. u» M. a. - .hmmu‘ni. . £91.... OH... .. . $.5ww1umwmfiwn... . . . ‘ ‘ . , 41...)... (I. ..... . a“? an 3. a \l v .\ a . .3 (Ivan: \ . . V.,.flm.i ‘I' This is to certify that the thesis entitled TEACHING WATER QUALITY IN A HIGH SCHOOL BIOLOGY CLASS USING A CBL2 AND VERNIER PROBES. presented by AARON MICHAEL WESCHE has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the MS. degree in BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE flame Major Profe or’s Signature L5.— I a5 «3/ 0}] Date MSU is an Affirmative ActiorVEqual Opportunity Institution LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 6/01 cJClRCIDateDuo.p65«p.15 TEACHING WATER QUALITY IN A HIGH SCHOOL BIOLOGY CLASS USING A CBL2 AND VERNIER PROBES. By I Aaron Michael Wesche A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Division of Mathematic and Science Education 2004 ABSTRACT TEACHIDHS TflATER QUALITY IN A HIGH SCHOOL BIOLOGY CLASS USING CBL2 AND VERNIER PROBES. BY Aaron Michael Wesche Ir1 today’s technology—driven society it is important that teaachers keep up by incorporating technology into their <21assrooms. Students are coming into the classrooms with.51 tremendous amount of knowledge in technology, and it is time we start letting them use that knowledge to help in their education. The purpose of this study was to measure whether or not there was improvement in learning when technology was incorporated into a unit on water quality. Students worked in the laboratory collecting water quality data using probes connected to a CBL2 interface and calculator. The student’s improvement in basic knowledge was evaluated by their performances on pre-test and post- tests, quizzes, projects, and laboratory activities. The data show the new laboratory—based unit had a positive effect on the students shown by the improvement on tests, projects, and laboratory assignments. It can be concluded that student learning was improved by the use of technology in this unit. I would like to dedicate this thesis to my loving family, Agnes and Alex. Thank you for all of your love and support. F/A. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Dr. Merle Heidemann and Dr. Ken Nadler for their guidance and support in preparing this thesis. Your knowledge and teachings are priceless. Thank you to my parents, brother and sisters, your support has been never ending. Thank you to the students at Addison High School for the data they provided. Thank you to Bud Ellis at Addison High School for your suggestions and help. Finally, Thank you to all of my Bio Camp friends. Your sense of humor, and friendship is what helped make this possible. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................... viii INTRODUCTION .......................................... 1 CHAPTER ONE: Implementation ........................... 14 CHAPTER TWO: Data Collection Methods .................. 27 CHAPTER THREE: Results and Evaluation ................. 31 CHAPTER FOUR: Discussion .............................. 43 APPENDICES Appendix A: Pre-test and Post-tests ............. 48 Appendix B: Laboratory Activities ............... 66 Temperature ................................. 67 PH .......................................... 72 Chloride .................................... 78 Dissolved Oxygen ............................ 83 Nitrate ..................................... 92 Total Dissolved Solid ....................... 99 Total Solids ................................ 106 Fecal Coliform .............................. 114 Stream Flow/Volume .......................... 118 Macro-Invertebrates ......................... 125 Appendix C: Homework Assignments ................ 131 Temperature Homework ........................ 132 PH Homework ................................. 134 Nitrogen Homework ........................... 135 Fecal Coliform Homework ..................... 137 Dissolved Oxygen Homework ................... 139 Guidelines for River Poster Board ........... 141 River Research Guidelines ................... 142 Appendix D: Scoring Rubrics ..................... 145 Biological Field Proficiency Checklist ...... 146 River of Dreams Collage ..................... 147 River Research Poster Board Rubric .......... 148 Appendix E: Quizzes ............................. 149 PH and Temperature Quiz ..................... 150 Nitrate and Total Dissolved Solid Quiz ...... 151 Macro—Invertebrate Quiz ..................... 152 Fecal Coliform and Total Solid Quiz ......... 153 Chloride and Dissolved Oxygen Quiz .......... 154 Appendix F: Attitude Survey ..................... 155 REFERENCES ............................................ l 5 8 vi LIST OF TABLES NUMBER PAGE Table 1: Water Quality Unit Outline .................... 15 Table 2: Rubrics used to grade pre and post test ....... 28 Table 3: Average Quiz Scores .......................... 35 Table 4: Results of Attitude Survey ................... 37 Table 5: Number of Positive Responses to Attitude Survey Questions .............................. 42 vii NUMBER Figure Figure Figure NH LIST OF FIGURES PAGE Pre-Test Results ............................. 31 Post—Test Results ............................ 33 Percent of Correct Responses on pre And Post-Test ................................ 34 viii INTRODUCTI ON The past twenty years have seen an unprecedented leap in technology. Buckley stated, “In fact, strides made in this short period of time far exceed the rate of technological advances of the entire 350 year span since Newton’s time.” It is not uncommon to hear a teacher say, “I just try to stay one step ahead of the students”. This goal is becoming more and more difficult to accomplish. Students are coming into the schools with an amazing background in technology, often knowing more than the average High School teacher. A teacher wanting to have students involved in the class and take an active approach in learning needs to incorporate technology into the classroom. Many teachers are still using old simplistic methods of presenting information even though several studies have shown that students prefer strategies promoting active learning to traditional lectures (Bonwell and Eison, 1991). Bonwell and Eison state, “Many faculty assert that all learning is inherently active and that students are therefore actively involved while listening to formal presentations in the classroom.” Students must do more than just listen: They must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems (Bonwell and Eison, 1991). In fact, school districts and governments are creating technology—planning teams, financial resources are being sought to purchase resources, and implementation models for technology are being critically examined (R.B. Buckley, 1995). As Ambrose (2003) stated, “Few subjects in school are dependent on equipment as science.” The average science classroom contains a wide range of so called tools of the trade. These tools range from glassware, thermometers, pipettes, and Bunsen burners to preserved specimens, and microscopes. These tools can attract the students’ attention and enhance their learning of science. In order to keep up with recent technology innovations, it is important to add computers and computer accessories to the list of tools of the trade. Computers are no longer mere word processors or gateways to the Internet; computers are tools of exploration (Anderson, et.al, 1997). Desktop/laptop computers or handheld devices can be transformed into data collecting, data storing, and data analyzing tools through the use of probes. The probes work by having a sensor that records the physical data, such as temperature of air or water. The sensor plugs into an interface, that converts the analog data into a digital format so the computer can process the data. The interface then connects to a computer or calculator so the data can be analyzed. The advent of probes has allowed computers to thrive as active agents in student exploration of the natural and physical world (Marcum and Ford, 2003). It was thought that computers would be able to simulate laboratory activities, which would allow teachers to forego actual laboratory activities (Marcum and Ford, 2003). Luckily, this idea has been primarily thrown aside in View of what educators know about student learning styles. Educators have learned there are at least three different learning styles. The first are visual learners. These learners need to see the teacher’s body language and facial expression to fully understand the content of a lesson. These learners learn best from visual displays such as diagrams, illustrations, and overhead transparencies. Visual learners also prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information. The second learning style is the auditory learners. These learners learn best through verbal lectures, talking things through, and listening to others and not taking notes. The third learning style is the tactile/kinesthetic learners. These learners prefer to learn through moving, doing, and touching. These are the learners who like hands on activities. Without laboratory activities, tactile/kinesthetic students will not have the best learning opportunity. Computer simulations will only help the students who learn by hearing and seeing the concepts, but do not help those students who need to be hands on and actually performing the activity. Computer simulations, while cheaper, easier, and cleaner, provide only a sterile lifeless representation of the wonder that constitutes science (Marcum and Ford, 2003). Computer based probes succeed in science where computers simulations fail (Trumber and Gelbman, 2000). These probes allow students to experience science for themselves. They allow them to make choices about the direction of their research. Computer probes also decreases the amount of time spent on monotonous data collecting, storage, and data analyzing. Probes have many advantages for the students (Marcum and Ford, 2003). The probes can give the students immediate feedback through computer generated graphs, and statistics. With this students can make immediate connections between the data collected and the phenomena they observe in the laboratory (Marcum and Ford, 2003). Many teachers question the role of computers and probes in the classroom. This arises from their lack of experience and lack of knowledge of the capabilities of the computer. In the High School science class, our primary goal is to provide students with a deeper understanding of scientific ideas, but a secondary goal for all teachers is to introduce students into the everyday world. For science teachers, it is our job to introduce students into what is referred to as “real science”. To accomplish this goal, teachers should attempt to replicate the day—to—day activities of practicing scientists within the classroom laboratory (Jensen, 1998). Scientists rely heavily on computers in their work as they gather, store, organize, and analyze data, as well as communicate their finding with other scientists. While technology may afford an opportunity for deeper cognitive processing and more authentic science learning, these benefits are not automatically realized merely because of the presence of technology (Salomon, 1992). Incorporating computers into the classroom is more than just letting students use the computer to type a research paper or surf the Internet. Teachers should incorporate computers into the classroom in ways that reflect true scientific research. Probes allow teachers to do just that as you research most aspects of biology. If students are to emulate the true scientific process of inquiry, computers need to be integrated into the science laboratory curriculum as research tools (Marcum and Ford, 2003). According to Trumper and Gelbman 2000, by taking advantage of the computer’s capabilities through the incorporation of technology into the science curriculum, students will be able to learn science as “novice researchers”. There are two main approaches to teaching science. The first is the constructivist approach. This approach is based on having students doing science in cooperative group settings performing thought—provoking experimentation (Baylor, et.al, 1996). Strommen and Lincoln (1992) state, “The foundational premise of constructivism is that learners actively construct their own knowledge by anchoring new information to preexisting knowledge.” Unlike a constructivist classroom a typical science class consists of lecture, discussion, and laboratory. However, due to time constraints, an important component is often overlooked — authentic experimentation (Ambruso, 2003). Science is a social process and social interaction promotes learning via the discussion of different points of view (Driver et.al, 1994). The second approach to teaching science is an objective approach. In the objective approach, the students look to the teacher and the textbook for answers. This is the basic lecture and worksheet—based class. Students in these classrooms learn to memorize facts and figures and then spit them out on a test. However, when the teacher asks an open ended question these students struggle thinking of an answer that is not found word for word in the textbook. The constructivist classroom, although the preferred way to teach science, has its downfalls. These include, limited class time, a possible increase in preparation time, the potential difficulty of using active learning in large classes, and a lack of needed materials, equipment, or resources (Bonwell and Eison, 1991). Using probes in the classroom setting should provide a constructivist environment which, with the proper supervision, that is making sure all students are engaged, can be a phenomenal environment for student learning. The research for this project was conducted at Michigan State University during the summer of 2003. The goal was to design a unit plan that will increase student knowledge in water quality using computer-based probes. A unit which integrates probes into a water quality unit in a high school biology class is the result of that research. Water quality was chosen for this project, because it is a topic not being taught in the school. The newly developed unit was meant to get students out of their seats and into the laboratory. It has very little paper and pencil worksheets; instead, the unit was based on cooperative groups working together to investigate the local watershed. All of the labs and activities were based on students taking responsibility for their learning and working together to gather and analyze data. The hardest part in developing this unit was to make sure the unit used the probes effectively. As Pederson and Yerrick (2000) said, “Computers, like all new pedagogical tools, must be properly and thoughtfully integrated into a curriculum.” Computer probes must be integrated into the primary content and process of the course and not merely included as an add-on to the existing curriculum (Smith, et.al, 1999). Basic Science Involved Temperature Temperature influences the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in water, the rate of photosynthesis by algae and larger aquatic plants, the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms, and the sensitivity of organisms to toxic wastes, parasites, and disease. Humans cause changes in temperature through, e.g., thermal pollution, cutting down trees, and adding in soil erosion. Thermal pollution is an increase in water temperature caused by adding warm water to a body of water, the warm water may come from, e.g., nuclear power plants, and storm water runoff. Soil erosion will increase the amount of suspended solids in the water; these absorb sunlight also warming the water. The rate of photosynthesis increases as the temperature increases. This will lead to more plant growth and eventually more plant death, which stimulates decomposers and bacteria that will consume the oxygen as they decompose the dead plants. Increased temperature also increases the metabolic rate of organisms which, in turn, causes them to use more oxygen. Fish can become more vulnerable to disease with increased water temperatures. p_H Water is composed of two ions, H+(hydrogen) and OH‘ (hydroxide). pH is the concentration of these two ions. Neutral water with a pH of 7 has an equal concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions. A solution with a greater concentration of hydrogen ions is considered acidic (pH of 1.0 - 6.9), while a solution with a greater concentration of hydroxide ions is considered a base (7.1 - 14.0). Factors that affect the pH levels in lakes and streams are, acid rain, algal blooms, hard water minerals, industrial processes, and oxidation of sulfides in sediments. Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen per units of water in an aquatic environment. Organisms use oxygen for cellular respiration. Factors that affect the dissolved oxygen levels are temperature, aquatic plant populations, decaying organic material in water, stream flow, and human activities. Dissolved oxygen fluctuates throughout the day: levels will rise in the morning, reach a peak in the afternoon, and decrease in the evening. Chloride Chloride is a negative ion coming from the dissolution of salts such as sodium chloride or calcium chloride in water. There are many sources of chloride ions; river streambeds with salt—containing minerals, runoff from salted roads, irrigation water returned to streams, mixing seawater with freshwater, and water softener regeneration. Freshwater streams and lakes have a significant chloride level that can range from 1 to 250 mg/L. Nitrates Nitrates are used by plants and animals to make amino acids and proteins. Some sources of nitrates are agricultural runoff, urban runoff, animal feedlots, industrial wastewater, automobile emissions, and decomposition of plants and animals. Levels above 10mg/L in drinking water can lead to methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome. Excessive nitrates can cause lakes to become eutrophic as well. Freshwater normally has levels 10 in the range of 0.1 to 4 mg/L. Unpolluted waters should have levels below 1.0 mg/L. Macro-Invertebrates Macro-invertebrates can be used to determine water quality. By collecting the invertebrates and identifying them, it can be determined if the water is of good quality or not. Invertebrates are affected by four main factors: water temperature, discharge patterns, substrates, and energy relationships. Invertebrates have adaptions to live in the rivers. For example, during floods, invertebrates burrow into the substrate to avoid being swept away. River invertebrates have also developed a flat body, which allows them to remain in the protective boundary layer of rocks. This flattening also permits them to avoid the current by crawling under rocks. Other examples of evolutionary developments of aquatic invertebrates are: the ability to produce silk to anchor them to rocks, and the ability to construct homes of stones, vegetation, and sand particles for protection. Stream Flow and Velocity Stream flow is the volume of water that moves through a specific point in a stream during a given period of time. Stream flow is determined by measuring a cross sectional area of the stream using a flow rate sensor. The volume 11 can be calculated by multiplying the cross—sectional area by the flow velocity. Factors that affect the flow velocity are: depth of stream channel, width of stream channel, roughness of stream bottom, and slope or incline of surrounding terrain. The factors that affect the stream volume are: weather or climate, seasonal changes, merging tributaries, and human impact. Total Solids Total solids are a measure of all the suspended, colloidal, and dissolved solids in a sample of water. Siltation is the most common pollutant of streams and rivers. Soil erosion and organic matter can affect the levels of total solids. Levels too high or too low can impact the health of the stream and the organisms that live there. High levels will decrease the rate of photosynthesis. High levels will also increase the temperature, which affects the river in many ways. Total solids should fall with the range of 20 mg/L to 500 mg/L. Total Dissolved Solids Total dissolved solids are the total of suspended and dissolved solids in a stream. This includes silt, stirred up bottom sediment, decaying plant matter, and sewage treatment effluent. Evaporating a pre—filtered sample to dryness, and then finding the mass of the dry residue per 12 liter of sample is a way to measure total dissolved solids. Hard water ions, fertilizers, urban runoff, and acidic rainfall can all affect the levels of total dissolved solids. Lakes and streams typically tend to be between 50 — 250 mg/L. Fecal Coliform Fecal coliform bacteria are found in the feces of humans and other warm-blooded animals. They can enter the river through direct discharge from the animal, or from runoff. Fecal coliform themselves are not pathogenic. However, fecal coliform bacteria are found along with pathogenic organisms and is an indicator of contaminated water. Pathogens are relatively scarce in water making them difficult and time-consuming to monitor directly. The study group used in this research consisted of 32 students in a college preparatory Biology One class, all of whom are Caucasian and live in a rural area. The students were in their second year of high school, and in their second or third science class of their high school career. All had taken a freshman science class and some had taken an introduction to biology class before entering Biology One. This study will document students using probes in a constructivist atmosphere to study a local resource. 13 Chapter 1: Implementation of Unit This study will document students using probes in a constructivist atmosphere studying a local resource. This unit is the result of research conducted during the summer of 2003 at Michigan State University. The goal of the research was to design and assess a unit plan to use in the biology classroom, integrating new hands-on activities. Students who participated in this study were sophomores and juniors in their second high school science class. Most freshmen take a survey course that covers Earth science and physical science. Other, more advanced freshmen take a laboratory—based honors science class. This study was conducted in a college preparatory biology class. The school does offer a lower level biology class for those students who do not intend on furthering their education in college. The unit is broken into seven weeks of activities and assignments (see table 1). The unit started out with a pre-test on general issues about water quality. Students were instructed to answer every question as completely as possible. The pre—test consisted of multiple choice, true and false, and essay questions, and was used to determine the prior knowledge students had of water quality. 14 Table 1: Daily Lesson Plans for Water Quality Unit. Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Pre—test on Notes: Overview * Leaf Class 13T water Introduction of water Packs notes on WEEKS quality to CBL2 and quality temperatu BIG TI83+ tests. Make them re and IDEAS calculator. and put pH. What . Temperature Assign two them in do they activity projects. river mean? Groups of 3, each group makes 2 packs Demo: Temp * Class Quiz: Class Class 2ND and pH activity. using pH notes demo, WEEKS probes Temp and pH and Chloride chloride BIG probes temperatur and dissolved IDEAS Use Take readings e probes, dissolved oxygen calibration of various and class oxygen. solutions notes. What do they mean? * Class Quiz: Class Class * Class 3“) activity Chloride and notes on Demo: activity: WEEKS chloride dissolved nitrate nitrate nitrate BIG and oxygen and total and total and total IDEAS dissolved dissolved dissolved dissolved oxygen of solids solids solids various solutions Quiz Class notes * Class Class Quiz 4TH nitrate and total solids activity: notes on total WEEKS total and fecal Total Stream solids BIG dissolved coliform solids flow and flow, IDEAS solids stream volume, volume fecal coliform. Finish Practice day Practice Practice Practice 5TH total for all water Day for day for day for WEEKS solids tests all water all water all water BIG activity tests tests tests IDEAS 6TH *Trip to Sort Leaf Trip to Project Project WEEKS stream Packs and waste presentati presentat BIG perform Identify water ons ions IDEAS tests, take Microorganism treatment out leaf 5 plant pack 7TH Project Project Review day Post test WEEKS presentatio presentations BIG ns IDEAS 15 * Newly implemented activities **Any extra time will be spent working on projects in class. ***Homework will be included periodically The pre-test also allowed the instructor to determine what areas would require more time to ensure student comprehension. The majority of students did not have any background information on water quality as shown by the results of the pre-test (figure 1 p32). They had no idea how water got from its source to their house. Besides having the students working in groups at hands—on activities and probes, the unit was meant to have the students think on their own instead of looking in the book for answers. The students were presented with an opportunity to take a cognitive approach to their learning. They were asked to take the information presented to them and apply it to real life applications. The information was presented to the class using attractive PowerPoint lecture notes, which were developed as part of this unit plan. Students were also given a copy of the notes before hand, which allowed them to spend more time participating in the discussion and learning about the water quality tests being presented. Participation by the students in the discussion lets the instructor know if the students were grasping the concepts presented to them. Besides the 16 limited time actually taking notes and listening to lecture, the students spent time in the lab performing hands—on activities and using the information presented to them in the lectures. The hands-on activities and technology allowed the students to take an active role in their learning, requiring them to take responsibility for their learning. The students first had to learn how to operate the technology used in the labs before they could complete the water quality testing. This took significant instruction. All of the labs were based on using a Vernier CBL2 connected to a TI83+ calculator. Students then attached a Vernier probe to the CBL2, which allowed them to conduct various water quality tests. The CBL2 is a hand held computer that gathers data, and the TI83+ calculator has the ability to store and analyze data. Cavallo and Shafer (1996) said, “to increase meaningful learning, educators must make the content personally relevant”, which was done by having the students study the watershed in their town. Based on classroom discussion, it was known they had a preconceived idea that the local watershed was heavily polluted until we started testing it. The students were also given an attitude survey (Appendix F) that included many different areas of biology and water quality. 17 They had the opportunity to rate different phrases from 1-5 depending on how they felt. (Appendix G). Week one continued with a lesson introducing the CBL2 and TI83+ calculator. A PowerPoint slide was used to show the students how to use the system and where different applications were stored on the calculator. The instructor also showed the students how to use the calculator by using a view screen that projects the calculator screen on the overhead screen. Students followed along with their calculators. Students were sent off to different parts of the school to take temperature readings using the CBL2, T183+, and Vernier Temperature probe. Students then came back to the room and recorded the temperature in each area of the school on the chalkboard (including the Superintendents body temperature). This was a very engaging activity for the students and started a heated conversation as to why the Superintendent and Principal’s offices were air conditioned while students were sitting in a classroom that was over twenty degrees warmer. This was also a great way to introduce the students to how complicated the set up can be if they don’t follow directions precisely. The students then were shown how to use the statistical package on the calculator. The students were also instructed on how to perform a T-test 18 using the calculator. Students used the t-test to compare the means of each set of water quality data collected. This will be especially important when the students analyze the data from samples of water below the waste water treatment plant and water above the waste water treatment plant. The third day the students were presented with information on what water quality tests we were going to learn and a general overview of water quality. After the second day two assignments were given. The first assignment to be completed by the end of the unit was a group project. They were given three options. The first was to design a collage presenting a theme related to water quality. The collage should portray a message about water quality. The second option was to design an advertisement poster for the local watershed to introduce people to the parks and areas along our watershed. The students were trying to make something our local watershed committee could use. The third option was to design plans for a community park to be renovated in town. The town has a nice area for a park next to the river. The plans could be taken to the planning commission to see if it is something that could be done. The majority of students picked this third option. 19 The second assignment for this unit was an individual project. The students were to pick a river in the United States and design a river research poster. They needed to research the water quality of that river and present this information on a poster to the class in a five-minute presentation. Students were to find water quality data based on tests we were studying in class. Both of these projects were due at the end of the unit. The first week continued with students making leaf packs. Leaf packs are bricks that are placed in the river after they are wrapped in leaves and tied with fishing line. The leaves attract micro-invertebrates which can be collected later. The leaf packs were put in the river at two different points: One in town, and one south of town below the water treatment plant. The first week finished with a presentation of notes related to the question, “Why is temperature and pH important in terms of water quality?” Students were given a copy of the PowerPoint notes before the lecture. A great deal of time was spent discussing pH. Week two began by spending time in the lab calibrating and practicing with the temperature and pH probes. Students brought in samples of water from home to test, and the instructor had some acids and bases made up for the 20 students to test. After students had time to work on the probes and listen to the lectures on a particular probe, they were given a quiz. The quizzes were peer-graded in class, followed by a group discussion of the quiz. Week two finished with class notes on chloride, fertilizers, and rain runoff. To understand dissolved oxygen, we needed to discuss the oxygen/carbon-dioxide cycle so students understood how oxygen is used/consumed and how carbon dioxide is introduced into the environment. The main goal of the discussion of dissolved oxygen was to teach the students how dissolved oxygen changes according to temperature. Week three began by practicing with the chloride ion probe and dissolved oxygen probe. Students were also to use the day to review temperature and pH and prepare for the quiz on chloride and dissolved oxygen. Week three continued with a presentation of notes on nitrates and total dissolved solids. Then students were shown a demonstration on how to use the nitrate and total dissolved solids probes. Because both of these probes can be confusing to use, extra time was taken. Week three concluded with students practicing using these probes. Week four began with students taking a quiz over the nitrate and total dissolved solid information. In week 21 four, students were introduced to the total solids, fecal coliform, stream flow and stream volume tests. After the notes on these tests, students were given an opportunity to practice performing these tests except for fecal colifom and stream flow. Week four concluded with a quiz on total solids, flow, volume, and fecal coliform. After the quiz students finished the total solids lab (appendix B). Week five was used as a review week for students to practice using the probes in class. If students were done with the probes they could work on their River Research or River of Dreams projects instead. Week six started with a trip to the river where the students needed to perform every water quality test we had studied, and record their results. This was a culminating activity for the students. The students had spent five weeks in the lab practicing the tests for this trip to the river. The instructor went to the river the day before and ran all of the tests to make sure they worked properly and to obtain a data set to compare with the students. Students were graded on their proficiency with the probes, and the data collected from the stream. Proficiency with the probes was determined by observation and by comparing the students’ data with the data the instructor collected the day before. While at the river, students collected the 22 leaf packs and put them in plastic bags to bring back to the classroom. The next day was spent gathering and identifying the microorganisms from the leaf packs. The last major activity for the unit was a trip to the water treatment plant. Students were introduced to the water testing aspect of the plant. Students were also allowed to perform some water tests at the plant. This was added to comply with the schools push for introduction to possible careers. The rest of week six and the beginning of week seven was spent presenting river research projects. Each group was to spend five minutes in front of the class presenting their river of dreams project, whether it was a collage, advertisement, or design for a park. Students also were required to spend five minutes in front of the class presenting their river research poster. After the presentations, students spent time reviewing for the post— test and the last day of the unit was the post-test. The post-test (appendix A) was an expanded form of the pre— test. The post—test included each of the questions on the pre-test mixed in with other questions. 23 Labs used in Unit There were some general problems with the lab activities. First, it was a challenge to have the students read the instructions to the labs step by step. They tended to skip some steps which caused great confusion. Secondly, students often did not connect the CBL2 and calculator correctly. They would not push the cable into the calculator all the way. Finally, the last problem was the amount of time it took to prepare the probes. Some of the probes needed to warm up for 30 minutes before use. Temperature and pH Lab (appendix B) The objective of this lab was to introduce students to the temperature and pH probes. They were to take readings of various samples of water, acids, and bases. Students were to perform a t-test to determine if the samples of water were significantly different in terms of temperature, and then again for pH. Chloride and Dissolved Oxygen Lab (appendix B) The goal for this lab was to get the students comfortable setting up, calibrating and using the chloride and dissolved oxygen probes. After collecting the data students needed to perform t-tests again to determine if there was a difference in chloride, and dissolved oxygen between the two samples of water. 24 Nitrate and Total Dissolved Solid Lab (appendix B) The students used the conductivity probe to determine the total dissolved solids, and a nitrate probe to determine the nitrate levels in two samples of water. The object of this lab was to give the students some practice in calibrating and setting up the probes. Students needed to run a t-test on the data from the lab. Total Solids Lab (appendix B) Students found this lab to be very interesting. They had not previously realized how much sediment was in the river water. Students took clean massed beakers and filled them with river water. Students then put them in an oven to evaporate the water. When all of the water was gone the students reweighed the beaker to discover how much solid was in the water. This lab was easy for the students; it requires two days to finish. Leaf Packs (appendix B) The objective of this activity was to determine the water quality of the river by recording the macro— invertebrates found in the river. The hardest part was the identification of the microorganisms. Students did a nice job on this lab, and found it very interesting. 25 Stream Trip Lab This lab was a summation of every lab we had done during this unit. The students were to go to the stream and perform every lab we had practiced in the classroom. Students posted their data on the chalkboard when we returned to the classroom and we found the class averages. After performing the labs, we spent time cleaning debris from the river. Those students who did not like taking readings of the water quality really got into cleaning the river. The major element of pollution was the softballs in the river. 26 Chapter 2 Data Collection Methods. Pre and Post Tests Before the students started this unit, they took a pre-test (appendix A) so the instructor could determine how much prior knowledge they had in the area of water quality. It consisted of eleven multiple—choice questions, eight true and false questions, and four essay questions. The essays ranged from drawing graphs, listing factors, to answering a situation problem. For example, the first essay asked the students to draw a graph showing the relationship of amounts of dissolved oxygen vs. the time of day. The essay was graded using rubric C (see table 2). Another essay asked the students to explain why someone who is fishing at a deeper depth is catching more fish than someone who is fishing at a shallower depth. This essay was graded using rubric A (see table 2). After completion of the unit, the students took a post-test (appendix A). The post—test consisted of twenty—nine multiple-choice questions, twenty- six true and false, and ten essay questions. The essays on the post—test not only contained the questions from the pre-test, but had an additional six questions covering various topics. For example, one question asked the students to list the factors that affect the distribution and abundance of aquatic insects in a stream. Other 27 questions asked the students to describe the factors that control a river current’s speed, and describe how invertebrates can be used to evaluate water quality. All of the questions in the pre test were also in the post-test word for word for valid statistical analysis. The essay questions on the pre and post-test were graded using the following rubric (see table 2). The rubrics required students to complete answers with complete sentences and correct grammar. Students were given partial credit if they came up with the correct response but did not use complete sentences. Students were awarded one point for attempting to answer the question. This was done to make sure that students answered every question. Table 2: Rubrics used to grade pre- and post-tests. Rubric A. 1 2 3 4 5 Attempted Attempted. .Attempted .Attempted Attempted question. Question. Question. Question. Question. Incomplete Partially' Partially Correct Correct sentences. correct correct Response. Response. Incorrect response. response. Incomplete Complete response Incomplete Cbmplete sentences sentences sentences sentences Rubric B. l 2 3 4 5 Attempted Attempted Attempted Attempted Attempted question. Question. Question. question. question. Incorrect Idsted 1 Listed 1 Listed two Idsted two 28 response correct correct correct correct factor. factor. factors. factors in Incomplete Complete Incomplete complete sentences sentence questions sentences. Rubric C. l 2 3 4 5 Attempted Attempted Attempted Attempted Attempted graph. graph. graph. graph. graph. Line is Line is Line is Line is Line is incorrect. correct. correct. correct. correct. But graph Axis are Adds are Title is Title is is in not not not present. correct labeled. labeled present. Axis are format No title. title is Axis are labeled. Intervals pmesent. labeled. Intervals are Intervals Intervals are incorrect are are correct correct. correct Data Gathering from Weekly Quizzes Students were given quizzes (appendix E) every week on the water quality testing procedure they studied that week. These quizzes were based on the notes presented to them in class. It was expected based on constructivist ideas that the notes and practice with tests would lead to understanding. and longer essay questions. The quizzes consisted of short answer essay The quizzes were peer graded in class with a discussion following the grading. Attitude Survey Students were given an attitude survey (appendix F) to determine their overall feeling for biology especially 29 topics related to water quality. Students ranked their responses 1-5 on each question. The questions ranged from overall attitude of biology to specific topics of biology such as cell biology, ecology, and water quality. 30 Chapter 3: Results and Evaluation 1) Pre/Post—Test Analysis The main goal of the pre and post-test comparison was to determine whether the students attained an understanding of water quality (water testing). The pre-test data (figure 1) showed that the students had very little prior knowledge of water quality. The lack of knowledge of water quality is not surprising since this subject is not studied in middle school. For example, very few students knew the levels of different chemicals in water (see figure 1, question 4). I Number of Students Answering Pre-Test I Questions Correct. N=31 35: 3o -1 e- 7.7. “M DCorrect Answers I Incorrect Answersg Number of Students l‘ ox H m H H Question Number Figure 1: Graph showing number of students answering pre— test correct and incorrect. 31 Students also had very little knowledge about fecal coliform, and pathogens (see figure 1, question 4). Not one student could list four significant factors that affect the distribution and relative abundance of aquatic insects in a stream or list two examples of macro-invertebrates evolving to live in the current of a river (see figure 1, questions 21, and 22). All but two of the questions on the pre-test had an average correct response of less than seventy percent (see figure 1). The last four questions were open-ended essay questions; only one student answered one of those questions correctly. Questions ten and twelve had an average of over seventy percent. Question ten was a question asking what two ions make up water. Question twelve asked about rivers being void of aquatic life if dissolved oxygen levels are too low. Students have been taught about the chemical make-up of water in previous classes so that is not surprising, but students have not been taught about dissolved oxygen until now. The post-test data shows tremendous improvement in student knowledge of water quality. The greatest improvement was in the essay questions (see figure 2). The students had an 81% improvement on the first essay question 32 on the post—test. On the pre-test only 3% of the students answered the question adequately, while 84% of the students answered it adequately on the post-test. The last three essay questions showed improvement also. On the pre-test, 0% of the students answered the questions adequately. On the post-test, 25% of the students answered the second essay adequately while 38% answered the third essay adequately, and 69% answered the fourth essay adequately. This was an overall improvement of 53% on the essay questions. There were ten questions on the post-test (appendix A) with an average of over seventy percent. There is an improvement in student knowledge in every question except one, question Number of Students Answering Post—Test Questions Correct. N=32 N 01 l Tifj l i 1 I g T DCorrect Answers IIncorrect Answers Number of Students In N O) l l i If i ,_ - 15 I. l— L. e L. 10 ~ a - -s s - — ~--— 5 -. I ll; o .11 m ‘- co 3 (‘0 IO N ‘— 1- F Question Number I Figure 2: Graph of Number of Students Answering Post-Test Questions Correct. 33 eleven (see figure 2). This question asked if fecal coliform were pathogenic. The greatest improvement was on the first essay question, where there was an eighty-one percent increase in the number of students answering the question correctly (see figure 2). There was an overall average increase of thirty—one percent on the post—test. The data from the pre-test and the post-test was calculated and a t-test was performed to compare the averages. The average on the pre-test was a 37% with a standard deviation of 8.56, while the average on the post-test was a 77% with a standard deviation of 19.05. This looks to be a pretty significant difference (see figure 3), which a t-test will only show. Percent of Questions Answered Correctly on Pre—Test and Post-Test. N=32 1001 m l. lull ._ Q 80 1 a _ a 60-“ '”—r"” IjPost Test ResultsI g): 40 ~ 1 l.__l LIPre Test Results ] 33 20— — 1H} 0 'I “-1 I T v- :0 In 5- o: v- co to |\ Question Number Figure 3: Percent of Questions Answered Correctly on Pre- Test and Post—Test. 34 The p value found in the t-test was less than 0.000. The p value must be less than .05 for the data to be significantly different. 2) Labs and Quizzes The students were graded on the labs on a completion/no completion scale. (If they completed the lab, they received the credit for it). They were graded on their proficiency with the probes when the class made the trip down to the river. Twenty-six of the thirty-two students (81%) performed well enough to earn a passing grade working with the probes. The quizzes students took after each water quality test covered were graded in class by their peers. Students did well on the quizzes. The students did the worst on the quiz covering dissolved oxygen and chloride (see table 3). Table 3: Average Quiz Scores. Quiz Class Average Ph and Temperature 82% Nitrate and Dissolved Solid 78% Macro—Invertebrate 89% Fecal Coliform and Total 77% Solid Chloride and Dissolved Oxygen 64% 35 The best quiz average was the quiz on macro-invertebrates. The students knew what to expect on that quiz and was made up of matching. The other quizzes were all short answer essay. 3) Attitude Survey Results The attitude survey (Appendix F) was a tool designed to determine the overall attitude students had towards ten different aspects of biology; biology, laboratory activities, working in teams to solve problems, scientific method, water testing, recycling, local rivers, cell biology, ecology, and DNA/genetics. At the beginning of this unit, students were given sixty situations to rank how they felt between 1(very positive) and 5(very negative). The answers for each situation were then averaged (see table 4). An answer between 1 and 2.9 is considered a positive response, while 3.0 to 5.0 is considered a negative response. For example, question 41 on the attitude survey asked the students to rank whether they felt the local rivers were clean(1) or polluted(5). The average answer for that question was a 3 (see table 4). Question 16 asked if working in teams to solve problems was good(1) or bad(5). The average answer was 2.1(see table 4). Table 4: Results of Attitude Survey 36 msoumwawo cmmm .va uncuuooaaas ucmuuooBH .me so: uH mafia hmmm .me wcfiuom mcflumoumucH .AH HHDD cam pom .ofi - coco mwcmuum m umaawamm .w moflofl>fluo< xsoDmmonmJ % c an m uccumo s ucmuuooaaca unmuuooEH .w casoammaa swam I - .n mcfiuom wcfiummucuaH .v Hang a: - III m .m pom voow .m owsmuum umfiaaamm _ .1 >m0aoem m 0 vw \ N. H.vm EM 0 a. K. c r v .n. _ H mm .mm .fim .cm .mfi we me we mmoaom: _ Hummus unmuuomaacb _ _ uawuuomEH mmam _ uoaao uasoammwn hmmm Hana can can @000 _ wwamuum _ — umfiaaamm _ xummmouocas mXELDo$_n0fiwfluaroflom Snowmouoz unmuuooaaab unmuuomaH moan uowso pasofimman I H mmmm Hana _ _ “Harm was a _ wooo owdmuum _ umHHHamm m . If) .mm mmmHU Ca mEOHDOHm m>mom OD mEmoe Ca mcflxsoz ucBDHOQEacD uamuuooEH _ . wasoflmmaa _ hmmm ow _ _ .mm wsfiuom wcfiumououcH _ .mm Hana _ _ cam. a Sm com @000 _ .2. owcmuum umwaaamm # .hm 9 m: a Vice 3 3 mummmmomccn _ hummmcooz .vm uadofimm«o ammm wafiuom mafiumououcH ucmuuooaficD uamuuooaH pom coco. cwamuum umfiafiamm _ .mm mcflumOE amncz a. s.s. s.m. q.m. m.a.v e a c a c a c 6 am a.s.s.s.m.7.m.m.l. m a.m.s.o.¢.s.m.m.l H Ln wafiuom ucmuuooafiaa owsmuum Hana “Haunmcao wcfiuom ucmuuomafica emuanmnaaas wcfiumoumuaH .mm ucmuuooaH .Hm xmoeoo: umaaafimm .on cam .nv mmmm o .mv waaummumuaH .bv ucmuuoaaH .oe smoHOAm Haas soufinmnaH ..le oflnmxanueas ucwuuomafias saws emusHHom manmxennn . vv unmuuooaH .mv Hawfiusmom . .mv cmoau .flv mflZ fimeCQ .N.~ -fi nu .4. mwcmuum Haze a—n—u‘p pasofiwmwm wcfiuom accusedaano mwcmuum umfiafiamm .om cam .mn hmmm .mm wcfiumcuoucH .em ucmuuooEH . Chm mowoocoo\ 4 colonies e.0 colonies 5. Why do we test for Fecal coliform instead of pathogens? ‘ aa.Pathogens are too big IL There are too many pathogens in the water CL Pathogens are relatively scarce in water <1.Fecal coliform is too disgusting 6. Which of the following does not control the speed of a river’s current? .Depth .The slope or steepness of the land .How much agricultural land is on the river .The width of the stream channel .The roughness of the river bottom (DQJOU'QI 49 7. How have some invertebrates evolved to meet the challenges of living in a river current during a flood? .Swim upstream .Swim downstream .Burrow into the substrate .Develop suckers on their legs to stick to the rocks. QJOU'SD 8. Nitrogen is used by all plants and animals to .Digest food .Build Proteins .Breathe .Degenerate amino acids 020691 9. An increase in water temperature caused by adding relatively warm water to a body of water is referred to as a. Solar energy IL Thermal Pollution <:.Discharge d. Unsafe 10. The concentration of what two ions determines pH? .If and OH“ + and OH+ and OH' and OH+ QJOU’SD 33:11:: + 11. Which of the following is not a source of Chloride ions? .Runoff from salted roads. .Water softener regeneration .Irrigation water returned to streams .Water running over granite in the ground QOUW True and False 12. Some rivers can have so low amounts of dissolved oxygen that they are almost empty of aquatic life. 13. Pike and trout prefer low levels of dissolved oxygen 14. Mayfly nymphs, stonefly nymphs, and caddis fly larvae cannot tolerate high levels of dissolved oxygen. 15. Fecal Coliform themselves are not pathogenic. 50 16. The life cycles of many aquatic insects are closely tied to seasonal water temperatures. 17. Many aquatic insects will not hatch their eggs if thermal cues are present. 18. Water temperatures in the lower reach of a river generally fluctuate more than in the midreach. 19. Discharge is a measure of the volume of water En passing a given point over a given period of time. 20. Draw a graph showing the relationship of amounts of dissolved oxygen vs. time of day. Be sure to label your graph properly. (Rubric C) 21. List four significant factors that affect the distribution and relative abundance of aquatic insects in a stream. (Rubric A) 51 22.Describe two examples of macro—invertebrates evolving to live in the current of a river. (Rubric B) 23.John and Angie went fishing one hot summer day. Angie let her fishing line hang several meters deeper in the river than John. She caught her limit of fish, while he caught only one catfish. Offer an hypothesis as to why Angie caught more fish than John. How would you test to prove that hypothesis? (Rubric A) 52 Water Quality Unit Post—Test Name: Directions: Choose the best answer for each question. Please write your answer on the line provided. Be sure to use capital letters. 1. What does CBL2 stand for? ea.Computer biased learning. IL California balanced learning. CL Calculator based learning. (d.Cable TV for two. 2. The optimal temperature range (°C) for mayfly larvae is a.5-20 b. 5-28 c.10-25 d. 20-25 3. Which one of the following is not a reason for temperature to rise in rivers? aa.Warming of the ground IL Water runoff from parking lots CL Cutting trees down around the river ci.Thermal pollution 4. The absence of oxygen in water is a sign of 6L Good quality water. f.Severe Pollution g3.Very little sun getting to water IL Cold water 5. Much of the dissolved oxygen in water comes from .The ground .Algae and rooted plants .The atmosphere .Aquatic organisms QJOU'SD 6. Levels of dissolved oxygen in water tends to e.F1uctuate throughout the day f.Stay the same throughout the day g3.Decrease in the morning and afternoon IL Peak at midnight. 7. Which of the following is not a factor contributing to changes in dissolved oxygen levels? e. Water temperature 53 "I f.Vblume of water moving down river g3.Build up of organic waste IL PH of the water. 8. Which of the following would not be considered organic waste? a.Feces b . Rocks c.1eaves d. Food I‘ 9. Where would you find the source for fecal i coliform? 3 aa.Rain water runoff from a roof. IL Feces of humans and other warm blooded animals. <:.Blood from warm—blooded animals. Ci.None of the above is a source for fecal 9 coliform. j 10. What does Pathogenic mean? .Disease Causing .Deadly .To follow a path .Term used to describe the path a river or stream would take. CLOUD) 11. What is the range of fecal coliform per 100mL of water for drinking water? f.1-2 colonies g.2—3 colonies IL 3—4 colonies i. > 4 colonies j. 0 colonies 12. Which of the following are not diseases that can be contracted by swimming in water with colifrom counts above 200 colonies? a . Typhoid fever IL Influenza CL Ear Infection <1.Gastroenteritis 13. Why do we test for Fecal coliform instead of pathogens? 6L Pathogens are too big .f.There are too many pathogens in the water 54 gg.Pathogens are relatively scarce in water IL Fecal coliform is too disgusting 14. Warmer water temperatures usually cause a(n) in the growth rate of aquatic organisms. .increase .decrease .both .neither CLOUD) 15. Which of the following does not control the speed of a river’s current? f.Depth g.Tbe slope or steepness of the land IL How much agricultural land is on the river in The width of the stream channel j. The roughness of the river bottom 16. The current is fastest just beneath the water surface because a.FTiction is decreased between the air and surface water. IL There are less plants to slow the water down. c.Tbe riverbed does not slow the water down here. OBSERVATIONS FROM FIELD AND GEOGRAPHY. .Mass of solids (mg) .Total Volume (L) = . Total solids = D/E .Mass of empty beaker .Mass of beaker with dried solids .Mass of Solids (g) = B-A = C X 1000 mL water/1000 Column A B C D E F Beaker Mass of Mass of Mass Mass Total Total Number Empty beaker of of Volume solids Beaker plus solids solids (L) (mg/L) (g) solids (g) (mg) (9) Example 95.225g 95.297g 0.042g‘ 42mg 0.200L 210 mg/L 1 2 Average TS (mg/L) (VEGETATION ALONG STREAM, WEATHER, Conclusion Questions Directions: as possible. library or Internet. 112 Complete the following questions as completely Additional information may be needed from the 1” Would you have expected to see a difference in total solids between the two sites? Why? 2. Did you accept or reject your hypothesis? Why? 13.Now that you have the data, what do they mean? ‘4.What was the purpose of performing a t-test on these data? 113 Student Lab#8: Fecal Coliform Overview The collection of coliform colonies will lead to determining the likelihood of contamination by micro— organisms. Fecal coliform are not disease causing organisms themselves, but they are found next to disease causing organisms. Fecal coliform is often found along with disease causing organisms such as those causing dysentery, gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A. The source of fecal coliform is often raw sewage. The bacteria for fecal coliform are found naturally occurring in the digestive tract of warm-blooded animals. These bacteria are responsible for digestion of food in those animals. Expected Levels Table 1: Table showing the desired levels and permissible levels of fecal coliform in water. Units are measured in Colony forming units per 100 milliliters (CPU/100mL). Water Use Desired Level Permissible Level (CPU/100mL) (CFU/100mL) Drinking 0 0 Swimming Less than 200 Less than 1000 Boating or fishing' Less than 1000 Less than 5000 Summary of Methods This test uses nutrient agar plates to grow the fecal coliform colonies. Water is collected from two different sites on the stream. The water sample is put through a serial dilution and streaked on a nutrient agar plate. The plates will be left at room temperature for 48—72 hours after which the colonies will be counted. List of Materials Nutrient Agar 114 3g Yeast extract 5g Peptone 15g Agar 1L Hot distilled water Hot plate Autoclave/pressure cooker Small beakers Glass innoculum “L” Bunsen burner Test Tubes Disposable Petri Dishes Erlenmeyer Flask Pipettes Testing Procedure Nutrient Agar 1.Start heating up 1L of distilled water on hot plate, preferably one with the ability to stir. :2.Measure out 3g of yeast extract, 5g of peptone, and 15g of agar. 13.When distilled water is hot add dry ingredients to water and stir until dissolved. Autoclave 1” The nutrient agar, 100mL of distilled water, and pipettes need to be autoclaved or pressure cooked to be sure they are sterile. :2.Cover water, and agar with tin foil. Wrap pipettes with tin foil. Z3.Autoclave them for 15-20 minutes at 15-20 psi. If pressure—cooking, time should be doubled if psi is only 10. 44.When sterilization is complete let agar cool until it can be touched by human hand (approximately 55°). Pouring the agar 1. The table you will be using to plate the petri dishes needs to be sterilized with bleach. Dump a fair amount on to the table and wipe with a sponge. .Lay out your petri dishes, leaving them covered. .When the agar is cool enough to poor, fill each petri dish 1/3 to % full off agar. .Let the agar sit for 20-30 minutes while it sets up. 115 Serial Dilution 1” You need to complete a series of 4 dilutions. You want to end up with concentrations of 100%, 50%, 25%, 12.5%, 6.25% of river water. 2.Take 4mL of river water out of test tube A and pipette it into another test tube (B), and add 4 mL of autoclaved water to that test tube. 3.Then out of the test tube you just added water to, take out 4mL of water and add to new test tube (C), then add 4mL of autoclaved water to test tube C. ‘4.After mixing pipette 4mL of water out of test tube C and place into a new test tube (D). Add 4mL of autoclaved water to test tube D as well. 5.After mixing test tube D, pipette 4mL of water out of test tube D and place in new test tube (E), add 4mL of autoclaved water to test tube E. Plating 1” Pipette 0.1mL out test tube A onto the surface of the first petri dish. Repeat using test tubes B-E all on new petri dishes. 2.Take glass “L” and rinse in ethyl alcohol and flame. Z3.After cooling use the glass “L” to spread the water onto the petri dish. 4.Repeat this for all samples. 5.Iebel each petri dish with concentration, substance inoculated with, and date. 6.Tvrn these petri dishes upside down and leave at room temperature for 48—72 hours. Counting Colonies 1. Count the number of colonies for each plate and record them on the data sheet. 116 TEST #8: Fecal Coliform DATA COLLECTION SHEET STREAM NAME DATE SITE NUMBER TIME RESEARCHER NAME Directions: Record the number of colonies in the appropriate column on the table below. Site # 100% 50% 25% 12.5% 6 .25 #1 #2 Difference Site #1 - #2 Field Observations 117 Student Lab #9: Stream Flow/Volume Taken from Water Quality with Calculators by Vernier Objective 0 To teach students how to take stream flow readings using a CBL2 and Vernier probe. 0 To teach students factors that affect the stream flow. Overview Stream flow or discharge is the volume of water that moves through a specific point in a stream during a given period of time. Discharge is usually measured in units of cubic feet per second (cfs). Discharge is measured by measuring a cross sectional area of the stream. The velocity of the stream is measured using a flow rate sensor. The volume can then be calculated by multiplying the cross-sectional area by the flow velocity. Stream flow is important to the stream ecosystem in many different ways. First of all it is responsible for many of the physical characteristics of a stream. Secondly, it can also modify the chemical and biological aspects of a stream. Aquatic organisms depend on the flow of the stream to bring food and nutrients, and to remove wastes. There are two important factors to consider when looking at stream discharge. The first factor being the flow velocity, and the second factor being the volume of water in the stream. Flow velocity is influenced by a few different factors (see table 1). If the surrounding terrain is steep the snow and rain runoff have less time to soak into the ground and therefore the runoff will be greater. Compare that to a farmland where the land is relatively flat, the runoff has a longer period to soak into the ground, leaving very little water left for runoff into streams. The flow velocity also changes with the depth and width of a stream. A good analogy of this is squeezing a hose. When you squeeze a hose the velocity increases. The volume remained constant but the area to flow through has decreased. The 118 same thing happens in a stream when the depth and width of a stream changes. Table 1: Factors Influencing Flow Velocity 0 .Depth of stream channel 0 ‘Width of stream channel 0 Roughness of stream bottom 0 Slope or incline of surrounding terrain The volume of water in the stream is affected by various factors as well (see table 2). Areas with more snow or rainfall will have more water draining into surrounding streams and rivers. Just like there will be different amounts of water in streams during different seasons. Humans have also affected the volume of water in streams. We remove water for drinking, industry, and irrigation. We have also created roads, and parking lots, which prevent water from soaking into the ground. Table 2: Factors Influencing Stream Volume 0 ‘Weather or climate Seasonal changes O o IMerging tributaries 0 Human impact Expected Levels The U.S. Geological Service has a website where much of this data is available. http://water.usgs.gov/realtime.html Table 3 show stream flow rates for various locations in the United States. Location Min (cfs) Mean (cfs) Max (cfs) Mississippi 85,500 310,000 725,000 River at Thebes, IL Missouri 28,500 107,000 382,000 River at Hermann, MO Colorado 2,800 18,000 46,900 River at Cisco, UT 119 Hood River 593 1,300 3,160 at Hood River, OR Summary of Methods The cross-sectional area will be determined for a stream site using a tape measure and meter stick. Measurements will be made at equal intervals across the stream cross- section. Flow velocity will be measured using the Vernier Flow Rate Sensor at each of the intervals along the cross section. Using these measurements, the stream flow will be calculated. Materials Checklist CBL2 interface TI-83+ Graphing calculator DataMate Program Vernier Flow Rate sensor Measuring Tape (15m — 50ft) Meter Stick Testing Procedure 1” Using the measuring tape, determine the width of the stream cross-section in meters and record that measurement on your data collection sheet (round to the nearest 0.01 meters). Divide the cross section into six equally spaced sections. :2.Using the meter stick measure the depth of the stream in meters at each of the equally spaced points along the cross section. Record the depth and the distance out from one shore edge, in meters, on the data collection sheet. It is important to always measure from the same shore. It is also important to include both the initial distance and depth, and the final distance and depth (they should be 0). 3. Plug the flow rate sensor into Channel 1 of the CBL2 interface. Use the link cable to connect the TI-83 Calculator to the CBL2 interface. Firmly press in the cable ends. 4.Turn on the calculator and start the datamate program. Press clear to reset the program. 5.Set up the calculator and interface for the Flow Rate Sensor .a.Select setup from the main screen 120 IL If the calculator displays Flow rate (m/s) in CH. 1, proceed to step 6. If it does not, continue with this step to set up your sensor manually. . Press enter to select ch. 1 .Select FLOW RATE (m/s) from the select sensor menu. CLO 6.Set up the data-collection mode aa.To select mode, press the up arrow and press enter. IL Select single point from the select mode menu <:.Select ok to return to the main screen '7.Collect flow rate data aa.Place the flow rate sensor at the same points the depth measurements were made in step 2. Since points 1 and 7 are on the shore edge where there is no flow, skip these points and perform flow measurements at the remaining five points. IL Submerge the impeller of the flow rate sensor to about 40% of the depth measured at each section. If the section is shallow enough, use the plastic risers that are included with the sensor to support the sensor on the stream bottom. The risers make it easier to keep the impeller of the sensor in the same spot and oriented in the same direction. CL Point the impeller of the sensor upstream and directly into the flow. Select start to begin sampling. Hold the sensor in place for 10 seconds while data are being collected. Once data collection is finished, the flow rate will be displayed on the calculator screen. Record the reading on the data sheet. 100 128 Stream Quality Assessment Chart Group 1 Let Group 2 Let Group 3 Let Group Let ter ter ter 4 ter Stone— Caddis- Black Worms fly fly fly Alder- Mayfly Midge Leech fly Dobson— Riffle Sow bug Left fly Beetle Snail Snipe Water Scud Blood— fly Penny worm midge Damsel- Right fly Snail Dragon— fly Crayfish Crane fly Clam / mussle A.# taxa = # taxa = #taxa = #taxa = B. x 1 = x 2 = x 3 = x 4 = 129 Calculations Total of all group scores (Sum line B) Divided by Total # of different taxa (Sum line A) Total Cumulative Score = 1 - 2.0 Excellent water Quality 2.1 - 2.5 Good Water Quality 2.6 — 3.5 Fair Water Quality Over 3.5 Poor Water Quality 130 APPENDIX C Homework Assignments 131 Temperature Homework Name: 1” Explain thermal pollution and its effect on the stream. Use an example in your answer. :2.Explain how runoff can raise the temperature of a stream. Z3.Why is temperature an important aspect of water quality? 4. In terms of temperature only, where would you choose to go trout fishing, south east Michigan or Northern Michigan? Explain. 132 5.Design a lab that would test the theory that colder waters dissolve more gas. Be very specific. 133 PH Homework Name: 1” Explain the idea of pH. What makes up pH? What is the formula for pH? What is the pH scale and how does it work? :2.Why is pH an important indication of water quality? Z3.What do heavy metals do to fish? 14.What are some processes that can change the pH value of streams? ES.Explain what it means when the pH of a stream rises from a pH of 8 to a pH of 9. 134 Nitrogen Homework Name: 1” Why is nitrogen important to animals and plants? :2.What can elevated levels of nitrate concentrations lead to in lakes and ponds? Z3.Where does the majority of nitrate pollution come from? ‘4.Why is an elevated level of nitrate bad for drinking water? 135 5. Would you expect a higher level of nitrates in the spring or in the fall? Why? 136 Fecal Coliform Homework Name: 1” Why is water tested for fecal coliform rather than for pathogenic bacteria? 2. How do fecal coliforms get into the water? 3.1dst the fecal coliform standards for drinking water and for swimming water. l4.What characteristics of fecal coliform bacteria make them useful as indicator organisms? ES.Why should you collect samples for fecal coliform testing in sterile bottles? EL Why must the water samples be refrigerated if testing for fecal coliform cannot be done immediately? How soon after collection must samples be tested? '7.Explain how the fecal coliform level at Bean Creek might affect the organisms living in or near the waterway. 8. Predict how fecal coliform levels might vary at Bean Creek at different times of the year. Explain your reasoning. 137 EL What would you recommend to improve the fecal coliform levels and water quality at your site? Support your opinion. 10. Students analyzed several samples of water and found the following data: Sample Site Type of Water Fecal Coliforms Number per 100 mL 1 Well water 4 colonies 2 Lake water 2800 colonies 3 River water 1250 colonies 4 City water 3 colonies 5 Lake water 120 colonies 6 River water 800 colonies aa.Based on the preceding test results, which sites have water that would be safe to drink? Explain. IL What might have caused the fecal coliform levels at each site? <:.What should be done with the two drinking-water supplies they sampled? 138 Dissolved Oxygen Homework Name: 1.In your own words, what is dissolved oxygen, and why is it important in aquatic habitats? :2.How does the solubility of gases in liquids change with shifts in temperature? 3.John and Angie went fishing one hot summer day. Angie I let her fishing line hang several meters deeper in the river than John. She caught her limit of fish, while he caught only one catfish. Offer a hypothesis as to why Angie caught more fish than John. How would you test to prove that hypothesis? ‘4.Explain how the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water at Bean Creek might affect the organisms living in the waterway. ES.Predict how the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water at Bean Creek might vary at different times I of the year. Explain your reasoning. I I 139 6. What might be done to improve the level of dissolved oxygen in the water at Bean Creek? 140 Guidelines for River Poster Board Objectives: Students will be able to access reliable Internet sites to locate information on streams. Students will be able to describe different chemical tests performed on streams. Students will be able to discuss the results of different tests performed on streams. Directions: Pick a stream or river you would like to study. It may be easier to pick a larger river that is well known so that data can be found. You need to find Internet sites that post water quality data on a particular river or stream. Write down the data of the tests that we have been studying in class for that river. Complete a water quality index sheet on the river to decide what the water quality is. Design a poster board explaining what you found using pictures, charts, words, and explanations. When designing your poster board you should take into consideration, color, size, layout, neatness, and organization. Everything on your poster board should be typed, and then pasted if need be. A hint for you is to look on the government websites of states. You may also want to look at the DNR websites. You will be required to give a 5-minute presentation covering your poster board. C) You may wish to include the location of your river. What kind of land surrounds the river? What is the river used for? Has it had a history of being polluted? What are people doing to regulate this river? As well as what the results to the water quality tests were, and what do they mean. You need to include a works cited page on the back of your poster. A listing of all websites that you took information from must be included for any credit. 00000 141 River of Your Dreams: A Collage To be accompanied with the water quality unit for Biology 1 at Addison High School. Taken from Rivers Curriculum Guide. Introduction Have you ever heard the expression that a picture speaks a thousand words? In this assignment you are going to get that chance. When you are trying to explain something or feelings to someone, often a picture works better than words. A collection of pictures may even be more effective than one picture. A collage is a collection of pictures and other materials, selected and arranged to present a message to the viewer. Over the course of this water quality unit you will construct a collage whose message relates to a river’s water quality, the organisms living in or along its banks, and the uses of rivers and streams by humans. In the early stages of your collage, you will need to decide what message you want to convey to others. Your message should involve each of the lessons you will study in the water quality unit, but it should not just be a unit summary or jumble of water and river pictures. In considering what message you want to communicate, you may want to consider the quality of the river site you are depicting. What living things can be found along or in that river? How are humans affecting the site either positively or negatively? What things are taking place at the site? What parameters affect the site the most? Do you hike or picnic along its shore? Is it used for your drinking water? Does treated sewage water end up there? What industries rely on the river? Decide what you want others to be aware of. You may want to consider the beauty of the river or stream; its value as habitat; its value to humans as a water supply, a source of transportation; its power and destructiveness in a flood; or the effects of such human actions as removal of vegetation from stream banks, construction of dams, drainage of wetlands, dredging, pollution, or overuse by industries or municipalities. Will it be a good river, a bad river, a river of the future, or a river of the past? 142 PROCEDURE .Decide on a general topic or theme. Write out the message you want to convey. List kinds of pictures you could use to convey that message. Decide if you will need to include other materials or verbal messages. Make sketches of possible arrangements. .After completing each lesson, add to your collage. Determine a message from that lesson that adds to the central theme. Your message should weave through the different lessons. As you select and gather materials, you may find pictures in magazines or at various water-related Internet sites. Drawings, even cartoons, might help. Each time you consider materials for you collage, ask yourself, How will this express my message? If you have no answer, look for different materials instead. .Collect your collage materials in a large envelope labeled with your name and class. Keep the envelope in the file cabinet with the rest of the classes. Do not attach materials to your board until you have covered several lessons. Especially, wait until you have made a trip or two to your Local River or stream. .Experiment with the sizes, shapes, and colors you have collected. Anticipate what you might want to add after upcoming lessons. The arrangement should be visually pleasing, with thought given to color, form, shape, and line. Balancing pictures, print, and white space contributes to the effectiveness of a collage. .When you are satisfied with your arrangement, attach the materials to the poster board. Include a title in the collage that represents your theme. The title can be included in the collage or added to the display as one would in an art gallery. .When your collage is completed, tape a sheet of paper on the back with your name, class, and date. Also write a paragraph that abstracts or summarizes your collage. Include responses to the instructions that follow. aa.Provide your name, and your theme or topic. IL Describe the message you wished to convey <:.Describe how you have used pictures to convey that message (i.Add any other information that will help the reader make more sense of the collage and better understand its message. 143 ._..___.__ “up... - I'L‘Or _ PERFORMANCE CRITERIA You have artistic freedom in your use of pictures, printed materials, and other items for your collage. Your grade will be based on whether you have followed the procedures described in this sheet. The successful collage will: 0 Feature a single message or theme throughout the collage. The message is evident through pictures and organization and may also be stated in print. 0 Contain materials representing each Water Quality Unit lesson studied. 0 Clearly demonstrate organization and planning. The collage is neatly constructed. 0 Reflect artistic considerations, such as use of color, space, balance, and line 0 Have an accompanying sheet containing complete responses to the instructions listed in step 6 of the student handout. Responses show insights into the use of a collage to present a message. 0 Be complemented by an oral presentation that emphasizes the message and the relationship of the different parts of the collage to the message. 144 APPENDIX D Scoring Rubrics 145 Scoring Rubric for Biological Field Proficiency Checklist SCORE EXPECTATIONS 1 Achieved only a few proficiencies, or many were not completed to required level. 2 Attempted each item, but most work reflects poor performance or inadequate attention to the activity and its completion 3 Achieved proficiency on each item, and work reflects average performance. Work demonstrates a limited understanding of laboratory procedures and concepts. Written conclusions are logical but weak or incomplete. 4 Achieved proficiency on each item, and work reflects excellent performance in all areas evaluated. Student has followed laboratory procedures and attempted to analyze data and draw conclusions. Observations and conclusions are logical, often including additional observations and measurements. Students helps others meet proficiency 5 Achieved proficiency on each item, and work reflects top student performance in all areas evaluated. Student understood lab procedures and used that to analyze data and draw conclusions. Work frequently includes additional observations, readings, and resources. Student helps others meet proficiency 146 Scoring Rubric for River of Your Dreams Collage SCORE EXPECTATIONS 0 No collage is completed A collage was started but is incomplete or shows no theme or message. A collage is completed and a theme or message used. Only a few of the lessons are represented by the collage. Questions are completed. A collage is completed and a theme or message used. Materials from most lessons were included and supported the theme. The summary report was completed and an understanding of the themes and ideas presented in the collage was shown. A collage is completed that conveys a theme or message using ideas from all the lessons. The display is neatly constructed and shows good use of space. Responses written in the summary or report show an understanding of the use of collages to relay a message. 147 Scoring Rubric for River Research Poster Board. SCORE EXPECTATIONS 0 No poster board is completed A poster board was started but is incomplete. A poster board is completed. Only a few of the water quality tests are represented by the poster board. A poster board is completed. Materials from most water quality tests were included. The summary report was completed and an understanding of the themes and ideas presented in the poster board was shown. A poster board is completed that conveys a theme or message using ideas from all the water quality tests. The display is neatly constructed and shows good use of space. Responses in the summary or report Show an understanding of the use of poster board to relay a message. 148 APPENDIX E Quizzes 149 PH and Temperature Quiz Name: Make the following conversions 10. 1. .If you had to calibrate the temperature probe, how .What are two factors that affect temperature in 45°F = °C 38.6°C = °F .What were the two buffers used to calibrate the pH probe? would you do it? streams? .What are two factors that affect pH in streams? .What does the CBL2 do with the data it collects for 10 seconds? .Was there a difference in temperature between the two streams? If so why would there be a difference? .How is the water supposed to be collected for the pH and temperature test? Draw and explain the pH scale. 150 Nitrate and Total Dissolved Solid Name: 1” List two sources of Nitrate ions. 2.Ibe concentration of nitrate ions is expressed in what units? I3.What was the nitrate level of Bean Creek? ‘4.What are the two forms of solids found in streams? £5.What probe was used to measure the total dissolved I solid? l EL Explain how you calibrated the probe for total dissolved solid. '7.List two sources of total dissolved solids. 8.Are nitrate levels usually higher in the spring or in the fall? Why? 151 Macro—Invertebrates Quiz Name: 1. Alderfly A.Simulidae 2. Dobsonfly B.Ttichoptera 3. Caddisfly (1 Nematocera 4. Mayfly I) Z 0 tera 5. Stonefly yg p E. Hirudinea 6. Crane fly _____:7. Black Fly Larvae F1 Ephemeroptera 8. Midge Cl Coleoptera :~j‘ _ a. _____9. Blood Worm Midge II Amphipoda _____10. Crayfish I. Plecoptera _____11. Sow bugs J. Sialidae _____12. Leech IQ Corydalidae _____13. Damselfly In Psephenidae _14 . Dragonfly M. Odonata ____15- Water Penny N. Platyhlminthes _____16. Planarians (l Isopoda _____17. Water Striders I! Decapoda _____18. Riffle Beetle (l Chironomidae 19. Scud ——___ IL Gerridae 152 Fecal Coliform and Total Solids Name: 1” List two sources of Fecal Coliform. 2.Idst two sources of Total Solids. 3. Is the amount of total solids higher in the spring or in the fall? Why? 4” Explain the process of measuring total solids. Be specific. 5.Idst the desired levels of fecal coliform in drinking water, swimming water, and boating or fishing water. EL How many coliforms were found in Bean Creek? (/100mL). 153 Chloride and Dissolved Oxygen Date: 1” Did Bean Creek have a high, low or average chloride level? 2. Did Bean Creek have a high, low or average D.O level? I3.What did you have to pipette into the tip of the D.O probe? ‘4.Draw a line graph showing the relationship between D.O and Temperature. 5.Idst two sources of Chloride ions in a stream. 6.1dst the major source of dissolved oxygen in a stream. '7.Explain how you calibrated the D.O probe. Be specific. £3.Why did you need to take a barometer reading before you performed your D.O test? 154 Name in g! ...' M‘k]. 0- ' .1 e I ‘I APPENDIX F Attitude Survey 155 Directions: Answer the following survey as truthfully as possible. There are no right or wrong answers and you will not be graded on this. I am looking for the overall attitude of biology students to science. Biology 1. Strange 1 2 3 4 5 Familiar 2. Good 1 2 3 4 5 Bad 3. Dull 1 2 3 4 5 Fun 4. Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 Boring 5. Easy 1 2 3 4 5 Difficult 6. Unimportant 1 2 3 4 5 Important 7. Career 1 2 3 4 5 Hobby Laboratory Activities 8. Strange 1 2 3 4 5 Familiar 9. Good 1 2 3 4 5 Bad 10.Dull l 2 3 4 5 Fun 11.Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 Boring 12.Easy 1 2 3 4 5 Difficult 13.Unimportant 1 2 3 4 5 Important 14.Dangerous 1 2 3 4 5 Safe Working in Teams to Solve Problems in Class 15.Strange 1 2 3 4 5 Familiar 16.Good 1 2 3 4 5 Bad 17.Dull 1 2 3 4 5 Fun 18.Difficult 1 2 3 4 5 Easy 19.Busy 1 2 3 4 5 Quiet 20.Unimportant 1 2 3 4 5 Important 21.Useful 1 2 3 4 5 Wastefull Scientific Method 22.Strange 1 2 3 4 5 Familiar 23.Good 1 2 3 4 5 Bad 24.Dull 1 2 3 4 5 Fun 25.Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 Boring 26.Easy 1 2 3 4 5 Difficult 27.Unimportant 1 2 3 4 5 Important 28.Useful 1 2 3 4 5 Unnecessary Water Testing 29.Strange 1 2 3 4 5 Familiar 30.Good 1 2 3 4 5 Bad 31.Important 1 2 3 4 5 Unimportant 32.Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 Boring 33.Easy 1 2 3 4 5 Difficult 156 34.Necessary Recycling 35. .Good .Dull .Interesting .Easy .Unimportant 36 37 38 39 40 Strange Local Rivers 41. .Beautiful 43. .Drinkable .Uninhabited 42 44 45 Polluted Important Cell Biology 46. 47. .Easy .Dull .Strange 48 49 50 Ecology 51. 52. .Easy .Dull .Strange 53 54 55 Important Interesting Important Interesting DNA/Genetics 56. 57. .Easy .Dull .Strange 58 59 60 Important Interesting F’P‘H H H H H H H H IAIAIAIAPJ HIH H H H H H H HHI—I NMNNM MNNNN MNMNN NNNNNN MMMNM 00000 00000 00000 000000 00000 157 Ibbblblbrb lbsblbrblb lbmblblbib rbrblbrbvbsh rbvbi-brblb U'IU'IU'IU'1U1 U1U'IU1U'IU'1 U'IU'IUTUTU'I U'IU'IU'IU'IUTU'I U‘IUTU'IUTUT Unnecessary Familiar Bad Fun Boring Difficult Important Clean Ugly Unimportant Undrinkable Inhabited Unimportant Boring Difficult Fun Familiar Unimportant Boring Difficult Fun Familiar Unimportant Boring Difficult Fun Familiar References Adamson, G.E., J.R. Zimmerman, and M.B. Nakhleh. 1997. A Computer - Interfaced O2 Probe: Instructions for Understanding Graduate Chemistry Laboratories. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching. 16(4): 513—525. Ambruso, Mark D. 2003 Challenging Students With Experiments: Incorporating Scientific Investigations In The Busy Classroom. The Science Teacher. 70(1): 40—43. Banet E. and Ayuso, E. 2000. Teaching Genetics at Secondary School: A Strategy for Teaching About The Location of Inheritance Information. Science Education, 84(3): 313-343. Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS). 1987. Biological Science: An Ecological Approach. (Green Version). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt Publishing Co. Bonwell, Charles C. and James A. Eison (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. www.gwu.edu/~eriche. Buckley, R.B. (1995). What Happens When Funding is Not an Issue? Educational Leadership, 53, 64-66. Buckley, D. (2003). Science and Technology: A Workshop Technology and Learning. Dayton September 2003. Cavallo, A.M.I. And Shafer, L.E. 1994. Relationships Betweeen Students’ Meaningful Learning Orientation and Their Understanding In Genetics Topics. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 31, 393 — 418. Coley, R.J. 1997. Technology’s Impact: A new Study Shows The Effectiveness - and — Limitations of School Technology. www.electronic-school.com September Davies, Mark Teaching Biology: Time to Evolve a New Style. Journal of Biological Education. 19(winter 1985) 158 4,...) 257-58. Driver, R., Asoko, H., Leach. J., Mortimer, E. and Scott, P 1994. Constructing Scientific Knowledge in the Classroom. Educational Researcher, 23(7): 5-12. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. 2002. Modern Biology. Holt, Texas: Holt Rinehart and Winston. Jensen, M.S. 1998. Finding a Place for the Computer in the Introductory Biology Laboratory. Journal of College Science Teaching 27(4): 247-249. Marcum—Dietrich, N. and D. Ford 2003. The Tools of Science Using Probeware to Enhance Students Laboratory Experiences. The Science Teacher. February 2003 70(2): 49-51. National Research Council (NRC). 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. Pederson, J.E. and R.K. Yerrick. 2000. Technology in Science Teacher Education: A Survey of Current Uses And Desired Knowledge Among Science Educators. Journal of Science Teacher Education. 11(2): 131-53. Salomon, G. (1992). New Challenges For Educational Research: Studying the Individual Within Learning Environments. Scandinavian Journal of Education, 36 167-182. Smith, G.R., J.A. Dilts, P.W. Garbrielson, D.P. Heruth, J.E. Rettig, and A.F. Strautman. 1999. Using Laptops in the Biology Classroom and Laboratory. Bioscene 25(3): 11-12 Strommen F, and Lincold, B (1992). A Framework for Educational Constructivism. Http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/k12/docs/construct.html Trumper, R. and M. Gelbman. 2000. Investigating Electromagnetic Induction Through a Microcomputer — Based Laboratory. Physics Education. 35(2): 90—95. 159 Viadero D. 1997. A Tool For Learning. Education Week. www.edweek.org/sreports/tc/class/cl—n.htm Weller, H.G. 1996. Assessing the Impact of Computer Based Learning in Science. Journal of Research on Computing in Education. 28(4): 461-485. 160 IEE' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIILIIIIIIIIII