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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

VOLUNTEERS IN NATURAL RESOURCE, OUTDOOR
RECREATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
AND PLANNING: UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF
EXPECTATIONS IN THE FULFILLMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACTS

presented by
Dayle Lee Jackson

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

Master of Science degree in
Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources

7 —E Major Professor‘s Signature
%M 5/) 7’00 3
/

Date

 

MSUBIHWAWOMWW

VOLUNTEERS 1N NATURAL RESOURCE, OUTDOOR RECREATION, AND
ENVRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING: UNDERSTANDING THE
ROLE OF EXPECTATIONS IN THE FULFILLMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
CONTRACTS
By

Dayle Lee Jackson

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources

2003

ABSTRACT
VOLUNTEERS IN NATURAL RESOURCE, OUTDOOR RECREATION, AND
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING: UNDERSTANDING THE
ROLE OF EXPECTATIONS IN THE FULFILLMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
CONTRACTS
By

Dayle Lee Jackson

. According to trend data, volunteering in recreation and the environment is
increasing. While volunteer motivations have been studied in—depth, volunteer
expectations have not been examined as closely. Other fields of study have found
expectations influence trust, satisfaction, purchase and voting behaviors, and continued
involvement. Analyzing data from a general household survey of the Great Lakes region,
this thesis examines volunteer expectations based on sociodemographic variables, type of
volunteer behavior, and type of organization volunteered with. Assessing expectations,
this study found that regardless of type of participatory behavior or type of organization
volunteered with, respondents viewed their participation as more than simply providing
labor. Individuals performing all types Of behaviors expected to have some level of
influence in the decision making process. It is important for managers to create
innovative ways to adapt their management style in order to meet expectations and fulfill

volunteers’ psychological contracts.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................ v
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................... vi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1
A brief history of volunteering in the United States .................. 1
Study purpose ............................................................... 3
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................ 4
VOLUNTEERING ................................................................. 4
What is volunteering? .................................................... 4
Who is volunteering? ..................................................... 6
Where are they volunteering? ............................................ 7
How often are they volunteering? ........................................ 7
Why are they volunteering? .............................................. 8
Benefits of volunteering ................................................... 10
Why aren ’t individuals volunteering? .................................. 1 1
EXPECTATIONS .................................................................. 12
Expectancy theory .......................................................... 12
The formation of expectations ........................................... 12
Why are expectations importwrt? ........................................ 13
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACTS ............................................. 14
Psychological contracts defined ......................................... 15
T ms of psychological contracts ........................................ l6
Violation of psychological contracts .................................... 16
Theoretical basis for psychological contracts .......................... 19
Serious leisure .............................................................. 21
The existence of psychological contracts in volunteers ............... 23
MANAGING VOLUNTEERS .................................................... 24
PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................... 27
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ........................................................ 27
CHAPTER III: METHODS .................................................................. 29
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS & DISCUSSION ............................................ 35
Results summary ........................................................... 51
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS ........................................................... 53
Summary ..................................................................... 53
Study limitations ............................................................ 53
Future research .............................................................. 54
Management implications .................................................. 55

iii

APPENDIX
Appendix A: Fortune 500: TOP 50 companies in terms of number of
employees ........................................................................... 58
Appendix B: Complete Michigan Travel Market Survey Questionnaire....59

LITERATURE CITED ..................................................................... 77

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Primary motivations for volunteering ................................................. 9
Table 2: Potential outcomes Of met and unmet expectations ................................. 14
Table 3: Mangers’ perceptions of citizen participants’ expectations and citizen
participants stated expectations .................................................................. 17
Table 4: Potential outcomes of psychological contract fulfillment and violation ......... 18
Table 5: Sociodemographic variables asked of all respondents ............................. 30
Table 6: Variables recorded for volunteers in natural resource, outdoor recreation, and
environmental management and planning .................................................... 32
Table 7: Descriptions of participatory behaviors and types of organizations ............ 33
Table 8: Open-ended responses for any additional item expected ......................... 34
Table 9: Frequencies of sociodemographic variables by type of individuals ............. 36
Table 10: Number of times volunteered in the past twelve months ........................ 38

Table 11: Results of crosstabs for types of participatory behaviors by expectations. . . .49

Table 12: Results of crosstabs for types of organizations by expectations ............... 50

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Number ofNRORENV volunteers by type of participatory behavior. . . ....39

Figure 2: Number of NRORENV volunteers by type of organization .................. 41
Figure 3: Percentages of expectations of volunteers ....................................... 43
Figure 4: Participatory behaviors within each type of organization ..................... 44
Figure 5: Type of participatory behavior by percentage of expectations ............... 47
Figure 6: Type of organization by percentage of expectations .......................... 48

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

In 2000, 83.9 million Americans were engaged in some type of volunteer activity.
Their combined efforts equaled approximately 15.5 billion hours, or the equivalent of
over 9 million firll-time employees, valued at $239 billion (Independent Sector, 2001).
On Fortune 500’s list of the top 50 employers in terms of number of employees (March
24, 2003), the top 37 companies would need to merge to create a 9 million-employee
labor force (see Appendix A).

With such a substantial number of individuals taking part in the volunteer process
and contributing their time and effort, it is important for managers of volunteers to
understand what volunteers expect fi'om their experience. “The pubic expectations of
increased involvement, especially in decision-making, have steadily increased in recent
decades. At this point there is no reason to assume that those expectations will decline”

(Force & Forester, 2002, p.22).

A brief history of volunteering in the United States

From the conception of the United States volunteers have played an ever present
and important role in the formation of its values and belief system. Volunteers have
helped to shape American society. In cariy America the role of government was at best
limited and was almost exclusively focused on defense, trade, and commerce (Ellis,
1985). Institutions such as health care and educational facilities were created and run by
individuals within local communities. Neighbors worked together to build homes,
churches, and schools. Individuals each took responsibility for the community and its

members.

Small towns eventually grew into larger cities. Government bodies began to
emerge. Tax dollars were introduced and social service programs surfaced. Volunteers
began to form organizations that focused on serving the community by providing
members with programs that were needed, but had no available funding. Volunteers
were and still are typically the first to acknowledge that problems exist and then put forth
hours of time and effort to finding innovative solutions to the problems (Ellis, 1985).

In the mid-1800s, Alexis de Toqueville noted the “pervasivencss of volunteer
activities in the United States” (Bradley, 1999/2000, p.45), and called attention to the fact
that Americans as a whole seemed almost predisposed to create or join voluntary
organizations and associations in massive numbers. According to the 1990-91 World
Values Survey, over eighty percent of Americans reported belonging to one or more
voluntary associations (Galston & Levine, 1997). The United States also has more adult
volunteers than other Western countries with American adults being two times as likely
to volunteer as German and French adults (Thoits & Hewitt, 2001).

With an unstable economy, stock market fluctuations, increased unemployment,
and tight budgets at the local, state, and federal level, volunteers can supplement budgets
by performing tasks that typically receive the smallest amount of paid employee time. In
many instances the tasks are never completed because paid employees do not have time
in their day or do not see the tasks as being as important as others. Volunteers can
complete tasks without consuming paid employee time or organizational funding
(Independent Sector, 2001). With volunteers providing an inexpensive labor source for
over 40,000 organizations in the United States, meeting the needs of volunteers helps

organizations to better meet and accomplish their goals (Kotler, 1982).

Study Purpose

The purpose of this thesis is to assess the expectations of volunteers who conduct
natural resource, outdoor recreation and environmental management and planning
activities. This study is important and relevant particularly for managers of volunteers
and organizations who are highly reliant on their volunteer labor force. Knowing and
meeting volunteers’ ewectations can lead to increased job commitment, higher levels of
job satisfaction, and lower volunteer turnover rates. The longer volunteers are willing to
stay with an organization, the more knowledgeable they become of the organization and
the more skills they acquire. Long-term volunteers require less direct supervision and are
able to independently complete tasks and get the job done. Creating long-term volunteers
benefits organizations, and meeting volunteer expectations can be a first step in keeping
volunteers satisfied. If managers know what expectations arise they will be better able to

fulfill volunteers’ psychological contracts and reap the benefits of contract firlfillment.

CHAPTER [1: LITERATURE REVIEW

The volunteer workforce is extensive and continuing to expand. Now more than
ever it is important to understand the what, who, where, when, and why that drives the
vohrnteer process. At the organizational level, volunteers can be an extremely usefirl and
inexpensive source of offsetting budget cuts. This is especially true for the recreation and
leisure professions where cutbacks are continuing to take place in already lean budgets.
Organizations that rely on volunteer labor due to small labor budgets would not be able to
offer the same services or reach the same number of people if volunteers were not serving
their organization (Grossman & Furano, 1999). When companies are forced to downsize,
volunteers provide a valuable alternative to paid employees.

In order to capitalize on the assistance volunteers can provide, organizations must
first know the characteristics of volunteers in order to create appropriate and effective
ways to recruit, train, utilize, and retain volunteers. Knowing individuals’ motivations
and expectations when volunteering can help organizations better market to attract
volunteers, and help managers form productive relationships with them. Without this
knowledge, organizations may not be taking full advantage of the vital resource that

volunteers can provide.

VOLUNTEERING
What is volunteering?
According to the President’s Task Force on Private Sector Initiatives (1982),
Volunteering is the voluntary giving of time and talents to deliver services or
perform tasks with no direct financial compensation expected. Volunteering

includes the participation of citizens in the direct delivery of service to others;
citizen action groups; advocacy for causes, groups, or individuals; participation in

the governance of both private and public agencies; self-help and mutual aid

endeavors; and a broad range of informal helping activities (p.4).

A distinction is made between three specific types of volunteering. There are
formal volunteers, informal volunteers, and stipend or paid volunteers. Formal
volunteering consists of deeds that are done through a formal organization such as a
school, church, or hospital. Wilson & Musick (1997) define formal volunteering as
work done within the community that directly benefits the entire community or small
groups of individuals within the community who are in need. Belonging to an
organization is not enough to be included as formal voluntea'ing. Formal volunteering is
seen as the action, time and effort put forth within an organization.

Informal volunteering, on the other hand, consists of a range of activities fi'om
babysitting for a fiiend, shopping for a neighbor, or bringing dinner to an elderly member
of the community without any formal organization being involved (Brown, 1999).
Finally, stipend volunteer programs offer a small stipend for their volunteers to help them
with such items as costs of living and possibly tuition waivers in return for their
commitment to service (Brown, 1999).

An exact distinction does not exist between citizen participation and volunteering.
In many situations, the choice of terms depends on the researcher and the disciplinary
background for the study. Arai and Pedlar (1997) state that volunteering most often
involves services that are professionally initiated and defined, and are based primarily on
professional perception of community need. Conversely, citizen participation involves
more individually initiated voluntary activity which people pursue. Individuals identify

their own needs, initiate strategies for change, and take action (Arai & Pedlar, 1997).

Even so, there is no distinct separation or linkage between the two. In most situations

whether an individual is a citizen participant or a volunteer is self defined.

Who is volunteering?

According to the Independent Sector, a non-profit, non partisan coalition that
conducts biennial surveys of giving and volunteering behavior in the United States, 44%
of the adult population aged 21 and older volunteered in 2000. Women (Independent
Sector, 2001; Kim & Hong, 1998; Smith, 1994), married, middle-aged, employed, high
income and well-educated individuals are more likely to be volunteers (Bradley,
1999/2000; Brown, 1999; Independent Sector, 2001; Kim & Hong, 1998; Rotolo, 2000;
Wilson & Musick, 1997). Individuals with some advanced education beyond high school
and college graduates are more likely to volunteer than individuals whose highest level of
education is a high school diploma (Brown, 1999). One in four individuals with a
household income of less than $25,000 volunteered, whereas one in two volunteers came
from households with incomes of $75,000 or more (Independent Sector, 2001).

Retired and unemployed individuals are not as likely to volunteer as those who
are working (Brown, 1999). “Women who work only part-time and people who work for
themselves are more likely to volunteer than people whose schedules must accommodate
working flail-time for someone else” (Brown, 1999, p.125). Individuals who own their
own homes (Independent Sector, 2001; Kim & Hong, 1998), those with school-aged
children (Smith, 1994), and persons who volunteered as youths are more likely to

volunteer as well (Brown, 1999, Independent Sector, 2001).

“When asked, people of all races and ethnicities volunteer at approximately the
same rates” (Independent Sector, 2001, p.23). Although this is true, whites are
significantly more likely to be asked to volunteer than other racial or ethnic groups.
Hodgkinson and Weitzman (1996) found that young, single, minority, and lower-income

individuals are not asked to volunteer as frequently as their counterparts.

Where are they volunteering?

Religious organizations consistemly receive the largest influx of volunteers. Over
one quarter (28.4%) of the total number of volunteer hours takes place for a religious
organimtion (Independent Sector, 2001). Along with religious based volunteering, the
Independent Sector (2001) found the secular types of organizations most likely to attract
volunteers are health, education, human services, and youth development organizations.

It is also important to note that although environmental organizations were some
of the least likely to attract volunteers, they were one of the top organizations in terms of
the number of hours volunteers donated (Independent Sector, 2001). Volunteers for
environmental organizations contributed an average of twenty-six hours per month,
which is equivalent to the number of hours of youth organization volunteers (Independent

Sector, 2001).

How oflen are they volunteering?
Data from the 1996 study done by the Independent Sector suggests that many
volunteers are only slightly involved. They take part in solitary events or on particular

holidays (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1996). In 2000, more than 27% of volunteers to

formal organizations volunteered in the last month for an average of 24 hours
(Independent Sector, 2001).

Consistent with the Independent Sector’s findings, Propst & Bentley’s (2000)
study of citizens from volunteer mailing lists of a mountain bike association,
environmental organization, nature center, trail advisory board, national park and state
park, revealed that respondents averaged 21 days per person per year of volunteer time,

or approximately 3.2 hours per week.

Why are they volunteering?

There are numerous reasons as to why individuals choose to volunteer. A study
conducted by Hedrick (1983) of volunteers at a mental health center concluded that their
main motivations for volunteering were 1) that the task was seen as important, 2) it was
enjoyable and interesting, and 3) the volunteers had a good supervisor.

An investigation of college students completed by Fitch (1987) found their top
four motivations for volunteering were 1) they get a good feeling helping others, 2) were
concerned about the less fortunate, 3) friendships with other people and volunteers, and
4) would hope someone would help them if they were in that situation.

Volunteers have both altruistic and egoistic reasons at varying levels for
becoming involved (Warburton, Terry, Rosenman, & Shapiro, 2001). Clary and Snyder
(1999) point out that individuals have many reasons for volunteering because
volunteering itself is multimotivational in nature. Although this is true, Smith (1981)
asserts that because helping others is not typically assumed to involve selfish motives or

self-centered reasons, self-report methods will overestimate the altruistic reasons for

volunteering. In most cases, respondents will feel it is not appropriate to report personal
gains, such as volunteering “looks good on a resume,” or ‘fivanted others to like me and
think I was a good person.”

Table 1 lists other primary motivations for volunteering. Even though volunteers
do receive extrinsic rewards for their time and effort, most individuals are primarily
motivated by the intrinsic rewards they expect to receive (Wilson & Musick, 1999). It is
also important to understand that motivations differ by individuals and are situation
dependent. Individuals may volunteer at an event because it will benefit their children;
for an organization because they are passionate about the cause; in a new town to meet
people (Independent Sector, 2001); or at a health fundraiser because someone close to
them has been diagnosed with a disease (Clary & Snyder, 1999, Independent Sector,

2001).

Table 1. Primary motivations for volunteering.

 

Why volunteer?

+ For altruistic reasons, to help others, give back to community (Arai & Pedlar, 1997;
mmmwmeOmuummmmmHmmmwmmwmumu
Immmmammmhmm
memmmmmnmmmmmmanmn

To make a difi‘erence, accomplish something, be productive (Brown, 1999; Bradley,
1999/2000)
mummMMRMMmmm%MmmflmmdmflwMMHWMW»
To feel needed (Bradley, 1999/2000; Independent Sector, 2001)
'hMmmwwflfiMwmmmwm)

To expand social connections, business contracts (Clary & Snyder, 1991;
Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1996; House, 1988)
hmmmmngmwmmwmHWflMfihflfimMfiMfimx
Snyder & Ridge, 1992; Omoto & Snyder, 1995)

For value expression, social adjustment, ego defense (Clary & Snyder, 1991; Clary,
Snyder & Ridge, 1992; Omoto & Snyder, 1995)

Feel compassion toward people in need, those with more should help those with less,
important activity to people one respects, someone close is involved or benefits
(Independent Sector, 2001)

+ + + +§++ ++

 

Volunteers may also participate because they have a predisposition to
volunteering depending on their socialization to volunteering, their personality traits, and
their attitudes. Elshaug and Metzer (2001) found that certain personality traits were
present in volunteers they studied. Volunteers were more assertive, agreeable, and
extraverted in nature. The Independent Sector (2001) found that its volunteers had a
sense of personal power, a belief that they could improve the welfare of others, a higher

level of compassion, and strong community ties and involvement.

Benefits of volunteering

After a review of the research, Wilson and Musick (1999) concluded that
individuals receive benefits from their volunteer experiences that remain long after their
volunteer role is complete. Volunteering for a cause makes individuals feel usefirl. For
elderly individuals in particular, volunteering can provide much needed social interaction
(Grossman & Furano, 1999). House (1988) found the degree to which individuals are
socially integrated in terms of the number of relationships a person has to be correlated
with positive mental health.

Thoits & Hewitt (2001) established that volunteering enhances six aspects of
well-being: happiness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, sense of control over life, physical
health, and depression. Volunteering contributes to decreased psychological distress and
buffers negative consequences of stressors (Rietschlin, 1998; Oman, 1999); it increases
life satisfaction and decreases depression (Van Willigen, 1998); and it is associated with
better physical health and lower mortality as much as 30 years later (Moen, Dempster-

McClain, & Williams, 1989). A twenty-five year National Institute of Mental Health

10

study found “that highly organized activity (such as regular volunteering) is the single
strongest predictor, other than not smoking, of longevity and vitality” (Grossman &
Furano, 1999, p.200). Studies suggest that volunteering can lower the risk of mortality
by increasing self-esteem, positive affect, and self-eflicacy which all help to reduce stress
levels (Musick, 1999).

Volunteer work in older adults leads to higher life satisfaction, a stronger will to
live, greater feelings of self-respect, and fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety
(Hunter & Linn, 1981). It helps individuals maintain and enhance skills and knowledge,
renews or recreates human capital, reconstructs social roles, increases well-being and life
satisfaction, as well as maintains and increases mental and physical health (Kim & Hong,

1998).

Why aren ’t individuals volunteering?

Although almost one half of the adult population volunteers, a little over half of
the population does not participate in any volunteer activities. The Independent Sector
(2001) asked non-volunteers to list their reasons for not volunteering. Having no time,
unable to volunteer due to health problems or physically incapable were the most
common responses. Other reasons included not being asked, not knowing how to start
volunteering, and not having transportation to any volunteer activity.

Propst & Bentley (2000) found barriers to participation to be: other family
obligations (45%), already spent enough time in activities (28%), not enough time (24%),
lack of awareness of what opportunities exist (17%), health reasons (7%), and monetary

costs and distance (2% respectively).

11

EXPECTATIONS
Julian Rotter (1954) was one of the first researchers to acknowledge the
importance of expectations in motivating behavior. He stated that the probability one
will engage in a behavior is determined by expectations of attaining a goal. Expectations
are the projected result of a probabilistic circumstance; an emotional state of anticipation
(Dictionary of Psychology, 1995). Expectations are not what an individual wants to

happen, but what an individual believes will actually happen.

WOW theory

Expectancy theory states that individuals engage in the type of work they find
attractive and achievable, and which they feel will lead them to favorable consequences
(Zimbardo & Gerrig, 1999). In the 19608, Vroom (1964) and Porter and Lawler (1968)
introduced expectancy theory to explain workers’ motivation. They found that workers
expect that their effort and performance on the job will result in desired outcomes and
rewards. When expectations match reality, job satisfaction, likelihood of staying in a job,
and expended effort increase. If expectations do not match reality, dissatisfaction,

withdrawal from the position and decreased efl‘ort may occur.

The formation of expectations

In the 1980s, consumer behavior researchers began to focus more on the process
by which expectations developed. According to the literature on marketing and
consumer behavior, expectations are derived fiom past experience (Bateson, 1981; John,

1992), academic preparation (Good & F airhurst, 1999), personal characteristics (Oliver,

12

1980), direct inspection of a product (Beales, Mazis, Salop, & Staelin, 1981), and
marketing activities. Consumer expectations can be formed by what is externally
communicated by the organization in the form of advertising or word of mouth. They
can also be based on organizational traditions including its reputation and image, and
organizational ideology including institutional, religious, or political representations or

affiliations (O’Connor, Trinh, & Shewchuk, 2000).

Mry are expectations important?

According to Mercer (1988) “a basic principle of psychology is that the more
accurate a person’s expectations before entering a situation, the more likely that person
will feel satisfied alter he or she learns the situation’s realities fi'om actual first-hand
experiences” (p.40). Farmer and F edor (1999) sampled a large, national, nonprofit
fundraising health advocacy organization Upon entry into the organization, a series of
semi-structured interviews were performed with executive committee volunteers. The
volunteers were intentionally drawn fi'om distinct geographical areas. The sample
consisted of 451 volunteers from 95 chapters and 48 states. A 35% response rate was
attained for the sample. Farmer and Fedor (1999) found that volunteers who reported
their expectations were being met, participated more in the organization and planned to
stay with the organization longer.

Studies like Farmer and Fedor have provided consistent findings in diverse
domains across four decades. Expectations are important because they can influence job
satisfaction (deLeon & Taher, 1996; Good & F airhurst, 1999), voting behavior (Irwin &

Van Holsteyn, 2002), patient satisfaction with physician and intent to change physician

13

(Glascoff, 2002; Clow, Fischer, & O’Bryan, 1995; Baker, 1998; John, 1992), perceptions

of managers’ leadership abilities (Collins, 2002; Sosik, Potosky, & Jung, 2002),

continued involvement or use of products or services (Pearson, 1995), and firture

purchase behavior (Myers, 1991). Table 2 cites findings from the literature on the

potential outcomes of met and unmet expectations.

Table 2. Potential outcomes of met and unmet expectations.

 

Met expectations:

+

+

++4§

Increased satisfaction (Oliver, 1980; deLeon & Taher, 1996; Michaels &
Spector, 1982; Arnold & Feldman, 1982; Lachman & Aranya, 1986; Major,
Kozlowski, Chao, & Gardner, 1995)

Increased organizational commitment (Farmer & Fedor, 1999; Arnold &
Feldman, 1982; Lachman & Aranya, 1986; Major, Kozlowski, Chao, &
Gardner, 1995; Porter & Steers, 1973)

Decreased stress (Savery, 1988)

Decreased actual job turnover (Cotton & Tuttle, 1986; Huselid & Day, 1991)
Increased feeling worthwhile (Porter & Steers, 1973)

Increased participation in organization (Farmer & F edor, 1999)

 

Unmet expectations:

+ ++++

Higher turnover (Huselid & Day, 1991; Porter & Steers, 1973)

Decreased job satisfaction (Porter & Steers, 1973)

Decreased organizational commitment (Huselid & Day, 1991)

Increased withdrawal behavior (Bottger, 1990; Mowday, Porter, & Steers,
1982; Huselid & Day, 1991)

Successful socialization in organization inhibited (F eldman, 1976)

 

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACTS

Psychological contracts were first discussed in the 19603 in relation to the

unspoken expectations individuals had for their employment relationship (Argyris, 1960;

14

Levinson, Price, Munden, & Solley, 1962; Schein, 1980). More recently, Rousseau and
her colleagues (Morrison, 1997; Robinson, 1994, 1996, 1997; Kraatz, 1994; & Parks,
1992) have taken a more in-depth, empirical look at psychological contracts and the role

they play in employment relationships.

Psychological contracts defined

Psychological contracts are defined as an individual’s beliefs regarding the terms
and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between themselves and another party
(Rousseau & Parks, 1992). They are not part of the formal, written contract typically
comprised of working hours, rate of pay, health benefits and so on. They also differ from
social contracts, or “the expectations and obligations that workers, employers, and their
communities and societies have for work and employment relationships” (Kochan, 2000,
p.3). Psychological contracts are informal, unwritten, mutually interdependent sets of
expectations that Operate and evolve continuously in the minds of individuals. They are
not made up of promises, which set up expectations of behavior, but unspecified
contracts, which set up reciprocal expectations (Rousseau & Parks, 1992).

Rousseau (1989) states that the core of psychological contracts is the mutual
obligations between employee and employer. Obligations exist on the perception that
implicit promises have been made. Obligations are defined as “beliefs held by an
employee or employer, tint each is bound by promise or debt to an action or course of
action in relation to the other party” (Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau, 1994, p. 137). The
perception of mutuality differs from the more general concept of expectations because the

obligations are promissory and reciprocal in nature (Rousseau & Tijoriwala, SA, 1998).

15

Employment obligations, embedded in the context of social exchange, form the

psychological contract (Farmer & F edor, 1999).

T )pes of psychological contracts

MacNeil (1985) makes the distinction between two types of psychological
contracts: transactional and relational. Transactional contracts are narrower in focus,
shorter with a more specific duration, and more economic in nature involving extrinsic
rewards (Rousseau & Parks, 1992). They are static, publicly observable, limited in
involvement, close—ended, and defined by precise responsibilities (Robinson, Kraatz &
Rousseau, 1994; Farmer & Fedor, 1999).

Relational contracts are broader, longer, dynamic, more intense and socio-
emotional (Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau, 1994). They are intangible as well as
material, indefinite in duration, subjective to the parties involved, value-laden and
developmental (Farmer & F edor, 1999; Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau, 1994). They are
also embedded in a broader network of social concerns including relationships,
reputation, and justice, and are more concerned with collective interest (Rousseau &
Parks, 1992; Farmer & Fedor, 1999). Unlike transactional contracts, relational contracts

are held together by mutual trust.

Violation of psychological contracts
According to Rousseau (1995) and Morrison and Robinson (1997), psychological
contracts can be violated in two distinct ways. Violations can occur due to reneging or

incongruence. Reneging occurs when a promise is knowingly broken either intentionally

l6

or due to unforeseen circumstances. Conversely, incongruence occurs when different
understandings are present regarding what promises were thought to exist (Rousseau,
1995). Incongruence occurs when organizations unknowingly violate the contract. For
example, in Propst and Bentley’s (2000) study, managers did not have an accurate
understanding of what their volunteers expected (see Table 3). Managers in their study

had the potential to create contract violations due to incongruence.

Table 3. Managers’ perceptions of citizen participants’ expectations and citizen
participants stated expectations.

 

 

Expectations Managers Citizens
Thank you 12% 8%
Public Recognition 81% 8%
More access to managers 24% 14%
More influence over decisions 33% 26%
Nothing 24% 62%

 

Adapted fi'om Propst and Bentley (2000) Table 5.

Individuals hold organizations responsible for recognizing a job well done. If
individuals believe they are not receiving adequate rewards for their work, they will
perceive a contract breach (Porter & Steers, 1973). Transactional contract violations
occur when the costs and benefits for the participant are unequal. Most often, the
participant feels that the costs significamly outweigh the benefits. It occurs when an
economic exchange is not deemed as appropriate (Turnley & Feldman, 1999). Numerous
outcomes of psychological contract firlfillment and violation are identified in the

literature (see Table 4). Trust is the foundation of psychological contracts. If contract

17

expectations are violated, trust and faith in the relationship are damaged which could lead

to contract violations (Rousseau, 1989).

Table 4. Potential outcomes of psychological contract fulfillment and violation.

 

Contract Fulfillment

t Promote trust (Niehoff & Paul, 2001)

+ Higher levels of job satisfaction, increased organizational commitment,
increased intention to remain with employer (Niehoff & Paul, 2001)

+ Increased affective commitment, lower levels of turnover intentions
(Kickul, 2001) ‘

 

Contract Violation

+ Decreased trust (Niehoff & Paul, 2001; Kickul, 2001; Tumley & F eldman,
1999)

t Increased likelihood for retaliation, sabotage, thefi, and other aggressive
behaviors (N iehofl‘ & Paul, 2001)

+ Feelings of disappointment, betrayal, anger, resentment, moral outrage,
injustice, fi'ustration, hostility, engagement in unethical employee behavior,
negative affect toward organization (Kickul, 2001; Rousseau, 1989)

+ Increased level of exit, voice, and neglect behaviors, decreased levels of

loyalty to organization, neglect job duties, no longer defend organization

against outside threats, bad word of mouth, feelings of betrayal (Turnley &

Feldman, 1999)

Reduced satisfaction and organizational commitment (Robinson, Kraatz, &

Rousseau, 1994; Niehoff & Paul, 2001; Turnley & Feldman, 1999)

Limited participation in organizational activities, psychological or actual

withdrawal from organization (Rousseau, 1989)

Increased turnover (Guzzo, Noonan, & Elron, 1994; Robinson, Kraatz, &

Rousseau, 1994)

Lower employee contribution and investment, decreased performance,

attendance, retention, and citizenship behaviors (Robinson, 1996; Rousseau

& Parks, 1992; Niehofl‘ & Paul, 2001)

++++

 

Relational contracts hold greater risk of violation than transactional contracts.

Relational violations are also more severe than transactional violations because relational

18

contracts are emotion-driven, and oppose self-centered behavior (Monison & Robinson,
1997). Relational violations lead to changes in the nature of social relationships. When
violated they reduce trust and lead participants to begin focusing on narrow, short-term
issues that are deemed to be more transactional in nature (Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau,

1994). The intense, emotional connection and drive diminishes.

Theoretical basis for psychological contracts

Social exchange theory as defined by Blau (1967) occurs when “an individual
who supplies rewarding services to another obligates him” (p.89). To release such an
obligation, the party benefiting from the service must then furnish benefits to the first
party in return. The obligations are unspecified, and if the second party filrnishes benefits
that are not perceived to be equivalent to what was originally given, disappointment and
anger can occur. The first party cannot make the second party return the favor, or make
sure the return is equivalent, but the expectation of a firture return does exist.

If managers of volunteers do not know what an equivalent return is for volunteer
service, volunteers may become disappointed and withdraw from the organization. What
volunteers are expecting to receive and see as fair compensation for their voluntary
service may not be what managers provide to them. Ifmanagers are aware of what
volunteers expect, the exchange may be more equal and appropriate whether the reward
expected to be received is intrinsic or extrinsic.

Individuals will compare inputs and outputs and if a balance is not found or the
scale is tipped in which an individual is giving too many outputs, anger and withdrawal

could occur. Social exchange theory is similar to Adams (1965) equity theory which

19

states that workers are motivated to maintain fair and equitable relationships with others.
Motivation stems fi'om a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outputs
one receives in comparison. When ratios are equal, one will feel that a fair exchange
exists and will experience job satisfaction. When the exchange becomes unequal,
particularly against the individual, one may alter their inputs which could include
working less or leaving the exchange relationship (Adams, 1965). Ifindividuals
volunteer to fill needs (Clary & Snyder, 1991; Clary, Snyder, & Ridge, *1 992), it implies
that they enter the working relationship with specific expectations; they attend to whether
the relationship is meeting their expectations, and then react within the situation
accordingly.

Obligations increase as trust develops over the course of the exchange
relationship (Blau, 1967). Trust is at the heart of social exchange relationships and if
trust develops, the degree of the exchange will grow as well (Robinson, Kraatz, &
Rousseau, 1994). “Since there is no way to assure an appropriate return for a favor,
social exchange requires trusting others to discharge their obligations” (Blau, 1967, p.91).

Ifexpectations are equal to the return, trust increases. In their investigation of a
large, public, natural resource agency in Michigan, Smith and McDonough (2001) found
that citizens’ perceived influence on decision outcomes and citizens’ ability to participate
directly in making decisions were the two factors most strongly correlated with trust in
the agency. However, Smith and McDonough (2001) also found that less than half of the
respondents felt they could trust the agency. So, according to social exchange theory,

trust should increase if the two expectations are met.

20

Serious leisure

To support psychological contract theory and its roots in social exchange theory,
as well as apply it directly to natural resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental
management and planning volunteers, it is important to consider Stebbins’ theory of
serious leisure. Stebbins’ widely accepted definition of serious leisure (1992, p.3) is:

Serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist or volunteer

activity that participants find so substantial and interesting that in the typical case,

they launch themselves on a career centered on acquiring and expressing its
special skills, knowledge and experience.

Volunteers typically are motivated to volunteer with certain types of organizations
because they identify strongly with the organization’s mission, goals and values. Most
career volunteers’ main motivation for volunteering is for an altruistic reason such as the
desire to help people or to contribute to the community’s well-being (Stebbins, 2001).
Volunteers want to contribute to the development of community life by using their
valuable skills, knowledge, and experience. They do receive pleasure from volunteering,
but pleasure is less important to them than accomplishing a task or sharpening their skills.

Unlike most types of leisure, serious leisure consists of obligations. Whether or
not individuals define an activity as leisure, or as an Obligation, depends on the individual
and the situation. Dumazedier (1967) coined the term “semi-leisure” to describe
activities ‘fivhich arise in the first place from leisure, but which represent in differing
degrees the character of obligation” (Stebbins, 2000, p. 153). The line between leisure
and obligation is at times unclear and dependent on the individual’s attitude.

In Schroeder (2000) and Grese, Kaplan, Ryan, and Buxton (2000), most

volunteers did not view their work in nature restoration projects as recreation or leisure.

21

While some volunteers did experience benefits or outcomes typically associated with
recreation, such as personal restoration or social interaction, seeing their participation as
recreation depended on their level of commitment and their frequency of participation.
While this does not exactly support Stebbins’ idea of serious leisure, the respondents in
the studies did view the restoration as an important accomplishment. The volunteers may
have been honing their skills while completing the restoration project. They also did not
view their experience as work. They could have been involved to expand their
knowledge and make a difference, which is similar to career volunteers. Career
volunteers are highly involved in their volunteer experience, and in many circumstances
become more knowledgeable than experts.

Serious leisure is characterized by flexible and agreeable obligations. Flexible
obligation is the relative ficedom to honor commitments. Agreeable obligation can take
the form of behavior, states of mind, or attitudes that are not necessarily objectionable
(Stebbins, 2000). Agreeable obligation accompanies positive attachment to an activity
and is associated with pleasant memories and expectations. For example, someone who
leads an aerobics class may do so because they love aerobics, they enjoy teaching, and
they like interacting with their students. Agreeable obligation is present even in an
enjoyable situation because obligations still exist to be at the gym at a certain time for
class, to be there on certain days, and to be ready to teach an aerobics lesson. When
obligations are no longer seen as agreeable, abandonment of the activity may occur.

Stebbins, in his study of francophone volunteers, found that if their volunteer
experience became disagreeable at any time, the volunteers were able to and would leave

the experience for a better volunteer arrangement. The volunteers preserved their right to

22

choose the situation they were volunteering in (Stebbins, 2001). Volunteers are able to
leave an experience that is not meeting their expectations, whereas in most situations
employees do not leave their job if it is not meeting their needs. Unless employees have
another job to go to, they are not as likely to leave a work situation as easily or as quickly
as volunteers. This has implications for unmet expectations and violated psychological
contracts. Ifexpectations are not being met by the organization or the manager of the

volunteers, volunteers are able to leave the situation and donate their time elsewhere.

The existence of psychological contracts in volunteers

Although the concept of psychological contracts was first developed within the
working arena to better understand and define the relationship between paid workers and
their employers, researchers (Liao-Troth, 2001; Farmer & Fedor, 1999; Pearce, 1983)
have found empirical support to justify applying psychological contracts to volunteers as
well.

In his study, Liao-Troth (2001) found that psychological contracts between paid
employees and volunteers were virtually the same, except for psychological contract
issues involving expectations of pay or other economic rewards. Since most volunteers
are donating their time and efl‘ort without expecting monetary rewards, the expectation of
pay does not exist.

Farmer and F edor (1999) found that volunteers, like employees, labor on behalf of
an organization and in doing so form expectations. Volunteers believe that a mutual
agreement exists between themselves and the organization, even if the belief is implicit.

In both employment and volunteer relationships reciprocal obligations exist. This

23

suggests that psychological contracts exist in volunteers as well as employees (Farmer &
Fedor, 1999).

An important point about psychological contracts in volunteers is that volunteers
primarily form relational contracts due to the very value-based nature of volunteering
(Farmer & Fedor, 1999). Accordingly, the more severe outcomes that are associated with
the Violations of relational contracts are what managers of volunteers are primarily faced

with.

MANAGING VOLUNTEERS

It is important for managers to keep in mind that not only can volunteers benefit
the organization, but they too can benefit from their experience. Wilson and Musick
(1999) state, “Indeed, it is widely believed that helping others is as beneficial for the
donor as it is for the recipient” (p. 141). “In the past, whether volunteers personally
benefited from their experience was not considered; today, if volunteers are expected to
be dependable and dedicate more of their time, programs need to think about the personal
benefits their unpaid workforce receives” (Grossman & Furano, 1999, p.201). Not only
should volunteers be held responsible to be efi‘ective and efficient in their volunteer work,
but the organization in turn needs to be held responsible for providing an experience that
is rewarding to the volunteer. Volunteer work can empower individuals and it can
provide them with experiences that can benefit their lives in many difl‘erent ways.

Robinson, Kraatz, and Rousseau (1994) noted that many circumstances focus on
creating “good soldiers” and not as much attention is focused on creating “good

generals.” “Managers who adapt their behavior to conform to the expectations and

24

preferences of others can respond to the complexity and dynamic pace of contemporary
organizations” (Sosik, Potosky, & Jung, 2002, p.211). Managers of volunteers need to be
aware of what is working within the organization and what needs to be changed (Collins,
2002). With a participatory management style managers will be able to grow in their
leadership abilities while better meeting the expectations of volunteers and the
organization as a whole (Collins, 2002).

In their review of the literature pertaining to pubic involvement in the National
Park Service, Force and Forester (2002) acknowledged certain management practices that
are beneficial to creating public input success. Managers should focus on the process of
public involvement as well as the outcome, they should clarify the goals of public
involvement, and they should use a variety of techniques to reach as many individuals
and as many types of individuals as possible. Managers should also include a two-way
flow of communication at all times during the process. Force and Forester (2002) also
made an important finding in analyzing three types of involvement (unsolicited
comments, surveys, and advisory committees). They found that those individuals who
were members of advisory committees learned more about the issues, including all sides
of the issues, and they had an improved opinion of the agency as a whole.

Volunteers primarily form relational psychological contracts. Combine this with
the difficulty of mandating volunteer behavior and the outcome is that violations of
relational contracts of volunteers can lead to seriously decreased levels of participation
(Farmer & Fedor, 1999). “Ifa manager is not aware of her or his volunteers’

psychological contracts, then he or she may unintentionally violate the volunteers’

25

psychological contracts, which can have negative consequences in terms of job
performance” (Liao-Troth, 2001, p.432).

Managers need to balance between volunteer expectations and expectations of the
organization. They need to be open and honest in communicating to volunteers what the
organization is expecting as well as communicating to the organization what volunteers
are expecting (Sosik, Potosky, & Jung, 2002). To help prevent violations of
psychological contracts, managers need to be aware of and be actively managing
volunteer expectations.

Managers and organizations need to accurately define job duties and the role of
the volunteer. It is crucial to discourage any unrealistic expectations at the beginning of
the volunteer process. It is also important for managers to match volunteers to activities
that correspond to their motivations and their abilities (Farmer & Fedor, 1999). Clary &
Snyder (1999) agree. “If volunteers’ satisfaction with their volunteer service is
associated with receiving functionally relevant benefits, then it follows that their actual
intentions to continue serving as volunteers will also be linked to the matching between
experiences and motivations” (p. 158).

Farmer & Fedor found that if volunteers felt they were being appreciated, they
were doing valuable work, and their supervisors were concerned with their welfare,
intentions to leave the organization were lower (Farmer & F edor, 1999). Managers of
volunteers also need to be aware of the importance of symbolic support which can take
the form 0 “recognition and appreciation for work done, personal interest in the life and

well-being of the volunteer, timely and helpful feedback on the results of their efforts,

26

and providing a supportive social network of other volunteers” (Farmer & Fedor, 1999,

p.367).

PROBLEM STATEMENT

With volunteer motivations and psychological contracts being well studied in
other domains, the next important focus is volunteer expectations in natural resource,
outdoor recreation, and environmental management and planning activities. Expectations
are part of psychological contracts that can influence volunteer experiences. A study of
expectations in this domain will expand the literature and provide managers of volunteers
with information they may be lacking. In many situations, managers of volunteers do not
know what expectations volunteers have, or they misjudge the importance of some
expectations over others. Where volunteers are expecting to give their time and effort to
influence the decision process, managers may be providing them with a simple thank you
and not taking their suggestions seriously. This could negatively impact the volunteers’

experience.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study are:

4 To identify general sociodemographic characteristics of volunteers in natural
resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental management and planning
activities and compare them to other volunteers and non-volunteers in the

sample as well as against other studies of volunteers

27

+ To categorize type of participatory behavior, type of organization and
expectations of natural resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental
management and planning volunteers

+ To determine whether expectations difi‘er depending on sociodemographic
variables, types of participatory behaviors, and types of organizations

volunteered with

28

CHAPTER III: METHODS

The data for this study were gathered using random-digit dialing and telephone
surveys. The telephone surveys were conducted by Michigan State University’s Travel,
Tourism and Recreation Resource Center as part of its annual Michigan Travel Market
Survey (see Appendix B). This procedure was chosen because adding questions to an
existing survey provided a low cost and time efficient way to gather data. The telephone
survey also provided access to a large and random sample of households from the Great
Lakes region. The Great Lakes region included Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota,
Ohio, Wisconsin, and the Canadian province of Ontario.

The random-digit phone numbers were purchased from the Survey Sampling
International, Inc. in Connecticut. The interviews were conducted with the assistance of
a CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone Interview) system. Phone numbers were entered
into the computer system; the computer system randomly dialed a number, and kept the
number in the system until it was verified to be invalid. Up to five callbacks were placed
for each random phone number. Individual responses were entered directly into StatPac,
and were later transferred into SPSS for data analysis.

The survey was conducted with the person in the household with the next birthday
who was at least eighteen years of age. During the thirty-week period fi'om January
through mid-August 2002, 3,197 interviews were completed. Each interview lasted
approximately twelve minutes and a 44% response rate occurred which took into
consideration refusals, answering machines, no-answers, and busy numbers.

The Michigan Travel Market Survey has been conducted annually since 1996. A

subsample of nonrespondents from 1996 to 1998 was questioned to test for nonresponse

29

bias and none was found (Holecek, Spencer, Williams, & Herbowicz, 2000). It is
important to note that in Holecek, et a1. ’3 check for nonresponse bias, only demographic
variables were tested. Since the Michigan Travel Market Survey did not contain
questions on volunteering in 1996—98, the author can only conclude some evidence for
lack of nonresponse bias in regards to demographics. The extent of nonresponse bias in
relation to this study’s variables is unknown.

The sociodemographic variables that were included in the questionnaire were
recorded for all individuals regardless of whether they were volunteers in natural
resource, outdoor recreation, or environmental management and planning (NRORENV
volunteers), volunteers in other fields (general volunteers), or non-volunteers. The
sociodemographic variables are listed in Table 5. Other variables were not available for

all respondents because questions were filtered based on responses.

Table 5. Sociodemographic variables asked of all respondents.

 

 

Variables Scale Attributes

Gender Nominal Male/Female

Household Income Ordinal Above/Below median $42K
Above/Below $65K

Full time employees in household Interval 0, 1, 2, 3 or more

State or province Nominal Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin,
Ontario

Children Nominal Pre-school children Yes/No
Under age 18 Yes/N O

Senior Citizen Nominal Yes/No

Person with a handicap Nominal Yes/NO

Race ‘ Nominal Caucasian, Afiican American,

Asian, nganic/Latino, Other

30

Gender was not asked of the respondent, but instead determined by the
interviewer. A category was available if the interviewer was not able to determine if the
respondent was male or female based on their voice. Household income was first asked
as above or below the median of $42,000, and if the respondent answered that it was
above the median they were asked if their household income was above or below $65,000
annually. Respondents were also asked how many filll-time employees resided in the
household. State or province was included as a variable, and a new variable, country of
residence, was later formed fi'om the category dichotomized between the United States
and Canada.

In relation to children, respondents were asked two distinct questions. The first
was to distinguish if they had pre-school children at home, and the second was if they had
children under the age of 18 living at home. Whether or not they were senior citizens or
individuals with handicaps was also asked during the phone interview. Race was also
recorded for all respondents, and was later coded into the five categories listed in Table 5.
Finally, all respondents were asked if they had volunteered their time in any way in the
previous twelve months. Ifrespondents had volunteered in some way, they were asked
how many times they volunteered and if it was in natural resource, outdoor recreation, or
environmental management or planning activities.

The variables that were specifically recorded for volunteers in natural resource,
outdoor recreation, and environmental management and planning are defined in Table 6.
Respondents who answered that they had participated in natural resource, outdoor
recreation, and environmental management and planning were asked in an open-ended

format what they did during their volunteer experience and for what organization. The

31

answers were entered directly as stated into the database by the phone interviewer. Each
respondent could reply with up to three separate volunteer behaviors and organizations.
Afier the three possibilities were exhausted either because they had volunteered in such a
way only once or twice, or they completed all three opportunities, they were then asked

in a checklist format what they expected during their volunteer experience.

Table 6. Variables recorded for volunteers in natural resource, outdoor recreation,
and environmental management and phoning.

 

. . Stewardship activities, Routine tasks, Authoritative
Type Of participatory behaviors, Youth activities, Recreation activities, or
behavror Other category

 

. . Environmental, Recreation, Youth, Citizen boards, or
Type Of organization Other organization

 

Thanks, Public Recognition, More access to managers
than citizens who do not participate, More influence on
agency/organization decisions and policies, Support
(transportation, food & beverages, child care, etc.)

Expectations

The participatory behaviors were initially condensed into the sixteen
participatory behavior categories used in Propst and Bentley’s (2000) study, but due to
sample size were later reduced into the six listed in Table 7. The type of organization
categories were formed alter analysis of the corresponding open-ended responses (also in
Table 7). Although some of the examples for type of organization may appear to fit into
more than one type of organization category, the placement was influenced by type of
participatory behavior done with the organization. For example, the type of participatory
behavior done for Ducks Unlimited was wetlands restoration. This philosophy was used

throughout the assignment of organizations.

32

Table 7. Descriptions of participatory behaviors and types of organizations.

 

Type of participatory behavior:

Stewardship activities: resource monitoring and stewardship activities (bird counts,
exotic species removal, prescribed burns, tree planting, etc.)

Routine tasks: wide range (Office assistance, fundraising, facility inspections,
maintenance, litter pick up, painting, etc.)

Authoritative behaviors: policy-making (member of a formal citizen board or
commission, member of a planning team, etc.)

Youth activities: youth activities other than sports (Girl Scout/Boy Scout activities
and outings, school groups, summer camps, etc.)

Recreation activities: sports activities (coaching, umpiring, leading a mountain bike
ride, etc.)

Other: those types of participatory behaviors not falling into the above-mentioned
categories or too vague to be categorized (i.e. church, literacy, cooking, gardening,
organized trip, planned an activity, Relay for Life, donated, children, doing games, etc.)

 

Type of organization:

Environmental: primarily involving environmental concerns (Green Peace, Ducks
Unlimited, Lake Management Society, River Watch, etc.)

Recreation: concerned with recreational, fitness, sports activities (sport clubs, running
associations, fitness clubs, etc.)

Youth: interested in youth, have a youth service mission (YMCA, 4-H, Girl Scouts,
Boy Scouts, schools, camp associations, etc.)

Citizen boa rds: part of governing board, involve decision-making, policy-setting
(Chambers of Commerce, county fair boards, DNR, county of. .. city of. .. etc.)

Other: organizations not falling into the above mentioned categories (religious, family
businesses, research corporations, homeowners associations, sororities/fratemities,
hospitals, local newspapers, American Cancer Society, March of Dimes, Red Cross,
etc.)

 

Volunteer expectations were then asked in a checklist format. The listed
expectations included thanks, public recognition, more access to managers than citizens
who do not participate, more influence on agency/organization decisions and policies,
and support (Table 6). “Recognition differs from informal and private forms of

appreciation such as a manager congratulating a volunteer on a ‘job well done’ in a

33

hallway conversation” (Fisher & Ackerman, 1998, p.264). Recognition publicly
acknowledges the volunteer’s hard work and commitment to the organization. For those
volunteers who expect social approval, public recognition is an important incentive.
These specific expectations were pulled fi'om the literature on public
participation. They were also incorporated in order to enable direct comparisons between
Propst & Bentley’s (2000) study and this research. Respondents were asked to answer
yes or no to each expectation. They were also asked a follow-up question regarding if
they expected anything else when they volunteered. Ifthey did, Open-ended responses
were entered into the database. Responses {Tom the open-ended question were analyzed
to ensure the responses did not repeat the initial five expectations. Open-ended responses
were evaluated to see if a new expectation could be formed. The open-ended responses
can be found in Table 8. The majority of open-ended expectations were not extrinsic
rewards that managers of volunteers or organizations could directly provide to the
volunteers. Many were intrinsic rewards that volunteers expected to experience. Those
volunteers who answered no to each expectation and who did not have an additional

open-ended expectation were coded as expecting nothing.

Table 8: Open-ended responses for any additional item expected.

 

Other expectations: (received 15 open—ended responses: one of each listed)

A cleaner earth Personal satisfaction
A good feeling in her heart Re-elected
Appreciation Self-respect
Community involvement Self-gratification
Improvement in natural resources Self-satisfaction

Just a smile Spiritual fulfillment

Make sure everything is going to person it is supposed to Want the kids to learn
More exposure for business

 

34

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Frequencies for the sociodemographic variables asked of all respondents are
summarized in Table 9. Census estimates are included as well. The United States
estimates are for 2000 including individuals age eighteen and older, whereas the
Canadian statistics are from 2001 and include individuals age fifteen and older.

For this sample, 1,301 respondents, out of the total 3,197 respondents, or 40.7%,
volunteered in some way during the previous twelve months. In their general household
survey of giving and volunteering behavior, the Independent Sector (2001) found that
44.2% of their respondents had volunteered in some way during the previous twelve
months. The current study also found that 247 respondents, or 7.7% of the sample,
volunteered their time in natural resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental
management and planning activities. Although the Independent Sector (2001) does not
include the exact category of natural resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental
management and planning, it does contain two comparable categories of “Recreation”
and the “Environment.” Summing the percents from these categories gives a figure of
8.1%, which is close to the 7.7% of this sample. This suggests a close correspondence
regarding the type of volunteering between the two independent studies.

It is important to note that this study questioned individuals age eighteen and
older whereas the Independent Sector’s (2001) study interviewed individuals age twenty-
one and older. In 2001, the Independent Sector changed its methodology. In previous
years in-home personal interviews were conducted with individuals eighteen years and
older. In their most recent study, telephone interviews were conducted with individuals

twenty-one years and older.

35

Table 9. Frequencies of sociodemographic variables by type of individuals.

 

General NRORENV

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Non-volunteers volunteers volunteers Census
Gender
Male 744 (39.2%) 359 (34.1%) 96 (38.9%) 20,900,646 (48.3%)
Female 1146 (60.4%) 690 (65.5%) 149 (60.3%) 22,366,482 (51.7%)
State
Illinois 231 (12.2%) 130 (12.3%) 25 (10.1%) 9,173,842 (21.2%)
Indiana 242 (12.8%) 124 (11.8%) 29 (11.7%) 4,506,089 (10.4%)
Michigan 489 (25.8%) 252 (23.9%) 60 (24.3%) 7,342,677 (17.0%)
Ohio 326 (17.2%) 179 (17.0%) 48 (19.4%) 8,464,801 (19.6%)
Wisconsin 234 (12.3%) 179 (17.0%) 39 (15.8%) 3,994,919 (9.2%)
Ontario 372 (19.6%) 185 (17.6%) 45 (18.2%) 9,784,800 (22.6%)
United States 1523 (80.3%) 868 (82.4%) 201 (81.4%) 33,482,328 (77.4%)
Canada 372 (19.6%) 185 (17.6%) 45 (18.2%) 9,784,800 (22.6%)
Preschool children
Yes 204 (10.8%) 142 (13.5%) 39 (15.8%)
No 1480 (78.1%) 908 (86.1%) 208 (84.2%)
Children lmder 18
Yes 479 (25.3%) 397 (37.7%) 117 (47.4%) 8,167,470 (40.0%)
No 1206 (63.6%) 651 (61.8%) 130 (52.6%) 12,267,578 (60.0%)
Senior citizen
Yes 414 (21.8%) 250 (23.7%) 48 (19.4%) 3,990,292 (23.1%)
No 1271 (67.0%) 797 (75.6%) 199 (80.6%) 13,253,771 (76.9%)
Handicapped
Yes 143 (7.5%) 69 (6.5%) 16 (6.5%)
No 1539 (81.2%) 978 (92.8%) 230 (93.1%)
Wage earners
0 323 (17.0%) 185 (17.6%) 20 (8.1%)
1 552 (29.1%) 363 (34.4%) 85 (34.4%)
2 624 (32.9%) 401 (38.0%) 121 (49.0%)
3 104 (5.5%) 53 (5.0%) 12 (4.9%)
Race
Caucasian 1400 (73.8%) 945 (89.7%) 210 (85.0%)
African American 115 (6.1%) 32 (3.0%) 10 (4.0%)
Asian 38 (2.0%) 11 (1.0%) 3 (1.2%)
Hispanic/Latmo 25 (1.3%) 11 (1.0%) 3 (1.2%)
Other 318 (16.8%) 55 (5.2%) 21 (8.5%)
Median income
($42,000)
Above 852 (44.9%) 656 (62.2%) 181 (73.3%)
Below 614 (32.4%) 256 (24.3%) 41 (16.6%)
Income $65,000
Above 447 (23.6%) 370 (35.1%) 121 (49.0%)
Below 358 (18.9%) 243 (23.1%) 57 (23.1%)

 

 

a. US. census data were collected from the United States Census Bureau website at

www.census.gov (6/15/2003); Canadian census data were gathered from Statistics Canada at
www.statcan.ea (6/15/2003).
b. Raceandincome datawerenotaggregatedduetothe dificultyincomparisons between US.

andCanadianstatistics

36

Natural resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental management and
planning volunteers were primarily women (60%), fiom Michigan (24%), US. citizens
(81%), with no preschool children at home (84%), with children under the age of 18 at
home (53%), not senior citizens (81%), not persons with a handicap (93%), White (85%),
and with above the median (73%) and $65,000 annual incomes (49%).

These results are consistent with other studies. Women (Independent Sector,
2001; Kim & Hong, 1998; Smith, 1994), Whites (Independent Sector, 2001), employed,
high income individuals (Bradley, 1999/2000; Brown, 1999; Independent Sector, 2001;
Kim & Hong, 1998; Rotolo, 2000; Wilson & Musick, 1997) and those with school-aged
children at home (Smith, 1994) are more likely to be volunteers. In comparison to the
census data, Illinois was underrepresented in this study, and Michigan and Wisconsin
were over represented. Individuals with children under eighteen were also overly
represented in comparison to census figures.

Crosstabs procedures were run using the Pearson chi-square test statistic to test
for independence between variables. The chi-square test statistic calls attention to
independence, but is affected by sample size. Iftwenty percent of the expected cell
frequencies were less than five in the two by two tables, Yate’s continuity correction
significance was reported to correct for sample size. A measure of association was
chosen to assess the magnitude and the nature of the relationship between the variables.
Phi was chosen as the preferred measure of association because of the nominal variables
(N orusis, 2000).

Volunteers in natural resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental

management and planning were more likely to have preschool children at home

37

(x2=8.255. p=0.016; ¢=0.051), and children under the age ofeighteen living with them
(x2=81.908, p=0.000; ¢=0. 160). Volunteers in natural resource, outdoor recreation, and
environmental management and planning were also more likely to have two filll-time
wage earners at home (x2=24.430, p=0.000; ¢=0.092). They were more likely to have
annual incomes above the median of $42,000 (12:76.40; p=0.000; ¢=0. 171) and above
$65,000 (x2=10.359, p=0.006; ¢=0.081). General volunteers had the largest gender
discrepancy with females being more likely to have volunteered (x2=7 .861, p=0.020;
¢=0.050). General volunteers also had the highest proportion of Caucasian/White
volunteers (x2=116.239, p=0.000; ¢=0. 191) with non-volunteers containing the highest
number of non-White respondents.

In terms of the number of times volunteered in the past year Table 10 compares
general volunteers to NRORENV volunteers. Natural resource, outdoor recreation, and
environmental management and planning volunteers averaged 42.5 times of volunteering

(95% confidence interval of 34-51 times) and general volunteers averaged 35.6 times

(95% confidence interval of 32-39 times).

Table 10. Number of times volunteered in the past twelve months.

 

General volunteers NROREN V volunteers
Mean 35.64 Mean 42.53
Standard Error 1.859 Standard Error 4.445
Range 365 Range 364
Sum 36,602 Sum 10421
N 1027 N 245

 

The classification of volunteers by type of participatory behavior is provided in

Figure 1. It is important to note the large number of volunteers that were categorized as

38

“other” in terms of type of participatory behavior and type of organization. When coding
the open-ended responses to the questions, responses such as “church” for type of
participatory behavior were unable to be classified because of the vagueness of the
response. The researcher was unable to determine if the respondent had volunteered at a
day camp for a church, or had planted grass or done maintenance for a church. In the
same regard, for type of organization volunteered with, this study focused on four main
types of secular organizations. Religious organizations were considered “other.” Also
for type of organization, responses such as “Kelley & Sons,” were coded as other because
being unfamiliar with the name, the researcher was unable to determine what type of

organization it was.

Figure 1. Number of NRORENV volunteers by type of participatory behavior.

Number of volunteers

 

9%“ new“" New“ 1°“: 3”“ 0“”

Type of participatory behavior

39

In looking at Figure 1, the sum of volunteers does not equal 247. This is because
respondents could be involved in more than one type of participatory behavior based on
their three distinct responses. The same is true for Figure 2 in regards to type of
organization. Again, volunteers could be involved with more than one type of
organization.

Natural resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental management and
planning volunteers most often reported undertaking routine tasks (28%), followed by
youth activities (21%), recreation activities ( 13%), stewardship activities (9%), and
authoritative behaviors (5%). Definitions of these variables can be found in Table 7.

As displayed in Figure 2, youth organizations attracted the most volunteers
(3 3%), which is consistent with the Independent Sector’s (2001) findings. In the
Independent Sector’s (2001) survey, religious organizations received the largest number
of volunteers, with youth development coming in close behind. Following youth
organizations in this study were citizen boards (17%), environmental organizations (10%)

and recreational organizations (9%).

40

Figure 2. Number of NRORENV volunteers by type of organization.

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
9va“ W‘ 10‘1"“ not“ om“
Type of organization

81

Number of volunteers

 

Figure 3 depicts the expectations of volunteers in natural resource, outdoor
recreation, and environmental management and planning. “Thanks” was the number one
expectation (54%), followed by support (29%), influence on organizations/agencies’
decisions and policies (28%), and nothing (26%). Looking at Table 3 (Chapter H), which
was modified from Propst and Bentley’s (2000) findings, we see similar results except for
the expectations of “public recognition” and “nothing.” In Propst & Bentley’s study, a
disproportionate amount of managers, eighty-one percent, felt that citizens expected to
receive pubic recognition. Only eight percent of citizens reported that they expected
public recognition. Forty-three percent of managers felt that citizens expected more
access to managers than those who do not participate, whereas only fourteen percent of
citizens checked this response. Also, over sixty percent of citizens did not expect any of
the mentioned expectations when they participated, while managers felt that only a

quarter of volunteers expected nothing.

4]

The difi’erences between the two sets of results could be due to differences in
methods with this study using a telephone survey and Propst and Bentley’s study using a
mail survey. Propst and Bentley also had a different study population that consisted of
active members from mailing lists of specific organizations. The current study’s results
are more representative of the population as a whole. In terms of expectations, “thanks”
was not included on Propst and Bentley’s initial checklist, but was written in so
frequently by respondents that it was used in this study. Nothing was an option to check
in Propst and Bentley’s study as well, whereas in the current study “nothing” was not
read as a yes or no option, but was created based on negative responses to all listed
expectations.

Smith (1981) asserted that because helping others is not typically assumed to
involve selfish motives or self-centered reasons, self-report methods will overestimate the
altruistic reasons for volunteering. In this study, based primarily on the open-ended
responses in regards to any additional expectation, self-centered reasons were reported
including “more exposure for business” and to be “re-elected.” Although this is true,
many of the open-ended responses were also altruistic. In addition, over one quarter of
volunteers reported expecting nothing. Public recognition was also the lowest

expectation reported (only 8% of respondents).

42

Figure 3. Percentages of expectations of volunteers.

 

0
6° “1 53.8%

 

50% d

 

 

40%-

 

30°/o -

 

20%-

Percent of volunteers

10%4/

 

 

 

 

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1“’“”R,Gw“‘“°“ ”$55 “‘“uanffi swpor‘ “ommg
Expectations of volunteers

In regards to expectations, females expected more access to managers than males
(x2 = 4.731, p=0.030; ¢=0.141). Females also expected more support than males (x2 =
13.036, p=0.000; ¢=0.232). In terms of access, twice as many females, 20% compared to
10% of males expected more access to managers than those who did not participate. The
strongest association was between gender and support. More than double the amount of
females, 38% compared to 17% of males, expected to receive support from the
organization.

Respondents whose total household income was more than $65,000 expected less
access to managers than respondents whose total household income was less than

$65,000 (x2 = 7.308, p=0.007; ¢—~0.206). More than double (27%) the amount of

43

respondents with annual incomes less than $65,000 expected access, compared to 11% of
respondents with incomes above $65,000.

Figure 4 diagrams the number of volunteers taking part in each type of
participatory behavior by the type of organization that they volunteered with. Again, the

columns do not sum to 247.

Figure 4. Participatory behaviors within each type of organization.

Number of volunteers by type of participatory
behavior

  
   

  

El Steward
I Routine
I Authorit
El Youth
3 Rec
I Other

 
 
 

   

           
 

 

Recrtnl Youth Board Other

Type of organization

Envmnti

 
   

Environmental organization volunteers most often participated in stewardship and

routine tasks, with no recreation activities. Recreational organization volunteers took

part primarily in recreation activities, such as scheduling sky dives or organizing
basketball leagues, as well as routine tasks, such as supervising ticket sales, stuffing
envelopes, or performing routine maintenance of facilities. Youth organization
volunteers primarily were involved with youth activities, including being youth
counselors at camps or scout leaders. They also participated in routine tasks. As would
be predicted, citizen board volunteers were involved in policy-making activities as well
as routine tasks.

Figures 5 and 6 plot types of participatory behaviors and types of organizations
respectively in regards to expectations. Examining Figure 5, authoritative, recreation,
youth, and routine volunteers appear to expect higher levels of thanks than stewardship
volunteers. Authoritative volunteers have higher public recognition and influence
expectations than other volunteers, and are lower on expecting nothing. There are low
levels reported for public recognition for non-authoritative volunteers, and all volunteers
have some expectation of influence. Recreation volunteers and “other” volunteers appear
to be higher in terms of support, and stewardship volunteers appear to expect less
support. In Figure 6, environmental organizations appear to expect more public
recognition, access, and influence than volunteers in other organizations.

For all types of participatory behaviors and types of organizations some level of
thanks and influence were present. Over forty percent of all volunteers expected thanks,
and expectations peaked again over influence. Even volunteers involved in recreation
activities and routine behaviors had some expectation of influencing organization
decisions. A simple “pat on the back” is not enough for volunteers. When donating their

time and effort they are expecting to have influence in the organization. The peaks in

45

terms of type of organization are again apparent in expecting thanks and influence over
decisions. Even recreational organization volunteers, over twenty percent, expected to
have some influence over organizational decisions or policies.

To see if any of these apparent relationships were significantly different, chi-
square analyses were performed (Tables 11 and 12). Again, the chi-square statistic was
chosen to test for independence between the variables, and phi was the chosen measure of
association for the nominal variables. Two by two cross tabulation tables were originally

produced, and Tables 11 and 12 are compilations of the results.

46

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48

Table l 1. Results of crosstabs for types of participatory behaviors by expectations.

ijes of participatory behaviors

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Thanks Recog Access Influence Support Nothing
Steward

X2 0.873 0.051 0.284 0.064 2.560 0.065
p 0.350 0.821 0.594 0.064 0.110 0.799
(b -0.060 0.014 0.034 0.120 -0.102 0.016
N 242 234 240 239 244 244

Routine

x2 1.011 0.408 1.443 0.561 1.287 0.192
p 0.315 0.523 0.230 0.454 0.257 0.662
,1, 0.065 0.041 0.078 0.048 -0.073 -0.028
N 242 243 240 239 244 244

Authoritative

X2 0.058 5.531 0.048 6. 787 0.123 2.089
p 0.810 0.073 0.827 0. 009 0.725 0.148
.1, 0.015 0.151 0.014 0.169 —0.022 -0.093

N 242 243 240 239 244 244

Youth

X2 0.886 1.587 1.613 0.901 1.954 1.682
p 0.347 0.208 0.204 0.343 0.162 0.195
4, 0.061 -0.081 -0.082 -0.061 -0.089 0.083
N 242 243 240 239 244 244

Recreation

3‘2 1.683 2.953 0.509 0.655 0.392 0.074
p 0.195 0.086 0.476 0.418 0.531 0.785
4, 0.083 -0.110 -0.046 -0.052 0.040 -0.017

N 242 243 240 239 244 244

Other

x’ 8.348 0.812 0.180 0.646 0.552 0.469
p 0. 004 0.367 0.671 0.421 0.457 0.493
4, -0.186 -0.058 -0.027 -0.052 0.048 0.044

N 242 243 240 239 244 244

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

49

 

Table 12. Results of crosstabs for types of organizations by expectations.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Thanks Recog Access Influence Support Nothing
Environmntl
X2 1.902 5.600 3.557 8.314 0.817 0.401
p 0.168 0. 018 0.059 0. 004 0.366 0.527
3 4, -0.089 0.122 0.122 0.187 0.058 -0.041
p N 242 243 240 239 244 244
E Rm:
g X2 0.000 1.955 0.041 0.159 0.815 0.070
g p 0.997 0.162 0.839 0.690 0.367 0.792
‘5. .1, 0.000 -0.090 -0.013 -0.026 0.058 -0.017
g N 242 243 240 239 244 244
E~. Youth
12 0.910 5.339 0.250 0.060 3.094 0.724
p 0.340 0. 021 0.617 0.806 0.079 0.395
4, 0.061 -0.148 0.032 -0.016 -0.113 0.054
N 242 243 240 239 244 244
Board
31.2 0.034 2.465 0.057 2.088 0.051 0.000
p 0.854 0.116 0.811 0.148 0.822 0.995
4, -0.012 0.101 0.015 0.093 0.014 0.000
N 242 243 240 239 244 244
Other
X2 0.507 0.167 3.255 1.749 0.545 0.005
p 0.477 0.682 0.071 0.186 0.460 0.944
4, -0.046 —0.026 -0.116 -0.086 -0.047 0.005
N 242 243 240 239 244 244

 

 

Consistent with visual analysis of the data, volunteers who participated in
authoritative tasks, whether on planning teams or on formal citizen boards, were
significantly more likely to expect influence over decisions or policies (xz=6.787,
p=0.009; ¢=0.169) than those volunteers who did not participate in authoritative tasks.

The authoritative/influence cross tab is significant with 64% of those involved in

50

authoritative tasks expecting influence. Those who participated in “other” types of
behaviors expected less thanks (x2=8.348, p=0.004; ¢= -0. 186) than those falling into
other categories.

In terms of type of organization, those respondents who volunteered their time
with an environmental organization expected more influence (xz=8.314, p=0.004;
d>=0.187) than those in other organizations as well as more public recognition (x2=5.600,
p=0.018; rb=0. 122). Those who volunteered in youth organizations expected less public
recognition (x’=5.339. p=0.021; 4»: -0.148) than the others. In terms ofthe strength of

the relationship, all three were moderately associated with one another.

Results summary

The most significant relationships involving sociodemographics and expectations
were related to gender and income. Women volunteers expected more access to
managers and more support in their volunteer experiences. Individuals with higher
annual incomes expected less access to managers than individuals with lower incomes.
In regards to participatory behavior and expectations, individuals taking part in policy-
making activities, whether on formal citizen boards or on planning teams, expected to
have an influence on organization decisions. Type of organization and expectation cross
tabs highlighted the relationships between environmental organizations and public
recognition and influence, and the relationship between youth organization volunteers
and public recognition. Environmental organization volunteers expected more public

recognition and more influence over organization decisions. In relation to the

51

Independent Sector’s (2001) findings, this could potentially be because environmental
volunteers donate the largest number of hours per year.

Volunteers to youth organizations also expect significantly less public recognition
than their peers. This is an important piece of information for managers of volunteers in
youth organizations. If youth organization volunteers do not want, or expect public
recognition and that is the only reward provided to them, a backlash fi'om the youth
organization volunteers may be felt. Public recognition may offend youth organization
volunteers.

Volunteers are typically motivated to become involved with an organization
because they identify strongly with its mission, goals, and values (Stebbins, 2001).
Because of this, volunteers primarily form relational contracts which lead to the more
severe violations that are associated with such contracts. These emotional, internalized
violations are what managers of volunteers are primarily faced with Understanding

volunteer expectations can decrease psychological contract violations.

52

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS

Summary

This study found that volunteers in natural resource, outdoor recreation, and
environmental management and planning activities volunteer more than general
volunteers. They also have relevant expectations, ranging from support to influence over
decisions, when they give their time and effort for a cause. Only a quarter of volunteers
expected nothing from their volunteer experiences. Volunteers in all types of
participatory behaviors and all types of organizations had expectations for some degree of
influence. A simple “pat on the back” to pacify volunteers is not enough to firlfill
volunteers’ psychological contracts. Many volunteers wanted to have influence over the
organization’s decisions and policies. Even respondents who performed routine tasks
such as oflice work had some expectation of influence. The expectations identified in
this study are also more than just intrinsic rewards. They are expectations that managers
can fulfill. In knowing what expectations are present, and at what level for which types
of participatory behaviors and which types of organizations, managers will be in a better

position to meet expectations and fulfill psychological contracts.

Study limitations

In utilizing a telephone survey, it may have been hard for respondents to think and
answer immediately about their volunteer experiences. Having a mail survey in fi'ont of
them may have provided respondents with the opportunity to sit down and contemplate
their experiences. It also would have provided them with the opportunity to go back and

check their calendars in regards to what ways and how often they volunteered their time.

53

They also should have been asked if their expectations were unmet, met, or exceeded
while volunteering.

Incorporating questions into an existing phone survey limited the number of
questions that could be added because the survey was already adequately long. Looking
back, all respondents should have been asked what their expectations were regardless of
whether or not they were volunteers in natural resource, outdoor recreation, and
environmental management and planning.

Finally, at times the interviewers did not probe as deeply as they could have, and
some recorded answers were unclear or were one-word answers such as “church” that
could not accurately be categorized. This resulted in a large number of “other”

participatory behaviors and “other” types of organizations.

Future Research
Future research should involve comparative analysis of expectations for all types

of volunteers, not just those in natural resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental
management and planning. Expectations are important and more research needs to be
done on the best and most effective ways for managers to learn what expectations
volunteers have. Ways to assess whether expectations are being met or not also needs to
take place in order to provide management with a tool to correct managers’ erroneous
expectations.

Future research needs to take a more systematic look at serious leisure volunteers
and whether or not they have greater expectations because they are particularly

knowledgeable in their choice of endeavors. Their expectations may be greater than the

54

expectations of casual volunteers. If volunteers are taking part in serious leisure and are
utilizing their skills and spending large amounts of time in organizations, if their
expectations are not met, psychological contract violations could be taken more
personally and internalized. The violation could lead to reduced trust, less drive to
participate in the organization, and increase the likelihood of the volunteers taking their

talents elsewhere.

Management implications

Niehofl‘ and Paul (2001) found that a deep commitment to excellent
communication and integrity were important factors in fulfilling psychological contracts.
Other important factors are building trusting relationships and having constructive
discussions and open forums where individuals are able to voice their opinions and be
heard. Accurate, honest, and clear explanations should be given in order to help prevent
miscommunication or other surprises. Periodic feedback sessions can be relevant where
individuals are able to become involved in the process and keep informed. When
individuals feel they are able to speak out in a safe environment and have their
suggestions heard, trust will be created and nurtured (Nlehoff & Paul, 2001). These
points are all important strategies for maintaining psychological contracts.

A helpful homework is to define expectations during recruitment, selection and
induction of volunteers, and to continue dialog in communicating and expressing
expectations. Organizations need to show volunteers how policies are implemented and
for what purpose. They need to treat volunteers as stakeholders, relying on consensus

and cooperation. Also, it is necessary to be upfront and honest, making sure

55

organizational publications are accurate in creating an impression (N iehoff & Paul,
2001).

This study found that subtle differences in expectations existed among natural
resource, outdoor recreation, and environmental management and planning volunteers.
Females expected more access to managers than males as well as more support. Ifan
organization wants to keep its female volunteers, or increase the number of female
volunteers, having face to face contact with them, and providing them with transportation
and child care can help. Volunteers participating in authoritative tasks expect to
influence decisions and policies. If volunteers will not be able to influence decisions,
managers need to be honest with them and let them choose whether or not they want to
volunteer with the organization. This will decrease the chance of unrealistic
expectations.

Managers of environmental organizations need to make sure volunteers are able
to influence decisions and policies and receive public recognition. Managers need to
focus their time and resources to meet these two particular expectations, while spending
less time focusing on other expectations. Volunteers of environmental organization
should not be given envelopes to stuff or fundraising tasks. Also, youth organizations
need to decrease publicly recognizing their volunteers. prublic recognition is received,
volunteers could be offended and leave the organization. Above all else, regardless of
type of participatory behavior or type of organization, some expectation of influence
exists.

Mangers need to make expectations explicit. Ifexpectations are explicit,

problems may be solved before they happen. Explicitly stating expectations also makes

56

firlfilling psychological contracts easier for managers of volunteers. On the contrary, if
managers have misguided assumptions of what volunteers expect, providing an
equivalent or fair return is not likely. vaolunteers do not feel they are receiving fair
compensation for their time and effort, they may withdraw and leave the organization.

Managers could ask on entrance surveys into a volunteer program, hold individual
meetings and ask face to face, or have a suggestion box to learn what volunteers are
expecting. Once the expectations are known, the next step is to create innovative ways to
meet expectations and firlfill psychological contracts. Meeting expectations helps to
fulfill psychological contracts, which leads to increased trust in the organization. Trust
results in increased support for agency decisions (Force & Forester, 2002).

Finding a way to incorporate volunteers’ ideas or suggestions so they perceive
that they do have a certain amount Of influence, regardless of their role in the
organization is important for managers of volunteers. Ifthe perception of influence
exists, volunteers will gain trust in the organization and the organization will receive
benefits associated with met expectations and firlfilled psychological contracts, including
increased effort in the organization, increased job commitment and higher levels of job

satisfaction.

57

APPENDIX A

Fortune 500: Top 50 companies in terms of number of employees
Adapted fi'om www.fortune.com/fortune/fortune 500/ keyattributes/ 0,14968,
employee__count, 00.html (3/24/03)

COMPANY NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES
1. Wal-Mart Stores 1,383,000
2. McDonald’s 395,000
3. United Parcel Service 370,000
4. General Motors 365,000
5. Ford Motor 352,748
6. Intl. Business Machines 319,876
7. General Electric 310,000
8. Sears Roebuck 310,000
9. Kroger 288,000
10. J.C. Penney 270,000
1 1. Citigroup 268,000
12. Home Depot 256,300
13. Verizon Communications 247,000
14. Kmart 240,525
15. Target 223,550
16. Albertson’s 220,000
17. Delphi 195,000
18. SBC Communications 193,420
19. Safeway 193,000
20. Boeing 188,000
21. FedEx 176,960
22. Philip Morris 175,000
23. HCA 174,000
24. Aramark 162,000
25. United Technologies 152,000
26. Electronic Data Systems 143,000
27. Pepsi Co. 143,000
28. Bank of America Corp. 142,670
29. Tricon Global Restaurants 141,750
30. Sara Lee 141,500
31. Marriott International 140,000
32. Gap 140,000
33. Alcoa 129,000
34. Darden Restaurants 128,900
35. May Dept. Stores 127,000
36. Lockheed Martin 125,000
37. Emerson Electric 124,500-

58

APPENDIX B

Complete Michigan Travel Market Survey Telephone Questionnaire

YEAR 7 — TTRRC TELEPHONE SURVEY — QUESTIONNAIRE 1 (REVISED
01/1 6/02)

[ENTER MERVIEWER CODE NUMBER; DOUBLE ENTRY REQUIRED] > _
[ENTER CODE NMER] >
[ENTER AREA CODE; DOUBLE ENTRY REQUIRED] > _

 

Hello, I'm calling from Michigan State University. My name is sssss We're conducting a
study on travel and tourism. May I speak to the adult, 18 or older, who will have the next
birthday?

[IF THIS PERSON IS NOT AT HOW, ASK T0 SPEAK TO THE ADULT AT H0110: WHO
WHL HAVE THE NEXT BIRTHDA Y. ]

We'd greatly appreciate your help in answering a few questions about trips you've made.

[ENTER GENDER 0F RESPONDENT] > _

1=Male
2=Female
-99=Cannot determine
1. Does anyone in your household own or lease a car, van, recreation vehicle, pick-up
truck or sport-utility vehicle? > __

1=Yes
2=No -) GO TO QUESTION 4
-99=DK/NR -) GO TO QUESTION 4
[READ LIST]
2. Would you say the price of gasoline has affected the amount of driving you do on
pleasure trips. .. > _

1=a great deal,
2=a little or
3=not at all?
-99=DK/NR
[READ LIST]
3. Would you say the price of gasoline has affected the amount of driving you PLAN to

do on pleasure trips... > _

1% great deal,
2=a little or
3=not at all?
-99=DK/NR

59

During the past twelve months, have you traveled on any highways in Michigan? >

1=Yes

2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 6

-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 6
How would you rate the overall quality of Michigan’s highways on a scale from 1 to
10, where 1 means “very poor” and 10 means “outstanding”? -99=DK/NR > _

BEGIN AIR TRAVEL BLOCK

6.

10.

Have you traveled by commercial airplane within the last 30 days? > _

1=Yes

2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 9

-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 9
[AIR TRA VEL EIG’ERIENCE IlflZANS WERIENCES AT THE DEPARTURE AIRPORT,
DURING THE FLIGHT AND AT THE ARRIVAL AIRPORT]
Onascalefrom l to 10,wherel means“uotatallsatisfied” and 10means
“extremely satisfied,” how satisfied were you with your last air travel experience? >

[73K THIS QUESTION ONLY IF SATISFACTION WHHAIR TRA VEL EXPERIENCE
WAS RATED 1, 2 OR 3.]

Why were you dissatisfied with your last air travel experience?

>

 

>
>

Have you cancelled a commercial air trip within the last 30 days? > __

 

 

1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 11
~99=DKINR 9 GO TO QUESTION 11
Why did you cancel it?
>

 

>
>

 

 

END AIR TRAVEL BLOCK
BEGIN MICHIGAN IMAGE BLOCK

ll.

12.

[ACCEPT UP T 0 3 RESPONSES]

As a travel destination, what do you think Michigan is known for?
>

>
>

 

 

 

[ACCEPT UP TO 3 RESPONSES]

What, if any, tourism-related facilities, services or opportunities do you feel are
missing in Michigan?

>

>

>

 

 

 

60

[READ]

l3. We’d like to know how much you agree or disagree with some statements about
Michigan. Pleaseuseascalefrom l to 10,wherel means“donotagreeatall” and
10 means “agree completely.” -99=DK/NR

Michigan...

[ACCEPT I — 10 or -99.]

Is close enough for a weekend getaway ................................... > __
Has many interesting museums ................................................... > __
Isgrcatforsummeroutdoorrecreationactivities ......................... >_
Is an exciting place to visit ......................................................... > _
Hasalotofhighqualitylodging ................................................. >_
Ofi‘ers much scenic appeal ......................................................... > _
Is great for winter outdoor recreation activities ........................... > _
Is agood placetomeet friendly people ....................................... >__
Is a place everyone should visit at least once in their lifetime ...... > __
Is a safe place to visit ................................................................. > _
Ofi‘ers exciting nightlife and entertainment ................................. > _
Isagreatplaceforafamilyvacation .......................................... >_
Is a popular destination with vacationers ..................................... > _
Has many interesting historic sites .............................................. > _
Offers an excellent vacation value for the money ........................ > _
Has great shopping opportunities ................................................ > _

END MICHIGAN INIAGE BLOCK

BEGIN PLEASURE TRIP BLOCK

We're defining a "pleasure trip" as any overnight or day tip to a place at least 50 miles from

your home that was made for your enjoyment, including vacations, weekend getaways, shopping

trips, trips to a second home, and trips to visit fn'ends or relatives.

14. On a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 means “not at all important” and 10 means
“extremely important,” how important is each of the following factors during your

pleasure trips?
-99=DK/NR
Comfort ....................... > _
Convenience ................ > __
Cost ............................. > _
Safety and security ....... > _
[DO NOT READ THESE OPTIONS (RN/LESS THE RESPONDENT DOESW 'T RECALL
THEM]
15. Which one of these four factors '3 the most important to you during pleasure trips? >
1=Comfort
2=Convenience
3=Cost
4=Safety and security
~99=DKINR
[DOUBLE ENTRY REQUIRED]
16. In the past twelve months, have you taken any day or overnight pleasure trips to any
destination? > _
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 55

61

~99=DKINR 9 GO TO QUESTION 55
[ACCEPT 1 — 999.]
17. About how many pleasure trips have you taken in the past twelve months? > _
[IF RESPONDENT IS UNABLE TO GIVE A SPECIFIC NUMBER. READ THE
FOLLOWHVG OPTIONS]

In the past 12 months, would you say you've taken...

2:1 to 3 pleasure trips
5=4 to 6 pleasure trips
=7 to 9 pleasure trips
15=10 to 20 pleasure trips
25=More than 20 pleasure trips
-99=DK/NR
END PLEASURE TRIP BLOCK
BEGIN MOST RECENT PLEASURE TRIP PROFILE BLOCK
[ASK FOR MONTH AND DA Y ; ENTER NUMERICAL VALUES FOR MONTH AND
DAY; IF NECESSARY, ASK FOR BEST GUESS OF DAY. ]
18. Now I'd like to ask you about your most recent pleasure trip. Approximately when

did this trip begin — the month and day? MONTH > _ DAY > _
-99=DK/NR

MONTH CODES

1=January 4=April 7=July 10=October

2=February =May 8=August l l=November

3=March 6=June 9=September 12=December

[ACCEPT I — 3 RESPONSES ASK FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSE(S), ESPECIALLY IF
RESPONDENT SAYS "VACA TTON. " ASK IF MORE THAN ONE PURPOSE
WIONED.)

19. What was the purpose or purposes ofthis trip?
>

 

>

 

>

 

20. What would you say was the PRIMARY purpose of this trip?
>

 

[ACCEPT 1 - 3 RESPONSES] [DO NOT READ THE LIST. ]

21. What types of transportation did you use? > _
1=Car/truck without eamping equipment
2=Car/truck with camping equipment
3=Self-contained recreation vehicle
4=Rental car
5=Airplane
kTrain
7=Shiplboat
8=Motorcycle
9=Bicycle
10=Motorcoachlbus
l 1=Other 9 ENTER UNDER QUESTION 22
-99=DK/NR

22. Other >

 

62

23.

27.

29.

31.

[ACCEPT 1 - 99.] [IF RESPONDENT WAS ON A GROUP TOUR, ASK FOR SIZE OF
MEDIA TE TRAVEL PARTY AS OPPOSED TO SIZE OF WIRE GROUP. ]
How many persons, including you, were in your immediate travel party? >__ -
99=DK/NR
[ACCEPT 1 — 130 FOR AGE VARMBLES] [FNECESSARIC ASK FOR
RESPONDENT’S BEST GUESS OF AGE(S). ]
Beginning with you, please give me the gender and age of each person who went on
this trip:
1=Male 2=Female ~55=Refused -99=DK/NR
GENDER AGE GENDER AGE
RESPONDENT >_ >_ PERSON#2 >_ >
PERSON#3 >_ >_ PERSON#4 >_ >
PERSON#5 >_ >_ PERSON#6 >_ >
PERSON#7 >_ >_ PERSON#8 >_ >
PERSON #9 > _ > PERSON #10 > _ >
Was this an overnight or day trip? >
1=Ovemight
2=Day trip 9 GO TO QUESTION 33
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 33
[ACCEPT I - 999.]
How many nights were you away from home? > _ -99=DK/NR
[ACCEPT 0 - 999; IF ZERO, SKIP NEXT QUESTION]
How many of those nights did you spend in the state or province that was the main
destination of this trip? > __ ~99=DKINR
[ACCEPT I — 5 LOCATIONS]
In which locations did you spend these nights?
>
>
>
>
>
[ACCEPT 0-999.]
While you were in the state or province containing the main destination of this trip,
about how much, if anything, did you spend per night on lodging in hotels, motels,
bed & breakfasts or rental cabins? > $_ -55=REFUSED -99=DK/NR
[DO NOT READ LIST UNLESS NECESSARY TO SIMULATE RESPONSES]
What was the main type of lodging you used? > _
1=Friend's or relative's home
2=Hotel, motel, or lodge
3=Bed & Breakfast
4=Rented cabin, cottage, or condominium
5=Owned cabin, cottage, or condominium
6=County, state, or federal campground
7=Commercial campground (e.g., KOA)
8=Boat/ship
9=Other
-99=DK/NR
Did you spend the night at any casino hotels? > _
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 33
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 33

 

 

 

 

 

63

32.

35.

37.

[ACCEPT I — 5 CASUVO LOCATIONS]

 

 

 

 

 

[READ THE LIST] [IF RESPONDENT SAYS "YES" TO "OUTDOOR RECREATION".
ASK THE NEXT QUESTION; OTHER WISE SKIP THE NEXT QUESTION]
Which, if any, of the following activities did you paru'cipate in?

1=Yes

2=No

-99=DK/NR

Shopping ................................................................................................ > __
Nightlife ................................................................................................. > _
Visit a state or national park ................................................................... > __
Visit a nmseum or hall of fame ............................................................... > _
Visit an historic site ................................................................................ > _
Visit some other type ofattraction .......................................................... > _
Explore a snnll city or town ................................................................... > _
Dine at a unique restaurant ..................................................................... > _
Fallcolortouringwtsideoftravelingtoandfi'omymrdestination ........ >____
General touring or driving for pleasure ................................................... > _
Outdoor recreation ................................................................................. > __

if NO to “Outdoor Won” 9 GO TO QUESTION 35

[ACCEPT 1 - 5 RESPONSES] [ASK ONLY IF OUTDOOR RECREATION AFTIRAED
ABOVE]
What outdoor recreation activities did you participate in?

 

 

 

 

VVVVV

 

Did you attend any festivals or events on this trip? >

 

 

 

 

 

1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 38
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 38
[ACCEPT I — 5 RESPONSES]
What festivals or events did you attend?
>
>
>
>
>
[ACCEPT 0 - 999999.]

How much did you spend on-site at that/those festival(s) or event(s)? > S
-55=REFUSED -99=DK/NR

39.

41.
42.

43.

.35?

Did you visit any farm markets, roadside produce stands or u-pick farms or orchards
on this trip? > _
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 42
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 42
Did you purchase anything there? > _
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 42
~99=DKINR 9 GO TO QUESTION 42
[ACCEPT I - 5 RESPONSES]
What did you purchase?

 

 

 

VVVV

 

>
[ACCEPT 0 - 999999.]
How much did you spend in total? > S _ -55=REFUSED -99=DK/NR
Didyouvisitanywineriesonthistrip?>_
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 46
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 46
Did you purchase anything there? > _
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 46
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 46
[ACCEPT I — 5 RESPONSES]
What did you purchase?

 

 

 

 

VVVV

 

>
[ACCEPT 0 - 999999.]
How much did you spend in total? > S _ -55=REFUSED -99=DK/NR
Did you do any casino gaming on this trip? > _
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 51
-55=Refiised 9 GO TO QUESTION 51
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 51

 

[ACCEPT 1 — 5 RESPONSES]

47.

Which casinos did you visit?

 

 

 

VVVV

 

>

How satisfied were you with your visit to [NM OF FIRST CASINO TWENTIONED
ABOVE] on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 means "extremely dissatisfied" and 10
means "extremely satisfied"? > _ -99=DK/NR

 

65

49. Did you plan to participate in casino gaming before you left home on this trip? > _

1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 51
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 51

50. Was casino gaming the only reason, the primary reason or a secondary reason for
this trip?
>

l=0nly
2=Prinnry
3=Secondary
-99=DK/NR
[ACCEPT 0 - 999999.]

51. In US. dollars, what would be your best estimate of how much your immediate
travel party spent altogether while in the state or province containing the main
destination of this trip?
> S -55=REFUSED -9%DK/NR

[MTER RESPONSE, EG. 90DAYS, 2 WEEKS, 3MONTHS]

52. About how far in advance of this trip did you begin to make plans for it?
>

 

[IF NECESSARY, ASK FOR CITY/PLA CE FARTHEST FROM HOW]
53. What was the main destination of this trip?

City/Place >
StatelProvince/Country >
[DO NOT READ] [DOUBLE ENTRY REQUIRED. ]
>

 

 

1=Michigan destination 9 GO TO QUESTION 92
2=Non-Michigan destination
END MOST RECENT PLEASURE TRIP PROFILE BLOCK
[DOUBLE ENTRY REQUIRED. ]
54. Was a place in Michigan the main destination of any of the pleasure trips you've
taken in the past twelve months? > _
1=Yes 9 GO TO QUESTION 56
2=No
-99=DK/NR
55. Have you ever taken a pleasure trip to a place in Michigan? > _
1=Yes 9 GO TO QUESTION 94
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 94
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 94

BEGIN GENERAL MICHIGAN PLEASURE TRIP PROFILE BLOCK

56. Now I'd like to ask you about your most recent pleasure trip in Michigan.
[IFNECESSARIC EIG’LAHV THAT WE NEED A PROFILE OF THEIR MOST RECENT
PLEASURE TRIP DVMCHIGAN AS WELL AS THEIR MOST RECENT PLEASURE
TRIP EV GENERAL]

66

57.

59.

61.

62.

[ASK FOR MONTH AND DA Y. ENTER NUMERICAL VALUES FOR MONTH AND
DAY. IFNECESSARY, ASKFOR BEST GUESS OFDAY]
Approximately when did this trip begin - the month and day?

MONTH > _ DAY > _ -99=DK/NR

MONTH CODES

1=January 4=April 7=July 10=October
2=February 5=May 8=August l 1=November
3=March 6=June 9=September 12=December

[ACCEPT I — 3 RESPONSES ASK FUR SPECIFIC PURPOSE(S), ESPECIALLY IF
RESPONDENT SAYS "VACATION. "]

What was the purpose or purposes of this trip?
>

 

>

 

>

 

[ASK IF MORE THAN ONE PURPOSE IDENTIONED; ASK FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSE,
ESPECIALLY IF RESPONDENT SAYS "VACATION "]

What would you say was the PRIMARY purpose of this trip?

>

 

[ACCEPT I — 3 RESPONSES] [DO NOT READ LIST]
What types of transportation did you use? > __
l=Carltruck without camping equipment
2=Car/truck with camping equipment
3=Self-contained recreation vehicle
#Rental car
5=Airplane
6=Train
=Ship or boat
8=Motorcycle
9=Bicycle
10=Motorcoachlbus
ll=Other 9 ENTER UNDER QUESTION 60
~99=DKINR

Otber>

 

[ACCEPT I — 99.] [IF RESPONDENT WAS ON A GROUP TOUR, ASK FOR SIZE OF
MEDIATE TRA VEL PARTY AS OPPOSED TO SIZE OF ENTIRE GROUP. ]
How many persons, including you, were in your immediate travel party? > __ -
99=DKINR
[ACCEPT I - 130 FOR AGE VARIABLES] [IF NECESSARY, ASK FOR
RESPONDENT'S BEST GUESS OF AGE]
Beginning with you, please give me the gender and age of each person who went on
this trip.

1=Male 2=Female -55=Rcfiised -99=DK/NR

GENDER AGE GENDER AGE
RESPONDENT > _ > _ PERSON #2 > _ > __
PERSON #3 > _ > __ PERSON #4 > __ > _
PERSON #5 > _ > _ PERSON #6 > _ > _
PERSON #7 > _ > _ PERSON #8 > _ > _
PERSON #9 > > PERSON #10 > _ >

Was this an overnight or day trip? > __

67

 

3

a

1=Overnight
2=Day trip -) GO TO QUESTION 71
-99=DK/NR -) GO TO QUESTION 71
[ACCEPT 1 — 999.]

How many nights were you away from home? > _ -99-=DK/NR
[ACCEPT 0 — 999; IF ZERO, Slm’ NEXT QUESTION]
How many nights were spent in Michigan? > _ -99=DK/NR

[ACCEPT 1 — 5 LOCATIONS]
In which locations in Michigan did you spend these nights?
>

 

 

 

VVV

 

>

 

[ACCEPT o - 999.]

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

While in Michigan, about how much, if anything, did you spend per night on lodging
in hotels, motels, bed & breakfasts or rental cabins? > S_ ~55=REFUSED
-99=DK/NR
[DO NOT READ LIST UNLESS NECESSARY TO STWULATE RESPONSES]
What was the main type of lodging you used? > __
1=Friend's or relative's home
2=Hotel, motel, or lodge
3=Bed & Breakfast
4=Rented cabin, cottage, or condominium
5=Owned cabin, cottage, or condominium
6=County, state, or federal campground
7=Commercial campground (e.g., KOA)
8=Boat/ship
9=Other
-99=DK/NR
Did you spend the night at any casino hotels in Michigan? > __
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 71
-55=Refiised 9 GO TO QUESTION 71
-99=DKINR 9 GO TO QUESTION 7 l
[ACCEPT I — 5 CASINO LOCATIONS]
Which ones?

 

 

 

VVVV

 

>

[READ LIST] [IF RESPONDENT SAYS "YES" TO "OUTDOOR RECREATION", ASK
THE NEXT QUESTION; OTHER WISE SIM” THE NEXT QUESTION]

Which, if any, of the following activities did you participate in?

 

1=Yes

2=No

-99=DK/NR

Shopping ................................................................................................ > __
Nightlife ................................................................................................. > _

68

 

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

Visitastateornationalpaik ................................................................... >

Visitamuseumorhalloffame ............................................................... >_
Visit an historic site ................................................................................ > _
Visit some othertype ofattraction .......................................................... >_
Exploreasmallcityortown ................................................................... >_
Dine at a unique restaurant ..................................................................... > _
Fall color touring outside of traveling to and from your destination ........ > _
General touring or driving for pleasure ................................................... > _
Outdoor recreation ................................................................................. > _

if NO to “Outdoor recreation” 9 GO TO QUESTION 73

[ACCEPT I — 5 RESPONSES] [ASK ONLY IF OUTDOOR RECREATION AFFIRArfliD
ABOVE]

What outdoor recreation activities did you participate in while you were in
Michigan?

 

 

 

 

VVVVV

 

Did you attend any festivals or events on this trip? >
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 76
-99=DKfNR 9 GO TO QUESTION 76

[ACCEPT 1 — 5 RESPONSES]

What festivals or events did you attend?

 

 

 

VVVV

 

>
[ACCEPT 0 - 999999.]
How much did you spend on-site at that/those festival(s) or event(s)? > S _
-55=REFUSED -99=DK/NR
Did you visit any farm markets, roadside produce stands or u-pick farms or orchards
on this trip? > __
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 80
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 80
Did you purchase anything there? > _
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 80
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 80
[ACCEPT 1 — 5 RESPONSES]
What did you purchase?

 

 

 

 

 

VVVVV

 

69

8:73

81.

82.

333

87.

89.

[ACCEPT 0 - 999999.]
How much did you spend in total? > S _ -55=REFUSED -99=DK/NR
Did you visit any wineries on this trip? > _
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 84
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 84
Did you purchase anything there? > __
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 84
~99=DKINR 9 GO TO QUESTION 84
[ACCEPT I - 5 RESPONSES]
What did you purchase?

 

 

 

VVVV

 

>
[ACCEPT 0 - 999999.]
How much did you spend in total? > S __ -55=REFUSED -99=DK/NR
Did you do any casino gaming on this trip? > _

1=Yes

2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 89

-55=Refused 9 GO TO QUESTION 89

-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 89
[ACCEPT I — 5 RESPONSES]
Which casinos did you visit?

 

 

 

 

VVVV

 

>

[ACCEPT I — 10.]

How satisfied were you with your visit to [NM OF FIRST CASHVO WNIIONED
ABOVE] on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 means "extremely dissatisfied" and 10

 

means "extremely satisfied"? > _ -99=DK/NR
Did you plan to participate in casino gaming before you left home on this trip? > _
1=Yes

2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 89
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 89

Was casino gaming the only reason, the primary reason or a secondary reason for
this trip?
>

1=Only

2=Primary

3=Secondary

-99-=DK/NR
[ACCEPT 0 —- 999999.]
In US. dollars what would be your best estimate of how much your immediate travel
party spent altogether on this trip while in Michigan? > S -
55=REFUSED -99=DK/NR

70

[ENTER RESPONSE, EG., 90 DAYS 2 WEEKS, 3MONIHS]
90. About how far in advance of this trip did you begin to make plans for it?
>
[IF NECESSARY, ASK FOR CITY/PLACE FARTHEST FROM HOW]
91. What was the main destination of this trip?
City/Place in Michigan: >
END GENERAL MICHIGAN PLEASURE TRIP PROFH.E BLOCK
BEGIN GENERAL MICHIGAN PLEASURE TRIP HISTORY BLOCK
92. Was this most recent pleasure trip in Michigan the first pleasure trip you've ever
taken in this state? > _
1=Yes 9 GO TO QUESTION 94
2=No
-99=DK/NR
[ACCEPT I — 999.]
93. About how many pleasure trips to places in Michigan have you taken in the past
twelve months? > __
[IF RESPONDENT IS UNABLE TO GIVE A SPECIFIC NMER, READ THE
FOLLOWING OPTIONS]
In the past 12 months, would you say you've taken...
2=1 to 3 pleasure trips
54 to 6 pleasure trips
8=7 to 9 pleasure trips
15:10 to 20 pleasure trips
25=More than 20 pleasure trips
-99=DK/NR
END GENERAL MICHIGAN PLEASURE TRIP HISTORY BLOCK
BEGIN MICHIGAN TRAVEL EXPECTATIONS BLOCK
94. During the next twelve months, do you expect to take more, fewer, or about the same
number of pleasure trips to ANY DESTINATION as you did during the previous
twelve months? >__
1=More
2=Fewer
3=Same
-99=DK/NR
95. How about to MICHIGAN? > _
1=More
2=Fewer 9 GO TO QUESTION 97
3=Same 9 GO TO QUESTIONIOI
(starting on March 1, 2002 9 GO TO QUESTION 98)

 

 

~99=DKINR 9 GO TO QUESTIONlOl
(starting on March 1, 2002 9 GO TO QUESTION 98)
96. Why do you think you will take more pleasure trips to Michigan in the next 12

months?
>

 

9 GO TO QUESTION 101
(starting on March 1, 2002 9 GO TO QUESTION 98)
97. Why do you think you will take fewer pleasure trips to Michigan in the next 12

months?
>

 

71

9 GO TO QUESTION 101
(starting on March 1, 2002, no skipping)
98. Did you take a pleasure trip to Michigan during last year’s Memorial Day? > _
1=Yes
2=No
-99=DK/NR
99. Do you plan to take a pleasure trip to Michigan during this year’s Memorial Day? >

1=Yes 9 GO TO QUESTION 101
2=No
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 101
100. Why don’t you plan to take a pleasure trip to Michigan this Memorial Day?
>

 

101. Do you plan to take any pleasure trips to places in Michigan

1=Yes
2=No
~99=DKINR

...during this winter season? > _

How about during the next twelve months? > __
END MICHIGAN TRAVEL EXPECTATIONS BLOCK
BEGIN INTERNET BLOCK
102. Do you have access to the Internet? > _

1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 106
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 106
103. During the past twelve months have you used the Internet to obtain travel

information?
>

1=Yes
2=No
-99=DK/NR
104. Have you made a travel-related purchase over the Internet in the past twelve
months? > __
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 106
-99-=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 106

[ACCEPT I — 999.]
105. How many times? > _

END INTERNET BLOCK
BEGIN PERSONAL/HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS BLOCK

[DO NOTREAD LIST. 1 [DOUBLE ENTRYREQUIREDJ

106. To conclude, we'd like to ask just a few questions to help us classify your answers. In
what state or province do you permanently reside? > _

72

107.
108.

109.
110.

111.

112.

113.

114.

115.

1=Illinois
2=Indiana
3=Michigan
4=Minnesota
5=Ohio
6=Wisconsin
7=Ontario
-99=DK/NR

In what county do you live? >
What is your asp or postal code? >
In what city do you live? >
On a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 means “not at all satisfied” and 10 means “extremely
satisfied,” how satisfied are you with the following options in YOUR 119MB
COMMUNITY...

 

 

 

-99=DK/NR
Theoverallqualityoflife
Festivalsandevents"

Sporting events.
Nightlifeorentertamment

IocalparksandrecreahonoppoMnrheswrograms openspace)? H .:

:vvvv'v

Do any of the following types of persons live in your household?
1=Yes
2=No
~55=Refiised
-99=DK/NR

Preschool child... ....
School-age child under age 18..
Seniorcitizen... _
Handicapped person... _
/A( ‘( ‘/§/"/' / 99,/
How many persons, including yourself, live in your household? > _ ~99=DKINR
/A< '( '151’7' / w. /
How many adults over age 17, including yourself, live in your household? > _ -
99=DKINR
/;4( '( 7517' r) 99 /
How many full-time wage earners live in your household? > __ -55=Refused -
99=DKINR
/.»1('('l:'/"l' / 3 KISS/YIVS/IS / // )0 ,\v'()'/' mm.) NI :1 [ma/ex]
Are you... > _ _ -55=Refused -99=DK/NR

VVVV

l=employed full-time

2=employed part-time

3=retired

4=not employed

5=a homemaker

6=a student

7=in some other employment situation

73

116. What racial or ethnic group do you belong to? ~55=Refused -99=DK/NR
>

 

BEGIN VOLUNTEERISM BLOCK

Now we would like to ask you just a couple of questions about volunteer work. By Volunteer
work” we mean NOT just belonging to an organintion, but actually working in some way to
help others or the environment for no monetary pay.

117. Have you done ANY volunteer work in the past 12 months? > _

1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 134
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 134

[ACCEPT o —— 366.]
118. How many times did you volunteer your time in the past 12 months?

>

[EXAIW’LES OF VOLUNTEER WORK IN IVAN/1 GMNT OR PLANNING
ACTIVITIES RE4LIED TO OUTDOOR RECREATION, NATURAL
RESOURCES OR THE ENVIRONAENT:

- CMGROIHVD ATTENDANT OR HOST (“UNPAID ”)

- FUNDRAISHVG

- GENERAL MAHVTENANCE (FACILITY HVSPECTIONS, LITTER PICK UP, PAMING,

ETC.)
- UVTERPRETA TION/EDUCA TION (DELIVER NATURE HISTORICAL OR CULTURAL
RELATED PROGRAMS ETC.)
- WEMIP ON AN UVFORMAL ADVISORY GRO UP/TASK FORCE
- WER OF A PLANNDVG TEAM
- AMER OF A POLICY-MAKING GROUP (FORMAL CITIZEN BOARD OR
COWSSION)

- OFFICE ASSISTANCE (ENVELOPE STUFFHVG, FEE COLLECTION
BOOKKEEPHVG, ETC. )

- RESOURCE MONITORHVG (BIRD COUNTS STREAM OR WETLANDS HVSPECTIONS.
INVENTORIES. ETC.)

- RESOURCE STEWARDSHIP/RESTORA TION (NON-NATIVE SPECIES REMOVAL,
PRESCRIBED BURNS, ETC. ) ]

119. Excluding coaching, in the past 12 months, have you done any volunteer work that involved
participating in MANAGEMENT on PLANNING ACTIVITIES relawd to outdoor

recreation,aataralresoarcesortheenvironment?
>

1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 134
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 134

120. In the past 12 months, what was the PRIMARY way you volunteered your time in
management or planning activities related to outdoor recreation, natural resources

or the environment?
>

 

74

121.

122.

123.

124.

125.

126.

127.

128.

129.

130.

131.

[ACCEPT 0 — 999.]
How many times did you volunteer your time this way in the past 12 months?

>
For which group, agency or organization did you volunteer?
>

 

In the past 12 months, have you volunteered your time in any OTHER way that
involved management or planning activities related to outdoor recreation, natural
resources or the environment?

> —
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 131
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 131
What did you do?
>

 

[ACCEPT 0 — 999.] c
How many times did you volunteer your time this way in the past 12 months?

>
For what group, agency or organization did you volunteer?
>

 

In the past 12 months, have you volunteered your time in any ADDITIONAL way
that involved management or planning activities related to outdoor recreation,
natural resources or the environment?

>
1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 131
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 131
What did you do?
>

 

[ACCEPT o — 999.]
How many times did you volunteer your time this way in the past 12 months?

>
What type of group, agency or organization did you volunteer with or for?
>

 

[READ THE LIST. ]
When you volunteer your labor, time and/or services for NATURAL RESOURCES,

THE ENVIRONMENT OR OUTDOOR RECREATION do you expect to receive any
of the following in return ?

1=Yes

2=No

-99=DK/NR

Publicrecognition.................... .. >__

Moreaccesstomanagersthancitizens whodo notparticipate >

More influence on agency/organization decisions and policies ....... >

75

Support (transportation, food/beverages,cbildcare)
132. Do you expect something else not mentioned above? > _

1=Yes
2=No 9 GO TO QUESTION 134
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 134

133. What eke do you expect in return for your volunteering?
>

END VOLUNTEERISM BLOCK
134. The median household income is $42,000. Would you say your total household

income before taxes in 2000 was above or below the median? > _

1=Above the median
2=Below the median 9 GO TO QUESTION 136

~55=Refused 9 GO TO QUESTION 136
-99=DK/NR 9 GO TO QUESTION 136
135. Was your total household income above $65,000? > _

1=Yes

2=No
-55=Refused
-99=DK/NR

END PERSONAL/HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS BLOCK

/Rl'.:'1/)/
136. That's all the questions I have. Thank you very much for your time! Have a good

evening!

76

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