Physical Activity ............................................... 47
Reasons for Joining Girls on Track ....................................... 48
Interview Guide ................................................................................. 49
Procedure ........................................................................................... 50
Girls on Track ........................................................................ 50
Soccer ..................................................................................... 51
Girl Scouts ............................................................................. 53

viii

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS ...................................................................................................... 55
Correlations of Dependent Variables 55
Participation Motives ........................................................................ 55
Changes in Self-perceptions of
Girls on Track Participants ................................................................ 63
Comparisons among the Girls on Track, Girls on
Track plus Soccer, Soccer, and Girl Scout Participants
on Dependent Variables .................................................................... 66
Experiences in the Program ............................................................... 74

Program Information ............................................................. 75
General Description of the Programs ........................ 76
Likes of the Programs ................................................ 79
Dislikes of the Programs ........................................... 80
Difficult Parts of the Programs and Learning
from the Difficulty ..................................................... 81
Teamwork .............................................................................. 82
Learning about Teamwork ........................................ 83
Ease of Working as a Team ....................................... 86
Difficulties Working as a Team ................................ 87
Coping with Difficulty .............................................. 88
Social Support ....................................................................... 89
Adult Social Support ................................................. 89
Peer Social Support ................................................... 92
Learning from Program ......................................................... 94
Learning about Goals ................................................ 97
Learning about the Body ........................................... 97
Learning about Self ................................................... 98
Most Important Thing Learned ................................. 99
Outcomes of the Program .................................................................. 100
Physical Activity Outcomes .................................................. 100
Physical Activity Improvement in the Programs ....... 101
Results of Being in the Programs .............................. 103
Motivation to Continue Physical Activity ................. 103
Personal Change .................................................................... 104
Changes in Decision Making .................................... 104
Changes in Social Skills ............................................ 106
Changes in Self .............. - ............................................ 108
Motivation to Continue ......................................................... l l 1
Summary ........................................................................................... 1 l3

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 1 15
Reasons for Joining Programs ........................................................... l 15
Outcomes of Participation in Girls on Track Program ...................... l 17

Perceived Interpersonal Competence .................................... l 17
Physical Self .......................................................................... 118
Self—worth .............................................................................. 121
Girls on Track Program in Comparison to Girls on Track
plus Soccer, Soccer, and Girl Scout Programs .................................. 123
Pre-season Differences .......................................................... 123
Post-season Differences ........................................................ 126
Harter’s Model of Competence Motivation ...................................... 131
Limitations of Study .......................................................................... 132
Sample Size ........................................................................... 133
Sample Bias ........................................................................... 135
Implementation of Program ................................................... 136
Diversity of Sample ............................................................... I36
Multiple Perspectives ............................................................ 136
Implications for the Programs ........................................................... 137
Girls on Track ........................................................................ 137
Soccer .................................................................................... 138
Girl Scouts ............................................................................. 139
Directions for Future Research .......................................................... 140

APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 143
Girls on Track Demographic Questionnaire ..................................... 143
Soccer Teams Demographic Questionnaire ...................................... 145
Girl Scouts Demographic Questionnaire ........................................... 147
Modified Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents ............................ 149
Modified Children’s Attraction to Physical Activity Scale ............... 152
Why did [join Girls on Track? ......................................................... 154
Interview Guide ................................................................................. 156
Approval from UCHRIS ................................................................... 160
Pre-test Instructions to Girls on Track Coaches ................................ 162
Parental Consent Form — Girls on Track ........................................... 163
Directions to Administer Survey (GOT) .......................................... 166
Post-test Instructions to Girls on Track Coaches .............................. 167
Parental Consent Form — Soccer Team ............................................. 168
Introductory Letter for Soccer at Post-test ........................................ 171
Letter from Director of Girl Scouts ................................................... 172
Parental Consent Form — Girl Scouts ................................................ 174
Introductory Letter for Girls Scouts at Post-test ................................ 177
Coded Quotes for General Program Information .............................. 178
Coded Quotes for Teamwork ............................................................ 192
Coded Quotes for Social Support of Program ................................... 205
Coded Quotes for Learning from Program ........................................ 216

Coded Quotes for Physical Activity Outcomes ................................. 229

Coded Quotes for Personal Changes 237
Coded Quotes for Motivation to Continue Program ......................... 251
REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 255

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Percentages of Weight, Height, and Menstrual Cycle

for Total Sample and by Grade ................................................................................. 44
Correlations of Pre-Season Dependent Variables ..................................................... 56
Correlations Of Post-Season Dependent Variables .................................................... 57
Intercorrelations of Pre- and Post-Season Dependent Variables ............................... 58
Participation Motives of Girls on Track Members .................................................... 59
Participation Motives of Girls on Track plus Soccer Group ..................................... 61

Pre- and Post-Season Means and Standard Deviations
of the Perceived Competence, Self-worth, and Attraction
to Physical Activity Scales for Girls on Track Group ............................................... 64

Summary Table of Paired T-tests for Changes in
Dependent Variables of Girls on Track Members ..................................................... 65

Pre- and Post-Season Means, Standard Deviations, and Internal Consistencies

of the Perceived Competence, Self-worth, and Attraction to

Physical Activity Scales by Group ............................................................................ 67
Analysis of Variance for Comparison of Pre-test Variables by Group ..................... 70
Covaried Post-Season Means and Standard Error of the

Perceived Competence, Self-worth, and Attraction to

Physical Activity Scales ............................................................................................ 72

Percentage and Number of Participants within Program
Information for the Complete Sample and Separated by Group ............................... 77

Percentage and Number of Participants within Teamwork for

the Complete Sample and Separated by Group ......................................................... 84

Percentage and Number of Participants within Social Support

for the Complete Sample and Separated by Group ................................................... 91

Percentage and Number of Participants within Program

Learning for the Complete Sample and Separated by Group .................................... 95
xii

 

Percentage and Number of Participants within Physical Activity
Outcomes for the Complete Sample and Separated by Group .................................. 102

Percentage and Number of Participants within Changes of Individual

for the Complete Sample and Separated by Group ................................................... 105

Percentage and Number of Participants within Motivation to Continue

Program for the Complete Sample and Separated by Group .................................... 112
xiii

 

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Throughout the Stage of adolescence (i.e., ages 11 to 18), great physical, social,
cognitive, and psychological transformations occur. Adolescents are no longer children
yet they have much to learn before they become adults. They are trying to negotiate
shifting relationships, entering middle or high school, and adapting to a mature, post-
pubertal body. Furthermore, they are confronted with trying to understand who they are
and how they fit into society, and trying to gain a positive identity. Through experiencing
achievement, success, and competence in different domains of life, it is likely that
adolescents will develop a positive identity in spite of the biological, cognitive, and social
transitions (Coopersmith, 1967).

Adolescence is a time of rapid growth and a series of linked biological changes.
For girls, the physical changes of adolescence cause them to increase naturally their body
fat, which moves them farther away from the cultural ideal body and the prepubescent
look (Phelps et al., 1993; Siegel, Yancey, Aneshensel, & Schuler, 1999; Taub & Blinde,
1992). The majority culture ideal body (i.e., thin, shapely, fit, and firm) is considered a
standard to be Obtained by many (Bordo, 1993). Because this ideal is difficult, if not
impossible, for most women and post-pubertal girls to attain, body dissatisfaction results
(O'Dea & Abraham, 1999a; Williams & Currie, 2000). Additionally, many girls consider
their physical attractiveness to be a very important component of who they are as a
person (Harter, 1997). Yet, girls are also more dissatisfied with their bodies, and this
discrepancy often affects self-esteem. Dealing with the biological changes of adolescence

is a challenge to many individuals.

The cognitive changes of adolescence allow an individual to understand the self in
a different manner. Adolescents are beginning to enter the cognitive stage of formal
Operational thought (Piaget, 1972), allowing for the construction of mental abstractions
(Harter, 1997). In terms of the developing self, these cognitive changes allow individuals
to make single abstractions, so that the trait-labels used to describe the self can be placed
into hi gher-order generalizations. For example, an adolescent can place her traits of quiet,
calm, and gentle into the abstraction of introverted. At times, it is difficult for adolescents
to integrate Opposing attributes (e.g., I am happy with my friends but angry with my
family). This often leads to great intrapsychic conflict and confusion over which one of
the multiple selves is real. Additionally, cognitive advancements lead to egocentrism in
the form of the imaginary audience (Eklind, 1967). Because the adolescent is able to
think about the self, she assumes that everyone else is thinking about her. The adolescent
is very concerned with the impression she is making on other people (Harter, 1997). This
preoccupation becomes more confusing because different people have different
impressions of the adolescent and leads to the increasing number of opposing attributes.

Both male and female adolescents will experience physical changes and cognitive
advances, as described in the previous paragraph. However, intensification of gender-role
identification Often places unique or different social pressures on girls and boys (Basow
& Rubin, 1999; Eccles, Barber, Jozefowicz, Malenchuk, & Vide, 1999). In other words,
during this social transition, girls consider how they are supposed to behave as women,
and boys consider how they are supposed to behave as men; furthermore, other people
(e.g., parents and friends) begin to react to them in gendered ways. Unfortunately in our

society, girls and women tend to learn of the negative cultural messages regarding

IQ

femininity and learn of their devalued female status (Basow & Rubin, 1999). The
consequences of negative cultural messages is especially profound for majority culture
girls or girls who have been socialized into European American ideology. For example,
gender-role identification often requires majority culture girls to lose their autonomous
voice and, instead, always speak and live in relation to someone else (Brown & Gilligan,
1992). That is, girls are supposed to be seen but not heard and their true feelings are less
important than the feelings of other people. It is important to note that adolescent males
also experience their own stressors that are unique to what it means to be a man in our
society. Although much of adolescent development is similar, gender-role identification
is one way that groups experience the transition differently. This research will only
examine early adolescent girls.

Cognitive, biological, and social transitions of adolescence do not occur in a
vacuum. All these transitions are occurring at one time and together they have the
potential to lead to many risks or liabilities in adolescents. For example, as compared to
other age groups, adolescents are at increased risk of engaging in the following health
risks: tobacco, alcohol, and drug use; suicidal behavior; disordered eating patterns;
violence; delinquency; adolescent pregnancy; runaway adolescents; and academic
underachievement (DiClemente, Hansen, & Ponton, 1996). Furthermore, early
adolescents begin to adopt behavior patterns in education and health that have lifelong
consequences (Carnegie Council, 1995). Adolescents must have support, encouragement,
and instruction from significant others in order for them to progress in a positive manner
through adolescence. Teachers and parents must model, coach, and provide feedback to

maintain or enhance the competence, worth, and abilities of adolescents.

By providing feedback, significant others influence the self-perceptions of
adolescents, such as perceived competence and self-esteem. These self-perceptions are
important because they are predictive of feelings, emotions, and behaviors in different
domains. Perceived competence or self-concept reflects the degree of competence of an
individual in a specific domain, such as academics, social, or athletics (Harter, 1978). It is
the degree of expectation that people have of achieving mastery at a task. Individuals
experience success in competence when they complete a task and develop skills
(COOpersmith, 1967). Besides working industriously at a task, activity, or a particular
role, people gain competence by recognizing their own unique attributes, opportunities to
engage in a task, and the awareness of the connection between one's own past, present,
and future (Stollak, 2000). Helping youth develop adequate perceived competence in
various domains of life is important because it will increase the likelihood that they will
spend time and energy at that particular task. If people do not experience success in
competence or if significant others are constantly making comparisons of performance or
accomplishments, feelings of inadequacy and inferiority may occur.

Perceived competence is also an antecedent of self-esteem in individuals. Seltl
esteem is a “personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes the
individual holds toward the self” (Coopersmith, 1967, pp. 4-5). In other words, it is the
degree to which an individual values the self. To have competence in domains that an
individual personally values and to have significance and acceptance from other peOple
leads to an enhanced self-esteem. Through cognitive advances and socialization histories
(e.g., appropriate feedback), children should come to internalize that they are a good

person and appreciate who they are.

There is a general concern about people having low self-esteem because it has
been associated with negative outcomes such as decreased school adjustment, increased
depression, and increased loneliness (Scales & Leffert, 1999). During adolescence, there
tends to be a general decline in the self-esteem of both boys and girls. Girls typically
have lower self-esteem than boys, and that difference increases throughout adolescence
(AAUW, 1992; Lord, Eccles, & McCarthy, 1994; Rotheram-Borus, Dopkins, Sabate, &
Lightfoot, 1996; Siegel et al., 1999; Zimmerman, Copeland, Shope, & Dielman, 1997).
However, Eccles, Barber, Jozefowicz, Malenchuk, and Vide (1999) assert that there is
more gender variation within groups than between groups. For example, they found that
Black American girls had a similar level of self-esteem as their Black American male
counterparts. Black American girls also tend to have higher self-esteem than Latinos/
Hispanics and White Americans girls (Rotheram-Borus et al., 1996; Siegel et al., 1999).
Thus, race/ethnicity is one factor that contributes to within-gender variability of self-
esteem. Puberty and pubertal timing also contribute to within-gender variability. Girls
who are post-pubertal have lower self-esteem than those who are pre-pubertal (O'Dea &
Abraham, 1999a; Williams & Came, 2000). Additionally, girls who perceive that they
experience puberty earlier than their peers also have lower self-esteem than their peers
who are on time or later (Brooks-Gunn & Petersen, 1983).

The development Of self—esteem and perceived competence are influenced by both
individual factors (i.e., cognitive advances) and environmental factors (i.e., socialization).
The Model of Competence Motivation (Harter, 1981) highlights both the individual and
environmental factors that influence identity development of girls and links the

development of competence with the development of the self. Therefore, it is a useful

lens to understand how, and the degree to which, girls experience achievement, success,
and competence during adolescence. Specifically, this model examines how people come
to adOpt standards of competence, to judge these standards, and to develop a sense of self
through cognitive advances, mastery attempts, and through their socialization history.

The inner loop of Harter’s Model of Competence Motivation (Harter, 1981)
focuses on reactions to mastery attempts. Specifically, people engage in mastery attempts
and will experience successes or failures. Success on a mastery task with an optimal
degree of challenge will lead to high intrinsic pleasure; whereas, failure will lead to
feelings of anxiety. A positive affective response of pleasure andjoy results in an
increase in intrinsic motivation, while a negative affective response of anxiety and worry
leads to decreases in intrinsic motivation. It is the interaction or a balance of success and
failure that determines the motivational orientation of an individual (Harter, 1978).

The outer loop of Harter’s Model of Competence Motivation focuses on
socialization processes. When a child is born, adults automatically react to the product of
the child’s mastery attempts (Harter, 1978, 1980). In other words, caretakers respond in
an evaluative manner to the product of a child‘s task — the outcome is good or bad,
correct or incorrect, successful or unsuccessful — based on the caretakers’ personal
standards and values. This evaluative response of a task product provides a child with a
sense of competence. Adults not only react to the outcome of a mastery attempt, but they
also respond to the child’s joy at being involved in the process of completing a mastery
attempt. The affective response includes things such as encouragement, interest, care, and
concern, which influences the child’s emerging sense of self and self—esteem. In order to

develop competence motivation and a positive sense of self, it is crucial that young

children receive more positive reinforcement than punishment for the process and
outcome of their mastery attempts (Harter, 1978). Over time due to cognitive advances, it
is hopeful that children will begin to internalize the standards that significant others have
for them, possess them as their own, and create their own sense of competence and self.
Because the biological, cognitive, and social transitions of adolescence lead to
certain liabilities and risk, which include decreased self-esteem, there have been
numerous prevention programs created for adolescent girls that have been implemented
through the schools (e.g., Neumark-Sztainer, Butler, & Palti, 1995; Paxton, 1993;
Smolak, Levine, & Schermer, 1998). The prevention programs designed for adolescent
girls generally cover topics such as sociocultural pressures on females to diet, body image
and self—esteem, body weight regulation and the effect of dieting, development of eating
disorders, healthy eating, messages from the media, and biological effects of puberty.
These programs typically consist of 5 to 10 weekly sessions, lasting from 45 min to 90
min, and use lecture, discussion, and group work to convey the information.
Unfortunately, these programs rarely integrate mastery tasks or mastery attempts into
them. According to the Model of Competence Motivation (Harter, 1981), girls should be
engaging in mastery attempts in order to enhance their competence and self-esteem.
Physical activity is one arena where self-esteem and perceived competence can be
enhanced through the learning of skills, experiencing success, accomplishing goals, and
being part of a team. A recent study used focus group interviews to ask 362 girls from
five broad ethnic classifications what activities made the girls feel good about themselves
(Erkut, Fields, Sing, & Marx, 1996). Almost half of the girls stated that participating in a

Sport or physical activity made them feel good about themselves. When asked what

characteristics of the activity made them feel good about themselves, 28% of the girls
gave responses indicative of mastery or competence and 25% of the girls responded that
they enjoyed the activity.

There are many important benefits derived from participation in physical activity.
A few of the benefits include the development of competence, self-esteem, and positive
body image. In fact, studies have shown that adolescent girls who participate in sport or
physical activity have higher self-esteem and greater body satisfaction than girls who do
not participate (e.g., Fulkerson, Keel, Leon, & Dorr, 1999; Jaffee & Ricker, 1993; Taub
& Blinde, 1992, 1994). Unfortunately, the gender—role intensification that occurs often
affects perceived competence negatively. Eccles and Harold (1991) found that girls who
view sport participation as an appropriate activity for them experience higher perceived
athletic competence than girls who do not. Additionally, they found that children who
thought their parents’ valued sports competence rated their own competence higher. Girls
who are not already involved in sport and physical activity need to somehow be
introduced and socialized into this arena. In this manner, it is hoped that girls will
continue to participate in sport and physical activity and reap the benefits.

For girls to remain involved in sport and physical activity, it is important that their
needs are met as participants in the sport. Many youth decide to participate in sport in
order to have fun, to improve and learn new skills, to be with friends, and to succeed
(Ewing & Seefeldt, 1996; Gill, Gross, & Huddleston, 1983; Gould, Feltz, & Weiss,
1985). Adults, including coaches, administrators, and parents, must structure sport and
physical activity programs to meet the participation motives of the youth. If these motives

are not met, it is likely that youth will discontinue participation in the future or dropout

 

during the season. Because of this, programs should know why youth arejoining their
program and try to meet the needs of the youth.

With this in mind, the Girls on Track program provides a unique experience for
participants. It is a prevention program that utilizes both education and physical activity
to help girls in the 6m, 7m, and 8th grades (ages 1 1 to 14) to understand their worth and
their abilities. The program attempts to help girls achieve a foundation for a lifetime of
healthy living; self-respect, and physical activity. The program stresses cooperation and
teamwork, which are essential skills for girls to learn. Only by testing its effectiveness
can we truly know if the Girls on Track program accomplishes its goals or not.

The effectiveness of past educational programs in the area of nutrition and eating
disorders has been tested through quantitative methods. The questionnaires measured
outcome variables such as eating and dieting behavior, food related knowledge and
attitudes, body Size and body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem (Neumark-Sztainer et al.,
1995; Paxton, 1993; Smolak et al., 1998). All of the studies implemented a pre-test/ post-
test statistical design. The findings from each of the studies were quite similar, namely,
that improvements were made in the knowledge base of the participants, but few changes
were made in the actual behaviors of the girls. It is important to ask why no changes were
made in the behavior of the girls.

If prevention programs are successful, research should reveal changes in the
behaviors of the participants; however, this has not necessarily been the case. One
possible reason that girls do not change their behaviors as a result of attending a
prevention program is that the programs are not successful. Additionally, research may

not detect changes in the behaviors of participants attending a preventative program

because of methodological issues and limitations. Up to this date, most of the research
examining the effectiveness of prevention programs has used quantitative methods.
Although this provides useful information, the use of qualitative methodology such as
interviews and focus groups may also be a valuable source of information. Through these
methods, researchers can determine what participants have learned from the program and
information or concepts that they will incorporate into their lives. Additionally,
researchers could potentially learn why a program was not effective through interviews
with the participants. Another methodological limitation of earlier research studies is that
most did not include a control group. By using control groups, researchers can observe
any differences in cognitions and attitudes based on those who received the program and
those who did not receive the program or who received a different program. Differences
between the control group and the experimental group would provide evidence of the
effectiveness of the prevention program.

Therefore, the present study examined the effectiveness of the Girls on Track
program. The study utilized quantitative methodologies with a pre-test and post-test
design. The quantitative data collected with the Girls on Track program were compared
to data collected with two control groups — competitive soccer teams and the Girl Scouts.
Because the Girls on Track program incorporates both a physical activity component and
an informative component to learn about the self, it was deemed necessary to compare
the program to a competitive soccer team which focuses more on the development of
physical activity and to troops of Girl Scouts which focuses on facilitating the

development of skills for success in the real world. Additionally, interviews were

10

conducted with the Girls on Track program and control groups in order to gain in-depth

information about the participants’ experiences in these programs.

Specifically, the current study examined the following three research questions.

The first research questions addressed the reasons participants gave for joining the Girls

on Track program. Because of the exploratory nature of this question, no hypothesis was

forwarded. The second question examined if participants in the Girls on Track program
experienced changes in perceived competence, self—esteem, and attraction to physical
activity. The hypotheses below address this question. Additionally, exploratory analyses
were conducted to examine differences in the dependent variables among participants in
the Girls on Track, a sport program, and the Girl Scouts. Finally, interview data were
collected in order to address the question concerning the experiences of the girls who
participate in the Girls on Track program, a sport program, and the Girl Scouts. The
following hypotheses were forwarded:

1) Participants in the Girls on Track program will experience increases from pre-test to
post-test in perceptions of competence in the following domains: physical, physical
appearance, social, and behavioral conduct.

2) Participants in the Girls on Track program will experience no changes in their close
friendships perceived competence from pretest to post-test.

3) Participants in the Girls on Track program will experience increases in self-esteem
from pre-test to post-test.

4) Participants in the Girls on Track program will expen’ence increases in their attraction

to physical activity from pre-test to post-test.

ll

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Adolescence has been characterized in both a negative and positive light in our
society. As a time of transition, adolescence has often been considered a time of storm
and stress. This view focuses primarily on the possible negative outcomes of adolescence,
including the conflicts with parents, mood disruptions, and risky behaviors. For example,
as compared to other age groups, adolescents are at increased risk of engaging in the
following health risks: tobacco, alcohol, and drug use; suicidal behavior; disordered
eating patterns; violence; delinquency; adolescent pregnancy; runaway adolescents; and
academic underachievement (DiClemente, Hansen, & Ponton, 1996). However, research
has shown that there is great individual variation in the degree of storm and stress and
chaos that adolescents experience (Alsaker & Olweus, 1993; Amett, 1999). Research has
also suggested that it is more fruitful to examine and study how adolescence can be a
time of positive development and growth because it is a time during which individuals
begin to adopt behavioral patterns in education and health that have lifelong
consequences (Carnegie Council, 1995; Scales & Leffert, 1999).

Adolescence is a time of preparation for adulthood and a time to seek a positive
identity. Positive development, therefore, includes helping adolescents to engage in
prosocial behaviors and avoid health-compromising behaviors that will affect them in the
future (Roth, Brooks-Gunn, Murray, & Foster, 1998). As adolescents reach physical and
cognitive maturity and experience social transitions, these changes cause them to have
new interpersonal relationships and self-perceptions (Harter, 1999). The transitions

disrupt existing social equilibrium causing emergence of new behaviors and

12

 

 

reorganization of psychological structures (Caspi & Moffitt, 1991). During this transition,
significant others, including adults continue to influence deveIOpment. Adults play an
important role in the positive development by facilitating both social and personal growth
in adolescents. This occurs through helping adolescents understand their worth as a
person, develop meaningful relationships, become useful to others, and build a healthy
life (Carnegie Council, 1995).

Beyond providing a structure to understand whom a person is in relation to the
rest of the world, the development of a positive self affords additional functions to a
person. A positive sense of self gives individuals meaning and direction to their life
through performing motivational functions (Adams & Marshall, 1996; Cross & Markus,
1994; Harter, 1999). Self-structures provide consistency between values and
commitments. Additionally, self—structures help people set criteria in attaining goals and
encourage people to gain further accomplishments. AS a transition, adolescence is
important because it is a time of heightened self-discovery and acquisition of skills
needed for passage into adulthood.

Recent views on self-evaluations have stressed the multi—dimensional nature of
this construct. Researchers acknowledge both an overall sense of self-esteem or self-
worth and domain-specific competencies (Fox, 1997; Harter, 1999; Marsh & Shavelson,
1985). In other words, people tend to forrnjudgments about their ability or competence in
specific domains, such as academic, social, and physical. In the current study, the terms
self-esteem or self-worth will be used to denote the “overall evaluation of one’s worth or
value as a person” (Harter, 1999, p. 5), while domain-specific evaluations will be

indicated by the term perceived competence.

Early adolescence occurs between the ages of 10 and 14 and is associated with
physical, emotional, and cognitive changes due to puberty (Elliot & Feldman, 1990).
Furthermore, in Western society these changes coincide with the social and educational
changes of entering middle school and having to reestablish peer groups (Cole et al.,
2001). Early adolescence, in general, is a time of great change and transition. The
challenges that early adolescents encounter in terms of social, biological, and cognitive,
transitions are explored in the following sections.

Social Transitions

Two of the major social transitions that early adolescents are dealing with are (a)
gender-role intensification, and (b) entering middle school forcing many to leave their old
peer group and establish a new one. Gender-role intensification occurs as both girls and
boys adopt more inflexible perceptions of what it means to be female and male in our
society (Basow & Rubin, 1999). Thus, youth become concerned about how women or
girls are supposed to act and how men or boys are supposed to act according to gender-
scripts of our society. While many risks and liabilities associated with adolescence are
due to general developmental processes, some challenges and liabilities associated with
identity and autonomy development during adolescence may be due to gender-role
intensification, resulting in different experiences for boys and girls (AAUW, 1992;
Basow & Rubin, 1999; Eccles et al., 1999; Eccles & Harold, 1991). Because of the
gender-role intensification that occurs during adolescence, the current study focuses on
the development of early adolescent girls.

The second social transition to be examined is the move from elementary school

to middle school. At a time when peers and social acceptance are becoming increasingly

l4

important (Savin-Williams & Berndt, 1990), the shift to middle school tends to disturb
the already established social networks, creating added challenges to adolescents. The
move to middle school has been associated with decreases in both competence beliefs
and self-worth of youth (Cole et al., 2001; Lord et al., 1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1994).
Another consequence of the changing peer group is that the physical impressions
adolescents present to their classmates are tremendously important in how their peers
react to and treat them. The peer subculture produces a great deal of pressure to conform
to appearance norms, including body weight, in order to be socially accepted (Boyatzis,
Baloff, & Durieux, 1998; O'Dea & Abraham, 1999b; Taub & Blinde, 1994). For
adolescent girls, appearance norms are especially important and their social status often
depends on their conformity to feminine stereotypes and gender roles.
Biological Transitions

As adolescents experience social changes, they are also forced to handle the
biological aspects of puberty. The biological changes associated with adolescence cause
one to progress toward a mature state (Malina, 1996). As a series of linked physical
changes, puberty for girls results in normative weight gain, height gain, the development
of breasts, and the onset of menarche (Graber, Brooks-Gunn, & Warren, 1999). There is
great variability in the individual timing of the pubertal process, in the sequence of
events, and in the rate at which girls pass through puberty (Brooks-Gunn, 1988). Of
importance is that puberty is a biological event with cultural, social, and personal
significance (Caspi & Moffitt, 1991). In other words, there are psychological and social

ramifications of pubertal development.

15

Specifically, psychological and social changes are linked to three aspects of
pubertal development: hormonal changes of puberty, changes in secondary sexual
characteristics, and the timing of puberty as compared to peers (Graber et al., 1999).
Hormonal Changes of puberty may account for some of the mood disruptions that are
often observed in adolescents. Additionally, hormonal changes are responsible for the
normative weight gain that occurs during puberty. On average, girls gain 24 pounds of fat
during puberty (Graber et al.). This natural weight gain places girls further away from the
cultural ideal female body (i.e., thin. toned) and often is a source of negative body image
and lower self-esteem. For example, in a Scottish sample of 11 and 13 year old girls, it
was revealed that 11 year old girls who were post-pubertal had lower self-esteem than
girls of the same age who were pre-pubertal (Williams & Currie, 2000). Similarly,
(O'Dea & Abraham, 1999b) found that post-menarche girls had lower self~esteem, and
lower scores on physical appearance and athletic competence than pre-menarche girls.

The second aspect of pubertal development that influences a person is the
personal meaning or significance attached to different portions of the pubertal process.
For example, menarche often results in changes in self-definition and relationships
because society and the adolescent girls begin to view themselves as adult women
(Brooks—Gunn & Reiter, 1990). The meaning of menarche has been studied greatly in our
society (see Brooks-Gunn, 1988; Brooks-Gunn & Reiter, 1990; Graber et al., 1999);
however research has not yet examined the meaning or significance of breast
development, which may have a different meaning then menarche because it is noticeable

to other pe0ple (Graber et al., 1999).

16

Finally, the timing of puberty as compared to peers greatly influences the
psychological and social changes in an adolescent. Adolescents can experience pubertal
development earlier, later, or at the same time as their peers, which results in biological,
psychological, and social effects. Biologically, early-maturers weigh more and are shorter
than their peers who develop on time or later (Brooks-Gunn, 1988; Brooks-Gunn &
Reiter, 1990). Psychologically, early-maturers may not be cognitively or emotionally
prepared for the biological changes, which may lead to poor adjustment, increased eating
problems, and depression (Graber et al., 1999). For example, girls who experienced
puberty earlier than their peers had more symptoms of depression and lower body image
than girls who were on-time (Siegel et al., 1999). Additionally, there are new social
pressures of having a mature body and early maturers are often less prepared to deal with
these pressures than their on-time or late peers.

Cognitive Transitions

Along with pubertal development, adolescence also brings with it cognitive
changes. In order to understand cognitive development, many researchers have followed
the lead of Piaget who established four stages of cognitive development. Piaget (1972)
believed that cognitive advances occur in stages that all people move through in
succession, although the rate of development may differ from person to person. Infants
begin at the sensorimotor stage and then move to a preoperative stage in early childhood
(ages 2 to 8). The preoperative stage allows children to be able to focus on one dimension
of an object or problem at a time. As children enter middle to late childhood (ages 8 to
12), they progress to the stage of concrete Operations. At this stage, children are able to

examine more than one dimension of an object or problem at a time, yet they can only

17

analyze tangible things. Early adolescents move into the stage of formal operations.
Adolescents at this stage can reason hypothetically, construct theories, and think in a
realm of possibilities.

However, there has been much criticism about the work of Piaget. Primarily, his
work tends to oversimplify the complexity of self-development through the broadness of
the cognitive levels (Hatter, 1999). Therefore, it may be more appropriate to adopt a neo-
Piagetian framework to understand cognitive changes throughout the lifespan (Harter,
1999; Harter, Bresnick, Boucher, & Whitesell, 1997; Harter, Waters, Whitesell, &
Kastelic, 1998). A neo-Piagetian framework attempts to resolve many of the critiques of
Piaget’s original theory. For example, more levels of cognitive development have been
identified within this framework. Also of importance is the fact that neoePiagetian
theorists acknowledge that the movement to the next cognitive stage does not
automatically occur, but it is ushered in by social processes. Children must have support,
encouragement, and instruction from significant others in order for them to progress to
the next stage. Teachers and parents must model, coach, and provide feedback to enhance
the cognitive abilities of children and adolescents. The following sections are an
explanation of cognitive advances that are made during late childhood and early and
middle adolescence.

Middle to late childhood (ages 8 to 11). During middle to late childhood, Children
enter the cognitive stage of concrete operations (Piaget, 1972). Due to cognitive
developments, there are four major advances in a Child’s self-structure. First, children
start to integrate behaviors and make higher-order generalizations about their self. For

example, a child may recognize that She is athletic because she is good at sports, learns

18

sports easily, and is muscular. Second, children recognize that their attributes are
Situation-specific. Thus, children may consider themselves intelligent in an academic
sense, but not intelligent in a musical sense. Third, children can now make judgments
about their self-esteem; if significant others approve of the child as a person, then she will
approve of herself. Finally, children can understand that both positive and negative self-
evaluations exist at the same time.

Early adolescence (ages 10 to 14). During early adolescence, many are entering
the cognitive stage of formal operational thought (Piaget, 1972). The beginning of formal
Operations allows the adolescent to construct abstractions (Harter, 1997). During this
time, a proliferation of selves develop that vary as a function of the social context. These
changes are due to cognitive advances but also to changes in the adolescent’s
environment. Cognitive changes allow individuals to make single abstractions, so that the
trait-labels created in middle childhood can be placed into higher-order generalizations.
For example, an adolescent can place her traits of quiet, calm, and gentle into the
abstraction of introverted. However, the abstract attributes are isolated and separate from
each other. Opposite attributes (i.e., introvert and extrovert) are not recognized and,
therefore, are not an issue for early adolescents. There is no coherent or unified self
(Harter, 1999). Instead, the early adolescent’s self-concept varies from relationship to
relationship.

Middle adolescence (ages 15 to 17). As teenagers move into middle adolescence,
they begin to be able to compare their single abstractions (Harter, 1997). Cognitively,
adolescents are able to engage in abstract mapping, which allows them to compare and

contrast the higher-order abstractions made in early adolescence. They are able to

19

recognize Opposite attributes across different relationships, but they do not have the
ability to integrate the Opposites. This often leads to great intrapsychic conflict and
confusion over which one of the multiple selves is real.

Additionally, social factors lead to the increase in the number of opposite
attributes. Cognitive advancements lead to egocentrism in the form of the imaginary
audience (Eklind, 1967). Because the adolescent is able to think about the self, she
assumes that everyone else is thinking about her. The imaginary audience describes the
perception that the adolescent is the focus of everyone’s attention, although this is usually
not the reality of the situation. The adolescent is very concerned with the impression she
is making on other people (Harter, 1997, Harter et al., 1997). This preoccupation
becomes more confusing because different people have different impressions of the
adolescent and leads to the increasing number of opposing attributes.

Harter’s Model of Competence Motivation

Resiliency, competencies, and self—esteem are important components of helping
youth progress through adolescence and engage in positive development. Yet, earlier
experiences that youth have in life will facilitate their experiences during adolescence and
potential life behaviors. Harter’s Model of Competence Motivation (Harter, 1978) is one
framework used to understand how people come to adopt standards of competence and
how people learn to judge these standards.

This model examines the effect of competence and the effect of social support on
global self-esteem. Specifically, competence is developed through the ratio of successes
and failures to the degree of challenge on tasks, while social support is developed through

the socializing environment. Similar to White’s model (1959), Harter (1978) asserts that

20

people are born with the motive to interact competently with their environment or are
born with intrinsic motivation. Specifically, when people engage in mastery attempts they
will experience successes or failures. Success on a mastery task with an optimal degree of
challenge will lead to high intrinsic pleasure; whereas, failure will lead to feelings of
anxiety. A positive affective response of pleasure andjoy results in an increase in
intrinsic motivation, while a negative affective response of anxiety and worry leads to
decreases in intrinsic motivation. In other words, people who experience pleasure as a
result of task success will likely engage in the task again, whereas people experiencing
anxiety after task failure will likely separate themselves from the task over time. It is
probably the interaction or a balance of success and failure that determines the desire of
an individual to continue to engage or disengage in a task (Harter, 1978). People high in
intrinsic motivation will tend to change their behavior Slightly in order to respond to the
same task in a different way, to engage in exploratory behavior in their environment, to
interact competently with their world, and to engage in tasks that are optimally
challenging.

The second portion of Harter’s model (1978) extended White’s original model by
examining how social support or socialization affects one’s global self—esteem. When a
child is born, adults automatically react to the product of the child’s mastery attempts
(Harter, 1978, 1980). In other words, caretakers respond in an evaluative manner to the
product of a child’s task — the outcome is good or bad, correct or incorrect. successful or
unsuccessful — based on the caretakers’ personal standards and values. This evaluative
response of a task product provides a child with a sense of competence. Thus, control and

competence are domain-specific, not global traits. Perceived control is the degree of

responsibility children feel for their successes and failures; whereas, perceived
competence is the level of success or failure people expect to achieve when engaging in a
mastery attempt. A high perceived competence and an internalized control should
maintain or increase intrinsic motivation, while low perceived competence and an
extemalized control should decrease intrinsic motivation.

Thus, control and competence are domain-specific, not global traits. Perceived
control is the degree of responsibility children feel for their successes and failures;
whereas, perceived competence is the level of success or failure people expect to achieve
when engaging in a mastery attempt. A high perceived competence and an internalized
control should maintain or increase intrinsic motivation, while low perceived competence
and an extemalized control should decrease intrinsic motivation.

Specifically, children who are given clear messages about successful and
unsuccessful behavior and who internalize these standards will have an internal sense of
control over behavior. Internal control means that people view themselves as responsible
for the successes and failures in their life. On the other hand, if children are given mixed
or inconsistent messages about successful and unsuccessful behavior, they may not
internalize a set of mastery goals or an understanding of why success or failure occurred,
and so have an external sense of control or an unknown control over their behaviors. An
extemalized control means that other people, not the individual. are responsible for the
successes and failures in life. Children with an unknown sense of control do not know
who or what is responsible for their successes and failures.

Adults not only react to the outcome of a mastery attempt, but they also respond

to the child’s joy at being involved in the process of completing a mastery attempt. The

[Q
IQ

affective response includes things such as encouragement, interest, care, and concern,
which influences the child’s emerging sense of self and self-esteem. In order to develop
competence motivation and a positive sense of self, it is crucial that young children
receive more positive reinforcement than punishment for the process and outcome of
their mastery attempts (Harter, 1978).

A major strength of the model of competence motivation is that it acknowledges
that the development of competence, control, and self-esteem are due to both cognitive
advances and socialization histories. This model combines the ideas and thoughts of
James and Cooley, both psychologists who did significant work on the self. Cognitive
theorists posit that developmental changes are due primarily to cognitive advances in a
person; whereas, symbolic-interactionists believe that developmental changes are due to
people espousing the opinions of significant others. Harter (1978; 1980; 1999)
incorporates the work of both cognitive theorists and symbolic interactionists to
understand the developmental process.

Development of competence. Competence is part of the expectancy portion of the
expectancy x value model of motivation, meaning that the energy people expend on a
task is a result of the level of success they expect to achieve (Brophy, 1998). People who
expect to achieve success at a mastery attempt (i.e., high perceived competence) tend to
spend more time and energy at that particular task. Therefore, it is important that people
develop adequate competence in various domains of life. This section explores the
development of competence throughout childhood and adolescence.

According to the model of competence motivation, children receive feedback

about the outcome of their mastery attempts from the day they were born (Harter, 1978,

1980). From this feedback, competence begins to be developed. Over time, it is expected
that children will begin to internalize the standards that significant others have for them
and possess them as their own. Children’s abilities to internalize standards are based on
their cognitive development. The development of competence in children is due to both
cognitive advances and socialization history.

During early childhood, it is through the responses and reactions of caretakers and
other significant adults that children learn whether or not they are competent at a task. As
children enter childhood and enter the stage of concrete operations, their perceptions of
their competence become more accurate because they gain the ability to compare
themselves to others (Harter, 1999). Peers are a major source of competence information
for children in middle and late childhood; additionally, research in the sport realm has
found that by age 12, peer comparison is the most important source of competence
information (Horn & Harris, 1996). As children enter adolescence, they develop abstract
reasoning and processing Skills. This cognitive advancement allows children to take the
reinforcement they received early in life from significant others and to espouse these
reinforced performance standards and values (Harter, 1978, 1980). This process of
internalization permits children to deveIOp a personal system of mastery goals and a self-
reward system containing criteria used tojudge their success on a task. As the
internalization process occurs, the reliance and dependence on external reinforcement
decreases, thus creating an intrinsically motivated individual. However, the socialization
history may also produce an extrinsically oriented individual. It is likely that the lack of
reinforcement or disapproval for mastery attempts and reinforcement for dependency on

adults early in life will eventually lead older children to possess an extrinsic motivation

24

(Harter, 1978). These older children and adolescents will demonstrate a need for external
praise and will be reliant on externally defined Objectives for their behavior.

The development of competence is crucial to the developing adolescent because it
is an antecedent of self-esteem in individuals. People Strive to attain feelings of success in
the area of competence. Individuals experience success in competence when they
complete a task and develop skills (Coopersmith, 1967). Besides working industriously at
a task, activity, or a particular role, people gain competence by recognizing their own
unique attributes, opportunities to engage in a task, and the awareness of the connection
between one’s own past, present, and future (Stollak, 2000). If people do not experience
success in competence or if significant others are constantly making comparisons of
performances or accomplishments, feelings of inadequacy and inferiority may occur.
Intense experiencing of inferiority may lead to depressive affect in an adolescent
(Stollak).

This section examined the development of competence during childhood and
adolescence. Harter’s (1978) model of competence motivation provides a framework for
understanding this development. It is hopeful that children will eventually internalize the
standards and opinions of significant others. In doing so, children will be intrinsically
motivated to engage in mastery attempts, will have an internal perCeption of control, and
will have perceptions of competence. Therefore, adults must provide clear messages to
the child about what signifies successful and unsuccessful behavior.

Development ofself. The development of the self is part of the value side of
motivation, which focuses on the worth we place on both the task and the possible

reward. However, we have a very small knowledge base about the value or interest or

appreciation aspects of motivation (Brophy, 1999). In other words, we have difficulty
answering the question of why individuals engage in certain tasks and not other tasks.
Cross and Markus (1994) have explored the concept of possible selves, which are
cognitive representations of what a person could become in the future. By developing
possible selves, people can place their efforts into and are motivated to become their ideal
self. By understanding how the self is constructed and developed, we can begin to
explore the value side of motivation. Because of this, the development of the self is
important to the study of motivation.

According to the model of competence motivation, children receive feedback
about their engagement in mastery attempts from the day they were born (Harter, 1978,
1980). From this feedback, the self or self-esteem begins to be developed. Self-esteem is
a “personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds
toward the self" (Coopersmith, 1967, pp. 4-5). This. and slight variations of this,
definition have been adopted by many in the literature (Harter, 1999; Rosenberg, 1979).
Over time, it is expected that children will begin to internalize the standards that
significant others have for them and create their own sense of self or self-esteem.

Because children in early Childhood have not reached a cognitively advanced
stage, they have not yet internalized a sense of self-esteem. Instead, children’s sense of
worth stems from the feedback they receive from significant others (Harter, 1999).
During middle to late childhood, Children are able to make judgments about the worth of
the self. However, their cognitive abilities only allow them to like themselves if
significant others like them (Harter). Again, this stresses the importance of the type of

feedback caretakers, teachers, and other significant others give to children.

Throughout the stage of adolescence, great physical, social, cognitive, and
psychological transformations occur. The adolescent’s body changes from that of a child
to that of an adult, relationships begin to take on different meanings, she struggles to
separate from parents, and she obtains the ability to think in abstractions. In the midst of
all these changes, the adolescent experiences social pressures that force her to construct
multiple selves (Harter et al., 1997; Harter, 1999). She learns to describe herself
differently in different social contexts and relationships. Thus, the self naturally becomes
more discriminated. During adolescence, one is faced with the Challenge of developing
multiple selves, while trying to achieve the human need of maintaining a coherent,
unified understanding and awareness of the self (Harter et al., 1997).

Early adolescents are just beginning to enter the stage of formal operations. Their
self becomes more differentiated because of varying social contexts. Their cognitions do
not allow them to integrate the abstract attributes they have started to develop into a
cohesive self (Harter, 1999). Because of this, their self-esteem tends to change from
context to context. As they move into middle childhood, their cognitions allow them to
recognize Opposing attributes and also be overly concerned about what others are
thinking about them. Social pressures force her to construct multiple selves causing her to
describe herself differently in different social contexts and relationships (Harter et al.,
1997; Harter, 1999). At this age, one is faced with the challenge of developing multiple
selves, while trying to achieve the human need of maintaining a coherent, unified
understanding and awareness of the self.

Studies by Harter and colleagues have examined the issues of opposing attributes

by having adolescents produce six attributes in the following roles: with mother, with

father, with best friend, with group of friends, in classroom, and with a romantic interest
(Harter et al., 1997; Harter 1999). During middle adolescence, Opposing and conflicting
attributes are most often experienced across different relationships. Adolescents
frequently experience opposing and conflicting attributes between: 1) self with mom and
self with dad, 2) self with best friends and self with a larger circle of friends, and 3) self
with friends and self with parents (Harter et al., 1997). The experience of opposing
attributes often leads to false self-behaviors and confusion over which of the multiple
selves is real.

The work of COOpersmith (1967) also sheds light on how others help children
develop a sense of self-esteem. Success in the area of significance is measured by the
concern, attention, and love of others. The outcome of feeling accepted by others is a
sense Of importance. Through their behaviors, actions, and beliefs, individuals strive to be
accepted and loved by significant others in their lives. Thus, to feel significant at times,
individuals may have to act or behave in a specific manner in order to meet the
expectations or standards of others.

Carl Rogers (1959) has forwarded the notion of conditional positive regard.
Conditional positive regard refers to situations where significant others do not accept or
acknowledge the validity of an experience. In other words, children are negatively
reinforced or not reinforced at all for their engagement in the process of a mastery
attempt (Harter, 1980). Conditional positive regard results in conditions of worth, which
often leads individuals to distort or deny their experiences (Rogers). In contrast,
unconditional positive regard means that significant others completely accept an

individual, allowing the individual to fully experience life. As Stollak (2000) states:

Specifically, one must communicate (with gestures, tone of voice, and facial
movements being congruent with and amplifying one’s words), that the thoughts,
needs, wishes, feelings, desires, and impulses being experienced in the here and

now by the child are natural and valid human experiencing (p. 61).
Unconditional positive regard is an ideal; the best to hope for is a positive ratio between
unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.

Harter and colleagues (Harter, Marold, Whitesell, & Cobbs, 1996) have taken
Roger’s (1959) notion of conditional positive regard and examined the relationship
between positive regard and false self-behaviors. Specifically, they were concerned with
the level and the conditionality of support from parents and peers. False self-behavior is
described as “the extent to which one is acting in ways that do not reflect one’s true self
as a person or the ‘real me’” (Harter et al., 1996, p. 360).

Findings from the study (Harter et al., 1996) revealed that junior high and high
school students who perceived conditionality and low support from parents or peers were
motivated to engage in false self-behaviors. However, this relationship was mediated by
feelings of hopelessness (Harter, 1999). In other words, teenagers who perceived
conditionality and low support and felt hopeless about meeting parental or peer
expectations reported the highest levels of false self-behaviors in the hopes of gaining
approval. Additionally, the major motive for engaging in false behavior is to please and
win acceptance from peers and parents. Engaging in false-self behaviors has potential
consequences for the individual, including low self-esteem, hopelessness, and depressive
affect (Harter, 1999). For this reason, it is important that parents, teachers, and coaches

work at supporting, at all times, the student. Additionally, support from significant others

will help the individual progress to the next stage, which allows her to integrate and
coordinate all aspects, even opposing aspects, of the self.

The development of the self is a complicated, ongoing journey. Through cognitive
advances and socialization histories, including affective feedback and unconditional
positive regard, children will come to internalize that they are a good person and
appreciate who they are. During adolescence, it is difficult to create a unified self-theory
because of cognitive processes. At this time, multiple selves and false self-behaviors
often proliferate. With adequate support from significant others, adolescents will struggle
through this period to gain a coherent sense of self.

Importance of Self-worth, Physical Appearance, and Social Skills during Early
Adolescence

The many transitions occurring during early adolescence create a time where
changes to self-perceptions can be significant. Both self-esteem and belief in one’s
competencies may to some extent buffer youth against the risks and harmful effects of
adolescence. Specifically, self-esteem is an important psychological construct because it
is associated with how an individual feels, thinks, and behaves, positive affect, and
successful adjustment (Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999). High self-worth is
linked to positive outcomes including positive mood, happiness, life satisfaction and
acadmic achievement, while low self-worth is associated with symptoms of depression
and anxiety, rejection from peers, and health-risk behaviors (Dubois & Tevendale, 1999;
Zimmerman et al., 1997). As COOpersmith (1967) suggested, success in the area
competencies are one antecedent of self-esteem. Having positive perceptions of

competence encourages positive self-worth; however, success in the area of virtue,

30

worthiness, and power also contribute to one’s self-esteem. Current research has
extensively explored the relationship between self-worth and domain-specific
competencies; however, to date, causation has not been established among variables.
The shift from elementary school to middle school appears to be a transition that
poses challenges to many early adolescents. The environments of elementary school and
middle school are considerably different, including decreases in adult contact and
changing peer groups, which may contribute to decreases in perceptions of competence
and self-esteem during adolescence. However, high perceptions of physical attractiveness
and social competence have been found to predict increases in self-worth during the
school transition (Lord et al., 1994). The importance of perceptions of physical
attractiveness and social competence for early adolescent girls is explored here.
Perceptions of physical appearance are rapidly changing during early adolescence
as girls enter and move through puberty. As the body changes, many girls experience
dissatisfaction with their bodies. Research has continually shown that dissatisfaction with
one’s body image is related to depression, disordered eating patterns, excessive exercise,
and low self-esteem (Davis, 1992; Gill, Overdorf, & Pfister, 1994; Siegel et al., 1999).
Because many girls and women internalize the cultural ideal body and learn of the value
of their own bodies, strong relationships have been found between body image and self-
esteem. Discord often occurs when one's physical appearance or one's ability is not
consistent with the inner desires of the self, resulting in decreased self-esteem (Fox,
1997). This parallels Harter's (1997) findings that girls consider their own physical
attractiveness to be more important than boys do. In fact, body image or perceptions of

physical appearance competence tend to be the strongest unique predictor of self-worth

31

for girls (Dubois, Tevendale, Burk-Braxton, Swenson, & Hardesty, 2000; Fox, 1997;
Harter, 1993; Lord et al., 1994). Yet girls are also more dissatisfied with their bodies, and
because of this discrepancy, they often suffer in self-esteem.

Of real interest is the finding from Siegel et al.'s (1999) study examining the body
image, perceived pubertal timing and mental health (i.e., self-esteem and depression) on
13 through 18 years old girls and boys. They found that adolescent girls had lower self-
esteem, lower body image, and higher rates of depression than boys did. However,
controlling for body image eliminated the gender differences found in depression and
self-esteem, while controlling for depression and low self-esteem did not explain the
gender difference found in body image - thus giving support for the cultural ideal body.
These findings would suggest that if girls felt better about their bodies they would have a
higher self-esteem and less depressive symptoms. Perhaps mentoring girls to appreciate
their body for what it can physically accomplish rather than its appearance would help
girls increase their body image.

Besides accepting and valuing one’s body, having good social skills is also
significant to a successful transition to middle school. During adolescence, peers and
their support become increasingly important because of the desire for increased
autonomy. Given the growing importance of peers, it is logical that perceived social
competence has a strong, positive relationship with self-worth (Harter, 1999; Lord et al.,
1994). For example, a longitudinal study of 6‘h to 10‘h graders revealed that individuals
with high levels of self-esteem were less prone to peer pressure over time than those with
low or decreasing levels of self-esteem (Zimmerman et al., 1997). Because of the

increased time spent with peers, youth are influenced by and model the behavior of their

peers. As youth transition to the larger social environment of middle school and are
forced to reestablish peer networks, research has shown that perceptions of social
competence tend to decrease during the transition (Bolognini, Plancherel, Bettschart, &
Halfon, 1996; Lord et al., 1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1994). It is of concern that during
early adolescence peer support becomes more important, while perceptions of social
competence tend to decrease.
Role of Out-of-school Programs

Many youth participate in out-of—school programs in our nation, for example, a
national study reported that 72% of girls in the 8‘h grade participated in an out—of—school
program (US. Department of Education, 1990), while another national study reported
that 59% of all adolescents participated in a youth program (Scales & Leffert, 1999).
Therefore, out—of—school programs have the potential to reach and positively effect many
youth. Although there are many different types of out—of-school programs (e.g., Girl
Scouts, sports programs, 4-H), programs should work to aid in the development of youth,
including mastery, interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, and physical skills.

According to the Carnegie Council (1995), personal and social deveIOpment of
adolescents can be facilitated by helping them to have a valued place in a constructive
group, advance a sense of worth as a person, learn how to develop close friendships, find
ways to become useful to others beyond the self, and build healthy lifestyles. Given the
need to facilitate personal and social development of adolescents, out-of-school programs
play a valuable role in our society to aid in this development through informal education
(Scales & Leffert, 1999). Because many adolescents voluntarily choose to involve

themselves in out-of-school programs, they are often times a safe place that help

33

contribute to identity and competence deveIOpment through utilizing the strengths of
early adolescents, while also providing challenging mastery attempts and positive
socialization (Eccles, 1999; Quinn, 1999). Ideally, outcomes of involvement in programs
will lead to feelings of empowerment, a sense of belonging, and positive, reliable
relationships (Scales & Le'ffert).

Besides developing competencies, out-of—school programs also provide an
opportunity for youth to form relationships with other adults. This is important because
adolescence is a period of time where youth want to distance themselves from their
parents, while feeling supported from other important adults. Socialization from
significant adults help adolescents feel supported, affirmed, and accepted, and significant
others also help adolescents set boundaries and expectations (Scales & Leffert, 1999).
Not only do early adolescents need to feel supported from other adults, but adults also
provide affective feedback and unconditional positive regard to help adolescents come to
value themselves (Harter, 1978). Both social support systems and adult mentoring are
important to positive development in early adolescents (Carnegie Council, 1995), which
can be provided to youth through out-of—school programs.

Physical Activity and Sport Programs

Out-of—school programs that allow youth to engage in physical activity and sports
are particularly important in our society. Physical activity improves strength and
endurance and helps with Skeletal and muscular development. Beyond physiological
benefits Of physical activity, many psychosocial benefits exist for those who engage in
movement. Physical activity and sports gives youth the opportunity to set and achieve

attainable goals, aids in moral development, allows for the development of social skills,

34

and provides an outlet for Stress and anxiety (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2000).

Development of competence, self-esteem, and positive body image are important
benefits of engaging in physical activity. Individuals with high perceptions of physical
perceived competence tend to have high perceived social competence. This finding has
consistently been found to be strongly correlated with physical perceived competence
(Bemdt & Burgy, 1996; Smith, 1999). In addition, sports are an arena that can enhance
self-esteem through the learning of skills, by feeling successful, and by being part Of a
team. Studies have shown that adolescent female athletes have higher self-esteem and
greater body satisfaction than non-athletes (e. g., Fulkerson et al., 1999; Taub & Blinde,
1992). These findings suggest that adolescent athletes playing high school sport may be
at a lower risk for disordered eating, low self-esteem, weight preoccupation, and body
dissatisfaction. In fact, it has been argued that high school athletic participation could
potentially protect girls from low self-esteem, low body image, and problematic eating
patterns (Fulkerson et al.).

Unfortunately, national studies have continuously revealed the prevalence of
sedentary lifestyles throughout the life span in our society (Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 1999, 2000). Physical activity continues to decrease during adolescence
where nearly half of all youth are not engaged in vigorous physical activity. The lack of
physical activity in our society has become worrisome because sedentary lifestyles are
associated with increased risks of developing heart disease, diabetes, colon cancer, high
blood pressure, and mood disorders (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996).

Because physical activity during childhood and adolescence also increases the

35

psychological health and well-being of children and increases the likelihood that they will
become active adults, the lack of physical activity and movement during this age period
is particularly troubling (Ernst & Pangrazi, 1999).

Due to the importance of engaging in physical activity and due to a large
population that is sedentary, research has examined socialization factors and participation
motives and of sport and physical activity. Because the largest predictor of engagement in
physical activity is often prior experience (Antshel & Anderman, 2000), it is important
that youth are engaged in physical activity at an early age. Family support and helping
youth gain an enjoyment for physical activity are important factors in helping youth
become physically active (Sallis, Prochaska, Taylor, Hill, & Geraci, 1999). Enjoyment of
physical activity, mother’s perceived support for physical activity, and direct parental
modeling of physical activity were determinants of physical activity in a population of 5m
and 6h grade girls (Stucky—Ropp & DiLorenzo, 1993). Additional research has found that
time in physical activity was positively related to family’s fitness concerns and one’s own
fitness and health concerns in girls in the junior high and senior high (McGuire,
Neumark-Sztainer, & Story, 2002). Added together, these findings illustrate the salience
of significant others, especially parents, in socializing youth into sports and physical
activity.

Once youth are involved in physical activity and sport, it is important to
understand why youth continue to participate in these programs. Understanding why
youth continue to participate allows programs to tailor their activities to meet these
motives, which hopefully encourages youth to stay involved. Three reasons have been

found to be important participation motives — for fun and enjoyment, for skill

36

 

development, and to be with or make new friends (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1996; Gould et al.,
1985; Klint & Weiss, 1987). To keep youth engaged in physical activity and sports
programs, it is vital that youth are given the opportunity to improve and learn new skills,
to engage in social activities with teammates and peers, and to provide activities that are
fun for the participants. When programs match activities to the multidimensional
participation motives, it is more likely that youth will remain engaged.

Unfortunately, a deficit in socialization forces, as well as the gender-role
intensification that occurs during early adolescence, leads some girls to believe that
physical activity and sports are not consistent with their self-view, and thus, girls may
avoid these activities (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Weiss & Glenn, 1992). Girls have been
found to have less ability in sports and consider sports to be less important than academic
domains such as math and reading (Eccles & Harold, 1991). This is of concern because it
is asserted that higher perceptions of physical competence or ability will lead to greater
physical activity levels (Harter, 1999). The relationship between perceptions of self-
competencies in the physical domain and actual physical activity involvement measured
by a 7—day recall measure has been examined in a Canadian sample of boys and girls in
the 5'h through 8‘h grade (Crocker, Eklund, & Kowalski, 2000). Using structural equation
modeling, the authors conclude that “...the most parsimonious model for predicting
physical activity features direct pathways from perceptions of conditioning and sport
competence (p. 392).” Furthermore, studies have shown that there is a decrease in
physical activity for girls during the transition from elementary school to junior high
(Garcia, Pender, Antonakos, & Ronis, 1998) and during adolescence (Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention, 1996; Kimm et al., 2000).

37

As a result of this decrease, girls may need guidance to become socialized to
engage in physical activity and learn to view themselves as physically active beings
(Eccles & Harold, 1991; Lirgg, 1992; Weiss & Glenn, 1992). In addition to support by
significant others, such as parents, schools and communities need to provide
Opportunities for girls to achieve success in deveIOping their physical competencies or
abilities and provide modeling of physical activity and feedback from significant others.
Numerous intervention programs have been successful in either increasing perceptions of
physical competence or actual levels of physical activity. A 6-week physical activity
intervention program in the physical education classroom produced higher scores on the
physical abilities scale for 4‘h through 8‘h graders who were in the intervention groups
than those in the control group (Boyd & Hrycaiko, 1997). A 12-week physical activity
program with girls in the 4‘h through 6‘h grade increased their level of physical activity
(Ernst & Pangrazi, 1999). A 12-week program for mothers and daughters also revealed
significant increases in sport competence (Ransdell, Dratt, Kennedy, O'Neill, & DeVoe,
2001). Even if girls are not involved in physical activity and sport at an early age,
research illustrates that physical activity interventions may help girls become more
physically active.

Girls on Track Program

Given the multiple positive benefits of engaging in physical activity, it is
important that youth development programs implement physical activity and movement
as part of their curriculum. Effective youth physical activity programs should contain the
following characteristics: (a) emphasize enjoyable participation in physical activities that

are easily done throughout life, (b) offer a diverse range of noncompetitive and

38

competitive activities appropriate for different ages and abilities, and (c) give young
people the Skills and confidence they need to be physically active (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2000). Central to the current study is an educational, running
program called Girls on Track, which attempts to incorporate the previously mentioned
criteria of an effective youth physical activity program.

Girls on Track is a nationally recognized program, currently delivered to girls in
18 cities across the United States, that educates and prepares 6th through 8‘h grade girls
for a lifetime of self-respect and healthy living (Girls on the Run: How it works, n.d.).
The program combines health/nutrition and personal/social development curriculum with
training for a 5K mile running event. Through lessons, discussions, and running, girls
explore the importance of being physically, mentally and emotionally healthy while
examining their own core values and uniqueness. Engagement in the Girls on Track
program should initiate healthy decision-making about difficult issues, instill the habit of
healthy lifestyles early in life, and increase the likelihood that participants will value
physical fitness as adults.

Specifically, Girls on Track is a 12-week after-school program that uses physical
activity (running) and experiential learning to teach very specific and well-defined social
and personal (character development) skills. It is led by a certified Girls on Track coach,
who meets with a group of 15 -— 20 girls twice weekly for 90 minutes to prepare for and
complete a 5K mile running event. Along with physical workouts, coaches provide
targeted and age-appropriate discussions regarding certain topic areas (e.g., eating
disorders, tobacco and alcohol use, personal/intemet safety, and harassment. etc.) that

promote emotional and moral development. Groups also examine body image issues,

39

stereotyping and discriminatory behaviors, as well as the importance of maintaining a
healthy appreciation of themselves.

Weeks 1 through 4 of the program focus on identity. During this time, girls learn
about themselves, about being physically, emotionally, and spiritually healthy, and about
values. Weeks 5 though 8 center on cooperation. Throughout these weeks, girls learn
about getting along in a group, listening, making decisions, and having a positive attitude.
Weeks 9 though 12 of the program concentrate on community. Here, girls learn about
stereotypes and media messages. During this time, the girls plan and eventually complete
a community project. Shortly after the program is completed, the community sponsors a
5-kilometer run for the participants.

The curriculum is very structured. Each time the team meets, the following format
is used: getting on board, warm-up, processing, workout, processing, cool-down, wrap-
up. The getting on board activity introduces the girls to the topic of the day. The warm-up
allows the girls to warm up their muscles and cardiovascular system while they complete
an activity that deals with the topic of the day. After the warm—up, a few minutes are
spent processing what the girls learned during the activity and how they may use the
information in the future. The workout has the girls running, walking, skipping, or
moving. This is the longest part of the session. The workout is ‘camouflaged’ in the form
of a game or working towards achieving a team goal. After the workout, the group
processes or discusses what they learned during the activity, and they stretch and cool-
down. Finally, each session closes with the wrap-up. Here, the coaches choose a couple

of girls who have worked particularly hard or exhibited positive behaviors. The team

40

 

rewards these girls by giving them the ‘pencil sharpener’, doing the ‘disco dance’, or
some other zany movement.
Purpose of Study

The present study examined the effectiveness of the Girls on Track program. The
study utilized quantitative methodologies with a pre-test and post-test design. The
quantitative data collected with the Girls on Track program were compared to data
collected with two control groups — competitive soccer teams and the Girl Scouts.
Because the Girls on Track program incorporates both a physical activity component and
an informative component to learn about the self, it was deemed necessary to compare
the program to a competitive soccer team which focuses more on the development of
physical activity and to troops of Girl Scouts which focuses on facilitating the
development of skills for success in the real world. Additionally, interviews were
conducted with participants in the Girls on Track program and control groups in order to
gain in-depth information about the participants’ experiences in these programs.

Specifically, the current study examined the following three research questions.
The first research questions addressed the reasons participants give for joining the Girls
on Track program. Because of the exploratory nature of this question, no hypothesis was
forwarded. The second questions examined if participants in the Girls on Track program
experienced changes in perceived competence, self-esteem, and attraction to physical
activity. The hypotheses below address this question. Additionally, exploratory analyses
were conducted to examine differences in the dependent variables among participants in
the Girls on Track, a sport program, and the Girl Scouts. Finally, interview data were

collected in order to address the question concerning the experiences of the girls who

41

participate in the Girls on Track program, a sport program, and the Girl Scouts. The

following hypotheses were forwarded:

1) Participants in the Girls on Track program will experience increases from pretest to
post-test in perceptions of competence in the following domains: physical, physical
appearance, social, and behavioral conduct.

2) Participants in the Girls on Track program will experience no changes in their close
friendships perceived competence from pre-test to post-test.

3) Participants in the Girls on Track program will experience increases in self—esteem
from pre-test to post-test.

4) Participants in the Girls on Track program will experience increases in their attraction

to physical activity from pre-test to post-test.

 

CHAPTER 3
METHOD
Participants

Participants in this study were involved in one of three out—of-school programs -
Girls on Track, competitive soccer, or Girl Scouts. A confounding variable existed in the
Girls on Track and Girl Scout groups in that some girls also participated in soccer
programs. Fourteen girls at pre-test and 13 girls at post-test were involved in the Girls on
Track program and also played soccer. Thus, this combined activity group was added to
the study. For purposes of clarity, the Girls on Track group consists of girls involved in
the program and not involved in soccer, whereas the Girls on Track plus soccer group
consists of the 13 girls involved in both Girls on Track and soccer. Nine girls at pre-test
and five girls at post-test were both Girl Scouts and soccer participants. Only having five
girls in the post—test subsample was not large enough to warrant a separate group. Thus,
the nine girls at pre-test and five girls at post-test involved in both the Girl Scouts and
soccer programs were removed from all analyses.

Participants self-selected into each of these programs based on their desire to
participate in that program. At pre-test, 135 girls in the 6‘h (n = 62), 7th (n = 36), and 8‘h
(n = 37) grades participated (Mage = 12.49 years, SD = 1.04). Table 1 displays the self-
reported height and weight of participants in comparison to their peers and if they started
their menstrual cycle. These data are presented for the total group and by grade. One girl
from the Girls on Track and soccer participant group neglected to complete the full

survey so only 134 girls completed the perceived competence subscales. The sample

43

 

 

Table l

Percentages of Weight, Height, and Menstrual Cycle for Total Sample and by Grade

 

All Groups 6‘h grade 7‘h grade 8th grade

 

Weight as Compared to Peers

Less 31.1 33.9 30.6 27.0
Same 44.4 38.7 47.2 51.4
More 23.0 25.8 19.4 21.6

Height as Compared to Peers
Shorter 23.0 27.4 16.7 21.6
Same 47.4 37.1 55.6 56.8
Taller 29.6 35.5 27.8 21.6

Started Menstrual Cycle

Yes 40.7 11.3 55.6 75.7
No 54.8 87.1 38.9 16.2

 

44

identified primarily as White American/ Caucasian (84%), while 5% identified as
multiracial, 4% identified as Middle Eastern, 3% identified as Native American, 1%
identified as Hispanic, 1% identified as Black American, 1% identified as Asian
American, and 1% did not report. Approximately 50% of the sample hadjoined their
respective program with a friend. Most of the participants (92%) were involved in
additional activities and 73% of the girls in the total sample liked to run. At post—test, 98
girls (ngm = 35, nsoccer = 19; nGOTand soccer : 13, no,” Scout = 31) completed the survey for a
28% attrition rate. One girl from the Girls on Track program and one girl from the Girl
Scouts neglected to complete a page of the survey. thus only 97 girls completed the
perceived competence subscales.

Girls on Track. At pre—test, 40 girls in the 6‘h grade participated in the study (Mage
= 1 1.51 years, SD = .37). Although the program was intended for 6‘“, 7m, and 8h graders,
an executive decision was made by the administrators of the program that only 6‘h graders
were allowed to participate. Participants had the Opportunity to participate in a similar
program for 3rd, 4‘“, and 5‘h graders called Girls on the Run (GOTR). Of the participants,
14 had never participated in GOTR, 15 had participated in GOTR for one year, and 11
had participated in GOTR for two years. Half of the girls (53%) hadjoined Girls on
Track with a friend and 88% of the girls were involved in other programs. Additionally,
88% of the girls liked to run. Thirty-five post-surveys were collected for a 88% return
rate. Of those who did not complete the post-survey, one participant had dropped out of
the program, one coach did not retum her team’s postnests, and two other participants did

not complete the post-test.

Girls on Track plus soccer. At pre-test, 14 girls in the 6th grade participated in the
current study (Mag? = 11.66 years, SD = .35). Of the participants, 5 had never participated
in GOTR, 8 had participated in GOTR for one year, and 1 had participated in GOTR for
two years. All 14 girls in this group liked to run and 71% of them had joined Girls on
Track with a friend. Thirteen post-surveys were collected for a 93%.retum rate.

Soccer. At pre—test, 35 girls in the 6‘“, (n = 5 ), 7‘h (n = 12), and 8‘“ (n = 18) grades
from 15 competitive/ travel teams participated in the study (Mage = 13.06 years, SD: .98).
The participants had played soccer for an average of 6.2 years (SD = 1.88). Sixty-three
percent of the girls joined soccer with a friend, 89% of them were involved in additional
activities, and 80% of the girls liked to run. Of the 26 post-surveys sent out, 19 were
returned for a 73% return rate.

Girl Scouts. At pre-test, 46 girls in the 6‘“, (n = 3), 7‘h (n = 24), and 8th (n = 19)
grades participated in the study (Mzlgc = 13.10 years, SD = .82). The girls had participated
in the Girl Scouts for an average of 6.6 years (SD = 1.79). Only 30% of the girls joined
Girl Scouts with a friend, 96% of them were involved in other programs, and only 48% of
the girls liked to run. Thirty-four post-surveys were returned for a 62% return rate.
Measures

Demographics. The demographics questionnaire (see Appendix A-C) assessed
participants’ age and race/ethnicity. It also assessed the number of years the participant
belonged to the particular program, whether she joined the program with a friend, and
involvement in other groups.

Perceived competence and self-esteem. Perceived competence was measured by a

modified Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (see Appendix D) (Harter, 1988).

46

Harter’s original questionnaire was designed using a structured-altemative format.
Because the questionnaire was administered in a large group setting, the structured-
altemative format was modified to a likert scale. Responses were given on a 4—point
likert-scale ranging from 1 (really true for you) to 4 (really not true for you). The present
study used five subscales that tap domain-specific judgments of competence and the
global self-worth subscale. The social subscale assessed interpersonal competence in
terms of one’s peers. The close friendship subscale examined one’s competence in
making close friends. The physical appearance subscale referred to the degree of
happiness an adolescent has with her body. The behavioral conduct subscale measured
how much an adolescent likes the way she behaves. The physical subscale primarily
assessed one’s athletic skills. Additionally, the global self-worth subscale examined the
degree to which one values the self. The construct, convergent, and discriminant
validities of the scale have been established (Harter). Harter reports internal consistency,
in the form of Cronbach’s Alpha, for the subscales ranging from .74 to .90. The reliability
for the subscales in the current study ranged between .71 and .78 (see Table 2 on page
56).

Attraction to physical activity. A modified Children’s Attraction to Physical
Activity scale (Brustad, 1993) assessed participants’ attraction to physical activity (see
Appendix E). The original questionnaire is presented in the structured-altemative format.
Because the questionnaire was administered in a large group setting, the structured-
altemative format was modified to a likert scale. Responses were given on a 4—point
likert-scale ranging from I (really truefor you) to 4 (really not truefor you).

Additionally, the original measure referred to the participants as kids. Because

47

participants in this study were on the verge of adolescence, the survey was modified to
refer to them as teenagers rather than kids. Similarly, Smith (1999) modified the scale to
refer to “teenagers” in his sample of 7‘h and 8th grade girls and boys.

This instrument contained five subscales regarding children’s attraction to
physical activity: vigorous activity (“some teenagers like exercising a whole lot”), liking
of sports (“some teenagers have more fun playing sports”), importance of physical
activity (“some teenagers think it is very important to always be in good shape”), peer
acceptance in sports (“some teenagers are popular with others in sports”), and fun of
physical exertion (“some teenagers don’t like getting sweaty”). Acceptable construct
validity has been established for the original measure (Brustad, 1999). Brustad (1993)
reports the internal consistencies, in the form of Cronbach’s Alpha, of the subscales range
from .62 to .78. Not all of the subscales displayed adequate reliability in the current
study. The peer acceptance and vigorous activity subscales did not present adequate
reliability (.32 and -.20 respectively) and, therefore, were not included in all analyses.
The liking of sports subscale also had a low reliability of .55; however when the item
“Some teenagers like playing outdoor sports and physical activities” was removed, the
reliability was .75. Therefore, this item was removed from the subscale. The importance
of physical activity (.67) and fun of physical exertion (.70) both showed adequate
reliability (see Table 2 on page 56).

Reasons for joining Girls on Track. This measure assessed the reasons that girls
join the Girls on Track program (see Appendix F). Responses were given on a 4-point
likert-scale ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 4 (extremely important). The measure

was created for this study by the primary researcher with the help of leaders of the Girls

48

on Track program. Because of the knowledge about the program, the instrument has
ecological validity.
Interview Guide

The interview guide (see Appendix G) was used during the semi-structured
interviews with the participants. The aim of these interviews was to understand further
the experiences of the girls in the three different programs and to understand the effects
these programs have on their lives. Probing questions, such as “why”, “how”, and “in
what way”, were used to glean deeper and more elaborate responses from the participants
and to help clarify their statements.

The first set of questions asked about the program (i.e., Girls on Track, soccer
team, or Girl Scouts). These questions helped the participant become used to talking to
the interviewer and provided general information about the program. The second set of
questions asked about changes the girls experienced because of participation in the
program. These questions tapped into domains of perceived competence and self-esteem.
The third set of questions delved into learning that occurred during the program and ways
participants used this information in their daily lives. The fourth set of questions asked
about support systems, namely, mentors or coaches and peers or teammates. These
questions focused on how adults and peers provide or do not provide appropriate
feedback, support, and encouragement to the participants. The final set of questions were
intended to close the interview, as participants gave their final thoughts about the
program.

Because data collection and data analysis are interwoven in qualitative

methodology, the primary researcher maintained an interviewer’s journal. The journal

49

served two purposes (Taylor & Bogdan, 1998). First, it was a place to record the topics
discussed during the interview. (Note: the interview guide does provide a record of the
topics discussed; however, it is possible that some interviews do not cover all topics due
to time constraints.) Second, the journal was a place to make notes about emerging
themes, interpretations, interactions between the interviewer and participant, and
nonverbal expressions or gestures that give further understanding to the participant’s
words.
Procedure

After approval from the human subjects review board was granted (see Appendix

H), the researcher gained approval from the leaders of the three programs, i.e., Girls on

Track program, soccer teams, and the Girl Scouts program, prior to conducting the study.

Girls on Track. Initially, the Girls on Track administration was to directly send
information about the study and the parental consent forms in an August mailing to
families. Because there was a low pre-registration and girls were still enrolling the week
prior to the Start of the program, no August mailing went out to parents. Therefore, the
primary researcher attended the first coaches’ meeting. At this time, packets containing
an instructional sheet (see Appendix I), parental consent forms (see Appendix J),
instructions for administering the surveys (see Appendix K) and the surveys were given
to each of the 14 coaches. The purpose of the study, as well as the directions were
discussed during the meeting and any questions the coaches had were answered. Twelve
consent forms and surveys were given to each coach, however, there were approximately
seven or eight girls on each team. Coaches handed out the parental consent forms to the

girls at their next practices. In all, 105 consent forms were handed out to girls. Within a

 

week, girls returned the signed consent form and at that time they completed the survey
during their practice. Ten coaches returned the signed consent forms and completed
surveys to the director of the program, from whom the primary researcher retrieved them.
In the end, 54 pre-surveys were completed, for a 54% return rate. Coaches administered
the pre—survey within two weeks of the start of the program.

Post—surveys and instructions (see Appendix L) were handed out to the coaches at
the last coaches meeting. To help the coaches remember who had completed the pre-
survey, the participant’s code was written on the survey. Post-tests were completed at
practice during the last week of the program, which was seven weeks after the pre-test
surveys were completed. Girls had not yet completed the 5K race when the post-surveys
were administered. Coaches returned the completed surveys to the administrator of the
program, who returned them to the primary researcher.

Of the signed consent forms, 38 parents gave consent for their daughters to be
interviewed. Parents who agreed to have their daughters interviewed were contacted via
the phone to set up a time for the interview. Interviews with eight girls from eight
different teams were conducted up to two weeks after completion of the program.
Audiotaped interviews occurred at the homes of the participants by the primary
researcher and lasted between 25 and 40 minutes.

Soccer. The primary researcher contacted the manager of an indoor soccer
facility. The manager gave permission to hand out surveys to girls before and after their
U12 and U14 games; however, he did not give contact information for the coaches nor
did he provide support beyond giving permission. During the second week of the season,

the primary researcher and an assistant attended seven soccer games with ten different

 

teams playing. It was hoped initially that girls would complete the survey on site;
however, players arrived typically right before the game and this was not possible.
Instead, the researcher and the assistant gave a brief explanation of the study to players
and parents and handed them a self—addressed stamped envelope, which contained the
parental consent form (see Appendix M) and the survey. Additionally, a sign at the
entrance encouraged U12 and U14 players to participate. Throughout the weekend, 95
surveys were handed out. Sixteen surveys were returned for a 17% return rate.

Because more participants were needed, the manager of two more indoor soccer
facilities was contacted. Again, permission was given to hand out surveys to girls before
and after their games. During the third week of the indoor soccer season, the researcher
and her assistant attended additional soccer games at the two soccer facilities. The
aforementioned procedure was used and l 12 surveys were handed out to players of U14
teams. Eighteen surveys were returned for a 16% return rate.

A follow-up mailing was sent to participants at the completion of their season.
This was six weeks after the pre-test for the first’group of players and five weeks after the
pre—test for the players from the two additional soccer facilities. Because not all the
participants provided a return address, only 26 of the 34 participants were sent the
mailing. The mailing included an introductory letter (see Appendix N), a post-survey, and
a self—addressed stamped return envelope. Additionally, parents who agreed to have their
daughters interviewed were contacted via the phone to set up a time for the interview. At
the completion of their indoor soccer season, interviews with six girls from six different

teams were conducted at their homes. A seventh interview was scheduled but was

52

 

 

cancelled due to illness. Audiotaped interviews occurred at the homes of the participants
by the primary researcher and lasted between 25 and 40 minutes.

Girl Scouts. Phone calls were made to Girl Scout Councils, 4-H youth agents, and
the Campfire Girls and Boys. Finally, a meeting with an Executive Director of a Girl
Scout Council was arranged. It was agreed that the primary researcher would attend a
cluster meeting and explain the purpose of the study and hand out mailings to the head
volunteers. The mailing included a letter from the Executive Director (see Appendix 0),
the parental consent form (see Appendix P), and the pre-survey. The head volunteers
would then distribute the materials to the Cadette troop leaders who would give them to
the girls in their troops. A signed parental consent form as well as the completed survey
would be returned to the troop leader who would mail all of them to the primary
researcher in a self-addressed stamped envelope. In this manner, 420 surveys were
expected to be distributed; however, only 16 completed surveys were returned from five
troops for a 4% return rate.

Follow—up conversations with the Executive Director revealed that the Cadette
troops had not organized as quickly as expected and thus some troops had only met once
within 12 weeks of the initial contact. It was decided that the Girl Scout Council would
send out a mailing directly to each of the 326 enrolled girls who had not yet'completed
the survey. The mailing included a cover letter from the Executive Director, parental
consent form, survey, and self-addressed stamped envelope. Thirty-nine additional
surveys were returned for a 12% return rate.

Twelve weeks after the first attempt at the pre-test and seven weeks after the

second mailing, post-surveys were sent to girls who completed the pre-survey. Addresses

were received from the Girl Scout Council. The mailing included a cover letter (see
Appendix Q), the survey, and a self-addressed stamped envelope. After the post—test
survey was mailed, parents who agreed to have their daughters interviewed were
contacted via the phone to set up a time for the interview. Interviews with five girls from
five different troops were conducted at their homes. Two additional interviews were
scheduled; however, one was cancelled due to illness. For the final interview, the
interviewer arrived at the house and the interviewee refused to participate. Audiotaped
interviews occurred at the homes of the participants by the primary researcher and lasted

between 25 and 40 minutes.

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS

Correlations of Dependent Variables

The correlations among the pre-season dependent variables are reported in Table
2. The correlations among the post-season dependent variables are presented in Table 3.
The perceived competence subscales and the self-worth scale were low to moderately
correlated in a positive direction for both the pre- and post-season dependent variables.
These correlations reflected those reported by Harter (1988). It was surprising and
unexpected that the correlation between post-season perceived physical competence and
perceived behavioral conduct competence as well as self-worth decreased from the pre-
season relationships. As expected, there was a moderate, positive relationship between
perceived physical competence and the attraction to physical activity subscales.
Interestingly, the fun of physical exertion subscale revealed a moderate, positive
correlation with each of the perceived competence subscales. The correlations between
the pre-season and post-season dependent variables are presented in Table 4. The
diagonal of this table displayed a moderate to high, positive correlation between each
subscale at pre—test and at post-test.
Participation Motives

The first research question examined why girls joined the Girls on Track program.
Means and standard deviations for the Girls on Track group (see Table 5) and the Girls
on Track plus soccer group (see Table 6) were computed to determine the most and least
important reasons for participation in the Girls on Track program. The four most

important reasons forjoining the Girls on Track group program were to have

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58

Table 5

Participation Motives of Girls on Track Members (n = 40)

 

 

Motive M SD
Like to have fun 3.67 .52
Like the coaches 3.57 .75
Like to meet new friends 3.52 .60
Want to become a better person 3.47 .68
Want to improve my running skills 3.42 .67
Want to stay in shape 3.42 .67
Like to feel important 3.42 .75
Like to be physically active 3.41 .64
Like the team spirit 3.35 .80
Like the teamwork 3.35 .62
Like to do something I am good at 3.30 .76
Like being on a team 3.15 .80
Like to exercise 3.15 .66
Like to learn about myself 3.13 .77
Want to be with my friends 3.13 .89
Want to get in shape or get stronger 3.10 .84
Like the challenge 3.05 .75
Like to have something to do 3.05 .81
Like to learn about others 3.02 .70
My parents wanted me to participate 2.70 .99

59

Table 5 (continued)

 

 

Motive M SD
My friends wanted me to participate 2.35 .95
My teacher wanted me to participate 2.12 1.16
Wanted to be pOpular with others 2.12 .88

 

60

Table 6

Participation Motives ofGirls on Track Plus Soccer Group (n = 14)

 

 

Motive M SD
Like to have fun 3.71 .61
Like to exercise 3.50 .52
Like the teamwork 3.46 .66
Like the team spirit 3.43 .65
Like the coaches 3.36 .93
Want to become a better person 3.36 .84
Like to be physically active 3.36 .74
Like being on a team 3.36 .84
Like the challenge 3.36 .93
Want to improve my running Skills 3.29 .73
Like to feel important 3.23 .93
Like to meet new friends 3.21 .97
Want to stay in shape 3.21 .58
Like to do something I am good at 3.14 .95
Want to get in shape or get stronger 2.92 .64
Want to be with my friends 2.86 .95
Like to learn about others 2.86 .66
Like to learn about myself 2.78 .70
Like to have something to do 2.78 1.19
2.28 1.14

My parents wanted me to participate

61

Table 6 (continued)

 

 

Motive M SD
Wanted to be popular with others 2.28 1.33
My friends wanted me to participate 2.00 1.11
My teacher wanted me to participate 1.71 .99

 

fun, liked the coaches, liked to meet new friends, and to become a better person. The four
most important reasons for girls in the Girls on Track plus soccer groupjoining the
program were to have fun, liked to exercise, liked the teamwork, and liked the team
spirit. Girls in both groups scored their respective reasons as mid-three on a 4-point scale,
meaning these were extremely important motives forjoining the program. The least
important reasons given for joining the program for both groups were parents, teachers,
or friends wanted them to join and to be popular with Others. Girls scored these reasons at
a two or slightly above on a 4-point scale, meaning these were only somewhat important
motives.
Changes in Self-perceptions of Girls on Track Participants

The second research question considered changes in the perceptions of
competence, self-worth, and attraction to physical activity of the Girls on Track group
from pre- to post-test. Paired t-tests were used to examine Changes in the perceived
competence subscales, self-worth, and attraction to physical activity subscales. The
means and standard deviations of the pre- and post-season dependent variables for the
Girls on Track group who completed both surveys can be found in Table 7. As seen in the
summary of t-tests shown in Table 8, participants increased their perceived social,
physical, and physical appearance competence and their fun of physical exertion from
pre- to post-season as hypothesized. These changes produced a small to moderate effect
size (d), meaning that the relative magnitude of the changes from pre- to post-test were
small to moderate. Also, as hypothesized, there was no change in the perceived close

friendship competence from pre- to post-season. Counter to the hypotheses, there was no

63

Table 7
Pre- and Post-Season Means and Standard Deviations of the Perceived Competence,

Self-worth, and Attraction to Physical Activity Scales for Girls on Track Group (n = 35)

 

 

Pre-season Post-season

Variable M SD M SD
Perceived social competence 2.843 .57 3.00,, .64
Perceived close friendship 2.99 .81 3.07 .75
competence

Perceived physical competence 2.81b .63 2.97b .62
Perceived physical appearance 2.86C .59 3.03C .51
competence

Perceived behavioral conduct 2.96 .64 3.03 .57
competence

Self-worth 3.19 .48 3.28 .47
Liking of physical activity 3.33 .59 3.31 .67
Importance of physical activity 3.08 .48 2.92 .62
Fun of physical exertion 2.63,, .61 2.87,; .56

 

Note. Means having the same subscript differ significantly at p < .05.

64

Table 8

Summary Table of Paired T—tests for Changes in Dependent Variable of Girls on Track

 

 

Members

Dependent variable t df p d
Perceived social competence -2.15 33 .04 .28
Perceived close friendship -l.25 33 .22 .12
competence

Perceived physical -2.26 33 .03 .26
competence

Perceived physical -2.15 33 .04 .32
appearance competence

Perceived behavioral conduct -.96 33 .34 .12
competence

Self-worth -1.24 33 .22 .19
Liking of physical activity .25 34 .80 -.02
Importance of physical 1.67 34 .10 -.09
activity

Fun of physical exertion -2.76 34 .009 .42

 

65

change in perceived behavioral conduct competence or self-worth from the beginning to
the end of the program.
Comparisons among the Girls on Track, Girls on Track Plus Soccer, Soccer, and Girl
Scout Participants on Dependent Variables

The second question also sought to examine differences among participants in
Girls on Track, Girls on Track plus soccer, soccer, and the Girl Scouts at the end of the
season. Because of the exploratory nature of these analyses, no hypotheses were
forwarded. Pre-test and post-test scores on the dependent variables for the Girls on Track,
Girls on Track plus soccer, soccer, and Girl Scouts participants are displayed in Table 9.
Girls on Track had the lowest levels of pre-season social and perceived close friendship
competence, while the Girl Scouts had the lowest levels of pre-season perceived physical
competence and perceived physical appearance competence. The pre-season means of all
variables were highest for either the Girls on Track plus soccer group or the soccer group
as compared to the other two groups. At post-test, Girls on Track members had made
gains in perceived social competence to the same level of the Girl Scouts. Members of
the Girl Scouts still had the lowest levels of perceived physical competence at post-test,
while the Girls on Track plus soccer group had the lowest levels of perceived physical
appearance competence at post-test. Two steps were used to fully answer this question.
First, differences among groups on the pre-test dependent variables were examined.
Second, post-test scores were analyzed for programmatic differences among the groups.

In order to determine if differences on the perceptions of competence, self-worth,
and attraction to physical activity existed at pre-test among the groups, a series of One-

Way Analyses of Variance (ANOVAS) were conducted. The ANOVA summary (see

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Table 10) showed significant differences in perceived social, close friendship, and
physical competence as well as the three attraction to physical activity subscales.
Bonferroni post hoc tests showed the following differences for the perceived
competencies: (a) participants in the Girls on Track program experienced lower perceived
social competence than those in the soccer program, p < .01 and Girl Scouts, p < .05; (b)
Girls on Track members showed lower perceived close friendship competence than those
in the Girl Scouts, p < .05; and (c) participants in the Girl Scouts demonstrated lower
perceived physical competence than those in the soccer program, p < .05, and Girls on
Track plus soccer group, p < .05. Although they did not reach the designated alpha level,
the following differences did approach significance and were of theoretical interest to the
study: participants in the Girls on Track program experienced lower perceived social
competence than Girls on Track plus soccer group, p < .10, and Girls on Track members
displayed lower self-worth than those in soccer program, p < .10. Additionally,
Bonfermoi post-hoc tests revealed the following differences among groups on the
attraction to physical activity subscales: (a) soccer players experienced higher liking of
physical activity than the Girl Scouts, p < .01, and Girls on Track members, p < .05;- (b)
the Girls on Track plus soccer group displayed a higher liking of physical activity than
the Girl Scouts, p < .05; (c) soccer players demonstrated a higher importance of physical
activity than Girls on Track members, p < .05, and Girl Scouts, p < .10; (d) soccer players
showed higher fun of physical exertion than Girls on Track participants, p < .01, the Girls
on Track plus soccer group, p < .01, and Girl Scouts p < .01; and ((1) Girl Scouts showed
higher fun of physical exertion than Girls on Track members, p < .05. Because

differences existed among the groups at pre-test, the pre-test scores of the dependent

69

 

 

 

 

Table 10

Analysis of Variance for Comparison ofPre~Iest Variables by Group

 

Between Groups

 

Within Groups

 

 

Variable df F p 85 df SS
Perceived social 3 5.41 .002 5.09 130 40.71
competence

Perceived close friendship 3 3.70 .014 5.19 130 60.89
competence

Perceived physical 3 4.57 .004 4.18 130 39.58
competence

Perceived physical 3 .94 .42 1.11 130 51.20
appearance competence

Perceived behavioral 3 1.64 .18 1.50 130 39.73
conduct competence

Self-worth 3 2.37 .07 1.89 130 34.49
Liking of physical activity 3 10.03 .00 8.56 131 37.26
Importance of physical 3 3.46 .02 3.01 131 38.05
activity

Fun of physical exertion 3 17.70 .00 21.21 131 52.31

 

70

variables were used as a covariate when analyzing differences among the group due to
programmatic differences. As a covariate, the pre—test, will account for and

absorb the possible impact of potential confounding variables (Rubin, 1974). A series of
One-Way Analyses of Covariance (ANCOVAs) were conducted to determine differences
in the dependent variables among the groups at the post-test after controlling for their
pre-test scores. After controlling for the pre-test, the new calculated means and standard
errors at post-test can be found in Table 1 1. No significant differences were found among
the groups at post-test on the following dependent variables: perceived social
competence, F (3,91) = .70, p = .56, perceived close friendship competence, F (3,91) =
1.78, p = .16, perceived behavioral conduct competence, F (3,91) = .40, p = .75, self-
worth, F (3,91) = 1.53, p = .21, liking of physical exertion, F (3,93) = 1.80, p = .15,
importance of physical activity, F (3,93) = 1.85, p = .14, or fun of physical activity, F
(3,93) = 50, p = .68. Perceived physical appearance competence was significant, F (3,91)
= .304, p = .03 with Bonferonni post hoc tests showing Girls on Track members having
higher perceived physical appearance competence than the Girls on Track plus soccer
group, p < .05.

A two-step approach was used to examine programmatic differences among the
groups. Results showed that differences existed among the groups at the pre-test on select
dependent variables. Controlling for the pre-test score on the dependent variable removed
differences among groups so that any differences that remained on the dependent variable
at post-test were due to the program. Results showing the greater perceived physical
appearance competence of the Girls on Track group as compared to the Girls on Track

plus soccer group suggest that the Girls on Track program has different effects for

71

 

 

 

 

 

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different girls. Additionally, the result showing the lower perceived physical competence
scores in Girl Scout members as compared to both Girls on Track group and soccer group
suggests the difference was due to involvement in the Girl Scout program.
Experiences in the Program

The third research question addressed the need to hear the experiences of girls in
the three programs. Analysis of the data began during the actual interviews and the
review of the interviewer’s journal. After the data were collected, the data analysis
consisted of familiarization with the data, open coding, and axial coding (Strauss &
Corbin, 1990). Familiarization with the interview data began with transcribing each
interview verbatim. The transcripts were read several times to become informed about
their general content. Second, open coding consisted of two researchers independently
identifying themes and patterns emerging from the data (Patton, 1987). The codes were
compared and discussed until the two researchers obtained consensus (Scanlan, Ravizza,
& Stein, 1989). Third, axial coding was used to identify higher order themes from the
open coding categories (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). During axial coding, associations and
connections among open coding categories were discovered and meaning or significance
was attached to the analysis (Patton, 1987). Similar to the process in open coding, two
researchers independently generated the themes and patterns and discussion of the
analysis occurred between these two researchers until consensus was reached.

Eight Girls on Track members, six soccer players, and five Girl Scouts were
interviewed. The data from the three different programs were analyzed separately. This
allowed for the uncovering of similarities and differences among the programs in both the

experiences of the girls in the program and the outcome of their involvement in the

74

program. The presentation of themes is organized into two main sections. The first
section explores the experiences of the girls in their respective program. Although not
expected, the data also showed the various outcomes of the programs, especially in terms
of girls applying information to their daily life. Thus, the second section explores the
outcomes of involvement in the particular activity. Both sections will present the major
themes and then explore similarities and differences among the groups in terms of the
subthemes. The percentage and number of participants who responded within a theme
and subtheme are displayed in a table accompanying the text for both the complete
sample and separated by group. Although a participant may have multiple coded quotes
within a theme and subtheme, the participant is only tallied once. Because a participant
may have been coded into multiple subthemes within a theme, the percentages and the
numbers of the subthemes may be greater than the percentages and numbers listed in the
theme. Additionally, all the coded statements of participants can be found in the
appendixes listed with the theme.

The first section to be explored is the experiences of girls in their programs. The
intent was to gain a deeper understanding of girls’ thoughts and feelings about the time
spent in Girls on Track, soccer, or Girl Scouts. Data in this major category were coded
into one of four themes: program information, learning that occurred, teamwork, and
social support. For each theme, a brief introduction of the theme will be given as well as
the introduction and exploration of subthemes.

Program Information
The theme of program information investigates general information about the

program given by the interviewees (see Table 12 and Appendix R). This theme represents

75

 

how interviewees comprehend the purpose of their particular program. Subthemes that
emerged in this theme are: general description of program, likes of program, dislikes of
program, difficult parts of program, and learning from difficult parts.

General description of the programs. When asked to describe their program to
another girl, girls from all three groups stated that their program was fun (n = 12). A Girls
on Track member explained, “I would tell her we had this really fun lesson and then had
activities and then we ran for awhile. And we did things to make the running more fun.”
Additionally, girls from all three programs would describe the importance of being with
or making new friends (n = 8). A Girl Scout said, “That we have a lot of girls in our troop
and we wouldn’t mind having someone join because it is more people that we can work
with to make a team.” Some Girls on Track participants, when asked to describe the
program, discussed the importance of their coaches (n = 2). As one participant stated, “I
would tell her the coaches, even if you might not like them in the beginning, in the end
they are really, really nice to you.” Three Girls on Track members and a Girl Scout used
the educational aspects of the program to describe their program. For example, a Girls on
Track member reported, “(I would explain) that we would do lessons and usually they
would be about your life and stuff and it would be fun.” Girl Scouts often described their

program as a safe place (n = 5).

Well, things like September 11m and other things like that, you don’t really feel
safe all the time. When we are all together (as a troop) and we are all having fun,

you don’t really worry about that. You know in some incidences you don’t always

feel safe and that is not an issue with Girl Scouts. (Girl Scout)

 

Table 12

Percentage and Number ofParticipants within Program Information for the Complete

Sample and Separated by Group

 

 

Program Information Samplea Girls on Trackb SoccerC Girl Scoutsd
Program Descriptor 100 (19) 100 (19) 100 (19) 100 (19)
It is fun 63 (12) 31 (6) 10 (2) 21 (4)
Be with or make friends 42 (8) 16 (3) 5(1) 21 (4)
Program as escape 26 (5) 0 (O) 0 (O) 26 (5)
Educational aspects 21 (4) 16 (3) 0 (0) 5 (1)
Demands of activity 16 (3) O (O) 16 (3) 0 (0)
Coaches 10 (2) 10 (2) O (O) 0 (0)
Likes 95 (18) 37 (7) 31 (6) 26 (5)
Peers 84 (16) 37 (7) 31 (6) 18(3)
Physical activity 26(5) 16(3) 10(2) 0(0)
Coaches 21 (4) 21 (4) 0(0) 0(0)
Travel 21 (4) 0(0) 0(0) 21 (4)
Helping others 10 (2) O (0) 0(0) 10(2)
Dislikes 68 (13) 26(5) 26(5) 18(3)
Activities 21 (4) 5(1) 0(0) 18(3)
Poor weather 18 (3) 18 (3) 0 (O) O (0)
Injuries 10(2) 0 (0) 10 (2) 0(0)
Coach 5(1) 0(0) 5(1) 0(0)
Equipment 5 (l) O (O) 5 (1) 0(0)

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Table 12 (continued)

 

 

Program Information Sample3 Girls on Trackb SoccerC Girl Scoutsd
Dislikes
Dedication 5 (1) O (O) 5 (1) O (0)
Snacks 5(1) 5(1) 0(0) 0(0)
Challenges 79 (15) 26(5) 31 (6) 21 (4)
When task is difficult 52 (10) 10(2) 26(5) 16(3)
Interacting with others 16 (3) 10 (2) 0 (O) 5 (1)
Asthma 10(2) 5(1) 5(1) 0(0)
Learn from Challenges 47 (9) 16 (3) 16 (3) IO (2)
Dedication 26(5) 5 (1) 16(3) 5 (1)
Social skills 16(3) 5(1) 0(0) 10(2)
Respect body 5 (1) 5 (l) 0 (0) O (O)

 

Note. The number of participants mentioning the source is in the parentheses.

aTotal sample, N = 19; bGirls on Track, n = 8; cSoccer players, n = 6; dGirl Scouts, n: 5.

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For these girls, troop activities were a place where they could go, relax, perhaps forget
about being sad or upset, and feel a sense of security. On the other hand, soccer
participants tended to discuss the demands of playing soccer when describing the

program (n = 3).

It is a physical sport and a mental sport. You need a lot of team encouragement,
you need to use your team, and that will help you out. It is physical because you
need to use your body and stuff and it is mental because you need to know how to

play and do moves and believe in yourself. (Soccer player)

Playing a team sport put certain pressures on a person and these soccer players were
aware of that.

Likes ofthe programs. Peers were a major source of enjoyment and pleasure for
many of the girls in the three programs (n = 16). Being with and making new friends was

an aspect that girls really liked about their program, as explained by this soccer player.

(During soccer) you get to meet some new girls. I don’t think it is really fun just
hanging out with the same group of people so I try to get along with everybody at

my school and outside of my school so then Ican just meet new people. (Soccer

player)

Interestingly, some of the girls mentioned the importance of being in the program with

same-age peers, as highlighted by this Girls on Track member, “I actually liked it better

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in the 6‘h grade than in the 5‘h grade because all the girls are my age.” For the Girls on
Track participants, coaches played an important role in the program as most girls cited

their coach as a favorite part of the program (n = 4).

Well, I kind of liked the coaches because they were really nice to us and instead
ofjust coming and showing up and getting right to business, they talked a little bit
about stuff — like, lessons and stuff like that to learn for life. (Girls on Track

member)

Both participants in Girls on Track program and soccer players revealed that the physical
activity was a favorite part of their program (n = 5). A soccer player stated, “Well, I
really like to run a lot and I really like to handle the ball. I really like to play the forward
position and midfield because I like to run.” In a different vein, Girl Scouts reported that
traveling (n = 4), and helping others (n = 2) were favorite parts of the program. One
member explained, “Our trips are always just really nice. We are just together, we do fun
things, and I think all of it just makes me feel good about myself,” while another one
reported, “I also like the community service because it feels good to know you are
helping other peOple.” The likes that interviewees had of their program probably resulted
from the focus of the program. In other words, the Girl Scouts’ focus on community
service and this was revealed as a like of that program.

Dislikes of the programs. Girls from all three programs revealed pieces of their
program that they did not enjoy. For Girls on Track members, the major complaint was

the weather (n = 3), as highlighted by this quote, “When we had to go outside in the cold.

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It was really cold and windy and then it started raining.” The poor weather was a result of
the program running in the late fall and early winter. One Girl on Track participant stated,
“(I dislike) the snacks — they could be better.” Many of the Girl Scouts disliked some of
the activities they had to complete for their badges (n = 4), as described by this girl, “I
wasn’t really impressed with the wildlife badge. They (the activities) just didn’t have
(any) meaning to it — just boring.”

Soccer players did not report one main dislike of their program, instead the
responses varied by the interviewee. Two soccer players highlighted getting hurt as a
dislike of the program (“Certain contacts — I broke my arm last fall”). One player replied,
“Maybe my coach. I just don’t like him.” Another player stated, “(I dislike) getting all of
my stuff on,” while the final player explained, “Probably the hard work and dedication
you need because it is tiring and you have to be there like every practice even if you don’t
want to.”

Difficult parts of the programs and learning from the difliculty. A common
challenge of being in their respective program for girls was engaging in difficult tasks (n
= 10). A soccer player said, “Ifl can’t really get a open pass, it is kind of hard to dribble
through a lot of girls,” while a Girls on Track member stated, “I was running (the practice
5K) with one of my teachers. We ran the whole thing and that was hard.” From these
experiences, many of the girls learned the importance of dedication to both the task and
the respective program (n = 5). A Girl Scout explained, “Sometimes you will get
frustrated and you think you are going to skip out and then at the last second you get the
energy and youjust, and youjust kind of earn it (the badge)” Dealing with asthma was

difficult for a participant in the Girls on Track program and for a soccer member.

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There was this one day I had this cough and I couldn’t run so Ijust walked. I
really wanted to run that day because I felt all energetic and Ijust wanted to get it
out. But, my mom said I couldn’t because I would start coughing and I have

asthma. (Girls on Track member)

From her experience with asthma, this particular girl learned, “how to respect my body.”
Additionally, it was difficult for two Girls on Track members and a Girl Scout to interact
with their teammates. A Girls on Track member revealed, “Sometimes getting along with
everybody. Sometimes we would see different views about the same thing and some of
the girls wouldn’t want to run some days so it was hard sometimes.” Girls in these
programs had to learn to work with teammates they may not know very well or not like.
From these interactions a Girl Scout learned “Sometimes, well most of the time, you end
up finding something you like about the people you don’t like, because you work with
them trying to accomplish something together.” This sentiment was echoed by two other
girls.
Teamwork

Each program demanded that girls work as a team in different ways (see Table I3
and Appendix S). Girls on Track and soccer members had to work together to accomplish
both individual and group tasks, such as making sure everyone finished the 5K race or
trying to win a soccer match. The concept of teamwork is a bit more obscure in the Girl
Scout program, yet girls must work together in this program to have successful troop

meetings and to earn badges. A series of questions in the interview guide asked girls

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about their experiences working as a team. Four subthemes emerged: learning about
teamwork, ease of working as a team, difficulties working as a team, and coping with the
difficult time.

Learning about teamwork. Girls in all three programs discussed that through their
program they had learned how to work effectively as a team (n = 12). A Girl Scout
explains, “Patience — lots of patience — you must have a lot of patience, because different
personalities can be good or bad. Sometimes different personalities can be bad and you
just have to have patience with others.” Because girls had to perform together in their
program, many of them learned how to work successfully as a team. Some Girls on Track
participants and soccer players learned benefits of working as a team (n = 4). The benefits
of working as a team for these girls included the lessening of individual pressure of the
task as described by this soccer player, “It (teamwork) helps you build up your
confidence in that it is easier on you. If you think the goal is your fault, people are all like
‘it is not your fault’ and it helps you regain your confidence and know it wasn’t your
fault.” Two Girls on Track members and a Girl Scout learned that teamwork is difficult

and hard at times.

It was not always easy. In fact, it was very hard. You just had to try to work with
everybody and listen to everybody’s ideas. It was hard because not everyone
wanted to do the same idea. I can remember even having a fight in my own group
and trying to blend everyone’s ideas together to come up 'with one idea that would
have each person’s idea in it so everyone would be happy. (Girls on Track

member)

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Table 13

Percentage and Number of Participants within Teamwork for the Complete Sample and

 

 

Separated by Group
Program Information Sample‘1 Girls on Trackb SoccerC Girl Scouts6
Learning about teamwork 95 (18) 42 (8) 26 (5) 26 (5)
Working effectively 63 (12) 16 (3) 21 (4) 26 (5)
Benefits 21 (4) 10 (2) 10 (2) O (0)
Teamwork is difficult 16(3) 10(2) 0(0) 5 (1)
Choosing teams 5 (I) 5 (1) O (0) 0 (0)
Easy working as a team 68 (13) 31 (6) 26(5) 10(2)
Teammate agreement 26 (5) 21 (4) 5 (l) O (0)
Working known people 26 (5) 0 (0) l6 (3) 10 (2)
Good performance 10 (2) 0 (0) 10 (2) 0 (0)
Fun activity 5 (I) 5 (l) 0 (O) O (0)
Absent members 5 (l) 5 (1) O (0) 0 (O)
Difficult working as a team 79 (15) 31 (6) 31 (6) 16(3)
Lack of cooperation 42 (8) 16 (3) 21 (4) 5 (1)
Differing abilities 10(2) 5(1) 5(1) 0(0)
Unmotivated teammates 10 (2) S (1) 5 (1) O (0)
Encouraging underachievers 5 (l) 5 (1) 0 (O) O (0)
Large group 5 (l) O (O) O (0) 5(1)
Don’t like teammate 5 (1) 0(0) 0(0) 5 (1)
Losing 5(1) 0(0) 5(1) 0(0)

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Table 13 (continued)

 

 

Program Information Sample"l Girls on Trackb SoccerC Girl Scouts‘J

COping with Challenge 79 (15) 37 (7) 21 (4) 21 (4)
Went with the flow 26(5) 5 (1) 5(1) 16(3)

Took turns 26(5) 10(2) 10(2) 5 (I)

Relied on coach 21 (4) 10 (2) 10 (2) O (O)

Encouragement l6 (3) 16 (3) 0 (0) 0 (0)

Ignore each other 10 (2) 5 (l) 5 (l) O (0)

Discussed feelings 5 (l) 5 (1) O (O) O (0)

Accepted others 5 (1) 5 (1) 0 (0) O (O)

Yelled 5 (1) 0(0) 5 (1) 0(0)

 

Note. The number of participants mentioning the source is in the parentheses.

aTotal sample, N = 19; bGirls on Track, n = 8; CSoccer players, n = 6; dGirl Scouts, n: 5.

Finally, one Girls on Track member recalled how the program challenged her to meet
new people through teamwork, “When we had to choose teams, instead of choosing our
friends, like go to someone you don’t know very much.”

Ease of working as a team. There were many different ways that it was easy to
work as a team. Many Girls on Track participants and one soccer player felt it was easy

working as a team when the team was in agreement with each other (n = 5).

When everyone was ready to run and we all were feeling extra hyper and just
good. Because everyone was happy and they weren’t like “oh my gosh, she is
wearing weird clothes” or anything like that. We just didn’t care and we were just

ready to run. (Girls on Track member)

One Girls on Track member noted working as a team was easy, “when we would do a lot
of fun games and we would get a lot of cool stuff from our coaches.” For her, engaging in
activities that the team enjoyed made teamwork easy. Finally, a Girls on Track member

felt teamwork was easy when disruptive members were absent.

When there were only a few girls there. Like when most of the talkative ones
were absent or they were in honor’s choir. It was a lot easier because, then you
were able to listen to what the coaches were saying and that without the people

talking.

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For both soccer players and Girl Scouts, it was easy working as a team when they were

working with someone that they knew (n = 5).

My good friends are on the team. My one really good friend has been on the team
for the past few years. And it is really easy when we are working the forward
(position) together. She knows that I am right there and I know she is right there.

It is like we pass it back and forth to each other. (Soccer player)

It is likely that these responses came from girls in these two programs because they had
been a member of the team and troop for many years. It was also easy for some soccer
players to work as a team “when we are doing well” (n = 2).

Difficulties working as a team. It was difficult to work as a team for some
members of all three groups when there was a lack of cooperation or disagreement among

the group members (n = 8).

If the girls (teammates) aren’t really like you, it is kind of hard to get to know
them a little bit. You just don’t get along. It is kind of hard because sometimes
they will be screaming and yelling at you and saying to do this and then your
coaches are telling you to do that. So you do that and then they (the teammates)

get all mad at you because you didn’t do what they said. (Soccer player)

For one Girls on Track and one soccer member, it was difficult to work as a team when

they had to adapt to different ability levels. As a soccer player stated, “If some people

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aren’t so good on your team you don’t really want to give the ball to them but you kind of
have to.” Another Girls on Track and soccer member experienced difficulty when
teammates were unmotivated, as highlighted by this soccer player, “We just sit around
and did nothing.” One soccer player had difficulty working as a team when “when we are
losing and everyone just wants to get the ball so they can score.” One Girl Scout believed
teamwork was hard when, “there is a lot of people involved or things are not very
organized,” while another Girl Scout had difficulty when “I am stuck with someone I
don’t like.” The girls in these programs experienced difficulties working as a team for
various reasons, the next subtheme explores how they coped with these difficult times.
Coping with difficulty. When having to cope with a difficult time, girls from all
the programs reported they tried to go with the flow (n = 5) in an attempt to get over the
difficulty and move on to the next task. For example, a Girl Scout just “decided to get it
over with andjust not to let her get on my nerves.” Girls also tried to take turns (n = 5).

By taking turns, girls tried not to leave others out and tried to include everyone.

We would like, I mean it was hard because we would have to take turns and listen
to each other. Everyone wanted to talk at the same time and we just needed to
listen to each other and say ‘well, it is this person’s turn, lets see what we think of
this idea.’ Everybody’s like ‘well, this part of the idea is good and I really like this
part of the idea’ andjust blending them together and making it so everyone can

have their idea in just one thing. (Girls on Track participant)

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I think basically in the end we all say ‘okay, one person talk. This is the talking
pencil.’ We have done things like that in the past. Whoever has the talking pencil

can talk — you can only talk if you have the pencil. (Girl Scout)

As a cooperative environment, some girls in the Girls on Track program dealt with the
difficult times by encouraging each other, including the discussion of feelings and
accepting others (n = 2). As one participant stated, “We would talk about our feelings. By
telling them how you feel, we would end up working as a team.” A couple of girls would
simply ignore the difficulty (e.g., “I just sometimes ignore it and others just ignore her”).
From time to time, however, some girls in the Girls on Track and some girls in the soccer
programs could not get through the difficult times and had to rely on their coaches for
help (n = 4). One Girls on Track participant recalled, “(The coach) asked them like ten
times to stop talking. They finally listened to her and stopped talking.” Finally, one
soccer player stated, “Certain girls on the team get mad at her and start yelling at her.”
Social Support

An important piece of the experience in a particular program is the social support
received by both peers and coach or troop leader (see Table 14 and Appendix T). Peers
and adults, together, play a major role in shaping the experience a girl will have in the
program. Interviewees were asked specifically about social support they received in their
program. Two subthemes emerged: adult support and peer support.

Adult social support. Coaches and troop leaders provided social support to
participants through giving encouragement and compliments (n = 9) and helping players

out (n = 8). The encouragement and compliments from coaches and troop leaders came in

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the form of high 53, cheers, and comments such as “goodjob.” The quote below

highlights the positive effect of a coach’s social support.

Because of the coaches, because they told us to “keep it up and you are doing
good” and stuff like that. And then that just made it more fun. Now, when I run I

have those voices in my head. (Girls on Track member)

The help that coaches and troop leaders gave differed based on the program. Coaches
tended to help their soccer players by working with them to improve their soccer skills.
As one soccer player stated, “He is always helping me and showing me better ways to do
things and (I can) try to do it better.” Girls on Track coaches and Girl Scout leaders
helped their troop or team through teaching the girls skills and different strategies.

In addition to encouragement and help, coaches of the Girls on Track program

provided additional support by active participation (n = 5) and talking to the girls (n = 3).

[fl was having a bad day at school or something, they would say like “Oh, its
okay. Just run and you will feel better.” And they talked to us about it and made

sure we got that they were there for us and we could talk to them. (Girls on Track

member)

Besides encouragement and support, coaches of the soccer teams provided support by

being sensitive to the positions their players preferred playing (n = 2). Furthermore,

coaches used tenets of the positive approach to coaching (n = 3). A soccer player

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Table 14

Percentage and Number of Participants within Social Support for the Complete Sample

and Separated by Group

 

 

Program Information Sample‘1 Girls on Trackb SoccerC Girl ScoutsT
Adult Support 100 ('19) 42(8) 31 (6) 26 (5)
Encouragement 47 (9) 26 (5) IO (2) 10 (2)
Help 42(8) 5(1) 26(5) 10(2)
Active participation 26 (5) 26 (5) O (O) O (0)
Positive coaching 21 (4) 5 (1) l6 (3) 0(0)
Talked to us 21 (4) 16(3) 0(0) 5 (l)
_ Lack of support 16 (3) 0(0) 16 (3) 0(0)
Sensitivity 10 (2) 0(0) 10(2) 0(0)
Leadership 10 (2) 0 (O) 0 (0) 10 (2)
Peer Support 100 (19) 42 (8) 31 (6) 26 (5)
Encouragement 73 (14) 31 (6) 26 (5) l6 (3)
Help 63 (12) 31 (6) 21 (4) 10(2)
Emotional support 26 (5) 5 (1) S (l) 16 (3)
Lack of support 16 (3) 10(2) 5 (1) 0(0)

 

Note. The number of participants mentioning the source is in the parentheses.

“Total sample, N = 19; bGirls on Track, n = 8; CSoccer players, it = 6; dGirl Scouts, n: 5.

91

explains, “He doesn’t make us run a lot of laps and he doesn’t do it as punishment or
anything...He lets everybody play during the games.” Although most girls discussed
positive support from their coach or troop leader, three girls did mention times when their
soccer coach would get angry and yell (n =3) at the team.

Peer social support. The primary way that teammates from all programs provided
social support was through encouragement (n = 14). The following quotes exemplify how

teammates supply support to their teammates.

Like the girl who was in front of me for the 5K, like maybe every, like 5 minutes
she would turn around and go “way to go Nicole, you can do it” and I would say

it like back to her. (Girls on Track member)

We get encouraged a lot by each other and we tell each other good job after you
score. . .They (teammates) tell you like to go and shoot and they tell you “you can
do it” and they help you. We know we are there for each other and we have

learned that it is better to work as a team. (Soccer player)

If I want to do something and I am not so sure about doing it, they are there to

back me up. They are like a second family to me. (Girl Scout)

Teammates from all the programs also spent time helping one another (n = 12). For
members of Girls on Track, this typically took the form of helping a teammate finish a

run during practice or the 5K.

I would have to hold someone’s hand because they would be really dizzy or
something. So I was like “It is okay, just keep going, you are almost there”...It
made me feel really good and like they trusted me to hold onto them so they could

keep running (the 5K). (Girls on Track member)

Soccer players tried to help each other learn skills and help each other when they did
something wrong, while Girl Scouts helped each other finish projects. Additionally, a
member of Girls on Track and three Girl Scouts felt that their teammates provided them

with emotional support.

Like if I would be sad, they would talk to me about it. Like stuff I couldn’t talk
about around my mom or my dad or my coaches or even my other friends. (Girls

on Track member)

Although all girls discussed the positive support received from peers, two girls in the
Girls on Track program stated there were also occasions when they received a lack of
support from teammates. For example, one member recalls a time when, “everyone else
was always supportive of her and we were both running at the same time and they were
cheering for her only.” These negative feelings stuck in the mind of the two girls;
however, it is difficult to say to what extent they colored their experiences in the

program.

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Overall, girls in these three programs received positive social assistance from
coaches or troop leaders and peers. Through encouragement and help of others, girls felt
supported and that others‘were there for them. Because a major reason that girlsjoin and
continue to join their program is to be with peers, it is important that they continue to
encounter positive support from significant others.

Learning from Program

The goal of most programs is that learning consistent with the goals of the
program occurs (see Table 15 and Appendix U). This category examines what girls
learned because of their participation in the program. Four subthemes emerged: learning
about goals, learning about body, learning about self, and most important thing learned. It
is not surprising that, there were mostly differences found in this category as each of
these programs focused and stressed different things. Only two similarities existed among
the programs. These similarities will be discussed and then differences among groups
will be presented. First, girls from all of the programs discussed that they had learned
about their ability through participation in the program (n = 8). Second, girls from each of
the programs stated that interpersonal skills were the most important thing that they
learned from their program (n = 6). The social aspects of the various programs have

helped girls learn how to interact with other people.

Respecting others and myself — like I said there are girls in my troop that 1 don’t
like but I have learned to get along with them. ..it helps you get along with people
in all types of situations. You can’tjust stay away from people you don’t like.

(Girl Scout)

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Table 15

Percentage and Number of Participants within Program Learning for the Complete

Sample and Separated by Group

 

 

Program Information Sample“1 Girls on Trackb Soccerc Girl Scouts6

Learning about Goals 31 (6) 16(3) 10 (2) 5 (1)
Learning about Body 63 (12) 42(8) 16 (3) 5 (l)
Harassment 26 (5) 26 (5) O (O) O (0)
Taking care of body 21 (4) 16(3) 5 (l) O (0)
Body comparison 21 (4) 5 (l) 10 (2) 5 (l)
PrOper eating l6 (3) 16 (3) 0 (O) O (0)
Changing body 10 (2) 10 (2) 0 (0) O (0)
Drug use 10(2) 10(2) 0(0) 0(0)
Disordered eating 10 (2) IO (2) O (0) 0 (0)

Learning about Self 74 (14) 37(7) 21 (4) 16(3)
Ability 42(8) 21 (4) 16(3) 5 (1)
Self-acceptance 21 (4) 16 (3) O (0) 5 (l)
Emotions 10 (2) 10 (2) O (0) O (0)
Qualities of self 10(2) 0(0) 5(1) 5 (1)
Relating to others 5 (l) 0 (O) O (O) 5 (1)

Most Important Learning 89 (17) 42(8) 31 (6) 16(3)

Interpersonal skills 31 (6) 10(2) 5 (1) 16(3)
Positive self-concept 21 (4) 10(2) 10 (2) O (0)
Teamwork 21 (3) 0(0) 21 (3) 0(0)

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Table 15 (continued)

 

 

Program Information Sample‘1 Girls on Trackb SoccerC Girl Scouts‘I
Notjudging others 10(2) 5 (1) 0(0) 5 (1)
Activity should be fun 10 (2) 10 (2) 0 (0) O (0)
Taking care of body 10 (2) 10 (2) O (0) O (0)

 

Note. The number of participants mentioning the source is in the parentheses.

aTotal sample, N = 19; bGirls on Track, n = 8; cSoccer players, it = 6; dGirl Scouts, n: 5.

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Learning about goals. Through involvement in the Girls on Track and soccer
programs, some girls learned about the importance of goal setting. Three of the Girls on
Track and two of the soccer participants discussed the importance of setting personal
goals and using effort to obtain these goals. One soccer player described, “It takes
dedication and hard work and if you set your mind to it you can accomplish anything.”
None of the Girl Scouts learned about setting goals in their program.

Learning about the body. Because of the educational nature of the Girls on Track
program, many girls had learned information in regards to maintaining a healthy body.
For some girls, they learned more about a particular topic, such as sexual harassment, in

the program than when they studied it in school.

Like harassment that people do and like harm to your body...well, it is just so we
can learn about it more and learn what not to do when we get older. (I learned it)
last year in health. Cuz’ we were watching a movie about it last year (in health)
and this year we were doing activities like running and I learned it much better.

(Girls on Track member)

Girls had learned how to take care of their body (n = 4), as evidenced by this statement,
“Just take who you are and your body and if you want to change it, change it in a more
appropriate way. Like don’t go on a diet, more like run a mile every other day or

something.” Three girls stressed the importance of proper eating habits.

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I have been changing my eating habits. I hadn’t eaten salads in a long time and
then I started (to eat them) since GOT even though they didn’t give me this food
chart thing. Instead of saying “oh I want a snack” and choosing a piece of candy I

will get a salad or string cheese. (Girls on Track member)

Two Girls on Track members discussed “That my body is changing and I can talk to my
mom about it or my friends about it and it will be okay.” Finally, two members recalled
the lesson about drug and tobacco use, “I learned about tobacco and drugs more.” Only a
few soccer players were able to articulate what they had learned about their body through
playing soccer. Two soccer players talked about their body in comparison to others (e. g.,
“I got really small arms”) and one girl talked about how she is not very aggressive.
Learning about self. Another subtheme to emerge was things girls had learned

about themselves during the program. Beyond their ability, some of the girls in the Girls

on Track program learned the significance of self-acceptance (n = 4).

Probably that I am just a better person and that no matter who I am, ifI am just
myself then people will like me. I am okay now if people do not like me because
they don’t like how 1 act. If I am just being myself, then that’s okay. I guess I
learned this from the lessons again and from the things that people said to me.

(Girls on Track member)

Other girls in the program learned the importance of expressing their feelings (n = 2),

which a member highlighted, “Have more confidence in speaking or giving your

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feelings.” Similar to Girls on Track members, one Girl Scout felt she had learned to
accept herself, while another Girl Scout learned how to interact with others.

Most important thing learned. Finally, girls had varying opinions on what was the
most important thing they learned through their program. Members of the Girls on Track
program believed the most important thing learned was that running should be fun (n =
2), the importance of a positive self-concept (n = 2), and taking care of their body (n : 2).
In terms of a positive self-concept, one girl stated, “Keep confidence. . .if you say that you
can’t do it, like you will just give it up instead of keeping to work at it.” Soccer players
reported that teamwork (n = 3) and a positive self-concept (n = 2) were the most

important things learned.

Probably how to work as a team because that can come up in a lot of different
things...Like in school, when you have to work in a group it shows like
teamwork. Like we all have to finish a project. Like in sports or soccer or gym

class or whatever because you can’t win if it is just us. (Soccer player)

Be confident in yourself and your teammates and just go out there and do your
best. If you really don’t believe in yourself, you really won’t play good. If you do
believe in yourself, you will play really good. And you could get better if you

keep on doing the skill higher and higher. (Soccer player)

Beyond interpersonal skills, one Girl Scout stated that the most important thing she has

learned was not to judge other people.

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If (I) judge others, I might make others feel bad and then I would feel bad about
myself, especially if I got to know them and they were really nice. I have stOpped

judging others from Girl Scouts and have made more friends. (Girl Scout)

Girls from all three programs learned something through their participation. Likely,
learning about their ability helps them increase their competence in these areas, while
learning about interpersonal skills helps them develop relationships in their life.
Outcomes of the Program

The original purpose of the interviews was to understand the experiences that girls
had in their respective program. Although not expected, data also showed that girls
experienced some specific outcomes of their involvement in the program. In other words,
girls were able to take information that they learned and apply the information in
different ways to their life outside of the program. This section has three categories:
physical activity outcomes, changes of individual, and the motivation to continue or
discontinue the program. For each theme, a brief introduction of the theme will be given
as well as the introduction and exploration of subthemes.
Physical Activity Outcomes

Because of the nature of the programs, changes and improvements in physical
activity only occurred in girls who played soccer and those in the Girls on Track program
(see Table I6 and Appendix V). Overall, the Girl Scouts spent very little time talking

about or engaging in physical activity during their troop activities. This category has

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three subthemes: improvement because of the program, results of being in the program,
and why they continue to be physically active.

Physical activity improvement in the programs. There were many similarities
between participants in the Girls on Track program and those on soccer teams in terms of
skill improvement. Girls talked about their skills improving because of increased
knowledge in the form of tactics, skills, or strategies about running or soccer (n = 6). One
Girls on Track participant stated, “now I have like this pace that I do where I can run
longer but it might take a little more time,” while a soccer player stated, “I’ve learned to
not bunch up and go to a spot instead of following the ball.” Girls in both programs also
believed that social support from their coaches had helped them improve (n = 3). For
example, one soccer player remarked, “I got a lot better because my coaches have helped
me and I learned a lot. He pushes a lot and he teaches us a lot of new things that we don’t
know.” Two girls also echoed the sentiment of the following Girls on Track member, “I
think my running got better because I practiced more.” Finally, many girls in the Girls on
Track program also stated that physiological changes that occurred allowed them to run

faster or for longer distances (n = 6).

My legs, instead of being really weak, they were really strong instead. I used to
think my legs were really weak so I couldn’t run as fast or as long. And now I
know, because of GOT, that I can just go because my legs are strong enough to

carry me. (Girls on Track Member)

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Table 16

Percentage and Number of Participants within Physical Activity Outcomes for the Complete

Sample and Separated by Group

 

 

Program Information Sample“l Girls on Track5 SoccerC Girl Scouts‘r
Improvement in Program 74 (14) 42 (8) 31 (6) O (0)
Physiological changes 31 (6) 26 (5) 5 (l) O (0)
Knowledge change 31 (6) 16(3) 16(3) 0(0)
Practice 16(3) 10 (2) 5(1) 0(0)
Social support 16(3) 10 (2) 5 (1) 0(0)
Goal setting 5 (1) 5 (1) 0(0) 0(0)
Getting older 5 (l) 5 (1) 0(0) 0(0)
Being Challenged 5 (1) 0(0) 5 (1) 0(0)
Improvement in Physical 58 (1 l) 37 (7) 1() (2) 10 (2)
Activity
Greater enjoyment 31 (6) 21 (4) 10 (2) 0(0)
Being active 16(3) 5 (1) 0(0) 10 (2)
Future sports 16 (3) l6 (3) O (0) 0(0)
Gain in fitness 10(2) 5 (1) 5 (1) 0(0)
Motives for Physical Activity 79 (15) 37 (7) 26(5) 16(3)
Fun/ enjoyment 58 (l 1) 26(5) 16(3) 16(3)
Social reasons 31 (6) 16(3) 16(3) 0(0)
To be active 21(4) 5(1) 10(2) 5(1)
Competence 16(3) 10 (2) 0(0) 5 (l)

 

Note. The number of participants mentioning the source is in the parentheses.

"Total sample, N = 19; bGirls on Track, n = 8; CSoccer players, n = 6; dGirl Scouts, n: 5.

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Results ofbeing in the programs. One of the major results of participating in their
respective programs was the greater enjoyment some girls now have of running and

physical activity (n = 7).

I used to think about just like running to get exercise and stuff like that but now I
think of it as fun and running to enjoy it. Ijust like going down the street with the

wind blowing in my hair — it feels good. (Girls on Track member)

Three Girls on Track members also revealed that they believed their improvement of
physical activity makes them want to try other organized sports (e.g., “Yeah, I want to
join the track team next year.”

Motivation to continue physical activity. There were four main reasons why
interviewees would continue to participate in physical activity. Note that three of the girls
interviewed from the Girl Scouts were involved in organized physical activity outside of
the Girl Scouts (one in dance, one in cheerleading, and one in team sports), thus their
responses are included here. Many of the girls plan to continue participation in physical
activity because they liked it and it was fun (n = 11), for example, “Ijust like playing
sports.” The social aspect was also important for a number of girls and this reason would
keep them involved in physical activity (n = 6). One Girls on Track member stated, “It is
fun to be with my friends and still exercising.” Some girls would continue to be
physically active because “it keeps me active” (n = 4). Finally, three girls mentioned that
they plan to continue participation because they experience competence in their

respective sport. As a Girl Scout member stated, “I have always been half-way good at

sports so I havejust continued to play them. Ijust figure I am good so I keep doing
them.”
Personal Change

One of the most exciting categories to emerge was that girls felt that their
respective program had helped to change them as people (see Table I7 and Appendix W).
In other words, girls were able to take what they learned, either through direct or indirect
means, and apply these lessons to other areas of their life. Three subthemes emerged:
decision making, social skills, and changes in the self.

Changes in decision making. Only girls in the Girls on Track program and Girl
Scouts were able to articulate changes in their ability to make decisions. Through being

guided by others, girls believed that their ability to make decisions improved (n = 7).

Because sometimes I felt like I wasn’t making the right choices and they would kind
of tell me that I was...like one time I was upset because I didn’t sell enough cookies.
I was upset because this one girl had sold a whole bunch because she goes to the
Eagles. I was really disappointed and I was going to quit Girl Scouts and they told me

not to. (Girl Scout)

I am not getting in trouble a lot at school or home and I am making better
decisions. Like when my mom tells me to do something, I do it so I don’t get
yelled at. Because we talked about making better decisions and making a lot of

better decisions around the house or at school. (Girls on Track member)

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Table 17

Percentage and Number of Participants within Changes of Individual for the Complete Sample

and Separated by Group

 

 

Program Information Sample“ Girls on Trac?’ SoccerC Girl Scouts‘r
Decision Making 42(8) 26(5) 0(0) 16(3)
Guidance from others 37 (7) 21 (4) 0(0) 16(3)
Being prepared 16(3) 10(2) 0(0) 5(1)
Thinking about others 5 (1) 5 (1) 0(0) 0(0)
Interpersonal Skills 79 (15) 26(5) 26(5) 26(5)
Getting to know others 53 (10) 21 (4) 16(3) 10(2)
Social competence 31 (6) 10 (2) 10 (2) 10 (2)
Acceptance 31 (6) 16(3) 5 (l) 10 (2)
Social etiquette 21 (4) 10 (2) 5 (1) 5(1)
Respect of others 16 (3) 0(0) 0 (0) 16(3)
Feelings about Self 100 (19) 42(8) 31 (6) 26(5)
Positive - mastery 52 (10) 16(3) 26(5) 10 (2)
Positive — acceptance 31 (6) 16(3) 5 (l) 10 (2)
Confidence 31 (6) 16(3) 10 (2) 5(1)
Positive — helping others 21 (4) 0(0) 0(0) 21 (4)
Determination 21 (4) 0(0) 21 (4) 0(0)
Being member 10 (2) 0(0) 0(0) 10(2)
Feeling poorly 10(2) 0(0) 10(2) 0(0)
Athletic 5 (1) 0(0) 5 (1) 0(0)
In control 5 (l) 5 (1) 0(0) 0(0)

 

Note. The number of participants mentioning the source is in the parentheses.

"Total sample, N = 19; bGirls on Track, n = 8; cSoccer players, it = 6; dGirl Scouts, n: 5.

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Two Girls on Track participants also mentioned that they are more prepared to make

decisions in the future.

Like 1 am prepared for different situations that may happen during my life, not
now but later on down the road. I just know now what better choices to make and
what to say when somebody asks me about something. It helped me figure out

ways so that 1 am not in the position (to begin with). (Girls on Track member)

One Girls on Track member mentioned that “sometimes I think now afterwards about
how the decision I am going to make will affect other people instead of just me.” Being
able to engage in better decision making has helped a number of girls in the Girl Scouts
and Girls on Track program to act better in other areas of their life.

Changes in social skills. Girls from all three programs acknowledged that their
social skills had changed due to their involvement. Primarily, girls learned how to get to

know and understand others through their program (n é 10).

I think it (the program) has helped me understand peOple better, probably because
we had different lessons on how to understand people better, so it is easier. . .there
are a lot of different personalities of the people in GOT so it is like a wider variety

of people. So it is easier to get along with other people. (Girls on Track member)

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Cuz’ now you have more friends from teams and stuff so you don’tjust have

friends from school or church but you have them from the teams too. (Soccer

player)

There have been a lot of girls who have left and come. I think it has, it has helped
me connect with people my age...we talk a lot about what is going on with our
schools and we really communicate a lot and it just feels like we build strong

relationships. (Girl Scout)

Some girls also gained social competence through involvement in their program (n = 6).

By being in the programs, girls overcame their shyness and became more outgoing.

Before Ijoined Girl Scouts, when I was younger, I was shyer and I wouldn’t like
walk up to people and be like “hey, do you want to play with me” or “let’s go
somewhere.” Now I like being around people and I like my friends and I like
being around people a lot. . .being in Girl Scouts, I had to be around people, so I

guess that changed it. (Girl Scout)

A few of the girls also realized the importance of accepting pe0ple who are different from
them through their programs (n = 6). As one girls explained, “ I think it is easier to make
friends when I look at them for who they really are instead of the clothes they wear or
their hairstyle.” Some of the girls learned social etiquette (n = 4); in other words, these

girls discovered that yelling and having an attitude may turn people away from them.

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I know a little more about what is better acting (around people). If I am just
goofing off and they (friends) don’t really think it is funny, I mean there is a time
to goof-off with your friends and there are times they don’t want it. I know now
that I need to reSpect that. I want to keep them happy and keep myself happy.

(Girls on Track member)

Finally, some of the Girl Scouts revealed they had learned the importance of respect in

maintaining social relationships (n = 3).

There are two girls I really don’t like in our troop but sometimes I have to work
with them as partners. Because I have to work with them, I have learned to

respect them. They will never be my good friends but I can now work with them
and respect them. We have to do things with girls we may not know or like, and

youjust have to deal with them. (Girl Scout)

Changes in self Girls from all three programs experienced changes in themselves
because of their involvement. Overall, most of the girls felt positive about themselves.
Many of the girls felt positive because they were striving to achieve personal mastery

over a task (n = 10).

I think it (soccer) makes me feel pretty good because I have something I know 1

can do good at and 1 can succeed at it and lean back on when I get to high school

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and stuff. Because I have been playing it for so long and I can see how I have
changed throughout the years and I can see how I got better. [can just look ahead

and see how much betterI can get. (Soccer player)

All of the soccer players discussed feeling positive because of personal mastery, while
two of the Girls on Track participants and two Girl Scouts felt good due to personal
mastery. Girls in the Girls on Track program and the Girl Scouts talked about feeling
positive about themselves because they were with a group of people who accepted them

for who they were as people (n = 6).

It made me feel like I was part of this wonderful group that like was there to like
not talk bad about me but if I had a problem to help with it and not just say “oh
sorry, we can’t help you.” The coaches were really nice and they kept the group
together instead of having these people over there and these people over here.

(Girls on Track member)

Being accepted in a group helps girls realize their value as a person. Many of the Girl
Scouts also felt positive about themselves because they were helping other people
through community service (e.g., “Because when you help people, you just get that
feeling inside like you are doing something good”). Again, community service is an
unique aspect of the Girl Scouts as compared to the other two programs. Two of the Girl

Scouts discussed what being a Girl Scout meant to them and how they attempt to live it in

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their daily life. These Girl Scouts had internalized important aspects of the program and

attempted to live them in their daily life.

Showing more people respect and love and care and making sure you never, try
never, to put other pe0ple down. And making sure if someone is left out, you try

to help them. (Girl Scout)

Different from the Girl Scouts, Girls on Track members and soccer players felt more
confident about themselves because of being in their program. Furthermore, the self-

confidence tended to carry over to other aspects of their lives.

It helps me know that I can do what I am capable of and ifI try my hardest, I can
always do good. Well, because when I try hard, I always get good things out of it

and it helps me. (Soccer player)

Some soccer players also had become more determined (n = 4). A player expressed,
“Like you are driven to win and I am driven to get good grades.” Interestingly, two of the
soccer players also mentioned times when soccer makes them feel poorly about

themselves.
Not scoring or not being able to get a lot of time in the game to play...cuz’ you

are not able to help the team win, you just are not able to help the team. And you

feel that your talent isn’t good enough. (Soccer player)

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Playing a competitive sport sometimes makes people feel poorly because they made a
mistake or they did not reach a goal. The important piece is how they recover from
feeling poorly. Unfortunately, this information was not revealed during the interviews
with these soccer players.

Overall, the girls experienced positive affect and positive changes in the self
because of their involvement in their respective programs. The positive feelings carried
over to other areas of these girls’ lives, including the academic arena. It is difficult to
know how long this positive affect remained in the girls. HOpefully, the more girls
experience these feelings, the more likely these feelings will sustain them throughout
their life.

Motivation to Continue

The top two reasons that girls would continue with their activity were because “it
is a lot of fun” (n = 11) and “I like to be with my friends” (n = 9) (see Table 18 and
Appendix X). Some Girl Scouts also stated different reasons for continuing in the

,9 6‘

program, including “1 like doing and helping peOple, going on trips,” and “it looks
good on a college application.” Unfortunately, some of the girls thought they would drop
out of their program in the future. Two Girl Scouts did not know how many more years

they would join the program because of the pressure to choose among activities and

because it just was not cool to be a Girl Scout.

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Table 18

Percentage and Number of Participants within Motivation to Continue Program for the

Complete Sample and Separated by Group

 

 

Program Information Sample8 Girls on Trackb SoccerC Girl Scoutsd
Continuation 68 (13) 21 (4) 21 (4) 26 (5)
Fun/ enjoyment 58 (11) 16(3) 21 (4) 21 (4)
Social reasons 42 (8) 10 (2) 16 (3) 16 (3)
Mastery 10 (2) O (0) 5 (1) 5 (1)
Helping others 10 (2) O (0) O (0) 10 (2)
Trips 5(1) 0(0) 0(0) 5(1)
Future opportunity 5 (l) 0 (0) 0 (0) 5 (l)
Discontinuation 21 (4) 5 (I) 5 (1) 10(2)
Deciding among activities 5 (1) O (0) O (O) 5 (1)
Not cool 5(1) 0 (0) O (0) 5(1)
Not making team 5 (1) O (0) 5 (1) 0 (0)
Already done program 5 (1) 5 (1) 0 (0) O (O)

 

Note. The number of participants mentioning the source is in the parentheses.

aTotal sample, N = 19; bGirls on Track, n = 8; CSoccer players, it = 6; dGirl Scouts, n: 5.

Well, theyjust don’t think it is cool anymore. Like, for example, we had to wear
our vests to school one day — none of us wanted to do it because we would be
teased by the boys. . .I wore a sweatshirt over mine but then I got so hot I had to

take the sweatshirt off and I got teased. (Girl Scout)

One soccer player stated, “I don’t know what kind of sports High School has to offer and
ifI am going to make the team or not.” If given the opportunity to participate again, one
Girls on Track participant did not know if she would because she “had already done it for
two years.” Based on the positive experience that girls had in the program, the majority
of them foresee themselves continuing to participate in the program.
Summary

Girls were motivated to join the Girls on Track program for a number of reasons.
The most important motives for the Girls on Track alone group were to have fun, make
new friends, the coaches, and to become a better person. For Girls on Track and soccer
participants, the most important motives were to have fun, like to exercise, like the
teamwork, and like the team spirit. From pre- to post-season, girls in the Girls on Track
alone group experienced significant increases in perceived social competence, perceived
physical competence, perceived physical appearance competence, and fun of physical
activity. After controlling for the pre-test, differences remained among the groups at post-
test on perceived physical appearance competence and perceived physical competence.

Girls on Track members had higher perceived physical appearance competence than the

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Girls on Track and soccer participants group, while Girls on Track members and soccer
players had higher perceived physical competence than those in the Girl Scouts.

Themes and subthemes from the interview data were also presented. Themes
regarding girls’ experiences in the programs were program information, teamwork, social
support, and learning from the program. Similarities among the programs included using
fun or enjoyment as a way to describe the program and that peers were cited as a favorite
part of the program. Girls learned how to work effectively as a team and had difficulty
working together when there was a lack of cooperation among teammates. Girls often
tried to go with the flow or take turns to cope with the difficulty. Overall, peers and
coaches or troop leaders provided positive social support to the girls in the programs.
Girls from all programs also learned about their ability and interpersonal skills through
their involvement.

Themes regarding the outcomes of girls’ involvement in the program were
physical activity outcomes, changes in the self, and the motivation to continue or
discontinue. Because of the nature of the program, Girl Scouts experienced few physical
activity outcomes. Girls on Track members and soccer players had gained a greater
enjoyment of physical activity and had gained both running and soccer skills. Girls from
all programs felt that their social skills had changed through their involvement. Girls
gained social confidence and learned social etiquette, both of which they used in other
areas of their lives. Girls also experienced positive feelings about themselves as a result
of their program. Almost all of the girls believed they would continue to participate in

their respective programs.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION

Both quantitative and qualitative methods used in this study were fundamental to
examining programmatic data from three organizations serving early adolescent girls.
Overall, these data (a) illustrated that girls join their respective program for enjoyment
and social interactions, (b) reflected that the Girls on Track program aids in the
development of selected perceptions of competence, and (c) demonstrated that the three
programs work to maintain and even enhance perceptions of competence, self-worth, and
attraction to physical activity. Overall, the findings suggest that involvement in out-of-
school programs provide girls with the opportunity to develop competencies and self-
worth through mastery attempts and feedback from significant others. First, the
discussion will highlight reasons for joining respective programs. Second, changes in
Girls on Track participants will be discussed, and finally, comparisons among all four
groups will be considered.
Reasons for Joining Programs

Quantitatively, this study examined participation motives of those who joined the
Girls on Track program. Because the Girls on Track program was new to the community,
it was important to determine these motives. Knowing why girls joined the program can
help organizers know if the needs of the participants are being met in the program.
Interestingly, motives for participation were different for the Girls on Track group and
the Girls on Track plus soccer group. Participants from the Girls on Track group reported
that the most important reasons for joining the program were to have fun, make new

friends, become a better person, and a liking of the coaches. Enjoyment of the program

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and social interactions are similar to motives researchers have found for joining programs
in the past (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1996; Fredricks et al., 2002; Klint & Weiss, 1987). For
example, Ewing and Seefeldt conducted a survey of athletes from around the nation and
found that two of the top reasons youth join sports programs were for enjoyment and
social reasons. Likewise, interviewees from all three programs in the current study joined
and remained in their program for fun and enjoyment and being with or making friends.
The other two top motives for joining the Girls on Track program were liking of
the coach and to become a better person. Additionally, half of the girls interviewed from
this program also noted both their liking of the coaches during the interviews and the
importance of educational aspects of the program. These motives may be a result of the
educational component of the program where the coaches play a large role in mentoring
the girls and delivering lessons to teach valuing and acceptance of the self. Additionally,
two-thirds of the girls in the Girls on Track program had been involved in the Girls on the
Run program for at least one year. Their past experience in the program with their
coaches and learning about themselves may have encouraged many of them to continue
involvement in the program for these reasons. Liking of the coach and becoming a better
person do not appear as common participation motives in sports programs (Ewing &
Seefeldt, 1996; Fredricks et al., 2002; Klint & Weiss, 1987). However, similar to the
current study, focus group interviews with participants in a program promoting positive
youth development of girls revealed that the coaches or leaders of the program were one
reason why the participants continued to return to the program day after day (Zwei g &
VanNess, 2001). Perhaps for girls who do not have a history of physical activity, coaches

play a critical role in keeping girls involved in both the program and physical activity.

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The Girls on Track plus soccer group reported that to have fun, liked to exercise,
liked the teamwork, and liked the team spirit were the most important reasons for joining
the program. Because of their enjoyment of exercise, this group of girls may have joined
Girls on Track as a form of physical training for their soccer program. Additionally, their
desire to remain on a team also motivated these girls to join the Girls on Track program.
These results suggest that the most important reasons for joining the program were
different for Girls on Track members and members of the Girls on Track plus soccer
group.

Outcomes of Participation in Girls on Track Program

Central to this study was the effect of involvement in the Girls on Track program
on perceived competence, self-worth, and attraction to physical activity. The first
research question examined changes from pre- to post-test in Girls on Track members.

Perceived interpersonal competence. Through mastery attempts, in terms of
teamwork, in the programs and socialization from coaches and troop leaders, it was
hypothesized that perceived social competence would increase from pre- to post-season
in the Girls on Track participants. As hypothesized, Girls on Track members significantly
increased their perceived social competence from pre- to post-season. It has been asserted
that positive changes in social acceptance of participants because of program
involvement are often due to participants’ involvement in a peer group where they were
accepted and valued (Bemdt & Burgy, 1996). Perhaps this was the first opportunity that
some girls in the Girls on Track program had with being involved in a peer group, and by
merely being a member of the group, they experienced positive changes in perceived

social competence. Furthermore, as revealed by interviews with select participants, the

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Girls on Track program created a cooperative environment where girls experienced peer
support, worked together as a team, and felt valued and accepted as individuals. Being
involved in a positive peer group may have helped girls feel more accepted by their peers.

Another aspect of interpersonal skills of interest in the current study was
perceptions of close friendship competence. As hypothesized, analyses with members of
the Girls on Track program showed that no change in perceived close friendship
competence occurred during the program. Because the Girls on Track program was only
12 weeks long and because the focus was on creating a community or group, it was not
expected that changes in close friendship would occur.

Physical self. The physical self includes perceived physical competence,
perceived physical appearance competence, and attraction of physical activity. These
competence domains are of particular concern because girls tend to report more
unfavorable perceptions than in other competence domains (Harter, 1999). As a running
program, it was hypothesized that Girls on Track members would experience an increase

1
in their perceived physical competence given their involvement in the program. As
hypothesized, results revealed a statistically significant increase in perceived physical
competence from pre- to post-season. Through practicing and completing a 5K race, Girls
on Track members who had not participated in soccer increased their perceptions of
physical competence. Other physical activity intervention programs have also reported
success in increasing perceptions of physical competence (Boyd & Hrycaiko, 1997; Ernst
& Pangrazi, 1999; Ransdell et al., 2001). Furthermore, all of the interviewed girls
experienced improvements in both their running ability during the program and

improvement in their physical activity, in general. Beyond a gain in competence, three of

118

the girls interviewed predicted they would engage in future organized sports because of
their experience in Girls on Track. These findings provided evidence that the program is
successful in increasing the perception of physical competence in girls, which in turn,
allows some girls the confidence to participate in future organized sport.

Of additional interest in the current study was the liking of physical activity,
importance of physical activity, and fun of physical exertion subscales of the Children’s
Attraction to Physical Activity Scale (Brustad, 1999). It was hypothesized that Girls on
Track members would increase their attraction to physical activity from pre- to post-
season. Members reported an increase in their fun of physical exertion from the
beginning to the end of the program. Qualitative data also revealed that half of the girls
experienced a greater enjoyment of physical activity because of their participation. As a
program, Girls on Track focused on running or moving in a cooperative environment
within the context of fun lessons, and this focus helped to increase the girls’ enjoyment of
physical activity. Increasing girls’ positive attitudes toward physical activity during the
program is the first step in helping girls become more physically active in their lives. No
changes occurred in participants’ liking of physical activity or the importance of physical
activity. The short duration of the program and a ceiling effect of the measure may have
contributed to no change in the liking or importance of physical activity.

Some subscales of the Attraction to Physical Activity Scale did not display
adequate reliability in the current study. Specifically, the peer acceptance and vigorous
activity subscales did not present sufficient reliability. Additionally, the liking of sports
and physical activity subscale had low reliability until one item was removed. The scale

was designed for youth in the third through seventh grade (Brustad, 1999). Brustad

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(1993) reported reliabilities for the subscales between .62 and .78 for a population of 4th
graders. Other studies have used the scale and reported adequate reliabilities for fun of
physical exertion, liking of games and sports, liking of vigorous activity in a population
of 4‘h through 6‘h grade girls and boys (Brustad, 1996) and 7’h and 8h grade girls and boys
(Smith, 1999). Brustad (1996) reported low reliability for the peer acceptance in physical
activity, similar to the current study, until he removed two items from the scale and the
importance of physical activity subscale did not reach a proper level of reliability.

The low reliability of these subscales could be due to two reasons. First, the scale
was modified from the alternative structure format to a regular Likert scale. This
modification has been successful with the Self-perception Profile (Harter, 1988) in the
current study and other studies; however, it is possible that the modification of this scale
to a regular Likert scale affected the reliability of the subscales. Second, the population of
the current study was different than in past studies in that it was composed of 6‘h through
8’h grade girls. Future studies should continue to examine the psychometric properties of
the measure for different populations of youth.

A final piece of the physical self is perceived physical appearance competence. It
was hypothesized that Girls on Track participants would increase their perceived physical
appearance competence from pre- to post—season. As expected, girls involved in this
program significantly increased their perceived physical appearance competence from
pre- to post-season. It is possible that Girls on Track members experienced and were
aware of physiological changes occurring to their bodies because of running. For
example, many Girls on Track interviewees described how they became stronger because

of running and became aware of muscles in their legs. These physiological changes may

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have produced improvements in how girls think about their physical appearance.
Additionally, lessons stressing the importance of acceptance of the body and the self may
have influenced perceptions of physical appearance competence in a positive manner for
members who did not play soccer.

During the interviews girls were asked “What have you learned about your body
through your program?” The question was intended to tap into perceptions of physical
appearance competence, while being vague enough to allow girls to answer in a manner
that was comfortable to them. When answering this question, Girls on Track members
revealed information they had learned about their body during the program from the
lessons and the coaches and not their actual feelings about their body. This finding was
unique to the Girls on Track program, as neither the soccer players nor the Girl Scouts
discussed learning about the body. In particular, Girls on Track interviewees had learned
about sexual harassment, drug, alcohol, and tobacco use, the changing body, and
disordered eating patterns. Although it is difficult to know if any outcomes or changes in
behaviors came from this learning, the interviews uncovered the importance of the
educational piece of the Girls on Track program. Involvement in this program provided
educational information to the girls that they may not have received in other arenas of
their lives.

Self-worth. Because of the importance of self-worth and because the Girls on
Track program provided both success at mastery tasks and approval by significant others,
it was hypothesized that Girls on .Track members would increase their self-worth because
of their involvement in the program. Counter to the hypothesis, girls did not increase their

self-worth from pre- to post-season. Some studies have found increases in self-esteem

(Colchico, Zybert, & .Basch, 2000; Zweig & VanNess, 2001), while others have found no
changes in self-worth (Boyd & Hrycaiko, 1997; Paxton, 1993) due to program
involvement. Girls on Track members displayed relatively high levels of self-worth at
both pre-test and post-test. Similarly, a study by Zimmerman, Copeland, Shope, and
Dielman (1997) revealed that levels of self-esteem were comparatively high and were
relatively stable from 6‘h through 10‘h grade. High levels of self-worth in the current
sample suggested that girls came into the program with experiences of success at mastery
attempts and positive socialization (Hatter, 1999). For this particular sample, the program
may have worked to maintain high levels of self-worth in girls. This is particularly
important because the girls had recently made the transition to middle school and self-
esteem is most likely to change during times of transition such as the move from
elementary school to middle school (Cole et al., 2001; Eccles et al., 1999; Harter, 1993).
The small sample size precluded the ability to examine effects of the Girls on
Track program on self-worth of individuals who started the program with low, average,
and high levels of self-worth. Exploratory analyses suggested that girls who started the
program with low self-worth made significant increases in their self-worth at post-test.
This is initial evidence that this program may not have the same effect for all girls who
participate. The notion that low self-esteem youth may benefit the most from positive
environments and positive adults has been observed through research conducted with
little league programs (see Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979). With a larger sample, future
research should continue to examine differential effects of involvement in the program

due to beginning levels of self-worth.

Girls on Track Program in Comparison to Girls on Track plus Soccer, Soccer, and Girl
Scout Programs

To gain a better understanding of the effects of involvement in the Girls on Track
program, comparisons on perceptions of competence and self-worth were examined
among Girls on Track, Girls on Track plus soccer, soccer, and Girl Scout programs. An
important point to consider is age of the participants and the length of time that girls had
been involved in their respective program. Because of an executive decision from the
administrators of the program, all Girls on Track participants were in the 6th grade,
whereas girls in the soccer and Girl Scout programs were in the 7‘h and 8h grade. On
average, this was the second time that Girls on Track and Girls on Track plus soccer
members had been involved in the program, while both soccer and Girl Scout participants
had been involved in their program for an average of six years. Furthermore, both soccer
and Girl Scouts typically lasted throughout the year, or at least during the school year. On
the other hand, opportunities to participate in Girls on Track occurred once a year for
approximately 12 weeks. Because of these possible confounding variables, a pre-test was
used control to for or account for possible spurious variables (Rubin, 1974). By
controlling for the pre-test, it was possible to determine effects of the program on
perceptions of competence, self-worth, and attraction to physical activity.

Pre-season differences. Examining pre-test levels of perceived social and close
friendship competence of the four groups showed that Girls on Track members had lower
levels of perceived social competence than both the soccer and Girl Scout programs and
lower levels of perceived close friendship competence than the Girl Scouts. All the girls

in the Girls on Track programs were in the 6‘'1 grade and hadjust made the middle school

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transition, while the majority of the soccer players and Girl Scouts were in the 7‘h and 8th
grade and were not making a school transition. Past research has shown that social
competence beliefs decreased during the middle school transition and then recovered
during the seventh-grade year (Wigfield, Eccles, Maciver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991). It
is probable that the middle school transition influenced the lower levels of perceived
social and close friendship competence in the Girls on Track sample as compared to the
soccer group and the Girl Scouts.

However, it is remarkable to note that the Girls on Track plus soccer group started
the program with a higher level of perceived social competence than the Girls on Track
only group. Research has shown perceived social competence has consistently been
found to be strongly correlated with perceived physical competence (Bemdt & Burgy,
1996; Smith, 1999) and this relationship existed in the current study. The difference in
pre-season, perceived social competence scores between Girls on Track members who
were involved in a soccer program and those who were not may be a result of the positive
relationship between perceived social competence and perceived physical competence. At
the end of the program, Girls on Track participants had a similar level of perceived social
competence as girls who were involved in the Girls on Track plus soccer group.

Additionally, members of the Girls on Track plus soccer group started the
program with higher levels of self-worth, higher liking of physical activity, and higher
perceptions of close friendship, physical, and behavioral competence than members not
involved in the Girls on Track only group. Furthermore, the levels of these variables for
Girls on Track plus soccer group were similar to participants in the soccer comparison

group. Higher levels of these variables in the Girls on Track plus soccer participants

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could be due to a variety of reasons. Through their prior involvement in soccer, it is
probable that these girls enhanced their perceptions of their physical competence and
liking of physical activity and thus started the Girls on Track program at a higher degree
than those girls without soccer involvement. Interestingly, those involved in soccer
started the Girls on Track program with a greater level of self-worth than those not in
soccer. Support for this relationship has been provided by past research showing that
athletes, from various sports, tend to have higher self-esteem than nonathletes (Fulkerson
et al., 1999; Taub & Blinde, 1992, 1994).

Seventeen Girls on Track members were involved in other sports besides soccer.
Yet, it was only girls involved in soccer programs who had higher pre-season scores on
the aforementioned variables. It is possible that the soccer players in this sample played
their sport longer and in a more organized fashion than girls who played other sports and
thus soccer players fully reaped the benefits of sport participation. Soccer programs are
offered in communities for children at a young age, whereas other sports may not be
offered for young girls in an organized manner. Furthermore, the organization of soccer
often allows for girls to join and stay with a team for a period of time. In the community
where Girls on Track operated, there was little opportunity to play organized sports
beyond soccer in school during the elementary school years (R. Hartline, personal
communication, December 2002). As sixth graders, these girls were just beginning to
have the chance to play formal, organized sports through their school. It is probable that
girls who played soccer had been playing the sport for a longer time than girls who

participated in other sports had. Based on their levels of perceived competence, the

soccer players who had positive experiences playing soccer were the ones who joined the
Girls on Track program.

Post-season diflerences. When examining differences among groups at the post-
season after controlling for the variable level at pre-season, no differences were found in
levels of self-worth, perceptions of social competence, close friendship competence, or
behavioral competence. The lack of differences among the groups suggests that the three
programs had similar effects on participants’ self-worth and perceptions of competence in
these domains.

That the programs has similar effects on participants is not surprising considering
people engage in activities to maintain perceptions of competency and worth. In order for
the self to be developed or constructed, it is important that people maintain a positive
sense of their attributes and continue experiencing relations with others (Epstein &
Morling, 1995). It would appear that all these programs allowed girls the structure and
opportunity to help develop the self. Furthermore, girls in the current study self-selected
into their respective program. By self-selecting into the programs, girls probably chose to
participate in the program that would help them accomplish a positive sense of qualities
and relations with others and, thus, continue in the development of the self. In other
words, the equal effects observed in the current study may be a result of self-selection
into their desired program.

Qualitative interviews revealed ways that the programs allowed girls to maintain
favorable impressions of their qualities, which is one component of constructing the self.
As the Model of Competence Motivation suggests (Harter, 1978), engaging and

succeeding at mastery attempts during the programs, especially Girls on Track and

soccer, resulted in girls feeling positive about themselves. The positive affect experienced
by the girls in the programs as a result of their success at mastery tasks should positively
influence their competence, self-worth, and future motivated behavior (Harter, 1999;
Weiss, 1993).

Two of the interviewed Girl Scouts felt positive about themselves after earning a
badge (i.e., mastery). However, over half of the Girl Scouts interviewed discussed badge
activities as a dislike of the program. Possibly, some of the activities to earn a badge did
not provide enough challenge for the girls in this program. Mastery attempts that provide
insufficient challenge may not help girls gain competence or maintain their motivation
(Harter, 1978). Unlike the other programs, Girl Scouts felt good about themselves
because of community service and helping others. Helping others allowed girls to
maintain a favorable sense of their attributes.

Another way that the programs allowed girls to maintain a positive sense of their
qualities was through feeling accepted. Approximately one-third of the girls interviewed
expressed feeling positive about themselves because the program made them feel
recognized as an individual. Through encouragement, help, and support, adult leaders and
peers created an environment where girls could experience unconditional positive self-
regard (Rogers, 1959). In these milieus, girls could feel significant by being accepted and
valued for who they were as people.

Unlike Girls on Track or the Girls Scouts, there were times, cited by three soccer
players, when their coach would get angry and yell at the players. Although the players
did not expand greatly on these points, it is possible that anger and yelling may be

perceived as disapproval by the coaches for the mastery attempts of the players (Harter,

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1978). If this is a constant pattern for the coaches, some soccer players may develop
dependence on external approval and goals and in the end, may create anxiety (e.g., “my
talent is not good enough”) and decrease motivation to continue playing soccer. This
pattern would be especially detrimental to girls who have low self-esteem, low
perceptions of competence, or few positive sources of social support.

Because this was the first experience that many girls had with running and
physical activity, it was noteworthy that Girls on Track members experienced positive
support from their coaches. Support and encouragement from coaches, hopefully,
increased positive affect and the chances that these girls are motivated to continue
engagement in physical activity. Furthermore, Girls on Track coaches, unlike leaders of
the other programs, provided support to the girls through coaches’ active participation.
Through the observational learning of coaches’ modeling an active and healthy lifestyle,
it is hopeful that girls will be socialized to remain active and healthy (Scales & Leffert,
1999).

The second component of constructing a self is to engage in relations with others.
The three programs provided sufficient opportunity for girls to create positive relations
with significant adults and with peers. Indeed, interviewees expressed the importance of
being with and making friends during their program. The interviews also provided
evidence of how the three programs helped girls gain interpersonal skills. These
programs allowed girls the opportunity to know and understand their peers, gain social
confidence, learn acceptance of others, and learn social etiquette. Interpersonal skills,
such as those acquired by these girls, are important because they are associated with

socioemotional health and cognitive, social, and moral development (Brown, Way, &

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Duff, 1999). Furthermore, positive relations with others help individuals construct and
maintain the construct of self and identity.

Interviewed girls in the Girls on Track program and the Girl Scouts made
powerful statements about how involvement in their program taught them how to accept
and respect others. The educational pieces of these programs as well as opportunities to
work with others that one may not know or like provided a platform for girls to learn
firsthand about accepting and respecting others. As cases of bullying and verbal abuse
continually make local news, learning acceptance and respect are valuable lessons. This
finding suggests that programs for early adolescent girls should include direct educational
messages that will help girls develOp acceptance and respect of others.

Of concern, however, is that there was a trend for those in the Girls on Track plus
soccer group to report a decrease in perceived close friendship competence from pre- to
post-season. Future research will be needed to understand why perceived close friendship
competence decreased. Three possible reasons may be the impact of competition on the
relationships among teammates. Or, close friends may not move together in physical
skills and thus do not make the same team. Or, those involved in Girls on Track and
soccer may have experienced some dissonance between their friends from soccer and
their new friends from the Girls on Track program. For example, during one interview a
girl described how she made new friends during the program and her “other friends think
they are weird or something.” She continued by sayinO, “I know that probably some of
my old friends wouldn’t stick up for me...I now kind of have two groups of friends.”
Similar to this girl, those playing soccer may have been struggling with how to

incorporate two sets of friends and thus not feeling like they had a close friend any more.

Another variable examined in the current study was perceived physical
competence. Because of the exploratory nature of the study, no hypothesis was forwarded
when examining differences among the three groups on perceived physical competence.
After controlling for pre-test perceived physical competence, post-test perceived physical
competence approached significance with Girls on Track members and soccer players
displaying higher levels than Girl Scouts. Although it varies by troop, overall, Girl Scout
troops tend to engage in very little physical activity, whereas the other two programs
contain a large physical activity component, and thus it is of little surprise that Girl
scouts had lower levels of perceived physical competence at the post—test. What is
interesting is that at pre-test no differences existed on this variable between Girls on
Track and Girl Scout members. This finding suggests that the Girls on Track program
was effective in increasing the perceptions of physical competence in members. Because
perceived physical competence often predicts participation in physical activity (Crocker
et al., 2000; Weiss, 1993), the increase in perceived physical competence results in a
greater chance that these girls will continue to participate in physical activity in the
future. Therefore, this discovery provides evidence that the Girls on Track program was
successful in its attempt to prepare girls for a healthy life (Girls on the Run: How it
works, n.d.).

A significant difference at post-test existed between the Girls on Track group and
the Girls on Track plus soccer group on perceptions of physical appearance competence,
with the Girls on Track plus soccer group experiencing lower levels of this variable. That
Girls on Track plus soccer group members tended to decrease perceptions of competence

in this domain is interesting, especially considering the lessons presented during the

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program. Past research has often classified college and elite athletes by lean sports (e.g.,
distance running where lower weight is important for success) and non—lean sports (e.g.,
soccer where weight is not as important for success) and suggested that lean sport athletes
are more likely to be preoccupied with their weight (Davis & Cowles, 1989; Petrie,
1996). Perhaps training for a lean sport (i.e., distant running) rather than a non-lean sport
(i.e., soccer) created an altered perception of body for Girls on Track plus soccer
members, which resulted in a lower perceived physical appearance competence. To fully
understand this finding, future research needs to examine the development of perceived
physical appearance competence or body image in early adolescent, female athletes and
non-athletes.
Harter’s Model of Competence Motivation

The current study was framed within Harter’s Model of Competence Motivation
(Harter, 1978) in order to understand how out-of-school programs may help early
adolescent girls develop and maintain positive perceptions of self. This model has been
used extensively in the psychology and sport psychology literature. The results of the
current study and past studies provide support for Harter’s Model in terms of the
development of competence in the domains of academic and physical competence (e.g.,
Harter, 1999; Harter & Connell, 1984; Klint & Weiss, 1987; Smith, 1999; Weiss, 1993).
However, a gap appears in the literature in that researchers do not fully understand how
well the model predicts the deveIOpment of other domains of competence such as social,
close friendship, and physical appearance. For example, it is difficult to understand what
would constitute a mastery attempt in the domain of physical appearance. Furthermore,

future research should flesh out if socialization factors influence development of

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competence in some domains more than mastery attempts. Again, perceptions of physical
appearance competence may advance more from socialization factors than mastery
attempts.

Si gnifrcant others, in the form of coaches, troop leaders, coach educators, and
peers, greatly influenced the experiences of participants in the programs of the current
study. Future research should examine the role of significant others, who are not parents
or teachers, in socializing early adolescents. For example, Talmi and Harter (cited in
Harter, 1999) examined the influence of special adults found that not all youth benefited
from the interactions with the special adult. Special adults such as coaches and troop
leaders have an effect on the lives of early adolescents; however, research has not
examined the mechanism of how special adults contribute or do not contribute to the
socialization of youth.

Limitations of Study

The strongest statements about the effectiveness of programs can be made using a
experimental research design (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 2002).
The current study was unable to utilize this design, and implemented a quasi-
experimental design with two nonrandomly assigned comparison groups. Using the pre-
test as a control, allowed pre-intervention differences to be ruled out as sources of post-
intervention differences. This design, however, only considered snapshots of participant’s
levels of perceived competence and self-worth. Therefore, a longitudinal study would
allow researchers to examine how these variables change over time. Using a longitudinal
design permits a more complete portrait and greater understanding of how programs help

girls and the long-term impact of the programs. Other limitations of this study included

the small sample size, sample bias inherent in the study, the short time frame of the
intervention program, and the lack of diversity in the sample.

Sample size. It is a difficult task to gain access to participants, especially youth
participants. The primary researcher worked hard to secure participants for the study
from the three groups. An analysis of evaluations of positive youth development
programs found that all the effective, well—evaluated programs had at least 100
participants (some had 1000) per condition (Catalano et al., 2002). The current study did
not have this size of sample and this may have been a factor in the lack of detection of
change among the groups. Despite the size of the sample, small to moderate effect sizes
indicated that the Girls on Track program made a positive difference in the lives of the
participants.

A major challenge to researchers in the field is gaining access to programs and to
participants. The researcher in the current study spent a great deal of time and energy
trying to secure comparison groups. For example, initially, the president of an outdoor
soccer association was contacted and showed interest in participation in the study. We
met in person and he agreed to help gain access to girls’ soccer teams. Parental consent
forms were sent to him and he distributed the forms to coaches. After time had passed
and he was still waiting to hear back from coaches, the researcher asked if she could
contact the coaches directly, he replied no. The researcher attempted to initiate contact
again with messages being left at his home, office, and cell-phone. After countless
attempts, no additional contact was made with the president of the association. This is

one example of the struggle to gain access to comparison programs. In order to attain

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rigorous methodological standards (Catalano et al., 2002), this issue must be explored by
researchers in this area.

Moreover, there was a low response rate with the two comparison groups. The
soccer group had a 16.5% return rate, while the Girl Scouts had a 4% return rate on the
first mailing and a 12% return rate for the second mailing. The low return rate could be a
result of three things. First, there may be a lack of time on the part of people to complete
surveys. Parents and guardians are busy and signing a consent form and helping a child
fill out a survey is simply one more thing on their plate. Second, there may be a lack of
understanding about the issue being researched. Parents and guardians (and even program
administrators) may not be aware of the importance of the issue being researched and
therefore, do not express interest in the study. Third, there may be a lack of understanding
about the research process as a whole. Some pe0ple have a distrust of research and what
it entails.

With these issues, the question for field researchers becomes, how do we get our
data? One way is by having direct contact with people at all levels of the research
process. Direct contact with the administrator of the program is a crucial first step in
accessing the program. As the primary researcher found in the current study, the support
of the administrator of the program is not enough to collect data. Although support from
the Executive Director of the Girl Scout Council was gained in the current study, it was
not enough to garner a high response rate. Direct contact with coaches or leaders and
parents or guardians helps these people understand both the issue being researched and
the research process. Finally, having participants complete the survey during the program

will help alleviate the issue of time.

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Sample bias. There were a number of sources of possible sample bias in the
current study. First, girls self-selected into these programs. As a field experiment, it was
impossible to place girls into the programs. Second, there is always the potential of
sample bias of those in the program who decided to participate in the research versus
those who did not participate. For example, because parental consent was needed to
participate in the study, it is possible that girls who participated in the study had more
supportive parents than those who did not participate in the study. Unfortunately, the
primary researcher was unable to receive data from each of the programs about their
whole population to which comparisons could be drawn to the subsample in the study.
Therefore, it is difficult to state whether or not the subsample who participated in the
study is representative of the whole population in a program. Third, attrition of
participants from pre- to post-test may have introduced bias. The attrition rate was 25.4%
for the three groups: other pre/post studies have reported an attrition rate of about 25%
(see Chally, 1998; Smolak et al., 1998). Attrition analyses were conducted to determine
if there were differences between those who dropped out of the study and those who did
not. The analyses did not reveal any significant differences between the groups; however,
the potential for bias between those who dropped out and those who did not is always
there.

Sample bias in the form of age and maturational status also existed in that the
Girls on Track group and Girls on Track plus soccer consisted of only 6‘h grade
participants, while the soccer group and Girl Scouts consisted of 7‘h and 8h grade girls.
Originally, the Girls on Track program was opened to 6‘“, 7th, and 8h grade girls, and

thus, would have been comparable to the soccer and Girl Scouts group. An executive

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decision, beyond the control of the primary researcher, changed the program to be only
opened to 6‘h graders. Executive decisions like these make it more difficult to conduct
field research.

Implementation of program. Another important consideration for the future is
program implementation. Programs, like Girls on Track, have all coaches participate in
training workshops. However, it is unknown how successful the training is in
communicating information and how well the coaches implement the training sessions.
Investigating the quality of program implementation will allow us to recognize how
implementation affects outcomes in participants.

Diversity of sample. A major limitation in this sample is the lack of diversity. The
sample was primarily White American/Caucasian and middle class, which is the
population of the majority of research studies. Intersections of race or ethnicity, social
class, and urbanization create different female experiences and influence identity
development differently (Erkut et al., 1996). For example, research has shown that Black
American girls tend to have the lowest drop in self-esteem during the transition to high
school as compared to both White American and Hispanic girls (AAUW, 1992). To fully
understand the effect of out-of-school programs on perceptions of competence, self-
worth, and attraction to physical activity, it is imperative that researchers work to include
the multiple, rather than singular, experiences of girls.

Multiple perspectives. The current study examined the programs from the
experiences of the girls, which provides only one perspective to understand effectiveness.
Future research could explore the interaction of person and environment. Interviews with

coaches or troop leaders and parents, as well as participants. could offer a more complete

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picture of how out-of—school programs are influencing early adolescents. Coaches and
parents may observe changes that the early adolescent is not aware of or may not want to
admit. For example, at the completion of the interviews conducted during the current
study, many parents described additional differences in their daughters that they
attributed to participation in the program. For example, one mother believed that the Girls
on Track program helped her daughter make friends while another mother commented
that the Girls on Track program helped her daughter experience and learn about
teamwork. Similarity in responses among participant, coach, and parent will also
corroborate the potential outcomes of program involvement. Examining the interaction of
person and environment will help us understand more fully the impact of programs on the
development of early adolescent girls.
Implications for the Programs

The findings of the current study suggested that involvement in these three out-of-
school programs provided a positive experience for early adolescent girls. In general, the
results across all three programs imply that coaches and troop leaders should continue to
work to provide a safe environment for girls to learn and develop skills. Additionally, it is
important that the adults allow girls the opportunity to socialize and achieve their social
goals during practice. Beyond the general implications, the findings also have specific
implications for each of the programs.

Girls on Track. The Girls on Track program was successful in helping girls
become involved and interested in physical activity and learn about themselves and
others. For many girls, this was their first experience in participating in running or

physical activity. The program should continue to target non-athletes because results

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from the current study illustrated that the program was most effective with this group of
girls. Both quantitatively and qualitatively, girls stressed the importance of their coach in
their experiences in the program. Coaches in this program may have played a critical role
in keeping girls involved in the program. Having encouraging and supportive coaches
who also actively participate in running or walking has considerable implication for other
programs hoping to help girls become engaged in physical activity.

A real strength of this program, as highlighted by the girls in the qualitative
interviews, were the lessons and discussion focusing on the girls’ changing body due to
puberty and due to running. The program encouraged girls to gain an appreciation for
their bodies and what their bodies could do rather than the appearance of their bodies.
Interviewed girls talked with excitement about their leg muscles. Gaining an appreciation
for muscles and their physical abilities is a powerful message for girls who are constantly
bombarded with images to the importance of a thin and toned body. Other out-of—school
programs, including sport programs, should work to help girls understand and appreciate
their physical body.

Soccer. Girls in the current study who participated in soccer programs had higher
perceptions of competence and self-worth than girls who were involved in Girls on Track
or Girl Scouts. Either girls with high self-perceptions selected into soccer at an early age
and soccer helped them maintain positive self-evaluations. Or, involvement in soccer
helped girls develop positive perceptions of the self. The possibility must be considered
that by this age and competitive level girls who had lower self-perceptions or negative
experiences in soccer may have already dropped out. Although the salience of the higher

self-perceptions of the soccer players in the present study cannot be denied, it is

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important to realize that involvement in soccer may not produce the same benefits for all
girls.

Many soccer players who were interviewed in the current study highlighted the
importance of being with friends and peers. The competitiveness of athletic programs,
such as soccer, as well as higher ability levels forcing some girls to move to a more
competitive team may preclude girls from forming the friendships they desire. Coaches
must be aware of the importance of being with friends as a motive for involvement in
sport. Coaches should facilitate the forming and keeping of friendships on a team. For
example, coaches could organize social events outside of practice to encourage social
relationships. In addition, coaches could set up a system of captains or team leaders
mentoring newer or younger players.

Girl Scouts. The Girl Scout program has a history of engaging in community
service. From the interviews, it was clear that many girls joined this program for the
chance to help others and felt good about themselves through helping others. Providing
the opportunity for community service is something the Girl Scout program should
continue to do. Additionally, the program provided a place of safe escape for many of the
girls. As early adolescent girls are faced with the challenges of development, having a
safe place to relax and escape is a strength of the Girl Scouts.

However, the interviews with the girls in this program revealed that often times
activities were boring to the girls, suggesting the girls were not challenged. As a program,
the Girl Scouts services many different girls, and thus, a broad range of abilities. Because
of this, it is unlikely that the activities to earn badges accommodate all ability levels. The

Girl Scout program should examine ways to provide challenges to differing abilities.

139

Providing challenging opportunities for all girls involved in the program helps girls feel
good about themselves for their accomplishments and increases perceptions of
competence.

It was also surprising that involvement in the Girl Scouts program did not provide
opportunities for girls to explore their physical self. As an educational program, Girl
Scouts has the potential to help girls deal with their bodies through discussion or lessons.
However, interviewed girls did not learn anything about their bodies through their
involvement. As one interviewee stated, “We don’t talk about things like that.”
Furthermore, Girl Scouts in these troops did not participate in any physical activity.
Again, the Girl Scouts has the potential to engage girls in physical activity. Perhaps troop
leaders do not feel comfortable leading girls in forms of physical activities. Girl Scout
Councils or troops could collaborate with sport or physical activity organizations to
provide positive and safe movement experiences for both the troop leaders and the Girl
Scout participants.

Directions for Future Research

Findings from this study demonstrated that a cooperative, educational, running
program increased perceptions of competence, self-worth, and attraction to physical
activity for a number of girls. As an introduction to running or physical activity, this
program provided a positive experience for many girls, which will hopefully set the stage
for the development of a healthy life and positive identity. The continued investigation of
the effect of out-of—school programs is essential to our understanding of perceived
competence, self-worth, and the transition of adolescence. In turn, this research will help

us continue to devise strategies through youth programming to enhance the motivation,

140

the competencies, the psychosocial well-being, and the physical activity of early
adolescent girls.

There are several important undertakings for continued research in this area. First,
follow-up data should be collected to determine the lasting effect of involvement in
programs. The current study provided evidence of the short-term effects of participation
in the Girls on Track program. Interviewing girls in this program one year after their
involvement would allow us to understand the degree of impact this program had on the
development and lives of girls. Additionally, employing longitudinal designs will help to
establish the long-term effects of program involvement in terms of self-evaluations.

Second, there is a plethora of out-of—school programs offered to youth in our
country. Research needs to continue to investigate how well these programs are meeting
the needs of early adolescents and begin to implement programmatic changes based on
the research findings. In addition, it will be salient to examine why early adolescents
decide tojoin some programs, while other adolescents involve themselves in different
programs, and examine how continued involvement in a particular program contributes to
self-evaluations. For example, Fredricks and colleagues (Fredricks et al., 2002) explored
adolescents’ commitment to extracurricular activities over time. Continued research in
this vein will lead to greater understanding of when and how program involvement leads
to positive or negative outcomes.

Third, we need to continue to understand how to involve girls in physical activity
at a young age so they begin to identify themselves as being physically active or even
athletic. Starting at a young age is particularly important because of the gender-role

intensification that occurs during adolescence, which may lead some girls to reject

141

physical activity and sports. Because physical activity is important to development in that
it influences the cognitive, emotional, and physical growth of the adolescents, future
research needs to continue to consider how to involve and maintain the involvement of
young and early adolescent girls. Additionally, research should examine the effectiveness
of educating coaches and other physical activity mentors to work with adolescent girls
and the issues they face during adolescence. Coaches and other mentors play an
important role in the lives of adolescent girls and thus, it is critical that they are able to

help girls to positively transition into young adulthood.

Appendix A

Girls on Track Demographic Questionnaire

Please answer the following questions by filling in the blank or by placing an ‘x’ on the
line

Your ID# consists of your birthdate (i.e., 3-9-76) and then your initials (i.e., JSW). This

1D# would be 3976JSW. Please write your ID#

 

 

 

Today’s Date: (month/day/year)
1. Birth date: (month/day/year)
2. Grade

6‘h Grade

7‘h Grade

8‘h Grade

3. What is your race or ethnicity?

African American/ Black

Asian American/ Pacific Islander
Middle Eastern American
European-American/ White
Mexican-American/ Hispanic
Native American

Multiracial

 

 

 

 

 

4. What is your parent/caregivers job?
Father or male caregiver job
Mother or female caregiver job

 

 

5. Compared to other girls my age, I am
a. Taller
b. Shorter
c. Same height

 

 

6. Compared to other girls my age, I weigh
a. More

b. Less
c. Same

143

10.

ll.

13.

14.

15.

16.

I have started my period
a. Yes
b. No
c. I don’t know

 

 

Is this your first time in Girls on Track?
a. Yes
b. No

How many times did you participate in the Girls on the Run program?
a. 0

b.l
c.2

 

 

 

Did you join Girls on the Run with a friend?
a. Yes
b. No

Are you and your friend on the same team?

a. Yes
b. No
. Are you involved in other activities (like Girl Scouts, piano lessons, sports)?
a. Yes
b. No

If yes, list the top 5 activities that you are involved in
a.

b.

 

 

C.

d.

 

 

C.

 

Are you physically active outside Girls on Track?

a. Yes
b. No
Do you like to run?
a. Yes
b. No
Do you believe you will be able to run or walk a 5K by the end of the program?
a. Yes
b. No

144

Appendix B

Soccer Teams Demographic Questionnaire

Please answer the following questions by filling in the blank or by placing an ‘x’ on the
line

Your ID# consists ofyour birthdate (i.e., 3-9-76) and then your initials (i.e., JSW). This

ID# would be 397615 W. Please write your ID#

 

 

 

Today’s Date: (month/day/year)
1. Birth date: (month/day/year)
2. Grade

6'h Grade

7‘h Grade

8'h Grade

3. What is your race or ethnicity?

African American/ Black

Asian American/ Pacific Islander
Middle Eastern American
European-American/ White
Mexican-American/ Hispanic
Native American
Multiracial

 

 

 

 

 

4. What is your parent/caregivers job?
Father or male caregiver job
Mother or female caregiver job

 

 

5. Compared to other girls my age, I am
a. Taller
b. Shorter
c. Same height

 

 

 

6. Compared to other girls my age, I weigh

a. More
b. Less
c. Same

145

7. I have started my period
a. Yes

b. No
c. Idon’tknow

 

 

8. Including this year, how many years have you played this sport?

 

 

 

 

1 year 5 years
2 years 6 years
3 years 7 years
4 years 8 years

9. Did you join this sports team with a friend?
a. Yes
b. No

10. Are you and your friend on the same team?

a. Yes
b. No
l 1. Are you involved in other activities (like Girl Scouts, piano lessons, other sports)?
a. Yes
b. No

12. If yes, list the top 5 activities that you are involved in

a.

 

b.

 

 

 

 

13. Do you like to run?

a. Yes
b. No
14. I play soccer in the following age division
a. U-l2
b. U-l3
c. U-l4

146

Appendix C

Girl Scouts Demographic Questionnaire

Please answer the following questions by filling in the blank or by placing an ‘x’ on the
line

Your ID# consists of your birthdate (i.e., 3-9-76) and then your initials (i.e., JSW). This

ID# would be 3976JSW. Please write your ID#

 

 

 

Today’s Date: (month/day/year)
1. Birth date: . (month/day/year)
2. Grade

6'h Grade

7‘h Grade

8‘h Grade

3. What is your race or ethnicity?

African American/ Black

Asian American/ Pacific Islander
Middle Eastern American
European-American/ White
Mexican-American] Hispanic
Native American

Multiracial

 

 

 

 

 

4. What is your parent/caregivers job?
Father or male caregiver job
Mother or female caregiver job

 

 

5. Compared to other girls my age, I am
e. Taller
d. Shorter

e. Same height

 

6. Compared to other girls my age, I weigh
a. More
b. Less
c. Same

147

7. I have started my period
a. Yes
b. No
c. I don’t know

 

 

8. Including this year, how many years have you been a Girl Scout?

 

 

 

1 year 5 years
2 years 6 years
3 years 7 years
4 years 8 years

 

9. Did you join Girl Scouts with a friend?

a. Yes
b. No
10. Are you and your friend in the same troop?
a. Yes
b. No

11. Are you involved in other activities (like piano lessons, sports)?
a. Yes
b. No

12. If yes, list the top 5 activities that you are involved in
a.

 

b.

 

 

 

C.

 

13. Are you physically active outside the Girl Scouts?

a. Yes
b. No
14. Do you like to run?
a. Yes
b. No

148

Appendix D

Modified Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents

Read each sentence. Decide if the teenager in the sentence is really true for you, sort
of true for you, sort of not true for you, or not true for you at all. Circle the answer
that is most like you. There are no right and wrong answers because teenagers are all

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

different.
Really Sort of Sort of Not
True for True not true true at
you for you for you all for
you
Some teenagers find it hard to make 1 2 3 4
friends
Some teenagers do very well at sports 1 2 3 4
and other physical activities
Some teenagers are happy with the way 1 2 3 4
they look
Some teenagers often do not like the 1 2 3 4
way they behave
Some teenagers are able to make really 1 2 3 4
close friends
Some teenagers have a lot of friends 1 2 3 4
Some teenagers are often disappointed I 2 3 4
with themselves
Some teenagers wish they could be a lot 1 2 3 4
better at sports and physical activities
Some teenagers are happy with their 1 2 3 4
height and weight
Some teenagers usually do the right 1 2 3 4
thing

 

149

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Really Sort of Sort of Not
True for True not true true at
you for you for you all for
you
Some teenagers don’t like the way they 1 2 3 4
are leading their life
Some teenagers are kind of hard to like 1 2 3 4
Some teenagers think they could do 1 2 3 4
well at just about any new sport or
physical activities they haven’t tried
before
Some teenagers wish their body was 1 2 3 4
different
Some teenagers usually act the way 1 2 3 4
they know they are suppose to
Some teenagers wish they had a really 1 2 3 4
close friend to share things with
Some teenagers are happy with l 2 3 4
themselves most of the time
Some teenagers are always doing things 1 2 3 4
with a lot of teenagers
Some teenagers feel that they are better 1 2 3 4
than others their age at sports and
physical activities
Some teenagers wish their physical l 2 3 4
appearance was different
Some teenagers usually get in trouble 1 2 3 4
because of the things they do
Some teenagers find it hard to make 1 2 3 4
friends they can really trust
Some teenagers like the kind of person 1 2 3 4

they are

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Really Sort of Sort of Not
True for True not true true at
you for you for you all for
you
Some teenagers wish that more 1 2 3 4
teenagers liked them
In sports and physical activities, some 1 2 3 4
teenagers usually watch instead of play
Some teenagers wish something about 1 2 3 4
their hair or face was different
Some teenagers do things they know 1 2 3 4
they shouldn’t do
Some teenagers don’t have a friend that l 2 3 4
is close enough to share really personal
thoughts with
Some teenagers are popular with others 1 2 3 4
their age
Some teenagers don’t do well at new 1 2 3 4
sports or physical activities
Some teenagers think that they are 1 2 3 4
attractive or good looking
Some teenagers are usually very kind to 1 2 3 4
others
Some teenagers are very happy being 1 2 3 4

the way they are

 

151

 

Appendix E

Modified Children’s Attraction to Physical Activity Scale

Read each sentence. Decide if the teenager in the sentence is really true for you, sort
of true for you, sort of not true for you, or not true for you at all. Circle the answer
that is most like you. There are no right and wrong answers because teenagers are all

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

different.
Really Sort of Sort of Not
true for true for not true true at
you you for you all for
you
Some teenagers like exercising a whole 1 2 3 4
lot
Some teenagers have more fun playing 1 2 3 4
sports
Some teenagers think that exercise is l 2 3 4
the most important thing for good
health
Some teenagers get nervous about 1 2 3 4
playing sports
Some teenagers wish they could play 1 2 3 4
more Sports than they get to
Some teenagers feel really tired after 1 2 3 4
exercise
Some teenagers feel sports is a favorite 1 2 3 4
thing
Some teenagers think the more exercise 1 2 3 4
they get, the better
Some teenagers are popular with others 1 2 3 4
in sports
Some teenagers don’t like getting 1 2 3 4
sweaty

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Really Sort of Sort of Not
true for true for not true true at
you you for you all for
you
Some teenagers like playing outdoor 1 2 3 4
sports and physical activities
Some teenagers think it is very 1 2 3 4
important to always be in good shape
Some teenagers don’t like playing 1 2 3 4
sports very much
Some teenagers don’t like getting out of 1 2 3 4
breath
Some teenagers will feel good after 1 2 3 4
exercising
Some teenagers have friends who like 1 2 3 4
playing sports
Some teenagers get told by teenagers I 2 3 4
they are not good at sports
Some teenagers get teased by other 1 2 3 4
teenagers for being overweight
Some teenagers get their feelings hurt in 1 2 3 4
sport
Some teenagers feel bad when they run 1 2 3 4

hard

 

153

 

Appendix F

Why did I join Girls on Track?

Below are reasons why girls might join Girls on Track. Please circle the degree to
which each reason was important in your decision to join GOT.

 

Not at all Somewhat Important Extremely

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

important important important
Want to get in shape or get 1 2 3 4
stronger
Want to improve my 1 2 3 4
running skills
Like to have fun 1 2 3 4
Want to stay in shape 1 2 3 4
Like the challenge 1 2 3 4
Like to be physically active 1 2 3 4
Like being on a team 1 2 4 5
Like to do something I am 1 2 3 4
good at
Like the team spirit 1 2 3 4
Like to exercise 1 2 3 4
Like the coaches l 2 3 4
Like the teamwork 1 2 3 4
Like to feel important 1 2 3 4
My teacher wanted me to 1 2 3 4
participate

 

154

 

 

Like to have something to
do

IQ

 

Like to learn about myself

10

 

Like to meet new friends

1\)

 

My parents want me to
participate

{\J

 

Like to learn about others

l\)

b.)

 

Want to be popular with
others

 

My friends want me to
participate

 

Want to be with my friends

I\)

 

 

Want to become a better
person

 

155

 

Appendix G

Interview Guide

Instructions to the child
“I’m tape recording our meeting. Your name will not appear on the tape. 1 hope you will

tell me as much as you can about what it was like participating in the Girls on Track/
Sports/ Girl Scouts program. If you are uncomfortable about any question or about what
we are talking about, you do not have to answer the question or to continue the
discussion. If you want to stop at any time, we will stop. I will be tape recording our

discussion so that I do not have to take notes. Any questions?”

After answering any questions the child may have, I will turn on the tape recorder and
ask:
“Do you agree to participate in this study and be interviewed?”

If child says yes, I will begin the interview. If the child says no, the interview will not be
conducted.

“What name would you like me to use throughout the interview?”

Questions about the Program
0 Was this the first time you participated in GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?
o What did you like best about GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS? What was your
favorite part of GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?

0 Why did you like this best?
0 What did you like least about GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?

0 Why did you like this least?
0 What was the easiest part about GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?

0 Why was this part easy?
0 What was the hardest part about GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?

0 Why was this part the hardest?

o What did you learn from the hard parts?

o What GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS lesson did you like best?
0 Why did you like this lesson the best?
0 What was it like to run/ walk a 5K? (For GOT only) or What was it like to play
sport (For Sports)
0 Did you feel prepared to run/walk a 5K? or Did you feel prepared to play?
0 What feelings did you have on that day?

Questions about Changes

0 Did you like to run before GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS? Do you like to run
now? (For GOT only) or Do you play sport now?
0 How did your feelings and thoughts about running change because of GOT?
0 Why do you think your feelings or thoughts did (not) change?
0 Have you continued to be physically active after GOT/ SPORTS ended?
0 If yes, what do you do? Why?
0 If no, why not?
0 Did your confidence in your running skills change because of GOT?
o In what ways did your running skills change?
0 Why do you think your running skills change?
0 Did your confidence in your ability to make friends change because of GOT/
SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?
o In what ways did your ability to make friends change?
0 Why do you think your ability to make friends change?
0 Did your confidence in your ability to be physically active change because of
GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?
o In what ways did your ability to be physically active change?
0 Why do you think your ability to be physically active change?
0 Did your confidence in your ability to make decisions or changes in your life
change because of GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?
o In what ways did your ability to make decisions or changes in your life

change?

157

0 Why do you think your ability to make decisions or changes in your life
change?
0 How did GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS make you feel about yourself?
0 Why did GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS make you feel that way?
0 Have any of your behaviors changed because of GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL
SCOUTS?
0 What behaviors have change?
0 How did GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS help?

Questions about Learning

What did you learn about yourself during GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?
o How did you learn this about yourself?
a What did you learn about your body during GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS?
o How did you learn this about your body?
a How have you used the information presented to you during GOT/ SPORTS/
GIRL SCOUTS?
0 Has it helped you in your life?
' How?
I What information?
0 Have you been able to apply information you learned in GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL
SCOUTS to your life?
0 What information?
o How?
0 What was the most important thing you learned during GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL
SCOUTS?
0 Why was this so important?
Questions about coaches and team
0 What did you learn about working as a team during GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL
SCOUTS?

o How did learn this?

0 Can you give me an example of when it was hard working as a team?

158

0 Why was this so hard?
0 How did your team get through this hard time?
0 Can you give me an example of when it was easy working as a team?
0 Why was this so easy?
0 Were your teammates supportive of you?
0 In what ways?
0 Was your coach supportive of you?
0 In what ways?
0 Did your teammates help you finish the 5K? (For GOT only)
0 Why or why not?
0 How did they or didn’t they help you?
0 Did your coach help you finish the 5K? Why or why not? (For GOT only)
0 Why or why not?
0 How did she or did she not help you?

Questions to end

- Pretend a new girl entered your class. She asks you to tell her about the GOT/
SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS program. What would you tell her about the program?
0 How would you describe the program to her?
0 Would you tell her tojoin? Why or why not?
0 Would you participate in GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL SCOUTS again?
0 Why or why not?
0 Any other experiences you would like to share about GOT/ SPORTS/ GIRL
SCOUTS?

159

Appendix H

Approval from UCHRIS

160

 

OFFICE OF
RESEARCH
ETHICS AND
STANDARDS

University Committee on
Research Involving
Human Subjects

Michigan State University
202 Olds Hall

East Lansing, MI

48824

517/355-2180

FAX: 517/432-4503

3b: www.msuedu/user/ucrihs
E-Mail: ucrihs©msuedu

The Michigan State University
IDEA IS Institutiona/ Diversity;

Excellence in Action,
f/ISU IS an alllfmallVE-acfjon‘

: -nnnfli m IN inelih "inn

MICHIGAN STATE

 

   
  

UNIVERSITY

July 25, 2002

TO: Martha E. EWING
201 IM Sports Circle
MSU

RE: IRB# 02-554 CATEGORY:
APPROVAL DATE: July 23, 2002

TITLE: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREE EXTRACURRICULAR PROGRAMS ON

THE PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY ADOLESCENT GIRLS
The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects' (UCRIHS) review of this
project is complete and I am pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human
subjects appear to be adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are
appropriate. Therefore, the UCRIHS approved this project.

RENEWALS: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with the approval date
shown above. Projects continuing beyond one year must be renewed with the green renewal
form. A maximum of four such expedited renewals possible. Investigators wishing to cohtinue a
project beyond that time need to submit it again for a complete review.

REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects, prior
to initiation of the change. If this is done at the time of renewal, please use the green renewal
form. To revise an approved protocol at any other time during the year, send your written
request to the UCRIHS Chair, requesting revised approval and referencing the project's IRB#
and title. Include in your request a description of the change and any revised instruments,
consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.

PROBLEMSICHANGES: Should either of the following arise during the course of the work,
notify UCRIHS promptly. 1) problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving
human subjects or 2) changes in the research environment or new information indicating

greater risk to the human subjects than existed when the protocol was previously reviewed and
approved.

If we can be of further assistance, please contact us at (517) 355-2180 or via email:
UCRIHS@msu.edu. Please note that all UCRIHS forms are located on the web:
http://www.msu.edu/user/ucrihs

Sincerely,

ir Kumar, MD.
UCRIHS Chair

AK: kb

V/Jennifer Waldron

205 IM Sports Circle

161

Appendix I

Pre-test Instructions to Girls on Track Coaches

17 September 2002

Coaches,

Thank you for your help in administering the parental consent forms and surveys to the
girls participating in the Girls on Track program. Please read through these directions and
follow them.

The box you received at the coaches meeting contains 18 parental consent forms and 18
surveys.

1. Please hand out the parental surveys on Monday, September 23rd or Tuesday,
September 24th.
2. The girls will be returning signed consent forms to you. Please place these in the
box.
3. Have girls with SIGNED consent forms complete the survey the week of
Monday, September 30‘“.
4. When administering the surveys
21. Try to have the girls spread out so they are not looking at each other’s
answers
b. Read to the girls the directions for completing the surveys
c. Answer any questions they may have, but don’t lead them to their answers
d. The surveys are double sided — please make sure the girls complete both
sides
e. The surveys should take 15 to 20 minutes to complete
Place completed surveys in the box.
6. Return the box with the signed parental consent forms, completed surveys, and
extra surveys and consent forms to Heather at your next coaches meeting on
October 9‘“.

L11

Thank you for your cooperation. This information will be valuable to the GOT program
in that it provides how participants’ perceptions such as self-esteem, attraction to physical
activity, and perceived competencies are changing. Girls with signed parental consent
forms will also complete the survey at the end of the program.

If you have any questions, please call me at 517-485-9865 or email me at
waldron9@msu.edu.

Thank you,

Jennifer

162

Appendix J

Parental Consent Form — Girls on Track
Dear Parent/Guardian,

This is an invitation to participate in a study being conducted by Jennifer
Waldron, a doctoral student in sport psychology, and a graduate student research assistant
in the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at Michigan State University, “The
Effectiveness of Extracurricular Programs on the Psychosocial Development of Early
Adolescent Girls”. The goal of the study is to investigate the experiences that your
daughter has in the Girls on Track program. It is hoped that the study will provide insight
into the effectiveness of the Girls on Track program and into how the participants used
the knowledge that was gained throughout the program.

There are two phases of this study. The first phase involves the completion of
questionnaires by your daughter at the beginning of the Girls on Track program and at the
end of the program. The questionnaires will ask about your daughter’s self-esteem, her
perceived ability in different domains of life - such as physical activity, social, physical
appearance, and behavioral conduct — and her attraction to physical activity. The
questionnaires will take approximately 20 minutes to complete. The questionnaires will
be kept in a secure location and only researchers associated with the study will have
access to the data. Additionally, information gained from these questionnaires will
always be reported as group data.

The second phase of the study involves an interview with your daughter at the
completion of the Girls on Track program. The interview will last a maximum of 45
minutes, will focus upon issues such as likes and dislikes of the program, confidence,
teamwork, self-esteem, and body image and will be conducted by trained staff from the
Institute. For your convenience and for the comfort of your child, it is preferred that the
interviews take place at your home. Each interview will be recorded onto an audiotape
and transcribed verbatim. Both the audiotape and the paper transcription will be kept in a
secure location and only researchers associated with the study will have access to these
items. The interview transcripts will used during data analysis. Portions of the audiotapes
may be played during conference presentations. Any references to people, places, and
teams, will be modified; therefore, the participants shall not be identifiable in any report
of research findings.

Participation in this study is voluntary. Participants may choose not to participate
at all, may refuse to participate to answer certain questions, or may discontinue the
interview at any time without penalty. All children participating in the study will be
guaranteed confidentiality and privacy to the maximum extent allowable by law.

 

If you have any questions about this study, please contact the investigator Dr. Martha
Ewing of the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at (517) 353-4652 or email
mewing@msu.edu. If you have questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study
participant, or are dissatisfied at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact —
anonymously, if you wish -— Ashir Kumar, M.D., Chair of the University Committee on
Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 355-2180, fax: (517) 432-
4503, e-mail: ucrihs@msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824.

 

Please fill out the enclosed form and return it to your daughter’s coach of the
Girls on Track program as soon as possible. Parents/ caregivers who provide their
phone number will be contacted via the telephone to set up a time and a place for the
interview at the end of the program. Your daughter’s participation is greatly appreciated.
If desired, the questionnaires and/ or a summary of the finished study will be sent directly
to you.

Yours Sincerely,

Jennifer Waldron, M.Ed.
Institute for the Study of Youth Sports

164

Girls on Track

Parent! Guardian:

Your signature below indicates that you grant permission for your child

(name) to voluntarily
participate in this study called “The Effectiveness of Extracurricular Programs on the
Psychosocial Development of Early Adolescent Girls”.

Printed Name:

 

Signature:

 

Signature of child:

 

Date:

 

If you are interested in having your daughter participate in an interview about her
experiences, please supply your phone number below.

Phone Number:

 

Alternative Phone Number:

 

 

 

 

Please check this box and provide your address if you would like to obtain a

 

summary of the finished study.

Address:

 

 

 

165

Appendix K

Directions to Administer Survey

Instructions for administering the questionnaires - to be given verbally

Please read each question in the survey carefully. Answer each question as honestly as
possible. There are no right or wrong answers because everyone is different. On the first
page of the questionnaires, please print your ID. Your ID consists of your initials and
your birth date. You will be completing questionnaires again at the end of the Girls on
Track program. Your ID allows us to compare your responses from the beginning of the
program to the end of the program. Once your answers are put into the computer, they

will be coded by numbers. In this manner, your answers will remain private.

Place the surveys in the box when you are done answering them. Neither your coaches

nor your parents will see your answers. Only the researcher will see your answers.

For each question, you must decide if the teenager in the statement is really like you, sort
of like you, sort of not like you, or really not like you. Please circle the number that

matches your answer. Only circle one number per question.

Participation in this study is voluntary. You may decide not to participate at any time
with no harm to you. If you do not want to complete the survey, just hand in your blank
copy. If you have any questions or do not understand a word, please ask me, your coach.

When you are completed, please place your survey into the box

Please read carefully and answer honestly. Remember there are no right or wrong

answers.

166

Appendix L

Post-test Instructions to Girls on Track Coaches

Coaches,

Thank you for your help in administering the post-season surveys to the girls
participating in the Girls on Track program. Please read through these directions and
follow them.

The box you received at the coaches meeting contains the same number of surveys as
girls who completed the pre-season survey from your team. (For example, if 4 girls
completed the pre-season surveys, there are 4 post-surveys in the box). Additionally, each
of the surveys in the box has a girl’s code on it, in order to help your remember which
girls need to complete the post-survey. Please make sure each of the girls receive the
form with their code on it and that each of the girls who completed a pre-survey also
completes a post-survey.

7. Administer the surveys before the race on November 16‘“.
8. When administering the surveys
a. Try to have the girls spread out so they are not looking at each other’s
answers
b. Read to the girls the directions for completing the surveys
c. Answer any questions they may have, but don’t lead them to their answers
(1. The surveys are double sided — please make sure the girls complete both
sides
e. The surveys should take 15 to 20 minutes to complete
9. Place completed surveys in the box.
10. Return the box with the completed surveys to Heather before the race on
November 16th.

Thank you for your cooperation. This information will be valuable to the GOT program
in that it provides how participants’ perceptions such as self-esteem, attraction to physical

activity, and perceived competencies are changing.

If you have any questions, please call me at 517-485-9865 or email me at
waldron9@msu.edu.

Thank you,

Jennifer Waldron

167

Appendix M

Parental Consent Form - Soccer Team
Dear Parent/Guardian,

This is an invitation to participate in a study being conducted by Jennifer
Waldron, a doctoral student in sport psychology, and a graduate student research assistant
in the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at Michigan State University, “The
Effectiveness of Extracurricular Programs on the Psychosocial Development of Early
Adolescent Girls”. The goal of the study is to investigate the experiences that your
daughter has as a member of her soccer team. It is hoped that the study will provide
insight into the effectiveness of the soccer league and into how the participants used the
knowledge that was gained throughout the program.

There are two phases of this study. The first phase involves the completion of
questionnaires by your daughter at the beginning of the fall soccer season and at the end
of the season. The questionnaires will ask about your daughter’s self-esteem, her
perceived ability in different domains of life — such as physical activity, social, physical
appearance, and behavioral conduct — and her attraction to physical activity. The
questionnaires will take approximately 20 minutes to complete. The questionnaires will
be kept in a secure location and only researchers associated with the study will have
access to the data. Additionally, information gained from these questionnaires will
always be reported as group data.

The second phase of the study involves an interview with your daughter at the
completion of the soccer season. The interview will last a maximum of 45 minutes, will
focus upon issues such as likes and dislikes of the program, confidence, teamwork, self-
esteem, and body image and will be conducted by trained staff from the Institute. For
your convenience and for the comfort of your child, it is preferred that the interviews take
place at your home. Each interview will be recorded onto an audiotape and transcribed
verbatim. Both the audiotape and the paper transcription will be kept in a secure location
and only researchers associated with the study will have access to these items. The
interview transcripts will used during data analysis. Portions of the audiotapes may be
played during conference presentations. Any references to people, places, and teams, will
be modified; therefore, the participants shall not be identifiable in any report of research
findings.

Participation in this study is voluntary. Participants may choose not to participate
at all, may refuse to participate to answer certain questions, or may discontinue the
interview at any time without penalty. All children participating in the study will be
guaranteed confidentiality and privacy to the maximum extent allowable by law.

168

If you have any questions about this study, please contact the investigator Dr. Martha
Ewing of the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at (517) 353-4652 or email
mewing@msu.edu. If you have questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study
participant, or are dissatisfied at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact —
anonymously, if you wish - Ashir Kumar, M.D., Chair of the University Committee on
Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 355-2180, fax: (517) 432-
4503, e-mail: ucrihs@msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824. ”

 

Please fill out the enclosed form and return it to your daughter’s coach of her
soccer team as soon as possible. Parents/ caregivers who complete this form will be
contacted via the telephone to set up a time and a place for the interview. Your daughter’s
participation is greatly appreciated. If desired, the questionnaires and/ or a summary of
the finished study will be sent directly to you.

Yours Sincerely,

Jennifer Waldron, M.Ed.
Institute for the Study of Youth Sports

169

Soccer Teams

Parent! Guardian:

Your signature below indicates that you grant permission for your child

(name) to voluntarily
participate in this study called “The Effectiveness of Extracurricular Programs on the
Psychosocial Development of Early Adolescent Girls”.

Printed Name:

 

Signature:

 

 

Signature of child:

Date:

 

Phone Number:

 

Alternative Phone Number:

 

 

 

 

Please check this box and provide your address if you would like to obtain a

 

summary of the finished study.

Address:

 

 

 

170

Appendix N

Introductory Letter for Soccer at Post-test
December 12, 2002
Dear «FirstName»,

You are receiving this mailing because you completed a survey for Jennifer Waldron, a
doctoral student in sport psychology, and a graduate student research assistant in the
Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at Michigan State University. The study is
examining “The Effectiveness of Extracurricular Programs on the Psychosocial
Development of Early Adolescent Girls”..

The second part of the study, which was described in the original letter, is to examine
self—esteem and perceived competence at the end of the season. Enclosed is another
survey for you to complete. Please take 15 minutes to complete the survey and place it in
the enclosed self-addressed stamped envelope to be mailed.

Once you complete this survey, the only other mailing you will receive from me is a copy
of the results of the study, which will be sent to you this summer.

If you have any questions, contact me at 517-881-6680 or via email waldron9@msu.edu.
Please complete the survey and mail it as soon as possible so that I may complete my
final research project before graduating. Thank you for your continued cooperation.

Sincerely,

Jennifer Waldron

205 IM Sports Circle
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48823

171

Appendix 0

Letter from Director of Girl Scout Council

172

5}}: Girl Scouts

Where Girls Grow Strong.

Girl Scouts of Michigan Capital Council
1974 Cedar Street

Holt, MI 48842-1832

(517) 699-9400

Fax (517) 699-9405

email: gsmcc@michcom.net

September 20, 2002

Dear Parents,

We have been asked by Jennifer Waldron, a doctoral student at MSU to
participate in a research study of girls in. the Cadette age group (middle school)
of Girl Scouting. This is wonderful opportunity for us as a Council to gain some
current and important information about the girls we serve through this program,
so we make sure we are meeting their needs.

I hope you will allow your daughter to complete the survey. It seems long, but it
should only take her 20 minutes or so. When she has completed it, she should
return it to her leader who will mail it to a survey collection center for Jennifer.
Your permission is needed and that form can be found on page 3 of this packet.
If you would prefer to mail it yourself, please contact Jennifer Waldron at 517-
485-9865 or waldron9@msu.edu for further instructions.

Sincerely,

Pam Sievers
Executive Director

173

SUpDortcd by local United Way organuatrons in ingham, Eaton and Clinton Counties

Appendix P

Parental Consent Form - Girl Scouts
Dear Parent/Guardian,

This is an invitation to participate in a study being conducted by Jennifer
Waldron, a doctoral student in sport psychology, and a graduate student research assistant
in the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at Michigan State University, “The
Effectiveness of Extracurricular Programs on the Psychosocial Development of Early
Adolescent Girls”. The goal of the study is to investigate the experiences that your
daughter has as a member of the Girl Scouts. It is hoped that the study will provide
insight into the effectiveness of the Girl Scouts program and into how the participants
used the knowledge that was gained throughout the program.

There are two phases of this study. The first phase involves the completion of
questionnaires by your daughter at the beginning of the Girl Scouts program and twelve
weeks later. The questionnaires will ask about your daughter’s self-esteem, her perceived
ability in different domains of life — such as physical activity, social, physical appearance,
and behavioral conduct — and her attraction to physical activity. The questionnaires will
take approximately 20 minutes to complete. The questionnaires will be kept in a secure
location and only researchers associated with the study will have access to the data.
Additionally, information gained from these questionnaires will always be reported as
group data.

The second phase of the study involves an interview with your daughter after
twelve weeks of being involved in the Girl Scouts program. The interview will last a
maximum of 45 minutes, will focus upon issues such as likes and dislikes of the program,
confidence, teamwork, self-esteem, and body image and will be conducted by trained
staff from the Institute. For your convenience and for the comfort of your child, it is
preferred that the interviews take place at your home. Each interview will be recorded
onto an audiotape and transcribed verbatim. Both the audiotape and the paper
transcription will be kept in a secure location and only researchers associated with the
study will have access to these items. The interview transcripts will used during data
analysis. Portions of the audiotapes may be played during conference presentations. Any
references to people, places, and teams, will be modified; therefore, the participants shall
not be identifiable in any report of research findings.

Participation in this study is voluntary. Participants may choose not to participate
at all, may refuse to participate to answer certain questions, or may discontinue the
interview at any time without penalty. All children participating in the study will be
guaranteed confidentiality and privacy to the maximum extent allowable by law.

174

If you have any questions about this study, please contact the investigator Dr. Martha
Ewing of the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at (517) 353-4652 or email
mewing@msu.edu. If you have questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study
participant, or are dissatisfied at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact —
anonymously, if you wish — Ashir Kumar, M.D., Chair of the University Committee on
Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 355-2180, fax: (517) 432-
4503, e-mail: ucrihs@msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824.

 

Please fill out the enclosed form and return it to your daughter’s Girl Scouts
troop leader as soon as possible. Parents/ caregivers who provide their phone number
will be contacted via the telephone to set up a time and a place for the interview at the
end of the program. Your daughter’s participation is greatly appreciated. If desired, the
questionnaires and/ or a summary of the finished study will be sent directly to you.

Yours Sincerely,

Jennifer Waldron, M.Ed.
Institute for the Study of Youth Sports

175

Girl Scouts

Parent! Guardian:

Your signature below indicates that you grant permission for your child

(name) to voluntarily
participate in this study called “The Effectiveness of Extracurricular Programs on the
Psychosocial Development of Early Adolescent Girls”.

Printed Name:

 

Signature:

 

 

Signature of child:

Date:

 

Phone Number:

 

Alternative Phone Number:

 

 

 

 

Please check this box and provide your address if you would like to obtain a

 

summary of the finished study.

Address:

 

 

176

Appendix Q

Introductory Letter for Girl Scout at Post-test
27 January 2003
Dear Girl Scout,

You are receiving this mailing because you completed a survey for Jennifer Waldron, a
doctoral student in sport psychology, and a graduate student research assistant in the
Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at Michigan State University. The study is
examining ”The Effectiveness of Extracurricular Programs on the Psychosocial
Development of Early Adolescent Girls”.

The second part of the study, which was described in the original letter, is to examine
self-esteem and perceived competence at another point in the year. Enclosed is another
survey for you to complete. Please take 15 minutes to complete the survey and place it in
the enclosed self-addressed stamped envelope to be mailed.

Once you complete this survey, the only other mailing you will receive from me is a c0py
of the results of the study, which will be sent to you this summer.

If you have any questions, contact me at 517-881-6680 or via email waldron9@msu.edu.
Please complete the survey and mail it as soon as possible so that I may complete my
final research project before graduating. Thank you for your continued cooperation.

Sincerely,

Jennifer Waldron

205 IM Sports Circle
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48823

177

It is Fun

1.

Appendix R

Coded Quotes for General Program Information

Description of Program

DEVIN (GOT): Umm, I would tell her we had this really fun lesson and then
had activities and then we ran for awhile. And we did things to make the
running more fun.

HEIDI (GOT): Yeah. I would say, even if she didn’t really like running, it is
still fun because you get to do the lessons and it is not always just running
laps.

JAMIE (GOT): I would explain to her it is a lot of fun, encouraging,
something to look forward to every Tuesday and Thursday.

KATRINA (GOT): It is a lot of fun running around and going into the 5K
where everyone cheered us on.

KAYLA (GOT): I would tell her that it was fun.

NICOLE (GOT): We have this really cool program and it is called GOT. . .we
just talked about different things and we would like just have fun. And we
would play games sometimes and then we would go run...And at the end we
got treats and we had like a party and we ran a 5K. It was just so much fun.
WH.LOW (SC): That it is really a fun game.

MEREDITH (SC): I wouldjust say it is a lot of fun if you like to run and you

like to work as a team and it is just a lot of fun.

178

9. ABBY (GS): It is a great place to do fun activities and be supportive.

10. AMANDA (GS): That it is fun.

11. ERIN (GS): Okay, umm, I would say you get to do lots of fun stuff, you have
activities, you get to earn badges, and you get to go places at the end of the
year, You get to go places for awards and it is fun and yeah.

12. HEATHER (GS): And we do badges and community service and you get to
be with friends. It is fun.

Be with or Make Friends

1. MEREDITH (SC): The people on my team are my friends at school. So when
I see them at school they are all like ‘good game’ and I say it back so that is
really fun.

2. NICOLE (GOT): We would like have really fun with our friends.

3. JAMIE (GOT): Meeting new friends maybe if she didn’t know us.

4. KAYLA (GOT): If you would think in the beginning that you are not going to
make any friends, you will. Because like I had no one there and I like met
some friends at the end.

5. ABBY (GS): I would tell her it is a great place to meet people and make
friends. It is a good feeling you get when you are with everyone your age and
it is a real good way to interact with your peers.

6. AMANDA (GS): That we have a lot of girls in our troop and we wouldn’t
mind having someone join because it is more peOple that we can work with to

make a team.

>1

HEATHER (GS): It is an all-girl group - Thank GOD!

179

8.

JODI (GS): You get to make lots of friends.

Program as Escape

1.

JODI (GS): Well, it makes, well like, ifI have had a very stressed out day I
can go there and kick back and just have fun.

AMANDA (GS): Because it is like you kind of go in there and all of your
feelings, if you are upset kind of disappear. And you have a lot more fun.
AMANDA (GS): That we get to get away from home and have fun there. Like
if we are having a terrible day we can have fun there at GS.

ABBY (GS): I don’t know. It is just nice. It is a good place to be. I always feel
really safe there. So it is just, I don’t know.

ABBY (GS): Okay, well, umm, things like September 11‘h and other things
like that, you don’t really feel safe all the time. And when we are all together
and we are all just having fun you don’t really worry about that. Like I don’t
worry about it here either but you know in some incidences you don’t always
feel safe and that is not an issue with OS.

HEATHER (GS): Well, boys are trouble and it is nice to go places where it is
all girls. Like when we have sleepovers or whatever and we don’t have to look
that nice because there are no boys there. So it is nice and we can just go and
have fun and not worry about boys.

JODI (GS): BecauseI got friends there and we do a lot of relaxing stuff. You

can just sit there and listen or you can talk.

180

Educational Aspects

l.

HANNAH (GOT): That we would do lessons and usually they would be about
your life and stuff and it would be fun.

KAYLA (GOT): They do lessons before running and you have like this
practice before you run for the 5K.

LINDSEY (GOT): We practice running and we try setting goals during the
whole time we were running. Like we wrote down in journals how many laps
we did pretty much every day and so umm I would tell her about that. And, it
would be kind of nice to like teach her about it and like.

JODI (GS): I would say do it because you get to learn a lot. . .you get to go on
exciting trips and go camping, and you get to learn maybe cooking, cleaning,

jewelry.

Demands of activity

1.

WILLOW (SC): You really have to work together with the people and you
really have to believe in yourself.

NATALIE (SC): It is a physical sport and a mental sport. You need a lot of
team encouragement and you need to use your team and that will help you

out. It is physical because you need to use your body and stuff and it is mental
because you need to know how to play and do moves and believe in yourself.
MEREDITH (SC): Like you don’t have to just focus on running like you get
to concentrate on scoring goals and blocking another person and running and a

whole bunch of things.

Coaches

181

Peers

KAYLA (GOT): And, umm, I would tell her the coaches, even if you might
not like them in the beginning, they, like in the end they are really, really nice
to you.

KATRINA (GOT): There is a lot of cool like classmates in there and the
coaches are really cool.

Likes of Program

. DEVIN (GOT): Katie and Rachel — they wouldjoin arms and run like that.

And it was just really funny to watch them run. And then they would umm,
they would try to join their feet together but then they got into trouble (laugh).
Then Kelsey and I we picked berries and were throwing them at people
(laugh).

NICOLE (GOT): It is just fun like I will race with my friends and I mean,
yeah we will race together and just goof off and have a fun time while we are

doing it.

. LINDSEY (GOT): Making new friends. . .you get to like meet someone you

don’t usually get to meet because they are hanging out with other people.
KAYLA (GOT): Before we started running or like doing our lessons, we
wouldjust sit around and talk for awhile like what we had done the lesson
before or stuff like that. Andjust to tell people like what happened and stuff

like that.

. DEVIN (GOT): I liked GOT better, Well because the people were my age.

Like before they were in the 3rd grade and they hadn’t as much experience in

182

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

running so it was more fun to try to keep up with the people who were your
age.

HANNAH (GOT): Instead of doing state races with a bunch of older kids it is
just a bunch of girls my age doing it.

HEIDI (GOT): I actually liked it better in the 6‘h grade than in the 5‘h grade
because umm all the girls are my age.

JAMIE (GOT): Probably, well we had a small group so that was kind of nice
like I knew like all of my friends and stuff so it was kind of like we could
cheer ourselves on and stuff and we couldjust talk about all of the lessons and
stuff.

JAMIE (GOT): Working together in some of the activities we did (was fun
about GOT).

WILLOW (SC): Like you get to meet some new girls and you get to learn
new things and stuff like. Like you get to meet some new girls. Well, it is just,
it is not really, I don’t think it is really fun just hanging out with the same
group of peOple so I try to get along with everybody at my school and outside
of my school so then Ican just meet new people.

HAYLEY (SC):Umm, (pause), because all of my friends are on the team and
it is fun.

NATALIE (SC): It is fun...just playing with my friends.

RACHEL (SC): Ijust like to be with my friends.

PAIGE (SC): (pause) Playing with the team....they are a fun group to play

with

183

15. MEREDITH (SC): Aaah, I like how you can work as a team and try to score
goals. It is just got a bunch of different things involved like running, keeping
control of the ball and things.

16. NATALIE (SC): It is fun...playing on a team.

17. AMANDA (GS): All my friends are in it and we get to talk and play.

18. ABBY (GS): Umm I think it is just being able to meet with your friends and
to do fun things together

19. JODI (GS): Oh umm, wow, I love the people...they are kind andjust really
nice.

20. ABBY (GS): Ifjust feels good to be with people your age and interact with
your peers. It is fun.

Physical Activity

1. HANNAH (GOT): Running. I like the race. I don’t know because I like to do
a lot of races and it sort of helped like when I am in school.

2. KATRINA (GOT): We get to run in front of a whole lot of people and people
are cheering us on. . .it felt really good to hear everyone cheering us on and
even the people who didn’t like us very much cheered us on and stuff like
that.

3. HEIDI (GOT): Umm, I liked umm being able to train for the 5K because, ah,
it keeps me in shape more or better because it is nice to see how much fasterI
get from last year.

4. HEIDI (GOT): The energy that we get from it (if fun about GOT)

5. NATALIE (SC): It is fun and I can work out at the same time.

184

Coaches

Travel

1.

RACHEL (SC): Well, I really like to run a lot and I really like to handle the
ball. I really like to play the forward position and midfield because I like to

run.

DEVIN (GOT): Umm, our coaches were really funny and so were the
girls...they (coaches) would like make hilarious cheers for us

HEIDI (GOT): It was really fun because my coaches were cool and it was just
a lot of fun.

KAYLA (GOT): Well, I kind of like the, the coaches. Because they were like
really nice to us and umm, instead ofjust coming and showing up and getting
right to business, they talked a little bit about stuff - like, umm just lessons
and stuff like that to learn for life.

NICOLE (GOT): I don’t know its just that because the coaches were, well, the
head coach was new person so and she was our counselor so Ijust wanted to
get to know her more and I just found out that she was just a really

enthusiastic person about that.

HEATHER (GS): Umm, this sounds terrible but I like the trips the best
because it is fun to with your friends and not to really have to do anything at
all.

ERIN (GS): Umm, going on trips...Umm, like in Georgia we were visiting the

house of the founder of the GS and we wentvon a dolphin cruise. It was fun.

185

3.

4.

ABBY (GS): Umm, (pause) I am not sure. Umm, our trips are alwaysjust
really nice. We are just together and we do fun things and I think all of itjust
makes me feel good about myself.

JODI (GS): Well umm, this summer I think it was the summer before the last
we went to Kentucky and Ohio, no wait, yeah Kentucky and Ohio. And we
have also gone to, to well while we were there we stayed in a cabin and went
to a water park and we ate in a restaurant that was up very very high and the

floor spinned.

Helping others

1.

2.

Activities

1.

ABBY (GS): Helping people (is fun about GS).
HEATHER (GS): I also like the community service because it feels good to
know you are helping other people.

Dislikes of Program

DEVIN (GOT): Umm, running on the track. Because it was boringjust going
around in circles.

AMANDA (GS): Because it is kind of boring if you are sitting there like, you
sit there like y-e-a-h.

HEATHER (GS): Well, umm, well I don’t really know. Some of the things we
have to do for badges are boring and I guess I like that the least.

AMANDA (GS): I wasn’t really impressed in the wildlife one. Theyjust
didn’t, Mr. Jean just didn’t think it was as interesting as he thought it would

be and it wasn’t. Theyjust didn’t have no meaning to it —just boring.

186

5. HEATHER (GS): Umm, those (badges) I am not interested in at all.
6. JODI (GS): Making stuff (for badges) that takes a long time.
Poor weather
1. JAMIE (GOT): Least. . .I really didn’t have a least except for running in the
cold.
2. HEIDI (GOT): ‘Sometimes running in the cold because last year it was in the
spring so it was warmer.
3. KATRINA (GOT): Umm, when we had to go outside in the cold. Umm, when
it was really cold and windy and then it started raining.
Injuries
1. MEREDITH (SC): (pause) Certain contacts — I broke my arm last fall. Certain
contacts although it is fun sometimes too.
2. RACHEL (SC): When you get hurt.
The coach
1. HAYLEY (SC): Umm, (pause) (pause) Maybe my coach. I just don’t like
him.
Equipment
1. NATALIE (SC): Umm, getting all of my stuff on (laugh). It is kind of
annoying because like my shin guard always gets caught in my socks so I
have to redo them.
Dedication
1. PAIGE (SC): Probably the hard work and dedication you need because it is

tiring and you have to be there like every practice even if you don’t want to.

187

Snacks

1.

LINDSEY (GOT): Umm, the snacks - they could be better.

Challenges

When task is diflicult

l.

LINDSEY (GOT): The hard part. When we were doing an activity where we
had to go from doing the crab walk to umm, cartwheels then running and like
doing the grapevine or something. . .the crab walk is really, really hard to do,
especially backwards. So I did it forward and I was beating my friend a little
bit. And umm, the cartwheels — I am not very good at them.

DEVIN (GOT): Well, for the 5K practice I was running with another one of
my teachers and we ran the whole thing and that was hard.

PAIGE (SC): The other teams and trying to defeat them

RACHEL (SC): Like doing special moves and ball-handling. Just plain
dribbling is alright but fancy moves and passing is real hard.

WILLOW (SC): Umm, well if there, ifI can’t really get a open pass, it is kind
of hard to dribble through a lot of the girls. And sometimes when I am
throwing in my foot gets lift up and it gets called.

NATALIE (SC): Umm, practicing a lot and trying to get better and working
your hardest. . .someti mes you don’t feel like it or you are kind of lazy.
MEREDITH (SC): (pause) I am not like aggressive - like contact, I don’t like
shove people that much so that is kind of harder for me to start shoving

people.

188

10.

AMANDA (GS): Trying to sell GS cookies. When you just sold candy bars
and cookie dough.

JODI (GS): Earning badges. Well, sometimes you will be sitting for a long
time and you will be discussing what you will be doing and you get kind of
restless and...

ERIN (GS): The hard part is like when you go to get certain awards and it is

really hard. Because like you don’t know what you are going to do...

Interacting with others

Asthma

l.

HEIDI (GOT): Sometimes getting along with everybody. Because sometimes
we would see different views from the same thing and sometimes some of the
girls didn’t want to run some days so, I don’t know, it was hard sometimes.
NICOLE (GOT): Aah, sometimes getting along with people I didn’t
necessarily get along with very well.

HEATHER (GS): Umm, sometimes having to work with people you don’t
really like. It is hard because you would rather work with your friends than

someone you don’t like at all.

HAYLEY (SC): Well I have asthma and sometimes I get really tired on the
field and it is kind of hard.

KAYLA (GOT): Umm, well there was this one day I had this cough and I
couldn’t run so Ijust walked. So, I really wanted to run that day because I felt
all energetic and like stuff and that and Ijust wanted to get it out. But, my

mom said I couldn’t because I would start coughing and I have asthma.

189

Learn from hard parts of the program

Dedication

l. HANNAH (GOT): Umm, to stick with it and never give up.

2. RACHEL (SC): Well I kind of do them in slow-motion first and then Ijust
keep practicing them. You are not always going to get them perfectly. And a
lot of times you are not even going to use them in a game.

3. WILLOW (SC): That you just basically practice and stuff... I have been
practicing on it for awhile and I am getting better.

4. NATALIE (SC): Umm, you learn that, once, if you try your hardest it is
always the best you can do so no one can doubt you.

5. ERIN (GS): Sometimes you will get frustrated and you think you are going to
skip out and then at the last second you the energy and you just, and you just
kind of earn it.

Social skills

1. HEIDI (GOT): It got easier as we got farther along because I got to know the
people better. So, just like when you know the people better it is easier to get
through the problems.

2. HEATHER (GS): Sometimes, well most of the time, you end up finding
something you like about the people you don’t like because you work with
them trying to accomplish something together.

3. JODI (GS): Just make sure, just, just making sure you keep respecting others

and there ideas and thoughts.

190

Body
1. KAYLA (GOT): Umm, well I learned like how to respect my body and to be

good and how to be myself and not try to be someone else that you aren’t.

191

Appendix S

Coded Quotes for Teamwork

Learning about Teamwork

Working Effectively as Team

1.

JAMIE (GOT): Umm, (pause), umm, like as a team we knew we umm could
share all our ideas together and ask questions and like encourage each other
and umm yeah.

HANNAH (GOT): Just to keep teamwork and to cheer each other on.
LINDSEY (GOT): That we are able to work together and help each other.
ABBY (GS): We do lots of teamwork activities. I think I have learned that
everybody on the team could be helpful. And we all have good qualities that
can be contributed to the common goal. And we work on, I remember when
we were younger we used to do things like ‘red light, green light’, just those
kind of activities and we all like cheer each other and...

ABBY (GS): Oh no, I think Ijust mean that at certain activities, not everyone
is good everything. Basically, everyone should be involved and everyone
could be involved so that is important when working as a team.

ERIN (GS): Yeah. Like when went to go plant bulbs we learned that you have
to work as a team and not by yourself because then you are not going to get

anything done and you are not going to know what to do.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

AMANDA (GS): That there is no I in team. You just can’t do it yourself you
have to let umm share. Because you can’t always just say it is yours, you have
to share with someone.

JODI (GS): Patience — lots of patience — you must have a lot of patience.
Because umm, different personalities can be good or bad and sometimes
different personalities can be bad and you just have to have patience with
others.

HEATHER (GS): Responsibility and having to do stuff you don’t want to do
in order to help the group and make the group run.

HAYLEY (SC): (pause) It helps if like you can’t play all by yourself, it would
just be too hard by yourself and you need other people with you. Like you
can’t win all by yourself and you like have to pass the ball.

NATALIE (SC): Umm, probably like if you try not to play like with you,
yourself but with the team it will get you farther. . .if you try to do everything
yourself, you get the ball taken away a lot and if you pass it then you can fake
people out.

WILLOW (SC): That don’t be a ball-hog something like that, likejust look
for people who are open because if you do it by yourself you are not working
as a team.

RACHEL (SC): Well that you have to practice a lot to work together as a
team and everybody has to play their position otherwise you will never get

anything clone.

193

Benefits of working as a team

1.

NATALIE (SC): Umm, it helps, it helps you build up your confidence in that
it is easier on you so you don’t. Well like, if you let, if you think it is your
fault of the goal, people are all like ‘it is not your fault’ and it helps you regain
your confidence and know it wasn’t your fault.

MEREDITH (SC): Umm, because it makes it a lot easier on yourself and it
makes you feel a lot better because people are like giving me high 53 because
you got an assist and stuff.

KATRINA (GOT): Umm, that it was easier to work as a team then it was to
work by yourself. Well, because like, our team would work together and we
would feel how it feels not to work as a team. And our coaches would say that
we have to work as a team then we would see how it feels working as a team
and then we would see how it feels much better to work as a team then by
ourselves.

NICOLE (GOT): That it is fun. It is really fun because you have other people
to support you. Becausejust like one or two people it wouldn’t be fun at all, I
mean if you didn’t really get along with that person at all you wouldn’t want
to cooperate with them or maybe even want to talk to that person. But I mean
if you have all 15 or 16 different girls, I mean, I all of you like almost
everyone in the group so you were able to meet new friends and do things. I

mean it wasjust fun, like everyone was just so supportive of everybody.

194

Dzfliculty in Working as a Team

1. HEIDI (GOT): Sometimes it was hard and sometimes I just wanted to go off
by myself and do it. (cough). And sometimes when you work with your team
or a partner, it would be easier to work by yourself.

2. NICOLE (GOT): It was not always easy. In fact, it was very hard. You just
had to try to work with everybody and listen to everybody’s ideas. It was hard
because not everyone wanted to do the same idea. I can remember even
having a fight in my own group and trying to blend everyone’s ideas together
to come up with one idea that would have each person’s idea in it so everyone
would be happy.

3. HEATHER (GS): That it is hard. Especially if you are doing something
boring or don’t like the group — it is hard. For example, sometimes you got a
job you didn’t want to do but you had to do for he meeting to run smoothly
and stuff. Like I remember I had clean-up twice in a row and I didn’t want to
do it. People would always complain about it and want to switch but the
leaders wouldn’t let us. It was hard.

Choosing Teams
l. HANNAH (GOT): When we had to choose teams, instead of choosing our
friends, like go to someone you don’t know very much.
Easy Working as a Team
Agreement among teammates
l. KAYLA (GOT): When we were going to run inside and everyone wanted to

run inside

195

2. HANNAH (GOT): Hmm, like when you are like when you had to do like skits
and were like ‘how about we do this’ andjust listen to other people’s ideas
and then choose one and then agree on it. Usually 6’h grade girls agree on
things like shopping (laugh) so that is why it was sort of easy when we had to
come to that stuff.

3. HEIDI (GOT): Umm, when like everyone was ready to run and we all were
feeling like extra hyper and just good. Because everyone was happy and they
weren’t like ‘oh my gosh, she is wearing weird clothes’ or anything like that
we werejust like didn’t care and we were just ready to run

4. NICOLE (GOT): Umm, (pause), probably when we were when we were all
really good at listening to each other. So I would probably say that was the
easiest thing for the team was that we listened. Andjust being able to know
that it is this person’s turn so we can’t really talk during it andjust to listen
and to just raise your hand if you were to do comments with it I mean
everyone could do it. Maybe there was like once or twice when people would
just blurt things out and then we would blurt things out if we could. So that
was probably the easiest thing.

5. RACHEL (SC): When we are doing well or if everyone is agreeing on ‘okay
we should do this play next’ or something. Because you don’t have to fight
with anybody about it.

When you work with people you know
1. WILLOW (SC): Umm, just communicating with them and saying to do this or

that orjust support them a little bit. Well our team has been playing for awhile

196

together and so we kind of know what they were going to do because we have
been playing with them for awhile.

NATALIE (SC): Umm, (pause) probably when you go into a game and like
you are all good friends on your team and they are just like supporting you so
you know they are there for you and you can always count on them to help
you.

MEREDITH (SC): When like my good friends are on the team. Like my one
really good friend has been on my team for like the past few years. And it is
like really easy when we are working forward together. Like she knows thatI
am right there and I know she is right there. It is like we pass it back to and

forth to each other.

. JODI (GS): When you are with a friend and they know what you are doing

and you know what you are doing and it just makes everything a lot easier.
HEATHER (GS): I can’t really think of an example right now, but it is always

easier to work with people you know and like.

When everybody performed well

HAYLEY (SC): When we are playing good and maybe the other team is not

so good

2. RACHEL (SC): When we are doing well.

When activity was fun

KATRINA (GOT): Like when we would do a lot of fun games and we would
get a lot of cool stuff from our coaches. And then our team would work really

easy together and like we would like cheer each other on and we would get

197

through the running. Like the time we had to run our pretend 5K we had to

run around the track — a lot of times we would cheer each other on.

Absent Members

1.

LINDSEY (GOT): Yes, umm, when there were only a few girls there. Like
some of them were absent like most of the talking one’s were absent or they
were in honor’s choir. It was a lot easier because, umm, then you were able to
like umm, listen to what the coaches were saying and that without the people
talking.

Difficult Working as a Team

Lack of Cooperation

1.

LINDSEY (GOT): Yeah, like when sometimes when some of them aren’t
paying attention and like talking while Ms. Dawn is talking and there is like 5
people talking at once and all of that. Because ifI was one like telling
something to Ms. Dawn and everyone butted in that would be really mean and
all of that.

HEIDI (GOT): Umm, like sometimes we would argue about the weirdest
things, like who would have to bring back the shoes and we would race there
and our words would get mixed up and like people thought we said other
things and then we would get mad at each other. We had to work it out and
just be like ‘okay, I will bring them down this time’.

KAYLA (GOT): Well, when like when I wanted to do something else. IfI
wanted to like I wanted to do one time Ijust wanted to do something else, I

don’t remember what it was because I sort of lost it. And the whole group or

198

some of the group was doing this and there was only one other person me and
this other girl that wanted to do it. And so we had to do that instead. I really
wanted to do the other thing but then we did that instead. Because I really
wanted to do what that was but then changing what I had like planned to do
was hard for me. Because I wanted to do this and not that. But then I thought
‘oh well, it is okay, I can do this by myself or with some other kids’. Ijust
dealt with it and when I got home Ijust ran and did whatever.

MEREDITH (SC): She like never passes the ball to anyone and she takes the
ball down by herself. Like the one time she does pass to you it is way out and
the other team gets it. So, it is hard working with her.

NATALIE (SC): Umm, probably, when I first started to play and I always
wanted to score so I wouldn’t pass it. Ijust wanted to score so bad and I
wasn’t paying attention to anyone else and I was just thinking about myself.
WILLOW (SC): Umm, if the girls aren’t really like you and all of that stuff, it
is kind of hard to get to know them a little bit. And theyjust don’t, you just
don’t get along and it is kind of hard because sometimes they will be
screaming and yelling at you and saying to do this and then your coaches are
telling you to do that. So you do that and then they get all mad at you because
you didn’t do what they said.

PAIGE: (SC) Like, last year everybody would be arguing and stuff and the
coach would talk non-stop and we just wouldn’t play soccer.

ERIN (GS): (Sigh) Like, umm, (pause) (pause) I can’t think of it at the

moment, but like sometimes when you go to earn badges and not everyone is

199

going to be happy with it and they aren’t going to want to work together and it

just doesn’t work out.

Adapting to ability levels

1.

DEVIN (GOT): When we had to run in line and all stay together. Like a few
of us could run faster but you had to wait for the other people. So that was
kind of hard.

HAYLEY (SC): If some people aren’t so good on your team you don’t really

want to give the ball to them but you kind of have to.

When other are not motivated

l.

KATRINA (GOT): Like, when some people didn’t want to work or run then
we wouldn’t be able to work as a team because they didn’t want to join us and
stuff like that.

PAIGE (SC): We just sit around and did nothing and when we did do stuff it

would be conditioning and then we would be done.

Encouraging underachievers

l.

HANNAH (GOT): relay miles, if someone stops it is sort of hard because I
am like ‘I know they can keep on running but they are stopping’. That is sort
of hard because you still have to cheer them on. . .we sort of all knew we could
actually do it and then they lost confidence in themselves and so they were

like ‘okay, I mind as well just stop’.

When group is large

1.

ABBY (GS): It is just hard to work together sometimes when there is a lot of

people involved or things are not very organized orjust, just things aren’t

really ‘right’, I guess. Just when, I guess it isjust sometimes hard to work
together and there are some activities that are easier to work together than
others.
When don 't like your teammates
1. AMANDA (GS): Sometimes like when I am stuck with someone I don’t like
or I am having trouble with, it is hard.
Losing
l. RACHEL (SC): Well, when we are losing or something and everyone just
wants to get the ball so they can score or something. It is hard to stay in your
position orjust stay back.
Coping with Difficulty as a Team
Went with the Flow

1. ERIN (GS): We kind of have to go with the flow.

[\J

JODI (GS): I just decided to get it over with and just not to, not to let her get

on my nerves.

3. KAYLA (GOT): I thought ‘oh well, it is okay, I can do this by myself or with
some other kids’

4. KAYLA (GOT): Ijust dealt with it and when I got home Ijust ran and did
whatever.

5. PAIGE (SC): Wejust play, play on.

6. AMANDA (GS): We just work as a team because we have to help that team,

even if it hard.

Took Turns

1.

ABBY (GS): Umm, I think basically in the end we all say ‘okay, one person
talk. This is the talking pencil’. (laugh) We have done things such as that in
the past. Whoever has the talking pencil can talk — you can only talk if you
have the pencil.

HEIDI (GOT): Sometimes one of would just be like this is really like this is
really not a good reason to be fighting and be like ‘okay I will do it and you
can do it next time’.

NICOLE (GOT): We would like I mean it was hard because we would have to
take turns and listen to each other and that was like everyone wanted to talk at
the same time and so we just needed to listen to each other and say ‘well, it is
this person’s turn, lets see what we think of this idea’ just, yeah,just divide
everybody’s like ‘well, this part of the idea is good’ and ‘I really like this part
of the idea and this part’ and just blending them together and making it so
everyone can have their idea in just one thing.

MEREDITH (SC): Like last team it was like a team sports class and like they
like just stood there and didn’t know what to do. And so like I felt bad so I
like passed them the ball or let them try to get me out or something like that.
WILLOW (SC): Umm, well, basically, the girls on our team, we just got
along really quick and we weren’t mean to anybody and we didn’t leave

anyone out.

Relied on Coach for Help

1.

MEREDITH (SC): Other girls tell the coach and the coach has to talk to her.

2. RACHEL (SC): The coach tells us that we have to stay in our positions and do
ourjobs like on defense or whatever. ..if we don’t he will take us out.
3. LINDSEY (GOT): Well, Ms. Dawn asked them like 10 times to stop talking
and then they finally listened to her and stopped talking.
4. HEIDI (GOT): Our coaches would realize something was wrong and be like
‘okay you guys need to figure this out’.
Encouraged Each Other
1. LINDSEY (GOT): By helping each other and pushing each other to their
limits.
2. KATRINA (GOT): Well, like we would cheer each other on...and we would
end up working as a team.
3. HANNAH (GOT): We took it pretty seriously and were like ‘you can do it’.
By then end, like at the race we all finished pretty good and we never stopped
so that was pretty good.
Ignore Each Other
1. HEIDI (GOT): Umm, sometimes we wouldn’t talk to each other.
2. MEREDITH (SC): Well, I like just sometimes ignore it and otherjust ignore
her.
Discussed our Feelings

1. KATRINA (GOT): We would talk about our feelings. Telling them how you

feel and we would end up working as a team.

Accepted Others
1. NICOLE (GOT): Figuring it out that they were pretty cool, I mean I wasjust
looking at them for who my other friends said they were and I never really got
to know them because of what my other friends had said that they were just
like not very nice or always spreading rumors or whatever.
Yelled
l. MEREDITH (SC): Certain girls on the team get mad at her and start yelling

her

204

Appendix T

Coded Quotes for Social Support of Program

Adult Support

Encouragement

l.

DEVIN (GOT): Like if we were running they (coaches) would be like ‘man,
you are so fast’ and ‘you are so fun to work with’ and stuff. . .It made me feel
good and one of them Mrs. Leppo, she umm, she, I was running fast and she
said ‘man you are so fast’ and I ran even faster.

KAYLA (GOT): Well, because they (coaches) were like really nice to us and
like well when they told us to run they gave us compliments like ‘good pace’
and ‘keep it up’ and stuff like that.

KAYLA (GOT): Because of the coaches, because they told us ‘keep it up’,
‘you are doing good’ and stuff like that. And then that just made it more fun.
And now when I run I have those voices in my head.

KAYLA (GOT): She would keep saying to the people who would walk and
slouch and walk and like barely run ‘keep it up, go ahead, you can do it’ and
she would just keep telling them you can do it. Instead of telling them keep
walking.

HEIDI (GOT): Umm, one of my coaches was at one of the marking points
right at the end and she was cheering me on a lot (5K). . .they were really
proud of me and that we all accomplished it like in less then what our goal had

been.

Help

10.

ll.

13.

HANNAH (GOT): They cheered you on like if you stopped. They would be
like ‘we know you can do that. Go get a drink of water and walk a lap and
cool down’. Yeah, they just kept cheering us on.

KATRINA (GOT): Yeah. She would cheer us one. She would like, she would
like give us hugs and give us ‘5’s’ and say ‘you go girl’ and stuff like that.
KATRINA (GOT): She would like cheer me on and my coach from last year
she was there and she would, umm, she was at the end of the race and she
cheered me one, she yelled me name as loud as she could.

HAYLEY (SC): He tells me like ‘good job’.

NATALIE (SC): He always tells us that we are doing really good.
NATALIE (SC): Yeah he always encourages us...he tells us if we try our

hardest we are going to be really good soccer players.

. JODI (GS): She’s, she’s part of the reason I am still in GS. I think it is really

fun and sometimes when I have thought ‘too busy, too busy’, just don’t do it.
She would be there and encourage me back into it and I am glad that she did.
ERIN (GS): Like, whenever, like somebody does something to you or makes

fun of you or whatever they are always there for you and kind of support you.

LINDSEY (GOT): Like, umm, she when we needed help on something, she
would help us. And, ifI was getting help with a question and someone else
came up and said they needed help she told them to go sit down and raise their

hand so she could finish telling me what to do and that.

HAYLEY (SC): He gives me like advice.

206

3. PAIGE (SC): Because he, he is always showing us how to do things and how
we can do them better.

4. PAIGE (SC): He is also always helping me and showing me better ways to do
things and try to do it better and stuff.

5. RACHEL (SC): Like ifI am playing goalies in indoor, he will shoot a few
balls on me to get me warmed up and like help me tell me like a couple of
moves to do that may help me.

6. WILLOW (SC): Like, well, he will, like he will basically tell us what we are
doing wrong and he will help us and then we will do good.

7. WILLOW (SC): Well, well, he will help us and everything and he will just tell
us what we are doing wrong so then we know what we have to do to practice
and that is basically it.

8. NATALIE (SC): And like before the game he will tell you what you need to
do better and that helps you during the game and he tells you like to go do it
and if you go do it you will be really good.

9. ABBY (GS): She is very supportive. She always tries to help all of us and
teach all of us. She is very supportive.

10. HEATHER (GS): She helps us and teachers us things during the meetings like
what to do and what not to do.

Positive Approach to Coaching
1. NICOLE (GOT): She always looked at the bright side and she never, 1, well,

she never made negative comments about it. She would always try to correct

us if we were wrong with something or if like we weren’t all correct and she
wouldjust be really nice about it.

RACHEL (SC): He doesn’t make us run a lot of laps even though we do have
to and he doesn’t do it as a punishment or anything...he lets everybody play
during the games.

WILLOW (SC): And then and like at practices we do the same thing and so
they just try to make the drills that are boring fun so we will get a little better.
That is really it.

NATALIE (SC): Sometimes my coach like surprises us with like fun stuff to

do (during practice) so it makes it a little better.

Active Participation

l.

2.

JAMIE (GOT): She (her coach) ran with me. (during 5K)

HANNAH (GOT): Me and the coach actually ran back looking for some of
the girls and all of a sudden we see the cop car going around and are like okay
we must have missed them. We just kept on running, like a 1/2 a mile back to
the line - that girl had already’crossed the finish line.

KATRINA (GOT): I ran by her most of the way.

NICOLE (GOT): She was actually running back with another girl.

. DEVIN (GOT): Umm, yeah because part of the way when they caught up

with us they ran with us. They were cheering us on.

Talked to Us

l.

HEIDI (GOT): Like if I was having a bad day at school or something they

would say like ‘oh, its okay. Just run and you will feel better’. And they talked

to us about it and made sure we got that they were there for us and we could
talk to them and run with them and stuff.

KAYLA (GOT): Well, I kind of like the, the coaches. Because they were like
really nice to us and umm, instead of just coming and showing up and getting
right to business, they talked a little bit about stuff — like, umm just lessons
and stuff like that to learn for life.

KATRINA (GOT): Yeah, then when they ran then the coaches, they talked
about it to their coaches some things they couldn’t talk about around their
friends or around their moms and dads. That they could talk to their coaches
about it.

HEATHER (GS): She is too but it might be different for others because the
troop leader is my best friend’s mom so 1 really like her. She always takes the

time to listen and help use even though she doesn’t have to at all.

Lack of Support

1.

WILLOW (SC): It depends like, well we have to do this one touch in indoor
soccer and sometimes we dribble the ball and he will start yelling at us. But, it
is alright because, so it is kind of half and half. He has been through this so
many times and he just gets kind of tired of repeating the same thing over and
over that he just will start yelling and say ‘listen to me’

PAIGE (SC): Last year we just had a few players and the coach who were just
not that great.

HAYLEY (SC): Sometimes when he gets like angry, like if we are losing or

we are not playing so good. Sometimes, if 1 am by myself when I get out he

209

will be like ‘you can be better’...Like I feel like I wasn’t playing good and I
wouldn’t play good.
Sensitivity
l. MEREDITH (SC): Cuz’ he knows that I like to run and that I am good at
midfield so he always puts me there. And if I ask him to me on a certain side
for forward he like honors that request and puts me on that side most of the
time.
2. RACHEL (SC): Well he knows which positions I play best so he doesn’t try
to put me in goalie or something.
Leadership
1. AMANDA (GS): He takes us to field trips that show responsibility and he
tells us that is what we should be like — be responsible.
2. JODI (GS): She keeps us organized, she keeps us — if we get sort of bickering
- she makes it so everybody just gets along.
Peer Support
Encourage each Other
1. DEVIN (GOT): Yeah. We cheered each other on. When we ran inside,
because it was raining or something, we all made signs. When someone ran by
we held up the signs for them and stuff.
2. JAMIE (GOT): But I know that a lot of us umm we always encourage each
other that we can umm run the whole way and that we could run a farther
difference every day

3. JAMIE (GOT): (My teammates) Encouraging me to run.

210

10.

ll.

12.

KATRINA (GOT): Like they would cheer us on, cheer me on.

KATRINA (GOT): They would like my friend she would come back and she
would cheer us on. And 1 would go back and get my other friends and tell
them ‘you can do it’.

HEIDI (GOT): Umm, when we did our practice run like those of who were
done before would run back like halfway with the other people and run with
them to the finish line. And cheer them on and stuff.

KAYLA (GOT): And then umm, well some kids they told you ‘keep it up’
and ‘you can do it’. Like once I was running around and they ran past me or
whatever and they said ‘keep it up, you are doing good’ and stuff like that.
NICOLE (GOT): Like the girl who was in front of me for the 5K, like maybe
every, like 5 minutes she would turn around and go ‘way to go Nicole, you
can do it’ and I would say it like just back to her.

JODI (GS): If I want to do something and I am not so sure about doing it,
they are there to back me up. They are like a second family to me.
AMANDA (GS): They tell us that we can’t give up, once you start you can’t
stop. . .Like if you start something, like a program, you can’t stop, you are
helping someone. You can’t stop because you are helping someone.
HEATHER (GS): they always encourage me.

HAYLEY (SC): Umm, like if the other team like takes the ball and like scores
and I feel bad. Like I think it is my fault or something the team will be like ‘it

is not your fault, we will get them next time’ or something.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

HAYLEY (SC): Well they are like not playing they will be like ‘ goodjob and
go Hayley’ and stuff like that.

MEREDITH (SC): Like whenever I get the ball they are cheering for me. And
like I am not aggressive so when I knock someone down they cheer for me. It
is really fun. And like if someone knocks me down, and I get right back - and
they know I broke me arm — and they all cheer for me.

MEREDITH (SC): Sometimes yeah like when we were running there are
certain girls I’m like ‘I’m going to do so bad’ and they are like ‘you are going
to beat so and so’ and then they tell me all of the people I am going to beat for
sure.

NATALIE (SC): We get encouraged a lot by each other and we tell each other
good job after you score and stuff ...they (teammates) tell you like to go and to
shoot and they tell you ‘you can do it’ and stuff and they help you. . .we know
we are there for each other and we have learned that it is better to work as a
team.

RACHEL (SC): IfI make a really bad mistake they will always tell me, they
will like encourage me by telling me ‘it is okay’ and telling me ‘you will do it
better next time and everybody is okay with it.

WILLOW (SC): Umm, they tell, well we tell each other like ‘it will be alright’
and that we can win this if we try our hardest and if we don’t we can practice
more. And don’t get so much pressure on you because you don’t need that

much pressure.

[\J
'—
IQ

Helped each Other

1.

DEVIN (GOT): Umm, well I ran with one of the girls, Kelsey, the whole way
and she kind of helped me because I wanted to stop and she said she wouldn’t
so I kept running... I really didn’t want to stay by myself and since she was
going to keep running, I kept running.

HEIDI (GOT): I would have to hold someone’s hand because they would be
really dizzy or something. Yeah, so I was like ‘it is okay, just keep going, you
are almost there’ . . .It made me feel really good and like they trusted me to
hold onto them so they could keep running.

HEIDI (GOT): Because I felt like, I would feel bad if I just went inside and
got something to eat because I was cold or something. And so I stayed out and
helped them because that is what I would want them to do for me.

KAYLA (GOT): Because I was done already and I felt really bad for them so
I was like putting myself in their shoes so that how I would feel. So Ijust ran
with her the rest of the way. Because if I was in their shoes I would want
someone to help me and cheering me on.

HANNAH (GOT): Umm, at the end of the race a bunch of us girls finished
and we all lined up and’ran through the line together and we would get a
bunch of girls and run out to get more girls to run in together. . .We were all
supportive of each other so they were like ‘hey, lets go get so and so and help
them finish’.

LINDSEY (GOT): And, I can help people with their running, like go back and

help them run. Like when they are running just go back and run with them.

213

10.

11.

12.

l3.

l4.

NICOLE (GOT): At the end, there was this one girl and she wasn’t good at
running but we all who were done, we all went out and ran with her in and...
ERIN (GS): When you can’t do stuff they try to help you and everything.
HEATHER (GS): They help me finish projects.

NATALIE (SC): Umm (pause) well, you get a lot of help in sport from the
people you are on the team with so it is easier to do things because you are
confident.

WILLOW (SC): Well, ifI do the wrong thing, they say ‘that is alright’ or
they, if I don’t get something really fast like they do they will help me with it
and it is the same way I do with them. . .we just want to go out there and have
fun at the games and at the tournaments and stuff like that.

PAIGE (SC): When we are on the field there is always this player who is
helping me out and telling me what to do so I know. But, I mean that isjust
her personality.

PAIGE (SC): Because like I lose the ball or something then they will be
behind me to get it and then I will go to their space and just play on.
RACHEL (SC): Well, like I said they help me ifI have done something wrong
or ifI am playing goalie in indoor and I let one go they tell me ‘its okay’ and
everybody is okay with it. . .we are friends and if you want to stay friends you

are not going to fight about a goal going in or something else happening.

Emotional Support

1.

5.

KATRINA (GOT): Like if I would be sad they would talk to me about it. Like
stuff I couldn’t talk about around my mom or my dad or my coaches or even
my other friends.

RACHEL (SC): If I am sad they make me feel better.

ERIN (GS): Like, like, like when you are down they all come to support you.
ABBY (GS): Oh, because we are always just there for each other and we

listen to each other and do things together.

HEATHER (GS): They talk to me.

Lack of Support

1.

LINDSEY (GOT): Cuz’ like there is this girl named Elise and she is a really
fast runner. So sometimes, everyone else is always supportive of her and we
were both running at the same time and they are cheering for Elise only.
LINDSEY (GOT): Well, yeah and sometimes when I am walking and some of
them get past, go like jogging past me, then they stopped and talk and then
they start running again. It was sort of bad. . .cuz’ the whole time everyone
was running with someone else and no one was up by me so

KAYLA: Cuz’, well we had a couple that weren’t really (supportive) but, well

they did say stuff but that was all.

4. PAIGE: (pause) I don’t know. (if my teammates are supportive)

215

Appendix U

Coded Quotes for Learning from Program
Learning about Decision Making

HANNAH (GOT): Umm, I would have to say reaching your goals one. There
was one about never giving up and stuff ...you wrote down your goals and
then you did some different skits like different goals, we learned about
different goals although I don’t remember them.
HANNAH (GOT): Probably yeah. Like, you know, like, umm, like if you do
like in between the umm score of something umm like don’t give up and you
can keep on running and stuff. Like lets say if there is a certain number, like
35, and you come in 26’h place, like it is hey, it is like coming in first place.
HANNAH (GOT): We practice so much at school and then they are all like,
well ‘reach this goal today of 8 laps’ and is you get it done then you can say
‘hey, maybe I can get a couple more next time’.
. JAMIE (GOT): Umm, (pause), I think that everyone has their own speed and
things like that so that everyone can at least run a certain amount. So even if

you are last or first, you are always a good runner.

. JAMIE (GOT): Not that I can remember. I know that we did but I think we

made a paper we made goals for ourselves when we were like 18. And so, I
don’t quite remember that because that was pretty early in the year.
NICOLE (GOT): The girl who was in front of me was also from our team.

She was just, I mean before during practice 1 could not keep up with her. I

mean there might be like 4 or 5 people in front of me and I was like 6’“. But, I
mean I wasn’t really concentrating on running and getting a good time, I mean
we really didn’t have that. I wasjust focusing on the lesson and talking with
friends about it. So, yeah, it just really amazed me about what you can do
when you actually work on it but it is fun.

7. NICOLE (GOT): Umm, that I can do things ifI put my mind to it. And I can
do anything that I try to do it, it is just a matter of saying I can do it. But like if
right away, like if you watch someone else do it and you say ‘oh that is really
hard and I will never be able to do it’, you won’t be able to do it. You will
never try and you just need to try out things.

8. NATALIE (SC): Umm, probably to always try your hardest and do your
best...itjust gets your really far in life.

9. PAIGE (SC): Well, it takes dedication and hard work and if you set your mind
to it you can accomplish anything.

10. AMANDA (GS): Yeah. They tell us that you can’t, you can’tjust say it is just
a project so why should we do it. So and then so they tell you that you can’t
just say it is just a project so we are not going to do it because you have to do
because you picked the project.

Learning about Body
Harassment

1. KAYLA (GOT): I would have to say, ummm (pause), I would have to think

about it, (pause) when we did ummm, the ummm, the harassment, the asexual,

the whatever else. Like where we umm, we talked about it and stuff like that.

217

Cuz’ it was fun cuz’ they had umm like a sign over here and a sign over here,
like it was asexual and whatever else harassment and if you didn’t know you
could just stand by umm, Jennifer I think her name was, which was the coach.
And umm what we did is she would read off this like this little saying, like
your friend did this or this and you would have to run down to either side
whether you thought it was this or that. . .I kind of learned a lot and it was like
fun just learning about it and to know what is this and what is that, instead of
just going up somewhere and then like ‘what do you mean’ and stuff like that.
LINDSEY (GOT): Umm, like harassment that people do and like harm to
your body. . .well, it is just so we can learn about it more and learn what not to
do when we get older. (I learned it) last year in health. Cuz’ we were watching
a movie about it last year (in health) and this year we were doing activities
like running. When our coach kept asking us questions and we had to run to
the answer.

NICOLE (GOT): Well, its like mine and its really nobody else’s to use or
anything like that.

HANNAH (GOT): Umm, when we like talked about our bodies and that and
when we got to run inside. Umm, like harassment that people do and like
harm to your body.

KATRINA (GOT): Umm, when we umm talked about the boys. (laugh)...like
when we go and we run and they give us questions whether they were bad and
whether they were good and stuff like that. . .sometimes boys are not the

greatest (laugh).

6. LINDSEY (GOT): Like, umm, a type of abuse that someone can do to you

and like if you are like walking and someone grabs you, you can do like self-

protection and that.

Taking Care of Body

1.

KAYLA (GOT): (pause) How you should respect your body and wash it and
its like some of your favorite things.

HANNAH (GOT): Umm, just take who you are and if you want to change it,
change it in a more appropriate way. Like don’t go on a diet like, more like
run a mile every other day or something.

HANNAH (GOT): Not really. Just keeping confidence in your body and who
you are.

NICOLE (GOT): That it like it is good to take care of it because down the
road you will be thankful for it. And, I mean, like down the road somewhere
there will be, like you will want, well if you don’t take care of your body and
down the road you say I almost wish I was like this, it is harder to stop it
because you have been doing your bad eating habits for so long, I mean it is
almost easier to start younger and now I know to be like that like when things
happen like when you don’t give your body enough food and like how to help
other people like friends or even family members sometimes about what, like
if they don’t feed their body. And that yeah it is just really good to stay active
because yeah.

NATALIE (SC): Umm, well if you practice hard and work out a lot you

become more active and you lose some weight sometimes.

219

Body Comparison

1.

HEIDI (GOT): Umm, that I have more of a fit body than some people in my
school, well there is a lot of people. But, like some of the other girls on the
GOT but yeah...

MEREDITH (SC): (pause). I got really small arms so and I don’t know.
RACHEL (SC): I am pretty fast and I am not that good, I don’t have that
powerful of a kick..

JODI (GS): I am very tall. I am heavier than most girls, I am not very
overweight but I am heavier than most girls. And umm that people don’t judge

you by that.

Changing Body

1.

HEIDI (GOT): That it is changing. . .and I can talk to my mom about it or my
friends about it and it will be okay. And I can talk to people about it...just by
my coaches telling me that if you have any questions come talk to me or if
you want to tell me something then just come tell me. Just making sure we
knew we can talk to them about stuff.

KATRINA (GOT): Well, we talked about how our body changes and
everything. And then how it changes and so we got used to it and everything.
And how we run faster when our body changes. Stuff like that.

KATRINA (GOT): Umm, like how our body changes we can take it home and

talk about it to our mom and dad if we didn’t understand it.

220

Proper Eating

1. KAYLA (GOT): Well yeah I have been changing my eating habits. I hadn’t
eaten salads in a long time and then I started since GOT even though they
didn’t give me this food chart thing. I just started because I wanted to and I
just wanted to. And, umm (pause). I don’t know. Instead of saying ‘oh I want
a snack’ and choosing a piece of candy I will get a salad or string cheese or
whatever.

2. DEVIN (GOT): How we learned like how many calories you should eat each
day and stuff and that helped me to like eat more and stuff.

Drugs

1. JAMIE (GOT): Like how we did the lesson about tobacco and drugs, not that
I did tobacco and drugs, but how I learned about it more and like I said about
anorexia and all that stuff.

2. KATRINA (GOT): We would play like, umm, we had this drug game. And
umm, we, all our coaches would go and stand by a drug, like tobacco or
cigarette or something like that, and then we would we Were separated into 2
groups. And our first person in our group would run to a coach and would
give the question and you would have to run back and see if it was tobacco or
like drinking or stuff like that.

Disordered Eating
1. JAMIE (GOT): Ah, probably when we did the lesson about the like all the

different types of anorexia and stuff. I kind of learned a lot about those.

221

2.

My Ability
1.

2.

Umm, we did like umm warm-ups with them and it was kind of fun... I
learned about it a lot and I know in the future what happens and stuff.
DEVIN (GOT): I remember the one on anorexia. That one was really fun, we
got to run around.

Learning about Self

DEVIN (GOT): I learned I could run the 5K.

LINDSEY (GOT): Umm, I learned that I am able to do something that I
thought I couldn’t do.

HEIDI (GOT): That umm I am stronger and I can do it and yeah...when I ran
with my coaches or something I could keep up with them and not get too tired.
JAMIE (GOT): We can do what we put our minds to and setting

goals. . .through the experience of running a lot and sometimes you had to
walk but we knew we could go farther.

KATRINA (GOT): That I have like I had a really good running spirit,
experience during the GOTR program. . .like last year I would run really slow
and walk all the time. And this year, I ran a lot more and a lot better.
NATALIE (SC): Umm, ifI am, when I play good and when I know I can do it
I am confident and that helps me build up my confidence in other things.
RACHEL (SC): I am pretty fast and I am not that good, I don’t have that
powerful of a kick.

WILLOW (SC): That if I really push myself to do something, I will learn how

to do it either right away or it will take me a little bit. And that ifI like, ifI

222

9.

like, if I think I am tired that I start getting tired but ifI push myself not being
tired, I won’t be tried.

JODI (OS): I can do a lot more than I thought I could... Like cooking, I didn’t
know that I really enjoyed cooking. I love cooking now. And sewing, I didn’t

know I liked to sew - I am not saying that I am good at it but I enjoy it.

Self-acceptance

l.

NICOLE (GOT): Umm, lets see. Probably that I am just a better person and
just that I am created in God’s image and that no matter who I am, if I am just
myself then people will like me. I am okay now like if people do not like me
because they don’t like how I act if I am just being myself then that’s okay.
And you don’t always have to agree with that...I don’t know. I guess from the
lessons again and from the things that pe0ple said to me.

KAYLA (GOT): I learned that umm it really doesn’t matter what I look like —
if my hair is brushed but it doesn’t look so nice or if it is umm if my nails are
cut really short and crooked and jagged and stuff like that — that people won’t
look at me like that.

HANNAH (GOT): Umm, lets see, umm (pause). Oh, to like who you are and
like I said don’t listen to other people and you can be what you want to be.
ERIN (GS): Umm, when you respect yourself, you don’t think negative about
yourself, you actually think positive...you learn it through both. But mostly

you learn it through the badges you complete.

223

Emotions

1. KATRINA (GOT): That, sometimes I was sad and sometimes I wasn’t. And
sometimes, mostly I was really happy in the GOTR program.

2. HANNAH (GOT): Have more confidence in speaking or giving out your
feelings...Umm, we had the little journals that were ours and we just wrote
down our feelings and then our lessons helped too.

Qualities of Self

l. JODI (GS): I am very outgoing and I am very social. I like to talk. I am very
creative.

2. MEREDITH (SC): I am not very aggressive.

Relating to Others

1. ABBY (GS): I think it was basically interacting with other people, how other
people react to me and how I react to other people. Basically, how my
relationships with other people are. . ._I think like we all eat dinner together and
then have ice cream — it is kind od tradition. And umm I think we just start
talking about school and things that are going on and trips that are coming up.
I think basically we just umm, we all just umm, we all just talk. We are all in
middle school, so we just talk.

Most Important Learning
Interpersonal Skills
1. HEIDI (GOT): That umm, true friends will always be there for you...I know

that probably some of my friends wouldn’t stick up for me sometimes and I

224

6.

know some of them would. Because I could probably pick out some of them
who wouldn’t really, but I think most of them would.

KAYLA (GOT): (I think umm it is important) to treat other people the way
you treat yourself... before I use to look at people on the outside and just
think ‘oh, they don’t look as nice as me’ or that and then I looked at myself in
the mirror and I thought that I was beautiful but then it really doesn’t look for
me that nice. But then I told myself it really doesn’t matter what you look like.
RACHEL (SC): Making friends probably. . .if you want somebody to talk to,
play with or have fun with you probably have to make friends.

AMANDA (GS): Umm, that you should always be kind to your friends and
whatever you say could come back. And that is it not all just fun and games
because sometimes it can be rude.

HEATHER (GS): Umm, respecting others and myself - I like 1 said there are
girls in my troop that I don’t like but I have learned to get along with them
and respect them. . .it helps you get along with people in all types of situations
- you can’t just stay away from peOple you don’t like.

JODI (GS): Umm, like I said kindness, loving people, and not judging.

Positive Self-concept

l.

JAMIE (GOT): The most important thing (pause), probably umm to be proud
of ourselves, how far we ran or if we had to walk or to encourage others.

HANNAH (GOT): (pause) To keep confidence. ..if you say that you can’t do
it like I will just give it up instead ofjust keep on working it, like doing little

sets of it each time.

225

3. WILLOW (SC): That be confident in yourself and your teammates and just go
out there and do your best. Well, if you really don’t believe in yourself you
really won’t play good. If you do believe in yourself, you will play really
good. And you could get better if you keep on doing the skill higher and
higher.

4. NATALIE (SC): Umm, I learned that I can, I am capable of a lot of stuff if
always try and never give up. . .frbm my teammates encouraging me and
whenever I have tried my hardest something good comes out of it.

Teamwork

4. PAIGE (SC): (pause) Teamwork — learning to cooperate with others about my
abilities and other people’s ability...it will help me throughout life. Like,
(pause) in the future for work or something.

5. MEREDITH (SC): Umm, probably how to work as a team, because that can
come up in a lot of different things. . .Like in school, when you have to work
in a group it shows like teamwork. Like we all have to work together to finish
a project. Like in sports or soccer or gym class or whatever because you can’t
win if it isjust you.

6. HAYLEY (SC): (pause) (pause) Probably the teamwork. . .you need teamwork
anyway like in school, like in a group of people like working on a school
project. Like we all have to get certain information from each other.

Not Judging Others
1. LINDSEY (GOT): Umm, probably that we are all like the same people on the

inside but we just look different on the outside... you know that that way you

226

could umm help someone do what they thought they couldn’t do and like be
their friends and all of that.

JODI (GS): Umm, (pause), umm, (pause) not judging others. Like before
learned that judging makes others feel bad and if you judge people I might
make others feel bad and then 1 would feel bad about myself especially if I got
to know them and they were really nice. I have stopped judging others from

GS and have made more friends.

Activity should be Fun

1.

DEVIN (GOT): I learned that running is suppose to be fun. IT is not suppose

to be like something that all-consumes you.

2. KATRINA (GOT): That it (running) was fun.

Taking Care of Body

1.

KATRINA (GOT): I think that umm the most important thing is umm
learning how to treat your body and to respect it like it is yourself...

NICOLE (GOT): It is just kind of like eating, like just the right things to feed
your body and to watch out for different things that umm like that might come
your way. Like people might offer you like drugs or things like that and you
will know what things will happen to your body that are not good for it and
that if probably was the most important thing. . .your body is probably the
most important thing to have besides family and GOD and things like that
because you are going to have to live with the consequences that you are

going to do to your body your whole like. Like no matter how, like if you do

1\)
[\J
\l

drugs no matter how much you try to stop it might be too late. It might be too

late you and might not be able to do it so...

10
[Q
00

Appendix V

Coded Quotes for Physical Activity Outcomes

Physical Improvement during Program

Physiological Changes

1.

KAYLA (GOT): That umm my umm legs instead of really weak umm they
were really strong instead. Because I use to think they were really weak so I
couldn’t run as fast or as long. And now I know because of GOT that umm
that umm I can just go because my legs are strong enough to carry me.
DEVIN (GOT): Well, umm, I got stronger. I mean afterwards I can run faster
I think so I can, yeah...like last year I couldn’t run the whole thing and now I
did so I knew I got stronger in that way.

LINDSEY (GOT): Yeah, like we, umm, our muscles got stronger and stuff.
JAMIE (GOT): I could tell that my legs got a lot stronger from running. . . just
from how far I have been running and stuff. Like I used to barely be able to
run a mile and now run past that.

HEIDI (GOT): I think, well, I think from running and stuff I think my lungs
are like more like Ican hold my breath more and things like that.

RACHEL (SC): Well, I have a better stamina so I can run for longer. Running

is a lot easier, just flat out running.

Knowledge of Tactics, Strategies, and Skills

1.

KAYLA (GOT): Like, I use to run really fast and then go like slower and

walk more because I was tired. But now 1 have like this pace that I do where I

229

can run longer but it might take me a little more time...before I started GOTR
or GOT umm I was just running on relays real fast and then I got really tired.
So umm, and then when I started GOT I started going more slower so I could
like just instead of walking half of it, run most of it.

NICOLE (GOT): Umm, from the experiences of that. Like the coaches would
say that and my friends would say that ‘don’t rush yourself’. And I would be
like okay but like okay but I want to like I want to get up to my other friends.
And they would be like ‘well, just pace yourself and you might get up to
them’. So, I mean just that and knowing that it is better, like Ijust didn’t want
to run out of breath in the middle of that.

HEIDI (GOT): And like all the days we would just run long distances. Like
after the first couple of laps I would see ifI was tired or not and ifI wasn’t
really that tired then I knew it was a good pace for me.

MEREDITH (SC): I’ve learned to not bunch up and go to a spot instead of
follow the ball. Umm, follow-through - like once you kick it you can’tjust
stand there you need to run after the ball. Be in certain positions. . .my mom
and dad use to video-tape me and you use to see everyone running around the
ball and now we are standing there and don’t have to be touching the ball
every minute of the game.

WILLOW (SC): That I can dribble better and I am use to looking up instead
of looking down at the ball when I am dribbling and I know what to do and I

can kick with my left foot.

Practice

1.

NATALIE (SC): My coaches taught me to pass it and ball moves and helped

me get better

DEVIN (GOT): Yeah. Umm, I think they (i.e., running) got better because I
practiced more.

KATRINA (GOT): I started running really fast because they made me run and
stuff like that... GOTR like they would make you run sometimes because we
would run really slow at times. Then they made us run so I learned to run

faster and move faster.

3. WILLOW (SC): Because I have been practicing so much, that is basically it.

Social Support

1.

JAMIE (GOT): All the support Monica (coach) gave and she said we could do
it.

PAIGE (SC): Like, umm, during the 4‘h grade I learned a lot and improved.
And like in 6‘h grade I lost all of that because of 6‘h and 7‘h grade because not
playing with a good team and not having a good coach. And this year, I am
just trying to have to learn it all back again. ..the coach I had in 6‘h and 7th
grade, we just sat around then they expected us to play without really any
practice

NATALIE (SC): Yeah. I got a lot better because my coaches have helped me
and I learned a lot...he pushes us a lot and he teaches us a lot of new things

that we don’t know.

Goal Setting
1. HANNAH (GOT): They are all like, well ‘reach this goal today of 8 laps’ and
if you get it done you can say ‘hey, maybe I can get a couple more next time’.
Being Challenged
1. PAIGE (SC): I am being challenged
Getting Older

I. HEIDI (GOT): I am faster and I know my pace better and I can go for longer
probably because 1 am older.

Improvement in Physical Activity
Greater Enjoyment

1. HEIDI (GOT): Umm, kind of. Like it is not as much as, well it seems like
more of a fun thing to do now then just something to keep me in shape...like
thinking of different ways I can train to run. Like we did a whole bunch of
relays and stuff but you are still running when you do it.

2. KALYA (GOT): I used to think aboutjust like running to get exercise and
stuff like that but now I think of it as fun. And running to enjoy it...I just like
going down the street with the wind blowing in my hair — it feels good.

3. NICOLE (GOT): Probably. I mean like before it was like okay you have to
run and things like that. But know it is more for the fun of it and it is not really
work any more to me.

4. DEVIN (GOT): Umm, I think I learned that running is suppose to be fun. It is

not suppose to be like something that all-consumes yourself.

l\.)
L»)
l\)

5.

NATALIE (SC): Yeah. When I was little I just kind of sat around but once I
started, well once my mom started me playing soccer, I always wanted to play
soccer. 1 used to ask her when the next game was.

MEREDITH (SC): 1 like to run a lot more. Because like I never even knew

they had a cross country team and I’ve done it for the past two years now.

By Being Active

1.

3.

KAYLA (GOT): I think a little bit because like I do more stuff with my
mom’s daycare kids and stuff like that. . .play with them outside and in the
snow and just go to the park across the street and play with them. '
AMANDA (GS): Because I wasn’t as active. Like when we did the horseback
riding, I had never been horseback riding except for once which was kinds of
dull. We were out there and it was kind of fun.

JODI (GS): Yeah, Umm, well we go, when we go places we walk a lot and we

run and we get really worn out so...

Future Organized Sports

1.

2.

HEIDI (GOT): Yeah, I want to join the track team next year.

HANNAH (GOT): My first 5K was with GOTR and that started me with the
whole racing thing.

DEVIN (GOT): Yeah. Ithink I might do track next year. It is just that I like

basketball and track because they involve running so...

233

Gains in Fitness

1.

2.

JAMIE (GOT): Probably because if any sport that comes up I know I can do
good at it if it includes a lot of running and that means I can run faster or I can
run more.

MEREDITH (SC): Like I never use to think that I could finish a whole mile,
like without stopping. And like I did the 2 miles in like 12 races last year or

this year without stopping.

Motives of Physical Activity

F an and Enjoyment

1.

2.

8.

9.

DEVIN (GOT): Ijust like it.

LINDSEY (GOT): I like them (sports) and they are fun

HANNAH (GOT): I just like playing sports and stuff

KAYLA (GOT): I umm, like doing GOT and Ijust want to keep doing stuff
like GOT so I can keep having fun and stuff like that.

NICOLE (GOT): With swimming, I just always love being in the water
HEATHER (GS): It is fun, I guess

NATALIE (SC): Ijust like to play sports and it is fun...you are constantly
moving in sports and it is fun to move the ball and play a game.

PAIGE (SC): They (activities) are fun.

WILLOW (SC): It is fun.

10. AMANDA (GS): Dance class because I like dance and I like cheerleading.

ll. ERIN (GS): (cheerleading) because it is fun.

234

Social Reasons

HEIDI (GOT): It is fun to be with my friends and still exercising and stuff.
LINDSEY (GOT): You make new friends especially at swimming because
there are so many girls doing it.

NICOLE (GOT): And it is fun because some of my friends, even from GOT,
are at it. Like 2 of the girls from my team are on my team for swimming. So,
we just have a really good time with that and it isjust fun. I mean I really

don’t consider it work to, but to some extent I do but it is mainly to have fun.

4. MEREDITH (SC): Then my friend wanted me to sign up for that ‘footso’
thing with her and it isjust fun.

5. PAIGE (SC): I get to hang out with my friends

6. WILLOW (SC): You get to meet new people

To be Active

1. KATRINA (GOT): Umm, because I like to move a lot. I don’t like to sit still,
I like to move (why continues to be physically active)

2. RACHEL (SC): Because I really like it and it is really good exercise. I don’t
know. Ijust feel that I need to get outside and do something. Ireally don’t like
to be indoors a lot.

3. PAIGE (SC): It keeps me active.

4. HEATHER: Because, umm, I think it is important to stay in shape and be fit
and they also energize me.

Competence

l.

HEIDI (GOT): Well, because, well, because I think I am good at it

235

IQ

NICOLE (GOT): Ijust always, like swimming is just something was really

good at it.
HEATHER (OS): I have always been half-way good at sports so I have just

continued to play them. I figure I am good so I keep doing them.

236

Appendix W

Coded Quotes for Personal Changes

Decision Making Outcomes

Guidance from Others

1.

HANNAH (GOT): Yes, it sort of has. Like they tell you to do what you want
to do and umm, we were talking about what we wanted to be when we grow
up and some people umm, a veterinarian say like a nurse. They are like ‘wow,
that is a big responsibility’ and we are like ‘yeah, but I bet I can do it’.
KAYLA (GOT): I think so because it was like one of the lessons. And they
told us like it doesn’t matter what anyone else thinks, just to know that you
know what is right for you and not what is right for someone else over there.
KATRINA (GOT): Like, I am not, I am not getting in trouble a lot at school
or at home a lot. And I am like making better decisions. So, like when my
mom tells me to do something, I will do it so I don’t get yelled at. Because
like we talked, we talked about making better decisions and like making a lot
of better decisions around our house or at school...we talked about how some
girls, some girls answered about how they didn’t listen.

NICOLE (GOT): From, just from the different lessons and the things that
people said. I mean just listening like that to what our coaches said and like,
that probably helped with that (making decisions)

AMANDA (GS): Because I didn’t sometimes umm I felt like I wasn’t making

the right choices and they would kind of umm tell me that I was...like one

237

time I was upset because I didn’t sell enough cookies. And I was upset
because this girl had sold a whole bunch because she goes to the Eagles and
stuff. I was really disappointed and I was going to quit umm Girl Scouts. And
they told me not to.

HEATHER (GS): Well, like, well I mean the troop leaders always tell us to
try and do the right thing and to respect others. So I have tried to make my
decisions in life based on that.

ERIN (GS): When they (troop leaders) ask you to go out and sing carols for

the homeless people, it kind of like encouraging you to do more, better stuff.

Being Prepared

l.

KAYLA (GOT): Yes I have because doing my homework for like projects
that get on Monday, like due the next Monday, instead of working it Sunday
night. I work on it a little bit this day and then that day and I work on it a little
bit this day, depending on how much homework I have.

NICOLE (GOT): Like different situations that may happen during my life, not
now but later on down the road and things like that. And I just know now that
what better choices to make or what to say when somebody asks me about
something and yeah. Or help me figure out ways so I am not in the position so

that doesn’t happen to me.

Thinking about Others

1.

HEHDI (GOT): Sometimes I think now afterwards I think about the decision I

am going to make will affect other people instead ofjust me so...

238

Interpersonal Outcomes

Getting to Know and Understand Others

1.

HEIDI (GOT): Umm, I think it (the program) has helped me understand
people better, probably because we had so, like every week we would have a
different lesson on how to understand people better so it is easier. . .there are a
lot of different personalities of the people in GOT so it is like a wider variety
of people. So it is easier to get along with other people.

JAMIE (GOT): Yeah, maybe a little bit because it was like who we ran with
most. Like some of my friends were up ahead or behind but I had this one
friend, she umm ran with me a lot and she ran the 5K with me too. I used to
not hang out with her so much but after GOT it all changed.

KAYLA (GOT): Yeah and I met a friend there too, Emily. And now we hang
out with each other... when we ran in partners, she liked assigned, the coach
assigned partners and I ended up being partners with her. So then that is how I
met her.

HANNAH (GOT): It (GOT) has (helped) like making friends. Like, the first
day of school, ‘okay I know you but I don’t know you’ so but now we are all
like we can name each other’s last names and we know everything about each
other.

NATALIE (SC): Yeah, I met a lot of new people and became good friends

with them because they are on the same team.

239

6.

7.

10.

MEREDITH (SC): Cuz’ now you have more friends from teams and stuff so
you don’t just have friends from school or church but you have them from the
teams too.

RACHEL (SC): Most of my friends are on the team. . .even the opposing team
we talk to a lot if things are getting boring on the field.

ABBY (GS): There have been a lot of girls who have left and come. I think it
has, it has helped me connect with pe0ple my age, girls my age. And I just
think it is just a good experience. . .we talk a lot umm what is going on with
our schools and we really communicate a lot and umm it just feels like we
build strong relationships and umm it just (laugh) it is just positive.

ABBY (GS): We have been in Daisies together and we have just grown up
together and umm we just became fast friends. . .I think all of us have, we
know each other’s similarities and it is just a good experience. Again, it is a
good experience.

AMANDA (GS): Cuz’ we have had a friendship things badge that we earned I
think and that is kind of how I made friends. . .we were baking together and
doing a whole bunch of activities together. Like we pretended someone was

hurt and talked about how we would be nice to that person.

Gaining Social Competence

l.

HEIDI (GOT): I am more like not as umm, like I am not as shy as I used to
be, I am a little more outgoing. . .some of the lessons were kind of weird and
some of the girls were like umm, they felt stupid or something doing that, but

then I was like ‘1 don’t care, I will just do it anyway’

240

 

2. HANNAH (GOT): Well, umm, friends, choosing your own friends and
deciding if you like them or how you can get to know them.

3. NATALIE (SC): Umm, (pause) umm, (pause) I, once, I used to be kind of shy
but once I started playing soccer and meeting people I kind of talked a lot and
met some friends.

4. PAIGE (SC): (pause) My, umm, picking friends. It has helped me pick more
friends and better friends over pe0ple who have been mean to me.

5. AMANDA (GS): Well, I was kind of shy at first when I first joined and now I
am not as shy and they taught me not to be shy and because we would have to
stand up and tell peOple our names. It used to be embarrassing.

6. JODI (GS): There was a point when I was younger when I didn’t have any
friends around 4‘h and 5th grade because I hadn’t been going to many GS
meetings. And when I moved here I started going again because I saw that
they had a GS trOOp so I started going again and I made a lot of friends really
fast that way.

7. JODI (GS): (pause) Before Ijoined GS, when I was younger, I was shyer and
I wouldn’t like walk up to people and be like ‘hey, do you want to play with
me’ or ‘lets go somehwere’. Now I am like being around people and I like my
friends and I like being around people a lot. . .being in GS I had to be around
people so I guess that changed it

Acceptance of Difi‘erence
l. KAYLA (GOT): I think so because I like used to look at the person for who

they were on the outside and not on the inside. Cuz’ now like Emily she really

241

is not the prettiest but she is really nice so, that is why I think so... they liked
talked about that so that I got it through my head more that it really doesn’t
matter what they look like on the outside, just what it means on the inside.
HANNAH (GOT): To be nicer to other kids and umm not to judge them from
their looks but ah to (pause) I can’t think of the word (pause), I can’t think of
the word, ah, gall, oh most likely who they are on the inside.

. HEIDI (GOT): Like sometimes when I see other peOple, some of my other
friends think they are weird or something, some of the friends I made this year
and but they are really nice. I think it is easier to make friends when I look at
them for who they really are instead of the clothes they wear or they hairstyle
and stuff. . .well I kind of have 2 groups of friends and things like that. So,
sometimes my other friends don’t really interact with the other ones, so it is
okay. But if they do, I am like ‘oh, actually they are really nice’.

WILLOW (SC): Yeah, it has just kind of helped me be open-minded about
people and don’t judge them by the way they look or act and that is basically
it. . .just with all of the different girls. Because I am in a higher league and a
lot of the girls are older than me and that is basically why.

. JODI (GS): Umm, there is different personalities, like different people there
and I learn that different people can be friends and different personalities can
be friends.

ERIN (GS): Theyjust teach you to be nice to people and accept them for who

they are.

Social Etiquette

l.

NICOLE (GOT): Yeah probably. Because now I know, like I said before that
if I am goofing off and my friends don’t want me to do that then that I need to
respect that or yeah just different things like that where I figure out because of
the way that I am acting or the things that I say that make them uncomfortable
or they don’t like that.

NICOLE (GOT): Kind of. Umm, I know a little more about what is better like
acting like acting and things like that changed and I know that I should
probably listen to them if they are uncomfortable with things I do. Or if I am
just goofing off and they don’t really think it is funny, I mean there is a time
to goof-off with your friends and there are times that they don’t want it and I
know now that I need to respect that. I want to keep them happy and keep
myself happy.

HEIDI (GOT): Umm that if people really care about other people they won’t
like purposely make you run into anything. . .if people, like really care about
you they wouldn’t really just blow you off and go to someone else’s house
when you have already asked them to come over or something like that.
WMOW (SC): I used to like when I was in kindergarten, when someone did
something wrong I used to start yelling at them and stuff and now Ijust kind
of tell them ‘goodjob’ or ‘next time do this’ or ‘nice try’ and stuff like that.
AMANDA (GS): That I can sometimes be shy and sometimes a little bit
bossy. And sometimes I have an attitude, but they tell me when and then I try

not to have it...like one time my friends were all mad at me and I didn’t

243

q.

understand why and then they told me and I didn’t realize that I was kind of
being bossy and stuff. And they told me and I stopped being so bossy.
Respect of Others
1. HEATHER (GS): Well, umm, like there are 2 girls I really don’t like in our
troop but sometimes I have to work with them as partners. Because I have to
umm work with them I have learned to respect them. They will never be my

good friends but I can now work with them and respect them... we have to do

 

things with girls we may not know or like and you have to deal with them.

2. JODI (GS): Just make sure, just, just making sure you keep respecting others
and there ideas and thoughts.

3. ERIN (GS): Because like the GS they teach you how to respect people and not
for who they are but what they are and it has just kind of helped.

4. ERIN (GS): Well, like, when they tell us to respect ourselves and others or
ourselves-slash-others, then like you should not just respect just yourself but
you should actually respect other people.

5. HEATI-HER (GS): Umm, things like helping others, following through with
things even if you really don’t want to. And respecting yourself and others —
these are things I use every day in my life.

Feelings about Self
Positive — Personal Mastery

1. DEVIN (GOT): Umm, 1 think it made me feel pretty much better well, aah, I

think it made me feel better to say that I accomplished something, like I had

run a whole 5K. So it made me pretty happy that I did that.

244

. LINDSEY (GOT): It made me feel good because I knew that I could do it.
And it just umm helped me a lot. . .By proving that I was able to push myself
to that level.

. JAMIE (GOT): Umm, I felt really great about it because I ran and I can run a
little farther each day. That was pretty great.

. NATALIE (SC): Well, I remember like one game I scored like 4 goals and I
was, that was like the first time I ever played soccer so. So I was kind of
happy about that.

. RACHEL (SC): It made me feel good because I know that I am getting better
at something.

. WILLOW (SC): It makes me feel happy and stuff like that. It just kind of I
don’t know how to explain it, it is just I get so excited even if we win or lose

and stuff like that.

. WILLOW (SC): Well, there was this one time, I think it was a couple years

ago, I think we were playing against this really good team, I scored the
winning goal or like on our form for tournament, we were in a tie and we had
to kick goals and stuff and I made one of the goals that helped us win the
game.

. HAYLEY (SC): Umm, on our last game, I scored 2 goals and we won so...

. MEREDITH (SC): I think it makes me feel pretty good because I have
something that I know I can do good at and I can succeed in and lean back on

when I get to high school and stuff. Because I have been playing it for so long

245

10.

ll.

12.

and I can see how I have changed throughout the years and I can see how I got
better and I can just look ahead and see how much better I can get.
MEREDITH (SC): Our first game of our 7‘h grade, junior high team — we
were like ahead 1-0 and then a girl, like there was a penalty in the penalty box
and I scored it. And it just like made me so happy because it was like my first
goal and I made it the first game of the season.

AMANDA (GS): (pause) Umm, when we did the McCheer off. I had never
been to a McCheer off before. I didn’t even know what it was. And we lost by
1 number 506 or troop 507. And we were so mad but that is okay. Because I
knew that I had challenged myself because I had never danced and I didn’t
know how to do it. Ijust didn’t know how to do it so I challenged myself.
ERIN (GS): Makes you feel good because you have actually done something

and you have earned it.

Positive — Acceptance

l.

KAYLA (GOT): It made me feel better because and now I know that the
people here don’t look at me at the outside they look at me on the inside for
who I am and not what I look like.

KAYLA (GOT): IT made me feel like I was just part of this wonderful group
that like was there to like not talk bad about me but ifI had a problem to help
me with it and notjust say ‘oh sorry we can’t help you’...the coaches they
were really nice, they kept the group together, instead of having these people

over there just because and these people over here. And, umm, the people

246

 

there, the kids who signed up, were really nice and I could trust them and stuff
like that.

JAMIE (GOT): Yeah and going to GOT everyday I was really excited like to
see all of my friends and stuff.

KATRINA (GOT): It made me feel really good. Sometimes I would feel
really sad and then when I ran in GOTR it made me feel really
good...Because I learned that I could ummm, I didn’t have to be sad all the
time. And the girls that were there they made me happy and everything.
RACHEL (SC): It makes me feel good because I know that I have made
friends.

ABBY (GS): Umm, it is always so positive, you just,just feel so good about
yourself when you are with those people and when you are away from those
people. It is just so positive because we are always just there for each other

and we listen to each other and do things together. It is just good.

7. HEATHER (OS): The troop leaders make us feel good about ourselves.

C onfidence

1.

HEIDI (GOT): Better, like I am more confident with what I do and stuff.
Because of the lessons and stuff and how many people are out there who are
not as confident and how that hurt them — their not being as confident and
thinking bad about themselves. It showed me that I do pretty good.

KAYLA (GOT): And I have gained a lot of self-confidence too. ..like, when

they told us that it doesn’t really matter what you look like on the outside, it

247

matters on the inside. And what you like act like umm not what you look like
or talk like.

HANNAH (GOT): Umm, it felt like I had more confidence in myself and I
had learned who I was and umm, yeah I just had more confidence in

yourself. . .because like I said goals and like I said like who you want to be
and don’t listen to people like if they give you a hard time. Umm, stick to your
goals and keep confidence.

NATALIE (SC): Umm, it helps me know that I can do what I am capable of
and if I try my hardest, I can always do good. Well, because when I try hard I
always get good things out of it and it helps me.

WILLOW (SC): It makes me feel more confident in myself. I don’t know how
to explain it.

JODI (GS): Well, normally I just follow the crowd but now I am more of an
individualist. And I like will take different parts of different things and I will

put them together and then I get my personality.

Positive — Helping Others

1.

2.

HEATHER (GS): Really Good because we are always helping others

ERIN (GS): Kind of makes me feel good because you are helping people. You
are not just doing it for yourself but you are doing it for others. Because when
you help people itjust kind of (sigh) you just get that feeling inside like you
are doing something good.

JODI (GS): Yeah we went caroling to an older, older adult foster home and it

was really nice and felt good to see smiles on their faces.

4. ABBY (GS): Yes it does (feel good). We do a lot of good things for others.
Determination

1. RACHEL (SC): Well, I have probably GOTen a lot more determined with
that.

2. PAIGE (SC): I have become more competitive and determined — a little bit.

3. MEREDITH (SC): Like you are driven to win and I am driven to get good
grades. I want to make honor role and like try out for certain teams and make
it, yeah.

4. WILLOW (SC): Well, (I am determined) in the sports I play and the tests I
take in school and for try-outs for sports and stuff like that — that is basically
it.

Being Member

1. ABBY (GS): I think it means that I am part of a group that is very beneficial
and helps the community and it is kind of an honor, I guess. It is really fun, I
really like it.

2. JODI (GS): Showing more people respect and love and care and umm making
sure you never, try never to put other people down. And making sure if
someone is left out you try to help them.

Feeling Poorly

1. MEREDITH (SC): Like, ifI like look back at it and I ask my dad after the
game how I did, you know. And if there is something I did wrong, I am like
‘yeah I did do wrong’ — I want to make it better but I kinda get upset because I

did do something wrong even though I did not want to.

249

2. PAIGE (SC): Not scoring or not being able to get a lot of time in the game to
play...Cuz’ you are not able to help the team win you, just are not able to help
the team. And you feel that your talent isn’t good enough.

Athletic
1. HAYLEY (SC): It makes me feel strong...like athletic, like I run. I don’tjust

do nothing on the weekends.

250

Appendix X

Coded Quotes for Motivation to Continue Program

Continuation in Programs

Fun and Enjoyment

5.

6.

7.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

KAYLA (GOT): Yes I would, it is fun

NICOLE (GOT): Yes because it is a lot of fun and I learned a lot.
LINDSEY (GOT): Running is still pretty much fun.

NATALIE (SC): I will continue to play because it is fun and I really like
to play it.

MEREDITH (SC): Ijust think it is really fun and I like playing indoor
RACHEL (SC): And Ijust really like to play soccer — it is just fun
WILLOW (SC): It just a really fun experience, that is basically why.It is
just a really fun sport to play it is more fun than not. Like you don’t get
that much pressure on you and the is about it.

AMANDA (GS): I will continue to participate because it is fun

JODI (GS): it isjust fun.

ERIN (GS): Because it is fun. Like everything. Like the stuff you do as a
group, the end of the year awards, the cookie selling, the movies and all of

that stuff.

. HEATHER (GS): my mom says it will keep getting funner as I am older.

Well, it is fun right now. But mom says as we become more responsible

we will do more stuff and it will keep getting funner.

251

Social reasons

1.

ABBY (GS): All of my friends are staying in. Like if all my friends
dropped out I would too. Its umm, I mean all my friends are staying in and

I can do fun activities and go cool places. (laugh)

2. KATRINA (GOT): Yep. Because I did it the last year and the last year and
this year and I didn’t want to quit it because I really like it. And it is fun
going in to meet new people and having new coaches and getting a lot of
new stuff from last year.

3. NICOLE (GOT): Umm, it isjust fun like I will race with my friends andI
mean, yeah we will just race together and just goof off and have a fun time
while we are doing it.

4. NATALIE (SC): I like playing with my friends on the same team.

5. MEREDITH (SC): Because Ijust like it so much and it is fun. And all of
friends are doing high school and they like are talking me into doing it

6. RACHEL (SC): I get to be with all of my friends and I want to keep up
my relationships with my friends.

7. AMANDA (GS): I see all of my friends.

8. HEATHER (GS): Because I like to be with my friends

Continued Mastery

1. AMANDA (GS): I have a lot of badges and I want to earn more.

2. WILLOW (SC): You get to learn new skills. You get to have different like

competitors and stuff like that

l\.)
L]!
1Q

Helping Others
1. JODI (GS): Because I like doing and helping people
2. AMANDA (GS): I want to get up there and help some people.
Going on Trips
1. JODI (GS): Going on trips.
Future Opportunity
1. ABBY (GS): It is just a good opportunity for me and it looks good on a
college application.
Discontinuation in Program
Deciding among Activities
1. ABBY (GS): I think people just move on and start to do sports and
cheerleading and just other types of things. Some people just don’t really
focus on that type of thing.
Not Cool
1. HEATHER (SC): Well theyjust don’t think it is cool anymore. Like for
example we had to wear out vests to school one day — none of us wanted to do
it because we would be teased by the boys. But we all had to wear it so I wore
a sweatshirt over mine but then I got so hot that I had to take the sweatshirt off
even though I didn’t want to. So I took the sweatshirt off and I got teased. I
told the boys to grow up because if they were grown up they would be in
something like GS where they have to be responsible. . .Well peoplejust don’t
understand about GS I think. I don’t know. Maybe they only think of GS as

little girls. I don’t know itjust becomes uncool for some reason. 1 hope to stay

253

in it until at least 9‘h grade. After that sports might take up so much of time so
I don’t know. We will see. My best friend and I say we will be in it until at
least 9‘h grade.
Not Making Team
1. PAIGE (SC): I don’t know. I don’t know what kind of sports high school has
to offer and if I am going to make the team or not.
Already Done Program
1. DEVIN (GOT): Umm, I don’t know, well probably but I am not sure. Because

I have already done it for 2 years, so...

254

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