INTRAPLATE VOLCANISM OF THE WESTERN PACIFIC: NEW INSIGHTS
FROM GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS IN THE
PIGAFETTA BASIN
By
Timothy J. Stadler

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Geological Sciences – Master of Science
2015

ABSTRACT

INTRAPLATE VOLCANISM OF THE WESTERN PACIFIC: NEW INSIGHTS
FROM GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS IN THE
PIGAFETTA BASIN
By
Timothy J. Stadler
Understanding intraplate volcanism is a key to deciphering the Earth’s magmatic history.
One of the largest intraplate volcanic events occurred during the mid Cretaceous, roughly 75 to
125 Ma in the western Pacific. To investigate the origin and effects of this volcanism on various
Earth systems, we present the first comprehensive study of volcanism in the Pigafetta Basin
using seismic surveys, magnetic and gravity modeling, and Ocean Drilling Program drill core
and well log data from Site 801. Our results show that intraplate volcanism in the Pigafetta Basin
coincides with the rest of the western Pacific, supporting the plumelets scenario for the origin of
intraplate volcanism during the mid Cretaceous volcanic event. We also discover that the late
stage volcanism does not overprint the original ocean crust in the Pigafetta Basin, and hence,
marine magnetic anomalies recorded in the Jurassic basement are preserved. Also, the formerly
identified Rough Smooth Boundary (RSB) is indistinguishable from any other rough-smooth
topographic boundaries throughout the survey area suggesting that the RSB is unlikely to be a
Cretaceous sill-Jurassic basement boundary. Lastly, the apparent ages and spatial distribution of
volcanic features suggests a dynamic history of hydrothermal circulation in the Pigafetta Basin,
indicating that hydrothermal circulation was ongoing well past 100 Ma.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the Japan Coast Guard Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department for seismic
survey MTr5 data. Data from seismic surveys FM35-12 and MESOPAC II are publically
available from the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics Academic Seismic Portal. Ocean
Drilling Program Site 801 well logs and core information is publically available from the
International Ocean Discovery Program Log database.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES.………………………………………………………………………………..v
LIST OF FIGURES.……………………………………………………………………………...vi
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………………vii
1. Introduction.………..…………………………………………………………………………..1
2. Background…………………………………………………………………………………….4
2.1 Tectonic and volcanic history of the Pacific plate………..………………………..…….4
2.2 Ocean Drilling Results…..……………………………………………………………….6
2.3 Seismic Surveys of the Pigafetta Basin…………………………………………………..7
3. Methods...…………………………………………………………………………………….....9
3.1 Seismic Data...………………………………………………………………………........9
3.2 Seismic Interpretation…………………………………………………………………….9
3.3 Gravity model……………………………………………………………………….......11
3.4 Magnetic model……………………………………………………………………........12
4. Results...……………………………………………………………………………………….14
4.1 Volcanic features...…………………………………………………………….…….….14
4.2 Moho topography and crustal structure from gravity modeling…………………….......16
4.3 Magnetic anomaly modeling...…………………………………………………….……17
5. Discussion...…………………………………………………………………………………...18
5.1 Mid Cretaceous late stage intraplate volcanism………………………………………...18
5.2 Volcanic overprint or not? The survival of Jurassic basement………………………….23
5.3 Possible implications of intraplate volcanism as a source of magnetic overprint in the
JQZ………………………………………………………………………………….24
5.4 Implications for hydrothermal circulation from intraplate volcanic features…………..25
6. Conclusions…..………………………………………………………………………………..28
APPENDIX.…….…..…………………………………………………………………………....30
REFERENCES.………………………………………………………………………………….32

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Available data processing and acquisition parameters.……………………………….....8
Table 2: Volcanic feature data……………...……………………………………………………31

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Map of western Pacific………………………………………………………………….2
Figure 2 Map of the Pigafetta Basin…………...………………………………...………………..5
Figure 3: Summary of seismic stratigraphy at Site 801.…………………………………………10
Figure 4a: MTr5.……………………………………………………………………………...….13
Figure 4b:MESOPAC II Line……………………………..……………………………………..15
Figure 4c: FM35-12 Lines 10b1-10c…………………………………………...………………..16
Figure 4d: FM35-12 Lines 12a2-12a4…………………………………………..……………….17
Figure 4e: FM35-12 Lines 9c-9d2…………………………………………..…….……………..19
Figure 5: Map showing distribution of volcanic features across the Pigafetta Basin……………20
Figure 6: Volcanic feature data………………...………………………………………………...21
Figure 7: Size-frequency comparison plot……………………………………………………….22
Figure 8: Magnetic model………………………………………………………………………..25

vi

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS

ODP – Ocean Drilling Program
RSB – Rough Smooth Boundary
VSDZ – vertical seismic disturbance zone
MOR – mid ocean ridge
JQZ – Jurassic Quiet Zone
LAZ – Low amplitude zone
Ma – mega-annum, million years
mbsf – meters below sea floor
TWT – two way travel time
m – meters
km – kilometers
sec – seconds
msec - millisecond
MCS – multichannel seismic
in – inches
m/s – meters per second – unit of velocity
A/m – Ampere per meter – unit of Magnetic field strength
g/cm3 – grams per cubic centimeter – unit of Density
g/API – grams per American Petroleum Institute units – measure of radioactivity in a rock
mGal – milliGal – unit of acceleration due to gravity
ohm m – ohm per meter – unit of resistivity

vii

km/s – kilometers per second – unit of velocity
Vp – P-wave velocity
IGRF11 = International Geomagnetic Reference Field Model 2011
N – North
S – South
E – East
W – West
Ar – Argon
nT – nano Tesla – unit of magnetic field measurement

viii

1. Introduction
Understanding intraplate volcanism is a key to deciphering the Earth’s magmatic history.
Intraplate volcanism has been globally observed in both terrestrial [e.g. Morgan, 1971; Crisp,
1984; Nicholson and Shirey, 1990] and marine settings [e.g. Wilson, 1963; Wessel, 1997;
Clouard and Bonneville, 2001] and has been linked to a series of events throughout Earth’s
history including mass extinctions [Rampino and Stothers, 1988; Stothers, 1993], global sea
level transgressions [Schlanger et al., 1981], and oceanic anoxic events [Jenkyns, 1980; Jones
and Jenkyns, 2001].
Seafloor, hosting global lithosphere-hydrosphere-atmosphere interactions, forms at mid
ocean ridges (MOR’s) and covers roughly 70 percent of the Earth’s surface [Showman and
Dowling, 2014]. The Pacific seafloor, covering approximately 50% of the world’s ocean basins
[e.g. Longhurst, 2007], is marked by numerous intraplate volcanic features such as large oceanic
plateaus [e.g. Coffin and Eldholm, 1994], seamounts [e.g. Menard, 1964; Heezen et al., 1973],
and deep-sea sills/flows [e.g. Larson and Schlanger, 1981; Schlanger and Moberly, 1986].
Volcanic activity and crustal emplacement mechanisms, including seamounts, at on- and off-axis
regions of MORs have been extensively studied [e.g. Hess, 1962; Vine, 1966; Haymon et al.,
1991; Haymon et al., 1993; Carbotte et al., 1994; Hooft et al., 1996 Fornari et al., 1998;
Curewitz and Karson, 1998; Chadwick and Embley, 1998;]; however, the origin and implications
of intraplate volcanism is in debate because of the great extent of these volcanic features [cf.
Larson and Schlanger, 1981; McNutt et al., 1990; Wessel, 1997; Koppers et al., 2001; Koppers
et al., 2003a, Korenaga, 2005].
The Pigafetta Basin, one of the oldest portions of the Pacific plate, is a NW-SE trending
deep-sea basin located approximately 700 km east of the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific

1

Ocean (Figure 1). The Pigafetta Basin has a nominal water depth of ~5800 m and is marked by
Mesozoic sequence Japanese magnetic lineations [e.g. Handschumacher et al., 1988; Nakanishi
2

et al., 1989] where Chron M42 has been dated at 167 Ma [Pringle, 1992; Koppers et al., 2003b].
Although surrounded by the Marcus-Wake and Magellan Seamount chains as a result of
Cretaceous supervolcanism [i.e. Larson, 1991], seafloor in the Pigafetta Basin appears to be little
disturbed by the Cretaceous volcanism, allowing the basin to be extensively used as a corridor
for research on the early history of Pacific plate evolution.
Over the past few decades, a series of research efforts, including seismic surveys [Ewing et
al., 1968; Abrams et al., 1992, 1993], marine magnetic surveys [Handschumacher et al., 1988;
Sager et al., 1998; Tivey et al., 2006; Tominaga et al., 2008], and Ocean Drilling Program (ODP)
Legs (129 and 185), [Lancelot et al., 1990b, Plank et al., 2000] have investigated the formation
and evolution of the Pigafetta Basin. Despite these efforts, an important line of observations has
been lacking to understand the origin of late-stage volcanism that shaped the Pigafetta Basin, its
effects on the original Jurassic seafloor, and its implications on intraplate volcanism in the
western Pacific.
To address these questions, we carried out a detailed, systematic investigation of volcanic
features in the Pigafetta Basin by integrating three multichannel seismic reflection survey
datasets, drill core and wireline logging data from ODP Site 801, satellite gravity data, and sea
surface level magnetic anomalies.

3

2. Background
2.1. Tectonic and volcanic history of the Pacific plate
The Pacific plate was formed at the Phoenix-Izanagi-Farallon triple junction in the Mid
Jurassic (175 - 180 Ma) as a consequence of the break up of the last supercontinent Pangaea
[Nakanishi et al., 1989; Coffin et al., 2000; Bartolini and Larson, 2001]. Three magnetic
lineation sets, the Japanese, Hawaiian, and Phoenix, outline this early tectonic evolution of the
Pacific plate as it expanded from the triple junction system and moved northwards to its present
location (Figure 1) [Larson and Chase, 1972; Hilde et al., 1976; Woods and Davies, 1982;
Nakanishi et al., 1992]. Chron M29 [Cande et al., 1978; Kent and Gradstein, 1985; Channell et
al., 1995], currently dated at 157 Ma [Gradstein et al., 1994, 2012], is the oldest, widely
accepted coherent magnetic lineation in all three lineation sets of the western Pacific (Figure 1).
Prior to Chron M29, the validity of magnetic anomalies remains in debate due to the Jurassic
Magnetic Quiet Zone (JQZ), a region of ocean crust with low amplitude, short wavelength,
difficult to correlate magnetic anomalies [Heirtzler and Hayes, 1967; Taylor et al., 1968; Emery
et al., 1970; Larson and Pitman, 1972; Hayes and Rabinowitz, 1975; Barrett and Keen, 1976;
Hilde et al., 1976; Cande et al., 1978; Handschumacher et al., 1988; Sager et al., 1998; Tivey et
al., 2006; Tominaga et al., 2008].
Widespread intra-plate volcanic features mark the western Pacific seafloor, including the
Mid Pacific Mountains [e.g. Hamilton, 1956], Marshall-Gilbert Islands [e.g. Morgan, 1972],
Magellan Seamounts [e.g. Smith et al., 1989], and Marcus-Wake Seamounts [Heezen et al.,
1973] (Figure 1). The style of magmatism that emplaced these widespread volcanic features has
been extensively discussed. The nonsystematic spatial and age distributions [e.g. Larson, 1991;
Winterer et al., 1993; Koppers et al., 2003a] of these volcanic features suggest the existence of a

4

A.

M33

Ocean Drilling
Sites
Mtr5

800
M38

MESOPAC II

Marcus Wake
Seamounts

M40

FM35-12
Japanese MLineations
Magnetic
Anomalies

M42
801

gh
Rou
M44 Smooth

777

Magellan
Seamounts
Depth (m)
Distance (km)

585
-8000

-4000

-6000

199

0

-2000

0
0

250
250

125
125

B.
~102.10Ma
~96.7 Ma

0

87-81 Ma0

0

0

0

~103.4 Ma

0

~100 Ma

100

~74 Ma
0

0

0

0

100

0

0

103-92 Ma

0

0

100

0

0

0
0

100

0

-100

0

~102.3 Ma

0

80

0

0

0

Free Air Gravity Anomaly (mGal)
100

200

0

0
10

92-90 Ma

0

300

Figure 2: Map of the Pigafetta Basin. A. Bathymetry map of the Pigafetta Basin showing seismic surveys, magnetic anomalies,
magnetic lineations, ODP Site 801, and location of Rough Smooth Boundary (RSB). B. Free air gravity map of Pigafetta Basin
with 10 mGal contours and radiometric age dates of seamounts. Seamount age data from Ozima et al., [1983] and Koppers et al.,
[2003a], bathymetry from Ryan et al., [2009], gravity data from Sandwell et al., [2014 grid v. 23.1].

contemporaneous volumetrically large magma source under the western Pacific. Absolute
40

Ar/39Ar dating of seamounts in the Marcus-Wake and Magellan Seamount chains yields ages
5

ranging from 75-125 Ma [e.g. Ozima et al., 1984; Clouard and Bonneville, 2004]. The Pigafetta
Basin, compared to the surrounding seamount provinces, however, shows minimal volcanic
features on its seafloor. Previous studies have suggested that late stage volcanic features
dominantly emerge as deep-sea sills and flows in this basin [Abrams et al., 1993].
The numerous intraplate volcanic features in the western Pacific have casted a shadow on
the authenticity of the geological signature recorded within the original Jurassic seafloor and
therefore on the JQZ magnetic anomalies [Kent and Gradstein, 1985; Lancelot et al., 1990;
Tominaga et al., 2008]. In the Pigafetta Basin, continued research on marine magnetic anomalies
using high-resolution, near source survey approaches have provided correlatable low amplitude
anomalies back to M44 (~170 Ma) [Sager et al., 1998; Tivey et al., 2006; Tominaga et al., 2008].
A region of extremely low amplitude anomalies, namely the Low Amplitude Zone (LAZ) [Tivey
et al., 2006; Tominaga et al., 2008], was revealed in the course of their effort. Whether the
anomalies in the JQZ and LAZ are of geomagnetic field origin or Cretaceous volcanic overprint
remains in debate [Kent and Gradstein, 1985; Lancelot et al., 1990; Tominaga et al., 2008].

2.2 Ocean Drilling Results
ODP Hole 801C is located at 18° 38.538’N 156° 21.588’E in the Pigafetta Basin (Figure 2).
Drilling and coring was initiated during ODP Leg 129 [Lancelot et al., 1990a; Lancelot et al.,
1990b] and deepened during ODP Leg 185 [Plank et al., 2000]. A total of 461.6 and 474 m of
sediment and basement sequences were cored, respectively, providing details about
sedimentation history [Behl and Smith, 1992; Karpoff, 1992; Ogg et al., 1992], basement ages
[Pringle, 1992], and ocean crust formation and evolution [Castillo et al., 1992; Floyd and
Castillo, 1992; Alt and Teagle, 1999]. Core samples at 801C from ODP Leg 185 yielded high-

6

resolution

40

Ar/39Ar dating of basement rocks at Hole 801C (167.4 ± 1.4/3.4 Ma,

internal/absolute error) [Koppers et al. 2003b].
Wireline logging operations at Hole 801B and 801C were conducted during ODP Legs 129,
144 and 185 (Figure 3) [Lancelot et al., 1990b; Premoli Silva et al., 1993; Plank et al., 2000].
The logging data covers from ~60 - 450 meters below sea floor (mbsf) and ~470 – 850 mbsf but
does not cover the sediment-basement interface. Downhole lithofacies analyses documented the
crustal formation at a fast spreading ridge [Pockalny and Larson, 2003], and revealed multiple
magnetic reversals in the oceanic basement, suggesting a scenario that the low anomaly
amplitudes in the JQZ can be attributed to the superposition of oppositely magnetized blocks,
canceling directional magnetic signals [Steiner, 2001; Tivey et al., 2005].

2.3 Seismic Surveys of the Pigafetta Basin
The western Pacific sub-seafloor is composed of mainly red clay, siliceous oozes (chert and
radiolarite), volcaniclastic sediments, and volcanic basement [e.g. Winterer et al., 1971b;
Lancelot et al., 1990b]. Stratigraphy was established by a series of drilling expeditions [Heezen
et al., 1969a; Heezen et al., 1969b; Winterer et al., 1969; Winterer et al., 1971a; Winterer et al.,
1971b; Heezen et al., 1971a; Heezen et al., 1971b] and coring and logging results from Site 801
[Lancelot et al., 1990b] that ground-truthed early seismic surveys in the western Pacific [Ewing
et al., 1968]: (1) an upper transparent unit (to frequencies of 60-120Hz) (weakly reflective)
corresponding to pelagic clay, (2) an upper opaque layer (highly reflective and/or well stratified)
corresponding to chert, (3) a lower transparent layer corresponding to volcaniclastic turbidites
and radiolarite, and (4) basement (rough acoustic basement surface) corresponding to Jurassic to
early Cretaceous age ocean crust.

7

The seismic stratigraphy of the Pigafetta Basin was further confirmed by two active source
seismic surveys, FM35-12 and MESOPAC II. Abrams et al. [1993] used profiles from both
surveys to map the extent of a volcanic sequence termed “Horizon B”. This reflector covers
much of the Pigafetta Basin and was interpreted to be Cretaceous sills overlying Jurassic
basement. They also pointed out a distinct change in acoustic basement topography, termed the
Rough Smooth Boundary (RSB) that may coincide with the edge of mid-Cretaceous sills in the
southeast Pigafetta Basin (Figure 2).
The Japan Coast Guard Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department conducted a seismic
reflection and refraction survey, MTr5, in the Pigafetta Basin in 2006 (Figure 2a) [Kaneda et al.
2010]. The MTr5 survey line extends from the Pigafetta Basin to two Marcus-Wake seamounts
providing a velocity model of the crust and suggesting a constant crustal thickness of 7.5 – 8 km
in the Pigafetta Basin.
Survey Name Survey
Year Acquired Length

V/H Resolution

FM35-12
1987

>1500
km

25 m/ 25 m

MESOPAC II
1989

~ 400
km

10 m/ 10 m

Mtr5
2006

~ 250
km

10 m/ 10 m

Distance from
Source Size
Hole 801

Receiver No. of
Length channels

50 and 70 km Various Airguns
40.65 L volume
to N and S
average

3200 m

96

< 3 km N

4 to 6 1.3 L
waterguns
2 16 L aairguns

undoc

96

~ 25 km W

36 airguns,
132 L total
volume

6000 m

480

Table 1: Available data processing and acquisition parameters from Abrams et al. [1992], [1993], Kaneda et al. [2010],
and Shipley et al. [2012]

8

3. Methods
3.1 Seismic Data
To document volcanic features in the Pigafetta basin on a basinwide scale, we used 2D
multichannel seismic (MCS) reflection profiles from three surveys focusing on the region around
ODP Hole 801C (Figure 2): FM35-12, MESOPAC II [Shipley, 2012], and MTr5 [Kaneda et al.,
2010]. We used approximately 1500 km of profiles from survey FM35-12 outlining the edge of
the study area. We used one profile, approximately 400 km long, from MESOPAC II, which
crosses within 3 km of Hole 801C and intersects FM35-12 Line 11 at its northwest end. We also
used an approximately 250 km long profile from the southern end of MTr5 line, which intersects
FM35-12 profiles in two locations and MESOPAC II near Hole 801C (Figure 2). Although each
survey used different acquisition systems and data processing schemes, we could use the data
because our primary objective, to characterize volcanic features, was not hindered by any of the
survey parameters (Table 1).

3.2 Seismic Interpretation
To display the seismic lines for our interpretation, we used OpendTect v.4.6.0 software.
First, we generated a synthetic seismogram from ODP Hole 801C density (g/cm3) and P-wave
velocity (km/s) logs. Next, we correlated traces from the synthetic seismogram to acoustic
reflectors where the MESOPAC II survey line crosses the ODP Hole 801C location, and
extrapolated the correlation across the MESOPAC II profile (Figure 4b). Lastly, we extrapolated
the interpretation to MrT5 and FM35-12 survey profiles using the log-reflector correlation where
the lines intersected with the MESOPAC II survey (Figure 2).

9

Depth
(mbsf) Synthetic
trace
0

Resistivity
Hole Diameter Bulk Density Gamma
Vp (km/s)
(ohm-m)
(g/cm3)
(in)
ray (g/API)
104 0 2 4 6 8
2
50 100100
40
10 20 0
0

Vo
l.
se
d

C

he

rt

C

la

y

Site 801

100

200

dio

lari

te

300

Ra

400

500

Basa

ltic b

asem

en t

C

lay

600

700

800

Figure 3: Summary of seismic stratigraphy at Site 801 showing correlations from MESOPAC II line with synthetic seismogram, unit thicknesses, and well logs. Dashed lines show correlation, cyan line corresponds to clay, chert
boundary, and magenta line corresponds to chert, volcaniclastic boundary. Green line corresponds to volcaniclastic, radiolarite boundary, and blue corresponds to sediment, basement interface. This correlation was basis for
seismic interpretation of Pigafetta Basin. Logging data taken from ODP well log database. Logs taken in upper
450 m from Leg 129 Hole 801B, and logs taken in lower 450 m from Leg 185 Hole 801C.

We assigned ages to sedimentary reflectors using biostratigraphic and radiometric ages
recovered from Hole 801C core data [Lancelot et al., 1990b]: an age of 72 Ma (CampanianMaastrichtian boundary) to the top of the upper opaque unit (chert horizon); an age of 93.9 Ma to
the top of the upper transparent unit; and an age of 113 Ma to the top of the lower transparent
unit. Basement age at Hole 801C is ~167.5 Ma [Koppers et al., 2003b].

10

We mapped inferred Horizon B-Jurassic basement boundaries based on Abrams et al. [1993]
interpretation to be consistent with refraction data, and accepted a middle Cretaceous age to
Horizon B (assigned by Abrams et al. [1993]).
In addition to the seafloor, major sedimentary unit reflectors, and acoustic basement, we
identified three types of volcanic features: seamounts, vertical seismic disturbance zones
(VSDZs), and sills. We assigned an apparent age to each volcanic feature based on their
crosscutting relationships with the sedimentary reflectors with assigned ages as described above.
We determined the height of seamounts from the seafloor, converting the difference in travel
time to meters by using a constant velocity of 1500 m/s in the water column. We determined the
width of features by calculating the distance in between each trace in the profile. We determined
the height of VSDZs by measuring the distance from acoustic basement to the top of the feature
in the sediment packet, assigning a constant velocity to the sediment packet of 2 km/s from
Abrams et al. [1992], and Hole 801B and 801C data [Lancelot et al., 1990b].

3.3 Gravity model
To obtain a model of crustal structure and depth to Moho in the Pigafetta Basin, we
conducted forward gravity modeling along each seismic line (Figure 4). We extracted observed
gravity profiles from the global satellite gravity anomaly map by Sandwell et al. [2014] v. 23.1.
We exported horizons from our seismic lines to constrain the upper crust and sedimentary
sequence thicknesses. Only survey MTr5 imaged the Moho (Figure 4a), allowing us to place a
plausible estimate on the depth (~13.5 km) and topography of the Moho throughout the other two
seismic survey profiles.

11

Modeled gravity anomalies were calculated using Parker [1973] Fourier transformation
approach. We assigned densities and thickness of layers from Hole 801C data and a crustal
density of 2.67 g/cm3 [e.g. Oikawa and Kaneda, 2007] and 3.3 g/cm3 for the upper mantle
[Kaneda et al., 2010]. We assigned a constant density for layer 2 and 3 because: (1) the layer 2/3
boundary is unclear in the Pigafetta Basin (seismic velocity analysis from Kaneda et al., [2010]
and predictions based on spreading rate by Purdy et al., [1992] disagree by > 1 km), and (2) a
density contrast between upper and lower crust in the Pigafetta Basin creates unreasonable
anomalies and geologic implications that do not match similar gravity models [e.g. ContrerasReyes et al., 2010] (see Appendix Figure 1). A 4 km Gaussian filter was applied to smooth the
data before adjusting layer structure and thickness.

3.4 Magnetic model
To assess the effect of late stage volcanic overprint on in situ magnetization in the Jurassic
basement, we conducted forward magnetic modeling based on Parker [1973] Fourier
transformation approach. We first created a crustal model with three layers; Layer 1 - sediments,
Layer 2 – extrusive basalts, and Layer 3 – sheeted dikes, with magnetizations of 0.5 A/m, 2.0 to 2.0 A/m, and 1.0 A/m respectively [e.g. Pariso and Johnson, 1991] (Figure 8). We assigned a
thickness of 0.5 km for sediments, similar to Pigafetta Basin sediment thickness, 1.0 km for
Layer 2, and 1.0 km for Layer 3. We assigned a thickness of 1.0 km and magnetizations ranging
from 2.0 to -2.0 A/m for Layer 2 (the highly magnetized layer) [Sager et al., 1998; Tominaga et
al., 2008] (Figure 4b). We also assigned the paleo inclination and declination values based on
Larson and Sager [1992] and today’s inclination and declination values from IGRF11 model to
properly calculate skewed magnetic anomalies observable in the Pigafetta Basin. We used

12

polarity reversal block models with vertical polarity boundaries, at intervals of < 5 km up to 60
km. We emplaced VSDZs and sills extending from Layer 2 into the sedimentary layer and
assigned widths of 10 km to 80 m that are consistent with the dimensions of features we
documented in the seismic profiles in the Pigafetta Basin (Figure 8). An 8 km Gaussian filter was
applied to smooth the edge effects at the each polarity boundary.

13

4. Results
4.1 Volcanic features
We documented coherently observed volcanic features throughout all three seismic surveys
in the Pigafetta Basin and categorized these features into three groups based on their acoustic
attributes: (1) vertical seismic disturbance zones (VSDZs), (2) seamounts and (3) sills. A total of
55 volcanic features were identified, including 35 VSDZs, 17 seamounts, and 3 sills (Table 2,
Figure 6a).
We identified VSDZs as features that crosscut acoustic basement and are confined to the
subsurface with little effect (<50 m) on seafloor topography (Figure 4). Upward drag on both
edges and/or onlap of adjacent reflectors was also noted as attributes of VSDZs. Apparent ages
of VSDZs range from 72-113 Ma (Figure 6d), and apparent heights of VSDZs range from 165 to
435 m (Figure 6b). In survey MTr5 VSDZs were traced > 1 km into basement.
We classify a seamount as a vertically continuous seismic disturbance zone with a
topographic expression greater than 50 m above the seafloor (to match global data sets [i.e. Smith
and Cann, 1990; Wessel et al., 2010]). Seamounts are marked by upward drag on both edges
and/or onlap and crosscutting of adjacent reflectors. A total of 17 seamounts were covered in the
survey lines (Figures 5, 6a, and Table 2). Apparent ages range from 72-113 Ma (Fig. 6d).
Seamount heights range from 55 to 1600 m above the seafloor (one exception > 5000 m, named
Grand Pacific Seamount) (Figure 6c). A size-frequency distribution plot of seamounts in the
Pigafetta Basin appears to follow the power law relationship (Figure 7).
Sills are in general identified as saucer shape to flat, high amplitude, highly reflective intrasediment horizons flanked by a VSDZ on one or both sides [Planke et al., 2005; Hanson and
Cartwright, 2006; Polteau et al., 2008] while having little or no effect on seafloor topography.

14

We note three sills in our seismic profiles, apparent ages range from 93.9-113 Ma. Widths of the
sills range from 3 to 12 km (Table 2), and up-dip (~100 msec) is observed across horizons in
FM35-12 survey lines.
Apparent ages of these volcanic features in the Pigafetta basin range from 72-113 Ma
(Figure 6d), and the age distribution map (Figure 5a) shows no clear age linearity or progressions
on a basin wide scale. Spatial distribution of the features in the Pigafetta Basin appears to be also
nonsystematic (Figure 5a), showing no clear coherent pattern on a basin wide scale.

15

4.2 Moho topography and crustal structure from gravity modeling
Forward gravity modeling results (Figure 4) show an average crustal thickness of ~7.5 - 8
km consistent with seismic velocity analysis by Kaneda et al. [2010]. Large seamounts are
isostatically compensated by downward flexure of the Moho proportional to the seamount size
while smaller volcanic features (VSDZs and sills) have little effect on Moho depth. Moho depth
appears to be around 13.5 to 14 km below sea level, consistent with Kaneda et al. [2010]
observations.

16

4.3 Magnetic anomaly modeling
Results from our magnetic model show that the volcanic features produce a minimal (up to a
few nT), short wavelength effect on the overall magnetic anomaly that is not detectable when the
whole crust is taken into account. Late stage sills and VSDZs have almost no effect on the longer
wavelength anomalies produced by the crust (Figure 8).

17

5. Discussion
5.1 Mid Cretaceous late stage intra-plate volcanism
Early studies on the origin of intraplate volcanism in the western Pacific suggested that a
superplume, an anomalously large volume magma source, existed under the region during the
mid-Cretaceous [e.g. Menard, 1964; McNutt and Fisher, 1987; Larson, 1991; McNutt, 1998],
and emplaced various seamount provinces such as the Marcus-Wake [Van Waasbergen and
Winterer, 1993; Winterer et al., 1993], Magellan [Smith et al., 1989; Koppers et al., 1998], and
Mid Pacific Mountain seamount chains [e.g. Schlanger et al., 1981; Rea and Vallier, 1983]
(Figure 1 and 2). Koppers et al., [2003a] conducted absolute

40

Ar/39Ar age dating of igneous

basement samples from these ‘superplume’ seamount provinces to more closely define the
possible origin of volcanic emplacement, suggesting that these seamount provinces in the
western Pacific were formed by magmatic activities induced by multiple, closely spaced, shortlived ‘plumelets’ that stemmed from a main magma body, and that magmatic upwelling was
driven primarily by lithosphere weakening due to regional extension.
The evaluation of the age, size-frequency, and spatial distribution of volcanic features in the
Pigafetta Basin provides a key to further understand the origin of intraplate volcanism in the
western Pacific. Apparent ages of volcanic features in the Pigafetta Basin (Figure 6d) are
consistent with surrounding seamount provinces and the Cretaceous volcanic event in the
western Pacific [Rea and Vallier, 1983; Smith et al., 1989; Larson, 1991; Winterer et al., 1993;
Koppers et al., 2003a], indicating that the timing of volcanism in the Pigafetta Basin coincided
with volcanism of the surrounding mid Cretaceous seamount provinces.
Global-scale analyses of seamount size frequency distributions using both satellite gravity
[Wessel, 1997; Wessel and Lyons, 1997; Wessel, 2001; Wessel et al., 2010; Kim and Wessel,

18

2011] and shipboard bathymetry data [Jordan et al., 1983; Smith and Jordan, 1987; Smith and
Jordan, 1988; Hillier and Watts, 2007] have been conducted to reveal the nature of seafloor
volcanism, magma generation, and to predict the global population of seamounts, including the
seamount provinces in the western Pacific. The relationship between seamount populations and
height distributions can be described either by an exponential [e.g. Jordan et al., 1983; Smith and
Jordan, 1987] or power law [e.g. Wessel, 2001; Wessel et al., 2010] curve that provides a
prediction of the global population for smaller seamounts, for which ship tracks are not available
and the scale is beyond the resolution of satellite gravity data. The height distribution of volcanic
features in the Pigafetta Basin follows the smaller spectrum (<1km) of the globally predicted
seamount population curve (Figure 7), indicating that volcanism in the Pigafetta Basin represents

19

A.
100

0

0

0

0

0

0
100

VSDZ

0

0
Seamount

0

Sill
10

0
Free Air Gravity
Anomaly (mGal)
0
0

0

-100

100

200

0

0

300

B.
100

0

0

0

0

0

0
100

~72 Ma0
~93.9 Ma
~113 Ma

0

0
0
10

0

Free Air Gravity Anomaly (mGal)
0
-100

0

100
0

200

0

300

Figure 5: Map showing distribution of volcanic features across the Pigafetta Basin. A. Map showing spatial distribution of
volcanic features over the seismic profile lines in the Pigafetta Basin. Map is overlain on top of a free air gravity map with 25
mGal contours to show the lack of basinwide correlation between gravity anomalies and location of volcanic features. B. Map
showing apparent age distribution of volcanic features over the seismic profile lines in the Pigafetta Basin. Map is overlain on
top of a free air gravity map with 25mGal contours. Gravity data from Sandwell et al. [2014] grid v.23.1.

20

the smallest end-member of global seamount populations. This non-uniqueness suggests that the
source and emplacement mechanism of intraplate volcanism in the Pigafetta Basin should be
analogous to the western Pacific seamount population.
B.

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Number of Features

Number of Features

A.

VSDZ

Seamount

10
8
6
4
2
0

Sill

200

150

C.

D.

Number of Features

Number of Features

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

0

50-199

200-499

500-999

Apparent Height Bins (m)

300

400

350

25
Seamounts
VSDZ’s
Sills

20
15
10
5
0

1000-1999

250

Apparent Height (m)

Feature Type

72

93.9

Apparent Age (Ma)

113

Figure 6: Volcanic feature data. A. Histogram showing number versus type of features documented by seismic
profiles in the Pigafetta Basin. 35 VSDZ’s, 17 Seamounts (excluding Grand Pacific), and 3 sills. Faults were noted as
features crosscutting basement. B. Histogram showing height distribution of VSDZ’s. Height measured from acoustic
basement into sediment packet. C. Histogram showing height distribution of seamounts, height from seafloor. D.
Histogram showing apparent ages of volcanic features determined by crosscutting relationships.

The spatial distributions of volcanic features in the Pigafetta Basin show no lineation or
provincial assemblage; rather, their location of emplacement appears to be nonsystematic,
making it consistent with the general distribution of seamounts in the western Pacific [e.g.
Koppers et al., 2003a]. Together with similarity in the age range and size distributions, we
suggest that the volcanic features in the Pigafetta Basin can be attributed to intraplate volcanism
that emplaced the surrounding seamount provinces.
One might argue that the intraplate volcanism in the Pigafetta Basin could be induced by
mechanisms other than closely spaced “plumelets”, such as lithospheric cracking from

21

superplume uplift that associates with crustal deformation and thickening [e.g. McNutt et al.,
1990]. However, MTr5 shows no evidence of wholesale crustal deformation in the Pigafetta
Basin [Kaneda et al., 2010]. Furthermore, our gravity modeling results show a constant crustal
thickness in the Pigafetta Basin, suggesting little crustal thickening by excess magmatism
(Figure 4). Another possible scenario could be lithospheric cracking from differential plate
cooling that is manifested by evenly spaced cracks in the lithosphere and linear volcanic ridges
on the seafloor [e.g. Winterer and Sandwell, 1987; Searle et al., 1995; Lynch, 1999; Sandwell
and Fialko, 2004]. This mechanism is unlikely because the volcanic features do not appear along
distinct ridges throughout the Pigafetta Basin, and we do not see evidence for regular spacing of
lithosphere cracks in our seismic data.
108
10

Our data
Smith and Jordan,
1987 Shipboard data

10 6

Wessel et al., 2010

Number of Features

7

105
104
103
102
101
100
10 2

10 3
Apparent Height (m)

104

Figure 7: Size-frequency comparison plot. Log-log plot showing size frequency distribution of seamounts
in the Pigafetta Basin (red dots) compared to global satellite (green) [Wessel et al. 2010] and Pacific-wide
shipboard data (blue) [Smith and Jordan 1987]. Gray lines show correlation between seamounts < 1km
height in Pigafetta Basin versus global population trend.

22

Recent numerical modeling results of mantle plume behavior shows that lateral
offshoot/distribution of melt occurs in a variety of magmatic environments from on- and off-axis
MOR regions to intraplate settings, often resulting in volcanic emplacement events at regions up
to hundreds of km from the main conduit [e.g. Olson, 1990; Ribe and Christensen, 1994; Sleep,
1996; Sleep, 2008; Katz and Weatherly, 2012]. These results also augment the possible scenario
that an anomalously large magma body existed under the western Pacific in the mid Cretaceous,
feeding many smaller scale plumelets that spread laterally over the entire region and formed the
seamount provinces and volcanic features we observe in this study [e.g. Koppers et al., 2003a].

5.2 Volcanic overprint or not? The survival of Jurassic basement
In their original study of Cretaceous volcanic sequences in the Pigafetta Basin, Abrams et al.
[1993] pointed out a distinct change in reflection character of acoustic basement, transitioning
from a flat lying “smooth” to a higher relief “rough” surface, named the Rough Smooth
Boundary (RSB) (Figure 2). This topographic change in basement structure was interpreted to
mark the extent of widespread middle Cretaceous sills covering Jurassic crust, and was mapped
across the Pigafetta Basin according to its reflection characteristics [Abrams et al., 1993].
Our observation from MCS profiles over the Pigafetta Basin casts the interpretation of a
distinct RSB by Abrams et al. [1993] into question. Although we see a change in acoustic
basement reflection character throughout the Pigafetta Basin, the distribution of the transition
from rough to smooth is ubiquitous, making it difficult to construct a straightforward
interpretation on the unique RSB location for a few reasons. First, the RSB coincides with
volcanic features on the seismic profiles (Figures 4c and d); therefore we prefer to conclude that
the disruption of acoustic basement (and changing to “rough”) is probably a result of these

23

features instead of the edge of a widespread sill [Abrams et al., 1993]. In addition, according to
drilling results at Site 801, a Cretaceous sill would have intruded on top of >100 m of late
Jurassic-early Cretaceous sediments in the Pigafetta Basin. At the RSB, the acoustic basement
reflector appears to be continuous as it undergoes the topography change, indicating no existence
of a >100 m sediment blanket. We suggest that the RSB is one of many topographic changes
observed in the Pigafetta Basin, but does not uniquely define a sill-basement edge.

5.3 Possible implications of intra-plate volcanism as a source of magnetic overprint in the JQZ
The Jurassic Quiet Zone (JQZ) is Jurassic age oceanic crust where low amplitude, short
wavelength magnetic anomalies are difficult to correlate [Heirtzler and Hayes, 1967; Hayes and
Pittman, 1970; Vogt et al., 1971; Larson and Chase, 1972; Hayes and Rabinowitz, 1975]. The
JQZ has been most extensively studied in the Pigafetta Basin, where magnetic lineations have
been mapped by various survey approaches [Hayes and Pittman, 1970; Larson and Chase, 1972;
Larson and Pittman, 1972; Hilde et al., 1976; Cande et al., 1978; Handschumacher et al., 1988;
Sager et al., 1998; Tivey et al., 2006; Tominaga et al., 2008]. Although it has been extensively
investigated and anomaly correlations have pushed the Japanese lineations back to M44 the
cause of the low amplitude anomalies remains unclear. One possible suggestion is that late stage
magmatism could have overprinted the original magnetic signature of the ocean crust [Taylor et
al., 1968; Emery et al., 1970; Vogt et al., 1971; Barrett and Keen, 1976; Sager et al., 1998;
Tominaga et al., 2008].
The results from our seismic interpretation and potential field models show, however, that
there is no clear one to one correlation between (1) magnetic anomaly peaks and troughs versus

24

the location of sills and dikes, and (2) the decrease in magnetic anomaly amplitude (including the
LAZ) versus the location of a gravity anomaly or lithosphere thinning or thickening (Figure 4b).
Furthermore, our forward magnetic models show that VSDZs and sills have a minimal effect (up
to a few nT) on magnetic anomalies (Figure 8); hence, we suggest that the Cretaceous volcanic
features do not destroy the original magnetic signature of the ocean crust in the Pigafetta Basin,
and that the Cretaceous volcanism is not a cause of the systematic decrease in anomaly
amplitudes in the Jurassic Quiet Zone.

5.4 Implications for hydrothermal circulation from intra-plate volcanic features
Early lithosphere cooling models from heat flow experiments suggest that convective open
system hydrothermal circulation remains active between ocean crust and seawater up to ~ 65 Ma
after formation of the crust, after which the seafloor becomes sealed by increased sediment cover
25

with age and accumulation of precipitated minerals in pore spaces [Von Herzen and Uyeda,
1963; Anderson et al., 1977; Stein and Stein, 1994]. At a local scale, on the other hand,
seamounts and basement outcrops have been noted to concentrate heat and fluid flow and guide
hydrothermal recharge and discharge at mid ocean ridge flanks [e.g. Fisher et al., 2003; Hutnak
et al., 2008] and deep sea abyssal plains [e.g. Embley et al., 1983; Noel and Hounslow, 1988] in
crust up to 106 Ma [e.g. Noel and Hounslow, 1988]. Furthermore, recent models of hydrothermal
circulation in oceanic basement coupled with heat flow measurements and seismic data indicate
that convective hydrothermal circulation can continue is ocean crust up to tens of millions of
years after the 65 Ma mark where basement topography is variable [e.g. Von Herzen, 2004;
Fisher and von Herzen, 2005].
The volcanic features we observe in this study suggest a dynamic history of localized
hydrothermal exchange from seafloor into deeper ocean crust in the Pigafetta Basin. The ages of
widespread seamounts and subsurface intrusions in the Pigafetta Basin falls during the midCretaceous (70-120 Ma), in ocean crust roughly 50 to 100 million years old. Carbonate
precipitation in the crust can still be ongoing [Alt and Teagle, 1999], suggesting that at least
closed system circulation is active in the Pigafetta Basin today. For facilitating possible open
system hydrothermal circulation, ODP Hole 801C coring and wireline logging results showed
that the upper basement is still highly permeable [Larson et al., 1993]. The presence of
seamounts and thinly sedimented intrusions observed as VSDZs in the Pigafetta Basin further
indicate active open system hydrothermal circulation. Active open system hydrothermal
circulation in ocean crust has also been recognized by (1) the presence of ‘pits’ in sediment
above basement highs and faults [Moore et al., 2007], and (2) varying sedimentation patterns
affected by abyssal hills and multiple generations of faults in the sediment package [Tominaga et

26

al., 2011]. In this study we observe similar features to those noted by Moore et al., [2007] above
a few of the subsurface intrusions (ex. Line 10c, 10b1, and 12a4). We also note many faults in
basement and sediments (Table 2), and sediment focusing between basement highs and lows,
where basins have high sediment cover, and intrusions and seamounts have low sediment cover
(Figure 4 all). The presence of these basement outcrops in the Pigafetta Basin indicates that on a
local scale, the sediment packet does not seal the ocean crust, and that open system hydrothermal
circulation could be active in ocean crust up to and possibly greater than 100 million years after
its formation.

27

6. Conclusions
We derive the following conclusions in this study.
(1) The age, spatial, and size frequency distribution of volcanic features across the basin
suggests that volcanism in the Pigafetta Basin coincided with that of the surrounding western
Pacific mid-Cretaceous volcanic event and was emplaced in a similar style. Along with recent
improvements to our understanding of plume behavior and lithosphere thickness, our results
support the previously suggested scenario that multiple closely spaced, contemporaneous
plumelets, fed by a deeper magmatic source, spread out under the western Pacific in the mid
Cretaceous and emplaced the surrounding seamount provinces and smaller scale volcanic
features we observe in the Pigafetta Basin [Koppers et al., 2003a].
(2) The origin of the RSB in the Pigafetta Basin is in debate. We suggest that the RSB is
more likely caused by volcanic disruption of the basement, a phenomena seen ubiquitously
across the Pigafetta Basin, and that the RSB does not uniquely define a specific sill-basement
edge.
(3) The subsurface volcanic structure in the Pigafetta Basin suggests that small-scale
volcanic features disrupt basement on a local scale throughout the basin; however, forward
magnetic modeling shows that the volcanic features are too small to disrupt the overall magnetic
signature of the crust in the Pigafetta Basin. Therefore, there is no late stage magmatic overprint
caused by intraplate volcanism in the Pigafetta Basin, suggesting that low-amplitude marine
magnetic anomalies have a geomagnetic field origin in the Jurassic.
(4) The timing of volcanism suggests that on a local scale, open system hydrothermal
circulation was reactivated in the Pigafetta Basin when the crust was 50 – 100 Ma old. Although
we have no data to suggest that active hydrothermal circulation is ongoing, the presence of small

28

seamounts, subsurface intrusions, and rough basement topography in the Pigafetta basin suggests
that open hydrothermal circulation could have existed in the Pigafetta Basin in crust well past
100 Ma.

29

APPENDIX

30

Type
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
1

Longitude
154.1583
154.4025
154.7386
154.8517
154.9736
155.3556
155.4503
155.6339
155.7583
155.9369
156.1428
156.5514
156.6347
157.8889
157.9583
158.2144
158.2417
158.5986
158.8517
159.3136
159.3519
158.9669
157.7869
157.5111
157.2783
157.0969
156.7319
155.5497
156.0275
155.8175
154.7947
154.4342
153.7394
154.9431
155.2672
156.3078
156.4836
156.5767
156.6486
156.7631
156.9397
155.859
155.8814
155.9095
156.0333
156.0418
156.0632
156.0877
156.0735
156.0845
156.1495
156.162
156..1709
156.1701
156.2867
156.3369

Latitude
20.2139
20.0417
19.8042
19.7244
19.6381
19.3686
19.3022
19.1753
19.0894
18.9658
18.8236
18.5447
18.485
14.5956
14.6758
14.9494
14.9739
15.4053
15.7458
16.3869
17.0308
17.3061
18.2056
18.3889
18.5431
18.6614
18.9858
19.6958
19.4356
19.5619
20.3136
20.5714
19.9297
18.9
18.6422
17.8858
17.7506
17.6844
17.6358
17.5742
17.4408
17.5845
17.7179
17.7923
18.4383
18.472
18.5046
18.5374
18.5824
18.6404
18.9047
18.9363
18.9888
19.06
19.4552
19.6561

Apparent Age (Ma)
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
72
93.9
72
93.9
72
93.9
113
72
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
72
93.9
72
93.9
93.9
93.9
72
113
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
72
93.9
72
72
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
72
72
93.9
72
113
72
72
93.9
72
93.9
113
93.9
93.9
113
113

Apparent Height (m)
400
450
350
300
60
400
350
400
375
610
55
90
350
350
200
120
325
700
410
200
250
215
300
250
275
275
400
80
100
NaN
200
400
5000
285
1600
1050
275
275
275
NaN
145
240
365
200
375
150
400
325
350
400
200
NaN
350
80
200
300

Table 2: Volcanic feature data. 1 = VSDZ, 2 = Seamount, 3 = Sill

31

Line
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
mp2-06
9c
9c
9c
9c
9d1
9d1
9d2
10
10
10b1
10b1
10b1
10b2
10b2
10b3
10b3
10b3
10c
10c
11
12a2
12a2
12a3
12a4
12a4
12a4
12a4
12a4
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5
Mtr5

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32

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