“p‘ .uw .,. .._‘ . .u, . vJ ...., .. V - , ~ ‘ ‘ ,,r , ‘ , .' g. ‘ . , ~ ' ' ‘ ' . ¥ " ‘ , , ‘. , . 0" 'u._‘4T'I*"fH _' O\'1I‘q Li- W!- 3 9003 5491mm ._ .. 'T'BRAEY l‘JllUt Itgdli mate University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled MOBILITY INTO TOURISM EMPLOYMENT IN A REGION EXPERIENCING ECONOMIC TRANSITION presented by NICOLE L. VAUGEOIS has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources W/JQQQL Majdr Professor’s Signature 8/0705 Date MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 6/01 cJCIRC/DateDuopGS-p. 15 Nicole L. Vaugeois A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources 2003 ABSTRACT TOURISM EMPLOYMENT IN A REGION EXPERIENCING ECONOMIC TRANSITION By .Nicole L. Vaugeois This study investigates tourism employment on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada during the fall of 2002. The purpose of the study was to explore mobility into tourism employment in a region experiencing economic transition. A “mixed methods approach” (l'rochim, 1999), combining quantitative and qualitative techniques, was used to explore the concept of mobility in tourism employment. The study findings serve three aims: 1) to determine the patterns of mobility into tourism employment, 2) to explore motivations for working in tourism, and 3) to explore the transition experience of individuals shifting into tourism employment from declining resource-based industries such as forestry, fishing, mining and agriculture. The study draws upon career theory in the development of its line of inquiry and the methods replicate and build upon existing work on mobility into tourism (Szivas and Riley, 1999). The findings of this study provide insight into the composition and career choices of the tourism labor market. Similar to previous work (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Riley et al, 2003), the tourism labor supply appeared to come from all other sectors of the economy, including those that are experiencing declines such as forestry, fishing, mining and agriculture. The reasons individuals chose to work in the industry were found to be positive in nature and suggested that eight factors underlie motivation orientations to tourism employment. The strongest factor was named “lifestyle” reflecting that intrinsic motivators were central to career choice. Findings suggest that motivational choice may be conceptualized along a “push-pull” continuum. Using a refined scale, findings indicate that individuals were more “pulled” than “pushed” to take up a job in tourism. Used further in cluster analysis, the “push-pull” scale identified four clusters that differed in regards to motivation orientation. One cluster was pushed into tourism, one was pulled, one was both pushed and pulled and the remaining cluster was neither. ln-depth interviews with individuals who entered tourism from former resource-based workers revealed that the majority of individuals accessed some form of support when entering tourism. In general, the transition was labeled “a trying experience” and often required individuals to update their knowledge or skills. Individuals reported a range of positive and negative impacts on quality of life dimensions when entering tourism work, but were happy they had made the shift and were planning to continue working in the industry. The findings are useful to understand the nature of the tourism labor market. The study identifies the role that tourism can play in economies in transition and may be used to develop support systems to ensure smooth transitions for individuals entering the tourism workforce. The study of mobility into tourism should be explored in other contexts and incorporate the additional variables exposed in the qualitative results from this study. DEDICATION I have not traveled this journey alone. This dissertation is dedicated to my husband John L. Predyk for supporting me through the last four years of learning. I could never have done this without you. Thank you. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge a few individuals who have played an important role in the completion of this dissertation. First, thank you to my committee members Dr. Donald Holecek, Dr. Daniel Stynes, Dr. Joseph Fridgen, Dr. JoAnne Beckwith and Dr. Rick Rollins for providing constructive criticism and learning support along the way. John and I extend a special thank-you to my major advisor, Dr. Donald Holecek, for allowing me to work from home for the majority of my Ph.D. experience. Thank you to Dr. Daniel Stynes for instilling confidence in my research abilities and teaching me the proposal writing skills that enabled funding for this research project. Most of all, I would like to thank my friend, colleague and external, Rick Rollins for our Monday afternoon meetings. Your time, expertise and mentoring have been critical to the completion of my journey and I am forever indebted for your support. A special thank you to Human Resources Development Canada, Nanaimo office, for the generous funding assistance for the Tourism Labor Market Research Project. Thanks also to Dave Petryk, CEO of Tourism Vancouver Island, and Steve Wohlleben, Project Manager for letting me run with the Employment study. It was a joy working with each of you, and I appreciate your contributions to this finished work. Thank you to Malaspina University-College for a generous half-year assisted leave, which allowed me to complete my work. Finally, thank you to my parents for teaching me the value of hard work and instilling confidence in my abilities. PREFACE I would like to begin this dissertation with a short preface as I think readers will benefit by understanding the context of how this research came about. As a resident of the Vancouver Island region since 1995, I have witnessed the far- reaching effects of an economy in transition. For years, news reports in the region have been covering a range of factors that have negatively impacted the sustainability of resource-based employment in forestry, fishing and mining. As these primary industries suffer, so does the social fabric of the rural communities where they are dominant. Reports of mill and mine closures or problems with the fish stocks have become the norm, and one can almost feel the desperation of people and communities caught in a state of change. At the same time, there appears to be some optimism about the potential of other industries to help diversify the economy. One of these is tourism, which has become, and is expected to remain, a more dominant employer in the island region. Since I was familiar with the tourism impact literature, which suggests that tourism creates employment benefits, I had faith that tourism would assist these communities, to withstand the changes taking place. Yet, I also recognized that tourism was a very different industry and would likely require skills and knowledge quite unlike those used in the declining primary industries. l was filled with numerous questions. What was the composition of the tourism labor market in the region? Was the tourism industry generating employment benefits for all regions of the island, or were they limited to the popular urban destinations like Victoria? How did people feel about taking up a tourism job, and how satisfied were they in their new line of work? If former resource-based workers did decide to work in tourism, how did they find the transition? This thought process is what brought me to want to study the tourism labor market in the Vancouver Island region. Answers to these questions are found within this dissertation and serve as a starting point for additional research on the nature of the tourism labor market. vii List of tables List of figures Chapter 1: AAAA—LAAA—SA ACOQNODUI-hOONA 0 Chapter 2: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Chapter 3: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.1.1 3.6.1.2 3.6.1.3 3.6.1.4 3.6.1.5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Overview Statement of the research problem Background Context of the study Research objectives Overview of methods Importance/significance of research Definition of terms Assumptions Limitations and delimitations Literature review Introduction Purpose Significance of labor market research in tourism Labor market in transition The movement of labor Mobility into tourism employment The transition experience Methodology used to explore mobility into tourism Conclusion Methodology Introduction Research Questions Theoretical constructs Rationale for choice of methods Study design Research Methodology Tourism Employment Survey Design Sampling plan Instrumentation Data collection Design issues viii Page xi xii 33 34 35 38 50 51 52 56 59 61 63 63 63 68 7O 71 3.6.1.6 3.6.1.7 3.6.2 3.6.2.1 3.6.2.2 3.6.2.3 3.6.2.4 3.6.2.5 3.6.2.6 3.7 Chapter 4: 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.7 Chapter 5: 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.6 Appendices A.1 A2 A3 A.4 8.1 Analysis Limitations In-depth interviews Design Selection of participants Instrumentation Data collection Design issues Analysis Consideration for human subjects Findings Introduction to study and method Overview of methods Characteristics of the sample Description of tourism employment Mobility into toun'sm employment The transition experience into tourism employment Motivation for transition Difficulty of transition Impacts of transition on quality of life Conclusion Discussion and conclusion Introduction Overview of methods Major findings and contributions Discussion Patterns of mobility into tourism Motivation to work in tourism The transition experience Recommendations Academia Policy and planning Conclusion Performance of the forestry industry in British Columbia 1984-1998. Performance of the fishing industry in British Columbia 1984-1998. Performance of the agrifood industry in British Columbia 1984-1998. Performance of the mining industry in British Columbia in 1984-1998. Performance of the tourism industry in British ix 75 79 81 82 83 85 87 90 93 94 96 96 98 100 102 113 151 160 163 167 172 174 174 175 177 179 179 183 187 188 188 191 200 203 204 205 206 207 208 :9 mmp o m Columbia 1984-1999. Performance of the accommodation and food services industry in British Columbia 1984-1999. Introduction letter for the tourism employment survey Tourism employment mail survey consent form Tourism employment mail survey instrument Script for contacting participants for follow-up in- depth interviews Consent form for follow-up in-depth interviews Guiding questions for follow-up in-depth interviews Profile of participants from the in-depth interviews Emergent themes from in-depth interviews 209 210 212 213 220 221 222 223 224 Number 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 LIST OF TABLES Table Population change in study region from 1996 to 2001 Seasons of operation by tourism region Number of full-time employees by season in the Vancouver Island region Number of part-time employees by season in the Vancouver Island region Number of managers or supervisors employed by tourism organizations in the Vancouver Island region Sectoral comparison of population to sample Response rate by timeline of the mail survey Reasons given for non-response to the survey Motivation to work in tourism scale Comparison of general population to sample population Income level for primary and secondary income Rotated component matrix Comparison of factor grouping between study findings and previous research Factor rank and mean scores for motivation orientations Frequency of factor use in the sample Use of factors in the sample Categorization and frequencies of push and pull statements Motivation to work in tourism means by cluster Mobility into tourism motivation cluster characteristics Job satisfaction by cluster Comparison of former resource-based workers with the remaining sample Comparison of job satisfaction between former resource- based workers and remaining sample xi Page 13 19 20 20 21 63 71 74 97 106 113 119 120 122 122 124 130 132 135 147 153 Number 1.1 1.2 1.3 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 LIST OF FIGURES Table Map of British Columbia Map of Vancouver Island region, study area Tourism operators/agencies in the Vancouver Island region Mobility in the context of the local labor market Study design Sample selection process Mixed method approach Guiding questions for in—depth interviews Region of residence Age distribution of the sample Education level of the sample Primary sector of tourism Level of position Seasons employed in tourism Job tasks performed in current position Satisfaction with current tourism job Dependency on tourism for income Satisfaction with income by primary and secondary income earners Previous industry/activity before entering tourism Motivation to work in tourism distribution Use of push and pull statements by the sample Cluster positioning along mean scores for push and pull statements Pattern of employment progression History of recent job changes by the sample Years of consecutive employment in tourism Length of time with current organization Progression in current tourism position Training and education needs Comparison of region of residence for former resource- based workers and the remaining sample Comparison of length of residence between former resource-based workers and remaining sample Comparison of motivations to work in tourism between former resource-based workers and remaining sample Comparison of training needs between former resource- based workers and the remaining sample xii Page 10 11 18 33 58 61 79 81 98 99 99 100 101 102 103 105 106 107 108 110 125 127 137 138 140 141 142 149 150 152 161 CHAPTER 1. STUDY OVERVIEW “In this industry [tourism], the labor market is dominant and to be truly practical economic forecasts, education policies and the human resource strategies of companies have to be cognizant of its workings” (Riley, Ladkin et al., 2002). 1.1 Introduction Tourism has become a significant employer in the Canadian economy. In 2003, the industry employed 1.6 millions Canadians in over 159,000 different businesses (CTHRC, 2003). This ranks tourism as the fourth largest employer in the country, behind healthcare, manufacturing, trade and education (Stats Canada, 2003). While the Canadian Tourism Commission projects a 3.5% to 5% growth rate for the industry over the next several years, Canada’s overall labor force growth will decline from 1.4% to 0.4% by 2016 (CTHRC, 2002). And according to the Conference Board of Canada, there will be a shortfall of 950,000 workers in the Canadian economy by 2020 (as cited in CTHRC, 2002). Over the next decade, the Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council predicts that it will need to locate an additional 300,000 new workers to sustain the predicted growth in the industry (2000). In the province of British Columbia, the government is challenging tourism to double its contributions to the provincial economy and help offset the loss of employment in declining industries (Tourism 8.0., 2003). This challenge means that the province’s tourism industry will require 75,000 new people within the next decade. With such high expectations being placed on tourism to contribute to economic development, more needs to be known about the nature of the tourism labor market. Most importantly, knowledge of how tourism labor markets are developed and sources of potential labor supply are required in order to encourage mobility into tourism employment. This knowledge must be accompanied by an understanding of what motivates people to work in the industry and how satisfied tourism workers are with different aspects of theirjobs in order to promote the industry and attract new labor supply. As research suggests that the tourism labor market is comprised of people who formerly worked in all sectors of the economy (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003), labor planning would also benefit from knowing more about individuals’ transition experiences in order to ensure successful mobility outcomes. This study was undertaken to investigate tourism employment at a regional level for Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada during the fall of 2002. The purpose of the study was to explore mobility into tourism employment in a region experiencing economic transition. A “mixed methods approach” (Trochim, 1999), combining quantitative and qualitative techniques, was used to explore the concept of mobility in tourism employment. The study findings serve three aims: 1) to determine the patterns of mobility into tourism employment, 2) to explore the motivations for working in tourism, and 3) to explore the transition experience of individuals shifting into tourism employment from declining resource-based industries such as forestry, fishing, mining and agriculture. The study draws upon career theory in the development of its line of inquiry and the methods replicate and build upon existing work on mobility into tourism (Szivas and Riley, 1999). 1.2 Statement of the research problem One of the strongest arguments for pursuing tourism development is that it will bring employment benefits‘to the area (Keith, Fawson et al., 1996). This is an attractive feature of the industry, especially for areas experiencing a decline in other industries. While these claims are commonly accepted, little empirical research has been done to trace how tourism labor markets develop. Until further research is carried out, our understanding of the benefits of tourism employment, particularly in areas experiencing transitions in employment, will remain limited. As numerous rural areas in developed and developing countries are pursuing tourism as an economic development tool, data on the employment benefits of tourism are critical. Tourism has become a dominant force in many economies. As an industry, it is valued as an economic development tool due to its ability to bring new revenue to destination areas, diversify the economic base of activity in a region, and supply people with employment opportunities (Tooman, 1997; Mahony and van Zyl, 2002). Tourism is often viewed as a growth industry, and, in some regions, the industry is being challenged to increase its contributions to revenue and employment in order to offset declines in other sectors of the economy (Tourism BC, 2003). While research has kept pace with estimating the economic impacts generated by visitor spending (MacQueen, ; Tooman, 1997; Dudding and Ryan, 2000; Hoof, 2000; Crompton, Lee et al., 2001), the complexity of tourism employment is much less understood (O'Donnell, 1970; Vail and Kavanaugh, 2000; Riley, Ladkin et al., 2002). At a time when the labor market is experiencing significant change (Kummerow, 1991; Blank, 1997), this lack of understanding may impede the industry from attracting the labor supply it needs in order to contribute to economic development goals. In order to contribute fully to economic development goals, tourism is reliant upon an adequate labor supply. The tourism product is a visitor experience, which is labor intensive to produce (Vetrakova, 2000). In times of labor shortage, increased competition for workers puts them in a position of power, where they can choose between employment alternatives and move towards the most attractive options. In this sense, tourism is expected to have a difficult time attracting and keeping labor. The industry largely has an image of providing low- skilled and low paying jobs, attributes that are not likely to motivate mobility into the industry (Choy, 1995; Krakover, 2000; Hjalager and Anderson, 2001). If tourism is to remain a positive contributor to economic development and achieve growth targets, it must attract and retain additional labor supply. It also needs to be guided by research that demonstrates how tourism labor markets are created. Specifically, what are the potential sources of labor supply for the industry? What motivates individuals to want to work in tourism? What can be Ieamed about the transition experience in order to insure successful mobility? The problem addressed in this study is the inadequate understanding of mobility into tourism employment. The context of the study is on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. 1.3 Background 1.3.1. Labor market in transition Current economic growth and prosperity across the Canadian economy is putting pressure on the tourism labor market. The growth has allowed more of the populace to use its discretionary income for travel creating demand for a range of tourism products. This, combined with the demand from international visitors, has fueled the development of the industry and its ability to supply employment benefits. While this pattern is positive, it is not unlimited. This growth has occurred at a time when labor supply was available, a situation that is unlikely to continue in the near future. The industry will need to become more competitive at attracting individuals to work in the industry in order to continue supplying experiences for visitors. The world of work is changing dramatically (Kummerow, 1991 ). The supply of labor is aging and will continue to diminish in size as baby boomers exit the labor pool. Competition for younger workers will increase as labor shortages are expected across all sectors of the labor market. The labor supply has also been getting more diverse and increasingly reliant upon the inflow of immigrants from around the world. Not only has the supply of labor been shifting, but the nature of work has also changed. Growth in service sector employment has outpaced neariy all other sectors of the economy resulting in demand for different types of workers and skills (Weiemiair, 1988). At the same time, many sectors of the economy have experienced a decline in demand for products, which has resulted in decreased employment opportunities. Across all sectors, there has been a shift towards self-employment, part-time and contract work which some have argued has made the prospect of having a career more unpredictable, unstable and stressful (Arnold, 1997). The interaction of these changes in the labor market has resulted in a more mobile workforce. In order to determine the direction of mobility, individuals must determine where they best fit in the labor market and choose between available occupations. In order for the tourism industry to capture much needed labor supply, more needs to be known about why people choose to work in tourism and how to keep them once they enter it. While attention on how to retain tourism employees has been significant (Davidson, 1997; Sullivan and Duplaga, 1997; Council, 2002), much less research has addressed the topics of motivation underlying mobility decisions or the nature of the transition experience. As one of the available employment sectors in the labor market, tourism has been viewed as relatively accessible due to the number and diversity of jobs available, flexible hours and low qualification levels required for entry into the workforce (Riley, Ladkin et al., 2002). The accessibility of the industry is perhaps offset by the somewhat negative image of employment in the industry. Together, the concepts of access and attractiveness work to encourage mobility. Until recently, the topic of mobility into tourism has been neglected in the literature. In an attempt to explore the role tourism was playing in the labor market in Hungary, Szivas and Riley, (1999) explored how accessible the tourism industry was for those wishing to join it as a first job or from other industries. Their study focused on inter-industry mobility that terminated in tourism during the transition from a communism to a market economy. They found that tourism workers originated from a broad spectrum of labor sources indicating support for the hypothesis that tourism was a refuge for “victims” of transition. Further, when asked about what impact of the shift into tourism had on individual lives, respondents reported an improvement in all dimensions provided in the study including items such as job security, social status, job satisfaction and income. In the same study, Szivas and Riley tested to see if there was an underlying structure to orientations towards work in tourism. The theoretical base for the study was a four-dimensional model of orientations towards work proposed by Goldthorpe, Lockwood et al., (1968). The researchers found support for the model and named the orientations to work in tourism as: 1)“instrumental utility” where tourism was perceived as a means to an economic end, 2) ”positive commitment” where tourism employment was favored for a range of intrinsic values, 3) “refugee” where tourism offers and escape route from a declining industry, unpleasant job or unemployment, and 4) “entrepreneurial” where tourism is seen as a suitable industry in which to establish a business. Their analysis resulted in a fifth factor, the ‘wanderer”, which described unclear motivations and suggested individuals drifted into tourism employment and had no thought out plans for future employment. In a recent follow-up study in the United Kingdom, Szivas, Riley et al., (2003) applied the same instrument to an urban and rural region, replicating the scale and testing for differences in other contexts. They found that the sources of labor supply prior to tourism were diverse and found no significant differences in motivation orientations between urban and rural contexts or between their earlier work in Hungary. While these two studies have initiated exploration into mobility, they are limited with respect to the contexts of the research and the level of analysis performed. As each labor market is a variable in its own right, further replication in other contexts would add to the reliability of the findings, and if consistent, add to the current knowledge base. on the topic. Additionally, both studies were conducted by the same researchers with the same instruments and treatment of data. Further exploration by different researchers, refined instruments and additional analysis would allow for unbiased comparisons and a deepened understanding of mobility into tourism. Of related concern to the study of tourism employment, is the need to explore mobility in a regional context. To date, most macro level estimates of tourism employment are derived using economic multipliers from large urban areas. As the Guide to National Tourism Indicators for Canada cautions “employment data for small, local or seasonal industries, such as occur in tourism, are somewhat more difficult to collect... readers may bear this in mind when using the tourism employment indicators for such industries” (Stats Canada, 1996). Baldacchino, (1997) concurs with the need for regional labor market research by arguing that the local context is a variable in its own right. With tourism development in rural areas on the rise in many regions of Canada, locally driven research on tourism employment may provide useful information to guide its development. Poised as an industry that can provide employment benefits to countless regions, our understanding of tourism employment must advance. Of primary importance, tourism research must shed light on how tourism labor markets are created. Questions that must be addressed include: a. Where does the labor supply in tourism come from; b. What motivates mobility decisions into tourism; c. How difficult is the transition experience and what can be done to insure successful adaptation to the industry? This study addresses these questions using labor market research in tourism employment on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. 1.4 Context of the study The context for this study is the Vancouver Island region of British Columbia, Canada. The Vancouver Island region is one of Canada’s top tourism destination areas. Located off the west coast of Vancouver, as shown in Figure 1.1, the islands are both remote and accessible, providing a combination that attracts thousands of visitors annually. Visitors to the island region are able to take advantage of a diversity of experiences ranging from urban to rural, cosmopolitan to rustic, and relaxing to adventurous. The island is developed unevenly. The southeast section of the island has been developed the most and includes the largest cities and main transportation systems. The west and north sections of the island remain remote and rural with a few small towns and with limited forms of access. Other than a few large cities, the Vancouver Island region is largely made up of small to mid-sized communities. Figure 1.1: Map of British Columbia, Canada “Iv-0h : ‘I’JF' M”! ' Witt-II 731;: WASIMGEON - ‘ :IDNIO" Vancouver Island 1 Source: Tourism British Columbia, 2003 Shown in more detail in Figure 1.2, the island region is comprised of seven sub-regions for tourism marketing purposes. All of the seven sub-regions of Vancouver Island are incorporated into this study. The South Island region includes \fictoria, the capital city of the British Columbia and most recognized destination in the region at the southern tip of the island with a population of 311,902 (Stats Canada, 2001). The city of \fictoria has been accused of “out- Britishing the English” and is famous for afternoon tea at the Empress Hotel, Butchart Gardens, the Provincial Museum, and shopping. It is an accessible destination for visitors from mainland British Columbia or the state of Washington. The south central region has incorporated the history of the First Nations people and the Forestry industry into its tourism product. It includes the city of Duncan, known as the “City of Totems” and the wor1d famous community of ‘ Chemainus, which transformed itself from a forestry dependent community to a thriving tourism destination. Figure 1.2: Map of the Vancouver Island region, sttfly area 43A , PortHardy %.® 1 South Island , ,- =1 \ W 7% W 3 Central Island " Foam 6 l . 4 Pacific Rim ,' River 5 North Central « Zeballos’ ,\ r’ 5 6 North Island ' t “WWW 7 Gulf Islands II “I A little further north, is the rapidly developing Central Island region. This region includes the “hub” of the Island, the city of Nanaimo, which is one of the main entry points to the region and retirement communities like Qualicum Beach and Parksville. Central Island tourism organizations have been aggressively 11 marketing the region in attempts to draw visitors north of Victoria and distribute visitor spending. In doing so, they have promoted the centrality of the region to other destination areas and the accessibility to Vancouver. The Pacific Rim region comprises the majority of the west coast of the island. Although remote, this region has become a tourism Mecca due in large part to the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve which boasts the wor1d reknown “West Coast Trail”, Long Beach, and the Broken Group Islands. Tourism to this region has grown significantly with efforts to develop and promote an array of natural and cultural tourism products including whale watching, kayaking, hiking, surfing, and visiting First Nations sites. The North Central region has experienced rapid growth since the recent expansion of flights into the region. It is also known as the recreation center for the Island with one of the only ski resorts, numerous golf courses, an expansive provincial park system and fishing charters. This region boasts that visitors can “ski and golf in the same day" and is actively pursing tourism development. The North Island region is perhaps the least developed tourism region. It is a sparsely populated, remote region that has begun to develop a range of natural and cultural tourism opportunities. The region boasts one of the best opportunities for Orca Whale watching in the world, a rich First Nations heritage and excellent salmon fishing. Finally, the Gulf Islands region is comprised of all the smaller islands between the mainland and Vancouver Island. They stretch south to meet the San Juan Islands in the United States to the north tip of Vancouver Island. The Gulf Islands region is a magnet for visitors, and many have developed tourism as 12 their main industry. Tourism products often include wineries, marinas, markets, bed and breakfasts, parks for hiking, shores and beaches for kayaking, picnics and sun tanning. In order to understand the context of the study region, a short discussion on the population dynamics will be presented. Two interesting patterns emerge when analyzing population change of selected communities in the study region as shown in Table 1.1. First, the Vancouver Island region is experiencing population growth to urban areas as individuals move to retire in the region. This relocation may largely be attributed to the region’s temperate climate, which is suitable for year-round leisure pursuits. This phenomenon has been experienced in numerous other areas of Northwest America and some have coined them the “new westemers"(Unknown, 1996; Norman, 1998; Fetto, 1999). Already, some communities have shown an increase in the retirement population namely in Victoria, Parksville and Qualicum, Sooke and Ladysmith as shown in Table 1.1. On the other hand, the Vancouver Island region has experienced a seven % population loss since 1996 (Statistics Canada, 1996). This is due to radical population change occurring in communities like Tahsis, Gold River, Bamfield and Port Renfrew, which are all rural communities that are reliant on forestry, fishing and mining. The people in these rural areas have been “leaving town”, likely due to limited opportunities for employment in resource-based industries. 13 Table 1.1: Population change of selected communities in study region from 1996 to 2001 Population Population Location 1996 Population 2001 change British Columbia 3,724,500 3,907,738 183,238 Port McNeill 2,925 2,821 -3.6% Tahsis 940 600 -36.2% Tofino* 1,170 1,466 25.3% Ucluelet 1,658 1 .559 -6% Port Albemi 18,782 17,743 -5.5% Ladysmith 6,456 6,587 2% Golf River 2,041 1,359 -33.4% Bamfield 387 285 -26.4% Youbou 1 .426 1 ,149 -19.4% Sayward 440 379 -13.9% Port Renfrew 207 161 -22.2% Port Hardy 5,283 4,574 -13.4% Port Alice 1,331 1,126 -15.4% Lake Cowichan 2,858 2,827 -1.1% Campbell River 28,851 28,456 -1.4% Parksville 9,472 10,323 9% Qualicum Beach 6,921 6,734 2.8% Victoria 31 1,902 304,287 2.5% Nanaimo 73,000 70,130 4.1% Sooke 8,436 8,735 3.5% Total 484,486 471,301 -7% Source: Statistics Canada Census data 1996 and 2001 A majority of the rural communities on Vancouver Island have developed around the natural resources in the area, creating an economy that is heavily dependent on resource-based employment. Over the last decade the primary industries of fishing, forestry and mining have all suffered in some form or another. Any of these changes in an economy are significant to the individuals and communities that rely on the industries for employment. Compounded, as 14 they have been in the study region, the impact has been nothing short of traumatic. Rural communities have suffered tremendously, coping with higher unemployment and their residents anxiety over how to survive. One of the core economic development strategies for the Vancouver Island region is to use tourism for economic diversification and create “resilient, healthy communities" (Tourism BC, 2003). With visitation to the island region remaining strong for a period of years, many of the rural communities shown in Table 1.1 have begun to develop a range of tourism products. Tourism organizations have responded to visitor demands for eco and adventure, culture, botanical and agricultural experiences resulting in a diverse tourism employment base. A region experiencing economic transition British Columbia was once a province that supported its population with logging, fishing and mining jobs, but it is experiencing a shift towards more service-based employment. From 1989 to 1999, employment in forestry, fishing, mining, oil and gas decreased by 10.1% (Statistics, 2000). Although forests cover almost two-thirds (59 million hectares) of the province, the forestry industry has become reliant on world markets making it more susceptible to downturns in the rest of the world, or trade wars, as is currently being experienced with the United States (B.C. Stats, 2001). This has resulted in the industry showing less importance in the provincial economy since 1984 (Appendix A.1). While the industry employed approximately 7% of the provincial labor force in the 1980’s, it now employs 5% of BC. workers (BC. 15 Stats, 2001). According to forecasters (Statistics Canada/COPS forecast, 1999), employment in the forest industry will not increase at the same rate as the rest of the economy, and, by 2008, total share of employment is expected to fall to 4.9%, down from 5.3% in 1999. As in the case of the forestry industry, British Columbia’s fish and fish processing industry has contributed less to GDP and employment in recent years (Appendix A). Plagued by declining fish stocks and the collapse of the salmon fishery, many coastal communities have been forced to close operations and plants, or harvest other species. In the mid-1980’s, the industry accounted for nearly 1% of the economy in terms of number of jobs and contribution to GDP (B.C. Stats, 2001), dropping to less than half a percent by 1999. Fishing and fish taming employs about 5,000 British Columbians (Labor Force Survey/COPS, 1999). Due mostly to advancements in the fish taming industry, the performance of the fishing industry in British Columbia is expected to remain the same, at just under half a percent of the economy, into 2008 (Statistics Canada/COPS Forecast,1999). Like forestry and fishing, mining has played an important role in the development of British Columbia’s economy. The mining industry is involved in extracting metals, minerals, coal, oil and gas resources throughout the province. Similar to the forestry industry, this sector of the provincial economy is sensitive to changes in the world market, meaning that recent price fluctuations and softened demand in Asian markets has greatly affected the industry. The number of jobs in B.C.‘s mining industry increased by 5% over the 1984-1998 period (Appendix A). While well below the provincial average, forecasters expect 16 that the mining industry could play a more significant role in the provincial economy in the near future due to strong growth in manufacturing and oil and gas exploration (Statistics Canada/COPS forecast, 1999). Another resource-based sector that has played a significant role in the development of the province is the agriculture industry. “At the turn of the last century, about 40% of the workers in Canada were employed on farms. This figure's dropped to 4% nationally and just 2% in British Columbia” (BC. Stats, 2001). This industry more than others has had to cope with multiple changes including high land prices, intense competition in wor1d markets, reduced trade barriers and importation of new products, changes in eating habits and environmental concerns. Those in agriculture are adapting, and forecasters expect that the industry will grow at the same rate as the rest of the economy; however, total employment in agriculture is forecast to fall from 2.7% to 2.5% before 2008 (Appendix A). While agriculture has not played as significant a role in the Vancouver Island region as other areas of the province, its long growing season and temperate climate are suitable for numerous agriculture products. Local consumers and visitors to the Island region are demanding locally grown, organic produce which is leading to the development of the agriculture and agri- tourism industries in the region (AgAware, 2003). One of the leading service sector employers is tourism, which has been promoted as an economic diversification tool for regions of the province. B.C.‘s tourism sector has maintained its share of GDP and employment at the same level since 1984, although it has been shown to be more volatile than other sectors of the economy (Appendix B). In 2001, tourism activities accounted for 17 4.8% of GDP and about 7% of total employment for the province of British Columbia (BC. Stats, 2001). In 2000, a total of 250,000 (or about one in eight) people were employed in tourism related organizations, which represents an increase of 6% since 1997 (BC. Stats, as cited in (Rollins, 2001). Tourism is recognized as one of the largest employers in the province, and forecasters expect that to continue (B.C. Stats 2001). The ability of tourism tocontribute to the growth of the province is somewhat limited by expected labor shortfalls (Council, 2002; Unknown, 2002). According to the Three-Year Service Plan for Tourism British Columbia (2003 — 2006), at the current rate of growth, 50,000 new workers will be needed in tourism related jobs before 2010. If the province wants to meet the targets set by Premier Gordon Campbell to double annual revenues and tax contributions to the province, an additional 85,000 new workers will be required (Tourism BC, 2003) Tourism employment in the study region As most of the statistics on employment are macro-estimates biased towards urban-based tourism, federal and provincial labor market research figures have limited utility for regional labor market planning. Obtaining an accurate estimate of the number of people employed in tourism in a region is difficult due to differences in the way tourism is defined and measured. For example, according to Tourism B.C., tourism accounts for 7.2% of employment in the province, or one in every 14 jobs (2003). It is estimated that 114,270 British Columbians are employed in tourism, making it the fourth largest employer 18 behind retail and wholesale trade (259,020), health and social services (176,310), education and related services (132,120). This figure however, does not include anyone who is self employed in the industry. In these figures, the tourism industry is limited to a percentage of employment in transportation and warehousing, retail trade, accommodations, food services and travel arrangements. They do not include employment in tourism from emerging sectors such as adventure, culture and agricultural tourism. Tourism B.C. estimates that there are 17,966 tourism related businesses in the province, which accounts for 11%, or one in nine B.C. businesses. Of these, 92.2% employ less than 50 people while 43.6% employ between one to four people (2003). While these figures are useful to monitor and compare the growth of tourism in the provincial economy, they are somewhat limited at a regional level. First, the definition used to estimate employment in the industry could be questioned, as it does not incorporate emerging sectors or self-employment in the industry. Second, half of the businesses in the tourism industry are reported to be in the food services industry. As many food and beverage establishments serve more local residents than visitors, one might question whether or not these figures provide an accurate representation of the size and value of the tourism industry, especially since earnings in this sector are the lowest in the industry. Finally, these figures do not reflect the value of tourism to each of the provincial regions and as such, are of limited value for regional economic development or labor market planning. In an attempt to measure the employment impacts of tourism in the Vancouver Island region, Malaspina University-College and Tourism Vancouver 19 Island partnered together in 2002 to undertake a Tourism Labor Market Project with funding assistance from Human Resources Development Canada. The results of this study will be used to highlight tourism employment in the study region (Vaugeois and Rollins, 2002). In this study, the tourism industry was defined as all tourism organizations that are directly or indirectly involved in tourism in the following sectors: transportation, travel trade, tourism services, tour operations, adventure tourism, accommodations, food and beverage, arts and culture, recreation and entertainment, and education and training. A database of 3438 tourism organizations was compiled including public, private and not-for- profit organizations in each aforementioned sector. Instead of attributing a portion of employment in different industries to tourism, organizations were asked to “self define” the extent that they were involved in tourism and to identify the number of employees in each season. This was done using a telephone survey in the spring of 2002. Data were then compiled and used to estimate the size and significance of tourism in the Vancouver Island region. Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of tourism organizations in each of the sub-regions on Vancouver Island. Tourism development is more established in the south island region, which is home to Victoria and the southern Gulf Islands. Approximately 46% of tourism organizations in the study were found to be located in the south island region. Additionally, 14% of organizations were in the central and north central regions, 12% in the Pacific Rim, 8% in the south island region and 6% in the north island. 20 Figure 1.3: Tourism operators/agencies in the Vancouver Island region Nonh ,- Island North / 6% Central - 14% \t / South //~ Island Pacific Rim/ 46% 1 2% x.\ South Central \ Central Island Island 14% 8% Approximately 87% of tourism organizations are privately owned and operated, while 9% are in the not for profit sector and 4% are public organizations. While tourism is often reported as a highly seasonal industry, Vancouver Island tourism organizations have reported relatively stable operations on a year- round basis. Table 1.2 indicates the percentage of operators and agencies in the region that are in operation in each season, and the number of individuals employed in each region by season. In the summer season, 97.5% of organizations are in operation, dropping in the winter season when 72 — 86% of organizations remain open. 21 Table1.2: Seasons of Operation by Tourism Organizations by Region 8m Summer Fall Winter “/- Number % Number % Number % Number South Island 97% 1567 98% 1583 95% 1534 86% 1389 South Central Island 95% 266 98% 274 94% 263 81 % 227 Central Island 93% 465 97% 465 91% 436 81% 388 Pacific Rim 92% 368 98% 392 89% 356 72% 288 North Central Island 91% 431 97% 460 91% 431 75% 356 North Island 92% 202 97% 213 90% 213 80% 176 3299 3387 3233 2536 Source: Malaspina University-College, Phase I: Tourism Labor Market Research Project, June 2002 Tourism employment in the region tends to be in small to medium size organizations as shown in Table 1.3. Table 1.3: Number of Full-time Employees by Season in the Vancouver Island Region Percent by Season Number of Full- Time Employees Sprlni Summer Fall Winter 0 People 18.0 13.6 18.0 25.5 1 Person 21.0 20.0 20.6 20.1 2 Persons 22.8 23.4 23.7 21.8 3-5 Persons 17.8 17.9 17.7 14.4 6-10 Persons 8.1 10.2 7.9 7.2 More than 10 12.4 14.8 11.9 11.1 Persons Mean 7.4 8.9 7.3 6.9 Maximum 350 500 300 300 Estimated Total' 25,774 30,990 25,426 24,032 Estimated number computed by applying sample percent (n=1397) to the data base population (n= 3483) Source: Malaspina University-College, Phase I: Tourism Labor Market Research Project, June 2002 While the average number of full-time employees ranges from 7.3 in the fall to 8.9 in the summer, the data are not from a normal distribution as there are 22 few large-scale employers that employ a disproportionately larger number of individuals. The estimated number of individuals working full-time in the tourism system ranges from 24,032 in the winter to 30,990 in the summer. Tourism also creates significant part-time employment opportunities in the study region. Table 1.4 shows a similar breakdown as full-time employment. Part-time employment accounts for less than full—time employment in the region ranging from 10,449 part-time jobs in the spring season to 15,325 in the summer. Table 1.4: Number of Part-time Employees by Season in the Vancouver Island Region Percent by Season Number of Part- Time Employees Spring Summer Fall Winter 0 People 51.1 44.6 52.7 60.1 . 1 Person 12.3 13.8 12.2 10.3 2 Persons 11.5 12.5 10.5 9.4 3-5 Persons 13.0 13.8 12.6 10.6 6-10 Persons 5.9 7.6 5.7 4.2 More than 10 6.4 7.6 6.2 5.4 Persons Mean 3.6 4.4 3.3 3.0 Maximum 250 150 150 350 Estimated Total“ 12,539 15,325 11,494 10,449 Estimated number computed by applying sample percent (n=1397) to the data base population (n= 3483) Source: Malaspina University-College, Phase I: Tourism Labor Market Research Project, June 2002 Finally, tourism employment in the region generates a significant number of “core" jobs, or full-time, year-round positions in management, supervisory or owner/operator capacity. Table 1.5 provides 'detail on the number of management and supervisory positions in the study region. Nearly 43% of organizations report having one person in a management or supervisory role while 30% have two, 12.5% have 3 to 5 and 5.4% have more than five. Tourism 23 organizations in the study region, on average, employ 2.2 managers or supervisors. Depending on the season, those in management or owner positions represent between 17 to 22% of total employment in the region. Table 1.5: Number of managers or supervisors employed by tourism organizations in the Vancouver Island region Number of Managers or Supervisors Percent 0 People ' 9.2 1 Person 42.8 2 Persons 30.0 3-5 Persons 12.5 More than 5 Persons 5.4 Mean 2.2 Minimum 0 Maximum 75 Estimated Total“ 7,663 Estimated number computed by applying sample percent (n=1397) to the data base population (n= 3483) Source: Malaspina University-College, Phase I: Tourism Labor Market Research Project, June 2002 Tourism has become a vital economic force to the province of British Columbia and to the Vancouver Island region. In times of such change in the economy, many residents have had to make difficult decisions about where they fit in the regional labor market. For individuals on Vancouver Island, labor demand in resource-based sectors has been shrinking, while opportunities in service-based industries like tourism have experienced growth and opportunity. Little is known, however, about where the labor supply in tourism has come from or what motivated individuals to choose to work in tourism. With such high 24 expectations being placed on tourism as an economic diversification strategy, more needs to be known about its role in the regional labor market. 1.5 Research Objectives In order to investigate the tourism labor market further, a study was conducted on tourism employment in the Vancouver Island region of British Columbia, Canada. The purpose of the study was to explore mobility into tourism employment in a period of economic transition. Focus was placed on understanding how the current tourism labor market came to be, based on the assumption that this information can assist in future labor market planning (Riley and Ladkin, 1994). Within each of these aims, the research objectives were: 1. To determine the sources of mobility into tourism. This will allow potential sources of labor supply to be identified and used to attract individuals to work in the industry to meet forthcoming labor shortages. 2. To determine the factors that motivated individuals to work in the tourism industry. This information will be useful to understand what attracts people to work in the industry and may be used to develop recruitment messages to draw new employees into tourism jobs. 3. To explore the nature of the transition experience for individuals from declining resource—based industries into tourism. This information will provide insight into how individuals access and adapt to work in tourism and assist in supporting successful career transitions. 25 1.6 Overview of methods The objectives of this study were achieved by investigating mobility into tourism employment in the Vancouver Island region of British Columbia. A mixed method approach using a combination of survey research and in-depth interviews was employed. The analytical framework for the study was “career theory" which refers to a “set of exploratory and investigative approaches used to measure and analyze [career related] phenomenon” (Riley and Ladkin, 1994). Based on a review of the literature on mobility, tourism employment and labor market economics, patterns of mobility and orientations to work were explored. Findings to explain mobility into tourism were summarized using a grounded theory approach. The data in the study were obtained by a tourism employment survey with employees and entrepreneurs in the region and follow-up in-depth interviews with individuals who made a transition into tourism employment after working in a resource-based industry. The self-administered mail survey was sent to a sample of 800 organizations that generated tourism related employment in the region during the fall of 2002. The survey asked respondents about their current employment position, how they came to be employed in tourism, and how satisfied they are with their choice. The in-depth interviews gathered qualitative data about why former resource workers chose to work in tourism, and how the transition into the industry has impacted their quality of life. 26 1.7 Importance/significance of the research The findings of this study assist in painting a more complete picture of tourism employment, particularly in rural areas experiencing economic transition. The study provides a complement of quantitative and qualitative data to build upon existing research both in terms of content and methodology employed. The potential users of the results include both academics and practitioners. Academics: The findings of this study assist in developing a literature in tourism employment beyond quantitative forecasts and human resource management techniques. They help to fill the void in understanding of the role that tourism plays in economic development and how the labor supply'in tourism is created. The methods chosen, replicate and extend recent research on mobility into tourism (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003) within a different context, and by a different researcher. By refining the variables to fit a region undergoing a decline in resource-sector employment, the study tests the universality of motivation orientations to tourism employment and illustrates the significant role that context plays as a variable in its own right. The qualitative approach used to generate data on the nature of the transition experience adds depth of understanding to tourism employment as it treats mobility as a more holistic process. This approach has been lacking and called for (Szivas, Riley et al., 2003) in order to build upon current work. 27 Practitioners: Government agencies will be able to utilize the findings to assist in labor market planning and decisions on educational funding, program approvals and expansions. Study findings illustrate multiple sources of potential labor supply that can be used to develop plans to mitigate labor shortages. Finally, findings suggest that tourism workers have specific needs when making transitions into the industry. This finding is useful in order to design appropriate support systems to enable successful transitions into the industry. 1.8 Definition of terms Selected terms used in this study are defined as follows: Core jobs 0 Jobs that are full-time, permanent, and in mid-management and management levels of the organization (Shaw and Williams, 1994). Human capital 0 The accumulated skills, knowledge and experience one gains over a career (Peitchinis, 1970). Labor mobility o The movement of labor supply between industries, within industries and within organizations. lntra-industry mobility :1 Movement of labor within the same industry (e.g. Movement from one organization in tourism to another organization in tourism). 28 lntra-organizational mobility 0 Movement of labor within the same organization (eg. Movement from one job in an organization to a different job in the same organization). Inter-industry mobility 0 Movement of labor from one industry to another industry in the economy (eg. Movement from a job in forestry to a job in tourism). Labor demand 0 The relative need for workers by employers. Labor supply a The relative abundance of employable workers Labor market a The relationship between labor demand and labor supply. Local resident a An individual who has lived in the community where they are employed for 10 or more years (Smith and Krannich, 2000). Peripheral jobs 0 Jobs that are part-time, seasonal, and at the entry level of the organization (Shaw and Williams, 1994). Resource-based industry 0 Based on Canada and British Columbia labor surveys, these will include fishing, logging, mining, oil and gas. Rural: 0 Communities with a population of fewer than 10,000 full-time residents. 29 Tourism employee a An individual employed either part-time or full-time, seasonal or permanently in a tourism organization. Tourism organization a An organization that is directly or indirectly involved in tourism in the following sectors: Transportation, travel trade, tourism services, tour operators, adventure tourism, accommodations, food and beverages, arts and culture, recreation and entertainment, education and training. Transition 0 The experience of moving from one industry to another from the initial decision making phase, to the actual shift, and adjustment period (Arnold, 1997). 1.9 Assumptions The study rests on some underlying assumptions about mobility and tourism employment. Initially, it was assumed that tourism creates employment benefits in all regions of the island, particularly in rural areas dependent upon primary industries. It was also assumed that individuals in the study region were aware of the context of the labor market when making a decision to work within it. 30 1.10 Limitations and delimitations The outcomes of this study are limited in a number of respects. First, the chosen research design is exploratory in nature, as little research has been conducted on mobility into tourism employment. The strength of the findings is therefore limited and should not be generalized beyond the context of the study region. Further research in other contexts is encouraged. Tourism is a difficult industry to define. This study defines tourism differently than the provincial and national classification systems and incorporates emerging sectors such as agricultural tourism, cultural tourism, and adventure tourism. It also incorporates the views of those who are self- employed in the industry. While these decisions were made to strengthen the utility of the findings, they also limit it with respect to comparability with other studies. As well, much of the data in the study is reliant upon memory and recall of the respondents and may be limited in its accuracy and completeness. For example, individuals may not recall all of the reasons or the intensity of reasons for making their decision to work in tourism. This may also be reflected in the findings through cognitive dissonance where individuals may reflect positively on their decision and current situation to appear consistent with their behavior. The sampling design incorporated responses from those currently employed in tourism and is therefore limited in its ability to compare results to individuals who may have considered tourism employment but decided against it, or those who tried tourism employment but shifted out. Also, the study is limited in the '31 sense that it does not consider how tourism is perceived in comparison to other industries. Responses from a diversity of tourism organizations and employees were sought in the study, which resulted in the sampling plan becoming quite complex. In order to reach employees with the survey instrument, letters were addressed to owners and managers who had to provide consent and distribute one of the surveys to a randomly chosen employee. This approach, while ethical, resulted in high response rate from owners and managers and a lower response from other levels of employees. The results are therefore limited in that they over-represent the views and experiences of owners and operators. Finally, the study design incorporated responses from individuals employed in tourism in the fall season and is therefore limited in the sense that it does not incorporate the perspectives of high season employees. It is plausible to suggest that tourism employees differ in their origins and motivations therefore additional study that incorporates these perspectives is suggested. 32 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Introduction “One of the central elements in tourism development is the supply of labor. Where labor comes from gives some indication as to its quality, in terms of motivation, human capital, and stability" (Szivas and Riley, 1999). One of the benefits of tourism development is that it brings employment opportunities to a destination area (Keith, Fawson et al., 1996). These benefits can be extremely attractive to destination areas seeking economic development alternatives, especially when in a period of economic transition (Halseth, 1999). While estimates of the number of jobs in tourism continue to grow, there is also a concern that the industry will experience a labor shortage in the near future (CTHRC, 2002; Unknown, 2002). With so many destination areas pinning their hopes on the benefits of tourism, further investigation into how the tourism labor market takes shape is merited. As Conlin and Baum, (1994) caution, tourism will only be sustainable if it stresses the need for long-term perspectives and a concern for the quality of human resources. 33 2.2 Purpose The purpose of this chapter is to provide background literature on tourism employment and occupational choice behavior from which the reader will better understand the choice of methods and study findings. Initially, an overview of labor markets in transition is provided, demonstrating the role that tourism often plays in economic diversification. Following this is a discussion on the concepts of transition and mobility, which are central to understanding the formation of tourism labor markets. With a conceptual framework established, the chapter moves on to introduce and critique previous research on mobility into tourism employment and highlight the lack of research on the nature of the transition experience. Gaps in research and suggestions for an approach to additional study are used to close the chapter. 2.3 Significance of labor market research in tourism The research into tourism employment has focused primarily on two areas. At one end, macro-level economic forecasts of the number of tourism jobs have been calculated and used for labor market planning (Leiper, 1999). On the opposite end, significant attention has been given to understanding human resource management issues in organizations, or at the unit level (Woodall, 1997; Nickson, 2000; Riley, Ladkin et al., 2002). While this research has assisted in planning for labor supply and helping organizations manage human resources, it leaves an incomplete understanding about the role and significance of the tourism labor market. Psacharopoulos (Riley, Ladkin et al., 2002) has 34 argued that the conditions that produce labor markets must be better understood in order to make more meaningful use of labor projections. 2.4 Labor market in transition The labor force has been in a period of profound structural changes (Blank, 1997; Kelly, 2000). The supply of labor has been aging, becoming more diverse, and balanced between genders (Kummerow, 1991). The composition is not the only thing changing in the supply of labor, there is also going to be less of it. The departure of “baby boomers” from the work force coupled with the shrinking portion of youth will have a significant impact on the labor force in the near future (Sullivan and Duplaga, 1997). Not only is the source of labor changing, but the types of jobs and nature of work has also shifted. Labor is a derived factor of production (Weien'nair, 1988), and employment therefore is determined by the level and pattern of demand. In other words, where demand for certain products or services increases, one can expect to observe a growth in the demand for labor, resulting in employment opportunities. Since the post war era, this is perhaps best illustrated by the rapid growth in the service sector. Although the service sector has been difficult to define and classify, Browning-Singlemann (1978 as cited in Weirerrnair 1988) classify the sector as including: a) distribution services (transportation, communication, trade, retail), b) producer services (financial services, insurance, real estate, legal services etc), 0) social services (medical and health, hospitals, education welfare, government and miscellaneous services) and (1) personal services (domestic, leisure and tourism). The growth of the service sector has 35 created an array jobs within each of these sectors. In many labor markets this growth has also been experienced with a decline in employment opportunities in other sectors influencing the rate of mobility for workers. Demand for labor has also changed in the sense that it has become more flexible. Self-employment, contract work, part-time and job sharing have all changed the nature of work. Arnold, (1997) writes that people have become less secure in their jobs and organizations are relying on less core staff, or people who are employed on a full-time year round basis. The notion of a career has become less predictable for many as more frequent job and employer changes are experienced. The need for re-education and re-training remain a constant in order to remain valued in the labor market (Cousineau and Vaillance, 2000) Tourism is one of the industries leading growth in the service sector and it has generated significant employment opportunities globally (Archer, 1995; Gatty and Blalock, 1997; Jenish, 1998). This growth has been predicted to continue and in Canada, the industry is expected to produce more than 300,000 new jobs by 2005 (CTHRC, 2000). In Canada’s western province of British Columbia the government has challenged its tourism industry to double contributions to GDP and employment by 2010, a feat that will require 75,000 additional workers (Tourism BC, 2003). The labor market is a dominant force in the creation of tourism employment in any given region (Riley, Ladkin et al., 2002). Responding to market forces, it is dynamic, shifting and competitive. Figure 2.1 provides an illustration of mobility in the context of the regional labor market. All regional 36 labor markets are set within, and influenced by, the nature of the external labor market. Therefore, the political, economic and social environments have an impact on both labor demand and supply (McAuley, 1998). The industries creating employment alternatives within regions shift, increasing and decreasing Figure 2.1: Mobility in the context of the local labor market External environment Inflow In-m/yrat/‘on New labor v Local Labor Market (dynamic) ,1; Resource ‘ Demand .. Tbased. '- Work alternatives ‘ _ ‘ industries . (changing) . j - Labor supply Individuals {mob/la) Outflow Retirement Migration 37 in reaction to market forces. Where an industry is in decline, those formerly employed can be forced back into the labor supply in the region. The labor alternatives available to them will influence mobility of the local labor supply. Of key importance, individuals’ mobility decisions are based upon knowledge of available alternatives and an evaluation of individual “fit” with employment options (Arnold, 1997). The motivations under1ying mobility decisions are complex and define the type of employment sought. For example, one individual may be motivated by financial rewards of a particular type of job, while another may be motivated by the social environment associated with work (Cannon, 2002; Hennink, Cooper et al., May 2000). After a decision is made to become mobile, inter-industry shifts are then accompanied by efforts to obtain work and to make a successful transition into one’s new line of work. The composition and human capital of the available labor supply is also dynamic in that new labor can be injected from external labor markets through in-migration, or existing labor can move out of the labor supply through means such as retirement and out- migration (Unknown, 1996; Cousineau and Vaillance, 2000) 2.5 The movement of labor Mobility can be defined as the movement of workers among locations, occupations, and firms in response to changes in labor market conditions (Peitchinis, 1970). As a construct, mobility can take many forms. Riley et al, (2002) have suggested that mobility can be studied from multiple perspectives including inter-industry mobility (movement between different industries), intra- industry mobility (movement within the same industry), inter-organizational 38 mobility (movement within the same organization) and geographic mobility (movement between labor markets). Mobility can be either a voluntary or involuntary decision. People can become mobile in the labor market for a variety of reasons such as dismissal, failure of the enterprise, decline of an industry, technological displacement or quest for betterment (Peitchinis, 1970). Simultaneous industry and occupational change Is most frequent among workers who have single industry skills and are working in an industry that declines (Peitchinis, 1970). This is due to the fact that mobility is highly connected to the concept of human capital - “the stock of an individual’s skills and knowledge"(Riley, Ladkin et al., 2002). Individuals who are involuntarily forced back into the labor market depend on their human capital to secure employment. Szivas and Riley (1999) suggested that expanding low skill industries, such as tourism, would offer a vehicle for displaced workers to get back into the labor market. It is for these reasons, that tourism has been looked upon as a valuable economic development tool as it can generate employment and tax revenue for regions in transition (Keith, Fawson et al., 1996; Slee, Farr et al., 1997). Considering the weight of expectations placed on tourism to supply destination areas with employment benefits, there has been relatively little research on mobility into tourism employment. Wood, (1992) is concerned with this situation and writes: 39 “In a country like the UK where tourism has been frequently viewed as a panacea for employment decline in manufacturing, all inclusive definition of tourism and tourism potential raise unrealistic hopes that the quantity and quality of jobs in tourism industries can, in the short term, compensate across the economic board for erosion of the nation’s manufacturing basef The decision to leave one industry and enter another is complex and challenging and in many ways can be described as a cost-benefit calculation (Riley et al, 2002). The costs of leaving one’s current position or industry are compared to the perceived benefits in those being considered. The aim of an individual in the decision making process is to maximize the return on the human capital investment (Mallier and Shafto, 1989 as cited in Riley et al, 2002). Shari, (1992) breaks down the career decision-making process into three stages including career exploration, career information and self-assessment. He argues that to be ready to make a decision about one’s work, individuals need to be at a state of readiness defined as having knowledge about oneself, the world of work and an ability to use the two sets of information together. Therefore, in the career exploration stage, individuals collect information on alternatives in a variety of ways including print form, simulated experience, talking with people, shadowing, searching job ads, meeting with career counselors or attending workshops. During this stage, individuals may think about their values, goals, skills and personalities in a very introspective way as career decisions are not necessarily confined to one’s field of work (Arnold, 1997). The decision making stage is largely influenced by different decision making styles. Phillips et al (1985 as cited in Arnold, 1997) described three 40 decision-making styles that individuals use when making career decisions. The rational style involves systematic appraisal and deliberation using a long-term perspective. Here, the person thinks carefully about alternatives, accepts full responsibility for decision-making, and anticipates the consequences of previous decisions. The intuitive style is based on emotional reaction to the situation where there is heavy reliance on feelings and imagination in the process. While individuals accept responsibility for decision-making, they base it largely on their “gut feeling”. The dependent style involves passive and compliant response to the decision where individuals are heavily influenced by the expectations of others. Individuals do not want to accept responsibility for decision-making and other people or events are seen as responsible for the circumstances. In the assessment stage, individuals combine the knowledge gained in exploration with their decision making style. Here, individuals consider the value of their accumulated human capital in the labor market. In general terms, the more favorably people evaluate their level of human capital, the more confident they are making a career shift. The value of human capital is largely dependent upon the nature of the local labor market, which is also taken into consideration. The criteria used to compare alternatives can vary, but often includes remuneration, benefits, security, and status (Shari, 1992; Messmer, 2002). Where attractive labor alternatives exist and are evaluated more positively than one’s current industry or situation, individuals are more likely to become mobile. In summary, individuals evaluate their ‘fit” in the current labor market and are more likely to move towards industries they feel best suit their motives and skill levels. 41 There are a number of barriers impacting mobility decisions in the labor market. “Some barriers to decision making are a product of incomplete or shallow exploration or maybe simply an absence of opportunity to obtain relevant information" (Arnold, 1997). Lack of knowledge of one’s own abilities, interests, confidence or familiarity with decision-making can slow down one's ability to make a decision, and increase uncertainty in assessment. Lack of general labor market information or of specific labor market information can leave potentially strong alternatives unconsidered by individuals. This barrier is best highlighted by Peitchinis, (1970): "T he lack of information regarding the properties of various positions... handicaps the worker in his attempts to assess the advantages of alternative opportunities... Hence, in their search for information regarding the properties of employment opportunities, they frequently rely on the knowledge of relatives, friends and acquaintances. Depending on the relationship of the source of information to the employment opportunity, such information is often based on rumor, personal experience which is influenced by personal prejudices, individual assessments of possible opportunities, and the ‘grapevine’.” Lack of information on the nature of tourism employment is one of the dilemmas facing the tourism labor market. As tourism is a new industry in many areas, it is quite likely that individuals have a limited understanding of what employment alternatives exist, or what the quality of work is like. What is known 42 about work in the industry may be biased due to the image of tourism employment. The image of occupations is an important stimulus in career choice decisions (Riley et al, 2002). The attractiveness of any industry is based on the image individuals have created from numerous sources. If individuals know very little about tourism employment or have a negative image of tourism jobs, they are less likely to evaluate it positively among alternatives and shift into the industry. While few dispute that tourism creates new employment opportunities, some have questioned the quality of tourism jobs (Pizam, 1982; Steinberg, 1994). Jobs in tourism are often seen as “menial and low level for unskilled hands” (Brachmann, 1988 cited in Riley et al, 2002). Burr, (1994) in a study of rural perceptions of tourism found some pessimistic and negative views of tourism jobs held by residents. Some residents felt that tourism jobs were not the way to go, and many preferred the manufacturing industry. Others felt that while tourism may add some jobs, it would not increase household income due to the low pay attached to jobs. Residents also felt that tourism jobs should hold a low priority for development when compared to better jobs. In a rather lashing review of good jobs and bad jobs in the Canadian economy, (Glenday, 1997) asserted that the minimum definition of a good job consisted of an above-average wage or salary, a sense of job security, and the likely prospect of advancement. Comparing how industries performed on these measures, he further noted that the “lion’s share" of the employment picture is located in the service sector of the economy where growth sectors such as 43 tourism, accommodation, amusement and recreational services pay as little as $230 to $375 a week, or between $12,000 to $19,500 a year, a figure well below the poverty level set at $21,000 for a family of four in 1995. Additionally, he lamented that most of the jobs are non-unionized, receive few if any benefits and receive little more than minimum wage. Riley et al (2002), however, encourage further exploration into the quality of tourism jobs writing that “given the complexity of tourism itself which results in a wide range of occupations, it is plausible to suggest that there is considerable variation in the image of particular tourism occupations and that the image of the industry as an employer might differ from that of certain tourism jobs”. The seminal work of (Choy, 1995) on the quality of tourism employment in Hawaii adds support to this idea. Choy studied the quality of employment in hotels, eating and drinking places, and transportation, raising some important questions for further investigation. He noted substantial differences in wages among the sectors, and contrary to the image of all tourism jobs being entry level, he found a high percentage of managerial and professional positions in the service industry. Choy suggests that careful consideration needs to be given to the full inclusion of food and beverage establishments in tourism employment statistics. In his study, this sector accounted for the majority of establishments, but approximately half serve primarily residents, not visitors. Since this sector is often includes the lowest paid positions, it has the potential to impact the image of tourism as a low-paying employer. Among all sectors studied, Choy also found that a large majority (88%) of tourism industry workers were satisfied with their jobs. Shaw and Williams 44 (1994) infer from Choy’s research that while there were no indications of why workers were satisfied with their jobs, it was probably a combination of extrinsic and intrinsic reasons. There is some support for the apparently high levels of job satisfaction being connected to intrinsic factors. Lee-Ross, (1999) explored seasonal hotel jobs in six British seasonal resorts and found that workers formed “occupational communities”. Using in-depth interviews with 30 hotel workers, Lee-Ross found that employees desired group affiliation and to be regarded as a member of a close-knit community. Participants placed a high value on contact with co- workers and their pursuit of pleasure. All subgroups studied considered their work unimportant except for the opportunity to earn money and pursue a particular lifestyle. In further support of a favorable image to tourism work, Riley (1986 cited in Riley et al, 2002), found that hotel workers had a strong “non factory” orientation to work in the industry. Lack of routine and close supervision were considered attractive features of their jobs. Marshall (1986, cited in Shaw and Williams, 1994) has also found that restaurant employees did not see theirjobs as real work as the boundaries between work and leisure were obscured. As a potential industry for employment, tourism possesses certain qualities that make it both attractive and accessible for potential employees. Some of the qualitative aspects of tourism make it an attractive industry of choice for many employees. Tourism is also relatively accessible as it accommodates those with a “great variety of skills, with low skills levels or with non-relevant 45 skills" (Riley et al, 2002). These qualities together, work to influence mobility into tourism employment. There is potentially a difference between “perceived” image and impacts of tourism, and the “real” image or impact. While there may be numerous perceptions about what it is like to work in the industry, there has been little empirical study to date. Further investigation needs to incorporate the views of those working at various levels within a diversity of tourism organizations. Similarly, the perspectives of those who view tourism as a career vs. a job should be sought. 2.6 Mobility into tourism employment In an attempt to explore labor mobility into tourism employment during economic transition, (Szivas and Riley, 1999) studied tourism employment in Hungary during its shift from communism to capitalism. A central premise of the study was that ‘When a workforce finds its human capital is devalued or even redundant, it turns to industries which have growth potential and which require skills relatively easy to Ieam and access”. As this described the context of the study region in Hungary, the study proposed that the tourism industry would serve as a “refuge” employer for individuals previously unemployed or employed in a diverse range of occupations. I Data for their study were collected through a self-administered questionnaire sent to a random sample of six hundred tourism workers in hotels, restaurants, travel agents, drivers and tourism centers. The questionnaire asked subjects to give their employment patterns over a ten-year period including periods of unemployment, education and absence from the labor market. Of the 46 sample, 80% moved into tourism during the ten year period from a broader than expected range of employment sectors. With the exception of mining, mobility into tourism employment occurred from every other sector of the economy. The impact that a shift into tourism had on the quality of life of respondents was also addressed in this study. The questionnaire employed in the study used a Iikert scale with ten dimensions and asked respondents to record whether their situation significantly improved or significantly worsened after moving to employment in tourism. The dimensions included: job security, career prospects, social status, physical environment, standard of living, control over work, working hours, job satisfaction, compatibility between education and skills required by the job in tourism and income. It was hypothesized that due to the fact that tourism was a contingent job, the level of satisfaction would be low. As well, due to low wages associated to tourism, it was hypothesized that a worsening standard of living and pay decrease would emerge for the majority of the sample. Contrary to the hypothesis, they found that for all dimensions, there was a positive direction of change when shifting into tourism employment. The least positive change was in working hours, followed by the match between education and the skills required in the job. The third aim of Szivas and Riley‘s study was to measure the motivational base for individuals making a transition to tourism employment. Here, a list of 30 statements that described possible motives for taking a job in tourism'was used in surveying the respondents. Respondents were asked to rate, on a 5-point Iikert scale (1 strongly agree to 5 strongly disagree) their level of agreement with each of the statements. Findings indicated that statements with the strongest 47 support were “I wanted an interesting job”, “I wanted to work in pleasant surroundings”, and “I wanted a job in which I could deal with people”. The statement with the lowest support was “I was unemployed and needed a job”. Szivas and Riley did some exploratory analysis with the motivation statements to determine if there was there was a structural underpinning to motivations for choosing to work in tourism. Factor analysis revealed the existence of five motivational orientations to tourism employment which were named: 1) instrumental utility, where tourism is perceived as a means to the achievement of economic advancement, 2) positivist, where tourism is favored for intrinsic values, 3) refugee, where tourism offers an escape route from a declining industry, an unpleasant job or unemployment, 4) entrepreneurial, where tourism is appreciated for its suitability to one’s business, and 5) wanderer, where tourism is viewed as a contingent job. The most frequently used single motivation orientation was the refugee, followed by the positive and the wanderer orientations. This seminal work on mobility into tourism employment provides a useful framework and methodology for further investigation. While it described where labor supply migrated into tourism from and why, it is limited in its ability to generalize beyond the context of the study region. Additionally, the study did not explore whether people move into tourism as a contingency or because of lack of better alternatives or whether they stay there or move on at the first opportunity. In a follow-up study conducted in United Kingdom, (Szivas, Riley et al., 2003) attempted to replicate the methods used in Hungary and explore for differences in urban and rural contexts. They found slight differences in the 48 sources of labor supply into tourism in the two regions and a general contentment in the self-evaluation of the impact of mobility. Similar to the study in Hungary, the data were explored using factor analysis, which again revealed eight underlying factors to the motivational scale. The resulting factors were reduced to five and named consistently with the Hungary study although mean scores and factor usage were not reported. The authors called for qualitative methodology to capture the detail of the adaptation process and to assess the economic impact of the change over time. They also cautioned that the orientations were not mutually exclusive and questioned the relationships between orientations, commenting that one or more may be dominant. It is interesting to note that in both of the studies, factor analysis revealed eight initial factors, which were then regrouped to fit a four-factor model on occupational choice by Goldthorpe et al (1968). In both studies, the resulting factors were not clearly described and particularly in the study done in the UK, the statements that corresponded to each factor were not provided. One might question the approach of grouping factors and adopting a four-factor model as it may not provide the best description of motivations to work in tourism. For example, the methods used in each study were consistent and revealed eight emergent factors. It may be plausible to suggest that the eight factors provide a better description of the complexity of motivation involved in mobility decisions. More transparencyin the reporting of the results and a critical acceptance of the theoretical model mayhave produced more valuable information to advance our understanding of what motivates individuals to chose to work in tourism. Further 49 replication or extension of these studies is needed to examine the universality of findings in different labor market contexts. 2.7 The transition experience The quality and stability of labor in the recipient industry is in part, a function of an adaptation process (Arnold, 1997). Meryl Reis Louis, lamented the lack of attention paid to research and management of work role transitions and referred to the topic as a “blind spot” (1982 as cited in Arnold, 1997). Job changes can be unexpected, undesirable and require substantial learning, all of which are stressful experiences (Arnold, 1997). Adaptation to new work differs based on the degree of contrast between former and new industries, and on individuals’ motivations for becoming mobile. Where the type of work is similar, individuals may not require as much retraining and are likely to have a smoother adjustment period. Although not documented in the literature, one might expect that those who hold positive reasons for making a transition into another industry are more likely to have a smoother transition. Arnold (1997) summarized transition experiences by suggesting “other things being equal, we would expect transitions to be easiest to manage... when they are anticipatable, desirable, and controllable. . ." While recent research has explored motivation orientations to mobility in tourism, it has not investigated the nature of the transition experience. If the image of tourism as a low-skill employer is true, transitions are likely easy to make. However, if tourism is drawing from all other sectors of the economy for labor supply, it is likely to assume that skill differentials exist and adjustment to 50 the industry is difficult. Either way, if the industry wants to attract and retain labor supply in the upcoming years, it cannot afford to assume that individuals adjust easily to work in tourism. An exploration of the supports used and the ease of a transition into tourism from other industries may enable the development of support and resources to insure successful transitions into an industry in need of additional labor supply. 2.8 Methodology used to explore mobility into tourism To date, the few studies investigating mobility into tourism have remained descriptive in nature, based primarily on survey research (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). Mobility is a complex phenomenon, which deals with human decision-making and behavior. As such, the addition of qualitative methodology has been called for (Ladkin, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003) in an attempt to understand the meaning of careers in tourism. Qualitative research could be used to explore additional motivations underlying mobility decisions and to understand the transition process experienced by those who make a shift into tourism employment from other industries. Indeed, the addition of qualitative methods has been called for in other areas of tourism (Riley, Love et al., 1997; Walle, 1997; Decrop, 1999), perhaps best stated by (Walle, 1997): “...marketing is transcending science; tourism is increasingly transcending marketing. This is an era when tourism scholarship and research needs to expand its toolkit to embrace a wider variety of techniques”. 51 2.9 Conclusion The quality of employees is a key to the success of service-based industries, and especially so in tourism where the interaction between host and guest is frequent (Augustyn and Ho, 1998). With projected labor shortages in tourism in the next decade (CTHRC, 2000), those in tourism are searching for ways to recruit and retain the best employees to retain a competitive edge (Woodall, 1997). And, destination areas that have come to rely on tourism are interested in keeping people employed in high quality positions. The literature reviewed on mobility into tourism employment reveals significant gaps in understanding of how and why people come to work in tourism and how those shifting into the industry experience the transition. In order to extend the current understanding of the role tourism plays in economic development, additional research on mobility into tourism employment is needed. While mobility decisions have been found to be influenced by motivation factors in recent studies (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Riley et al, 2003), further replication has been suggested in different contexts. While knowledge of the motivations to work in tourism is useful, it only provides partial understanding of mobility into the industry. Additional information about whether individuals group together in the use of motivations may be useful to identify potential sources of human capital to help offset predicted labor shortages. Further, more holistic exploration into the nature of the transition experience is needed in order to understand the process individuals go through to enter the tourism work force, what supports they required in the journey and what impact their mobility 52 decision has had on their quality of life. This information could help to insure that support systems are developed to maximize the chance of successful mobility into tourism. 53 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodology used to explore mobility into tourism employment in a region experiencing economic transition. First, a brief context to the study problem and the research questions are presented. Second, the theoretical concepts for the study are described and a rationale for the choice of methods is provided. Third, the mixed method study design is described including variables explored, sampling procedures, instrumentation, data collection and analysis. Finally, design issues are discussed and attempts to control threats to reliability and validity are detailed. Tourism is an industry that has experienced tremendous growth in size and scope in recent decades. Studying the effects of this growth has been challenging, and as such, there remain many areas where further investigation is needed in order to understand the range of impacts of the industry. One of the areas that has remained relatively unexplored in the literature is tourism employment. While numerous estimates of the number of jobs created by the industry exist, they are of little use for regional labor market planning efforts as they are reported on a macro scale (Stats Canada, 1996) and often exclude all sectors of the industry (DiBona, 2001). 54 A review of the literature reveals that research into tourism employment could investigate a number of themes. Research that incorporates a broader definition of tourism would provide a more inclusive picture of the types and quality of employment within the industry. Data that reveal the reasons why individuals choose to work in tourism would facilitate a better understanding of the role that tourism plays in a competitive labor market. Knowledge of the experience that individuals go through when shifting into tourism employment. would enable support systems to develop, and enhance success for those making a transition. And finally, knowledge of whether tourism creates meaningful employment for individuals in regions experiencing economic transition would bolster the confidence of tourism advocates who encourage it as an economic diversification tool. In this study investigated tourism employment was investigated at a regional level for Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada during the fall of 2002. The purpose of the study was to explore mobility into tourism employment in a region experiencing economic transition. A “mixed methods approach” (T rochim, 1999), combining quantitative and qualitative techniques, was used to explore the concept of mobility in tourism employment. The study findings serve three aims: 1) to determine the patterns of mobility into tourism employment, 2) to explore the motivations for working in tourism, and 3) to explore the transition experience of individuals shifting into tourism employment from declining resource-based industries such as forestry, fishing, mining and agriculture. The study utilizes career theory in the development of its line of inquiry and the 55 methods replicate and build upon existing work on mobility into tourism (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). 3.2 Research Questions In order to explore mobility into tourism, answers were sought to the following questions: 1) 2) 3) Tourism has been shown to draw labor supply from all other sectors of the economy (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). In order to determine how the tourism labor market came to be, the answer to the following question was sought: a. What are the sources of labor supply for the current tourism labor market in the study region? While knowledge of the origins of the labor market is useful, it is also essential to understand why individuals chose to work in tourism. To this end, the answer to the following question was sought: a. What motivated individuals in the study region to work in the tourism industry? The study incorporated a 30-item motivation scale refined from previous studies on mobility into tourism (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). In order to determine if there are underlying factors to why people chose tourism employment, the answer to the following questions were sought: a. Do motivation statements group together to suggest factors underlying why people work in tourism? 56 b. If so, what factors are dominant? c. And are individuals influenced by multiple factors? d. Do the factors resemble those found in previous research? 4) While knowledge about core motivating factors to tourism work is useful, it is also important to explore whether and how individuals group together in orientations to employment in tourism. To this end, the answer to the following questions were sought: a. Do individuals group together in motivations towards work in tourism? b. If so, what clusters emerge? c. What are the characteristics of clusters? 5) Lastly, the decision to work in tourism is only part of the mobility process. Unexplored to this point in time is the nature of the transition process for individuals entering the industry. To this end, answers to the following questions were sought: a. Does tourism employ individuals formerly working in declining resource-based jobs in the region? b. If so, how difficult do individuals find the experience of making a transition into tourism employment? 3.3 Theoretical constructs Career theory is a broad term which refers to a “set of exploratory and investigative approaches used to measure and analyze the phenomenon” (Riley and Ladkin, 1994). In its development, it has borrowed from numerous 57 disciplines such as psychology, economics and organizational behavior. After providing a thorough review of career theory, Riley and Ladkin (1994) argue that career research in tourism should be seen as a human resource planning tool providing an analysis of the labor supply and allowing industry to know in qualitative terms how its stock of workers was derived. Career theory has been used in this study as a starting point from which the researcher gained an understanding of career development and choice. The literature on tourism employment is only starting to develop, and as such, exploratory research is needed in order to develop theoretical explanations of tourism career choices. An inductive approach was therefore used to explore and describe “little known phenomenon” in the hopes that future research can build upon its findings and progress towards hypothesis testing and model building (Stebbins, 2001). A portion of the study does, however, replicate previous research on mobility into tourism employment and in that sense contributes to hypothesis development. For example, previous research has suggested that tourism is a “refuge employer” due to the level of growth it has experienced and its relative accessibility for individuals searching for employment alternatives (Riley, Ladkin et al., 2002). In this sense, the extent that the tourism industry attracts labor supply from declining resource-based sectors was explored. Initial research on career choice has suggested that five factors undedie why individuals chose to work in the industry (Szivas and Riley, 1999). In this case as well, previous research was replicated using additional analysis to explore career choice in 58 tourism in an attempt to “travel over the field of study” (Stebbins, 2001) and broaden our understanding of the topic. 3.4 Rationale for choice of methods The purposes of this study were to describe and explore mobility into tourism employment. In this sense, a mixed method approach, combining survey methods and in-depth interviews was chosen for the following reasons: 1. A mixed method approach was chosen for the study to provide data that allowed a description and understanding of the phenomenon in the study context. The descriptive portion of the study was achieved through the use of the survey instrument, while understanding was achieved through exploratory analytical techniques (factor and cluster analysis) and in-depth interviews. Beyond achieving the objectives of the study, the mixed method approach provided an opportunity to validate findings of the survey by triangulation. 2. In order to infer to the population in the study region, survey methods were used with a systematic random sample design and a large sample size. Survey methods are useful for studies that have people as the units of analysis, are collecting original data to describe a population, and are measuring attitudes or orientations (Babbie, 1986). The survey method also allowed the researcher to obtain results from a diversity of tourism employees in the region and to make comparisons between variables. 59 3. Asking individuals to provide information on their employment history can be difficult, both in terms of recollection and in terms of privacy (Ladkin, 1999) . The survey method was chosen to allow individuals to focus on their work history in a non—obtrusive format. 4. The survey method also allowed the researcher to replicate and extend previous research on mobility into tourism employment (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003) in Hungary and the United Kingdom which used survey methods. Replication of the scale used in these studies in a different context assists in determining if there is an underlying structure that explains why individuals chose to work in tourism. It also provides data for comparison of previous research findings, and indicates whether or not there are differences in motivation orientations in other contexts. 5. The in-depth interview portion of the study was used to explore in greater depth what the experience of making a transition into tourism employment is like. This approach was called for by Szivas et al, (2003) after a study of career choice in the United Kingdom. Ladkin (1999), after using survey methods to track career histories of hotel managers also suggested the use of follow-up interviews to add depth of understanding to the complexity of career decision-making. 6. Qualitative research in the area of tourism employment may expose additional motivations and supplement the list of variables used to date in survey methods. As the experience of shifting into tourism employment from other industries has not been studied, the in-depth interview 60 approach was chosen to allow the researcher flexibility to explore the impact of the transition on quality of life dimensions. 3.5 Study Design The study was designed to describe and explore tourism employment in the study region as illustrated in Figure 3.1 . The study employed a multi-method (Walle, 1997) or mixed method approach (T rochim, 1999) to investigate tourism employment. This method essentially combines quantitative and qualitative approaches in an effort to triangulate, or validate findings. This method also combines the best approaches in a study that has multiple research goals, in this case description, exploration and understanding (Stebbins, 2001). The descriptive and part of the exploratory goals of this study are generated from the quantitative approach with the use of survey methodology. The survey was used to capture data from those employed in a range of tourism jobs in the study region. The resulting data were used to describe the sample and employment in the region, but mostly to analyze where the labor supply originated from and what motivated individuals to work in tourism. The qualitative approach incorporated in-depth interview methods to explore and understand the research topic and to extend current knowledge of tourism employment and methodology. Specifically, the data from in-depth interviews were used to explore the nature of the transition experience. The design considerations for the tourism employment survey and the in—depth interviews conducted in this study are detailed in the remaining section. 61 Figure 3.1: Study Design Tourism Employment Survey 0 Population: 0 Individuals employed in a tourism position on Vancouver Island in the fall of 2002. . Sample: 0 N=800, n=257 tourism organizations 0 N=1296, n=341 individuals working in tourism . Variables included: 0 Characteristics of current job (sector, level, seasons, job duties, position) 0 Employment choice history (previous employment sector, motivation to work in tourism) 0 Job satisfaction (duties, environment, income, challenge, benefits etc.) 0 Demographic characteristics (age, income, education, gender) I In-depth Interviews . Population 0 Individuals working in a tourism organization in the fall of 2002 on Vancouver Island who formerly worked in a resource-based sector of the economy (forestry, fishing, mining or agriculture). 0 Sample: 0 Dependent upon responses to Question 11 of the tourism employment survey (N=46, n=22) . Variables included: 0 Motivation to shift into tourism employment 0 Impact of decision on quality of life (personal, social, economic) 0 Transition experience (ease or difficulty, supports used) 62 3.6 Research Methodology 3.6.1.Tourism Employment Survey 3.6.1.1. Design A significant portion of the data for this study was generated using a tourism employment survey. The unit of analysis in the study was the individual. The survey was intended to provide data from individuals in a wide range of tourism occupations. The variables in the survey instrument were chosen after a review of the literature. Often, a considerable number of variables is needed to capture the diversity of tourism employment including job title, tenure, level of pay, level of skill, sector, type and size of organization (Riley et al, 2002). After a draft of the instrument was developed, its content and wording was checked against multiple sources. Input on questions and wording of the survey was obtained from 12 professionals from all sectors of the industry in a focus group. For specific questions, response categories were generated with experts in human resource management and labor market offices, and by using categories consistent with provincial and federal statistics. Variables included in the survey include: 0 Characteristics of current job Position Sector of tourism Duration of employment Recognition Level of position Seasons employed Job duties 63 0 Employment choice history Length of consecutive employment in tourism Previous employment sector Employment history, last two positions Motivation for working in tourism 0 Job satisfaction Quality of work Quantity of work Social and physical work environment Income and benefits Challenge Opportunities Recognition 0 Demographic characteristics Age Education Gender Income level 3.6.1.2 Sampling design The sampling design for the tourism employment survey was developed using probability sampling methods to ensure a representative sample of the population such that population characteristics can be accurately estimated from the sample data. Study population: . Individuals employed in a tourism position on Vancouver Island in the fall of 2002. Sample selection The sample was selected using a two-stage systematic sampling approach. Figure 3.2 shows an illustration of the sample selection process. 64 . . lemloeesamledin Figure 3.2 : Sample Selection Process organ'izaéons will, 3 or fewer employees 1. Developed 2. Selected Primary ":3“ 4. Selected Sample Frame: Sampling Unit — 4} secondary . Secondary data tourism organization 3 Det . d sampling unit - compiled Into . Sorted by ° ermine , tourism employee Access Database community Organization Size . Random . N=3438 tourism . Selected eve 4th distribution by the organizations organizationer i } contact person in N=800 the tourism 2 employees sampled in organization organizations with 4 or more employees n=496(2) First, in order to select a sample that would allow generalizations to be made about the regional labor market, an adequate sampling frame was required. This task was a difficult one, because an inclusive list of who is involved in tourism did not exist within the region. While it may be assumed that regions have a good indication of the size and significance of tourism, the reality is often different. In this study tourism was defined as all those firms, organizations and facilities which are intended to serve the specific needs and wants of the tourists“ (Leiper, 1999). Adoption of this definition meant that, although various lists of members for tourism organization, or Chamber of Commerce listings existed, none provided an adequate inventory of the tourism industry in the region. For this reason, the first phase of the research project was to develop an inventory of all tourism organizations in the region. Two research assistants were employed full-time for a four-month period in the spring of 2002 to consolidate secondary data and develop a tourism organization database. Sources of data for the inventory includes tourism marketing organization 65 membership lists, Chamber of Commerce listings, telephone listings, websites, brochures and business license listings. The resulting database contained contact information for 3438 tourism organizations within the region. It contains organizations in all sectors of tourism and is the most comprehensive listing of tourism organizations in the region. This database served as a sample frame for the tourism employment study and was also used to assess the size and significance of tourism employment in the region in a separate study entitled “Phase I: Tourism Employment in the Vancouver Island Region”(Vaugeois and Rollins, 2002). The database contained all contact information for organizations, plus the data from a telephone survey conducted in Phase I. From the sample frame, the researcher could identify the number of individuals employed and the number of management positions in each organization in each season. The primary sampling unit for the study was a tourism organization from the database. A sample of 800 tourism organizations was randomly chosen from the sample frame. The sample was selected using a systematic random sampling method. First, the database was sorted alphabetically by community, and then every 4th record was chosen. The resulting sample was found to be representative of the population based on sectors of tourism as shown in Table 3.1. 66 Table 3.1: Sectoral comparison of general population to sample population Population Sample Sector Frequency Percent Frequency Sample Difference Accommodations 1822 53% 376 49% -4% Food and Beverage 1135 33% 223 29% -4% Conferences and Meetings 653 19% 117 15% -4% Arts and Culture 825 24% 156 20% -4% Outdoor recreation/sport 1616 47% 327 43% -4% Transportation 516 15% 87 11% -4% Attractions 550 16% 97 13% -3% Travel and Tour Operations 860 25% 164 21% -4% Training and Education ' 241 7% 98 13% 6% Travel Trade/Tourism services 550 16% 126 16% 0% Agricultural Tourism 172 5% 39 5% 0% n=766 valid organizations in sample, N=3438 in population Note: Organizations often report involvement in multiple sectors of tourism The respondents (primary sampling unit) were sent an introduction letter (see Appendix C) addressed to the organization contact designated in the database. Where an individual was not identified in the database, the letter was addressed to the manager. The introduction letter indicated the purpose of the study and how the organization had been selected to participate. It also gave advance notice of the survey that would be sent one week later. Respondents (primary sampling unit) were sent the survey instrument (Appendix E) one week following the initial introduction letter. The secondary sampling unit was individuals employed within the primary sampling unit. Organizations that were shown to have up to three individuals employed in the fall (n=304) were sent one copy of the survey. Organizations that were shown to have four or more individuals employed in the fall (n=496) were sent two copies of the survey. This method was chosen to ensure representation 67 of employees in small and large tourism organizations. The resulting initial sample size was: N= 496(2) + 304 = 1296 individuals from 8_0_Q organizations The introduction letter that accompanied the survey instrument sent to organizations with three or less individuals asked the primary contact to either select an employee to participate in the study, or to participate themselves. The introduction letter that accompanied the survey instrument sent to organizations with four or more employees asked the primary contact to distribute one copy of the survey to someone who was knowledgeable about the human resources practices used within the organization. This was done to ensure that a set of questions on recruitment and retention practices used by the organization were completed accurately. The primary contact was also asked to randomly distribute another copy of the survey to an employee within the organization. This method was chosen to ensure surveys were distributed to individuals at different levels of the organization. 3.6.1 .3. Instrumentation The quantitative data were collected using a self-administered mail survey (Appendix E). The content of the survey was designed after a review of the literature and consultation with individuals in the tourism industry. The front cover of the survey identified the research organization and the funding agency, Human Resources Development Canada. All contact information was provided on the front of the survey as well. The survey instrument attempted to capture 68 the interest of the participant by using images of Vancouver Island tourism employees. Permission for the use of all images was obtained prior to use. The questions in the survey were ordered to capture the interest of respondents, allow them to focus, and then provide demographic information at the end of the survey. The first set of questions asked respondents to provide information on their current position including their position title, sector, level and job duties. The center portion of the survey probed respondents to work back in time and provide information on their employment history including previous sector of employment and years of consecutive work in tourism. This order was recommended by (Ladkin, 1999) to enhance the validity of data when using work history analysis methods. The most involved question was in the middle of the survey and asked respondents to indicate what motivated them to work in tourism. The scale used to measure motivations consisted of 30 items and a 5- point Iikert scale, developed and used in a study on mobility into tourism in Hungary by Riley and Szivas (1999). The next section of the survey measured job satisfaction and geographic location of the respondent’s residence and employment. The funding agency for this research project wanted to obtain information on the recruitment and retention strategies used by employers. Although not used in this dissertation, these data were obtained on page six of the survey. Finally, the last page of the survey asked respondents to provide demographic information for analysis purposes. The survey was pilot tested with 12 individuals from tourism organizations in the region. Pilot respondents were asked to record the time it took to complete 69 the survey and to write comments on the survey where they thought wording could be improved. The survey was then revised and sent to print. 3.6.1.4. Data collection Data from the tourism employment surveys were collected according to the process recommended by (Salant and Dillman, 1994): 1. After approval of the instruments, the letter of introduction (Appendix C) was sent out to the primary sampling unit, 800 tourism organizations in the study region. One-week following, a cover letter and survey were sent with a consent form (Appendix D) to the primary contacts in the sample. All materials were supplied with a self-addressed, stamped envelope (official postage) for convenient return to the researcher. One week following, a reminder card was sent to all primary contacts in the sample. Two weeks following, a complete set of surveys was sent to primary contacts that had not yet replied. Once again, a consent form and self- addressed stamped envelope was provided for EACH survey. While the intent was to send one more complete mail-out to all primary contacts that had not yet replied to the study two weeks later, the time coincided with Christmas holidays. The decision was made to cancel the last mail-out of the surveys and complete the data collection period in the middle of January. 70 When data were received, they were recorded and updated in an Access database to ensure subsequent mail cuts were not sent to those who had replied. Consent forms were separated from the surveys and a coding system was developed to allow the researcher to track the consent, while still-protecting the identity of the participant. Data were later coded and entered into an Excel spreadsheet and later imported into SPSS for analysis. Original surveys, once entered, were stored in a locked filing cabinet. 3.6.1.5. Design Issues 3.6.1.5.a Threats to reliability Reliability is an indicator of the quality of measurement, reflecting the extent that measurement is “consistent” or “repeatable” (T rochim, 1999). To increase the reliability of measures in research design, one must attempt to control measurement error, which degrades reliability. Efforts to control measurement error in the mail survey portion of this study included: 1. The questionnaire used multiple questions to measure similar concepts. In this way, measurement of similar concepts should produce consistent data. Examples include the measurement of tourism sector in Question 2 and 3, duration of employment in Question 4 and 12, and residence in Question 16. Similariy, the scale in Question 13 includes a number of similar statements to measure motivation orientation. 2. A multiple method approach was used to triangulate the findings. Some questions in the in-depth interviews were used to verify and expand on 71 responses about mobility so that more than one measure of the same construct was provided. 3. Inter-rater reliability: The survey was pilot tested by 12 Individuals prior to use, which allowed an opportunity for feedback on the “feel” of the instrument from a respondent’s point of view. Respondents were asked to record comments on the questionnaire to improve clarity of wording, and the total length of time needed to complete the survey. 4. Data were entered into an excel spreadsheet designed with frozen frames and color-coded questions to ensure accuracy when entering data. Data were cleaned prior to analysis. 5. Internal consistency reliability: The 5-factor scale (question 11) had been previously used (Szivas and Riley, 1999) and tested for reliability. The revised scale, and sub-scales were tested for reliability using Cronbach's alpha test. 3.6.1.5.b. Validity Validity refers to the “the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration” (Babbie, 1986). Some of the constructs measured in this study are exploratory. When operationalizing these constructs, the researcher attempted to control threats to the validity in the following ways: 72 a Face validity Face validity refers to whether or not “on its face” an operationalization seems like a good translation of a construct (Trochim, 1999). Face validity was checked by using an Advisory Committee of 12 representatives in all sectors in the tourism industry to provide input on the content and wording of questions. a Content validity Content validity refers to the degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included within the concept (Babble, 1986). Content validity was in part checked by the use of the Advisory Committee mentioned above. Content validity was also controlled for by incorporating meanings found in a review of relevant literature on labor markets, mobility, and quality of employment. The survey design also incorporated opportunities for “other" response categories to capture content not included in the format provided. a Convergent validity Is defined as “the degree to which the operationalization is similar to other operationalizations that it theoretically should be similar to” (T rochim, 1999). The findings of the survey instrument were expected to converge with the findings from the in-depth interview portion of the study. The findings from both methods converged, particulariy in the “mobility into tourism” construct. 73 Non-response bias evaluation Possible non-response bias was evaluated by comparing the first and second waves of respondents for differences, and by reporting reasons for non- response during the study. The breakdown of respondents in each wave of the mail survey and responses from the primary sampling unit, organizations, and the secondary sampling unit, employees are indicated in Table 3.2. The first wave of respondents account for 65% of the received sample, and the second wave accounts for the remaining 35%. Both waves were similar with respect to a) the tourism sectors represented, b) the region represented, and c) the seasons of operation (Table 4.1). Table 3.2: Response rate by timeline of the mall survey Primary sampling unit - Secondary sampling unit - Tourism Organizations Tourism employee Initial chosen sample 800 1296 Undeliverable“ 34 .48 Valid sample N=766 n=1248 Total responses N=257 n=341 Response rate 34% 27% First wave of responses N=167 n=217 Percent of total response 65% 64% Second wave of responses N=9O n=122 Percent of total response 35% 36% ’19 were returned from organizations that were sent two surveys (=38), 10 were returned from organizations sent one survey (=10) resulting in a reduction of 48 in the total sample size. A small number of participants (n=31) indicated that they did not wish to respond to the survey, and many others did not respond in any way. All reasons given for not responding to the survey were logged and are shown in Table 3.3. 74 Overall, this group of non-respondents (48%) reported that they did not have any employees working in the fall season. Other reasons for not responding included that the business was no longer in existence (16%), the manager or supervisor was away during the fall period (13%), and that the survey was not applicable (10%). Table 3.3: Reasons given for non-response to the survey by individuals who voluntarily contacted the researcher Number of non- Reason for not responding respondents reporting Percent reason No employees at that time 15 48% No longer in business 5 16% Manager or supervisor was away 4 13% Didn’t find the survey applicable 4 10% No reason provided 3 10% Total non responses recorded 31 100% 3.6.1.6 Analysis The survey instrument was used to analyze the following three areas of inquiry: 1) to describe the sample, 2) to determine the origins of the current labor supply, and 3) to explore motivations for working in tourism. The data were imported and analyzed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). 3.6.1.6.1 Description of the sample Initial analysis involved the use of descriptive statistics to get to know the data. Frequencies for all questions in the survey were calculated and used in the formation of tables and bar or pie charts. 75 3.6.1.6.2 Mobility into tourism employment Labor mobility is defined as movement of workers between occupations. Mobility into tourism employment was studied from multiple perspectives in the study including: o Inter-industry mobility, which is described as movement between industries or sectors of the labor market (i.e., between forestry, fishing, mining or agriculture and tourism). Inter-industry mobility was analyzed using descriptive statistics on the previous industry/activity for individuals prior to shifting into tourism (Q.11). While the - classification system from the Canadian Census was used, the categories were recoded by placing similar occupations or activities together to facilitate analyses. Beyond descriptive statistics, the previous industry/activity of respondents was subjected to the Chi Square test to check for relationships across clusters. Inter-industry mobility was the primary type of mobility explored within the study; however, a brief analysis of other types of mobility is provided in the findings. 0 Infra-tourism mobility, which is described as movement within the tourism industry (i.e. between sectors, organizations, job types). While not the focus of this study, respondents were asked to provide information on their previous two occupation moves. These data were analyzed using content analysis and descriptive statistics. The data 76 were provided in text format, requiring the researcher to recode the data. Once recoded, descriptive statistics were calculated and where useful, later used with Chi Square tests to check for relationships across clusters. 0 Infra-organization mobility in tourism, which is described as movement within the same tourism organization (i.e., progression and change in jobs or job tasks). Again, while not the focus of this study, the survey asked respondents what type of progress they had made in their current position (Q.5). Data from this question are described using descriptive statistics and, where appropriate, Chi Square tests were employed. Motivation to tourism employment The survey instrument was also designed to explore if there was an underlying structure that might explain why people choose to work in tourism. Question 13, shown in Table 3.4, provided participants with 30 statements and asked them to rate on a 5-point Iikert scale (1 strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree) to what extent they agreed with each statement. This portion of the survey was included to replicate previous work by (Szivas and Riley, 1999), who first used the 30 items scale in Hungary, and later replicated the work in the United Kingdom (Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). Only minor changes were made to the statements to suit the study context, and one statement “Tourism offered good earning opportunities“ was deemed repetitive with other items and was replaced with “I wanted a job conducive to my lifestyle". 77 I chose to work In tourlsm because... 10'" I'I'IUOCD) 8 a gaiN-< ><2 < c-4 mwovo zzr-xu- Table 3.4. Motivation to work in tourism scale I earned too little in my previous job It was easy to start a business in tourism I wanted to improve my standard of living I wanted better working conditions I wanted to work part-time to supplement my income I wanted an interesting job My family had a business in tourism . I wanted to accumulate capital to establish my own business I was unemployed and needed a job I saw tourism as a profitable Industry I was attracted by the image of tourism I wanted to travel more I wanted to use language skills I wanted a job that was conducive to my lifestyle I needed extra money quickly I was downsized in a declining industry I wanted an appropriate income I wanted a job that suited my education I did not see prospects in my previous occupation I wanted to leave my previous job I wanted a job where I could deal with people I saw tourism as the most profitable Industry for a business I could not get a job elsewhere ., ' needed a job which did not require any ‘ particular qualification The first job I was offered was in tourism I wanted to work in pleasant surroundings I like to try different jobs I wanted to establish my own business I have good business skills and l thoughtl could use them well in tourism I felt that there were a lot of tourism jobs STRONGLY DISAGREE AAA—8‘“ A—L—IL-b—L .Iu-L-‘u-Lc-t—L A u-l—I-fic-L-L 78 SOME WHAT DISAGREE 2 NNNNNNN NNNMNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NEITHER AGREE OR DISAGREE 3 wwwwwwwwwwwww wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww SOME WHAT AGREE 4 AA#&Abhh#&bbh¢#hhhb&A-§bA-fi##«hih STRONGLY AGREE UI 010101010101 0101010101 0101010101 01010101010! 010101 01010101 The first step in analysis of Question 13 included basic descriptive statistics. Data were recoded into a new variable where response category 6 (not applicable) was considered 3 (neither agree or disagree). Frequencies, mean score and standard deviations for each statement were calculated. The statements were then rank ordered by the mean score to examine their relative importance. Following the use of descriptive statistics, data from question 13 were also analyzed with multivariate statistics. Factor analysis was applied to the data to determine if there was an underlying structure to motivations for working in the industry. Factors can also be analyzed according to how they are used by a sample. Therefore, factor usage was also analyzed by counting usage by the sample. The other multivariate technique used to explore occupational choice in the study was cluster analysis. Where factor analysis groups variables, cluster analysis groups cases (Joseph F. Hair, Anderson et al., 1998). Cluster analysis was performed using a K-means and various groupings of variables. Clusters were plotted and described using cluster centers and Chi square tests to explore relationships with age, income, gender, previous occupation and job satisfaction. 3.6.1.7 Limitations The data produced from the tourism employment survey were limited due to the timing of the study, sampling error, and the nature of the context. In order to maximize the probability that individuals in tourism organizations would have 79 sufficient time to participate in the study, the decision was made to initiate the survey in the fall, or shoulder-season. While this may have allowed more individuals time to participate, it also meant that a significant number of individuals who are employed during the summer season were not included in this study. The design of the sampling scheme required the survey to pass from a primary sampling unit to the study participant. This method was chosen to incorporate results from individuals working at various levels within the organization. The method, however, relied on the primary sampling unit to: a) agree to participate in the study, and b) distribute the surveys and cover letters to others within the organization. As the study received a disproportionate number of surveys back from owners and operators, this sampling design produced data with limitations. Finally, the context of the study region is unique in that it is a developed island region with high annual visitation and a growing dependence on tourism. The tourism products in the region largely capitalize on the natural and cultural surroundings and have given way to emergent trends such as adventure and cultural tourism. While the data provided from individuals employed in this region are useful to gain a better perspective on tourism employment in different contexts, they are also limited in their ability to generalize to other regions. 80 3.6.2 ln-depth Interviews The study also incorporated qualitative methods to explore tourism employment. Previous studies of mobility into tourism have relied on quantitative methods. As the study of the mobility into tourism is still in its infancy, the addition of qualitative inquiry was viewed as an opportunity to delve deeper into why individuals chose to shift into tourism employment and what impact it has had on their quality of life. The objectives of the qualitative portion of the study were to: 1. Determine if individuals from primary industries like forestry and fishing are making a transition to employment in tourism; Assess the motivations of individuals choosing to make an employment shift to tourism; Report on the ease of individuals’ transitions into tourism employment, and gain perspective on the resources required for successful adaptation. Report on the impact that shifting into tourism employment had on the quality of life of respondents; To provide recommendations for supporting transitions into tourism, particularly in rural areas undergoing shifts in the labor market. In-depth interviewing is a qualitative research approach where an interviewer asks a set of usually unstructured questions to one or more interviewees (Fontana and Frey, 1998). The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas of 81 the interviewees about the phenomenon of interest (Trochim, 1999). They are most often used when the goal of a study is to understand a process or event that individuals went through. In order to gather this type of information, it is necessary to “delve into each person’s decision process at length - to learn where the idea originated, what information was gathered, who was consulted, whose views were sought out, and finally, what led the individual to make a choice for one opportunity and. to reject the others” (Peterson, 1989). ln-depth interviews were considered the most appropriate tool to allow individuals who had made a shift into tourism employment from declining resource-based industries to talk about their transition experience. 3.6.2.1 Design The design of the in-depth interview portion of the study has been introduced previously in Figure 3.1. In summary, the in-depth interviews took place after the mail survey was undertaken. This method was used as a means to triangulate the findings of the study and to gain deeper perspective on the phenomenon under study. While the survey provided information on where the tourism labor market came from, the in-depth interviews provided information on how it came about. Figure 3.3 illustrates the focus of the in-depth interview design. 82 Figure 3.3 Mixed method approach Tourism Labor Market Origins of labor market How individuals came to work in tourism Approach: Approach: In-depth interviews Survey methods Variables explored: motivations, impacts and Variables explored: transition experience employment history, previous employment sector, reasons for choosing to work in tourism The in-depth interviews explored a range of variables including: 1. Motivations behind individual’s decisions to shift into tourism employment; 2. The impact of the decision to work in tourism on personal, social, and economic quality of life factors; 3. The nature of the transition experience including the relative ease or difficulty of the shift and resources or supports used in the transition. 3.6.2.2 Selection of participants The unit of analysis for the in-depth interviews was individuals. Population 0 Individuals working in a tourism organization in the fall of 2002 on Vancouver Island who formerly worked in a resource-based sector of the economy (forestry, fishing, mining or agriculture). 83 Sample 0 Individuals who indicated working in forestry, fishing, mining or agriculture in Question 11 of the tourism employment survey (N=46, n-22) This population was chosen to: a) see if tourism was creating meaningful employment opportunities for those displaced in declining industries and b) to understand what the transition experience into tourism was like for individuals with limited background in the industry. The selection of the sample for the in-depth interview component of the study followed from the mail survey component. The researcher scanned the incoming mail surveys for individuals who fit the population parameters for the in-depth interviews (Q.11). Individuals who indicated that they had worked in fishing, forestry, mining or agriculture prior to working in tourism were considered (N=47). This population was reduced further, eliminating individuals who had been working in tourism for an extended period of time and individuals who did not provide contact information with the returned survey. The remaining sample (N=27) was contacted using the script shown as Appendix F, resulting in a total of 22 completed in-depth interviews. When contacted, participants were first thanked for contributing to the study through the completion of the mail survey. They were informed about the nature of the call and asked if they would like to participate in an in—depth interview to discuss their transition to tourism employment. In some cases, individuals felt they could not contribute to the study further due to the length of time since they had made the transition. In these cases, the interviewer attempted to gain 84 information about their transition from the telephone call and recorded such individuals as non-respondents. 3.6.2.3 Instrumentation The in-depth interviews were conducted using a set of semi-structured guiding questions as shown in Figure 3.4. The guiding questions were designed through a multi-phased participative design process. First, the researcher developed an initial set of questions based on the goals of the study and a review of the literature. This set of questions was given to an advisory committee of eight professionals in the tourism industry who provided input on content and order of the questions. The revised questions were then shown to another researcher with experience in interview design to seek input on the wording and order of questions. The instrument was revised for note taking purposes with no more than two questions per page. Figure 3.4. Guiding Questions for ln-depth Interviews 1. Can you tell me a little bit about your current job? 2. How did you come to be in this position? 3. When you made a shift — did you utilize any help from employment offices or programs (i.e. labor market information, small business assistance programs). If so which ones? Why or why not? 4. If yes, did you find them valuable? Why or why not? 5. What, If anything would have made your transition to tourism smoother? 6. What kinds of things in your life improved when you started working in tourism? 7. What kinds of things worsened? 8. Are you happy you made a shift? 9. Do you think you will remain working in tourism? Why or why not? 85 The early content of the instrument allowed individuals to open up and talk in general terms about their current position (Atkinson, 1998). Individuals were asked to trace back how they came to be in their position. At this point, the interviewer probed to determine the conditions surrounding the individual’s choice to work in tourism, attempting to validate and extend the findings from the mail survey (Q.13). Individuals were asked about the relative ease of their transition experience. Individuals were also probed to determine factors that influenced the ease of the transition. As career choices often require support and assistance, participants were asked if they used any resources to assist their transition, and if so were asked to evaluate their effectiveness. In order to provide recommendations for the funding agency, individuals were asked what types of support would have enabled them to make a smoother transition into tourism. The interview then sought to focus participants on the impacts of their transition on quality of life. Participants were asked what things in their life improved and worsened when they started working in tourism. The researcher probed respondents to consider personal (physical, emotional, mental), social, and economic impacts in their response. The interview closed with the interviewer bringing respondents to focus on their future in tourism. Participants were asked if they were happy that they had made the shift, and what their future career plans were. The interviewer then reviewed the main themes provided by the participant during the interview, and asked if there were any additional comments to make about tourism. 86 3.6.2.4 Data collection Data for the in-depth interview portion of the study were collected using the following process: 1. The participants selected for the in-depth interviews lived throughout the study region, mostly in rural areas. For this reason, the researcher met the interview participant at a location that was convenient for the respondent over a period of four weeks of field research. Interviews were conducted in the following communities: Port McNeill Port Hardy Sayward Courtenay Tahsis Tofino Ucluelet Ladysmith Nanaimo Saanich 0000000000 2. Prior to the interviews taking place, the researcher had to give thought to a few items that had the potential to significantly influence the amount and quality of data collected. Unstructured interviews, particularly on topics of a sensitive nature, are difficult to conduct as they involve interactions based on trust. “Gaining trust is essential to an interviewer’s success, and, even once it is gained, trust can be very fragile indeed; any faux pas by the researcher may destroy days, weeks or months of painstakingly gained trust” (Fontana and Frey, 1998). 87 Qualitative researchers have given considerable thought to the first impressions they can give to participants of in-depth interviews (Wax, 1960; Thompson, 1985). From the time the researcher contacted participants by telephone, efforts were made to establish rapport. The researcher decided to introduce herself as a researcher from the regional University-College, both to indicate objectivity and provide a connection. When dressing for the interviews, the researcher considered the type of tourism organization that the participant would be from. As individuals on Vancouver Island, particularly In rural areas, are fair1y “laid back” about style of dress, the researcher chose to dress casually for interviews. In the first moments of the interview, the researcher attempted to build rapport with participants. Topics of conversation were chosen to find commonalities with the participants. With some participants, the researcher focused on her previous visit to the area, trying to demonstrate a sensitivity to the destination area. In others, particularly where individuals were owners of an operation, the interviewer commented on the establishment and often received a familiarization tour prior to the interview. In all cases, emphasis was on gaining trust, building rapport and reducing distance in order to ensure a smooth interview. . At the formal start of the interview, the researcher reviewed the consent form (Appendix G) with the participant, and obtained a signed copy after answering any questions about the data or interview process. Participants were provided with a copy of the consent form for their records. 88 . If consent was provided, the researcher audio-taped the interview and used the guiding questions as provided in Appendix H. The interviewer probed the respondent during the interview to obtain more detailed information. . The researcher used a copy of the guiding questions to record notes during the interview. Key concepts and themes were noted, and rough conceptual maps and diagrams were often drawn to indicate patterns in the information provided. In order to preserve the voice of the participant in written form, the researcher often recorded notes to remind herself of valuable quotes when reviewing the data during analysis. . At the closure of the interview, the researcher repeated the main themes that emerged from the interview as a way of “checking validity" of the responses. The respondent then had an opportunity to correct or add to the responses at that time. . The post interview period is also considered part of data collection in field research. In this period researchers should attempt to: a) take notes regular1y and promptly, b) write everything down, and c) analyze one’s notes frequently (Lofland and Lofland, 1984). The post interview period was used to refine notes taken during the interview, record comments on a micro-cassette, and to begin analysis by conceptualizing and linking themes to previous interviews. . The data from the in-depth interviews were transcribed once all interviews were complete. Respondents’ original names were used in all data until they were assigned a pseudonym in written work. 89 9. All audiotapes and notes were stored in a locked filing cabinet with the other data from the project for a period of one—year, after which time they will be destroyed. 3.6.2.5 Design Issues Threats to reliability and validity “All research must respond to canons that stand as criteria against which the trustworthiness of the project can be evaluated” (Marshall and Rossman, 1995) A number of qualitative research paradigms do not find utility in using validity and reliability measures to justify research findings (Decrop, 1999; Trochim, 1999). This in essence is due to the origins of the concepts, best described as; “The traditional criteria of methodological adequacy and validity were formulated and essentially “owned” by positivism, the philosophical, theoretical, and methodological perspective that has justified the use of quantitative methods in the social sciences for most of the twentieth century” (Altheide and Johnson, 1998). The researcher in this study operates from a post-positivist paradigm meaning that qualitative inquiry is approached from a formalized, standardized, and rigorous approach (Riley, Love et al., 1997). To this end, the validity of the in-depth interviews in the study will be described using Guba and Lincoln’s four criteria for judging soundness of qualitative research (Decrop, 1999). 90 3.6.2.5.1 Credibility Credibility is akin to internal validity in quantitative methods. It essentially asks how tmthful the particular findings are. Credibility of the data is probably best determined by the participants of a study who offer it. To this end, credibility of the data in this study was sought from participants by: 1. Tape recording responses of the participants to assure accuracy of the responses and voices are preserved. 2. Active listening by the researcher including paraphrasing responses and probing for depth of meaning when necessary. 3. Closing the interviews by reading back the main themes of the interview as heard by the researcher. Opportunity for clarity, additions and deletions was provided. 4. Using the voice of the participant when reporting the findings, i.e. quote statements, scenarios. 5. Providing a copy of the report for the funding agency to each participant. 3.6.2.5.2 Transferability Transferability is similar to external validity in quantitative methodology. It seeks to determine how applicable the research findings are to another setting or group. The reader of the research is often the one who determines the extent that findings will transfer to other contexts. To this end, transferability of the data from this study is aided by the following: 91 1. A full and accurate description of the context of the research area is provided to allow readers to make comparisons to other contexts. 2. A full description of the participants of the study and the local employment situation are provided to allow readers to make comparisons to other population groups. 3. The intent of the research project is clarified, in that it is not attempting to generalize findings, but to explore the experience of making a transition into tourism employment from a resource-based sector. 3.6.2.5.3 Dependability Dependability can be aligned to reliability measures in quantitative research. It seeks to determine to what extent the results are consistent and reproducible. To control for consistency in the research process during this study, the researcher: 1. Recorded observations in field notes throughout the study. For example, emergent themes from one interview were recorded to see if they were repeated in other interviews. Used a consistent interviewer for each session of the study. Undertook fieldwork during one-block of uninterrupted time for four weeks in January of 2002. Used a consistent set of guiding questions for interviews. Checked on emergent themes during interviews. 92 3.6.2.5.4 Confirmability Confirmability is much like the attempts to retain objectivity in quantitative research. It attempts to determine neutrality of the findings. To enhance confirmability of the findings in this study, the researcher: 1. Reported a full range of responses in the findings; 2. Provided detailed documentation on the process used to produce the study findings; 3. Used, wherever possible, the “voices” of the participants in the study so that readers can interpret meaning on their own; 3.6.2.6 Analysis Data analysis in qualitative research contains three sub processes: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification (Huberrnan and Miles, 1998). Analysis in qualitative research is an on-going process (Riley, Love et al., 1997). From the moment the first interview started, the researcher began to analyze or interpret the meaning of what was said. In this study, data were analyzed in the following ways: 1. Analysis was ongoing during the in-depth interviews as the researcher coded themes and patterns in her notes. 2. Memoing is a process where thoughts and ideas of the researcher are recorded as they evolve (Trochim, 1999). Memoing was used by the researcher throughout the study, but usually immediately following interviews. Memoing was done in written form and by voice recording. 93 3. The researcher attempted to “define the limits” of themes and patterns during interviews by probing respondents. 4. Refinement of coding was done during transcription. Transcription also allowed data to be “checked” in multiple formats (i.e., in person communication, vocal recording, written form). 5. Thematic analysis (securing themes that emerge more than once) was used to make sense of the data. Like its cousin factor analysis in quantitative methods, thematic analysis extracts all explanations from the data and indicates structure to overall responses. 6. Profiles of the participants were developed and later enhanced by filtering the results from the tourism employment survey and running frequencies. 7. Useful quotes were extracted from the interviews to demonstrate findings and preserve the participants “voice”. 8. Pattern analysis (linking themes and findings) was used to pull themes together and make sense of the data. Patterns were explored with integrative diagrams. 3.7 Consideration for Human Subjects The following section provides a brief overview of how ethical issues were handled in the research process. 3.7.1 Consent All participants in this study were informed of the nature of the study and the methods for handling data in a consent form. 94 All participants in the mail sample were asked to complete and return the consent form provided as Appendix D. Participants were also provided with a card with contact information for the research team. Participants in the follow-up interviews were selected and provided the script in Appendix F, which initially sought telephone consent. At the time of the interview, they were provided with the consent form as presented in Appendix G. During that time, the interviewer described the intent of the research project, reviewed the consent form and provided the participant with contact information. 3.7.3 Explanation of results to participants The results from the tourism employment survey were made available via the Tourism Labor Market Project website and reports to the industry after the project was completed. Participants received notices of the availability of the research: a) at the time they completed the survey, b) in public service announcements after the project was complete, and c) in email and web based communications. Participants in the in-depth interview were informed that they would receive a copy of the report being submitted to the funding agency in the spring of 2003. Two weeks following the interviews, each participant was sent a personalized thank you card from the researcher to maintain trust and remind them of when they would receive a copy of the results. One week following submission of the report to the funding agency, participants were sent a copy of the in-depth interview report with a personalized letter from the researcher. 95 CHAPTER 4. FINDINGS 1.1 Introduction The Vancouver Island region of Canada has been undergoing significant shifts in its economy for over a decade. The region once relied on resource- based industries such as forestry, fishing and mining to supply employment opportunities for residents. However, recent events have reduced the significance of these industries in the region and left residents, primarily in rural areas, in search of employment alternatives. The tourism industry, on the other hand, has grown in size and scope and is expected to generate jobs and tax revenue for the regional economy. Occupational choice literature suggests that making a transition into a different industry is often difficult to do, and requires information on employment alternatives (Arnold, 1997; Messmer, 2002). In order to supply the tourism industry with the quantity and quality of human capital it needs, more needs to be known about how individuals view tourism as an employment alternative and what motivates them to shift into the industry. Without this information, the tourism industry will be left to rely on its rather weak employment image, which is unlikely to attract sufficient labor supply to meet the industries projected growth. 96 This chapter contains the findings of a study that explored mobility into tourism employment in the region of Vancouver Island, Canada during a period of economic transition. In order to understand the findings, the chapter begins with an overview of the methods and primary research questions used in the study. The sample is then described including information on demographics and regional distribution. A general overview of findings from the tourism employment survey is provided to describe the nature of tourism employment in the region. The chapter then proceeds to address each of the study questions. First, the central questions surrounding mobility into tourism are addressed. The origins of the current tourism labor market are provided, showing the previous industry/activity of the sample, and describing patterns of employment progression. With the sources of mobility identified, the chapter then describes the motivations under1ying mobility decisions are discussed. Here, the findings from factor analysis are used to suggest eight factors that influence occupational choice into tourism. Additionally, the results of exploratory work using cluster analysis is provided in order to illustrate how individuals group together in occupational choice towards tourism. The decision to make an inter-industry shift is only a portion of the mobility experience. To incorporate the actual transition experience, the findings of in-depth interviews with individuals moving from declining sectors of the economy into tourism are also reported. 97 4.2 Overview of methods In order to learn about what motivates individuals to work in tourism, the study utilized a mixed method approach, combining quantitative and qualitative components. A self-administered mail survey was sent to people employed in 800 different tourism organizations. Later, in an attempt to learn more about the nature of the transition experience, 22 in-depth interviews were conducted with individuals who made a shift into tourism employment after working in a resource-based sector. In order to explore mobility into tourism, the following questions were addressed: 1) 2) a. Tourism has been shown to draw labor supply from all other sectors of the economy ((Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). In order to determine how the tourism labor market came to be, an answer to the following question was sought: Are the sources of mobility into the industry consistent with previous research showing mobility from a broad range of other sectors in the economy? Are displaced resource-based workers shifting into tourism in the region? While knowledge of the origins of the labor market is useful, it is also essential to understand why individuals chose to work in tourism. To this end, an answer to the following question was sought: What motivated individuals in the study region to work in the tourism industry? 98 3) 4) 5) A 30-item motivation scale was refined from previous studies on mobility into tourism (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003) and incorporated into the survey. In order to determine if there are underlying factors to why people chose tourism employment, answers to the following questions were sought: a Do motivation statements group together to suggest factors underlying why people work in tourism? 0 If so, what factors are dominant? 0 And are individuals influenced by multiple factors? a Do the factors resemble those found in previous research? While knowledge about core motivating factors to tourism work is useful, it is also important to explore whether and how individuals group together in orientations to employment in tourism. To this end, answers to the following questions were sought: 1) Do individuals group together in motivations towards work in tourism? 2) If so, what clusters emerge? 3) What are the characteristics of clusters? Lastly, the decision to work in tourism is only part of the mobility process. At this point in time, the nature of the transition process for individuals entering the industry has remained unexplored. To this end, answers to the following questions wefe sought: a Does tourism employ individuals formerly working in declining resource-based jobs in the region? 99 o If so, how do individuals find the experience of making a transition into tourism employment? 3.3 Characteristics of the sample of tourism employees This section contains a description of the obtained sample of individuals working in tourism in the study region. Initially, the section begins with an overview of the response rate to the tourism employment survey and addresses the issue of representativeness by comparing the received sample to the general population in the study. Following this, demographics and a geographic distribution of the sample is provided. Tourism employment survey A total of 341 useable surveys were obtained by tourism employees in the study region, representing a 27% response rate (N=1248). The surveys were received from 257 different organizations in the sample, representing a 34% response rate from the organizations (N=766). The margin of error for the received sample size is +/-.054 at the 95% confidence level. The received sample was compared to the population to see if it was representative of the industry in the region. In terms of regional representation, the sample under-represents the south island region (-7%) and over-represents the central Island region (+9%). As the south island region has more tourism organizations than any other region, the findings for this region should be interpreted with this in mind. Additional comparisons indicate that the received sample is representative of the population in terms of: a) part-time employment 100 by season, b) full-time employment by season, and c) involvement in different tourism sectors. Additional comparisons, as shown in Table 4.1, indicate that the received sample differs from the population in that: a) organizations operating on a year Table 4.1: Summary table comparing general population to sample population Received Item Sample sample Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Difference Region South Island 148 19 37 11 -8% Gulf Islands 1 10 14 44 13 -1% South Central Island 85 1 1 34 10 -1 % Central Island 1 19 15 81 24 9% Pacific Rim 110 14 44 13 -1% North Central 153 19 54 16 -3% North Island 74 9 44 13 4% Seasons of operation Spring 712 93 290 85 -8% Summer 743 97 303 89 -8% Fall 705 92 286 84 -8% Winter 613 80 215 63 -17% Number of management posltlons 0 people 69 9 55 16 7% 1 person 329 43 140 41 -2% 2 persons 230 30 89 26 -4% 3 - 5 persons 100 13 38 11 -2% More than 5 persons 38 5 20 6 1% Private, public and not for profit distribution Private 666 87 263 77 -1 0% Public 31 4 10 3 -1% Not for profit 69 9 34 1 9 10% N= 766 valid organizations, n=341 received surveys 101 round basis, particularly in the winter season are under-represented in the sample (-17%), b) the number of organizations with no managers is slightly over- represented in the sample (6%), and 0) private organizations are under- represented (-10%) while not for profit organizations are over-represented. 4.4 Description of tourism employment The participants in this study were living and working in all of the Vancouver Island regions as illustrated in Figure 4.1. The largest proportion of the sample lived in the Central Island region (23%), and the smallest was from the South Island region (10%). All other regions were represented by between 10-13% of the sample. With the exception of cities like Victoria, Nanaimo, Duncan and Courtenay and Campbell River, the majority of the sample was found to live in rural areas. Figure 4.1: Region of residence for the sample Gulf Islandsfi Other ..S°“‘h's'and North Island 7 ,, Sout1holiland 13% . o ’7 7 I North Central IL Central Island I land - . 23% s Pacrfic Rim 16% 13% 102 In terms of demographic characteristics, the gender distribution for the sample indicates that 61% of the respondents were female and the remaining 39% were male. Individuals who participated in the study range in age as shown in Figure 4.2. The age distribution reflects a population where 20% were 34 or younger, 20% were between 25 to 34 years, 32% were 45 to 54 years and the remaining 28% were 55 or older. r——- ._—.._._..___. Figure 4.2: Age distribution of the sample O 35% 1'32 A I 30% E 25% 20% o 20% — -—e 14% E 15% I J - ..______..___ 10% i 6% 6% 5%. - I 0% l - - - 24 or 25 to34 35to44 45 t054 55 to64 65 years or younger years years years years older Age The majority of individuals in the study had only either completed a high school diploma or finished some high school (34%). A further 39% went on to complete either a post secondary certificate or diploma, 22% completed a post secondary degree and 5% obtained a graduate degree. The breakdown of the highest level of education obtained by the sample is provided in Figure 4.3. 103 Figure 4.3: Education level of the sample I Post secondary certificate or diploma Highest level obtained High school or partial high school 34%, 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Percent Tourism generates employment in a variety of sectors in the industry. Individuals were asked to identify in which sector of tourism they worked. As shown in Figure 4.4, the highest percentage (36.4%) were working in hospitality, 23.2% were working in tourism infrastructure and services, 21.7% in adventure or sport tourism and 18.8% in attractions, art and culture. While 38.7% indicated that they were in a single sector, many organizations reported involvement in multiple sectors of tourism. Nearly 30% indicated that they were involved in two sectors, 14.1% were in three sectors and the remaining 17.9% reported identifying with 4 or more sectors of tourism. 104 Figure 4.4: Primary sector of tourism Tourism T , Infrastructure and " " ‘ Services Adventure and Sport Tourism Attractions Primary sector of tourism Hospitality 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% Percent The level of position held by individuals in the study is represented in Figure 4.5. The highest percentage of respondents reported to be an owner or operator (40.4%), while an additional 27% were in management or mid- management (19.6%). An additional 13% reported they worked at the . department level, which incorporated non-supervisory skilled positions and entry- level positions. 105 Figure 4.5: Level of position Owner/Operator Managem ent Level Mid management Department level 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Percent - -«fl-..fi—.—.-_s _- __—4 These figures are likely to shift from season to season, as the study was conducted in the fall when the majority of temporary, part-time and entry level positions are not likely to be working. While the percentage of owners and operators appears to be high, the majority (65%) came from organizations with between 2-5 employees. The high percentage of owners and managers may be attributed to the sample selection process where they were more likely to be the initial contact person for the mail survey. The seasons that individuals reported working in are shown in Figure 4.6. The figures demonstrate a high percentage of individuals are employed year round in full-time employment. The findings indicate that 56.6% of the sample work full-time in the winter, increasing to 87.1% in the summer season. Part-time employment status ranges from 36.1% in the winter, decreasing to 10.5% in the summer season. There appears to be an 11% shift in full-time to part-time employment in the fall and spring seasons, and a 25% shift in the winter months. 106 Figure 4.6: Seasons of employment Fall 67.8 tgficcfl \T‘ Summer 87.1 10.5 Spring 73.13 la; 2345 Winter 56.6 FM?” 36.1 ' "rem _ -—‘-I_A_’—t Employment status 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Percent [D Full time Percent I Part time Percent The types of job tasks performed in the positions held by the sample are provided in Figure 4.7. The results indicate a high level of complexity in the number and types of job tasks performed ranging from face to face customer service (75%) to administrative duties (71%) to different management functions like financial management (50%) or human resource management (41%). Regardless of level of employment within the organization, individuals were required to perform a range of duties in their job. This is perhaps reflective of the number of small organizations/businesses in the study region which are primarily operated by a few individuals on a year-round basis who must be capable high job task complexity. 107 Figure 4.8: Job tasks performed in current position Percent 80 100 120 Face to face customer service I __ Administrative duties ram: 36 is: Handle payments rms 21 its?- Work with technology ear; is 1:: Communicate in writing :73; 25 can Process data, information or forms. Bookings and reservations 7' in ’28 $2": Manage finances 5 26 '13:}? Market my organization 38%? a z” 5:.“ Manage human resources Lead/Guide or instruct visitors .. g1 i .W Job task Sell products or services Interpretation/education of visitors Train employees 14.”? .11 1.7513732? Strategic planning Research a .ti :9 case” Organize events Communicate to grOUps Package emeriences Travel for business Transport visitors IA lot lSometimesJ 108 Figure 4.8 shows the level of job satisfaction for the sample. Overall the sample indicated high levels of job satisfaction; however, a number of areas were consistently rated as poor. Areas that were rated highest were the quality of work provided (85%), the physical work environment (82%), the level of challenge (78%), type of job duties (75%) and the social working environment (74%). Rated somewhat less positively were the amount of work provided (69%), opportunities to learn new skills (68%), hours of work (63%) and social status (63%). Areas with mixed ratings include rewards and recognition which 58% rated as good, while 17% rated them bad. Areas where individuals were less satisfied with their current job include, level of benefits, which 36% rated as good and 35% rated as bad. Opportunities for advancement in the organization were rated as good by 40% of the sample, and bad by 23%. Similarly, opportunities for training and education were rated as good by 41% and bad by 22% of the sample. Often noted as one of the less attractive features of the industry are low wages (Glenday, 1997; Vail and Kavanaugh, 2000). In terms of satisfaction with level of income, 51% of individuals reported that the money they made in their current jobs was good, and 21% rated it as bad. Further analysis on job satisfaction, however, indicates a significant difference between individuals who were using their tourism job as a form of primary or supplemental income. 109 Quality of work provided Working environment Level of challenge Type of job duties Social working environment Amount of work provided Opportunity to learn new skills Jobopportmitieslncthercrganlzatims Trainlm and education opportunities Opportmities for adva'tcement Levadbmefits a I jg! I l...— 0:% 28% 40% 560/. 88% 106% [leood DNeithergood crbad Iced] The sample was split into those who indicated that their job was their primary source of income, and those that use it for supplemental income. Figure 4.9 indicates that 74.9% of the sample used their position as a primary source of income while 25.1% rely on the money as a supplement to another form of income for example pension, other jobs, disability allowance etc. 110 Figure 4.9: Dependency on tourism job for income IrEl Prima—ry source of income 5 [I Supplemental income l l l l The level of income earned by those reporting that theirjob provided their primary source of income is shown in Table 4.2.1. There appears to be a wide range in the level of income reported by individuals ranging from $9,999 and below to over $90,000. It is important to note that these figures do not control for those working part-time and full-time. Nearly 24% of the sample indicated that they earned between $20,000 to $29,999, 18.9% between $30,000 and $39,999, and 17.6% between $40,000 to $49,999. Around 17% of the sample reported earning $50,000 and above, while 23.2% earned $19,999 or less. Table 4.2.1: Income level for primary Table 4.2.2: Income level for supplementary income earners income earners Income rage Frequency Percent Income range Frequency Percent $9,999 and below 11 4.8 $9,999 and below 17 23.6 $10,000 to $19,999 42 18.4 $10,000 to $19,999 23 31.9 $20,000 to 29,999 54 23.7 $20,000 to 29,999 11 15.3 $30,000 to 39,999 43 18.9 $30,000 to 39,999 7 9.7 $40,000 to 49,999 40 17.6 $40,000 to 49,999 6 8.4 $50,000 to 69,999 18 7.9 $50,000 to 69,999 4 5.6 $70,000 to 89,999 8 3.5 $70,000 to 89,999 2 2.8 $90,000 and above 12 5.3 $90,000 and above 2 2.8 n=228 n=72 111 Individuals who reported using their job to provide supplemental income reported earnings as shown in Table 4.2.2. About 32% reported earning $10,000 to $19,999, 15.3% $20,000 to $29,999, 9.7% $30,000 to $39,999, and 8.4% $40,000 to $49,999. When satisfaction with income was controlled for primary or supplemental income, a pattern emerged. Figure 4.10 demonstrates that those using tourism for their primary form of income are significantly more satisfied (sig<.000) with the level of income earned. Where 37.8% of primary income earners rate their level of income as somewhat good and 20.3% as good, only 23.9% and 5.6% (respectively) of supplemental income earners are as satisfied. Those who are using tourism to supplement other forms of income are more dissatisfied or neutral about the level of income earned in their current job. Where 18.5% of primary income earners rate their income level as bad, 28.2% of supplemental income earners are dissatisfied. Figure 4.10: Satisfaction with income Verybad Somewhatbad Neithergoodorbad Scmewhatgood Verygood Rating I Primary income I Supplemental income I 112 4.5 Mobility into tourism employment The following section will describe the results of the exploration of mobility into tourism employment. Initially, the origins of the tourism labor market are shown by presenting information on inter-industry mobility. Then, the motivations for entering tourism will be reported, and results from analysis to determine structure and use of motivation factors will be described. The survey asked individuals to identify what they were doing immediately preceding their first job in tourism. Figure 4.11 shows the previous industry/activity of the sample. The highest percentage (20.2%) of individuals worked in public services, education or health care prior to entering tourism. A further 18.8% of individuals entered their first tourism job immediately following high school or College/University studies. Mobility from resource-based industries accounted for 13.8% of the sample, while an additional 10.6% entered after working in retail or sales. Approximately 9% of the sample used to work in trades, manufacturing or transport, 4.7% in finance and real estate, and 2.9% worked in professional and technical services. Individuals who reported that they were unemployed or were working as a homemaker accounted for 7.6% of the sample, and the remaining 3.8% indicated working in the leisure industry category. 113 _. z . ._,-m4 _-, ‘hzw__ fifl_w_ ‘ fiv—VVer aw Figure 4.11: Previous industry/activity before entering tourism Public services, education and hea'th care : A“ “'Y‘firl I _ .1.. L—J Studying secondary or post .~ . _l y 18 8 secondary ._ . Resource based industries Retail and sales Other or not specified Trades, manufacturing and transport Not working in formal occupation Previous industry/actlvity Finance and real estate 4.7 Leisure industry '38 Professional and technical services 2.9 0 5 10 15 20 25 Percent Beyond learning the origins of the current tourism labor market, the motivations behind why individuals chose to work in tourism were analyzed. Individuals were asked to rate how strongly they agreed or disagreed with 30 statements which began with “I chose to work in tourism because”. The frequency distribution for each of the statements in the scale are provided in Figure 4.12. The results clearly indicate that individuals in the sample chose to work in tourism for a host of positive reasons. At the top of the list, 80.4% chose to work 114 in ii an sll in tourism because they wanted to work in pleasant surroundings, 79.9% wanted an interesting job, 72.7% wanted to work with people, 65.8% felt their business skills would be useful in tourism, and 63.2% wanted a job that was conducive to their lifestyle. About 50% of the sample indicated that they chose tourism because they like to try different jobs. The image of tourism attracted 49% of individuals while 46.5% saw tourism as a profitable industry and 41.6% indicated they wanted to start a business. On the low end of the scale, very few agreed (6%) that they could not get work elsewhere, that they needed a job without specific qualifications (9.1%) or that they were downsized in a declining industry (9.9%). These figures appear to indicate that the sample did not pursue tourism employment due to limited other employment alternatives. As useful as the frequency distribution is to understanding the data, it is limited in its ability to determine which variables were used together, or in its ability to determine whether individuals clustered together in their motivations toward tourism employment. For these reasons after using basic descriptive analysis to understand the data, factor analysis was applied to the data to explore if there was an underlying structure to motivations. Factor analysis was deemed useful in reducing the complexity of the scale and determining if some of the statements worked together to explain motivations to work in the tourism industry. 115 —£ure 4.12 Motivation to work in toufism lwanted to work in pleasant surroundings . 80. 4 —: 14. 9 .8 lwanted an interesting job 79 9 17. 8 "l2 2 ‘ r—{, lwantedajobdealingwithpeople 72.7 —:21_l64 Inavegoodbusiness sldls ‘ 65 8_:278—163 lwanted a job conducive to my lifestyle 63 2 _:26. 6 I10. 2 lliketotrydifferentjobs 503—:359:I137I lwas attracted by the irrage of tourism 49 ‘ 38. 6 1.2 4 LL,# lsaw tourism as a rofitable indus 46.5 37.1 16.3-I 9 try ,. fl _. lwanted to establish a business 41.6 39.4 19 lwanted a job that suited my education 39.4 42.2 18.4 lwanted better worio'ng conditions 36.5 47.3 16,2 lwas unerrployed and needed work 36.4 37 {26.6 lwantedtoleavemypreviousjob 33.3 474 L193 lwanted to irrprove my standard of living 33.3 41.9 . . _I. lw anted an appropriate income 33.2 43.5 l There were no prospects in my previous job 30.4 45.9 lw anted to travel 256 50.6 lfelt there w ere lots of tourismjobs 24.8 59.9 .153 ,, l ' ' a. 2‘ lwanted to supplement my income 24 47.9 28.1 —L '- lsaw tourismas profitable for business 22.6 52.2 25.2 . l — .- Easy to start a business it tourism 20.5 51.1 . _—' The first job lwas offered was in tourism 19.7 36.6 1 _—_ lwanted to use my language sklls 14.9 59.7 l l l - W faniy had a business in touer 12.6 | 56.6 __ lneeded extra Honey quicldy 11.8 49.5 Earned too little In prevrous job 11.3 45.1 lwas downsized in a declining industry 9.9 56.7 E i needed a jobwithout specific qualifications 9.1 :36] in lw anted to accurrulate capital QT 57.7 I A" E Icould notgetworkelsewhere 6 4418;!523 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% I Sum agree Percent Cl Neither agree or disagree Percent lSum disagree Percent ‘ 116 The first step was to determine if the scale was suitable for factor analysis. This required that a correlation matrix be developed to determine if the variables shared common factors, or put another way, if the statements shared similarities to one another. In order to do so, Bartlett’s test of sphericity was used and the resulting Chi square value was 2874.589 and significance level was .000 indicating that the population matrix was an identity and was therefore suitable for factor analysis. Similarly, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure was used to determine sampling adequacy where large values indicate data suitable for good factor analysis (Norusis, 1986). The KMO value was .798, which is considered strong, and indicates that factor analysis is a useful test for the data. The next step in factor analysis was to extract the factors that seemed to be represented in the data set, or that were working together. The extraction method chosen was principal component analysis to allow for consistent handling of the data from previous studies (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). In principal component analysis, the first principal component extracted accounts for the largest variance in the data, the second for the next largest variance etc. (Norusis, 1986). In each case, the extracted factors are uncorrelated with each other. In order to determine the number of factors that adequately explain the data, factors with an Eigenvalue of greater than 1 were used. This treatment resulted in an 8-factor model, which represented 61.06 percent of the variance in the data. The third step in factor analysis was rotation, which transforms the factors and makes them easier to interpret. The rotation method used was Orthogonal 117 (Varimax) with Kaiser Normalization, which attempts to minimize the number of variables that have high loadings on a factor. The factor pattern matrix was sorted so that variables with high loadings on the same factor appeared together. Factor loadings ranged from .398 to .787 as shown in Table 4.3. Factor one is represented in the first column and grouped together seven statements with factor scores ranging from .787 to .470. Factor two is represented in the second column and grouped five statements ranging from .766 to .453. The third column shows that factor 3 combined four statements with factor scores ranging from .760 to .497. Factor four grouped three statements ranging in factor scores from .733 to .625, factor five grouped three ranging from .684 to .448, and factor six grouped three more statements ranging from .784 to .650. The last two factors grouped the remaining variables, with factor seven grouping two ranging from .784 to .650 and factor eight including only three variables with factor scores ranging from .725 to .516. The resulting factors were then named by analyzing the similarities between the statements in each factor. The factors were named as follows: 1. Factor 1: Circumstance The factor that appeared to be motivating individuals to shift into tourism for this grouping of variables was due to the circumstances they were facing in the labor market. Statements that grouped together in this factor were “I needed a job without qualifications”, “I couldn’t get work elsewhere”, “the first job I was offered was in tourism”, “l was unemployed and needed work”, I needed extra money quickly", “I was downsized in a declining industry”, and “I wanted to supplement my income". This factor grouped the largest number of 118 Table 4.3 Rotated Component Matrix Statement Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor I needed a job without specific qualifications .787 I could not get work elsewhere .781 The first job I was offered was in tourism .644 I was unemployed and needed work .614 I needed extra money quickly .577 l was downsized in a decliningindustry .532 I wanted to supplement my income .470 I saw tourism as a profitable industry .766 l was attracted by the image of tourism .764 I saw tourism as profitable for business .681 I wanted to travel .479 I wanted a job dealing with Me .453 There were no prospects in my previous job .760 I wanted to leave my previous job .721 I wanted better working conditions .647 I wanted an appropriate income .497 I wanted to work in pleasant surroundings .733 I wanted a job conducive to my lifestyle .721 I wanted an interesting job .625 My family had a business in tourism I wanted to accumulate capital .676 I wanted a job that suits my educatlon I wanted to improve my standard of livlgg .739 Felt it was easy to start a business in tourism .607 I earned too little In my mfiousjob .398 I wanted to establish a business .784 l have M business skills .650 I like to try different jobs .725 I felt there were lots of tourism jobs .632 I wanted to use my language skills .516 Total variance explained 11.4% 9.3% 8.2% 7.4% 6.5% 6.4% 6.2% 5.7% Extraction method: Principal component analysis. Rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. 119 variables together in the analysis. Similarities between the statements indicate that individuals chose to work in tourism because of limited other options and the desire to become or remain employed and receive an income. . Factor 2: Image In the second factor, the image of tourism appeared to motivate individuals to want to work in the industry. Statements that grouped together in this factor were “I saw tourism as a profitable industry”, “I was attracted by the image of tourism”, “I wanted to travel”, “I wanted a job dealing with people”, and “I saw tourism as profitable for business”. These statements suggest individuals had formulated a positive image of tourism employment that included people, travel and profit. . Factor 3: Improvement The third factor appeared to group together variables that described a desire for an improvement from a previous occupation. Statements that grouped together in this factor were “I felt there were no prospects in my previous job”, “I wanted to leave my previous job”, “I wanted better working conditions“ and “I wanted an appropriate income”. This grouping of variables indicates individuals were no longer satisfied with their previous job or situation and were motivated to work in tourism to improve things like working conditions and income. 120 4. Factor 4: Lifestyle Variables that grouped together in the fourth factor were those that described a desire for a particular lifestyle. Statements that grouped together in this factor include “I wanted to work in pleasant surroundings", “I wanted a job conducive to my lifestyle”, and “I wanted an interesting job”. This factor suggests that individuals had formed a positive image of tourism employment that included pleasant surroundings and interesting work and that it fit with the lifestyle that had been chosen. The factor differs from “image” in that the statements reflected intrinsic motivation items whereas “image” statements reflected extrinsic motivations. 5. Factor 5: Fit The fifth factor grouped together variables that suggest individuals were motivated by the “fit” of tourism to their education, situation or goals. Statements that grouped together in this factor include “My family had a business in tourism”, “I wanted a job that suited my education”, and “I wanted to accumulate capital”. These variables suggest that individuals found that tourism employment was an industry that would allow them to work with family, utilize their education and accumulate capital. 6. Factor 6: Profit The sixth factor was called “profit” since the variables grouped together suggested tourism was regarded as a profitable industry where money could be made quickly. Statements that grouped together in this factor were “It is 121 easy to start a business in tourism", “I earned too little in my previous job", and “I wanted to improve my standard of living”. 7. Factor 7: Entrepreneurship The seventh factor appeared to group together variables that suggested individuals were motivated to work in tourism to establish their own business. Statements that grouped together in this factor include “I wanted to establish a business” and “I had good business skills and felt they would be useful in tourism”. This factor differs from the “profit” factor (factor 6) in that all statements included the word business and suggest that aside from profit, this factor reflected the desire to become an entrepreneur in the industry. 8. Factor 8: Variety The last factor was called “variety" as it appeared to group together statements such as “I like to try different jobs”, “I felt that there were lots of jobs in tourism", and “I wanted to use my language skills”. The similarity between these statements suggests individuals had formed an image of tourism that included a variety of different jobs, which suited their desire to “move around” and try different jobs and for some, allow them to communicate in another language. The naming of factors that emerged in this study differ from those used in previous research on mobility into tourism (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). Szivas and Riley’s (1999), study in Hungary resulted in nine initial factors, which they then grouped into a five-factor model based, in part, on work 122 done by Goldthorpe et al (1968). The factors in their study, and in a replicated study in the United Kingdom (2002) were named: 1. Instmmental utility, where tourism employment was perceived solely as a means to economic advancement, Positive commitment to tourism, where tourism employment is favored due to intrinsic value of the jobs within it, Refugee orientation describing the ability of tourism to become a “refuge” from unemployment, declining employment or undesirable work, Entrepreneurial orientation was used to describe the desire to become an entrepreneur in the industry, and Wanderer or drifter was used to describe the remaining factor to describe a group of factors that included “I like to try different jobs” and “the first job I happened to be offered was in tourism”. The factors in the Vancouver Island study did not group together variables in the same manner as the research described above. The Vancouver Island results are compared with results from Hungary in Table 4.4. A comparison with the study in the United Kingdom cannot be made as the factor groupings were not reported. The factors that are the most similar in variable grouping are entrepreneurship (entrepreneurial) and variety (wanderer). While the instrument used within the studies remained virtually the same, they grouped somewhat differently and suggest that the labor market context may be the explaining variable. To elaborate, while the three studies have been done in regions experiencing economic transition, the nature of the transitions has been very 123 Table 4.4: Comparison of factor groups between study findings and previous research Study Findings Szivas and Riley (1 999) Needed and job without qualifications Circumstance Refugee Could not get work elsewhere Circumstance Refugee Firstjob was in tourism Circumstance Wanderer Unemployed and needed work Circumstance Refggee Needed extra money quickly Circumstance Instrumental Downsized in declining industry Circumstance Refugee Wanted to supplement income Circumstance Not used Saw tourism as a profitable industry Image Entrepreneurial Attracted by image Image Positive Saw tourism as profitable for business Image Entrepreneurial Wanted to travel Image Positive Wanted a job dealflq with people Image Positive No prospects in previous job Improvement Refugee Wanted to leave previous job Improvement Instrumental Wanted better working conditions Improvement Positive Wanted appropriate income Improvement Instrumental Wanted to work in pleasant surroundings Lifestyle Positive Wanted a job conducive to lifestyle Lifestyle Not used Wanted an interesting job Lifestyle Positive Family had a business in tourism Fit Entrepreneurial Wanted to accumulate capital Fit Entrepreneurial Wanted a job to suit education Fit Positive Wanted to improve standard of living Easy money Instrumental Easy to start a business in tourism Easy money Entrepreneurial Earned too little in previous job Easy money Instrumental Wanted to establish a business in tourism Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurial Have Load business skills Entrepreneurshi Entrepreneurial Like to try different jobs Variety Wanderer I felt there were lots of jobs in tourism Variety Not used I wanted to use my langgage skills Variey Positive different. In Hungary, the economy was shifting from communism to capitalism, in the United Kingdom, employment in agriculture and public sectors were in decline and in the Vancouver Island study, the region was shifting from resource-based employment to a more diversified economy with an emphasis on tourism. The differences in factor groupings may be due to the nature of these or other features of the study contexts. 124 Each factor was found to describe a particular set of motivations to work in tourism, and it was felt that the emergent factors represented both the context of the study and the complexity of factors used when considering mobility into tourism employment. When analyzing the face validity of the factors produced, it appeared evident that statements indicated to some extent the amount that individuals were being pushed out of something else into tourism, or they were being pulled into, or attracted to tourism employment. It is important to note that the rotation output does not group the factors according to the intensity of use, or the frequency of use in the data. In other words, it is important not to “misread” the output and assume that the first factor, in this case, “Circumstance”, is the strongest motivating factor. It simply means that it explained the most variance in the data. In order to determine which factors were most dominant in the study, subsequent analysis was performed. The mean scores for each factor were ranked in descending order (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) as shown in Table 4.5. The lifestyle factor was the highest-ranking factor with an overall mean of 4.09. At 3.64, the entrepreneurship factor ranked second, followed closely by variety with a mean of 3.46. The image factor ranked fourth with a mean of 3.36, improvement fifth at 3.13 and fit was sixth at 2.78. In seventh, profit had a factor mean of 2.73 and circumstance was eighth with a mean of 2.5, the exact middle of the scale. Another way to analyze the emergent factors was to study how the factor structure was used in decision-making. For as Riley et al,(2002) and Goldthorpe (1968) suggest “orientations are not expected to stand in total contrast, but to Work together in some rational manner". The intent therefore, was to explore if 125 multiple factors were used to motivate individuals to work in tourism. To do so, a new data set had to be developed by ranking the scores for each factor and Table 4.5: Factor rank and mean scores for motivation orientations Statement Orientation Orientation Rank to establish a business in tourism Entrepreneurship tourism as a profitable industry by image tourism as profitable for business Image to travel with had a business in tourism to accumulate capital and job without qualifications not get work elsewhere job was in tourism and needed work Circumstance extra money quickly in declining industry to income computing an inter-quartile range. Each case (respondent) was assigned a score for each factor. The score reflects the extent that each respondent was motivated by each factor. A factor was deemed “in use“ if its score was within 126 the top 25% of the range. This cut offwas used in previous research (Szivas and Riley, 1999) and was utilized in order to be consistent and allow for comparison of the results. In order to record factor usage by each case, eight new dummy variables were created (Factor 1 in use, etc) and when a factor was found to be “in use” for a respondent, a value of one was used to create a new data set. When completed for each of the eight factors, the new data set indicated which factors were used by each respondent. Frequencies were then calculated for factor use by respondents ranging from zero (no factors used) to eight. Table 4.6 shows that the resulting factors were used consistently by between 19-20% of the sample. This table differs from Table 4.5 in that it depicts the percentage of respondents that were motivated by each factor instead of the intensity of agreement to statements in each factor. For example, while 21% of the sample was motivated by circumstances, the level of agreement to statements in this factor was lower than that of statements in “Lifestyle” or “Entrepreneurship". Table 4.6: Frequency of factor use In the sample Factor Frequency Percent Circumstance 73 21 % Image 70 21 % Fit 71 21 % Profit 72 21 % Entrepreneurship 70 21 % Improvement 68 20% Lifestyle 69 20% Variety 66 19% n=341 Note: Respondents were motivated by multiple motivation factors. 127 The frequency distribution suggested that the sample was motivated by multiple factors. A count of the use of factors in the sample, as shown in Table 4.7, illustrates that 27.8% of the sample weakly used or did not use any of the named factors, while 27.5% used one, 16.4% used two, and the remaining 29% used three or more factors when deciding to work in tourism. Table 4.7: Use of factors In the sample Number of factors used Frequency Percent No factors used 94 27.8% One factor used 93 27.5% Two factors used 56 16.4% Three factors used 53 15.7% Four factors used 32 9.5% Five or more factors used 13 3.8% 341 101% Factor analysis groups variables instead of cases (Beaman, 1975; Hair, Anderson et al., 1998) and it is therefore of limited use to describe how factors are used by a sample. Another multivariate technique can be used to determine if cases (respondents) “cluster" together on a given set of variables (Punj and Stewart, 1983; Hair, Anderson et al., 1998). In order to determine if there were groups of individuals that chose to work in tourism for similar reasons, cluster analysis was applied to the data. Initially, all of the statements from the motivation scale were used with a non-hierarchical cluster method (K-means) asking for a two, three and four cluster solution to the data. The resulting clusters were unclear due to the number of variables being used in the analysis. Cluster analysis can be sensitive to the number and choice of variables used (Hair, Anderson et al., 1998). 128 Therefore, the decision was made to limit the number of variables used and to determine a strong basis for their inclusion. Through observation, the distribution of the statements in the motivation scale and the emerging factors appeared to indicate a push or pull orientation to motivations for choosing tourism employment. For example, individuals were either being pushed from a less desirable situation into a more desirable one (circumstance, improvement) or they were being pulled into the industry, which was perceived to be positive (image, lifestyle, profit, etc.). For these reasons, the decision was made to explore whether or not the push-pull continuum was useful in defining clusters. To this end, a new scale was developed using 20 statements to describe both push and pull motivations. The ten statements that were eliminated were those deemed to be either repetitive or low in variability. This scale was expected to measure to what extent individuals were motivated to work in tourism because it was an industry of choice or one of circumstance, although it should be noted that it may not capture this domain as the scale was not originally designed for this purpose. The statements used to describe push and pull measures including the frequency, percent of use in the sample, and the mean are shown in Table 4.8. The scales were then tested for reliability using Cronbach’s alpha producing results of .7239 for the pull scale, .7651for the push scale and an alpha of .7517 for the combined scale. The overall scale and subscale were deemed reliable measures of motivation orientation to tourism. It was felt that by using fewer variables cluster analysis could group cases according to motivations along a push-pull continuum. 129 6.8» :2. on. .8 mam... new 28.... 5.... on. .0. 5.0... 983.38. 3:526. :0 one? .36. no; 28m :2. on. .2 com... can .BN was 28m 5.... 9.. .0. come =Eo>0 No.02 8.... 2...... mm 2.8.... 8 e8. 628. .e .2 e 2.6; 22.. .6. _ em... 2.3. 8 2.3m 2. 8888 .5 8.3... .2. 8. e 8.83. 9..” 28... 8 so... 8. 8868 e 8.328 e. 8.83 em... 20...... mm 2.28 8. >882 282%... o 8 62.8. so... _ 9... so: 8 2.08 3. 62.8. .6 e86. on. .3 8.68.... 8.: a»... 2.28 5 seen 8 658... >5 e. 288:8 8.. o 8.83 _ 8... 2.23. a: 2.4.8 3 2.2... 82.68 88 2.2. _ 8.8 2.3... cm. 2......” m: 288 5.; 8:68 8.. e 8.83. 8... 28...... 8. 2......” mm. 82885» .8826 2 .8; o. 8.8;. om... 2.4.2. 8. seem we 8.. 3.8.22 8 8.83. .28» .5.. o: 6.586....» =2. e E 2.3 a .8... om 82.8568 8.88 .85.; 8.. o 882. _ m. 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The average number of push statements used by the sample was 1.9 while the average number of pull statements agreed to was 5.4. While 26% of the sample agreed with no push statements, only 6% of the sample agreed with no pull statements in the scale. The highest percentage (17%) of the sample agreed with seven of the pull statements, while another 24% agree with eight or more. Figure 4.13 Use of push and pull statements by the sample 30.0% 25.0% -__o. 20.0% 7A; 10.0% o 5.0% “W \ \ 0.0% W l T T l l l l #.—._‘l Percent & . K. 600% 000 «$OAQé60 Q00 «Q‘Q 6+ga¢00 0§ éc «0 Number of statements agreed with [—O—Push statements Percent —0—Pu|| statements Percent 131 A mean score for each respondent was computed for both the push scale and pull scale. The mean scores were then used in cluster analysis. Cluster analysis was performed using the K-means method, a non-hierarchical cluster tool that groups objects or cases based on a pre-specified distance between seeds (Hair, Anderson et al., 1998). In terms of this study, it grouped individuals into the number of clusters chosen by the researcher, based on Euclidean distance, or the measure of the length of a straight line between two objects. A two, three and four cluster solution was requested and the final cluster centers were analyzed. In the end, the four-cluster solution was chosen as the clearest description of the sample. Figure 4.14 illustrates the location of each of the four clusters along the push-pull continuum. The scatter-plot indicates the position of each cluster relative to the other clusters. Visually, cluster one is placed in the top center indicating a higher push orientation. Cluster two is placed in the top right indicating a high push and pull orientation. The third cluster located along the bottom right showing a high pull and low push orientation. The fourth cluster located itself along the bottom left comer with low push and pull orientations. To move beyond visual representation of the data, the center clusters must be examined as they allow a description of the clusters to emerge. Table 4.9 shows the cluster centers in comparison to the mean for each statement of the scale. All clusters were found to be significantly different at the p>.001 level using the ANOVA test. Means were compared visually. Bold is used to illustrate cluster means that are higher than the overall statement mean, while those underlined illustrate means below. 132 Mean push items for each case Figure 4.14: Clusters positioning along mean push and pull statements 45 A A A A 40- A A A A 0AA A A A AA AA A 35‘ A A A A A A A0 0 AAAAA AAA A 00 AAAo AA AAA A 0A 0 OOVAAA A VA 0 o AoAAA n A 30- OOOOOOOAOVAAu AA 0 0 0A A av A 0 OAAAOVAA VAVAV 0 AOVV a 0 vv vv vv 25- Do 00 0v Avv Vt v o 00 vv vv vvv v vv vvv v D an vvvo v v D DD V V v 20+ av vv v vvv DUO D D D V V a D O V V DD vv D 00v v vv 1.54 no a o v u u a V W D a . V D D D V V 10 D V 10 15 20 25 3D 35 4D 45 50 Mean of pull items for each case Clusters D 4 Indifferent Determined 0 1 Desperate The cluster centers were analyzed by observing whether or not they were higher or lower than the statement mean, and how they differed from the cluster centers for other clusters as suggested by Hair et al (1998). Cluster analysis provided an indication of how individuals in the study were influenced by multiple motivation orientations towards tourism employment. In summary, the four cluster solution appears to have produced one cluster that more pushed into tourism, one that was both pushed and pulled, one that was more pulled, and one that was neither. 133 .026. >_.:00_...:m.0 0.0 6056065.. 009... 6:0 600E .603 0.... :05 00:9: 6:005:90 0.0 6.3 :. E320 20 .0... 0:00.). .Foovo 0:. .0 60056.0 0.03 3302... __< .0050 20:90 0 0. 006.006 engine .0 0.000 0 :o 6000M. ”0.02 and 3.0 Find 000503.. 0 5.30.00 0. 6060.3 . 00.0 0.0 N... 3.60.60 E 60.50 we... no. 0 60.:0; . 00.0 60.0 W” 0.6.0 00050.6 68. 0>0: _ $8 «0.0 5.0 3.0.6:. 033:0... 0 00 £0.50. .500 . 8.0 and 5.0 E0630. .6 0.0E. 0.... n 60.00.60 00; 60.0 3.... 2... SN mm...” 0. 00... E o. 0203680 no. 0 6060.5. omd and R0 9.0 00.0 0.6. E0632 .0 .o. 0 0.03 0.0:. =0. 02.. 00.6 Wm... .20 8.0 0.60. 5.3 .:_.006 no. 0 60.50;. 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"a... 030... 134 Cluster one (n=64) was named “Desperate” to reflect high cluster means on statements such as “I needed extra money quickly", “I needed a job without specific qualifications”, “I couldn’t get work elsewhere” and “I was downsized in a declining industry". Membership in the “Desperate” cluster was less interested than the other clusters in finding an interesting job, working in pleasant surroundings or dealing with people. They were also less motivated to find a job conducive to their lifestyle. Motivations appeared to indicate that this cluster was less pulled into tourism than it was pushed by the circumstance of its' members. The second cluster (n=128) contained the highest number of members and was named “Determined” to reflect both the circumstance of its members and the positive orientation to tourism employment. More than any of the other clusters, the “Determined" cluster had higher than average means for both push and pull statements. Members of this cluster appear to have been motivated by circumstances such as unemployment, downsizing or dissatisfaction with previous work. At the same time, members were optimistic about employment in tourism feeling that there were lots of tourism jobs. The cluster was more motivated than other clusters to work in tourism because it suited their level of education. And, the group was interested in tourism employment because its members were seeking a job that was conducive to lifestyle. The third cluster (n=99) was called “Drawn” to reflect the extent that its members were attracted or pulled to work in tourism. The “Drawn” cluster was highly motivated to work in an interesting job, in pleasant surroundings, with people and in a job that worked with its members chosen lifestyle. The group also felt more motivated than other clusters to work in tourism because members 135 had strong business skills and which were felt to be worthwhile in the industry, and to help establish a business. This group appeared to be in a place of “choice” prior to working in tourism meaning members were less likely to be unemployed, downsized or unable to get work elsewhere. In fact, the group appears to have been motivated to leave a previous job to find better working conditions. The final cluster (n=50).was called “Indifferent” to reflect the lack of either push or pull motivations of its members. The smallest of the clusters, this group’s members had low mean scores for nearly all of the items in the scale. This may be due in part to the members not having clearly identified motivations to work in the industry, or the fact that the scale did not contain statements that captured their motivation orientation. While the clusters differ in why tourism work was chosen, further analysis was conducted to determine if there were other differences between them. A summary of characteristics for the clusters including gender, age, education level, previous industry/activity, sector of tourism and level of income is presented in Table 4.10. There were no significant differences found in the gender distribution between clusters, although the “Determined” cluster showed the widest gap where 32.3% were male and 67.7% were female. The “Drawn” cluster had the most equal balance where 47.5% of members were male and 52.5% were female. There were, however, significant differences in the age distribution between clusters. The “Desperate” cluster had very few members younger than 34 years (8.1%), while all other clusters had between 21-27% of members in the 136 Table 4.10: Mobility into tourism motivation cluster characteristics Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 (n=64) (n=128) (n=99) (n=50) Variable Desperate Determined Drawn Indifferent X2 df §g_ Gender Male 40.3% 32.3% 47.5% 36.0% 5.63 3 0.131 Female 59.7% 67.7% 52.5% 64.0% Age 24 or younger 0.0% 8.6% 7.1% 6.0% 29.63 15 0.013 25 to 34 years 8.1% 11.7% 19.4% 18.0% 35 to 44 years 22.6% 21.9% 11.2% 30.0% 45 to 54 years 30.6% 29.7% 38.8% 24.0% 55 to 64 years 27.4% 20.3% 22.4% 20.0% 65 or older 11.3% 7.8% 1.0% 2.0% Education High school or partial high school 34.4% 40.6% 30.6% 26.0% 6.57 9 0.682 Post secondary certificate or diploma 37.7% 36.7% 40.8% 44.0% Post secondary degree 23.0% 20.3% 23.5% 22.0% Graduate degree 4.9% 2.3% 5.1% 8.0% Previous involvement Resource-based industry 18.8% 12.5% 15.2% 8.0% 48.6 27 0.007 Trades, manufacturing and transport 6.3% 7.0% 13.1% 6.0% Public services, education and health 9.4% 16.4% 22.2% 40.0% Retail and sales 18.8% 10.2% 8.1% 6.0% Leisure industry 4.7% 4.7% 1.0% 6.0% Professional and technical services 0.0% 1.6% 5.1% 6.0% Finance and real estate 6.3% 3.9% 4.0% 6.0% Studying secondary or post secondary 14.1% 23.4% 16.2% 18.0% Not working in a formal occupation 7.8% 10.9% 5.1% 4.0% Sector of tourism Hospitality 32.8% 37.5% 39.4% 32.0% 7.31 9 0.604 Tourism infrastructure and services 23.4% 22.7% 13.1 % 14.0% Attractions, arts and culture 18.8% 20.3% 22.2% 28.0% Adventure and sport tourism 25.0% 19.5% 25.3% 26.0% Income level $19,999 or less 30.4% 34.7% 28.2% 30.4% 15.49 12 0.216 $20,000 to $39,999 39.3% 44.9% 36.5% 47.8% $40,000 to $59,999 21.4% 9.3% 21.2% 17.4% $60,000 to $79,999 5.4% 10.2% 8.2% 2.2% $80,000 and higher 3.6% 0.8% 5.9% 2.2% n=341 137 same range. The “Desperate” cluster also had the highest percentage (11.3%) of members in the 65 or older age category compared to 1% in the “Drawn” and 2% in the “Indifferent” clusters. The age range of the “Determined" cluster most closely approximated a normal curve, peaking at 29.7% in the 45-54 year category. The “Drawn” cluster had significantly lower (11.2%) numbers in the 35- 44 year age range, and significantly higher (38.8%) numbers in the 45-54 year age range. The “indifferent” cluster had a high percentage of its members in the 25-34 year (18%) and the 35-44 year (30%) age categories. There were no significant differences in the level of education between clusters. When making mobility decisions, individuals compare their current situation to various alternatives in the labor market. In this sense. the clusters were analyzed to see if differences were found in the previous industry/activity of cluster members. The result of this analysis was that significant differences exist between clusters. In particular, the “Desperate" cluster had a higher percentage (18.8%) of individuals who formerly worked in resource-based industries, and retail and sales (18.8%). The “Determined” cluster had the highest percentage (23.4%) of individuals who were either studying or were not working in a formal occupation (10.9%). The “Drawn" cluster appeared to have members formerly working in public services, health and education (22.2%), resource-based industry (15.2%), and trades, manufacturing and transport (13.1%). While the “Indifferent” cluster had a disproportionately high percentage of members who formerly worked in public services, education and health (40%), and 18% who had previously been studying secondary or post secondary. There were no 138 significant differences in the sectors of tourism employment between clusters, or in the level of income earned. The clusters were also compared for differences in the level of job satisfaction by its membership as shown in Table 4.11. There were six areas of job satisfaction that differed between the clusters. Where 67% of the “Drawn” cluster rated rewards and recognition as good or somewhat good, only 43% of the “Desperate” cluster rated them satisfactory. Income was rated good by 59% of the “Drawn” cluster and by 55% of the “Determined" cluster. The “Indifferent” cluster rated hours of work most positively, while only 47% of the “Desperate” cluster was satisfied. The social status attached to one’s current job was rated most positively by the “Determined” cluster (70%) and the “Drawn” cluster (68%), where only 48% of the “Desperate” cluster rated social status as satisfactory. The working environment was rated positively by the “Drawn” cluster (87%), the “Determined” cluster (86%) and the “indifferent” cluster (84%), but less so by the “Desperate” at (65%). Finally, the last item where a significant difference between clusters was found was in the social working environment. Here, 82% of the “Determined” cluster and 78% of the “Indifferent” cluster rated the social working climate as good, while only 52% of the “Desperate” cluster rated it positively. In general, there is a pattern that suggests higher rates of job satisfaction by those pulled into the industry. 139 N000 N. 0... .0 .00. .00 .00. .00 0% .00 .0N0 .00 ._.0E:o._>:0 55.0; 0.80 00N.0 N. 05.. .000 .00. .00.. .00. .00.. .0NN .000 .000 000.5088 8000060 0:0 00.0.0... N.0.0 N. 00.0N .000 .00 .000 0.. .000 .00 .000 .0... 2.055.300 05.5.5 0000 N. 0.0N 0.0 .0... A000 .00 n00. .00 .00.. .00 03.0.0 .280 000.0 N. 00.0 .00. .00 0.0 0.. .00. .04 .0... 00. 0002.000 .0 .00.. 00N.0 N. .0... 0.0 .00 .000 0.. .00. .00 .000 0.. 00000 no. .0 0%.. 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":6 030... 140 In summary, the findings of this study indicate that the current tourism labor market in the Vancouver Island region has been formed as a result of inter- industry mobility. Those working in the regional tourism industry have entered tourism employment from a variety of other industries such as public administration, health and education, resource-based industries, and retail, or a high percentage of employeesentered the industry immediately after completing secondary or post secondary education. The reasons why individuals chose to work in tourism are varied but indicate that multiple factors influenced their decision. Overall, the sample had positive orientations towards tourism employment and viewed it as an industry that had lots of interesting jobs where they could work in pleasant surroundings, with people and in a job that was conducive to their chosen lifestyle. When motivations were examined further with factor analysis, it was found that the reasons people chose to work in tourism were explained by eight factors, and that often, individuals were influenced by more than one factor when making their decision. For this reason, cluster analysis was performed to Ieam more about how individuals used the factors together. Four different clusters emerged and were described. The clusters not only differed in their orientation to work in tourism but were also found to differ in age composition, previous industry/activity and job satisfaction. 141 lntra-tourism industry mobility Beyond mobility into tourism, the study also sought to explore mobility within the tourism industry. The patterns of employment progression for individuals in this study are presented in Figure 4.15. The data were developed using content analysis from an employment history table completed by each participant, which asked for the type of employer and position title in the last three jobs (0.12). Pattern of progression was assessed by noting the extent that individuals progressed to their current position by working within tourism or outside of tourism. The data reveal that 39% of individuals were shown to have progressed in at least two tourism related jobs while 47% showed a pattern of progression outside of tourism, and in 14% of the sample, no discernible career pattern was observed. Figure 4.15 Pattern of Employment Progression Pattern not evident Pattern showing progression outside of tourism Pattern showing progression in tourism I T 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Percent lntra-industry mobility was further analyzed to explore upward mobility patterns and mobility between different types of jobs. The history of recent job changes by the sample is presented in Figure 4.16. The last two job changes for 142 each respondent were observed to see if individuals moved into: a) the same type of position, b) a higher position, or c) a different type of job, and then whether or not that move was within or outside of tourism. For example, a logger who started work for an outdoor guiding company would be recorded as making a shift into a different type of job in tourism. If that person’s next job change involved starting an outdoor guiding business, they would be recorded as changing into a higher job in tourism. Figure 4.16: History of recent job changes by the sample Initial job Non-tourism 77% In tourism 23% Shift Into previous job 70.2% non-tourism 29.8% in tourism Into a Into a Into the Into a Into a Into the different higher same different higher same type of position, type of type of position type of job, not in not in job, not job in in position tourism tourism in tourism tourism in 32.5% 17.9% tourism 6.6% 11.8% tourism 19.8% 11.3% Shift into current job 100% in tourism Into a different type of Into a higher position in Into the same type of job in tourism 32.1% tourism 38.4% job in tourism 29.4% At the top of Figure 4.16, is the second last position held by respondents, which has been termed the initial position (not be confused with the respondent's 143 first job). The average length of time individuals worked in their second last job was 5.58 years. At this stage, only 23% of respondents were working in tourism, compared to 77% that were working in other sectors of the economy. When respondents left their second last position (shifted into previous job) 32.5% took a different type of job, 17.9% took a higher position and 19.8% remained in the same type of job in a sector other than tourism. At this point, 29.7% were either in, or began work in tourism where 6.6% took up a different type of job, 11.8% took a higher job and 11.3% continued in a similar type of job in the industry. Individuals remained in their previous job for an average of 7.03 years. When individuals shifted into their current job in tourism, 32.1% took up a different type of job, 38.4% moved to a higher position and 29.4% stayed in a similar type of job. At the time of the study, the average length of time individuals had remained with their current employer was 6.55 years. The results of work history analysis shows that not only does the tourism labor supply come from all other sectors of the economy, but that mobility into the industry is rather recent. Only 29.7% were working in the industry in their former job, and 23% in their second previous job. Analysis also reveals that the human capital acquired in individuals’ work history allowed a significant portion of the sample to shift into a higher position when they entered tourism. While the average length of time in previous positions is useful, it can also be a crude measure of duration and indicates little about whether employment was part-time or full-time, seasonal or year-round. Another question on the survey asked individuals how long they were consecutively employed in tourism 144 and on what basis. As shown in Figure 4.17, the majority of the sample (60%) reported working full-time in consecutive tourism employment. Of these, 23% had worked 1 to 5 years, 12% worked 6 to 10 years and 25% worked 11 or more years in the industry. An additional 25% reported working on a full-time seasonal basis in tourism. Another 14% of the sample reported working in tourism on a part-time year round basis, while 20% indicated they had worked on a part-time seasonal basis. Figure 4.17 Years of consecutive employment In tourism @ 25- . Part time seasorgl 20 0 I Part time year Percent 15 - round El Full time seasonal 101 I Full time year round 1t05years 6to10years 11yearsormore Years Note: Individuals could report working consecutively in more than one category. lntra-organizational mobility Another form of movement that workers can make is within the same organization or intra-organizational mobility. The study posed a few questions to 145 individuals to determine the length of time they were employed with their current organization and what type of progression they had made. Figure 4.18 shows the length of time the individuals in the sample had remained working with their current organization. Around 12% of the sample had just started work with their employer, having worked for less than 12 months. An additional 15.8% had worked with the same employer for 1 to 2 years, 25% for 3 to 5 years, 23.1% for 6 to 10 years and the remaining 24.1% had worked for 11 or more years with the same organization. These data suggest that individuals have remained fairly loyal to their employer. Figure 4.18 Length of Time with Current Organization . 16 years and over 10.8 11 to 15 years 13.3 6 to 10 years 23.1 Years 3 to 5 years 25.0 1 to 2 years 15.8 6 to 12 months 7.3 Less than 6 months T j 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 Percent lntra-organizational mobility refers to movement within the organization, which is often thought of as advancement to higher levels of responsibility. While this represents one form of upward mobility, progression within an organization can also take on different forms. For example, individuals may experience 146 opportunities to Ieam or be asked to take on more responsibility, thus acquiring human capital that will assist with future mobility decisions. Respondents were asked about the types of rewards or recognition that they have received from their current organization within the last three years. A list of items was provided and participants were asked to circle all those that they have received. About 21% of the sample indicated they had received no rewards or recognition in the past three. years as presented in Figure 4.19. Another 49% of the sample indicated they had opportunities to Ieam, 45% had received an increase in their salary, 44% an increase in responsibilities, 29% recognition for outstanding performance, and 20% received a promotion. Figure 4.19 Progression in current tourism position Opportunity to Ieam n 5 . g E Increase In wage/salary “a 3 Increase in responsibilities «E 0 Recognition for outstanding performance 8, § None 8 2 Promotion to higher level of authority fl Other Percent While 21 % indicated that they had not received any of the items listed, 10% received one item, 15% received two, and 46% indicated receiving three or 147 more. Aside from those who reported receiving no advancement, the remaining portion of the sample appears to exhibit a strong pattern of progression within their current organization. It may be useful to point out that some of the areas where respondents were least satisfied with in their current job were opportunities for advancement, training and education and level of income. While respondents appeared to be receiving opportunities to learn or increase responsibilities, fewer were “climbing the organizational ladder" or receiving recognition for outstanding performance. In order for individuals to achieve upward mobility, which is connected to higher levels of income, they often require additional training and education. This is particularly so when individuals have just entered an industry that requires a set of skills and knowledge that differ from a previous line of work. For this reason, respondents were asked to indicate areas where they wanted more training and education. A breakdown of the reported training and education needs is presented in Figure 4.20. The majority of the further training and education needs identified were required were in higher-level management functions such as marketing (38%), working with technology (33%) research (28%), strategic planning (22%), financial management (20%) and management of human resources (16%). This may be a reflection of the number of owners and managers represented in the sample. In summary, the analysis of intra-industry and intra-organization mobility demonstrates some interesting patterns. While it has previously been established that individuals have entered tourism from other sectors of the 148 economy quite recently, it also appears that as an aggregate, individuals have remained fairly loyal to the industry and their current employers. Patterns also reveal that not only is tourism accessible to new labor supply, but that individuals can achieve upward mobility either when making a shift or after working in a tourism organization. Analysis of intra-organizational mobility suggests a strong pattern of progression for tourism workers. While a portion of respondents reported that they were not receiving any forms of advancement mentioned in the survey, the majority of individuals were receiving increases in responsibilities, income or opportunities for learning. Tourism is often considered a fairly accessible industry for labor supply to enter. However, upward mobility and adjustment to new occupations is usually facilitated by the acquisition of skills and knowledge. The study findings demonstrate the need for education and training in a number of core management functions such as marketing, technology, research, planning and financial management, at least for those in management positions. The provision of advanced skills and knowledge could allow individuals to build levels of human capital, enhance opportunities for upward mobility, increase levels of job satisfaction and of course, enhance product or service quality for the organization. 149 Skills and knowledge Figure 4.20 Training and education needs Percent 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 150 4.6 Transition experience into tourism employment Making the decision to change one’s career is only part of the mobility experience. Once individuals secure or create a new position for themselves, they go through a period of transition. While there is evidence of significant inter- industry mobility into tourism, there has been no investigation of how individuals experience the transition. Knowledge of the nature and impact of transitions into tourism employment may assist the industryto receive and support new labor supply during what is often a stressful adjustment period. The findings of qualitative investigation into the nature of the transition into tourism employment experienced by individuals formerly employed in declining resource-based industries in the study region are presented in this section. Initially the respondents will be described and compared to the remaining sample in terms of demographics, geographical location, and motivation cluster using filtered data from the employment survey. Then, emergent themes from the in- depth interview are provided including how individuals came to work in tourism, how the transition experience was for them, and what impact the inter-industry shift has had on their quality of life. The themes are supplemented with examples from respondents. 15] Some have suggested that adjustment to a new industry is most difficult in situations where the human capital requirements in one’s new line of work are different from those in his/her former occupation (Stern and Johnson, 1968; Elias, 1994). In terms of the labor market dynamics in the Vancouver Island region, the skill set utilized in resource-based industries such as forestry, fishing and mining were considered as substantially different from tourism. In this sense, the study sought to explore how individuals who used to work in resource- based sectors found the experience of shifting into tourism. In the tourism employment survey, a total of 47 individuals, or 14% of the sample indicated that prior to tourism, they were employed in either forestry (n=18), fishing (n=16), mining (n=5) or agriculture (n=8). In terms of gender, 51% of former resource workers were male and 49% were female (Table 4.12). The age distribution closely mirrors the remaining sample where the majority (42.6%) are between 45-54 years of age, and 25.5% are between 35 to 44 years. Similarly, there were no significant differences between the highest level of education obtained by former resource-based workers and the rest of the sample where 40.4% had obtained a post secondary education, and 36.2% finished or partially finished high school. In terms of the level of income generated, resource workers appear to earn slightly more than other tourism workers except in the $80,000 and higher range. 152 Table 4.12: Comparison of former resource-based workers with the remaining sample Former Resource- Remaining sample Variable based workers (n=47L (n=284) X2 df EL Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Gender Male 24 51.1% 105 37.4% 3.17 1 0.075 Female 23 48.9% 176 62.6% Age 24 or younger 1 2.1% 20 7.1% 6.90 5 0.228 25 to 34 years 6 12.8% 42 14.9% 35 to 44 years 12 25.5% 53 18.9% 45 to 54 years 20 42.6% 84 29.9% 55 to 64 years 6 12.8% 66 23.5% 65 or older 2 4.3% 16 5.7% Education High school or partial high school 17 36.2% 97 34.6% 0.82 3 0.846 Post secondary certificate or diploma 19 40.4% 107 38.2% Post secondary degree 10 21.3% 62 22.1% Graduate degree 1 2.1% 14 5.0% Income level $19,999 or less 11 27.5% 84 32.8% 2.15 4 0.709 $20,000 to $39,999 19 47.5% 105 41.0% $40,000 to $59,999 7 17.5% 40 15.6% $60,000 to $79,999 3 7.5% 18 7.0% $80,000 and higher 0 0.0% 9 3.5% Cluster membership Cluster 1 - Desperate 12 25.5% 47 16.5% 3.73 3 0.29 Cluster 2 - Determined 16 34.0% 109 38.4% Cluster 3 - Drawn 15 31.9% 82 28.9% Cluster 4 - Indifferent 4 8.5% 46 16.2% n=331 due to 10 missing cases in the sample 153 Not surprising based on where resource workers are located in the study region, the sample was mostly from the rural areas of the island, although a few individuals lived in mid-sized cities such as Nanaimo and Courtenay. The highest incidences of shifts were found in the North Island and North Central Island regions. Both of these regions have been experiencing a decline in resource-based jobs in the past decade and have only recently started to develop as a tourism destination. Figure 4.22 provides a comparison of the region of residence for the in-depth interview respondents and the remaining sample. Approximately half of the participants became an entrepreneur in tourism by starting up and operating their own business venture, usually in adventure or cultural tourism. The majority of new entrepreneurs were in their mid to late 408 and were more often male. The remaining participants were hired on by existing tourism businesses. In these cases, all participants worked in administration or mid-management and were more often female. 154 Figure 4.22 Comparison of region of residence for former resource- based workers and remaining sample North Island North Central Island ~-.m.--.. Pacific Rim Central Island ~ — . Gulf Islands 7 South Island Region of residence South Central Island 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Percent Fl Former resource based workers l Remaining sample] Individuals were found to be working in a variety of sectors of the industry where 36% reported working in outdoor recreation, sport and adventure tourism, 26% were working in the accommodations sector and 11% began working in arts, culture or entertainment. Overall, former resource workers were found to have lived in their current community for longer periods than the remaining sample. As shown in Figure 4.23, 73% have lived in the same community for over 10 years compared to 50.8% in the remaining sample. Depending on what one uses to define a “local", these figures demonstrate that resource-based workers were quite “well rooted” in their communities. 155 Twin , ,-_ ..,,_, z_,_,w.,#__ ! Figure 4.23 Comparison of length of residence between former ‘ resource-based workers and remaining sample Percent 0 to 5 years 6 to 10 years 11 to 20 years 21 to 30 years 31 or more years Length of residence In current community [I Former resource-based workers I Remaining sample ‘ Former resource-based workers are fairly recent newcomers to the tourism labor market. Approximately 26% of individuals reported making a transition into tourism within the last six months to two years. Three to five years ago, 34% of individuals moved into their tourism position, while an addition 21% shifted within the last 10 years. The strongest motivators for individuals to shift out of a resource-based job and into tourism appear to be quite similar to the remaining sample and somewhat positive in nature. As shown in Figure 4.24, although generally strong, former resource-based workers were less influenced to work in tourism because they wanted an interesting job or to work in pleasant surroundings. These respondents viewed tourism as a profitable industry, had entrepreneurial ideas, wanted to leave their previous line of work or to improve their working 156 conditions. As expected, members of this group were more likely a “victims” of a declining industry. The analysis of motivation orientation for resource-based workers is consistent with the finding that higher percentages were from the “Desperate” cluster. When individuals are pushed out of one sector of employment into an alternative in the labor market, it is conceivable that they may be less satisfied with their employment situation. For this reason, analysis was conducted to determine if there were differences in job satisfaction between the groups. The overall consistency in the rating of job satisfaction is presented in Table 4.13. Resource-based workers differed in that they rated job opportunities in other organizations and the type of job duties less favorably than the remaining sample. 157 Figure 4.24 Comparison of motivations to work in tourism between former resource-based workers and remaining sample I wanted to work in pleasant surroundings I wanted an interesting job “mmmm . . — I saw tounsm as a profitable industry WW~WW .- . " I have good business skills ”WW—WW 4W I wanted a job conducive to my lifestyle m I wanted to establish a business _ I wanted a job dealing with people There were no prospects in my previous job I wanted better working conditions I was attracted by the image of tourism I wanted a job that suited my education I was unemployed and needed work I like to try different jobs I wanted to leave my previous job I wanted an appropriate income I wanted to improve my standard of living I was downsized in a declining industry I saw tourism as profitable for business I wanted to supplement my income Easy to start a business in tourism I wanted to travel I felt there were lots of tourism jobs Earned too little in previous job I wanted to accumulate capital My family had a business in tourism I could not get work elsewhere The first job I was offered was In tourism I needed extra money quickly I wanted to use my language skills I needed a job without specific qualifications I O 20 4O 60 80 100 Percent In agreement Statements I Resource-based workers I Remaining sample] 158 .oEEmm mc_c_mE9 05 new £9.63 633.8589. 36.8 5923 EQQEU 3:35.53 on 2 958 295 Eon c. 9:9. ”202 ran—L End 4 3.4 dds d.4 odd dd Emecesco 8803984.. 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The results of the interviews provide additional support to the information obtained in the survey and broaden understanding of what it is like to become employed in tourism. Profiles of the respondents interviewed are provided in detail in Appendix I, and a summary of emergent themes is presented in Appendix J. Initially, respondents in the in—depth interviews were asked about how they came to work in tourism. Incorporated into individuals’ responses were the themes discussed below. Tourism fits my way of life Tourism was viewed by a number of individuals as a “lifestyle choice”, where they could live in pleasant surroundings, work in an outdoor environment, participate in favorite activities, and socialize with people as part of their job. Clint, who used to work in Forestry, was an outdoorsman and wanted to live and work in an area that was conducive to his leisure pursuits. Fred, who used to work in Forestry, always loved sports, so he decided to go to College after a 23- year absence so he could work doing what he enjoys. Josh, a First Nations Indian cultural tourism operator, used to work in fishing. He felt that tourism would allow him the chance to make money while passing on his culture to First Nations youth and visitors. 160 Tourism allowed me to use existing skills A number of individuals found that working in tourism allowed them to use existing skills. For example, Mary enjoyed using her organizational skills to plan events and promote fishing culture with tourism events. Helen, who worked as a camp cook for numerous years found that her skills at feeding people and socializing were easily extended to her Bed and Breakfast. Gary, who was formerly a fisher, found his intimate knowledge of the local area served him well when taking groups out on his own charter boat. I saw the ‘Writing on the wall” For a number of individuals, the move to tourism was precipitated by what they saw as “writing on the wall” indicating that the resource sector they were working in was in a state of decline. These individuals used that message to search for alternatives and found tourism held opportunities for them. Larry, who formerly worked in fishing, said that while some individuals were in denial about what was happening to the industry, others, like him and some of his family members, decided to shift their dependence on marine resources by developing a whale watching business. Christy and her husband researched for five years to find an alternative to fishing which they found too unpredictable. While they wanted to retrofit their boat into a charter-boat for tourism, they lacked the capital to make their dreams a reality, so she began working in tourism publications. 161 lam entrepreneurial A clear theme coming from many of the interviews was that individuals felt they had feasible tourism business ideas and opportunities to implement them where they were living. Josh thought, as he watched the number of kayakers in the areas increase year after year, that he had something to offer them that could make him money. He eventually started hosting First Nations cultural tourism in the Johnstone Strait, approaching kayak camps in the evening with a “personal greeting to their territory” and an “invitation” to attend the next day’s performance. Glen, who had worked for another adventure tourism operator for a few years, thought that he was ready to develop a business plan around a unique idea. I wanted to become independent Many individuals saw that tourism allowed opportunities for them to become independent and become self-employed. Helen, a single woman in her 60’s, wanted to remain independent, at home and in control of her own life. Starting a Bed and Breakfast allowed her to do all those things. Clint was fmstrated ’ working in Forestry because he could not set any Iong-tenn goals due to continuous set backs in the industry. Starting an adventure tourism business allowed him to be his own boss, work with his wife and develop a business that was sustainable in the long term. I wanted to remain in my surroundings People in rural communities often grow deep roots that attach them to their surroundings and heritage. Many of the individuals interviewed did not consider 162 moving away from their community of residence to find alternative employment. Rather, there seemed to be a recognition that tourism offered opportunities to remain in the area. Tina, a young manager of a resort mentioned that her job allowed her to remain in the community she was raised in. Patrick, a former dairy farmer, found that his new position working for a Fairgrounds allowed him to remain in his community, connected to people he knew well, and do a job he knew a lot about. 4.6.2 Difficulty of the transition Participants in the in-depth interviews were also asked about how they found the transition. Individuals seemed to range in their transition experiences varied; some found it an easy, straightforward shift while others felt it was trying and required support and new skill development. Individuals were found to take a few different paths into tourism. Some accessed tourism employment through people they knew or family members. Others volunteered and connected with individuals that later offered them employment. A number of individuals upgraded their skills and knowledge first, through programs or education, and then went into the workforce or self— employment. An easy shift A few of the individuals interviewed described the experience of shifting into tourism as a fairly straight fonrvard move. These individuals possessed a high level of confidence in their skills and ability to make decisions. Many had a strong support system, access to capital, and a host of transferable skills. 163 Stan was fortunate to be able to move into tourism employment by taking over his parents business. Formerly employed in agriculture, the financial and knowledge support they provided allowed him and his wife to enter into the industry quite easily. Gary had a similar experience as he was hired to help manage his sister and brother in-law’s adventure tourism business. Lou also found moving into tourism quite easy. When he stopped tree planting and moved into town, he was offered a job in a restaurant. He enjoyed that for a few years and found it easy to move between entry-level positions in hospitality. However, when he had aspirations to move into management in a broader tourism role, he felt he needed to go back to school to gain skills, knowledge and credentials to facilitate his move. Patrick and Mary both accessed tourism employment by volunteering first. Patrick volunteered his time organizing events for the Agriculture Society, and, after awhile, his expertise was sought in a management capacity. Similarly, Mary’s skills volunteering for the local Harbor Authority did not go unnoticed, and she too was asked to consider a tourism position where she could contribute in a paid capacity. A trying experience The majority of individuals interviewed had a less than easy time shifting into tourism. These individuals were less confident in either their skill level or the business environment, had limited access to resources or capital, and often felt they needed to develop new skills prior to making a transition. The majority of individuals searched for or used some form of support or assistance when 164 making the transition into tourism employment. These ranged from government funding programs, small business development assistance, College and University training, to the support of family and friends. Glenda, formerly a log scaler who suffered from a chronic injury, accessed Forestry Renewal BC funds to help her make the transition. She used funds to go to College and study tourism management. While she appreciates the funding provided to her, she admitted that the decision, relocation and work took real commitment. Her decision required her to move away from her husband and children for two years. She commented that without her husband’s salary (still working in forestry), she would have found the shift impossible. Chris and John faced a similar predicament when deciding to shift into tourism. Both in their mid to late 303 with young families to support and injuries that prevented them from working, these men looked to the funding assistance from Workers Compensation Board to help them make the transition. Both men are using WCB support to finance their education, but now realize half way through that they will not be able to access the level of position they anticipated with a diploma. “Management type positions require a degree now”, they commented, but the funder would only support them for two years meaning they will likely have to exit education after a diploma and seek employment. In most cases, individuals experienced difficulties using programs and . services due to lack of knowledge, access issues or barriers in program structure. Christy, formerly a family fisher, had difficulties locating potential sources of support and resources. She, like others, commented that fishers are “fiercely independent people" and the thought of asking for help was very difficult 165 for her. When she was comfortable asking for help, she was unaware of where to ask. Rural communities often do not have the resources available to support her kind of situation. She felt, after asking numerous organizations, that a central body or clearer understanding of where to seek help would be useful. Mary made a similar comment. Also the female head of a fisher family, she said that programs should be “brought to places where the people are in need.” She commented that information should be brought to fishers in places where they congregate, like wharfs and docks. That may, in her opinion, take some of the intimidation factor out of looking for alternatives. Clint and his wife decided not to seek any government funding because they “didn’t want to be tied to any rules”. Clint investigated programs when he was starting up his business but found that he would be expected to travel to Campbell River (three hour drive) two times a week. With all the work required to get his business up and running, he felt this was a real barrier and an access issue. He also found that a number of programs required businesses to show a profit in three years. He also felt this was a barrier for tourism businesses that are not “selling product” throughout those years, but only during a limited season. These barriers were mirrored by Glen, who found he was expected to drive to Port Albemi (two hour drive) a few times each week as well. A fisher without access to a reliable vehicle, this was a huge access issue for him. He was fortunate to have resources in Tofino to support his venture, but commented that they are no longer around. Another area where one might expect to see differences between resource-based workers and the remaining sample is in education and training 166 needs. Figure 4.24 shows that a higher percentage of former resource workers indicated training needs (84.8% vs. 74.9% respectively) than individuals from other sectors. While the percentage requesting training is higher, the types of training and education are consistent, where management functions such as marketing, human resource and financial management are needed. Figure 4.24 Comparison of training needs between former resource based workers and the remaining sample Five or more areas requested Three or four areas requested One or two areas requested No education or training indicated 15.2% 1 l l r 0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% Training items requested Percent I Former resource-based workers I Remaining sample 4.6.3 Impacts of transition on quality of life Employment is a central life interest. In other words, one’s work situation has a way of influencing a number of life dimensions including mental, physical, emotional, social and economic well-being. In order to learn about the impacts resulting from a transition into tourism, individuals were asked what kinds of things improved and worsened in their life when they started working in tourism. 167 There were some clear themes that emerged from the responses including those discussed below. Positive impacts I enjoy my job Similar to the motivation data provided in the employment survey, individuals in the interviews expressed that one of the things that most improved when they shifted to tourism was their level of job satisfaction. Individuals reported enjoying working with people, working in pleasant surroundings, and creating experience or memories for visitors. My relationships improved Many resource-based jobs require individuals to live and work away from home for extended periods of time. One of the improvements that a number of individuals have experienced since working in tourism is that relationship dynamics with spouse/partner or family members improved. The regular working hours has allowed them to be at home more often and to socialize or become a more active member of their community. I am more confident A heightened sense of confidence was reported, especially by individuals who did some form of additional training or education prior to working in tourism. For some, achieving an education was something they always wanted to do but they decided to start working as soon as they finished high school and then became 168 accustomed to the money. They reported feeling proud of their commitment and learning and commented that there was status attached to their educational pursuits. For individuals who took a business idea into a successful reality, there was also a heightened sense of confidence reported. The confidence was rooted in doing something they always wanted to do, recognizing they were responsible for their own success, and jumping all the hurdles associated with writing business plans and making their own money. I have steady work, predictable hours and income Similar to the comments made about stronger relationships, a number of individuals reported that working in their tourism job provided much more steady work, predictable hours and income. Those blocks of time were often reported as being used for leisure pursuits, connecting with family and friends, and community service. While for some, the income from tourism may not be as high as what they were making in their previous job, there was less stress attached to income as it was viewed as less volatile. I feel a sense of pride Pride was a strong theme mentioned under improvements to quality of life. Whether it was pride of ownership, accomplishments, community or culture, a number of individuals expressed that either their position or being involved in tourism has made them proud. 169 I have developed new skills For most individuals, the transition into tourism was accompanied by learning new skills or knowledge. While the word “intimidation” came up a lot when individuals spoke of their transition experience, individuals also expressed a sense of accomplishment for their ability to learn and adapt to the new industry. Negative impacts Major life changes can also negatively impact individual’s well-being. Individuals were also asked to comment on what types of things had worsened for them after moving into tourism. The themes that emerged from this question are included below. I have more/different job related stress Many individuals indicated that the shift into tourism was accompanied by more job related stress. For some, it is from non-stop work related to running one’s own business; for others, it is the stress connected to working in tourism, which is highly susceptible to competition and extemalities. l have to deal with more bureaucratic hassles Another clear criticism of working in tourism was that individuals had to deal with difficult bureaucratic issues such as licensing, permits, access to lands, grants, banking institutions and political bodies. Some lamented that these “hassles" took up a significant amount of time for small business owners, which takes away from them being able to run their business operations. Tourism was 170 often seen as a new industry trying to fit into old industrial and political system. Small business owners felt that there was no single voice speaking for tourism, so each business was trying to reinvent the wheel and create a more “tourism friendly” infrastmcture. I have more responsibility Coupled with job related stress, a number of individuals commented on the fact that they could no longer leave theirjob at night. The responsibility and after hours thinking involved in their tourism job was something they were unaccustomed to. This is less so for fishers who ran their own business and were accustomed to endless hours of boat maintenance and worries about the “catch”. I miss my previous work For individuals formerly working as a fishing family or on a farm, there was a sense of loss surrounding their former work. Fisher families spent a lot of time working and living together on their boats, and the new reality in tourism meant less time together. Fisher families also missed the connection they had to their boat, expressing that “fishers have a relationship with their boats" or “boats are not inanimate objects!“ Fishers also missed the camaraderie surrounding the fishing industry, the “thrill of the catch” was not something they felt in tourism. Individuals formerly in farming missed having a connection to their own land or animals. 171 My income decreased For some individuals, the transition to tourism has meant a reduction in overall income. Resource-based jobs commonly pay very high wages, but they can be received on a sporadic basis, particularly in current times. It is interesting to note that only about half of individuals commented on a decrease in income, and for those that did, they often mentioned that tourism income was more predictable. 4.7 Conclusion A closer look at the tourism labor market can reveal important findings about its characteristics. The findings of this study demonstrate that the tourism labor market is both attractive and accessible, features that have facilitated mobility from all sectors of the economy. Its workforce in the study region, was generated primarily through inter-industry mobility. Those who became mobile were motivated by a number of factors ranging from the image of tourism to a desire to move away from undesirable circumstances. Motivations surrounding a move into tourism were shown to be highly complex, both pushing and pulling individuals into the industry. Analysis of motivations revealed four clusters that differed with respect to age, previous employment sector and job satisfaction measures. The findings reveal that tourism is also attracting individuals from declining industries in the study region. Former fishers, forestry, mining and agriculture workers were found to be working in the industry, primarily as owners of small 172 businesses in adventure and cultural tourism. While the transition for these workers has been relatively difficult to make, often requiring multiple resources and forms of support, the impact of the transition on individual well-being has for the most part been positive. The findings from this study are useful to understand more about the composition and formation of tourism labor markets. As tourism is expected to need additional workers in order to meet economic development goals, it must be able to identify potential sources of labor supply, attract individuals into jobs and ensure they have a smooth transition. If the industry continues to ignore the context of the labor market, it may find itself “chasing its tail”, unaware of the dynamic forces that shape who works in the industry and why. 173 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Introduction Knowledge of how tourism labor markets are formed may assist the industry to find ways to counter predicted labor shortages and continue its important role in economic development. The purpose of this chapter is to place the findings of this study on mobility into tourism employment in a region experiencing economic transition into context by linking results to the literature and making recommendations for application and additional research. The chapter begins with a discussion of the key findings of the study including patterns of mobility, motivation orientations toward tourism employment and the transition experience of individuals who shifted into the tourism industry after working in declining resource-based industries. Embedded within each section of findings is a discussion of how results compare to the literature, and suggestions to refine investigation. Following the discussion, the chapter provides some recommendations to guide further research or labor policy and planning efforts. 174 5.2 Overview of methods In exploring mobility into tourism employment, the study utilized a mixed method approach, combining quantitative and qualitative components. A self- administered mail survey was sent to people employed in 800 different tourism organizations. Later, in an attempt to Ieam more about the nature of the transition experience, 22 in-depth interviews were conducted with individuals who made a shift into tourism employment after working in a resource-based sector. The study sought answers to the following questions: 1) Tourism has been shown to draw labor supply from all other sectors of the economy (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). In order to determine how the tourism labor market came to be, an answer to the following question was sought: a. What are the sources of labor supply for the current tourism labor market in the study region? 2) While knowledge of the origins of the labor market is useful, it is also essential to understand why individuals chose to work in tourism. To this end, an answer to the following question was sought: a. What motivated individuals in the study region to work in the tourism industry? 3) The study incorporated a 30-item motivation scale refined from previous studies on mobility into tourism ((Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). In order to determine if there are under1ying factors concerning why people chose tourism employment, the following questions were explored: 175 4) 5) a. Do motivation statements group together to suggest factors under1ying why people work in tourism? b. If so, what factors are dominant? c. And are individuals influenced by multiple factors? d. Do the factors resemble those found in previous research? While knowledge about core motivating factors to tourism work is useful, it is also important to explore whether and how individuals group together in orientations to employment in tourism. To this end, the following questions were explored: a. Do individuals group together in motivations towards work in tourism? b. If so, what clusters emerge? c. What are the characteristics of clusters? Lastly, the decision to work in tourism is only part of the mobility process. Unexplored to this point in time is the nature of the transition process for individuals entering the industry. To this end, the following questions were explored: a. Does tourism employ individuals formerly working in declining resource-based jobs in the region? b. If so, how do individuals find the experience of making a transition into tourism employment? 176 5.3 Major findings and contributions Exploration of mobility into tourism employment as shown in the Vancouver Island region, provides initial findings about the complexity of the tourism labor market. Currently experiencing an economic transition from resource-based industry to a service economy, the region is counting on tourism to assist in economic diversification, particularly in rural areas most impacted by the change. In this environment, it was found that the tourism labor market was comprised of individuals who had previously worked in all sectors of the economy, including a significant portion from declining resource-based industries such as fishing, forestry, mining and agriculture. The motivations to work in tourism indicate a dominant positive orientation towards tourism employment. Further analysis suggests the presence of eight factors underlying why individuals want to work in the industry. The “Lifestyle“ factor emerged as the strongest motivation orientation, where individuals chose to work in tourism due to a variety of intrinsic reasons such as wanting to work in pleasant surroundings or in an interesting job. The “Entrepreneurship” factor was the second strongest motivation orientation, where individuals chose to work in tourism because they felt it would be a profitable industry and one where they could utilize their business skills. During analysis, it was evident that to some extent, individuals are either pushed or pulled into the industry. The original scale was therefore revised to include ten “push” and ten “pull” statements. The responses indicated that individuals were more likely “pulled” or attracted to the industry as an occupation of choice, than they were “pushed" into the industry due to their circumstance. 177 Using the “push-pull” continuum further, it was found that individuals clustered into four definable groups in terms of why they took up a job in tourism. The largest group was “determined” in the sense that while they appeared to be pushed into the labor pool, they had very positive orientations to work in tourism. The next largest group was named “drawn” due to a strong pull orientation toward tourism employment. A “desperate” cluster also emerged, characterized as individuals who were unemployed, downsized and without numerous alternatives in the labor market. This cluster also exhibited few members that appeared to be pulled into the industry. Finally, the fourth cluster was named “indifferent” to reflect members that appeared to be neither pushed nor pulled into the industry. Attempting to move beyond understanding of occupational choice in tourism, the nature of the transition experience into tourism was explored with individuals who formerly worked in a resource-based industry. In general, individuals found the transition was relatively difficult to make, often requiring a range of resources and support. Individuals also reported that the shift had impacted their lives in both positive and negative ways, but the majority of respondents were happy that they had made the shift and were planning to remain working in the industry. This study contributes to the knowledge base of tourism development and is unique in the following ways: 1. The sample frame was rigorously developed. A comprehensive inventory of tourism organizations in the study region was developed and then used as the sample frame for the tourism employment survey. 178 2. A multi-method approach was used in the investigation. Survey methodology and in-depth interviews were incorporated into the study design. 3. It moved inquiry on mobility in tourism forward by exploring the nature of the “transition” experience. 4. It replicated previous research in a different context (i.e., rural, island, and economy in transition) by a different researcher, and incorporated additional exploratory analysis. 5. The findings incorporate the views and experiences of small business entrepreneurs. 6. Exploratory analysis included factor and cluster analysis. As well, careful interpretation of the factors resulted in an eight-factor model to explain why people decide to work in tourism. These factors differ somewhat from previous research and indicate the complexity of occupational choice decisions within the industry. 7. The push-pull concept was developed and used to refine the motivation scale and identify four clusters. 5.4 Discussion 5.4.1 Patterns of mobility into tourism The tourism industry appears to acquire labor supply from a variety of sources in the labor market. In the Vancouver Island region, the tourism labor market is comprised of individuals who have previously worked in all other sectors of the economy. Evidence was found that individuals in declining 179 resource-based industries were shifting into tourism. This finding is consistent with the results found in previous research on mobility into tourism in Hungary (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas, Riley et al., 2003)) where with the exception of mining, mobility occurred from every other sector of the economy. In a replicated study in the United Kingdom (Szivas, Riley et al., 2003), the sources of labor in tourism were expected to reflect the declining opportunities in agriculture and engineering. While the findings somewhat supported the proposition, once again there appeared to be a broad range of labor sources for the tourism industry. Noted in the study, was the prevalence of individuals who had previously been employed in public services, which the authors also attributed to a decline in such employment in the region. These studies converge in finding that the tourism labor market is to a large extent supplied by a wide range people formerly employed in other economic sectors. As well, the studies provide initial support that the tourism industry absorbs displaced labor from declining industries. These findings are important in demonstrating the important role that the tourism industry plays in economic development, particularly in economies in transition. While it is not new perhaps to Ieam that tourism generates jobs, it is important to know that the industry provides a broad range of employment opportunities for a diversity of individuals and that they generally choose to work in the industry for positive reasons. Knowing the sources of mobility into tourism is important for recruitment of new labor into the industry. While the industry has made strong efforts to attract young people into tourism jobs and education programs, these findings suggest that it may be fruitful to begin looking in other locations for potential workers. In 180 fact, individuals who have worked in other sectors of the economy are more likely to have accumulated human capital that can be applied within tourism. Or, as suggested by this study, individuals with previous experience may be more committed to the industry after having worked elsewhere and gone through a more involved career decision making process. The findings also reflect positively upon tourism as an accessible industry for individuals to enter. The accessibility of the industry allows a diversity of individuals to choose where and how they would like to fit into the tourism labor market. In the study region, for example, individuals were found to work in a range of positions on part-time or full-time basis and as a primary or supplemental source of income. While some might view anything other than a full-time, year-round position as a “bad job” (Glenday, 1997), the range of employment alternatives in tourism fit well with the expected changes in labor supply where greater diversity of employment options are desired. Another angle from which to view accessibility is from an entrepreneurial standpoint. The findings from Vancouver Island reflected a substantial number of small business owners and operators who started a business without any background in the industry. This is consistent with research in the United Kingdom (Shaw and Williams, 1994) that found only 33 percent of hotel owners had any previous experience in tourism prior to establishing a business. In the Vancouver Island region, the ability of entrepreneurs to start a business in tourism allowed individuals to become more self-reliant and remain living in their community. While starting a tourism business may allow one to become more independent, it does not come without associated risks and substantial 181 stress. New entrepreneurs in this study found that developing a tourism business required a range of monetary and non-monetary resources and types of support. Once established, entrepreneurs expressed that they experienced significant stress in operating their business, dealing with bureaucracies, and juggling the non-stop work environment. The perspectives of entrepreneurs and managers are dominant in the sample, and, therefore, the results are less reflective of those in other levels of tourism organizations. The views and experiences of entrepreneurs and managers are likely to differ from mid-management or department/entry level employees. Further analysis should compare the findings for these groups or attempt to obtain a sample that is more representative of the entire industry. It follows that if the labor supply is migrating into tourism from other industries, these new entries into the industry will have very little experience in the industry. Work history analysis revealed in this study that the majority of individuals did not "work their way up” to their current position in the tourism industry but rather appeared to acquire human capital elsewhere and then shift into a tourism position. This pattern might lead one to question whether or not newcomers to the industry feel prepared and competent in their new surroundings. The results of this study indicate that one of the areas individuals were least satisfied with in their current job were opportunities for advanced training and education. Furthermore, the types of training and education that were felt to be most needed were in core management functions such as research, marketing, human resource management, planning and financial management. 182 Upward mobility was another area where individuals were less satisfied with their current tourism job. When the pattern of progression within organizations was analyzed, individuals reported having opportunities to Ieam, and many had received increases in either wages or responsibilities. Yet, a disturbingly large portion of tourism workers received very little in the way of rewards or recognition, and few acknowledged being promoted to a higher level of authority. This evidence suggests that the tourism industry may be “its own worst enemy” when it comes to the retention of workers. The old adage “easy come, easy go” may also‘reflect the not so positive side of accessibility. The tourism industry has directed attention towards serious turnover issues (Lauer and Gebhardt, 1997; Timo, 1999), which are likely to be exacerbated as the supply of labor shrinks. While there appears to be support for the premise that tourism is accessible and attractive to a diverse pool of labor, it is uncertain whether or not individuals remain in the industry or if they are only using it until something better comes along. Research that investigates the connection individuals have towards work in the industry would be a useful supplement to this study and may identify groups that are more committed to a career in tourism. 5.4.2 Motivation to work in tourism The results of this study also appear to converge with other research in the finding that individuals choose to work in tourism for a range of positive reasons (Szivas and Riley, 1999; Szivas et al, 2003). Work in tourism was found to be plentiful and interesting, performed in pleasant surroundings and to involve 183 people. While a positive orientation towards tourism employment was dominant, the findings also demonstrate that individuals were often influenced by multiple factors when deciding to work in the industry. While not a direct measure of the image or quality of tourism employment, it seems inconsistent that individuals would be attracted to an industry that, at least in the literature, is reflected poorly. One would expect that if tourism has a negative image, individuals would not be motivated to work in the industry. This may still hold true, as the study design only captured individuals who were working in the industry, and may be more inclined to view it in a positive light. However, in a region where employment alternatives are limited, tourism may have appeared to be the “least worst” choice available in the labor market. It would be useful to further explore if tourism is an industry of choice for individuals or one of circumstance. At the same time, since the findings are all related to one instrument, there is the potential that the motivation scale used in the study is partly responsible for such positive orientations to tourism employment. To elaborate, a number of the statements used in the scale are quite general in nature and are likely to be agreed upon by most respondents (eg. “I wanted an interesting job” or “I wanted a job dealing with people). At the other end, a number of the statements are quite specific and would relate to limited numbers of individuals (eg. “I was downsized in a declining industry" or “My family had a business in tourism”). Still other statements may actually deter people from agreeing with them due to self- protection (eg. “I couldn't find work elsewhere” or “I was unemployed and needed work“). For these reasons, additional work should be done to refine the 184 scale and word statements more consistently. Further scale development should also incorporate additional motivation variables such as those found in the qualitative findings. For example, respondents in the in-depth interviews reported that tourism was chosen because they wanted to remain in their surroundings or become independent. These items have not been incorporated to the studies of motivation to date, and may explain why some people decide to work in tourism. Statements should be added to identify if tourism is an agent in keeping people living in rural communities, and if it allows individuals the opportunity to gain more control over their future. Motivation to make an inter-industry shift is complex. In an attempt to reduce the number of variables that explain why individuals chose to work in tourism, this study and others (Szivas, Riley et al., 2003) applied factor analysis to the data. The study findings converge in that eight or nine factors emerged, however, the variables grouped together differently between studies. This may suggest that the local context is an explanatory variable. In the previous work by Szivas and Riley (199, 2003), the decision was made to group factors together to fit a four-factor model, and to add an additional factor. While the five-factor solution appeared to explain the variable groupings, the researchers did not provide a strong rationale for combining the factors. The factor analysis performed on the Vancouver Island data suggested eight factors underlying motivation orientations to tourism. When variable groupings were compared to the Hungary study, numerous differences were found. Instead of adopting the five-factor model, the decision was made to retain an eight-factor structure as it 185 provided a clear description of the complexity of mobility decisions in the study region. To assist in scale refinement, it may be useful to view mobility decisions from a push-pull perspective. As shown in this study, the motivation scale can be reduced and grouped along a push-pull continuum. In general, the new scale measured the extent that individuals were pushed or pulled into tourism employment. As all individuals should supposedly fall somewhere along the continuum, this analysis may be more inclusive in describing motivation orientations to the industry. While factor analysis revealed an underlying structure to the scale, it was limited in its ability to describe how individuals were influenced by motIVation factors. In an attempt to explore whether individuals clustered into groups with similar motivations toward tourism employment, cluster analysis was performed on the data. The accepted cluster solution included four groups. The clusters indicate that for, Vancouver Island, groups ranged from being drawn into tourism for a host of positive attributes to being in a desperate situation where tourism was seen to provide an accessible employment alternative. While the clusters appear to describe the population in this study, the “Indifferent cluster", which was characterized as being neither pushed or pulled into the industry, suggests that the motivation scale may not incorporate all of the dominant orientations towards work in tourism. Further exploration using cluster analysis is needed to determine if similar clusters emerge in other contexts. 186 5.4.3 The transition experience While knowledge about why people decide to work in tourism is valuable to understand mobility, it only represents one portion of the mobility process. After making an occupational choice, individuals still have to search and obtain employment and then adjust to the job and the impacts it has on life dimensions. Indeed, examination of the transition experience has been called for to enhance knowledge of tourism labor (Szivas, Riley et al., 2003). Study results provide an initial glimpse of what it was like to make a transition into the tourism industry for former resource-based workers. This group was chosen since the tourism industry is being used as an economic development agent within the region, and as such, is expected to provide employment alternatives to those displaced in declining industries. As the human capital used in fishing, forestry, mining or agriculture are quite different from those used in tourism, it was expected that individuals would have a difficult time making a transition into the industry. Based on a series of in-depth interviews, support was found for the proposition that the transition experience from resource-based employment into tourism is relatively difficult. The majority of workers interviewed sought and utilized some form of assistance when making a transition including family, small business development assistance or government funding programs. The ease of the transition experience was related to individuals” level of support and resourcefulness, understanding of tourism and accumulated human capital. 187 Individuals largely used a rational decision-making style involving systematic appraisal of labor market alternatives and a long-tenn perspective. 5.5 Recommendations 5.5.1 Academia While mobility into tourism employment research is still in an exploratory stage, there are enough preliminary studies to suggest next steps in inquiry. As previously mentioned, the study of mobility into tourism employment has focused primarily on determining what motivates individuals to work in the industry. While the initial findings have been useful to describe why some have chosen a career in the industry, there is much left to do. Initial studies converge in finding that tourism, to some extent, absorbs displaced labor supply from declining industries. In Hungary, mobility into tourism occurred from all sectors with the exception of mining, in the 'United Kingdom tourism absorbed workers from agriculture and public services, and in this study mobility occurred from all sectors including declining resource-based industries. Future research is needed to determine to what extent tourism acts as a “sponge”, absorbing labor supply in times of economic transition. In particular, studies that attempt to monitor mobility into and out of tourism over an extended period of time would provide clearer evidence of its role in the labor market. Small business entrepreneurs were prevalent in the findings of mobility into tourism in the Vancouver Island region. Unfortunately there have been few studies of entrepreneurship in tourism research, from which to compare the findings, particulariy in rural economies. There has been a tendency, as noted by 188 (Shaw and Williams, 1994) to over-concentrate research on the role of large firms at the expense of small businesses. As small business development is essential to the growth of tourism, and some may say to its sustainability in the long term (Conlin and Baum, 1994), the topic can no longer be neglected in tourism research. Future research should seek to understand the thought processes and experiences of new entrepreneurs in tourism. Likewise, studies that explore the relationship between small business development in tourism and rural economic development would be useful. A form of mobility that was not addressed in this study is that of geographic mobility. Tourism employment is often held out as a “carrot” for communities considering whether or not to embrace tourism. The assumption is that communities who diversify with tourism will generate additional or replacement employment for residents of the area. Yet, recent research into tourism employment has found a high connection between geographical mobility and employment in tourism. Szivas and Riley (1999), found that 12% of those who moved into tourism employment since 1987 also relocated in order to start their position. In another study in Cornwall, Shaw and Williams (Shaw and Williams, 1994) found that over 80% of entrepreneurs who ran motels were in- migrants. If tourism employment requires a high rate of mobility, it may seem logical to question whether it provides employment for locals, or whether it promotes in-migration of workers. Similarly, it would be useful to determine if there are differences in career history, motivation orientations and transition experiences between residents and newcomers. Future research in this area 189 would strengthen our understanding of mobility into tourism employment, particularly in regions experiencing notable population shifts. Although it has been the focus of previous research on mobility into tourism, our understanding of why people choose to work in the industry is far from complete. The qualitative findings of this study suggest that additional variables be added to a motivational scale to refine an instrument that captures the complexity of occupational choice. Further qualitative methods are recommended to expand the dimensions of the scale. Similarly, the scale should also be refined such that all statements are consistent with respect to specificity. Further exploration using the push-pull concept may identify a clearer explanation of motivations for working in the industry. With further use in other contexts, a refined scale may also test the validity of previous research and the notion that positive motivation orientation is dominant. Related to mobility decisions is the concept of image. While not the focus of this study, the motivation scale does contain statements that pertain to image of the industry. As image plays an important role in occupational choice and hence, mobility decisions, additional study into image of the industry is merited. Specifically, understanding where images of tourism employment are formed and to what extent they influence behavior would be valuable. Research that explores whether differences in the image of tourism effects career choice and later job satisfaction, may provide support for the constnrction of an enhanced image that could be used to encourage mobility. Literature on the quality of tourism employment suggests that the image of tourism may also be biased towards entry-level jobs in hospitality. It would be 190 useful to determine if the quality of tourism employment differs among sectors or levels of employment in the industry, and whether an enhanced image of tourism employment is received when incorporating a broader scope of the industry. The initial findings of the nature of the transition experience move our understanding of mobility beyond occupational choice. As the transition experience was only explored for a selection of individuals in the study, further exploration should be done with other groups. Future research on the transition experience should also explore for differences in the life stage of participants or in stages of the transition cycle. Similarly, research that helps to identify either individual or situational characteristics common to successful transitions would be useful to those working with career changers. 5.5.2 Policy and planning In order to address labor shortages, research must be utilized in labor market planning. The findings from this study suggest a number of areas where those involved in developing human capital may be able to develop strategies to supply the tourism industry with the quantity and quality of labor supply it needs. The following recommendations may be useful to create accessible programs and services that facilitate mobility and ease the adjustment of individuals into the tourism industry in the future. 191 Recommendations: 1. Information should be used to broaden the understanding of the role that tourism plays in economic development. First, it is important that the attributes of tourism as an employment alternative in economies undergoing economic shifts are understood. Namely, that tourism is an accessible, attractive and satisfying industry to work in should be emphasized. For while tourism is often expected to contribute to regional economic development, some question the type of jobs it generates. In this sense, findings from the study indicate that tourism provides a range of employment benefits throughout the region, to a diversity of individuals, and at a variety of levels. These characteristics not only suit employment for young people, who are often thought of as the supply for tourism jobs, but for career changers, new entrepreneurs and those interested in part-time or supplemental work opportunities. This information needs to be in the hands of those advocating tourism development, those working with individuals considering employment alternatives and those planning programs to assist in economic restmcturing. 2. Incorporate the study findings into the programs and services of employment assistance centers to ensure accurate labor market information on tourism is provided to prospective clients. Employment assistance centers provide programs and services that assist individuals to make informed career decisions. The staff in these centers provide a critical link in occupational choice as they are often involved in educating 192 individuals about alternatives in the labor market. The results of this study will be useful to help staff understand and communicate the diversity of tourism employment options to clients. Areas to highlight include the range of sectors from which tourism employees can be obtained, the opportunities for upward mobility or self-employment, job satisfaction levels and the types of job tasks performed. 3. Develop materials and stnrctures to support small business development specific to tourism. As a significant portion of the sample, and the regional tourism industry is comprised of small businesses, the study findings will be useful to share with those working to assist entrepreneurs develop sustainable business ventures. Areas to highlight include the types of training and education needed to be successful, the nature of the transition experience and resulting impacts on quality of life dimensions. It was observed that entrepreneurs in tourism often struggle with the traditional “product” oriented business development model used throughout the region. The tourism product is the creation of a visitor experience; it is intangible, perishable, and subject to numerous extemalities. Those considering developing a business in tourism require industry specific information on how to develop and market this unique product. Individuals in the study also requested the introduction of a mentorship type program to help them develop their business, where successful entrepreneurs could assist in answering the types of questions new business owners are experiencing. “Wanna be” entrepreneurs have been 193 shown to want time sensitive delivery of materials and delivery by people who have shown by their success that “what they say really works” (Eggers, 1995). Individuals also suggested that funding assistance should recognize the differences in the tourism industry. A highly seasonal industry that only sells its products for a portion of the year cannot necessarily show a profit in the same amount of time as other businesses. Many new entrepreneurs commented that it took them about four years to feel like they had really built a foundation for their business and had Ieamed enough from previous seasons in order to bring about success. Access to business development programs in nrral areas was a significant issue. Many owners discussed the fact that they could not access funding programs because they required numerous long trips into a nearby city each week. This was seen by the owners to cost not only money, but also valuable time that needed to be used to develop their business. When asked what would work for them, individuals commented that outreach type programs where business development support did some of the traveling, or regional workshops where starting entrepreneurs could gather and work on similar issues would be effective. Virtual education may be another feasible alternative to bring education to those in need. Finally, accountability in funding programs was brought up by a few of the owners. To encourage the success of small businesses in tourism, the idea of staging forgivables out over a period of time and connecting them to business success may both motivate small business owners, and also insure more accountability. 194 4. Incorporate findings into efforts aimed at expanding the labor supply into tourism. Municipal and regional districts At the local level, the findings of this study can be used to educate the public about the nature of tourism employment and its important role in the regional economy. As support for new industries is vital, especially when communities are resistant to change, the results should be used to garner support from local and regional politicians. This may be useful for those advocating for tourism development when faced with questions on the nature of employment generated by tourism. Provincial government The province of British Columbia is counting on tourism growth to stabilize the economy and contribute additional tax revenue and employment opportunities. In response to this challenge, the tourism industry initiated a task force to investigate how it would achieve the targets to double contributions to the province, based on the forecast of labor shortages in the province. A new private sector tourism organization “902 — the resource for people in tourism” was announced on April 25, 2003. In an introductory announcement, it was noted that: “With a small, focused and professional staff, 902 will help attract 50- 84.000 new workers to the province before 2010; help establish high profile career pathways; help position tourism as an employer of choice; 195 contribute to a dramatic drop in turnover rates; help establish Ieam-while- you-eam part-time upgrading options; encourage education to develop tomorrow's tourism industry leaders; and forge co-operative human resource efforts and partnerships that ensure a thriving industry” (Council of Tourism Associations, 2003). This study, albeit for one region of the province, may assist 902 to reach its mandate. Areas to highlight include potential sources of labor supply, motivation orientations toward work in tourism, and ways to ensure smooth transitions into the industry. National and lntemational tourism organizations; Nationally, the Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council and the Canadian Tourism Commission are involved in insuring that the tourism industry is able to grow and contribute to economic development. The results of this study should be disseminated to both organizations, highlighting similar findings for the province of British Columbia. Finally, as the study fits into an emerging lntemational research topic, mostly in the United Kingdom, the results of the study should be disseminated to international audiences through either conference presentations or publications. Schools and Colleges/Universities A high percentage of new labor supply is expected from youth who often fill entry-level positions in the industry during peak demand. The results of this 196 study could assist young people to consider working in the industry either temporarily or as a career. Results should be put into a useful format and distributed to schools and post-secondary institutions to help provide more information on the type and quality of tourism employment opportunities for young professionals. 5. Ensure that individuals experience a smooth transition into tourism by developing targeted programs and services, ensuring access in rural communities, and facilitating skill development. The majority of individuals who made the transition into tourism sought or used some form of support or assistance. In most cases, individuals received assistance that moved them toward success whether it was a referral to a funding program or assistance with professional development. Making a career shift is never easy and can be accompanied with a great deal of stress. This stress can not only intimidate individuals and prevent them from moving forward, it can also hinder success particulariy if it ovenides confidence levels. With unemployment levels rising in a number of rural areas, support for employment assistance centers could not be more critical. Beyond having a place to go to, individuals also need continued access to the programs and services that have enabled others to become successful. The individuals in this study used an array of programs and services to make their way into a new career. Whether it was a displacement assistance program, workers compensation, or small business development assistance, individuals were accessing programs and achieving success. 197 6. Encourage educators to respond to training and education needs for individuals working within the industry; Those involved in training and education may find the results of this study useful to develop unique education programs and different delivery methods. Most importantly, the demand for labor in tourism emerged prior to the establishment of many training and education programs. In this sense, the origin of the existing labor market is from a range of other industries. Most individuals currently working in the industry have little or no background in tourism prior to entry, and even after working within it for years, are requesting additional training and education support. . The delivery models currently used in the education system favor people who can study full-time. This study supports the development of management level skills for those currently working in the industry. Educators should consider using this study to develop a range of management level “courses” that can be offered on-line, via distance, or in short-term workshop formats at convenient times throughout the year. As access is often an issue for individuals in rural areas, efforts should be made to use outreach methods to service clients. Michigan State University has developed a similar training program for those working in the tourism industry where a range of courses are developed with and by leaders in the industry and are offered on-line at no cost. Accumulated courses can be used to gain “certification” by the University, which individuals can use to gain recognition within their place of employment. This type of model is an example 198 of the direction that tourism education and training could move toward, in order to increase the level of human capital in the industry. Furthermore, the content of numerous training and education providers is focused on entry-level skills, often in hospitality. While necessary, the findings of this study suggest that additional education programming is needed in mid- management and entrepreneurial skills. For individuals who are new to tourism, lack of knowledge or skills canbe intimidating but can also hinder success and create unnecessary job related stress. 7. Employers should broaden recruitment strategies to reflect sources of labor supply and enhance jobs in ways that reflect diverse populations. The findings of this study are particularly useful to tourism employers who are seeking to fill job vacancies or retain valuable employees. Employers should note the sources of labor supply for tourism in the region and modify recruitment strategies to tap into a broader pool of potential employees. It would also be useful for employers to begin to think about how they can better meet the needs of different types of workers. Whether young or old, part-time or full-time, seasonal or year round, workers are likely to differ in the type of rewards, recognition and remuneration wanted. Employers may seek to Ieam more about the needs of individual employees and consider offering employment packages that meet the needs of more than one type of worker. Although preliminary, the findings suggest that those highly motivated to work in the industry are more satisfied. With further replication, this finding may assist in the development of assessment strategies to identify highly motivated people into the industry. 199 8. Develop a system to monitor issues in the labor market and continue further research. While the Vancouver Island region now has information on its current labor market, the information is a snapshot of the labor market at the time of the study. Labor markets are dynamic, particulariy in industries like tourism that are so susceptible to extemalities. Further efforts should be made to determine how the labor market is to be monitored in the future. 5.6 Conclusion The world of work has and is predicted to continue to change. In this new reality, the tourism industry is likely to have difficulty attracting enough people to work in the industry since there will be less labor supply to go around and fierce competition among industries to attract and keep employees. Already plagued with serious recruitment and retention issues and a lack of research in tourism employment, the industry is amidst a crisis, particularly when demand for tourism products is expected to increase. At the same time, various levels of government expect tourism to play a significant role in economic development both through the generation of tax receipts and employment for constituents. Research on tourism employment has focused on estimating employment impacts at a macro level, or addressing the human resource issues at the unit level. If tourism wants to attract labor supply in an upcoming era of labor shortages, it must explore the “gray area” in-between and study the function of the labor market. In particular, the industry needs to know more about how 200 current labor markets came to be, what employment alternatives exist within the industry, and how the quality of employment can be improved or profiled. The findings of this study in the Vancouver Island region of Canada provide insight into the composition and career choices of the tourism labor market. Similar to previous work, the tourism labor supply appeared to come from all other sectors of the economy, including those that are experiencing declines such as forestry, fishing, mining and agriculture. The reasons individuals chose to work in the industry were found to be positive in nature such as wanting to work in pleasant surroundings, with people and in an interesting job. There appeared to be an under1ying structure to motivation orientations to tourism work where eight factors emerged. The strongest factor was named “lifestyle” reflecting statements showing intrinsic motivators used when deciding to work in the industry. As well, “Entrepreneurship” emerged as the second strongest factor, reflecting the desire of individuals to start their own business in tourism. The findings suggest that a better way to conceptualize motivational choice may be along a “push-pull” continuum. Using a refined scale, findings indicate that in this study region, individuals were more “pulled” than “pushed” to take up a job in tourism. Used further in cluster analysis, the “push-pull” scale identified four clusters that differed in regards to motivation orientation. The clusters were named: 1) “determined”, characterized as being both pushed and pulled into tourism work, 2) “drawn”, characterized as being pulled, 3) “desperate”, characterized as being pushed, and 4) “indifferent”, characterized as being neither pushed or pulled. 201 The findings from the in-depth interviews with former resource-based workers in the region who shifted into tourism work revealed insight into the nature of the transition experience. Making a career shift from a very different industry, the majority of these individuals accessed some form of support when entering tourism. In general, the transition was labeled “a trying experience” for most individuals and often required updating knowledge or skills. Individuals reported a range of positive and negative impacts on their quality of life when entering tourism work, but the majority were happy they had made the shift and were planning to continue working in the industry. While the findings move us closer to understanding the formation and role of tourism labor markets, they are limited in that they may be relevant only to this study region. Further research is needed in additional contexts to explore the composition of labor supply in tourism, motivation orientations toward work in the industry and the nature of the transition experience. In terms of labor planning, the findings of this study are particularly useful to the study region to understand the role tourism is playing in economic development and to provide programs and services to educate and support the tourism labor supply. The findings may be useful to a broader audience as well to assist in the development of strategies to supply the growing tourism industry with the quantity and quality of human capital it needs. 202 97.10 7"?”99 APPENDIX Performance of Resource-Based Industries in British Columbia 1984-1998 1. Performance of the Forestry Industry in British Columbia 1984-1998. 2. Performance of the Fishing Industry in British Columbia 1984-1998. 3. Performance of the Mining Industry in British Columbia 1984-1998. 4. Performance of the Agri-food Industry in British Columbia 1984-1998. Performance of the Tourism Industry in British Columbia 1984- 1999. 1. Performance of the Tourism Industry in British Columbia 1984-1999. 2. Performance of the Accommodation and Food Services Industry in British Columbia 1984-1999. Introduction letter for Tourism Employment Survey Tourism Employment Mail Survey Consent form Tourism Employment Mail Survey Instrument Script for contacting participants for follow-up in-depth interviews . Consent form for follow-up in-depth interviews Guiding questions for follow-up in-depth interviews Profile of participants from the in-depth interviews Emergent themes from in-depth interviews 203 Appendix A. Performance of the Forestry Industry in British Columbia 1984-1998. - a -1 ivflw' "- The Forestry industry's role in the economy is declining. gull" It now accounts for only 6% of total GDP and 5% of employment ‘ _ %oftofaleconomy 12- 10- GOP 5W1 0 I I I I I I I I I I U I I I I I 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 Source: Statistics Canada 204 Performance of the Fishing lndustgr in British Colgmbia 1984-1998 Although there have been some good years, 86' s 117 fishing industry hasn't grown as fast as the rest of the sill] economy since 1984. ’ , 96 of total economy 1.0 1 0.9 - 0.8 « 0.7 , 0.6 - 0.5 « 0.4 - 0.3 - 0.2 . 0.1 - 0'0 ' Tfi ' I I I I 1 Ifi a 1m 1986 1MB 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 Source: Statistics Canada 205 Performance of the Agri-food industry in British Colfiumbia 1984-1998. Ir“ 7;} The agri- food industry hasn't kept pace with the rest of l” V the economy, but there are signs that the situation may .21] ,, be improving. 4, 5 . 96 of total economy 4.0 - 3.5 - 3_o . SW 2.5 1 w 2.0 ‘ one 1.5 - 1.0 - 0.5 1 000 I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1996 1998 206 Source: Statistics Canada Performance of Mining Industry in British Colurlbia 1984-1998. 3“ Mining's share of GDP has more or less held its own even All? . though employment growth has lagged behind the T provincial average. ’ Fr 5'_ '. '4'“ ‘ {11)-Ur...“ ,. ‘uL-aa . -.. 0".ICTH‘F'V)f «v. r , _ Q1 5.0 w 96 errata! economy 4.5 - GDP 40 . WW , 3.5 ' 3.0 1 2.5 1 2.0 q 15 1 1.0 1 0.5 ‘ Employment 0'0 I I j I I I I I I I I I I 1% 1&6 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1993 Source: Statistics Canada 207 Appendix B Performance of Tourism Sector in British Columbia 1984-1999 5;: . V Despite some ups and downs, the Tourism Sector's share I I I l of GDP and employment has remained relatively stable. | ~ . . .' ' ; . ‘ - rags-r . A, ~_ - .' 2 . ..-_ -, ._ (r , :_‘.'.f'.'f_1'-f."l---!" .2.‘ -". r. 96 oftotal economy 9 1 Employment (SEPH) o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1984 1987 1990 1993 19% 1999 Source: BC STATS 208 Performance of Accommodation and Food Services in British Columbia 1984-1998 In; _ - ~ [/V Employment In accommodatiOn and food services has I I I '1 grown a little faster than in the rest of the economy. 96 of total economy 10 1 Employment 9. a. 7‘ -—’iflgh~d/“‘N——-‘\"’-—‘\l’F-_fl’ sl 5-« GDP 4. 3. 2. 1. o I I T I I I I T I I I I I I I I 1%“ 1fl£ 1mm 1mml1mn'1mu 1$B 1%” Source: Statistics Canada/COPS forecast 209 Panmi Ocnab RE: Dear Asar hes agar quan amen his fonn conw orga abet ind“ COT! LETTER OF INTRODUCTION Appendix C. Participant October 15, 2002 RE: Invitation to participate in Tourism Employment Research Project for Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands Dear (actual contact name of employer): As an employer in tourism, you are likely aware of how important quality human resources are to the success of your organization, and to the viability of the local tourism industry. Many tourism organizations have a range of human resource issues such as an inability to recruit enough, or qualified applicants for positions and unusually high turnover rates. Those in tourism education attempt to keep up with the training needs of an ever changing and growing industry. It is for these reasons that Malaspina University—College and Tourism Vancouver Island have formed a partnership to undertake Tourism Labor Market Research for Vancouver Island. One component of this study is to survey employers and employees in 800 tourism-related organizations in the region. The goal of the Tourism Employment research is to find out more about who is employed in tourism, what kinds of positions and skills are available in tourism, how individuals came to be employed in tourism, and how satisfied they are with tourism employment. In order to gain a true representation of the tourism employment picture on Vancouver Island, we would appreciate your participation in this study. Your participation in this study however, is completely voluntary. In one week, you will be sent an envelop with two surveys - one for a tourism employer (someone knowledgeable about human resources in your organization) and one for a tourism employee. All infonnaiion wifl be treated confidentially and for the sole purpose of this study. All information will be reported in group form so the identity of individuals and organizations will be protected. We would appreciate if you could distribute the two surveys to individuals within your organization. The survey should take approximately 15 minutes to complete and then the employees can return them in the self addressed stamped envelopes that will be provided. You and your employees participation in this study will help to paint a more accurate picture of the tourism labor market in the area which will in turn benefit tourism employers on the Island, and those involved in tourism training and education. If you have any questions with regard to this study, please contact the research coordinator - Nicole Vaugeois at 250—754-3500, or via email at vaugeois@mala.bc.ca Thank you for your time, Nicole L. Vaugeois Research Coordinator If you have any questions about this study, please contact the investigator Dr. Donald Holecek at the Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources, Michigan State University, 131 Natural Resources, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824. Tel 517-353-51 90, Fax: 51 7432-3597, Email: dholecek@msu.edu 210 ahnflKrl If you have questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study participants, or are dissatisfied at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact — anonymously, if you wish — Ashir Kumar, M.D., Chair of the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 355-2180, fax (517) 432-4503, email:ucrihs@msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI, 48824. 211 TOURISM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY Appendix D, CONSENT FORM This tourism employment study is being undertaken to determine who is employed in the tourism industry, what sectors tourism employment is in, how people came to become involved in tourism employment and how satisfied they are with that decision. This survey will assist us to obtain that information. As a willing participant in the study you will be asked to complete a 24-question survey with questions about your career in tourism. The survey is easy to answer and should take approximately 15 minutes of your time. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You have the right to refuse to answer any question or withdraw at any time in the process, for any reason and without an explanation or penalty. Your privacy will be protected to the maximum extent allowable bylaw. All responses that you provide will remain confidential and individual names and organizations will notg included. After completing the survey, simply send it back in the self-addressed stamped envelope provided. Once we receive the survey, we will record the data in our computer system and retain the written copies in a secure location for three years after which time all surveys will be shredded. There are no inherent risks in participating in this study; however during the process you may find that thinking about your career in tourism will make you focus on achievement of your professional goals. By participating in this study, you will be contributing to the understanding of tourism employment and your answers may assist employers and educators to better respond to your career needs. We are asking for telephone numbers on this consent form as later in the study, we plan to contact a small selection of individuals for a follow-up in-depth interview. If you are selected to for this portion of the study you will have another opportunity to decline, should you have no interest in participating in the interview. Even if you are not interested in the interview, we would appreciate your participation in filling out this survey. If you have any questions about this study, please contact the investigator Dr. Donald Holecek at the Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources, Michigan State University, 131 Natural Resources, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824. Tel 517-353-5190, Fax: 517-432-3597, Email: dholecek@msu.edu I voluntarily agree to participate in this study. NAME: PHONE: Please print cleady SIGNATURE: DATE: Please complete this consent form and return it with the survey provided in the self- addressed, stamped envelope provided. ~ If you have questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study participants, or are dissatisfied at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact - anonymously, if you wish - Ashir Kumar, M.D., Chair of the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 355-2180. fax (517) 432-4503, email:ucrihs@msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI, 48824. 212 Employees are one of the most important resources in a strong tourism system. In order to assist organizations involved in tourism to recruit and retain valuable employees, we would appreciate your input in this survey. ALL INFORMATION GATHERED IS CONFIDENTIAL. Appendix E. About your current job... 0.1 What is your current position title? (please specify) 0.2 What sector of tourism are you currently employed in? Is it...(please circle 93 that apply) ACCOMMODATION . FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONFERENCE AND MEETING FACILITIES/SERVICES ART, CULTURE AND ENTERTAINMENT OUTDOOR RECREATION, SPORT AND ADVENTURE TOURISM TRANSPORTATION ATTRACTIONS (including special events and festivals) TRAVEL AND TOUR OPERATIONS TRAINING AND EDUCATION 10 TRAVEL TRADE (including tourism marketing organizations) 11 AGRICULTURAL TOURISM 12 OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY): (DQVODO'IAQN-i 0.3 Which of the above is the primary sector of tourism that you identify with? (please indicate the most accurate response) PRIMARY SECTOR OF TOURISM 0.4 Approximately how long have you been employed with your current employer? (please circle best response) LESS THAN 6 MONTHS 6 - 12 MONTHS 1 -- 2 YEARS 3 - 5 YEARS 6 - 10 YEARS 11 - 15 YEARS 16 YEARS AND OVER NOO-fiQN-h 05 Which of the following have you received within the last three years from your current employers? (Please check all that apply) A PROMOTION TO A POSITION OF HIGHER AUTHORITY AN INCREASE IN WAGE/SALARY AN INCREASE IN RESPONSIBILITIES RECOGNITION FOR OUTSTANDING PERFORMANCE AN OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN NEW SKILLS/KNOWLEDGE OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY): NONE OF THE ABOVE \lmo'I-th—i 213 0.6 (JIAOON-t 0.7 0.8 (c-ICD-ZD'UOZEI-XL-IOTIITIUOCD> 0.9 How would you describe the level of your position? Is it (please circle best response) ENTRY LEVEL (Positions requiring little experience to enter the organization) DEPARTMENT LEVEL (Skilled positions requiring some experience, non supervisory) MID-MANAGEMENT LEVEL (Positions supervising others, or assisting management) MANAGEMENT LEVEL (Positions requiring a full range of management responsibilities) OWNER/OPERATOR Thinking about your current tourism related job, what is your employment status in each of the following seasons? (please circle best response for each season) WINTER (January to March) 1 PART-TIME (less than 29 hrs. per week) 2 FULL-TIME (30 hrs. per week and above) SPRING (April to June) 1 PART-TIME (less than 29 hrs. per week) 2 FULL-TIME (30 hrs. per week and above) SUMMER (July to September) 1 PART-TIME (less than 29 hrs. per week) 2 FULL-TIME (30 hrs. per week and above) FALL (October to December) 1 PART-TIME (less than 29 hrs. per week) 2 F ULL-TIME (30 hrs. per week and above) To what extent do you perform each of the following activities in your current position? (please circle the best response for each item) NOT AT SOME A NOT ALL TIMES LOT SURE Provide face to face service to customers f Administrative duties (answering phone. filing. faX. etc.) Handle bookings or reservations (trips, rooms, etc.) Handle payments from customers (Cash, credit, etc.) ’ Lead/guidefrnstruct visitors in activities Process data, information, forms Sell products or services (activities, souvenirs, etc.) Interpretation/education of visitors Work with technology (computers, equipment, etc.) Package experiences for visitors Organize events (conferences, festivals, etc.) Market my organization/region to potential viSitOrs Manage human resources (recruit, hire, supervise, etc.) Train employees ' ' Communication to groups (presentations, meetings, etc.) Communicate in writing (emails, reports. memos, etc) Manage finances (accounting, payroll, etc.) ReSearch (markets, visitors, destinations. etc.) Strategic planning (organization, destination area, etc.) Travel for business . Transport visitors Other, please specify A—b-L—A—L-A-l—b-l—l—l—L-A—L—L-A—L—A‘L-L—l—k NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwu ##h#&#&#&###¥§¥hh¥$$h# Which of the job activities listed above do you feel you would like more training or education in? (Please specify all that apply by indicating the letter (i.e. G, N, and S) 1 4 If additional, please specify: 2 5 3 6 214 How did you come to be employed in a tourism related job... This next set of questions will have you think back to how you came to be employed in your first tourism related job, not just your current job. 0.10 Approximately how long would you say you have been consecutively employed in tourism related jobs? (please specify length of time for the most appropriate category) YEARS ON A PART-TIME AND SEASONAL BASIS YEARS ON A PART-TME AND YEAR ROUND BASIS YEARS ON A FULL-TIME AND SEASONAL BASIS YEARS ON A F ULL-TIME AND YEAR ROUND BASIS #OJN-t 0.11 Thinking back to before you were employed in your first tourism related job, what were you doing immediately prior? (Please circle the best response) Working in the FISHING industry Working in the FORESTRY industry Working in AGRICULTURE Working in the MINING industry Working in the OIL AND GAS industry Working in UTILITIES Working in CONSTRUCTION Working in EDUCATIONAL SERVICES Working in the RETAIL sector 10 Working in 3 TRADE 11 Working in MANUFACTURING 12 Working in HEALTH CARE OR SOCIAL ASSISTANCE 13 Working in RECREATION OR SPORT 14 Working in ARTS, ENTERTAINMENT AND CULTURE 15 Working in TRANSPORTATION AND WAREHOUSING 16 Working in PROFESSIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL services 17 Working in MANAGEMENT, ADMINISTRATIVE AND OTHER SUPPORT 18 Working in PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 19 Working in FINANCE, REAL ESTATE OR LEASING 2O Studying in HIGH SCHOOL 21 Studying in COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY 22 HOMEMAKER OR PARENTING 23 UNEMPLOYED 24 Other (please specify): CDQNGCII¥OONA 0. 12 Thinking back on your last three Jobs, fill in the table below starting with your current Job and working back In time. DURATION OF EMPLOYMENT TYPE OF EMPLOYER (SPECIFY START AND END JOB TITLE DATE) A MONTH/Y EAR to MONT H/YEAR B MONTH/YEAR to MONTH/Y EAR C MONT H/Y EAR to MONTH/Y EAR 215 In Why did you choose to be employed in tourism... 0.13 Which of the following reasons best describe your reasons for choosing to work in your fiLst tourism related job? (please circle the number that best describes your level of agreement to 91¢ statement) I chose to work In tourism STRONGLY SOME NEITHER SOME STRONGLY becausg". DISAGREE WHAT AGREE OR WHAT AGREE DISAGREE DISAGREE AGREE 2 3 4 0' I earned too little in my previous job It was eaSy to start a business in tourism I wanted to improve my standard of living ' Wanted better working conditions . I wanted to work part-time to supplement my income I wanted an interesting job My family had a business in tourism 1 7 1 I wanted to accumulate capital to establish j ’ myownbusiness _ .. . I was unemployed and needed a job I saw tourism as a profitable industry . l was attracted by the Image of tourism I wanted to travel more ' ‘ I wanted to use language skills :' .. ’I wanted a job that was conducive to my , lifestyle 3.. . I needed em mOney quickly lwas downsized in a declining industry I wanted an appropriate income _ 'rlwanted. a johthat suited my education ~‘ I did not see prospects in my previous occupation ;’ I wanted to leave my previous jet; ‘ " "I wanted a job where I could deal with 1 ’ people j I saw tourism as the most profitable ' V 1 industry fora business _ , ,. . . I could not get a job elsewhere , " I needed a jOb which did not rquiire any ~.partrculargualrfimtron The first job I was offered was in tourism . . I wanted to work in pleasant sunoundings ,,,._- I like to try different jobs I wanted to establish .my own business I have goOd business skills and I thought I could use them well in tourism . I felt that there were a lot of tourism jobs 1 A A - A AA Agate-A74 N rcrorororo NM ro- IoIo NNNM'NTN'Ni‘MNMM'NNM NNNN A Arse-".53: his .ts‘ ears. hi-hIA'J-‘Nik‘hh- A'Ahaefiee'e Aer-a- or ch‘cncn'd‘rcn error or oral marathon (northcncncnorarcn 01010101 co wwwww'ww‘w woo. wanna-w seawater» cacao: wwww 216 0.14 To what extent do you use your current job to provide for your income? (Please circle best response) 1 I USE THIS JOB AS MY PRIMARY SOURCE OF INCOME. 2 I USE THIS JOB TO PROVIDE ME WITH SUPPLEMENTARY INCOME (FOR OTHER PART- TIME JOBS. PENSION, SEASONAL LAYOFF, ETC.) Your views on tourism-related employment... 0.15 Thinking about your current Job, how would you rate each of the items? (Please circle the best response) VERY SOME NEITHER SOME VERY BAD WHAT GOOD OR WHAT GOOD BAD BAD GOOD Opportunities for advancement within 1 2 3 4 5 this organization Quality of work provided by your 1 2 3 4 5 employ ‘ér‘ Income (wages and tips) 1 2 3 4 5 Level of benefits . 1 2 3 4 5 Rewards and recognition given 1 2 3 4 5 Job opportunities In other organizations 1 2 3 4 5 Amount of work provided (seasons, 1 2 3 4 5 weeks, days) Opportunrty to Ieam new skills 1 2 3 - '4 5 Hours of work (times of the day) 1 2 3 4 5 Type of Job duties -. , ~ .1 :2: 3 4 5 Level 1 2 3 4 5 Social status ’ ' -1 2 3' ’ 4 5 Working environment (physical 1 2 3 4 5 sqrroundin . .. Aliyah}, gain andieducetion r, -1- . - 2 ; ’3» 4 5 Social working environment (fellow 1 2 3 4 5 workers) 0.16 Which of the following statements best describes your attitude towards your future In tourism employment? (Circle the best response) 1 I PLAN TO CONTINUE WORKING IN TOURISM BECAUSE IT IS MY CHOSEN CAREER PATH 2 I WILL WORK IN TOURISM JOBS UNTIL SOMETHING BETTER COMES ALONG. 3 I HAVE NOT FORMED ANY DECISIONS ON MY FUTURE IN TOURISM. 0.17 What city or town do you currently live In? CITY OR TOWN 0.18 Approximately how long have you lived in this city or town? YEARS 0.19 Did you have to relocate your home when you started your current job? YES 2 NO .I. 0.20 What city or town do you currently work in? CITY OR TOWN 217 Your job preferences... 0.21 Which of the following statements does your current employer use to keep you working with them? (Please circle .a_ll that apply) PAYS ME ACCORDING TO MY PRODUCTIVITY (pay for performance) PROVIDES OCCASIONAL REWARDS FOR OUTSTANDING WORK PAYS ME WAGES THAT ARE HIGHER THAN INDUSTRY STANDARD PROVIDES ME WITH ADDITIONAL BENEFITS (dental, health, pension plan, etc.) PROVIDES ASSISTANCE WITH HOUSING (subsidized, accessible) PROVIDES ME WITH PAY INCREASES BASED ON SENIORITY PROMOTES ME TO A POSITION WITH HIGHER AUTHORITY OR RESPONSIBILITIES PROVIDES ME WITH A PROFIT SHARING PLAN (shares or bonuses) RECOGNIZES ADDITIONAL TRAINING AND CERTIFICATIONS WITH REWARD (pay or recognition) PROVIDES TRAINING AND EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES Other (Please specify): COCDNQUIAQN-t AA ‘0 0.22 Which of the above statements is the most Important motivator for you to remain working with an employer? (Please specify) MOST IMPORTANT MOTIVATOR 0.23 Which of the following job search techniques did you use when searching for your current tourism position? (Circle _a_ll_ that apply) _ ON-LINE JOB SEARCH ASKED MY FRIENDS AND ACQUAINTANCES ABOUT POTENTIAL EMPLOYMENT CHECKED JOB POSTINGS AT EMPLOYMENT ASSISTANCE OFFICES ATTENDED JOB AND CAREER FAIRS VISITED EMPLOYMENT OFFICES AT REGIONAL COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES CHECKED JOB ADS IN LOCAL NEWSPAPERS FOR OPENINGS MADE PERSONAL CONTACT WITH INDIVIDUAL EMPLOYERS Other (please specify): 0.24 Which of the above job search techniques was the most effective for you when searching for your current tourism position? (Please specify) GNOU’I-th-e MOST EFFECTIVE JOB SEARCH TECHNIQUE 0.25 Which of the following programslservlces did you utilize when seeking a job in tourism? Circle all that apply. CAREER COUNSELING SERVICES AT A HIGH SCHOOL OR EMPLOYMENT CENTRE JOB SEARCH PROGRAMS AT AN EMPLOYMENT CENTRE SMALL BUSINESS ASSISTANCE PROGRAM TOURISM/HOSPITALITY/RECREATION RELATED CERTIFICATE PROGRAM. Please specify program: TOURISM/HOSPITALITY/RECREATION RELATED DIPLOMA PROGRAM. Please specify program: 6 TOURISMIHOSPITALITY/RECREATION RELATED DEGREE PROGRAM. Please specify program: wa-F O1 218 About you... 0.27 Which age category do you belong to? (Please circle the best response) UNDER 19 YEARS 20 - 24 YEARS 25 - 29 YEARS 30 — 34 YEARS 35 - 39 YEARS 40 — 44 YEARS 45 - 49 YEARS 50 — 54 YEARS 55 - 59 YEARS 60 - 64 YEARS 65 YEARS OR OLDER —I~—I(OGDNIO)Q'I-5CI~>I\J-|b ‘0 0.28 What is the highest level of education that you have obtained? (Circle the best response) SOME HIGH SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL DIPLOMA POST-SECONDARY CERTIFICATE POST-SECONDARY DIPLOMA POST-SECONDARY DEGREE (i.e. Bachelors degree) GRADUATE DEGREE (i.e. Masters or PhD.) GUI-500104 0.29 What is your gender? (Circle response) A MALE 2 FEMALE 0.30 What category best describes your gross current Income level, including gratuig, tips and commissions? (Circle the best response) $9,999 AND BELOW BETWEEN $10,000 - $19,999 BETWEEN $20,000 ~$29,999 BETWEEN $30,000 - $39,999 BETWEEN $40,000 - $44,999 BETWEEN $45,000 - $49,999 BETWEEN $50,000 - $59,999 BETWEEN $60,000 - $69,999 BETWEEN $70,000 - $79,999 0 BETWEEN $80,000 - $89,999 1 $90,000 AND ABOVE A—‘COQNODUI-bOON-e Any other comments you would like to share... 0. 31 If you would like to comment on anything else regarding tourism employment, please do so on a separate sheet of paper and attach it to this questionnaire. We welcome your comments. Thank you for participating in this study. Your input will assist in the development of the tourism labor market in the Vancouver Island region. Please return this completed questionnaire in the addressed, stamped envelope provided. 219 Appendix F. SCRIPT CONTACTING PARTICIPANTS FOR THE lN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS Respondent: Telephone #: Hello, may I speak with (name provided from consent form in initial tourism employee survey). My name is Nicole Vaugeois, research coordinator with the Tourism Labor Market Research Project. Thank you for participating in the tourism employee survey. We have received your survey in Nanaimo and recorded your responses into our system. As you may have read on the consent form, we are contacting a small number of individuals who were previously employed in resource-based industries before coming to tourism. We are interested in knowing more about the transition that people have to make when entering tourism from industries such as logging, fishing, etc., and how the decision impacts their quality of life. You indicated on your survey that you were previously employed in (sector as indicated on survey), is this correct? . (Name of individual) I am hoping that you be willing to participate in a follow-up interview with you to Ieam more about your transition to tourism employment. The interview would take about one hour of your time and I could meet you at a time and location that is convenient for you. Would you be willing to participate in a follow-up interview? Yes No Great, thank you. Okay, thank you again for your time Can we establish a date and time for the interview to and response to the survey. We take place? (Secure a date and time) appreciate your input. DATE: Good-bye TIME: Where would you like the interview to take place? (Record address and directions) PLACE: DIRECTIONS: I will call you to confirm our meeting about 2 days in advance. I will have you write down my information though, should you need to contact me prior to the interview. Do you have a pen and paper available? Nicole Vaugeois, Research Coordinator Malaspina University-College Phone: (250) 753-3245 Local 2772 Email: vaugeois@ala.bc.ca Okay, do you have any questions for me about the interview I look forward to the interview. Thank you again, Good- bye. 220 CONSENT FORM Appendix G. TOURISM EMPLOYEE lN-DEPTH INTERVIEW This tourism employment study is being undertaken to investigate the experience of people who are working in the tourism industry after employment in a resource-based sector of the economy. The study provides an opportunity for these employees to talk about the reasons they made a transition to tourism employment and what impact tourism employment has had on their lives. This interview will assist us to obtain the above information. As a willing participant in the study you will be asked to respond to a series of questions about your transition to tourism employment. The interview is designed to be like a conversation and it should take approximately one hour of your time. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You have the right to refuse to answer any question or to withdraw at any time in the process, for any reason and without an explanation or penalty. If you withdraw, all information obtained in the study will be destroyed. Your privacy will be protected to the maximum extent allowable by law. All responses that you provide will remain confidential. After completing the interview, your responses will be assigned to a different name to protect your identity. The organization you work for will not be included when reporting information. The interview will be tape-recorded so that the detail from your responses is recorded accurately. After the interview, your responses will be transcribed and recorded in our computer system. The cassette will be kept for three years in a locked filing cabinet with no identification to you, after which time it will be destroyed. There are no inherent risks in participating in this study; however during the process you may find that thinking about your career in tourism will make you focus on achievement of your professional goals. By participating in this study, you will be contributing to the understanding of tourism employment and your answers may assist employers and educators to respond to your career needs. If you have any questions about this study, please contact the investigator Dr. Donald Holecek at the Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources, Michigan State University, 131 Natural Resources, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824. Tel 517-353-5190, Fax: 517-432-3597, Email: dholecek@msu.edu I voluntarily agree to participate in this study. I agree to have this interview tape-recorded. I do not wish to have this interview tape-recorded. Signature Date Please complete this consent form and return it to the researcher who provided it to you. Please keep a copy for your own reference. If you have questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study participants, or are dissatisfied at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact — anonymously, if you wish - Ashir Kumar, M.D., Chair of the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 355-2180, fax (517) 432-4503, email:ucrihs@msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI, 48824. 221 k There lounsr pthhi labor GUIDING QUESTIONS Appendix H. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS Interview candidate: Date: The reason I asked to meet with you today was to talk about your decision to become involved in tourism after working in . Your responses will help to Ieam more about the potential of tourism to assist in providing employment to communities undergoing changes to the labor market. 10. Can you tell me a little bit about your current job? 11. How did you come to be'in this position? 12. When you made a shift — did you utilize any help from employment offices or programs (i.e. labor market information, small business assistance programs). If so which ones? Why or why not? 13. If yes, did you find them valuable? Why or why not? 14. What, if anything would have made your transition to tourism smoother? 15. What kinds of things in your life improved when you started working in tourism? 16. What kinds of things worsened? 17. Are you happy you made a shift? 18. Do you think you will remain working in tourism? Why or why not? That concludes the questions I have for the interview. Is there anything else you would like to tell me about your career or tourism employment? I’ll be transcribing the notes from this interview and assigning you a pseudonym that will be used for all reporting purposes. If you need to contact me at anytime you can do so with the contact information provided on the consent form. Thank you for all your time. 222 Appendix 1. Summary description of participants in the in-depth interviews ti Assigned Gender Age Region of the Former Current position Pseudonym range island resource- based Industry 1 Clint Male 35-40 North Central Forestry Owner, nature based tourism company 2 Gary Male 40-45 Pacific Rim Fishing Owner, nature based tourism company 3 Fred Male 35-40 Central Island Forestry Part-time sport tourism, . University student 4 Christy Female 4550 Central Island Fishing Administrative assistant, Tourism magazine 5 Mary Female 45-50 North Central Fishing Special events, Harbor Authority 6 Chris Male 30-35 Pacific Rim Fishing Part-time Golf Course University student 7 Glenda Female 35-40 North Island Forestry Administration, nature based tourism company 8 Helen Female 65—70 North Island Forestry Owner, Bed and Breakfast 9 Tina Female 2025 North Island Forestry Manager, Resort and Campground 10 Larry Male 45-50 Pacific Rim Fishing Manager, nature based tourism company 11 Lou Male 3035 Central Island Fishing Tourism Coordinator, First Nations Tourism 12 Patrick Male 45-50 South Island Agriculture Manager, Agriculture Fairgrounds 13 Josh Male 40-45 North Central Fishing Owner, nature based tourism company 14 Stan Male 30-35 Pacific Rim Agriculture Owner, Bed and Breakfast 15 Beth Female 55—60 Pacific Rim Agriculture Owner, Bed and Breakfast 16 Rodger Male 4550 Pacific Rim Fishing Owner, nature based tourism company 17 Bill Male 45-50 Central Island Forestry Owner, nature based tourism company 18 Julie Female 45-40 Central Island Fishing Manager, nature based tourism company 19 Colin Male 55—60 North Island Forestry Owner, nature based tourism company 20 Jessica Female 30-35 Central Island Agriculture Special events, Market 21 Melissa Female 30-35 Pacific Rim Agriculture Administration assistant, Golf course 22 Cindy Female 40-45 North Central Forestry Manager. Resort 223 Emergent themes from the in depth interviews Appendix J. Participant: Clint Path to tourism: Born off island and moved to the island to start a business in tourism and to live a lifestyle (outdoors). Chose region for ability to surf, kayak and do outdoor pursuits with his wife and make money. Had visited the region for 14 years annually. Each of transition: Relatively difficult. Clint and his wife were new entrepreneurs so had to Ieam how to start a business and adjust to the community. Adjustment to the community was difficult as they faced strong resistance from locals who felt threatened by tourism, Resources used in transition: None, chose not to use any after doing research and realizing the limitations that would be placed upon him. Didn't want to be tied into any programs and felt that 3 years was not long enough to show a profit in business. Resources suggested to smooth the transition: Assistance programs should be more accessible (was asked to drive 3 hours a week to access a program) and should be more tailored to tourism businesses (longer profit period, mentorship options, build a foundation). Improvements since transition: Independence, quality of life (lifestyle and pursuits), improved physical health (bodies are stronger, heads are clearer). Worsened since transition: Increased stress, especially in first few years. A lot of work, less sleep. Stress from local residents when they came to town. Hurdles with land tenure, permits and applications, etc. Other themes: Discussed at length examples of how he and his wife were not welcomed into the community which was very remote and relied solely on forestry and fishing for employment They didn’t want to become another “Tofino” (another community wich has experienced an incredible growth in tourism development). Participant; Fred Path to tourism: Born and raised on the Island. Worked in forestry and had to leave the industry due to a chronic back injury. Decided to do something he loved which meant sports and tourism. Ease of transition: Extremely difficult (hard to separate back injury from transition to tourism.) Required him to be off work for 4 years with a young family. Went back to College. Found the move to College intimidating, hit many barriers and still feels uncertain about the future. . Resources used in transition: Support from Workers Compensation to cover the costs of College education. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Supported changes to funding programs to allow pursuit of a degree to enable people to get a higher-level position (close to making what they formerly did). Improvements since transition: Self-esteem has increased substantially going back to school (life time goal). Socially he has met different people. Worsened since transition: Family and friends don't understand his choice and challenge, money is less but he is willing to take a cut in pay for quality of life. 224 Other themes: Talked about difficulty for forestry workers to leave a secure union paid job for the private sector. Participant: Christy Path to tourism: Born and raised on the Island. Had a fishing boat with her family for 20 years. Fishing decline made them consider running a charter boat. Couldn‘t afford to retrofit boat, found employment with Tourism Magazine Ease of transition: Relatively difficult. Researched options for 5 years. Tried to find programs and support but had difficulty knowing where to go. 'I always had my own business and have never used any sort of assistance, it went against my grain”. Resources used in transition: I: Went to various employment assistance offices "a maze”. Got on with the Fisheries Retraining Program where she found her job. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Need to have information more accessible. Fishers are “fiercely independent people who don't like to ask for support“. lnforrnation needs to be more streamlined as programs appear to overlap. Improvements since transition: '7 Enjoys talking to people, Ieamed new skills, gets to travel Worsened since transition: Money (when fishing was good). Money is more steady now. Misses family time on the boat, being outside, and the fishing community. Other themes: Searching for a way of life vs. money. Would still like to have her boat and a charter business in the area. Participant: Mary Path to tourism: Born off island and moved to become a fisher with husband. Saw fishing decline and searched for options. Volunteered first, then offered a job. Ease of transition: Relatively easy. Networked with fishing community, volunteered with Harbour Commission. Resourceful. Resources used in transition: Involved in a federal assistance program and received a wage subsidy for first job. Took 10 week program "Women in transition“ to set goals. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Make access less intimidating, bring options to the people in need (at harbour commission's etc.). Peer programs and mentor programs. Break down barriers by doing things in groups. Improvements since transition: Has decent transportation, more separation in household chores with husband, improved time management, Ieamed new skills and applies them daily, still works in familiar environment with similar people. Worsened since transition: Lots of babysitting certain types of tourists. Misses family time on the boat (team working together with cleariy defined roles). Other themes: Tourism is a good way to let people know about the fishing culture and way of life. Fishing (and other industries) are part of the tourism product, and communities should try to promote these to visitors as unique experiences, and to preserve local heritage. 225 Participant: Chris Path to tourism: Born and raised on the Island. Became unable to work due to injury. Ease of transition: Quite difficult. After doing research, he felt it was necessary for him to get an education first. Is studying at the diploma level and has been off work for 3 years. Resources used in transition: Workers Compensation funding to support him while going to school. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Suggested changes to funding programs to allow people to obtain a degree instead of just a diploma, which is important to obtain a higher level position (that can pay similar to previous work) Improvements since transition: Learned new skills and got to go to University. Doesn't have to be away from home all the time. ~ Worsened since transition: Hard to separate from the injury - off work means no income, depression, and loss of confidence. Other themes: Commented that single resource workers are likely to move where the work is, but married workers are more likely to stay put and find alternatives to sustain families within their community. Participant: Glenda Path to tourism: Born and raised on the island. Was working in forestry but sustained a chronic injury that prevented her from continuing. She was an outdoors person and saw opportunities for tourism in her region. Ease of transition: Quite difficult. After her research, she decided she would have to upgrade her education and did a two-year College program that required her to relocate and leave her family during that period. Found her job soon after graduating Resources used in transition: Received provincial funding assistance to make the shift. It covered schooling and relocation expenses, but she still required support from her husband to go through her education. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Nothing really. Felt that a lot of funding programs are abused by others but was happy to have it available for her. Improvements since transition: Better variety of job tasks, is very interesting work, enjoys people, faces new challenges all the time, room for growth, sees tourism contributing to her community. Worsened since transition: Makes less money in tourism, but is steady. Other themes: Suggested that tourism was a good way to add stability to income for rural families. Tourism can diversify employment base, create opportunities for other people to work (not just men). 226 Participant: Helen Path to tourism: Came to the Island 7 years ago. Sustained an injury that prevented her from working in Forestry. Searched for options that would fit her new life circumstances and felt tourism would work well to allow her to stay at home and remain in control of her life. Ease of transition: Quite easy. She already had the skills for hosting and cooking for visitors, she just needed to acquire the business skills. Felt it was a natural extension of her skills. Resources used in transition: Helen accessed a Provincial funding program that enabled her to get some computer training and purchase items to start her own Bed and Breakfast. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: None really suggested. Felt the program worked well for her. Improvements since transition: Being able to work from home and remain in control of her life. A job where things are always changing, friends and family are always near her, and she can have her life the way she wants it. Great sense of security. Worsened since transition: Never gets a break, hard work every day. Other themes: Commented that tourism in the North Island region is primarily run by small business owners. Said the money is staying locally, diversifying the base. Has noticed a difference in the way people in her community have responded to tourism within the past 7 years - from dislike to recognition of need, opportunity. Participant: Tina Path to tourism: Born and raised in the region. Was laid off from forestry job and chose to work in tourism. Said forestry was not a chosen career, but one that every young person does until they decide what they "really want". Ease of transition: Quite easy. She knew she wanted to remain in the area and work in management, maybe a resort. Used rural network and applied for a job at a local resort. Was promoted in 6 months to a management position. Resources used in transition: No formal programs used, but she searched for work at the local employment office. Also used the support and network of family and friends to locate potential job. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: None really suggested. Having skills in computers and customer service would be useful for many. Improvements since transition: ls happier, and has things to talk about with friends and family. Likes to share her knowledge, meet new people and enjoys creating memories for others. Feels a huge sense of accomplishment for being a manager at such a young age. Allowed her to stay in the area and feels there is opportunity for growth. Worsened since transition: Remote resort means she is away from the local community during the day. Other themes: Suggested tourism is able to provide employment for “loggers wives“ through part- time jobs. Felt rural community had a real opportunity with tourism growth. 227 Participant: Larry Path to tourism: Moved to the Island as a young adult with his family. Worked in a fish buying plant until 1998. "Saw the writing on the wall" and decided to join his brother in law in nature based tourism business. Ease of transition: Quite easy from an access standpoint. Skill acquisition has been a long journey (computers, accounting, human resource management etc.). Resources used In transition: No formal programs used. Family supports were valuable in transition. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: None really. Commented on “tap being turned off“ in rural areas where resource- based sectors are in decline. Something is needed to support people in the areas. Improvements since transition: Lifestyle improved immensely -' time now with family, weekends off, can be involved in the community and plans and takes holidays. Fishing was either intense (with money) or monotonous (without money). Worsened since transition: Misses camaraderie with fisherman, the ”thrill of the catch”, misses the big time off, more money when fishing was good. Hassles with bureaucrats, licenses, permits and image of nature based tourism having “lots of money" Other themes: Commented that tourism has potential for kids in the region. They are the first generation of owners and operators, but when the hard work of business start up is over, they will inherit a successful business that allows them to live in the (beautiful) area. Participant: Lou Path to tourism: Born and raised in the region. Wanted to be at home more and left forestry and fishing to work in tourism. Started in entry level hospitality, did education, then progressed to coordinator Ease of transition: Quite easy initially, but later stages it was more involved. First job was in a restaurant and was offered to him without experience. Then noticed a “ceiling” and had to get educated before moving into different position. Resources used in transition: Did a two—year tourism management diploma after initial job in tourism. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: None mentioned. Discussed his role trying to get First Nations youth more involved in tourism. Mentioned needing to raise awareness of tourism benefits and costs, letting the people self direct and experience the industry. Improvements since transition: Enjoyed being at home with his significant other. Too much travel and being away in his previous line of work. Increased knowledge and confidence going to University (also important for his parents), socially he met different people and bonded in a different way, more flexible work hours. Worsened since transition: Less travel, made a bit less money. Other themes: Talked about tourism being a low cost start up business and form of economic development for First Nations people. Allows them to preserve arts and culture “without having to dance around in monkey suits”. Cautioned that when a whole 228 household is on income assistance and one person is being paid, it can be stressful. Participant: Patrick Path to tourism: Born off island and came to the region in 1978 to be with his wife and run a Dairy. Sold Dairy when NAFTA was coming in (as did a lot of neighbors). Shift just sort of happened when he was offered a job in management at the local fairgrounds (after volunteering). Ease of transition: Fairly easy. Patrick had volunteered for years and knew the people and place very well. His business skills were useful in the transition to management. Understanding tourism wasn't a real challenge. Resources used In transition: None per se. Used network of local friends and family, which is where his offer for work came from. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: None mentioned. Improvements since transition: Someone else is providing the check so less responsibility and stress (than farming). He still gets to be around animals and stay in the area. Job has some status attached to it. Worsened since transition: He misses his animals (cows). Feels he has to be at work and at evening meetings. Other themes: Talked about urban vs. rural differences. Notices a lot of change in who is moving into rural areas. Felt they had different motives to live in rural areas than his generation did. Participant: Josh Path to tourism: Born and raised in the region. Was asked by his Chief to be the steward of one of the Islands of the First Nations territory. The Island was frequented by kayakers in the summer and he decided to start some cultural tours to tap into the market, and extend peoples experience to the area. Ease of transition: FairIy easy. Did research and took about 3 years or so to know what to offer and how to go about business with visitors. At first, kept fishing and tourism going, and after awhile he eased out of fishing completely. Also renewed his interest in his culture and art, started carving to sell work to visitors for money in the off-season. Resources used In transition: None, was independent. Had help from his wife to setup business and promote the company, take reservations etc. Access to the territory of his band for cultural tours. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Now works with First Nations youth to encourage them into tourism. Discussed the need for programs to hire and train First Nations youth with existing operators. Wants to instill a sense of independence, stewardship and self-reliance upon youth and have them succeed. Improvements since transition: Fame and importance among his people, and visitors to the region. Likes to empower people and teach the young to survive and succeed and be proud of their culture. Enjoys being a steward to his people's land and bringing awareness to the First Nations people of the region to visitors. 229 Worsened since transition: Stress was increased, responsibility increased. Politics and bureaucracy is time consuming and work is never done. Other themes: Talked about tourism needing different rules and regulations for small business grants. Maybe longer period to show a profit (as they are seasonal), or have forgiveables to encourage success. Participant: Stan Path to tourism: Born off island and moved to take over his parents business. Left ”corporate job” for entrepreneurial dreams and lifestyle. Ease of transition: FairIy easy. Had some management skills, was resourceful and had family in the business. Resources used in transition: Family owned the business that he took over. Also took a number of short courses to Ieam more about tourism. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Suggested taking short courses to upgrade skills and become involved in local tourism industry. Improvements since transition: Physical health (lost weight), less stress, no more "rat race”, closer with family, quality of life, new skills and sense of security. Worsened since transition: Waiting periods of time, loss of cultural opportunities for he and his wife, lack of social connection with people their age, not as many consumer products “toys”. Other themes: Newcomer to the area was the first to mention trying to become part of the tourism industry in the region, and use of the web to attract business. Participant: Beth Path to tourism: Born and raised off Island and moved with husband to establish a business for retirement income. Ease of transition: Fairly easy. Extension of hospitality skills to have people in their home (Bed and Breakfast). Resources used in transition: Took some computer courses and Bed and Breakfast short workshops to learn the business. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: None suggested. Recommended the resources they used. Improvements since transition: Able to be in a location conducive to lifestyle. Enjoy meeting people from around the world, feel secure in their retirement. Worsened since transition: Away from family, loss of opportunities found in an urban center. Lots of work, never a day Off. Other themes: Use of tourism to support retirement goals. 230 .1! Participant: Rodger Path to tourism: Worked in fishing since moving to the Island to be with his wife. Decided to start a nature based tourism company after traveling and witnessing success in other areas of the world. Ease of transition: Quite difficult. Was the first nature based tourism company of its kind in the region. No examples to use in forming ideas, no partners, and had to work to develop image of the destination. Every year was more successful. Resources used In transition: Joint effort with his wife, no formal programs used. Family capital to get the business off to a start. Use of family to run business. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Recommended small business assistance programs that encourage people to research and develop unique business ideas Improvements since transition: . Independence, able to stay in the region, pride of ownership and successful business, security. Worsened since transition: Responsibility of ownership, red tape for permits, licenses. Things are always changing so systems need to adapt each year, which gets tiring. Other themes: Pride of ownership in ideas, business and success. Participant: Bill Path to tourism: Bom off island and moved to the island to be with his wife. Worked in forestry but shifted to tourism due to values (non-extractive use of environment). Very outdoors oriented and wanted to extend that to visitors. Ease of transition: Somewhat difficult. Required learning business skills and early nature based tourism companies had to “fight access to land” in a region where resource-based industries have the “right of way" to all natural resources. Resources used In transition: Nothing for the business other than summer student employment assistance to lighten the workload during the high season. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Recognition of the role of tourism in the region, and support for land tenure to enable, rather than restrict, growth Improvements since transition: Pride of ownership, doing something in sync with his values, doing what he loves, creating experiences for others who visit the region, hopefully helping to protect the natural resources of the region. Worsened since transition: Stress and workload, politics increased, frustration over resource-use. Other themes: Values orientation to tourism over extractive resource-based industries. 231 Participant: Julie Path to tourism: Born on the island and worked in fishing and forestry prior to choosing tourism and wanted to extend those to others. Ease of transition: Easy, enjoyed the work, the people, being outside and the seasonal nature of the business. Resources used in transition: Networked to get position. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: None mentioned. Improvements since transition: Happier, enjoys her work, likes dealing with people. Worsened since transition: Money still comes in waves, but is less. Also has become less important to her. Other themes: None Participant: Colin Path to tourism: Raised on the Island. Former helicopter logger who recognized a role for nature based tourism experiences in the region for high-end visitors. Started his own business. Ease of transition: Difficult for first 5 years, but done with his wife and family so each took on different roles. New way of life. Resources used in transition: None at the start. Took 5 years to become financially sound. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Could not comment. Improvements since transition: Ability to work with the family, show people the best of the region and an experience they cannot get elsewhere. Financially lucrative. Worsened since transition: Not much, at first the finances were difficult. Tourism is highly dependent upon external environment so always somewhat nervous about future Other themes: Tourism influence on extemalities. Participant: Jessica Path to tourism: Born on the island and worked in a family owned agriculture business. Merged into agritourism by offering special events at a farm market. Ease of transition: Fairly easy, felt she already had strong skills and creative ideas and a captive audience to help expand the family business. Felt lacking in her knowledge of marketing and promotions. Resources used in transition: Support of family, took special event planning workshops at local community college. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: Short intense courses in marketing, partnerships, programming, agritourism. 232 Improvements since transition: Independence. enjoyment of seeing ideas come to life, opportunity to expand the business, stay in the community, and contribute to the local people/visitors expedence. Worsened since transition: Responsibility is stressful, less free time. Other themes: Young person who is using tourism to stay in the area and merge tourism with agriculture. Participant: Melissa Path to tourism: Moved to the island with her family as a teen. Worked in the family trail riding/stable business until branching into the golf business. Ease of transition: Somewhat difficult. Required Ieaming new skills and a new industry. Extended her skills in administration and customer service to the Golf course. Resources used in transition: Networked to get position. Resources suggested to make transition smoother: None mentioned. Improvements since transition: Independence, opportunity to stay in the region, likes to work with people, makes better money. Worsened since transition: Misses the lifestyle of the family business and animals. Has to commute to work. Participant: Cindy Path to tourism: Born and raised in the Gulf Islands. Worked in administration in forestry and then was asked to work in resort management. Worked her way up through administration jobs and was asked to manage a local resort. Learned as she went. Ease of transition: Didn’t really feel it as it was such a gradual progression. First job in tourism required some getting used to (Le. product, seasons, customer mindset). Resources used In transition: None, worked her way up through the industry. 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