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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

CREATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR ASSISTING STUDENTS
EXPERIENCING DIFFICULTIES IN SIGHT SINGING CLASS

presented by

Kwan-Yee Amy Yeung

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

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CREATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR ASSISTING STUDENTS
EXPERIENCING DIFFICULTIES IN
SIGHT SINGING CLASS
By

Kwan-Yee Amy Yeung

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF MUSIC
Department of Music

2004

ABSTRACT
CREATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR ASSISTING STUDENTS EXPERIENCING
DIFFICULTIES IN SIGHT SINGING CLASS
By

Kwan-Yee Amy Yeung

The purpose of the study is to highlight the importance of singing and sight
singing in the development of basic musicianship skills. Although many theorists and
music educators declare the importance of singing in the theory curriculum, they do not
try to provide guidelines to address the issue and to find ways to improve the singing of
non-vocalists. This study seeks to fill that gap. The first part addresses how sight singing
and singing in general are related to the music theory curriculum, including a discussion
of current trends in the teaching of sight singing. The second part of the study addresses
the difliculties that students experience in a sight singing class.

Although the primary purpose of this study is not to speak in detail about the
technique of singing, solutions and suggestions involving the actual act of singing will be
offered Principles of vocal production are included in order to help students and
teachers learn how to make their voices become a tooL At the same time, suggestions are
aimed at assisting students to achieve better in sight singing class and to develop strong

musicianship skills for their musical studies and future careers.

ACIG‘IOWLEDGMENT S

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my thesis director, Dr. Bruce
Taggart, for his unfailing interest in my work, his valuable criticism, and his patient
guidance. Without him, this thesis would not have been finished.

I am also grateful to my advisory committee consisting of Dr. Bruce Taggart,
Gordon Sly, and Dale Bonge. Their valuable suggestions were helpful in formulating
and implementing details of the study.

I wish to give special thanks to Dr. Gordon Sly for his wise counsel and guidance
throughout my graduate study at Michigan State University. His help and continuing
encouragement has led me to enter the field of music theory, and thereby to become a
better musician.

Lastly, I owe the deepest gratitude to my parents for their love and support during

the time it took to complete this thesis.

iii

TABLEOFCONTENTS

CHAPTER]

....ii

vi

The Role ofSinging..............M.

The Goal of Sight Singing...
‘ Sight Singing and Ear Training...
Sight Singing In the Total Music Theory Curriculum

The Relationship bemeen Singmg and mMusicianship Sin-1.51:... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Music Reading and Sight Singing...
Other Benefits of Sight Singing...

Current Trends inthe Tmmng0f8ight SmmgmmcMmlc ... ... ... . . ...... .

Theory Curriculum In the United States...

CHAPTER 2
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY COLLEGE MUSIC STUDENTS
IN SINGHT SINGING CLASS.

Common Singing Problems... . .
Other Problems of Vocal Production...
Other General Non-Voice Related Problems:

CHAPTER 3
SOLUTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR ASSISTING STUDENTS

EXPERIENCING DIFFICULTIES IN SIGHT SINGING CLASS... ..
...36

Basic Pnnciples of Singing...

Solutions and Suggestions for Selving Singmg Difficulties and”

Problems In Sight Singing Exercises... ...
Conclusions...

iv

I...
o

TheActofSingingandthe VocalMechamsm
......30
...33

13

36

......42
...61

63

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

1. Vocal Range fortheFourVoioe Categories......

2. Transition Tone(s) forthe Four Voice Categories...

Page
20

.25

LIST OF EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE

2.1.

2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
2.9.

2.10.
2.11.
2.12.
2.13.

3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7
3. 8.
3. 9.

3.10.
3.11.
3.12.
3.13.
3.14.
3.15.
3.16.
3.17.
3.18.
3.19.
3.20.
3.21.
3.22.
3.23.
3. 24.

Page

Sol Berkowitz, Gabriel Fontrier, and Leo Krafi, A New Approach to Sight

Singing, 4th ed (New York. W. W. Norton & Company, 1997):
BX. 182, p. 36..
Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex. 201, p. 40...

Berkowitz et al. ,ANewApproach to Sight Singing: Ex. 163, p. 32

Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing Ex. 164, p. 32

Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex. 202, p. 40. .. .. .
Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing BX. 157, p. 30... ..

Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: BX. 246, p. 51

Berkowitzetal. HANewAppmachtoSightSinging Ex. 260, p. 55
Berkowitzetal. ,ANewApproach toSightSinging: Ex. 82, p. 17..
Berkowitz etal. A,NewApproach to SightSinging: Ex 167, p. 33
Berkowitz etal. ,ANewApproachtoSightSinging: Ex. 165, p. 32
Berkowitzetal. ,ANewApproachtoSightSinging. Ex 121 p. 23
Berkowitz etal. ANewApproach to Sight Singing Ex. 228, p. 47.

Warm Up Exercise...

WarmUpExercIse
WarmUpExercIse
WannUpExercrse
WarmUpExercIse
WannUpExercIse
WarmUpExemIse

Warm Up Exercise... ..

WarmUpExercise.....................
WarmUpExercise...................
WarmUpExercise..................
WarmUpExercise....... . .. .
WarmUpExercIse

WannUpExercise........ . . .

WarmUpExercIse
WarmUpExercise...... ............... ..... . .. . ..

Warm Up Exercise...
Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex. 84, p 17

3. 24a. Exercise.

3.24s. Exercise........::.:::.:::... ...........I........ILIIII....fIIIIIIIIIIIII'..

LIST OF EXAMPLES (Continued)

3. 25a Exercise...
3. 25b. Exercise...

3.26.
3.27.
3.28.
3.29.
3.30.
3.31.

Berkovvitzeta1.ANewApproach toSIghtSIngIng Ex. 164, p. 32
Berkowitzetal. ,ANewApproachtoSightSinging: BX. 204, p. 41........
Berkowitzetal. ,ANewApproach toSightSinging: Ex. 593, p. 12...............
Berkowitzetal. ,ANewApproach to SightSinging: Ex. 234, p. 49...............

Modified version of 3. 29... .
Berkowitz et al., A New Approach tos Sight Singing: Ex. 285, p. 61

vii

......52

...52
..53
..54
..57
..58
...59

....61

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Singing has been an important tool in the music theory curriculum for many
years. It helps develop musicianship skills and teach musical concepts. Despite
Widespread agreement about the importance of singing, aural skills teachers who are not
themselves singers often have little idea how best to teach singing to their students. This
study attempts to help teachers in aural skills classes understand how the voice functions
and how to help their students sing more effectively. It discusses singing problems that
the teacher may encounter, it provides warm-up activities that can he used in the aural
skills classroom, and it applies vocal techniques to exercises found in a widely used sight

singing text, in an attempt to bridge the gap between theory and vocal pedagogy.

The Role of Singing

Singing is the most accessible tool for making music or demonstrating musical
concepts or nuances. Menuhin (1983) argues, “We should remember that numerous
conductors sing as they take the orchestra through its paces. Toscanini can be heard
doing so on various recordings. I myself find, conducting in rehearsal, that the surest
way of conveying my intention to my colleagues is to sing it and When I teach it is totally
natural impulse.”l Conductors sing when they want to demonstrate musical ideas and to
give directions during rehearsals; studio teachers use singing to communicate their
musical articulations and thoughts with their students; music theorists make use of

singing exercises to drill the students’ internal hearing of chord qualities; some pianists

 

1Yehudi Menuhin, Voice, ed. Sir Keith Falkner. (London & Sydney: Macdonald & Company, 1983), vii

feel the melodic flow better While they sing along with their playing In short, singing is
essential in many aspects of musical instruction.

In the music theory curriculum, singing is one of the most practical tools used by
theory teachers. Many classes, Whether focused on ear-training, basic harmony,
counterpoint, analysis, twentieth-century composition techniques, or even music history,
can make use of singing to help facilitate melodic dictation, demonstrate abstract
concepts, bring out musical ideas, instill a practical understanding of musical style, and
so on. For this reason, being able to sing accurately and comfortably is an advantage.

Wm

Riggins (1988) comments, “Although it is not the primary objective of

sightsinging classes to develop vocal quality, the acquisition of a good voice for the

purposes of demonstration is certainly a desirable by-product.”2

Rogers argues, “The
best method of perfecting aural skills is still probably through singing.”3 Singing can
help internalize musical ideas and sounds that strengthen musicians’ ears. Similarly,
singing music at sight can also help musicians to establish mental images of musical
structure and concepts.

The goal of sight singing in the theory curriculum varies in different colleges,
conservatories, and universities, depending on the philosophy of music teaching of the
schools and how the music theory curriculum is structured For example, the goal of
sight singing in the core curriculum at Indiana University has not been to develop sight

singing ability using solfege syllables, but to increase “musical skills in performing and

 

2H. Lee Riggins md Howard Irving, “Creative Sightsinging,” Journal ofMIIsic maypedogog 2, no. 1
Spring 1988): 95—6.
haellL Rogers, TeachingAmroachesinMusic Theory(CaIbondale and Edwardsville: Southern
IlhnoisUniverIity Press, 1984), I61.

listening and as a way for a student to demonstrate an understanding of musical
structure.”4 At the New England Conservatory of Music, one of the primary goals of the
sight singing program has been “to develop music reading to a high degree of fluency.”
Singing provides musicians with the experience to think and understand the
connections of tones through singing When a tone is produced, it is only a single sound
with no contextual relationships. When a melody is sung, discrete sounds are linked
together and related to each other. Tonal melodies are woven with musical concepts of
certain musical periods. The ability to sing accurately helps a musician not only to
develop keen ears for the intonation of pitches, but also to increase understanding of
contextual and stylistic musical structures. Singing seems to be of intellectual as well as
practical use. Rogers argues that sight singing is not just part of ear training; it is mind
training, as well:
The real goal of tonal sightsinging is not just accuracy; it is to hear the music in a
particular way — a way that is musically nuanced, that is shaped and directed by
goals, and a way that respects the encoded tensions and internal-movement
proclivities of the specific environment. The job of sightsinging is context
sensitivity and the enculturation of tonal bearings (i.e., knowing one’s location
and relationship to carefully selected reference pitches in the prevailing key at any
given moment -— to know, for exarnple, where tonic is at every instant). In a larger
sense, it is the whole network of attractions and associations- tugs, pulls, and

aversions- that pitches have for one another that we should be teaching in
sightsinging and not just how to find the next right note.6

 

‘Mary H. Wennerstrorn, “The undergraduate core music curriculum at Indiana University,” Journal of
We TheoryPedagogy 3 (I989): 155.

sLyle Davidson and Larry Scripp, “Sightsinging at New England Conservatory ofMusic: A Developmental
View of Sightsinging,” Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy 2, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 68.

‘Michnel Rogers, “The Jersild Approach: A Sightsinging Method from Denmark,” College Music
Wm 36 (1996): 149.50.

Benward believes that the ultimate goal of sight singing is “to look at a score of
music (any music) and be able to hear it in your mind without having to sing and play it
aloud,” a process he calls “aural imagery.”7

Sight Singing an_d_ Ear Training

The aural skills curriculum is traditionally divided into two broad categories, sight
singing and ear training. In 1miversities and conservatories in the United States, both are
often taught in a single class, but singing and listening activities are often kept separate.
The goal of ear training, however, is not just to teach students how to identify intervals,
scales, and triads, or dictate melodies and harmonic progressions. Ear training and sight
singing also help develop the ability to hear and understand music logically, so that
musicianship skills are enhanced White argues that ear training “can be viewed as the
doorway to every aspect of the study of music theory. To be thoroughly mastered, every
musical and theoretical concept must be comprehended from the perspective of sound
itself."

In melodic dictation, singing can help students gain a better idea of melodic
structure. Rogers writes:

After the first hearing (maybe not until afier a second hearing) some sketching

can begin. It is often helpful to sing back the melody silently (or with the whole

class aloud) immediately after that first hearing so as to imprint it more firmly
rather than rushing to write notes down. . . Conventional dictation can easily fall

into a gut. Variety can be promoted by using voices or instruments other than the
piano.

 

’Bruoe Beuward, Siglrtsr'ngr'ng Complete, 2'“| ed. (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. c. Brown Company Publishers,
1973), ix.

’John D. White, Guidelinesfor College Teaching oerslc Theory, (London: The Scarecrow Press, 2002),
27.
’Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory, 113-118.

Because it is often difficult to notate each note of a melody as it is played,
accurate singing can also help students recall melodies during dictation, and help them
detect errors in melodies and distinguish one melody from another similar melody. In
both melodic dictation and melodic recognition activities, singing is virtually useless if
not done accurately. Pembrook (1987) writes, “Obviously, when pe0ple did sing
correctly there was an overwhelming tendency to recognize an ensuing melody as either
same or different.”10 McHose (1948) comments, “One must realize that the average
student’s memory is not accurate. . . . The author urges the instructor not to be too hasty
in requiring the student to place the notation lmtil he can sing back the exercise on a
neutral syllable. Accurate singing and successful dictation go hand in hand.

Singing can be used in many different ways to teach ear training. In melodic
dictation, students can be asked to sing what they have written down—or sing a melody
back from memory—rather than checking the answers on the board. In harmonic
dictation, singing along with an outer voice can enhance the ability to notate it. Singing
along with inner voices is an extra challenge that can help students hear horizontal voice
leading in addition to vertical harmonies. For error detection, singing the correct notated
version of a melody can help students discriminate between what appears in notation and
what is actually heard.

Sitin'inth oMic Curriculum
How do music theory instructors use singing in the written theory class? What

more could be done with singing activities to enhance tmderstanding of theory concepts?

 

”Randall G. Pernbrook, “The Effect of Vocalization on Melodic Memory Conservation,” Journal of
Research inMusic Won 35, no. 3 (Fall 1987): 165.

Singing has obvious application in chorale harmonizations. Students should
regularly sing chorale examples and their own harmonizations written in SATB style.
Singing is also essential in species counterpoint study. Students gain a better
understanding of the seventeenth century vocal style, and they can experience directly the
melodic and intervallic structures that are characteristic of that style. For example, the
prohibition of perfect fourths between the two voices in first species can be internalized
better when students can recognize it through singing

Analysis classes also can make use of singing. Singing the primary themes and
motives of a work enhances the ability to analyze the work and to recognize the themes
and motives aurally. After singing themes and motives several times, students will find it
easier to organize these musical ideas in their minds. In reductive analysis, students who
can sing the structural pitches or the reduction of the melodic line of the work will find it
easier to derive a bigger picture of the work while reading and listening to the music in its
original form. They can also see and hear the voice leading and the formal organization
of the work better in this way. And in twentieth-century analysis, singing rows, row
fragments, and their permutations will help students locate and identify them in the actual
music.

The l 'o ' nSin' Mgici ’ kills

In the preface to his text Sightsr’nging Complete, Bruce Benward comments,
“Sight singing is an established discipline the importance of which has been recognized
by musicians for the past three hundred years.”n De Zeeuw and Foltz argue that it is “a

necessary tool for every musician, one which is beneficial not only as an analytical tool

 

nBruce Benward, Sighm'ngr’ng Complete (Dibuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1973), vii.

but also as an important and convenient means for musical communication.”12 Despite
wide agreement about the value of being able to sing at sight, the skill often remains
tmdeveloped Hindemith argues, “It is quite common to find excellent instrumentalists
(not to mention composers) who have gone through six or more years of practical and
theoretical studies without ever having opened their mouths for the most natural of all
musical utterances!”l3

Developing refined singing technique should not be a major focus of the music
theory curriculum. However, given that sight singing is an integral part of the
musicianship curriculum, students cannot derive any benefits from sight singing class if
they are unable to sing. To some extent, the sight singing teacher may also need to be a
singing teacher.

Although Karpinski declares the importance of singing in the theory curriculum,
he does not provide guidelines for improving the singing of non-vocalists. This study
seekstofillthatgap. Thefirstpartaddresseshowsightsingingandsingingingenelalare
related to the music theory curriculum, including a discussion of clnrent trends in the
teaching of sight singing The second part of the study addresses the difficulties that
students experience in a sight singing class Although the primary purpose of this study
is not to speak in detail about the technique of singing, solutions and suggestions
involving the actual act of singing will be offered Principles of vocal production are

included in order to help students and teachers learn how to make their voices “become a

 

“do Zeeuw and Foltz, Sight Singing andRelated Skills (Manchaca, Texas: Swift Publishing Company,
1975). Cited in Roger Foltz, “Sight Singing in Relation to the Total Theory Program,” Indium Theory
Review 4 (Winter 1981): 4.

"Gary Karpinski, Aural Skills Aeqldsl'lion: llre Development ole'stenl'ng, Reading, amlpafoming Skills
in College-Level Musicians, 145.

tool, not an obstacle?”4 At the same time, suggestions are aimed at assisting students to
achieve better in sight singing class and to develop strong musicianship skills for their
musical studies and future careers.
Music Readrn' g and §igl_l_t Singing

Most musicians need to read music fluently whether they are performers,
conductors, composers, music theorists, music educators, musicologists, or music
therapists. Music reading skills can be improved through sight singing, which is defined
as the capacity to reproduce vocally a series of pitches from musical notation at first
sight.15 Put another way, the actual act of vocally reproducing a melody from a score
allows musicians to “audiate” the music they have just sung, where (radiation is defined
by Gordon as the ability to assimilate and comprehend musical meaning, “mentally
hearing” it through listening, performing, recalling, creating, reading, and composing."5
“You must get to the point that you can hear music from the page?“ Rogers calls this
“the understanding ear and the hearing mind?" Sight singing melodies gives musicians
a better “audiated understanding” of scalar formation, phrase structure, tonal structure,

harmonic framework, structural and formal design, and voice leading.

 

l

' Hama,“AnExpuimemdSmdyoftheUseofmeTacliaosc0pemmeTuehingofMdodic
Sight Singing,” Journal ofReseweh lnhlusic Won 11, no. 1 (Spring 1963): 44.
“Gomonmguesmntnndinnonennheuhedevelopedthrmrghsingingnmerieme. Sight singingisanact
that allowsnnrsiciansto internalizethesermsicalmeaningsand conceptsfrommusicalnotation For
details, see Edwin E. Gordon, Rhythm Concurring the Implications ofAlxflalron and Notation (Chicago:
GIA Publications, 2000), 9.

"Cited in Karpinski, Alan! Skills Acquisition: The Development quistem'ng, Reading midpojommg
Stills-ill College-LevelMusicl'am, 3. “Du muBessoweitbringen, daBdueineMusikaufdemPapier
verstehstl”

I'Rogers, Teaching/Immune: iansl'c Theory, 100.

Qger ggnefig of Sight Smgn’ ' g

Sight singing class can help improve more than simply the ability to read and
perform vocal music better. Research studies have demonstrated that singing produces
many positive effects for the development of musicianship skills. Most of these studies
have been conducted on children, but the goal of improved musicianship applies equally
well to college students. In a study on the effect of vocalization on the sense of pitch in
beginning band—students, Elliot has determined that wind instrumentalists who participate
in ensembles that require regular vocalization develop better aural acuity and sense of
pitch than those wind players who do not participate in any of these ensembles. ‘9 Many
wind players do not attain a keen sense of pitch, Elliot believes, because they play their
instruments in a purely mechanical fashion, without the corresponding auditory
association.

Pembrook cites a study by Ramsey (1983) that demonstrated a positive
correlation between singing ability and memory of intervals, contour, and rhythm.20
Such singing-enhanced melodic and rhythmic memory can improve musicians’ melodic
dictation skills and their ability to think about and hear music. Colwell argues:

Authorities such as Mursell, Drake, and Borland view “earmindedness” (auditory

imagery) and facility with the musical score as the primary goals of the music

program. Furthermore, they view vocal instruction as it centers in the general
music class as the best means of securing such auditory-visual skill. The reason
for this view undoubtedly lies in the fact that in sight-singing the individual must
rely solely upon his memory of pitch-intervals and connect these with the notes he
sees in the score. Thus, “earmindedness” is the basic essential in sight-singing.

On the other hand, the instrumentalist who sight-reads may only remember the

proper fingering or hand position indicated by the notes and may never actually
hear what he sees on the page until he play it. Therefore, it seems logical that

 

19Charles A Elliott, “Efi'ect ofVocalization on the Sense ofPitch ofBeginning Band Class Students,”
Journal ofResearch inMusic Education 22, no. 2 (Summer 1974): 121.

G. Pembrook, ”TheEfi‘ectofVocalizationonMelodicMemoryConservation,”Jomraloj
Research inMuchduc-arl‘on 35, no. 3 (Fall 1987): 156.

vocal experience should result in greater auditory-visual discrimination than does

instrumental experience, unless that vocal experience has been entirely rote

leaning with no relation to the musical score.”21

In addition to the development of “earmindedness” and auditory-visual
discrimination, vocal experience plays an important part in the development of other
musical skills. By examining the different levels of pitch development in children’s
singing Davidson and Scripp (1985) demonstrate how children can develop the ability to
derive the tonal structures of melodies.22 The authors discovered that children’s tonal
knowledge is acquired by the approximation of melodic contours. They suggest five
specific levels of pitch development in young children’s singing, expressed through what
they call “contour schemes.” They argue that the use of sight singing can help students to

integrate these contour schemes into increasingly larger tonal structures.

Chg-Lent Trehgs in mg Teaching of Sight Sing'ng in thg Mygig Theogy Curriculum
in the United Statgs

In most music theory curricula in the United States, instructors give little
emphasis to teaching singing skills, instead favoring other areas, such as writing skills
and analysis.23 Many highly respected schools allot limited time for sight singing.
Students enroll in only one or two credit hours of aural skills classes (which typically
include both singing and listening activities) each semester, whereas at least three to four
credit hours are usually required for the study of basic harmony each semester.24

 

21Richard Colwell, “An Investigation of Musical Achievement Among Vocal Students, Vocal—Instrumental
Students, and Instrumental Students,” Journal of Research ianlsic Edwarl'on 11, no. 2 (Fall, 1963): 123.
22Lyle Davidson and Lany Scripp, “Sightsinging at New England Conservatory of Music: A
Developmental View of Sightsinging,” Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy 2, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 13.
23For example, in the core curriculum at Indiana University, 15 credits are devoted to the study of Written
Theory/literature courses, while only 4 credits are given to music skills courses, such as car training, sight
readingkeyboard. Fordetail, seeMaryWennerstrom,“’I'heundergraduatecoremusiccurricuhnnat
Indiana University,” Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy 3 (I989): 163, 168-69.

2‘See Damschroder’s discussion in “Flelobility in therheory Classroom: Strategies for the Management of
Diversity,”JormlalofMlsl'c TheoryPedagogy 3, no. 2 (Fall 1989): 185 & 186.

10

Concentrating more on the teaching and learning of written music theory by de—
emphasizing the attention given to aural skills can signal that singing skills are less
important than conceptual and written skills.

In most freshman theory classes, a broad spectrum of musical knowledge can be
found. There are usually a few students who obviously have had some prior training in
sight singing, ear training, and written music theory, while the majority of students have
had little formal musical training other than study of an instrument or voice.”
Wennerstrom comments, “Students are particularly ill prepared in aural skills and
sightsinging.” Instructors must choose whether to gear their teaching to the lower level
of students or the higher ones, all of whom are typically squeezed into the same class.

Sight singing is usually taught in four semesters in most colleges, universities, and
conservatories in the United States, which is seldom long enough for students to achieve
mastery. 26 Especially in the case of smaller colleges, there is a tendency to have only
one teacher teach both written theory and aural skills, usually someone who does not
specialize in teaching singing. Teachers who are uncomfortable singing may de—
emphasize sight singing and concentrate more on listening activities. Such non-vocalists
may not demonstrate singing in front of the class; as a result, students have neither a good
model to learn how to sight sing, nor a good classroom environment in which to practice
their singing. In large classes, a high student-to-teacher ratio leaves teachers unable to

give enough individual attention to those who need help. Finally, sight singing is often

 

”Karpinslti. Am! Skills Acquisition: 77» Development ofListenmg. Reading archrfomrng Skills in
College-Level Musicians, 7.

2‘ Typical institutional degree requirements (75% ofthose reporting) inchlded four semester's ofear
training. See Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Rigging “Send Helpl”: Aural Skills Instruction in US.
Colleges and Urn'versities,” Jomurojuasrc Theory 4, no. 2 (Fall 1990): 233. See also the footnote 23 on
p. 10.

ll

taught independently of other theory courses.” Instructors who teach written music
theory may not integrate sight singing into their teaching.

Darnschroder argues, however, that singing should be applied to all aspects of
musicianship learning and be thoroughly integrated into all theory courses. He
comments, “Sightsinging is a refreshingly straightforward and wonderfully useful
pedagogical device.”28 Teachers should encourage their students to explore the
usefulness and the fun of singing. However, it is not always easy to persuade students to
appreciate fully the benefits of singing given the problems they often experience in sight
singing class. These problems, which will be addressed in Chapter 2, include lack of
singing experience and knowledge of proper vocal production, inability to match pitch,
inability to hear musical relationships, difficulties establishing pitch collection and tonal
center, and lack of confidence singing.

Students who have problems sight singing may, in fact, have trouble with singing,
in general. Theorists understandably focus on developing conceptual understanding in

their students, but it sometimes comes at the expense of developing singing skills.

 

2"PembrookandItigginsreportedthzttubout60°/o ofschoolshave separateclassesforam'alskills
instructionand4%ofthoseschoolswerefimhersubdividedhnosepuateclassesforsigln singingandear
training See Pembrook and Riggins, “Send Helpl”: Aural Skills Instruction in US. Colleges and
Universities,” 233 & 239.

”David Damschroder, “Flexrbility in thcrheory Classroom: Strategies for the Management of Diversity,”
Jamulofmsic ”teary Pedagogy 3, no. 2 (Fall l989):l86.

12

CHAPTERZ

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY COLLEGE MUSIC STUDENTS
IN SIGHT SINGING CLASS
Many students have difficulties in sight singing class. Some difficulties are
trivial, such as unprepared assigned melodies, daydreaming, and boredom. Other
problems are more serious: some students cannot “carry a tune” or even match pitch,
some sing out of tune, and some cannot associate pitches with notation.29 This chapter
deals with the non-trivial singing problems encountered in aural skills classes. The first
section is devoted to a brief discussion of the physiology of singing and the vocal
mechanism, and common problems related to these issues. The second section of this
chapter focuses on the audiation and self-motivation problems.

The Act of Sing;r_l' g gnd The V0091: Mechanism
Understanding the relation of the vocal instrument to the physical processes that

 

govern it is crucial to good singing, even in an aural skills or sight singing class filled
with non-vocal majors. Most students and teachers in sight singing class have little
understanding of what is going on with their vocal instruments. Although this section is
not aimed at giving a comprehensive description of the vocal mechanism, some general
information about the act of singing can help students and teachers better understand their
singing voice.

The act of singing involves four physical processes: respiration, phonation,

resonation, and articulation These four processes are described below:

 

”Inthischapteerillonlyfocusonsindngproblems. Problemsinothereartrainingactivitieswillnotbe
discussed.

13

Rm’ tion

When one inhales to sing, the diaphragm lowers. The llmgs Stretch downwards
by the descending movement of the diaphragm, which increases the size of the lungs to
allow air to enter the body. When one exhales, the diaphragm relaxes, the lungs return to
their original size and shape, and the abdominal organs and abdominal wall also return to
their original shape and location Breathing for singing involves basically four stages: (1)
inhalation, (2) suspension, (3) exhalation (phonation), and (4) recovery. Unlike ordinary
breathing, all four stages require conscious control.

(1) Inhalation

In the inhalation stage of breathing for singing, singers are trained to inhale
quickly and quietly through the nose. When inhaling, the chest is comfortably high, the
lower abdomen is not tightened, and the upper abdomen is free to move. Each inhalation
creates expansion all around the middle part of the body.

(2) Suspension

Suspension takes place when the breath is suspended momentarily after inhalation

before the tonal attack occurs.
(3) Exhalation (phonation)

In singing, the release of breath should be slow. Singers must constantly hold
back their breath to control the release of air. The diaphragm should gradually release its
tension, and the expanded chest and abdomen should gradually contract Nevertheless,
one should still feel the expansion till the end of the phrase.

(4) Recovery

14

This stage of breathing starts at the end of each breath where a short break takes
place for all the muscles to relax. At this point of relaxation, the muscles associated with
breathing will have the opportunity to rest and recover for each succeeding breath.
Phonag'on

Phonation is the process of producing vocal sound by vibrating the vocal cords
during exhalation. According to McKinney, the production of a sung musical tone can be
divided into three phases: (1) attack, (2) sustention, and (3) release. 3°

(1) The attack phase

The attack phase is crucial to the accuracy of producing a musical tone. To

attack accurately, the singer must first audiate the pitch; sliding down or up to the desired
note is not acceptable. The jaw should be relaxed, breaths should be low, deep, and
sustained to the end of the phrase. Although phonetion actually starts at the larynx, one
Should feel that it seems to take place somewhere in the head. This kind of imagery can
help singers reduce neck tension that may occur around the larynx. Singers often say, “A
good singer is a head and a chest with nothing in between.”31

(2) The sustention phase

Thisistheactualsound-pmducfionphase,whenmtesandphrasesamsustained
until their release. Good posture and proper breathing are necessary in maintaining the
energy for singing a long phrase. The breath Should “stay inside the body” with the
feeling of expansion around the middle of the body lasting until the end of the phrase or

 

3° James C. Mcldnney, The Diagnosis & Correction of Vocal Faults (Nashville, Tennessee: Broadrnan

Press, 1982), 81.
"lhid, 32.

15

the note. Unnecessary movements of the tongue, lips, or jaw Should be avoided
(3) The release phase

The release phase starts when the tone is about to end, and lasts until the note
fades out. Without proper support, the final note will sound out of tune. Often in a class
of inexperienced singers, loss of key occurs at the end of phrases due to the lack of
support in the release phase.

Emitting

Several vocal resonators work with the primary vibrator (the vocal cords) to
determine the quality of a sound. In resonation, the vibrations from the vocal cords cause
the other resonators to vibrate sympathetically. The four resonators are (1) the larynx, (2)
the pharynx (the throat), (3) the mouth, and (4) the nose.

(1) The larynx

The larynx (‘voice box”) contains the vocal cords; it is usually considered of
secondary importance for the production of vocal sound because it can produce only very
high frequencies.

(2) The phalynx (the throat)

The pharynx is considered the most immrtant resonator of all. It is capable of
resonating at the frequencies of the lower partials of the vocal tone. The quality of the
tone produced by the pharynx is warm, round, rich, and mellow.

(3) The mouth

The mouth is the second most important resonator. It includes the jaw, tongue,

sofi palate, and lips, all of which are easily adjustable. The mouth articulates words,

especially the consonants into understandable units. It joins with the pharynx in the

16

formation of vowel sounds. Because different vocal syllables cause the pharynx to
resonate in different ways, singers often focus on the Shape of each syllable. Likewise,
solmintion syllables have their characteristic sounds and features. Students usually find
it hard to articulate certain syllable, such as “sol,” which requires them to exaggerate the
movement of the mouth in order to articulate the final “L.” Such movement will ofien
interrupt the production of the sound.
(4) The nose

The nose has relatively limited use in terms of making sounds. Its primary duty is
to produce the three nasal consonants [m], [n], and [Ijl of English language and some
nasal vowel sounds in the other languages, such as [‘5], [5] in French.
Adj garments of the resonators

Other than the nose, all the resonators discussed above are adjustable. The larynx
should be kept low, so that the pharynx (throat) is lengthened. The throat Should be
opened (as if yawning). The soft palate (also called the velunr, is located between the
posterior edge of the hard palate - upper-middle part of the oral cavity - and the uvula)
should be gently lifted All these adjustments increase the size of the resonating chamber
and relax the resonators to allow freer vibration.
Articulgg'on

Articulation mainly deals with the adjustments and movements of the lips, the
lower jaw, the tongue, and the mouth in shaping and producing the sounds of the
consonants and vowels. All these articulatorsmust be relaxed at all times so that they

can Shape different sounds without creating excessive tension.

17

Re ' tion

Registers result from different vibratory patterns that are produced by the vocal
cords and the other resonators. Difi‘erent vibratory patterns create different ranges of
pitches and characteristic qualities. It is generally agreed that all voices have three
registers, the “head,” the “middle” (also called “mixed” or “modal voice”), and the
“chest.” The “head register” is usually called the “head voice.” The term describes the
resonance phenomenon or the vibratory sensation that is being realized in the head. The
term “middle” or “modal voice” refers to “the natural disposition or manner of action of
the vocal cords”32 It is the middle area that lies between the lowest and the highest range
of the singing voice. The “chest register” is usually called the “chest voice.” It describes
the Vibratory sensation that takes place in the chest It designates the comfortable
speaking range.

Three other registers exist in human voices, although no person can produce all of
them. They are the “vocal fry” 33 (the lowest register in both male and female voices),
“falsetto” (the imitation of female vocal quality by using head register in the male singing
voice), and “whistle” (the highest register in the female voice). 3‘

Generally, male singers use chest voice, and female singers use head voice. Male
singers usually sing and speak in the same register, while female singers do not This is a
significant difference between the two, which has ramifications for the sight-singing
class. Basses sing mostly in the chest voice, tenors ofien use head register, and baritones

use both registers equally often”

 

3’ Mckinney, The Diagrusis & Correction of Vocal Faults, 98.

’3 lbid., 98-100.

3‘ Ibid.,108-9.

3’ Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing (New York: Schirmer Books, 1996), 117.

18

Vgice classification and the criteria detemgining voig classification
All singers in a sight singing class should know their vocal classification

(soprano, alto, tenor, and bass). There are several reasons for this: (1) They should know
which part to sing when performing four-part chorales. (2) They should know where
their chest voice ends and their head voice begins, so that they can adjust their singing
accordingly. (3) They should know what notes lie in their vocal range. Singing in the
wrong classification is frustrating and harmful to the voice. Sight singing teachers should
help their students figure out their voice classifications as early as possible in their
training In this way, students can fully benefit from the class.

In a sight singing class, only the four major voice categories (soprano, alto, tenor,
bass) are necessary or practical. Several criteria can be used in determining voice
classification. The most obvious classification is by range. Although there is no absolute
vocal range for each voice category, a general guideline of range for the four voice types
is given here for quick reference.

Trained singers should have at least a two-octave range. In a sight singing class,
however, a teacher may rarely find students who can comfortably sing two octaves.
Inexperienced students in sight singing class can be expected to have at least a one octave
range; a range of a twelfth should be their goal. Thus, the comfortable singing range for
soprano shouldbe C4 toGS; for alto it is A3 toES; fortenor it is C3 to G4; andforbass
it is (32 to D4. If the students have rarely sung before, they should have at least a tenth,
starting from the note stated above for that classification With proper vocal training, the
vocal ranges of the students can be extended. Generally, the “standar ” range for

soprano is C4 to G5; alto is GB to DSIFS; tenor is C3 to G4/A5; and bass is G2 to D4/E4.

l9

Figure 1 shows (1) the minimum range for all vocal classifications in sight singing class;
(2) the ideal range of a tweth that all students should acquire; (3) the “standard” range
of each voice category.

Figure 1. Chart of vocal range for the four voice categories

  

(l) (2) (3)

soprano alto tenor bass

In order to determine voice classification more accrn'ately, sight singing teachers
should also try to find the students’ vocal tessitura, which is the part of the range that is
most commonly used. It differs from the absolute range of a voice type. Two students
who share the same vocal range do not necessarily have the same tessitura. In order to
recognize the tessitura of a student, teachers can ask the students to sing two different
melodies that have the same general range and pitches that lie predominantly high or low
within that range (i.e. difl‘erent tessituras). Examples 2. 1-2. 12 show several pairs of
melodies with basically share the same range but of different tessituras.
912ml

Example 2.1. Sol Berkowitz, Gabriel Fontrier, and Leo Kraft, A New Approach to Sight
Singing, 4"I ed (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997): Ex. 182, p. 36.

 

 

 

 

 

20

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example 2.2. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex. 201, p. 40. (higher

tess.)

Example 2.3. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex 163, p. 32. (higher
tess.)

Example 2.4. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex. 164, p. 32.

 

Fr‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example 2.5. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex 202, p. 40.

 

 

 

21

Example 2.6. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex 157, p. 30. (higher

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

p.51.

A New Approach to Sight Singing Ex 246,

Example 2.7. Berkowitz et al.

 

Singing. Ex. 260, p. 55. (higher)

Example 2.8. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

p. 33.

,

Example 2.10. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing Ex. 167

 

 

 

22

ma
Example 2.11. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing Ex 165, p. 32.

 

   
   
 
   

/ x
P

Example 2.12. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex. 12], p. 23.
(higher)

 

 

 

Some students can sing both of the melodies in each group comfortably. Others,
however, will find the melody with the higher tessitura to be problematic. It is because
the higher ones are usually more demanding as they lie so high in the upper register.
Students who are uncomfortable singing the higher one are mostly likely to be altos or
bases.

The third criterion is to find out the points of transition between chest voice and
head voice. (The technical term for this is the “break,” or “passaggio”). Different vocal
registers have noticeably different qualities. Most singers have basically three registers;
singing from one register to another usually creates a change of quality and requires a
change in vocal technique.

In both male and female voices, bridging from one register to another can be a
problem. The high female voice cannot easily produce the transition sound from the

middle voice into the head voice because the two registers/voices have significantly

23

different qualities. Blending the two qualities of sounds can be difficult. The low male
voice cannot pass through the chest voice easily for singing in the upper register since he
sings largely in the chest and is not accustomed to singing with his head The points of
transition for male and female voices are different Singers must examine the position of
the resonators and articulators during the transition, so that they can gradually handle the
problem of bridging.

There is no agreement on what pitch is the point of transition between each
register. In general, higher voices (soprano and tenor) usually have higher break notes,
while the lower voices (alto and bass) usually have lower break notes. Because of the
inconsistency regarding the point of transition in each student, teachers may have
difficulty recognizing what registral areas students experience when they sing a melody.
This is obviously most difficult with a large group of inexperienced singers. In order to
help the students camouflage or smooth out the breaks and to identify their voice
classifications more accurately, teachers should spend time with their students
individually, if possible.

Some general ideas of the break notes of different voice categories are given here
with the aim of helping teachers determine their students’ transition points. According to
McKinney, female voices exhibit two series of breaks approximately an octave away
from each other, while male voices only exhibit one. The break note for the bass is D-
flat4; tenor is G-flat4; alto is D-flat4 and Dflafi; and soprano is G-flat 4 and G-tlatzi”6
(see Figure 2). Teachers can pick any melodies that have a range of more than an octave
from any sight singing textbook to test their students. Any obvious indications of quality

change in the voice may indicate possible points of transition.

24

Figure 2. Chart of transition tone(s) for the four voice categories

A J20

 

 

 

 

 

fl . i ii 1' be 43.
w i L 4'1 g1 fl:
C) V“
soprano & tenor alto & bass soprano ' alto
First Series Second Series

One prominent physical problem in all voice categories when moving from a
lower register to a higher one is the involuntary raising of the chin and the larynx As
discussed in the previous section, inexperienced singers seem to associate high notes with
a high chin and tense throat Suggestions for helping students to stabilize their throats are

given in Chapter 3.

Commgn Singigg Problems

Problems relatfl 39 r§§piration
Correct singing requires correct breathing. Breathing problems are almost always

associated with poor posture. Students slouch, push their shoulders forward, lower or
raise their chins too high, collapse their chests and spines, or protrude their abdomen.
Students with little experience in singing tend to be nervous when they sing in front of a
big class or for the instructor. Their muscles tense, their shoulders rise up, and their
chests are too high Such improper singing postures will not only cause irnproper
breathing for singing, but it will also cause tension in the vocal mechanism.

Some students may have a false conception that breathing for singing is just like
breathing for living, which involves only two stages, inhalation and exhalation.
Breathing for singing is a more complicated process. Aural skills teachers usually do not

take time to teach their students how to breathe. As a result, students breathe whenever

 

”Mckinney, fire Diagnosis & Correction of Vocal Faults, 117.
25

they want, often in the wrong place in the music. For example, in Example 2.13, students
may have difficulty finding the correct place to breath. In measure 5, experienced singers
will consider breathing before the leap to D, even though this is after the first note of the
phrase. However, inexperienced singers may want to take a breath after the D, perhaps
because they have just accomplished singing the wide leap and will need another new
breath. Or perhaps, the phrase marking confuses them.

Example 2.13. Berkowitz, A New Approach to Sight Singing Ex. 228, p. 47.

s A I» H“'

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

>13

In general, most inexperienced singers tend to take breaths that are too shallow.
The technical term for this kind of breathing is called “upper-chest” or “clavicular”
breathing. Shallow breathing usually causes a “breathy” tone as air flows in and out with
little conscious control or support. It also leads to running out of air before the end of
phrases. Most new singers have no concept of deep breathing because they have never
experienced it They have never felt the expansion of the sides, the back, and the
abdomen. The aural skills teacher should introduce deep breathing and encourage them
to practice it when they sing A deep, supported breath can also help students singing
high notes, which require more energy and support than lower notes. Without adequate
breath support, students are likely to try to sing form their throats, creating tension and

unpleasant tone quality. Finally, noisy inhalation is a sign of improper breathing.

26

Students either are not taking enough time to breathe, or the tension in their shoulders and
back prevents them from breathing properly. Breathing for singing should be noiseless.
Prgblems re_;la_t_e_d to phonation

Phonatory problems are usually associated with the vocal cords and improper
breathing The primary cause of the problem is due to the incomplete closure of the
vocal cords. A breathy sound can signal improper closure of the vocal cords. For proper
phonation, the vocal cords are brought close enough together that air cannot leak out
quickly.

Singers must often work lmrd to strengthen their vocal cords to keep the breath
from running out. The teacher can help students strengthen their vocal cords by asking
them to sing louder, or simply use more energy while singing. In this way, the vocal
cords may gradually come together more, leading to more efficient breath control.

Some students work too hard They push so hard on their abdominal muscles that
the larynx feels too much pressure, causing tension in the vocal cords. The sound
producedfromtightvocal cordswillbestrained, straight,andhard Suchvocalabuse
can lead to severe vocal problems. Persistent hoarseness can be the first symptom of
such problems.

There are some othercauses thatmay leadto phonatoryandvocal problems. -
Singing in the wrong voice classification (for example, tenor instead of bass); screaming
or yelling too much; consistently forcing the voice to sing or speak too loudly; smoking
or drinking too much; allergies, and many other possibilities. All will directly degrade
the fimuion of the vocal cords.

27

P__r9blems related t9 [esonation

Resonation can lead to poor sound quality. When the resonators fail to cooperate
properly, the quality of the soimd will be either too bright or too dark. One needs to be
able to feel the positions or places for producing good sounds. Beginners usually find it
hard to develop this sensation Mental imagery can be useful to develop correct concepts
and feel.

An overly bright sound comes mainly from over-emphasis on the mouth and not
enough on the throat This is evident when students try to sing an ascending passage. As
they sing higher and higher, they tend to open their mouths more and more, which
increases the space inside the mouth. However, when the mouth is too wide, the larynx
will be raised, causing too much pressure in the throat. Students have the sensation of
going up stairs. They mistakenly think that when the notes go up, their larynx should too.
Asaresulgthetone will soundstrained

Too much emphasis is placed on the throat and not enough on the mouth causes a
tonethatistoodark. Whenthethroatisworkingtoohardtoproducethetone,toomuch
tension is created on the larynx. It is possible that the students may think that the larynx
must go down while they are singing a descending passage, causing them to “swallow”
their notes. When singing down, one should imagine walking up a hill. Otherwise, the
pitchesareverylikelytogo flatandoutoftune, andthetonemaybeunpleasantand
muffled

Habits are hard to break Once a person develops an incorrect laryngeal posture,
it can be quite difficult to correct A bad habit that takes a month to acquire may take a
yeartocotrect. Therefore, studentsneedtobecautiouswhentheypractice.

28

Problems 9f me vocal mechanigm
(l) Faults of the tongyg

The tongue must be free of tension at all times. This muscle, however, is difficult
to control voluntarily. Students usually are unaware of tension in the tongue. Generally,
students tend to hold the tongue elevated in the mouth, pulled back into the throat, which
causes tension moving towards the larynx.

Sometimes the tongue moves too fast, as if vibrating In this case, singers are
unable to stabilize the movement, and the singing sounds wavy. If the tongue is moving
too slowly, it can cause excessive tension that suppresses the mobility of the tongue.
When the tongue is rigid, articulation of the sound cannot take place. Students can try to
practice in front of a mirror and sing with the vowel [i]. They should pay attention to
how flat and relaxed the tongue is resting on the gum ridge.

(2) Faults of the jaw

Some students try to sing with their chins too dropped This will depress the
throat and create tension. The best position of the chin for singing is to sirnulate the
position of the onset of a yawn. Ifstudents cannot obtain this position and their chins are
too dropped, the larynx will be too depressed. As a result, too much air pressure is forced
into it. The muscle will tense, and the sound will be tight

(3) Faults of thg lifi

Lips should be relaxed and flexible. When students do not move their lips, the
other related muscles, such as the jaw, the soft palate, and the tongue will tend to be
immobile. When they are not doing their jobs in articulating the tones, the students will

be unable to sing the pitches accurately.

29

Conversely, some students move their lips too much They look like they are
chewing something. Excessive movement of the lips usually destabilizes the pitch.
Some students lock their lips in a particular position, such as a fixed smile, which also
creates tension.

gm; Prcblemg; of Vocal Productign

(1) Systems _\_v_l_ro 519 not have gggd mngol over thgir voices
anda ' de fmuscl r ' 'on.

 

Some students do not know how to control their voices or acquire good muscle
coordination for singing Although they can sing, they do not sing well. Some problems
include lack of abdominal support, shallow breathing using the upper chest, and too much
air pressure and tension in the abdomen, which prevents the suspension state of
breathing. Their voices are strained and notes they sing are flat, especially towards the
end of the phrase.

Some students have poor posture. Their bodies are not aligned properly: their
heads tilt back; their lower abdomens sag forward; their upper abdomens pull in or out
too far; their chests are held too high or too low; their backs are twisted; their shoulders
are tensed; their arms and hands do not hang freely and nattually; their legs are looked
too tightly. All these bad postures came low degree of muscle coordination Poor
posture leads to poor breathing. Tones may be breathy and uneven, and vibrato may be
shaky and unbalanced

Generally, students have more difficulty with high notes than low notes. They
tend to pull in and up on the upper abdomen, raise their chins, and push up their chests.
In other words, as with the larynx, they think that when they are singing high notes, their

whole body needs to go the same direction: up! Some students stretch their necks to their

30

limit and tilt their heads forward and up while singing, which causes the larynx to raise.
The correct approach to singing high notes is counterintuitive for new singers: higher
notes require a lower “center of gravity” in the body. The sensation can be described as
“thinking deeper” for high notes.

Most students experience difficulty singing up or down wide intervals. Large
intervals cause tension when the abdomen is too stiff for flexible breath control. Students
should learn how to relax the breathing muscles, so that they can release some tension

after singing the upper notes but still be able to obtain Optimum level of support for the

lower tones.
(2) S who have not develo ir voices
and ' in a 'n v i ran e.

Many music students have never really sung before. In fact, these students may
not yet have found their singing voices. They have difficulty differentiating between the
vocal mechanism of singing and speaking, and they are unable to coordinate the vocal
mechanism with the heard pitch.

Students who sing in a speaking range rarely use the head register. They are
uncomfortable with singing high notes. When they try to sing high notes, their tones tend
to be hard, tight, and forced, and their voices often “crack.” This is particularly true for
male students. Women may have better command over the head-voice mechanism, while

most men have rarely explore their head voices.

(3) 5333196 whg t_ryto sing ogtsiQ
their mrmal singing range.

Students who sing outside their normal singing range are often uncomfortable

with their singing They often try to imitate their teachers’ voices. A male student who

3]

imitates the voice of a female teacher by singing in her vocal range, can become vocally
disoriented. A female student who imitates the voice of a male teacher can find herself
singing below her normal singing range. She finds it difficult to generalize to her own
singing voice.

Students who sing above their normal singing range are usually straining and not
relaxed because they are trying to push their voices. According to Romaine, signs of
strain are: “frowning, wrinkled forehead, clenched fists, chin held high, red face, rigid
jaw, protruding neck tendons, and so on.”37 These students usually endure frustration in
class.

Despite concerted effort and practice, some students still sing below their normal
singing range. This may due to the fact that they are unable to hear the pitches they are
producing. In this way, the wrong pitches remain uncorrected by the car. It is also
possible that these students are accustomed to singing in only certain keys, so that when

they are asked to sing a melody that is not in a key they know well, they cannot

reproduce the tune accurately.
(4) Studeng who can sing mm a ggoup but 991 m WM]!

srn 'vi 1 but not with on .

Some students can sing in tune with a group but not individually. These students
often sing out-of-tune. They rely on their fellow students to give them the notes. When
they sing individually without the help of other students, they have difficulty reproducing
a melody. They may not be sensitive to melodic contour and pitch changes and, as a

result, they sing inaccurately.

 

3"Iiiestervelt Blanchrd Romaine, “Developing Singers from NonoSingers: An Investigation of a Speech
Pitch Control Remedial Procedure” (Edl). diss, Columbia University, I961), 12.

32

Some students can sing individually but not with a group. The problem, perhaps,
is due to the lack of experience singing with the other people. These students generally
have poor listening skills and are usually lost singing in a crowd

Problgmg concerning vocal healm
Singing involves the whole body. Ifany part of the body is not functioning well,

 

it will affect the performance of the singing voice. For example, any kind of infection in
the lungs, throat, head, mouth, or even stomach will make it difficult for the singer to
exercise full control of pitch or breath. And as the voice itself is the instrument, vocal
discomfort leads to singing malfunction

A singer suffering from a cold or sore throat may only need to stop singing and
speaking until the infection is over. Severe laryngitis or edema (swelling) in the vocal
cords may eventually develop into vocal nodes, which necessitates consulting a
laryngologist. Otherwise, the problem will only get worse with strenuous singing

Vocal damage can be easily done by incorrect technique, bad vocal habits, or
singing in poor physical health. Singing with a strained throat is the primary cause for
vocal damage. In addition, trying to sing in the wrong voice classification or singing at
theextreme ofthe range isdamaging (Usuallysingingtoohigh is more damagingthan
singing too low.) Also harmful are singing too loud when the singing technique is not yet
developed, and singing for a long period without proper rest.

Other Genggal Non- yoice Relgtgd Problems
° Several general non-voice related problems that students commonly encounter in

a sight singing class can be identified Some are musical, others are physiological, and

still others are motivational.

33

(1) 1n_a_bility to match pitch

Students who play fixed-pitch instruments may be less sensitive to pitches than
are those who play variable-pitched instruments, such as unfietted strings and trombone.
These students may not engage their ears fully as they play, trusting the instrument to
produce the correct note when the correct key is pushed. Such students may find singing,
which uses the ultimate variable-pitched instrument, diflicult to control.

On the other hand, some students may be capable of matching pitches, but their
voices tend to behave unpredictably, even though their ears work well. Such musicians
may have never tried to sing and, in fact, assume that they cannot sing. When they are
asked to reproduce a note that was just played, they may sing another note without
realizing it Even if they do realize that they have sung an incorrect note, they may be
unable to control their voices enough to sing the correct one.

(2) Inabilig to hear mttsical relationshipg

Students are often asked to learn melodies from memory in aural skills class. In
order to do this, they must be able to audiate the melody, meaning that they must have an
“aural understanding” of the melodic structures—tendency tones, cadences, contour,
harmonic implications, and meter, to name a few. Karpinski comments, “The more
music listeners learn, and the more about music they learn, the wider their field of
eXpectations will be and they will therefore experience fewer expectancy violations and
consequently fewer errors in memory and understanding.”38 Inexperienced musicians

who have not developed a strong aural understanding of musical grammar through

 

”Karpinski, Aural Shins Acquisition: The Development of Listening, Reading, and Pefi'onning Skills in
College-Level Musicians, 69.

34

listening (and singing) will have more difficulty audiating and memorizing a melody
accurately.

(3) Waning
pitch mllggtion 1nd tongl mtg

Most musicians can easily sing a scale. Sight singing a melody with primarily
conjunct, scalar motion is also easy. Melodies with disjunct, non-scalar motion can
present problems for students who have difficulties audiating a diatonic pitch collection
and tonal center. They are often unable to form a sense of tonal context, and the notes
that they sing do not belong to a specific, audiated key.

(4) MW

Some students think that they cannot sing and have no confidence singing for
other students, even if they are perfectly capable singers. They are often uncomfortable
hearing their own singing voices because they are not accustomed to the sound In such
cases, the teacher must convince the students that they can, in fact, sing, and encourage
them to do so with more confidence.

Con_clg§jon

The above discussion covers many problems found in college sight singing
classes. The ultimate solution to these problems is improved vocal technique. This does
not mean turning students into opera singers, however. With the limited time available in
a semester, it is unreasonable to expect students to be able to solve their problems right
away. Instead, the sight singing class should help lay the foundation for proper singing
The following chapter gives some guidelines for helping students and teachers deal with

some of the most common problems in singing.

35

CHAPTER3

SOLUTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR ASSISTING STUDENTS
EXPERIENCING DIFFICULTIES IN SIGHT SINGING CLASS

Students who have not learned to use their voices correctly will experience
frustration when singing Teaching at least the rudiments of proper vocal technique
should be part of the sight singing class. This chapter has two parts. The first part is
devoted to basic corrective procedures to help students solve some common vocal faults.
The second part contains suggestions for helping students overcome the technical
difficulties found in selected tunes from a commonly used sight singing text.

Basic Principles of Singing
Logan:

Good posture is mandatory for effective singing As discussed in the last chapter,
good posture (l) encourages proper breathing, (2) helps to reduce tension of the back,
neck, shoulders, and facial muscles; (3) facilitates a free and easy vocal sound; and (4)
demonstrates confidence and assurance. Good posture is the essential first step for all
singing

Many students have similar posture problems while singing: they will either (1)
tilt their head right or left, front or back; (2) lift their chin too high or too low, (3) raise
their shoulders and collapse their chest; (4) twist their back; or (5) place their feet too far
apart or too close together. A brief description of good standing posture is as follows:

1. The feet should be about ten inches apart from each other.

2. Both legs standing firmly on the same surface of the floor.

36

3. Knees should not lock; instead they should have a slight bent.

4. The back should be straight.

5. The chest should be lifted comfortably high

6. The shoulders should drop down gently and be pulled back slightly.

7. The head should be directly over the shoulders.

8. Arms and hands are dropped freely and loosely at the singers’ side.

9. When seated, one should lean forward with the back straight, hips back, neck
straight, some weight on toes and spines, and hands resting easily in lap. The legs
should not be crossed.

10. When holding a score while singing, one should hold the score with one hand a
few inches from the chest. Neck should bend slightly. Standing and sitting
should not be any different as described above.

The following is an exercise that singing teachers can do in class to help student
to establish correct posture. This exercise begins by pulling the shoulders straight back
easily, until the shoulder blades feel as though they are touching each other. While doing
this, the head and neck must be kept still. This movement should be executed four times.
On the last time, students should bring the shoulders back and then pull them down as if
thehandsandarmsarereachingfortheground Thisexercisecanhelpstudentsobtaina
feeling of extreme width across the chest as well as a leveling of the shoulders. With
persistent practice, students will be able to overcome rounded shoulders, and the chest
' will be widened. With better position of the shoulders and the chest, the body will be

provided a proper alignment for better control of breath while singing.

37

Breathng

Breathing for singing is not natural; students must regularly practice this type of

breathing until it becomes second nature. Shallow breathing that involves only the upper

chest is not adequate for good and accurate singing. The following suggestions for good

breathing technique offer an assortment of tips, exercises, and imagery that can help an

inexperienced singer:

1.

2.

Attain good posture before inhaling.
Do not over- or under-inhale.
Think of the air moving into the lower part of the body while breathing.

A slight bend of the knees helps the singer feel the air coming out the mouth.

. Imagine drinking through a straw, so air moves into the lower abdomen.

Imagine smelling a rose, so air goes deep through the nostrils.

Put one hand on the lower part of the abdomen and one hand at the base of the
back to feel the air coming in and the abdominal walls expanding during
inhalation.

Imagine the breath that comes with being surprised: the mouth is open slightly,
and the breath is short but deep.

A simple classroom exercise that can help students to get the breath moving and

to strengthen the chest muscles and lower abdominal muscles is whispering the word

“hook.” While whispering the word, the abdomen should be pulled in, and air should be

expelled through rounded lips, pronouncing “hoo.” Then, at the end of the breath supply,

a sharp (but not felt in the throat) voiceless “k” should be sounded.

38

Another simple classroom exercise is to ask students to produce a hissing sound

made through the teeth for about 30 seconds without taking a breath. With consistent

practice, this exercise should help students obtain longer breath for singing.
$991295

Good support usually refers to good abdominal support. One must have enough

air “stored” in the abdomen in order to have enough energy to support a tone. Students

will need to concentrate on controlling their abdomen until it becomes a conditioned

reflex Below are some hints for good support that can be helpful for inexperienced

singers:

l.

2.

Use correct posture and adequate breath

Imagine swimming underwater with held breath. The lower abdomen and the
muscles in the back should be expanded.

Speak continuously for 30 seconds without taking a breath. In this way, you can
feel more support in your lower abdomen.

Sing “woo” for about 30 seconds to feel the resonance deep in the body.

Lie down with a dictionary on your abdomen, then try to lift it up and hold it with
your abdominal muscles.

Push a grand piano or a stationary object, such as a bookshelf or a table while
taking a deep breath to feel the support in the lower abdomen.

While standing with legs spread, take a deep breath and push against a grand
piano with both hands. You should feel the air go deep into your body.

Shout “Ah!” or “Hi!” as if to someone in the distance. You should be able to feel

the energy from the lower abdomen.

39

In order to develop an expansive and strong ribcage for good breath support while
singing, students can try to expel the air through the teeth in a sound of “sh” until the air
stored in the lower abdomen is exhausted As the air is exhaled, the abdominal area
should move slowly inward. When all the air is exhaled, however, a “snap breath”
should be taken so that the lungs quickly fill with air. In this way, a strong sensation of
width and pulling can be felt across the back and through the ribcage. This exercise
should be practiced daily, so that the process of breathing for good support will become
an effortless action
To '

Good tone quality requires a relaxed larynx, which comes from good posture and
proper breathing. Trained vocalists strive for a clear and bright sound, regular vibrato,
and a “ringing” resonance. Although students in a sight singing class cannot be expected
to achieve the tone quality of trained vocalists, they can work toward a light, clear sound,
with a relaxed vibrato, which can help to improve the accmucy of the notes produced
The following are some suggestions for producing good tone quality:

I. Use good posture and good breath support.

2. Do not open your mouth too far.

3. Keep the jaw and tongue relaxed

4. Think the pitch before attempting to sing it.

5. Imaginetheonsetofayawnwhenthemouthopenstoincreasespace.
6. Think of “head tone” and hum scale degrees 5-4-3-2-1.

7. Imagine sighing when singing high notes.

40

8. Sing with the more “open” vowels, such as [a], [o], and [u] than “closed” vowel,
such as [i]. Even if you really have to use [i], try to use it only for the lower
passage, and shift to use more “opened” vowels for singing higher notes and
register. Some suggestions on this issue will be given in the next section
A classroom exercise that can help students to acquire a “ringing” resonance is to
sing the scale 5-4-3-2-1 with the syllables “ding,” or ng” This exercise is sung in the
middle range on one breath, and should be sung ascending by half step each time to the
new key. When singing the syllable “ng,” students can try speaking the word “hung”
first in order to get familiarized with the syllable. Students will have a sensation of
singing with head tone while singing the scale with either of the two syllables. This is an
excellent exercise to help to bring the tones forward and more focus.

Another exercise that can help students to acquire a more relaxed tone quality and
better vocal placement is to “sigh” in the middle register, then sing the scale
5-4-3-2-1 with the vowel “it” This exercise must be sung in the middle range only,
descending by half step each time to the new key. Students should take a snap breath
between the “sigh” and the scale. Students will feel a relaxed on the larynx after
practicing the exercise.

of v

Below are some general characteristics of a good vocal sound:

1. The sound is freely produced; it does not sound tense.

2. The sound carries energy, it is not breathy.

3. The sound is rich and resonant; it does not sound dry and straight.

4. Thesoundiscleanitisnottoosofimasakorhoarse.

41

5. The sound is bright; it does not sound weak or colorless.
6. The sound is firm and focused; it does not sound shaky or wobbly.
7. The sound is smooth; it does not sound inconsistently produced

Solutions an Su estions for Solvin in' Di cul 'e and b ems in Si t

Smging Exgrpises

This section offers suggestions that can help students to overcome some of the
singing and sight singing problems descnhed above. It does not aim to solve all vocal
and sight singing problems. Instead, it brings up some important singing issues and their
possible solutions.39
Wm Up Exercises

Inexperienced singers typically do no warm up before they start practicing
However, in order to sing better and more effectively, even in the sight singing class,
students must warm up their voices before moving on to exercises. As singing involves
the whole body, if some parts of the body are not functioning well or relaxed enough, the
vocal mechanism and the quality of the vocal sound will be affected Therefore, some
simple physical exercises, such as simple bending and stretching body exercises
sometimes are recommended

Warming up the voice offers three advantages. First, it can help expand the vocal
range. Before any kind of formal singing, students should stretch their vocal cords just as
athletes stretch their legs before they start to run. With an adequate, ten-minute warm up,
the vocal instrument will become more flexible. As a result, when the students sing
something that stretches to their limits, their voices are less likely to suffer injury and
better able to reach high and low notes.

42

Secondly, warming up can help with accuracy. With pr0per warm up, the voice is
“tuned.” Singers are more likely to have good breath support, proper posture, and correct
vocal placement after warming up. A singer who is physically and mentally prepared to
sing will have more awareness in attaining the right pitches. In this way, the ability to
attack the desired pitches is enhanced.

Thirdly, with regular warm up, the voice will always be in good shape. As a
result, a long warm-up session may not be as necessary before each practice session In
addition, the voice will always be brighter and clearer after warming up. Some basic
warm up exercises are recommended here (Ex 31-323). The first ten of the listed
exercises are some vocalises to help the voice to get started. These warm-ups can be
done at beginning of every sight singing class, and by the students when they practice.
The last exercises can help students to deal with some Specific issues of vocal production.
Each exercise should be sung in as many keys as possible, depending on the students’
vocal comfort, ascending and descending by half step each time to the new key.

Examme 3.l

 

 

~l '[0 1

[e4-

 

 

3’I’ordetaileddiscussionof'thecornectionofvoealproductionanditsrelatedissues, teachersandstudents
shwldrefatothevoealpedagogicalhtaaturesfistedinthebibhognphy.

43

Example 3.2

 

"am-"'1 [‘0 ll== Ina-m ------- 1

 

Example 3.3

 

 

Example 3.4

 

 

[e] [c ] [c] [o----------] [e] [o- -------------- ] [e] [0]

Example 3.5

 

 

Examme 3.6

 

 

 

Ha llc— it: it: n: llc 11a m

[e

 

Example 3.7

 

 

 

Example 3.8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example 3.10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H R nance

 

 

 

 

 

Example 3.11
'11? e i ,1? i t i i 41%
153% 4,1 g i 5 #fi 1 i.
[m ------------- 1

 

45

Example 3.12

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

n I? m m m
I a I % J1 #1 fir A l q}
is} i 3 6‘ :r:_a__fifi ‘ fi‘ J] i i j}

d d r d d

[3 l
(nostrils closed) (notrils open) (closed) (open) (closed)
Example 3.13

J) . __u

’17? i fil 1 fl 1 fl

W l 4

Q) J

Hum

Example 3. l4

h I '1 J]
¥ i g 41 1, 1 :11];

[c 1

Example 3.15

A n J
in: .i i ii
:%1 7v

Lip Trill

Example 3.16

h . 1 . _u

71 I l i I i fill

H .1 . J-

T v + 6!

Lip Trill

46

Example 3.17

_A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[mins 1
Lang Rplaxatjon
Example 3.18
J) 4. 1 j
#3 -' ,1 4 .3 n
{c 1
Example 3.19
9 1]
$3 a a i a . “
l 9 I
Example 3.20
A 9 ,/—X\

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A]?

. 1t F222“. 1.
J1 I I

[u———e i ——> U]

47

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example 3.23

Jp<u£f>p «

g r. j.

[u '—-a 4n]

 

 

 

 

 

 

Because warming up is so helpful, teachers should use warm-up exercises that
emphasize certain characteristics or difficulties of assigned singing exercises in order to
help students better prepare their voices. For instance, if the melody for sight singing is
largely triadic (see Ex. 3.24), warming up with an arpeggiated vocalise in the key of the
melody for sight singing will be helpful (see Ex. 3.24a). The pattern in Exercise 3.24a
also serves as an aid for students to acquire a sense of D—minor. Singing the vowel [a]
will help students to obtain a wider oral space. In this way, they may find it easier to sing
the high note E in measure 3.

Example 3.24. Berkowitz et al, A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex. 84, p. 17.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

48

After singing the above exercise in the key of D-minor, teachers should ask the students
to sing the same pattern a semitone higher and keep moving progressively upward for
two to three more halflsteps. Alter warming up with the same pattern three or four times
in progressively higher keys, students will have a stronger sense of tonality when they
return to the original key.

The exercise in example 3.24b can help students sing the challenging octave leaps
in measures 2 and 11, and the perfect-fifth leap in measure 1. Students should observe
the breath marks carefully. Each breath will give the phrase new energy and help to relax
the vocal mechanism. Teachers should ask students to repeat this exercise several timm
in the same key. This can help them to familiarize themselves with the somd of the
intervals as well as the oral space needed for producing the intervals.

Example 3.24b

A A 9
1

dI-1’

.L..

V I-
Q
9

H...

 

[la 1

Before singing the above exercise, students should be able to audiate the pitches
(especially for the large intervals), so that a good attack of the pitches can be executed.
Physically, the jaw should move and drop freely and the throat should be relaxed
Especially when singing the fourth measure of the exercise where the high notes D and E
are found in succession, students should pay careful attention to the coordimtion of
breathing and the relaxation of muscles. Students should remember not to move the jaw

when singing that measure. Moving the jaw will result in poor intonation, and it will

49

make the high E even harder to reach Students should feel a circulating sound of the two
notes inside the mouth while the tongue is lying flat and the jaw is slightly dropped

Teachers should always bear in mind that no single warm-up exercise will fulfill
all the requirements of different sight singing melodies. Teachers should select or design
difl‘erent warm up exercises that addresses the challenges in each melody. Teachers may
find the 23 warm up exercises recommended here to be useful as the basis for

constructing their own exercises.

 

Under 'n of the Students’ v ice

Students in an aural skills class often do not know what voice part they should

 

sing. The teacher should help them determine their voice types. Many students are not
familiar with their singing voices. They tend to sing in the range of their speaking voices,
which may be a full octave below their singing tessitura Some inexperienced female
singers choose to sing in the alto (or even tenor) range although they actually can sing
very high; and some male students think that they should sing low but they actually have
a high tessitura For this reason, by knowing their voice types and vocal ranges, not only
can the students achieve better in the sight singing class, but they can also develop their
voices to their maximum potential.

The criteria in determining voice classification were discussed at length in
Chapter II and will not be repeated here. Instead, I present here some suggestions for
helping the teacher and students determine students’ voice types. Ideally teachers would
hear individual students sing at the beginning of the students’ sight singing instruction.
The teacher would ask them to sing lightly sirnple five-note scales (ascending and

descending) in progressively higher keys on the syllable [e]. The two exercises below

50

(Ex. 3.25a & Ex 3.25b) have wider a range to give the teacher a better idea of the
singer’s vocal registers. Ask the students to sing in progressively higher and lower keys,
always keeping their voices relaxed and light. Listen for the break point where chest
voice transitions to head voice. Tenors and sopranos should be able to sing easily up to G
(G4 for tenors, GS for sopranos) without straining or slipping into an artificially thin
falsetto. Basses and altos may be able to reach these notes, but the tone quality will be
thin and strained

Sight singing teachers should always bear in mind that voice type means both
range and tone quality. A male singer should not be called a baritone or bass just because
he cannot sing high. Nor should a female singer be called an alto merely because she has
a rich chest voice. High range will often rise as a singer learns to sing with relaxation
and proper breathing. Often, a light tone quality serves as a clue to a potential soprano or
tenor high range. If the voices sound warm, mellow, and dark with more chest voice, they
are more likely to be altos or bases. In short, the range, the tessitura, and the tone
quality should be used together in determining a student’s voice type.

Iftime is limited and teachers feel that they will not be able to listen to each
student individually, a rough idea of students’ voice types can be determined in a group
setting The teacher can divide the class into men and women and ask each group to sing
through several scale exercises in progressively higher or lower keys (see Ex. 3.25s and
Ex. 3.25b). As the exercises reach the upper and lower limits of the vocal ranges, ask
students to drop out when they feel that they are no longer able to produce a relaxed, full
tone. Explain to the class which voice type should feel comfortable singing the exercise

at that point, so that students can determine their own voice types. The teacher may need

51

to ask some individuals to sing when they are unsure of their voices, but such self-testing

can at least give a rough idea to inexperienced singers where their vocal ranges fall.

Example 3.25a

 

 

[a ' 1r: 1 [a 1 [an

 

 

 

.. L
I...
h.-.

 

[i], [C]. [8]

m Use of Teachm' g Materials

Sight singing teachers can select songs and exercises to target specific vocal,
theoretical, and musicianship issues. They should always keep several things in mind,
however, when choosing material for their students to song. For example, some exercises
fit well for certain voice types but not the others; or the range of some exercises is too
wide for all students to sing comfortably. Ifthe teacher is trying to help students expand
their ranges, such exercises might be appropriate; otherwise, they should be avoided.
Teachers should choose exercises that do not span more than an octave for the first
several classes. They can gradually select exercises that have a wider range, but limiting
it to a maximum range ofa tenth Berkowitz et al (1997) has many good tunes that are

within an octave or a tenth, with a few that have wider ranges.

52

 

Melodies that lie too high or low can be transposed to more appropriate keys, but
only by writing out the transposition rather than having students read in one key and sing
in another. For example, the teacher can transpose melody #164 in Berkowitz (Ex 3.26)
down a third for basses and altos to help them avoid the high E, perhaps using different
clefs for additional reading practice. Students can even be asked to write out the melody
in the key that they find most comfortable. Not only does this help students become more
aware of their own vocal ranges, it also helps them improve their basic theory skills.

Example 3.26. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex 164, p. 32,
original and transposed version of Ex. 164 for the alto and bass:

 

f‘
illiuj ' I 1]]

111.1111

fl.
111.111

I

 

 

 

f p fjw?

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

53

 

Singgg' Ascending Pm

When a melody ascends either by step or leap, students should gradually increase
the energy, space, and depth of their singing. Students who think that they cannot sing
the higher notes reduce unconsciously the energy in their singing When they are timid,
their mouths are usually not opened wide enough, which results in less depth and reduced
breath support. They raise their chins, tilt their heads back, and elevate their larynx when
they are trying to reach the high notes.

Consider example 3.27. Three of the four phrases contain upward disjunct motion
that covers at least an octave. Some inexperienced students will find such upward motion
by leap harder to sing than stepwise upward motion. The teacher should suggest that
each note requires more energy than its predecessor. In order to acquire more energy, the
student should sing as if crescendoing, gradually increasing the feeling of loudness as the
melody gets higher. It is important that students use their whole body to pull out the
energy; it should not come from just one place (such as the throat or abdomen). To help
the students visualize this concept, the teacher can suggest that they imagine shouting
from one hilltop to another.

Example 3.27 . Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing. Ex 204, p. 41.

 

P
As the melody goes higher, students must also acquire more oral space. As

discussed in chapter 2, opening the mouth wide vertically with the jaw slighted dropped

54

will create more space inside the mouth and throat. The added space will help maintain
the proper laryngeal position. Students should remember that when they sing the
ascending patterns in the previous example, each note of an ascending phrase requires
slightly more space than the note that precedes it. Using the vowel [a] can help to obtain
a wider oral space.

Students should be reminded of the image of beginning a yawn or even vomiting
to help them feel the increased space in the back of the mouth. The mouth should be
opened progressively wider as the pitch rises, but it should never reach its maximum
opening, which can create. extra tension, making high notes harder to sing. Students
should also be reminded that when the melody goes higher, more depth is needed As the
students sing the first four measures of exarnple 3.27, they should feel the sensation of
moving deeper and deeper within the body and vocal mechanism as the notes rise.
Students should feel their center of gravity moving lower in the body when he needs
more support for the high notes. The teacher can ask students to imagine walking
downstairs as the melody moves up. In this way, more support is anchored within the
body.

Several physical activities can help students acquire the sensation of depth in the
body and vibration in the head Students can do the motions of brushing long hair,
startingatthetopoftheheadandmovingdownasthenotesmove up. Studentscanalso
be asked to bend their knees in a sitting position while they are singing the highest note
of each phrase. For example, when they reach the highest note F in the first phrase,
students should immediately bend their knees and sit on the note. This can help the

55

students to lower their centers of gravity and feel that more energy is now going deep
Sin ' ' N

Most students find high notes very hard to sing, especially those preceded by a
large upward leap. When singing such high notes, students should try not to think of the
upper note as a high note; instead, they should think of it as a note that requires more
energy. Teachers can suggest that students sing the whole phrase (including high notes
and low notes) loudly several times. Because singing loudly requires more energy,
students will have a better sense of how the high notes should feel, even when they are
sung softly.

To remind themselves of what correct laryngeal posture feels like on the high
notes, students can hold their noses while breathing through their mouths. They should
feel that the larynx is slightly depressed, the jaw is slightly dropped, and the tongue is
lying flat on the floor of the mouth. Sniffing through the nose (perhaps even making a
snoring sound) while the mouth is slightly opened and the jaw is slightly dropped will
also create the correct laryngeal position.

Students should maintain this correct laryngeal position while they are singing
high notes. In the melody in Example 3.28, for example, students can take a quick sniff
at measure 3 before the high E-flat. In this way, the phrase is now divided in two.
Although this may interrupt the flow of the melody, students will find it easier to reach
the high note after the wide leap. However, the next high E-flat at measure 5 should not
be approached in the same manner. Instead of taking a quick breath after the B-flat in

measure 4, students should increase the amount of energy for singing the high note E-flat

56

Students can then gradually decrease the amount of energy needed for the rest of the
exercise, remember not to reduce all support until the last note is executed If the leap
preceding a high note is not too wide, students can try sliding in a portamento from the
lower to the upper note to help them retain correct laryngeal posture between the two
notes. Eventually, students will need to eliminate the glissando and try to stay connected
as much as possible.

Example 3.28. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing. Ex. 59a, p. 12.

 

To help sing melodies that leap to high notes, students can do warm up exercises
that activate the jaw, lips, and soft palate. Exercises that involve sounds such as yah, bah,
mah, lah, etc. can help students to keep their voices in high position. The consonants “b,”
“m,” “1” with the vowel [a] (“h” is not pronounced) enhance the attack of the head voice.
With such warm up exercises, singing high notes should become easier.

8' . E 1. P

Singing fiom high to low does not require as much energy, space, or depth as
singing fiorn the low to high; in fact, all these factors should decrease progressively as
the music gets lower and lower. When singing lower, students typically pull the chin
down against the throat, depressing the larynx. Some students may use too much support
and energy, so that their sound becomes pushy, making it harder to reach the lower notes.

Students should understand that when singing lower notes, they should relax and release

57

body support. The mouth is less wide than it is for higher notes because low notes do not
require as much space; singing softer and thinking less depth can also be useful on low
notes. Consider the following example (Ex 3.29).

Example 3.29. Berkowitz et al., A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex 234, p. 49.

    
     
 

«

     

P

f f

Students ofien sing flat on descending scales. To help avoid this, students should
practice singing the descending five-note scales (5-4-3-2-1) in major with the syllable
“ding.” They should concentrate on the vibration of the head tone while singing the
exercise. Because the syllable stimulates the vibration in the head and chest, students
will find it easier to keep their voices in the high position.

Many voice teachers encourage students to think of walking up stairs when they
sing downwards. Each tone needs more upward movement than the one just above it. In
Example 3.29, most of the descending passages are followed by a large leap. When
singing this examfle, students will need to adjust the energy used for both upward leaps
and downward leaps within a short time because of the short phrases. As discussed in the
previous section, upward movement needs to be approached with more energy, space,
and depth, while downward movement requires less of everything Students should feel
the energy, space, and depth gradually decrease after reaching the high B—flats in each
P335383- '

If students still find the exercise difficult to sing, they can try using the brighter

vowel [a]. Students can pull back the comers of the mouth into a smile when singing the

58

exercise with the vowel [a]. In this way, the sound can avoid getting too dark, and the
pitches can be “lifted up” a bit to avoid going flat. Singing flat on descending passages is
typically due to incorrect voice placement. Retaining the high placement for the low
notes will make the descending notes less likely to get flat by small increments. This
method, however, might cause excessive tension in the soft palate and also elevate the
larynx if the smile is exaggerated Students should adopt this approach with care. If they T

feel that they have too much tension on larynx and the soft palate, they can try to relax

 

the tension by singing 1-2-3-4-543-2-1 with the vowel [i] very slowly. They should ’-
keep the sound in the front of the mouth even when the pitches descend Gentle lifting of E
the soft palate is also helpful for dealing with descending passages.
Students may find it helpful to disregard the dynamics markings of Berkowitz
et al. For example, the A in measure 1 can be forte followed by a decresendo. In
measure 3, the B-flat should be marked with sforzando followed by a decresendo.
Likewise for the phrase that startes with B-flat in measure 5 and the last phrase at
measure 9. In the fourth phrase at measure 7, students can sing a mezzo forte at the
beginning of the phrase, with a brief cresendo from F-sharp to G followed by a
decrescendo. Example 3.30 shows these changes:

Example 3.30.

  
     

f7 3;). Jf>

59

 

Because the melody lies in a relatively low register, thinking lighter and brighter
could be helpful. Even as descending patterns need less support and body involvement,
thinking lighter can reduce the energy needed for producing low pitches, making the
voice easier to control and more flexible. In addition, it is easier to release tension when
the sound is not heavy, which will make the lowest notes easier to reach
Mable

Solfege syllabels and numbers are in common use in sight singing classes.
Although they can facilitate sight reading, they can interfere with proper vocal
production Several modifications can help. Teachers 'using solfege syllables should take
out all final consonants when they occur, particularly removing the final “I” in “sol.” The
final “1” tends to stop the production of the sound and create tension The same problem
occurs with the numbers “four,” seven,” “one,” and “five.” When singers articulate the
final consonants of the numbers, the tongue, jaw, and lips become involved.
Unfortunately, removing the final consonants from the numbers is not practical;
nonetheless, the teacher should be aware of the problem.

Some melodies may involve both high and low registers. Singing such
melodies with only one vowel may be less effective. Instead, singing with a combination
of vowels may be helpful, usually using [a] for singing the higher register and [i] or [u]
for the lower register. The vowel [it] requires a wide-open mouth, creating more space
and easier high notes. The vowel [i], brings the tongue farther forward, making lower
notes easier to sing. For the vowel [u], the lips are rounded and the tongue is farthest

back Students will feel like the sound is coming from the nose, but it actually comes

from the head. Although the vocal placement may seem relatively low, the space within
the mouth is still large enough for singing the lowest notes.

Example 3.31 has a range of a twelfth, from A3 to E5. Using the three vowels
will make singing the melody easier. The example is illustrated below, with suggested
vowels underneath the notes.

Example 3.31. Berkowitz et al, A New Approach to Sight Singing: Ex. 285, p. 61.

 

 

 

 

Cal—Eu]

9.9%

Students encounter many challenges in sight singing class, particularly those
students who are inexperienced singers. Some problems are mainly due to their lack of
singing experience and singing skills, and some are caused by the lack of practice and
good car training. In the first part of this document I have tried to give some solutions for
solving some general singing problems. The second part dealt with more specific
solutions and suggestions for singing exercises to help improve the vocal technique of all
singers. These solutions are by no mean exhaustive since they can only cover the most
common problems found in a sight singing class. Other issues were left undiscussed,
such as how to help male singers to use falsetto, or how to extend students’ vocal ranges.
These topics could fill a book and are thus beyond the scope of the discussion here. With

the brief introduction of vocal production and vocal mechanism in Chapter 2, teachers

61

and students should have a better knowledge of singing, and they may even devise more

creative solutions for solving singing difficulties.

62

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