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a . . ‘ , ..,. , V , ‘ ,
. .. . . ‘ . .1 . . . , ,
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_ , . .,. , , ,

 

 

This is to certify that the
dissertation entitled

identifying Correlates of Urban “At Risk” College
Freshman’s Life Style Decision:
A Study of the lmpact of Racial Identity, Vocational Identity,
Psychological Adiustment, and Coping Styles
On Decision Making

presented by

Martin Fitzgerald Hill

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

\leC-L— degree in CounselingfimL—

 

 

 

 

MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

---_--.—-—-‘""

A

. ”3. WWW l
Machigan State
University

 

 

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout fro rn your record.
To AVOID FINES return on or before date due.

MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

L DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE
5 t) 5 ‘
m 2 4 2005
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6/01 cJClRC/DateDuepSs-p. 15

 

\

 

IDENTIFYING CORRELATES OF URBAN “AT-RISK” COLLEGE F 5

LIFE STYLE DECISIONS: A STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF RACIA ID

VOCATIONAL IDENTITY, PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT,
COPING STYLES 0N DECISION MAKING

BY

Martin Fitzgerald Hill

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Educational Psycho]

and Special Education 0g),

2004

ABSTRACT
I. ,, GE FRESHMEN’S
IDENTIFYING CORRELATES OF URBAN AT-RISK COLLB NTITy,

F RACIAL IDE
NS: A STUDY OF THE IMPACT 0 ND
LIFE STYLE DECISIO PSYCHOLOGICAL ADTUSTMENT, A

v TIONAL IDENTITY,
OCA COPING STYLES ON DECISION MAKING

By

Martin Fitzgerald Hill

Cb,
rsus-benefit aPPma

atom 8‘ K0

. . ° understood in terms of a. cost—ve
DeCISIOn making may be zberg,

where behavior is chosen that maximizes gains and minimizes losses (G
- . , . - ‘aCi‘a‘
l996' Woerll & Danner, 1989). Some faCtOYS mfluencm g dec1510n maklng 3”

9 “d

' ' . ‘9 3
identity development, vocational identity development, psychologlcal adjusmett
coping stv\es of the individual. The question under investigation focuSQd 011th

development of the decision-making PTOCCSSI To what degree ‘10 "1‘ ban .
. . African
American college freshmen’s Black new] identity, vocational identity
) DSyc .
adjustment, and coping style predict early adult life Style b6havior? hOIogl C31
Participants were 144 African American college freshmen Who C
ame 1}-

$58 backgI-ounds, They ranged in age from 18 IO 19 years. Mllltlple “n 0%
Gar reg). 10%,
Q \

analyses Were performed to analyze the association between life deCiSion maki Sign
"e
(dependent Variable) and racial identity, vocational identity, PSYChOIOgical adjuSt
“lent

3

and coping (independent variables). The results, SUPponed by ap value 0f ~05 for
significanc 6, showed a positive correlation between psychological adjustment and
decision Making and a negative correlation between racial identity and decision making.

Research implications and applications Show a need to provide training for Affi can

American college freshmen in the ability to make productive decisions- Mentoring

Programs may be useful in helping with the transition to college life.

Cepmshtbv
MARTm FITZGERALD HILL
2004

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to start off by saying that I feel truly blessed to be allowed the
opportunity to learn so much and use this God-given talent to help others. There are so
many people to thank that I hope I do not forget anyone. I feel honored to have worked
with so many wonderful people, who have allowed me to grow and reach my potential. I
owe many for this achievement and will only continue to use this gift to its fullest.

First, I want to give thanks to God for blessing me with the ability to learn so
much and use this gift to help others. I want to thank my mother, Ollie Jane Hill, for all
her love and support. She is very special to me, and I hope I can make her as proud of
me and I am of her. Thanks to my father, Charles Hill, Jr. (deceased), for his guidance
and wisdom to help me become the man I am. Thanks to all the support from my family
and friends. Special thanks go to my friends from Indiana University and Michigan State
University. I would like to thank my brothers from the Lansing alumni chapter of Kappa
Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. Thanks go to the counseling center staffs at. Michigan State
University, Western Michigan University. Central Michigan UniVCFSity, and Indiana
University.

I feel that I was truly blessed to have an advisor like Gloria Smith, who has been
like a second mom to me. I also want to express a special thanks to my committee
member Robbie Steward, who has been like my third mom. Also, I want to say thanks to
my other committee members, Lee June and George Rowan. They have given me more
than I could have asked for; the knowledge and wisdom I received from them was
priceless. Special thanks go to Susan Miller for all her help. Thanks go to the Office of

Supportive Services for allowing me to collect my data on students from their

department. Finally, I would like to thank Shelia Walker at the Claremont Graduate

School (Scripps College) for her support and positive attitude when she was a professor
at Indiana University when I was an undergraduate student. She is the first person to

believe that I had the potential to make it in graduate school.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY - .............................................................................. 1
Decision Making ............................................................................................................. 15
Negative Environmental Influences. ...............................................................................
Positive Environmental Influences ............................................................................... 12
Racial Identity ............................................................................................................... 17
Vocational Identity .......................... . .............................................................................. 18
Psychological Adjustment and Coping ......................................................................... 20
Operational Definitions of Terms ................................................................................. 22
Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 25
Effects of Racial Identity on Life Decision Making ..................................................... 26
Effects of Vocational Identity on Decision Making ........................... 30
The Effects of Psychological Adjustment and Coping Style on DCCISion Making ...... 34
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 38
The Participants ............................................................................................................ 38
The Research Setting ........................... 38
Instrumentation ............................................................................................................. 39
Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale-Form B .......................................................... 40
My Vocational Situation .......................................................................................... 40
Affects Balance Scale ............................................. . ................................................ 41
Adolescent Coping Orientation for Problem Expenences ....................................... 41
Risk Involvement and Perception Scale .................................................................. 42
Demographic Information ........................................................................................ 43
Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 43
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 45
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS . ......................................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, LIMITATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ............................................................................................. 58
Discussion of Findings ....................................................................................................... S8

vii

Limitations .................................................................................................................... 63

Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................................ 64

Implications ................................................................................................................... 66
APPENDICES

A. Instrumentation ....................................................................................................... 70

B. Consent F orm, Instructions, and Introduction Sheet ............................................... 78
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 83

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Demographic Characteristics of Participants ............................................................. 47
Significant Independent Variables (Linear Multiple Regression) ............................. 50

Significant Independent Variables and Gender ......................................................... 52

Significant Demographic Independent Variables (Combined Multiple

Regression) ................................................................................................................ 54
The Effect of Marital Status of Participants’ Parents on Their Decision Making ..... 55

Means, Standard Deviations, and Minimums of Variables (Matrix
Comparison of Variables) ......................................................................................... 56

ix

 

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Decision Malgg
Decision making is a complex process that is learned throughout one’s lifetime.

The process requires skills in analyzing a situation, understanding the situational factors,
and understanding how one’s actions will affect the situation. At the most basic level,
there are two kinds of decision situations: those in which decision makers are presented
with options and those in which decision makers create options for themselves (Byrnes &
McClenny, 1994). Decision making relies on the ability to use higher levels of cognitive
functioning to develop a plan to influence a specific situation. Cognitive factors
(functions) are taken to mean those that are relevant to the mental process of knowing,

including perceptions and reasoning (C. P. Gordon, 1996; Piaget, 1958).

Decision making is not easy; rather, it is a complex cognitive process that
involves a number of component operations (ByrneS, 1998; BYmES, Miller, & Reynolds,
1999', Solvic, Lichtenstein, & F ischhoff, 1988). Decision making l'fxlllires individUaIs to
rely on previous experiences to provide guidance when facing new situations. MaStering
this ability takes time and numerous experiences. As a child matures, the brain becomes
able to retain larger amounts of information at once, making it possible to compare pieces
of information and also to build up bodies of information (Falvell, 1985; C. P. Gordon,
1996).

Normal development in childhood is characterized by rapid, orderly Changes in
multiple dimensions of functioning, including broad dimensions such as cognitive, social,

or emotional development: and narrow dimensions such as expreSSIons of anger or

 

impulse control (Eyberg, Schuhmanfl, & Rey, 1998). In Western cultures, adolescence is

considered to be a transitional period from Childhood to adulthood (Matter, 1984; Renk &

Creasey, 2003). The transition from early to late adolescence includes a dramatic change

in the degree to which adolescents View themselves as being capable of making important

decisions (Galotti & Kozberg, 1996).

Although many researchers have examined decision making in adults (Abelson &
Lewi, 1985), very few have examined the development of decision making from
childhood to adulthood (Bymes & McClenny, 1994; Beyth—Marom, F ischhoff, Quadrel,
& F urby, 1991). The literature on decision making contains more than 20 theoretical

models of adult competence, but essentially no accounts of children’s competence or a

developmental mechanism (Bymes, 1998; Bymes et al., 1 999). Steinberg and Cauffman

(1996) quoted Kohlberg’s theory, stating that individuals develop through qualitatively
different stages of moral reasoning over the course of childhood and adolescence.
Reasoning progresses from “preconventional” thinking (reasoning in Which moral
problems are understood purely in terms of the immediate consequences Of acting one

way or another), through “conventional” thinking (reasoning in WhiCh moral Problems

are understood in terms of how various courses of action are viewed by others, especial ly

in relation to social rules and conventionS), t0 “postconventional” thinking (reasoning in

Which moral problems are viewed in terms of abstract moral principles and matters of
Personal conscience).
In many ways, it is apprOpriate for adolescence to be the time in which major life
decisions are first confronted (Galotti & Kozberg, 1996). Some of the decisions that
adolescents make have far-reaching consequences for the future (Taal & Sampaio de

Carvalho, 1 997). Both adolescence and youth are critical developmental periods during

which individuation must be balance?d by 500i?“ integration within a community (Bryk &
Thum, 1989; Newmann, 1981). Like the school-age child, the adolescent shuttles back
and forth between two cultures, that of adults and that of peers (Stone & Church, 1979).

For ego psychologists, the period of adolescence is critical in terms of identity formation

and continued ego development (Erickson, 1973; Lavery, Siege], Cousins, & Rubovits
1993; Sullivan, 1953), Haynie, Alexander, & Walters (1997) stated from a cognitive-
developmental perspective that adolescents are thought to be more competent decision
makers than younger children but less adept than adults. Cognitive deve10pment is most
often completed in adolescence, enabling logical, abstract, and hypothetical thinking, as
well as the ability to plan ahead and to reflect on past behavior (Piaget, 1970). Abilities
to think hypothetically and futuristically, and to integrate multiple aSpects of a task or
problem, reflect formal operational thinking and are essential to reasoned decisions
(Haynie et al., 1997).

The centrality of the future orientation of adolescents means that the adolescent
differs from the child above all in that he 01‘ She thinks beyond the Present (C. P. Gordon,
1996). Klaczynski (2001) stated that, with increasing age, children 1'61)’ more on the
“representativeness heuristic” (ie, the extent to WhiCh individual cases conform to
existing schemata) and less on statistical evidence. Adolescents’ reasoning begins to
ref] ect the influence of self-reflective empathy processes and internalized values
(Batchelder & Root, 1994, Eisenberg et al., 1 987). Haynie et al. (1997) stated that a
successful decision-making model includes five step to organize a well-considered
decision. These five-steps are: (a) identify possible options; (b) identify the

consequences of each option; (c) evaluate each consequence; (d) assess the probability of

 

each consequence; and (e) use some decision rule, combined with the preceding steps, to
make a decision.
Janis and Mann (1977) extracted seven basic steps that they ascribed to 3 hi gh-
quality decision-making process. The individual (a) thoroughly canvasses a wide range
of alternative courses of action; (b) surveys the fiill range of objectives to be fulfilled and
the values implicated by the choice; (0) carefully Weighs whatever he or she knows about
the costs and risks of negative consequences, as well as the positive consequences, that
could flow from each alternative; ((1) intensively searches for new information relevant to
filither evaluation of the alternatives; (e) correctly assimilates and takes account of any
new information or expert judgment to which he or she is exposed, even when the
information or judgment does not support the course of action the person initially prefers;
(t) reexamines the positive and negative consequences of all known alternatives,
including those originally regarded as unacceptable, before making a final choice; and (9
makes detailed provisions for implementing or executing the chosen Course of action,
with special attention to contingency plans that might be required if various know,n risks
were to materialize. The first step involves setting a goal (e.g., do well on an exam).
The second step involves compiling options for producing goals (e. g., studying, hiring a
tutor). The third step involves ran k-Ordering one’s options (e.g., studying is better th
an
hiring a tutor). The last step is selecting the highest-ranking alternative. The m0st
important consequence of approaching decisions in such ways is that an individUal Would
be very 1il<ely to attain his or her goals (Bymes et al., 1999).
Fact-re“ (1990) stated that many adolescents are seeking the answer to the all-
important question of their lives, “Where do I fit in?” Adolescents are learning how to

make deci sions, which interact with their environment, and are trying to obtain a level of

4

 

 

well-being. NeVill (1997) stated a natural hypothesis; The more a person ’5 needs are met
through a full range of activities, the more successful and satisfied that person will be,
Adolescents are trying to decide on ways to have their needs met through the

Opportunities provided by their environment. The focus is on feeling confident in making

the right decision to have as many needs/wants met as possible.

Negative EMnmental Influences
The environment provides experiences that help adolescent make sense of any
given situation and provides guidance on how to handle the situation. The literature on
stage models of decision-making procedures has suggested two identifiable phases:
investigationxgathering information, defining values and goals, and generating and
evaluating alternatives; and choice and implementation—the process of selecting a
preferred course of action and the process of implementing thiS option of choice
(Friedman, 1996).

A decision maker’s values and beliefs about options determine two things; which
0Ptions are entertained in a particular instance, and the rankings assigned to opti Ons
(Bymos et al., 1999). Janis and Mann’s (1977) decisional balance theory posited that,

under normal conditions, individuals make rational decisions to engage or not en g age in
risky behavior on the basis of some internal ratio or balance of costs to benefits (Sie gel et
al., 1994) ..
Decision making may be understood in terms of a cost-versus-benefit approach, in
WhiCh bel‘navior is chosen that maximizes gains and minimizes losses. KlaCZynski’s
(2001) cu gnitive research on decision making focused on the development of abilities
that are frequently associated with intellectual maturity and on the correlations between

these abilities and aspects of decision making (6.8-, awareness 0f COStS and benefits). The

5

 

relative value of risk and benefit is determined from perceptions that drive behavior
(Siegel et al., 1994).
Theorists working from a purely cognitive framework (e. g., F urby & Beyth-
Maron, 1992) attempted to explain such risky behavior as the outcome of a decision-
making process that factors into the equation such variables as the estimated likelihood of
risk, the estimated seriousness of the potential risk, and the cost and benefit of alternative
behaviors (Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996). Risk taking is a term developed by adults
(par ents, PSYChologists, health educators) to denote adolescent behavior that may result in
physical or emotional harm to themselves or others (Siegel et al., 1994). C. P. Gordon
(1996) stated that the nature and number of the costs and benefits considered will be a

- ation
function of the adolescent’s cognitive stage of development. Research on the oval“

of consequences usually has focused on the ability to estimate probability, Adolescents
do not do this well (Ganzel, 1999)-

As stated earlier, decision—making abilities are affected by the adolescent’s
environment. Chu and Powers (1995) stated that optimal develot’mem occurs When an
individual interacts with a social environment that is responsive and adaptive to his or her

changin g needS. The Child’s constitution, which is influenced by genetics, is als0
influenced by the environment (Eyberg, Schuhmarm, & Rey, 1997; Sameroffi 1975).
Some adolescents’ environment may be risky in nature and provide reinforcement that
leads to “at—risk” behavior. The concern is that adolescents do not realize that their
behavior- is risky in nature.
It is widely known that adolescents decide to participate in various risky

behaviorS that may have life-altering consequences (Caffray & Schneider, 2000),

Following Rutter (1937) and Werner and Smith (1982), risk has been defined as those

 

' ' ‘ en and
psychosocial factors that have been demonstrated to increase the risk ofchildr '
1992)- ““5 type

adolescents for the development of psychopathology (Grossman et al., t Oftheir
as

r the f
of behavior can lead to negative outcomes that can harm adolescents f0 vittg tefi
ha

0
life. (For example, males are more than twice as likely as females to ‘69
get ale“

high school because of behavior problems, including not being ab‘e to b
k snack, ‘98 ’9'

teachers and being expelled or suspended [Ekstrom, Goettz, Poll'ctc ’
ation of

' ' ' ~ an initi
369])- Adolescents are at risk for accidental in) ury, v10 lence, d the
accidents account

lifestyles and habits that present long-term health risks: Automobfle
for three fourths of all deaths among the 15-24 age group and aICOhOI consmnpuont

highly correlated with many fatal car aCCidents, is on the rise (AmericanMedica\
ASSOCtation, 1990 . Other areas of concern include tobacco use, sex . .
) Ilal act1v1ty,3°h°°\

noncompliance, and running away from home, as well as engageme

‘ ' that
although not illicit or illegal, are at best imprudent (Lavery et a], 199 In behaVlOIS a

Problem-solving (SP8) Skills have been linked to such problems amQ )' Deficient SOCifl]
1’)

aggressiveness (Dodge & F eldman, 1990), conduct disorder (Ioffe g ”liners
’ DOI) as

Ma'mge, & Haley, 1990), and substance abuse (Greening, 1997. PI 8°", Fin
’ alt, SC 3
1973). The likelihood of developing “at-risk” behavior is great if th am,
e adolescen Q6021
t 11.38 01),

negative examples to follow.
Steinberg and Cauffman (1996) stated that some adolescents may beh
ave

responsibly in some situations but act irresponsibly in Others; Show temperance 11nd
certain Conditions but act impulsively under others; and demonstrate perspective in :

. m
CIFCUITI stances but short-sightedness in others. Accurate reality teSting is a Prerequtsite e
for 811cc ess in anticipating consequences, interpreting information, and action planning

L .
( ave; 5/ et al., 1993). Researchers have hyDOtheS‘zed that adolescents’ inmlvemem in

7

 

. . . . . ' 8116651

nsky behav1ors1s due to such factors as negative family and academic mflu
. -nior
. . - ' O tlmls
negative emotions, peer influences, sensation-seeking needs, unreahstic P
'tiofl into
- $1

sense of invulnerability, and attempts to achieve goals related to the “a“

adulthood (Caffray & Schneider, 2000). “talkmg
apilve “g

Baumrind (1987) differentiated between pathological and 3d
ed Se\{—BS‘eema
Adaptive risk taking is characterized by secondary gains such as met
auffman (1 996)

stress tolerance and initiative (Siegel et al., 1994)_ St einberg and C
've are best conceived as

believed therefore, that responsibility, temperance, and Igegl’stfict1

disposztzons to behave in a given way under particular conditions rather than as fixed
abilities or competencies that are displayed independently of context.
With this in mind, outside influences ma contribute to the v
y E“ lat1o11 111 decision-

making abifities. One influential environmental factor is low 8001'er

Q .
(SE8). in terms of economic status, a large portion 0f the African “011110 Status
is d' d i I '
lsa vantaged(C1armeZy, 1991)- T1115 Situation has Consequences 1“ ”can population
Black infants (Garmezy, 1991). In particular, a history 0f welf 01- 026 12
are de eDe calth f
Ddency 0

discourages success at work, education, and marriage, and these "new
have an ryening v
adverse effect on income (Israel & Seeborg, 1993) Elder L ker a a
1 6
(l 984) concluded that economic hardship was associated With two type 0., s
S of Do

adJuStment 1n children: temper tantrums and difficult behavior. Unfortunate]

difficult to limit the degree of stress that some individuals experience pal‘ticulyarit ls Often

in economicany and socially disadvantaged environments (D B Miner 1999) 3’ those
This discouraging picture relates to negative experiences that teach the child

unproductive means ofhancl 1mg stressful situations. D. B. Miller (1999) Stated that 1t
is

ofie
11 Cl 1 ffi cult to limit the degree of stress that some individuals experience, ,particular]
y

8

 

 

 

 

' ' '65 has
mnents. Life 11’1 urban cit!

backgroun
ispanics and

those in economically and socially disadvantaged env1ro d

aan & MacDermid, 1998). In studies,

- school-
tudents were strongly related to dropping out Of BY‘JK 8L

been compared to a war zone (DeH
characteristics of s t
ikely to (11°? 0“

S’ sch0°\

37111130611009

gefiomance

Blacks, lower-SES students, were considered to be most 1

ated that African American maie
in the “a

s a graded

Thum, 1989). Findings have indic

was negatively influenced by the concentration of jobless mates

s - . SS i
suscept1b1 l ity to 5116

(Taylor, 2000). Rutter (1993) suggested may
cover from stressful

e
Phenomenon” (p. 626) in that some people are able to handle 01' ‘7

events more readily than others.

. . t
The two background characteristics that are most strongly related to (hopping on

are SES and race/ethnicity (Ekstrom et 31-, 1986). Lee and Ekstrom ( 1 987) Wllo “Sad 21
3

database of 12,000 students, found that guidance services (in schools “
Were not equa y

distributed among all students. In their sarnple, students from Iowak

minority status had less access to guidance counseling. The negatjv§ 8 families 01'

that stu dents learn can continue through adolescence and on into ad“, ecision ”lak’

. . "‘00 mg
cycle can develop, which continues throughout an Individual ’8 life, i A i .
The environment also will influence adolescents’ psychOIOgical and h Claus
deveIOpm ent. African American children in urban settings Often have numer:u:%ioel
obstacles to overcome, such as poverty, substandard housing, and inferior 80110013
(Miller, 1 999; Peters, 1985; Sayer, 1994). Researchers have found that, in 80m e
communities, children and adolescents may be exposed to some form 0f ViOIence on a
”Ema? basis (Bell & Jenkins, 1991', Gladstein, Rusonis, & Heald, 1992; Spencer,
Dupree’ C unninghama Harpalani, & Munoz-Miller, 2003). Garbarino, Kostelny, and

Duh-OW ( 1991) stated that increased levels of gang violence, lack of basic health care,

text
. . . aka the CON
inadequate food, inferior schooling, and 500131 15°13‘10“ are factors that m
Place indiv’d
C
idfl‘an’

uals at

of urban poverty stressful. The fact that major stressful life events

. . Se
greater risk for psychopathology and antisocial behav1or IS well known (

Teran, Friedman, & Yoshikawa, 1999; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984} 66mm .m
en

. ome
Few would disagree with the statement that Violence has bee
Meficans-

urban communities, exacting its greatest toll among young African ,
I.oportionatel)’ h‘gh

Victimization rates for homicide and other ViOIence crimes are disp
'7 cited a 1994
for African Anierican adolescents (Howard, 1996). Haynie et al. (199 )

. ' t
report by the Centers for Disease Control (CDc, 1994) in which 1t was stated tha
firearm-related violence ranked as the second leading cause of death all] 011g adotescents.

For African American adolescent males, it Was the leading cause of déath (Haynie et al.,

1997). Homicide has been the leading cause 0f death for Black yout
g age 15 to 24

(M. A. Hamburg, 1998), and according to some estimates (Cohen <3:

homicide rates among Black males in this age range are more than 10 fi’ 1993),

White counterparts (Spencer et al., 2003, P- 34)-

Adolescents who grow up in violent communities will be eXp
t

o g o
daemon-making examples. The stress these 3d01€Scents experience at "e
» 0

Q .
"8 with the

negative examples, can result in negative decision-making development F the
o tom
. . , Uzi
perSpective, young adolescents who show ewdence of Signlficant distress are s

3 ll] faCt’ in

trouble. Their distress is likely to predict future difficulty (Grossman et a1 1992
" ; D. A

Hamburg & T akaniski, 1989). Chronic violence or cumulative stressful experienc
es may
have far-reaching effects on the psychological and cognitive development 0f adolescent
s
(Glad St Ein et al., 1992; Spencer 31311,, 2003) because this seems to “increase their

susceptibility to developmental harm and post-traumatic SireSS’, (Gladstein et al., 1992 p

10

 

 

49°
, Spencer 6131., 2003, p. 37). Results from the 1993 Youth Risk Behavior Survey

suggested that violent behavior often occurs on school property (Haynie et 3
me,
of violetIce eat ho

CDC, 1994). Violent behavior in general is linked to the experience

on V 1°
e‘befia

to v. o o o O n .
ictimization, and to wrtnessmg v1 olent acts (APA commiSSion
cc, 3;,“

(30‘0

decision‘

1992 . ' ‘ '
) These type of experiences Will influence how ad01escent5 sh

making processes.
ue to the

The potential for a healthy adaptation is considerably hei ghtefled d
sociocul
tural and developmental press for adolescents to think about the {mire and What

role th ' ' '
ey m1 ght play in the general social structure_ Yet in many centr 1 h. h school
a city 1% S

toda ,i
y ewer than half of the students who enter graduate (Bryk & T1)
“In 1989' Hess &
, '5

La b
u er, 1985). Adolescents with poor academic perforrnance

or co
hetence are 11116119

ad feellngs wont SChOOl. Ihis, . a W Cakells the. b
0

scho l ' ' '
0 and increases their likelihood of engaging in risky b a“
ehawors achrnent t0

SChneid -
er, 2000; Ellickson and Hays, 1992; Hawkins Cat 1 0&1};
’ a
VanDen Bos Bande an" & M. “We
rryn, Costa, & Turbin, 1995) Furth ”let
djSCiphne b er, dropolIts I" 19.92
pro lems than students who remain in scho Shave ‘ J
01 (Bryk & 1220, 98301.
”um, I Q ,

majorit
Y of delinquent adolescents affiliate with deViant pee 989 9).
2003) Con rs (Espelage H The
sequently, adolescents in urban Settin gs must f olt <9:
omental

challeng
e
s in addition to those required to Survive the day to- d
‘ ay experie
nces th
atm
many

outsider
s
and some residents perceive as hOpeless (Lerner, Lem
er, & Tub
man,1989;

Stew
ard et al., 1998).

As the infl h nv onm
uence fro ' '
In t e 6 1r ent influences an adolescent’ v
S iew of th
e

world -
> 1‘1 sky behavior may b '
ecome appealing Another risk
. y behavior is s
exual

ll

 

involveme
nt. The n
eed for a
better understanding of th
e sexual practice
5 of women

rlying “’65:

generally
, and of min '
onty women in particular d
, an the d '
ynamics unde
Smi55ion

praCtiCes has .
’ lnel'eaSed . ,
has ris as the "‘c‘dence of HIV inf
en (QUada eCtiOn fr tr
3‘10, Sly, H - 0m heterosexual
arrison, Eberstein, & Soler 1 9 been
’ 98). Ethnicity has
sex, and the

quency Oi

'1 “dw‘xdu‘als tend

reported
to affect th
e
types of sexual acts that ar
e practic
ed, the fre

numbers an
d t)’Pes of
to have mo Sexual partners (Qiuadagn0 et 1
re partners b a -, 1 99

9 e m ' 8). You“ ct

ore experimental in the typ
es of sexual behaviors they enga
ge

in, and have higher fi' .
Michaels, 1994; QuadequenCies for all sexual behaviors (L “man“ G .
behavior is a Serious .agno et al., 1998’ Van OSS Marin Ga , agnomMmhae‘s &
made. risk behavior, which has damaging 0::nez, & Hearst, 1993). Sexual
c .
Omes If a Door decision is

Ey‘oer
g et al. (1998) s
tated
that the central process of
reorgan ~
1?
ation 1'
inks the

child’s ne
eds with the u
re '

t e i q irements of the culture Reol‘gan 2
heb hav oral r o ' ' . .

p ocess f imitation (Eyberg et 1 99 1 ti be ii

a ., 1 8)
- The c
once i] W.
111803th It

ofne ‘
gatIVe b s
ehaviors
that are learned and maste d b
re ‘
y lm' I,
itati i
on. t e

(1980) Jze ‘ e10
Stated th 1: P111617
at one’s b ' '
e afi eliefs Will directly affect the beh ‘ ‘ an r
n g ve behaviors can have a l ' a i r OSes be
astmg impact on the de 8 I. n t
V '
elopmg ado) . .
t. 1"
1:30.
I:

Positiv

.fi '

e Envrronmental Influ
43%

Al n a nf]
ong the line ' u n ar
es s of enVironme ' nv
111 e factors help th (1 t l l e ces e e - o
e a If
olescent make sense ofh' o e ta] mte
IS or her v' CtiVe
en ironment and fa“ rs

th
ereby asSiSt

in mak ‘
In
g better decis'
ions. Sum
and Fogg (1991) stated that

more than

65%

of

adoles
Qe
nts are ab]
their e to make the tr ‘ '
ic Ci 3118100“ to young adulth d
nom rcumstanc 00 succ
2 0 es. Stevenson (1994 1995) eSSfully and i
, and Peters prove
(1985)
Posited
that

racial
S
De ' '
ializatio '
n (rac1al id '
entit C
y) an act as a buffer against 11
egative
racial
messa
ges i
n

12

-
——.—

the environment. Researchers have posited that protective factors operate at three IeVe/s:
individual, familial, and societal (Garrnezy, 1985; K- A- Gordon, 1995; Luther& Zigler,
1991; D. B. Miller, 1999; Rutter, 198 7). Grossman et al. (1992) also stated that
protective factors and processes identified thus far can be categorized as individual,
familial, and social environmental. These elements may interact to protect a person from
negative environmental conditions (Brooks, 1994; D. B. Miller, 1999; Rutter, 1987)
A study by Arroyo and Zigler (1995) indicated that racial identity facilitates the
deve1013ment of competencies among African American adolescents. Protective factors,
at least in the case of adolescents, have been shown to be highly context dependent
$6 93‘th

pet

. f
stressed ethnic pride and preparation for mom] barriers reported higher 13v 615 0 &
a“

efficacy and received better grades than youths whose parents did not do thlS (BO
o 0 . . S
Howard, 1985; Phillips-Smith, Walker, Fields, Brookins, & 3633’, 1999). Other finding
have indicated that the more negatively mothers perceived their neighborhoods, the more
they talked to their children about the need to find a good job in the future, the
Itlore they
won'ied about their children and their future employment, and the greater was t .
. e” desire
for the“ Children to earn good grades (J ayaratne, 1993; Taylor, 2000)-
Individual factors that have been found to protect adolescents from risk inc]
Ude,
among others, self-esteem and internal locus of control (Grossman et al., 1992).
Moreover, perceptions of peer acceptance have been empirically linked with positive
self’concept and adjustment (Harter, Marold, Whitesell & Cobbs, 1996; Seidrnan et al.,

1999 . - -
)' These elements may interact to protect a person from negative enVirgnmenta‘

cond' ’
”Ions (Brooks, 1994; D. B. Miller, 1999; Rutter, 1987)’ Pmtemve faCthS help

13

 

' ' nrn
adolescents better understand their 611V] ro em and make better sense 0 f Wh a t is
happening around them.

Historically, psychological and sociological theories have placed risk for and
protection from depression and antisocial behavior during adolescence in the context of
the family and/or peer systems (Cohen, 1955; Rutter, 1990; Seidman et al., 1999). In
cross-sectional studies, parental social support (e.g., instrumental, emotional) has
consistently been found to be negatively related to measures of intemalizing SYmP‘OmS

. . - d ethnic
and Problem behavior among adolescent samples representmg diverse rac1al an

. - 6
groups (Barrera & Li, 1996; Seidman et al., 1999). African American farmth at
rate“ (and

concerned about the self-perception, identity, and achievement of their c . .
onam’mg

adolescents) (Mosley-Howard & Evans, 2000). Several studies, ofien operafi
involvement as parental monitoring, have documented its protective to 16 383mg
academic failure, delinquency, problem drinking, and antisocial activities (Harris &
Manner, 1996; Seidman et al., 1999).
Studies have demonstrated the joint protective function of fmnily SUPPOI‘t or
cohesion together with low hassles or conflict for adolescent maladaptation, depression
and SUbStance use (DuBois, Felner, Brand, Adan, & EvanS, 1992; Seidman et a " 1999) ,
The reSource exchange theory addresses the relationship among the variables 0 intereSt .
(Blake & Darling, 2000). The basic premise of this theory is that humans fon-n
interpersonal relationships in light of the rewards, costs, or profits (outcomes) that such
associations might be expected to bring. Blake and Darling stated that multi generational
and interdependent kinship that provide emotional and economic support for its members

have dorhinated family life in African American families. The functioning kaifl,

and . . . -
8T parents, aunts, uncles, cousms, and nonblological relatives has been Central to the

14

development of the child (or adolescent) and has provided mutual aid in the A fir’ca II

American family (Blake & Darling, 2000)-

Involvement in various types of problem behaviors (substance abuse,
delinquency, etc.) might be incongruent for youths who have strong “traditional” ethnic
affiliations (Phillips-Smith et al., 1999; W63tel'meyer, 1984). Racial and ethnic identity
(RBI) among African American adolescents and young adults has been associated,
generally in the protective direction, with numerous psychological and behavioral
characteristics including self-esteem, attitudes toward substance use, and soda11
filnCtioning (Baldwin, 1984; Be] grave et al., 1994; Resnicow, Soler, Braithwaite’ . me
Selassie, & Smith, 1999). These examples show that protective factors exis‘ “hm
family, but the concern is how influential are the family support factors.

Scents

Even with all the environmental influences on adolescents, not all adola
develop negative decision-making characteristics. With protective factors, some
adolescents develop productive decision-making abilities and manage to survive their
community influence. African American and White students who have strong athm’c
identification report fewer behavior problems than their peers without strong ethnic

identities (Jagers & Mock, 1993; Phillips-Smith et al., 1999', Rotheram-Borus, 1 990)
They also share some of the same stressors, including inflation, divorce, unemp 103711th
natural disasters, and developmental problems of children and adults as they grow Older ,
(Blake & Darling, 2000).
Half of the children living under conditions of disadvantage do not repeat that
pattern in their own adult lives (Gannezy, 1991)- Adolescence is a major transition time
with inevitable Stresses oflife span changes, but normal adolescents do not experience

majOr tll'T‘noil and do not manifest serious symptomatology (Grossman et al., 1992)’

l5

 

From the perSpective of a stage-environment fit, Eccles et al., (1993) p’OPOSed that When
the developmental trajectories of early adolescence and the trajectories ofspvimmn eat a I
change across the school years are in synchrony, there will be positive motivational
consequences in adolescents (Chu & Powers, 1995). In the choice phase, decision

makers simply choose the option given the highest global goodness rating (Bymes &
McClenny, 1994). It appears that environmental factors can influence decision making 0f

adolescents, but there are still more specific factors that influence decision—making

deve10pment,
staled
Steinberg and Cauffman (1996) and Scott, Reppucci, & Woolard (1995) ed
' 6y “1g
that there is more to competent decision making than cognitive competence. d
. ve _
0906‘

researchers to examine developmental aspects of “judgment,” more broadly c
. . . b'lit)’ ‘0
With this in mind, there must be deve10pmental factors that influence the a 1
acquire the skills of effective decision making. Some developmental factors tha‘ call
influence the ability to make decisions are racial identity development, vocation 3]
identity develo ment, and s cholo 'cal ad'ustment and coping-style dev 1
p p y g1 J 6 0pm ent ofthe

individual ,

The nature of African Americans’ psychological well being or functioning has
been a large topic of interest for researchers for many years (Carter, 1991)‘
Psychological functioning among African Americans has been investigated from
basically two perspectives; (a) psychiatric epidemiological studies on the relationships
among race, social class, and psychological symptoms, and (b) social psychglogical

studies of the relationship among psychOIOgical symptoms, race, social class, and

mediating variables such as locus of control and stressful life events (Carter, 1991)-

Taki . . . . . . .
113 these viewpoints together, it 18 not surpnsmg that racral identity, Vocational

l6

 

identity, psychological adjustment, and coping styles play an important to 16 in A 192‘
Can
Americans’ development. Development themes on many skills, one of Which is Ii f‘e

choices or decision making.

Racial Identity
As Erikson (1973) pointed out, one Of the major tasks of adolescence is the
development of identity (C. P. Gordon, 1996). Identity is that quality of the ego that
emerges largely during the critical period of adolescence; young people have to deal with
a PhySlOIOgica] revolution inside themselves and “tangible adult talkS” ahead Ofthet:
(Farrell, 1 990). One way that theorists and researchers have attempted to undefitan

the
oufl
within-group psychological differences among African Americans has beeflmx

use of racial identity theory (Carter, 1991; Cross, 1978; Helms, 1990) -
Bl3Ck

The model has been incorporated into a rationally constructed so 316, the
Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-B; Helms & Parharn, 1985; Plum er, 1995) that
measures the four themes of the model: pre-encounter, encounter, imm6rsion, am d
internalization. Each stage focuses on the growth of the individual mentaIIy and how th'
IS

l'mpacts his or her behavior. Each stage/ theme is discussed in the following par 8r
aPhs.

a White

European frame of reference. This individual devalues his or her sense of Blackness

lore—encounter describes the African American’s viewing the world from

Encounter describes the process of becoming aware 0f one’s Blackness. The individual

awakens as a result ofa critical incident that leads him or her to reconceptualize issues of
race in SOCiety and to recognize his or her racial feelings. Immersion describes the
individual who moves to accept his sense of Blackness. The individual makes a
Valuntary decision to become “Black” and embraces the African culture. In ternalization

dcsc ° . . . . - -
1‘1 beg an attitude in WhiCh the lnd1v1dual 18 very aware ofthe meaning ofbemg

l7

 

Afncan Amgfican. The individual has a high comfort level Wlth his or her 1'36]th -
elng

and acknowledges the African Amt?rican culture as well as appreciates other ethnic/raga]

cultures and values (Plummer, 1995) -

In viewing race as an important factor in decision making, one also needs to
understand the influence of beliefs about one’s racial identity. African Amaicans’ view

of their racial identity will have a significant influence on their psychological adjustment

. . . . . . . the
There are four avenues in developing one’s raCial identity. RaCial salience refers to

_ icu‘ar
extent to which a person’s race is a relevant part of his or her self-concept at a Part

' - . . . . dial
time. Salience is concerned With a particular event, as the unit of analySis. Ra y
me “’3
- . . . . . . ttO
Ideology IS the individual’s set of beliefs, opinions, and attitudes With rest)6c

e
they think other members of their race should act. This dimension represen‘s

. and new“
person’s philosophy about the ways in which African Americans should llve
. . . , . oi
With society. Racial regard refers to the person’s affective and evaluative Judgrflem
his or her race. Racial centrality refers to the extent to whiCh a person nonnatively
defines himself or herself with respect to race. It is a measure of Whether race i
S a core
part of an individual’s Self—concept (Rowley, Sellers, Chavous, & Smith, I 998 ) An
African American’s racial identity will have a strong influence on the deveIOp

ent Ofthe
Skill 0f decision making.

Vocational Identity

Career decision-making is a complex process, involving multiple alternatives and
objectives (Nevill, 1997). A second factor associated with decision-making ski“
development is vocational-identity development. African Americans’ understanding 0f

ex e ‘ _ . . . .
P Deuces associated With school and/or work Will shape their vocationa1 i dentity.

18

 

-. --/ \«l

 

 

 

   

 

There are two components that influence situational understanding. One is worldview,
and the second is history of African Americans’ career behavior.

African Americans’ worldview is very different from that of White Americans.

African Americans tend to view the world through a collective focus, whereas White
Americans’ approach will tend to be more independent in nature. African Americans
have a world-view similar to people from Afl‘ica. An African worldview (Asante, 1987)
PUTPOI'ts that Afiican Americans have to some degree retained notions of collectivism
(“3111ng group identity and belonging above individualism), kinship bonds (the
development of familylike relationships with others outside the biological family),
spiritualism (valuing of a supreme being and being grounded and guided by mat ouS
principle), role flexibility (shared and changing roles as needed by farnilY)’ mm?“
social support (help-seeking sought from within the indigenous commurritY),
views of the world (integrating elements in life and striving for balance, not
dichotomizing, integrating notions of material and spiritual, masculine and feminine
forces).

Afiican Americans’ worldview is Africentric, whereas White Amer-hang ,
worldview is Eurocentric. According to Cheatham (1990), Africentrism is defined as
PlaCing no central emphasis on the individual, but rather being other oriented; families
stress affi liation, collectivity, interdependence, respect for elders, and Obedie‘ICe to
authority as preferable to individuation and autonomy- In comparison, Eur Ocemrism is
defined as a belief in the comparative superiority of the Anglo American culture’s

emphasis on Western values, ethos, and beliefs in values of competition, individuation,

mastery 0v er nature, and rigid adherence to time (Cheatham, 1990).

19

/\..\ I

 

 

 

   

African Americans who ex ress the Collectivist '

p Vlew 0f the World Will take other
individuals into consideration in making their decisions. The desire to account {Or 0mm,
needs shows a greater concern for the group as compared to the individual. Examples of
others are family (immediate and extended), friends, and community members. Astin
(1984) proposed that vocational “maladjustment occurs when the drive to satisfy one
need predominates to the extent that the other needs are inadequately satisfied” (P- 125).
This concern will influence life choices to a point where personal needs or gains may be

secondary, whereas group or family needs are piimary.
. . . . [standin
The second component of vocational-identity development is an unde
the history of the race’s career behavior. Smith (1983) stated that African Am
have the highest youth unemployment. They are twice as likely as Whites ‘0
. ‘ Ce
unemployed. Furthermore, lower- and higher-class African Americans expenefl
discrimination at almost equal levels (Smith, 1983). Many African Americans have
difficulty reaching their career aspirations and achieving their career goals.
Many African Americans learn about the world of work during their ad
01650th
Years. It may be important for adolescents to have knowledge of African Amen
Cans 7
vocational history when they are making plans for their careers. This informati0
1) 1.8

important to keep in mind because adolescence is a critical period for the formatio
I] of

vocational interests and identity (Mortimer, Pimentel, RYU, Nash, & Lee, 19 96).

chhologigglfAdjyfstmentfland Coping
A final factor influencing life choices is psychological adjustment and coping-
PsyChologiCal adjustment, as measured by the Affects Balance Scale, is described as a
manifestation of positive affects or emotions, as well as the relative absean of negative

emot‘
Ions (Steward et al., 1998). Coping is defined as the act of controlling adverse
20

 

environmental conditions, thereby lowering psycho-physiological dist urbance (Phillips, i
1993) The ability t0 adjust to and com in any given situation will influence the mag”,
in which adolescents select possible options.
Researchers have examined the importance of social support systems and
pr Otective process during adolescence. These studies have emphasized the role of family
support in promoting psychological well-being and coping-style development. Affective
motivators have been targeted in many theories as playing a critical role in adolescents,

decisions to participate in a variety of risky behaviors that may have life-altering

erieans to

consequences (Caffray & Schneider, 2000). The church has helped Africam m \f
e -
. . mom 5
eepe With difficult situations, to encourage educational endeavors, and to 9‘0
esteem (Blake & Darling, 2000). . .
one?”

. . 6
Caffray and Schneider (2000) described affective motivators In three cat %

(a) promote risky behaviors by enhancing pleasant affect states (sensation seeking), (b)
promote risky behaviors by reducing or avoiding negative affective States (tensi on
reduction , and c deter risk behaviors b avoiding anticipated regret (e, ,, _
) ( ) Y y g of liatmmg
future). The adolescent needs to develop the ability to cope mentally with Situet .

Ions
viewed as stressful. This will allow an adolescent to better adapt to the Situatig

and
construct a productive plan to relieve the stress.

Along with stress management, coping-style development will allow the
adOIeseent to make more effective decisions. There are two styles of coping that
encompasses all individuals. Problem—focused coping is defined as involving attempts to

manage or reduce stress by directly altering the situation or the individual’s apprais'cl1 0f

the ' . , , .
3' thation. Emotion—focused coping is defined as making attempts to regul ate

em ‘ . .
Ononal responses to stressful situations (Phillips, 1993)- Regardless Of which coping

21

' selecte ocus is on how the adolescent Select -
strategy Is (1’ the f 5 appr Opt-1 ate coping
techniques to assist in a positive outcome.

Operational Definitions of Terms

The following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this

dissertation:

Afi'icentrism is defined as placing no central emphasis on the individual; rather,
d obedience

 

families stress affiliation, collectivity, interdependence, respect for elders, an

to authority as preferable to individuation and autonomy (Cheatham, 1990).

ual’ s readiness to make informed, age—appr
& Luzzo,

opriate

W is an individ

career decisions and cope with appropriate career development tasks (Poweii

1998', Savickas, l984).
Coping is an act intended to control adverse environmental condl‘ ti ons, thereby

lowering psycho-physiological disturbance (Phillips, 1 993)-
Encounter is a stage in which an individual has an experience or a Series f
o
experiences that challenges his or her anti-Black and pro-White attitudes; thus th
e

individual,s attitude reflects a state of psychological confusion and emotional tun?)
Oil

(Carter, 1 991),
E Iii-ocentrism is a belief in the comparative superiority of the Anglo-Aimmean

culture; there is an emphasis on Western Values, ethos, and beliefs in values of

competiti on, individuation, mastery over nature, and rigid adherence to time (Cheatham

1990).
Identity is that quality of the ego that emerges largely during the critical period of

adolescence (Eriks on 1973; Farrell 1990). It is a dynamic fitting together of parts of the

22

.,
‘ l ‘
e
l

 

personality with the realities of the social world so that a person has

both
internal coherence and meaningfulr relatedness ‘0 the real world (loss 1 01“
8 Son, 1

987)
Im__m_____ersion is a stage in which an mCliVidual becomes deeply

discovering his or her Black cultural hentage and has idealized Images d
an IHteHse

emotions about his or her new Black Identlty; psychologically the individual m f
’ ay eel

anxious about his or her new identity and hostile and angry toward Whites (Carter 1991)
mm occurs when a person intemalizes a positive Black identity;
internalization attitudes have associated with them an awareness and acceptance of a
bicultural identity structure (Carter, 1991).
Maturity is the capacity to function adequately on one’s own (Greenberger &
Sorerls en, 1974), to contribute to social cohesion, and to interact adequately with others
(Steinb erg & Cauffman, 1996).
Ere-encounter is a stage in which an individual devalues his or her race or racial
group and attempts to deny membership in that group (Carter, 1991).
Erotective factors are specific competencies that are necessary for the process of
resilience to occur (Dyer & McGuinness, 1996).
Esychological adiustment is defined as a manifestation of positive affects or
emOtions, as well as the relative absence of negative emotions (Steward et al., 1998).
11am refers to an individual’s acquisition of group patterns, one’s sense
C’fbelonging to an ethnic group and the part of one’s thinking, perceptions, feelings, and
behavior that is due to ethnic group membership (Ponterotto, Casas, Suzuki, &
Alex EHider, 1995; Rotheram & Phinney, 1987).

Resilience is the ability to bounce back from adversity (Dyer & McGuinness,

1996),

23

 

\‘I

Risk-takin behavior involves knowingly risking ham by ens ’
aging in

a p a~l"t1'cu1

ar

activity (C. P. Gordon, 1996).
Self-determination is “the ability ‘0 i(lentif '
y and achieve goals based on a
foundation of knowing and valuing oneself" (Field & Hoffinan 1994 I 64
’ » P- ).
Vocational identity is an identity that is built through airfare/maria” and
integration as one confronts work. The Hewness of the experience demands that a new

identity be formed, the goal being the formation of an ego identity for work (Tolbert

1974)-

Research Questions
This investigation focused on the development of the decision-making process.
The F0 1 lowing research questions were posed: How does development of the decision-
making process relate to fiiture decision making? Do urban adolescents’ Black racial
identity, vocational identity, psychological adjustment and coping style predict early

adult 1 i fe style behavior? If so, to what degree?

The following hypotheses were developed to analyze the data collected in this

study :

Ljypothesis 1: Positive scores on the Affects Balance Scale, Adolescent Coping
Orientation for Problem Experiences, My Vocational Situation, and Black Racial

Identity Scale will correlate to positive life decisions and life experiences of the
participants.

 

Hypothesis 2: Negative scores on the Affects Balance Scale, Adolescent Coping
Orientation for Problem Experiences, My Vocational Situation, and Black Racial

Identity Scale will correlate negatively with participants’ decision-making
abilities.

 

 

Hypothesis 3: Male participants will have lower scores on the Affects Balance
Scale, Adolescent Coping Orientation for Problem Experiences, My Vocational

Situation, and Black Racial Identity Scale and will have more negative decisions
as compared to female participants.

24

 

 

LITERATURE REVIEW

. . . - a
Adolescent dec151on making 15 d“WEIOpmental process. MOdeIs ofdeVe 10pmth
Can be used to better understand the process of adolescent decision making. In the
transactional model (Sameroff & Chandler, 1975), age is used to index the developmental
levels that occur sequentially within each of the multiple dimensions. Development is
understood as a continuous interplay between the child, the experiences provided by the
Child ’ 3 environment, and the child’s own effect on the environment. A child’s
deve10pmental outcome results from complex, dynamic transactions between the child’s
consti tutional system (within the child) and the child’s environmental system (outside the
Child) (Eyberg et al., 1997). It can be concluded that the child’s constitutional-system
(Within the child) variables play an important role in the development of the adolescent’s
dCCiSi On-making process.
Some variables such as racial identity, vocational identity, psychological
adjusmlent, and coping styles can influence decision-making development. However,
there i 3 little empirical evidence taking into account the racial identity, vocational
identity, psychological adjustment, and coping styles of the adolescent when studying the
development of decision-making processes. The impact of these factors on the

development of healthy and productive decision-making abilities is described in this

Ch apt er .

The literature review is focused on the effects of racial identity on life decision

making, the effects of vocational identity on decision making, and the effects of

25

 

 

psychological adjustment and coping styles on decision making The Ch
. apter C011
91 udes

with a discussion of how these faCtOrS combum 10 influence adolescent
3, life ch ‘
0' Ces.

Effects of Racial Identit on Life Decision Makin

Ethnic identity refers to “one’ sense of belonging to an ethnic youp and h
t 6 part

 

of one ’ s thinking, perceptions, feelings, and behavior that is due to group membership”
(Rotheram & Phinney, 1987, p. 13). A number of early researchers on ethnic identity and
Similar constructs (i.e., racial identity) assessed the relationship between ethnic group
identity and young people’s self-esteem (K. Clark & Clark, 1939; Cross, 1991; Phillips-
Smith et al., 1999). Racial identity is perhaps the most explored dimension of African

Ameri can life and functioning (Scott, 2003; Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous,

1998) - DeHaan and MacDermid (1998) stated that, despite the importance of identity,

the development of identity in urban adolescents has not been studied extensively.

Interest in this age group, at least in part, is based on the assumption that
ad01eScence is a critical period for the formation of racial and ethnic identity (REI)
(Phinl'l ey & Chavira, 1992; Resnicow et al., 1999). Racial identity theorists have argued

that African Americans differ in the extent and degree to which they identify with their

 

ascribed racial/cultural group (Carter, 1991 ). Each African American moves through
four Sta ges of racial identity development. These stages progress from a slim view of
one’ 3 Culture to a broader view, incorporating all aspects of one’s culture while
understanding other cultures in the larger society. This model has been incorporated into
a ratiOnally constructed scale, the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-B; Helms

& PaJ‘ham, 1985, Plummer, 1995), that measures the four stages of the model: pre-

encounter, encounter, immersion, and internalization. Each stage focuses on the growth

26

 

 

of the individual mentally and how this affeCtS his or her behavior Ident‘
. "y deVel
o
pment

is a major task for all adolescents (D- B- Miller, 1999).

Having entered adolescence with emergent identities that grant Variab]
to race and Black culture, African American adolescents go through a Process 6 S'ahence

0f Identity

exploration (L. D. Scott, 2003). Africam American adolescents progress through these
stages and gain a better understanding or the influence of their culture on their belief
system - The extent to which an African American adolescent ascribes to a racial/ethnic
group will influence his or her decision-making ability. For adolescents who are
members of racial or ethnic minorities, this task (identity development) is particularly
Comp 1 i (sated, given their environment (D. B. Miller, 1999; Spencer & Markstrom-Adams,

1990) - Racial socialization, in turn, fosters racial identity (D. B. Miller, 1999). It has

been SUggested that racial identity and racial socialization foster the adjustment of
Africa—111 American adolescents in the face of race-related adversity (L. D. Scott, 2003; D.
B. Mil ler, 1999; Ward, 1999). Racial socialization and racial identity have been

presented as protective factors for urban African American adolescents (D. B. Miller,

1999) - Arroyo and Zigler (1995) found that racial identity facilitates the development of
Competencies among African American adolescents. Adolescences continue their racial

identity struggle beyond the racial socialization of childhood and come to some

r6801ution of this struggle in the adolescent period (Plummer, 1995).

The assumption that African Americans suffer from an inferiority complex (i.e.,
10W Self-esteem) went unchallenged until the early 19705 (Cross, 1991). If this is the
case, many African American adolescents will have a low view of themselves, which will

lead to making decisions that do not allow them to reach their full potential. Also, this

27

 

 

belief would encourage African American ado\s‘vscents to make rash and th
' Oughtles

decisions because they may feel that nothing 890d Will come from their d S
e

Cisions.

In a review of the literature on African American racjaj identity and Self
‘Conce t

Cross (1991) examined the results from 45 Studies conducted be tween 1939 and 1982 p ’
The author found that 36% of the stud“?8 1' eported a significant positive association
between racial identity and self-esteem. The majority of the 45 studies used children and
teens as participants (N = 34). It is important to point this out because there is a

Con-cl ation between racial identity formation and internal belief system. This internal

belief system provides a framework when evaluating a situation and making decisions to

affect the situation. McCreary, Slavin, and Berry (1996) noted that Afiican American

adolesc ents must develop a strong racial identity in order to overcome the stigma of

negati ve social stereotypes. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that

discrimination is a stressor that has deleterious effects on the mental health of African
Americans (Brown et al., 2000; Scott, 2003; Simons et al., 2002). If the adolescent has a
10W irlternal value system (influenced by social stereotypes), his or her decision-making

ability may be hampered in some way.

Another factor influencing the influence of racial identity on adolescent’s decision
making is insulation. According to the insulation hypothesis, because of racial
segregation in the United States, the majority of African Americans compare themselves
“0‘ With members of the broader society, but with other African Americans. As a result,
African Americans are insulated from the broader society’s negative perceptions of their
racial group, and thus their personal self-esteem is protected (Rowley et al., 1998). In
terms of its protective function, Ward (2000) contended that the development of a sense

Of Black identity that is “unassailable” is the most significant strategy for resisting racial

28

 

oppression and hence is requisite for African American Children and ad
DIEScentS (L.
Scott, 2003). ~ D
If this is the case, African American adOIescents make judgment
. S about the i1-
aetions using their own communlty as a reference Point. The impact on decision-maid
abilities would depend on how the Speci fie Community viewed and evaluated them. ”g
When adolescents identify with and positively value their cultural group membership
(i.e., when they possess high collective self-esteem), they are likely to behave in ways
that are indicative of and consistent with the norms and values of their cultural group
(Constantine, Donnelly, & Myers, 2002). The adolescent, depending on whether he or
She rec eives positive or negative reinforcement from the community, will continue to
make (1 ecisions in that same general fashion.

Adolescents develop a value system that assists them in evaluating individuals
who provide positive and negative support. One important aspect of this value system is
whom the adolescent evaluates as important in his or her community with regard to
PTOViding positive or negative reinforcement for decision making. Most theorists of

faCial identity have assumed that adolescents have accepted their parents’ and the
SOCiety’ s labels of racial identity (Plummer, 1995). Families transmit the values, norms,
and beliefs that are needed by successive generations to cope in an environment in which
race plays a critical role (Demo & Hughes, 1990; D. B. Miller, 1999). The adolescent
makes determinations on the worth of individuals in his or her community and the
importance of their input. The evaluation of individuals will have a direct influence on
how the adolescent makes sense of reinforcement from the community. This evaluation

PTOCeSs will have a direct effect on the types of decisions the adolescent makes.

29

 

 

p
“
p
l
I

 

Effects of Vocational W
11

Before viewing the effects of vocationm identity on decision .
. ty C makmg, it is
necessary to understand career maturl - ateer matuiit
yhas been defined as the
individual’s abilit to make appl'opl’l ate Car Ber choices i ‘

y ’ ncludrng awareness OfWhat [:9
required to make a career decision and the degree to which one ’s choices are both
realistic and consistent over time (Crites, 1 9 76; Ohler, Levinson, & Hays, 1996; King
1989). According to Crites (1971), career maturity includes both affective and cognitive
dimensions. Haynie et a1. (1997) pointed out that acquisition of formal operations is not

a fimction of age, but of maturation. The cognitive dimension of career maturity is

represented by career choice competencies (i.e., career decision-making skills), whereas

T

the affective dimension is represented by attitudes toward the career decision-making
proces 3 (Powell & Luzzo, 1998). A certain level of career maturity must be reached to
allow for effective career exploration. If maturity is not reached, career decision making
will be flawed in some way.
Accounts of adolescent immaturity may be classified into two broad categories:
those attributed to cognitive differences between adolescents and adults (i.e., differences

in the way they think) and those attributed to psychosocial differences (i.e., differences in

 

their Social and emotional maturity) (Steinberg & Cauffrnan, 1996). This is important to
note, because if the African American adolescent has not reached a level of career
mat‘ll‘ity, then his or her decision-making process will be limited. More important, the

desired career path will appear out of reach because the adolescent has not developed the

skill to effectively organize a plan to obtain the desired goal.

Levinson, Ohler, Caswell, & Kiewra (1998) stated that, according to Super, career

matUrity consists of five dimensions: planfulness, exploration, information gathering,

30

 

decision-making. and reality orientation. Using Super’s development: a] Stagesas a coy/w
for understanding the process of decision making, one sees that the A. mean Amen'can
adolescent is belWeen the grth and eXPloratory stages. Each stage has a specific
quality that the adolescent must master. In the growth stage, the focus is on developing
the caPaCity, attitudes, and interest in careers. These aSpects will allow the adolescent to
categOrize career paths into likes and dislikes. This task is the beginning stage of
deClSion making for future activities. The second Stage, exploration, focuses on
anWing Choices, but not completely ruling out Particular choices. This continues With
the development of decision-making skills because the: adolescent now starts to piCK from
the desired paths to select a few desirable career goals-

of
The second stage allows f

further development of decision—making skills. ‘ o“
, . , 60
As is true of racial identity, the adolescent s vocational Identity has an ell
. SS
his or her level of confidence. POWell and LUZZO (1998) said that PQOple who posse
relatively high levels of career maturity are “de t0 achieve successful and sat ‘sfying
l
b ' areness of the career deci sion-m -
careers ecause they (11 Splay aw aklng Process

about alternatives careers and relate their present behavior to fl'ture go 1 3 ofien ”Mk
9 a S. Q

(as cited in Levinson et al., 1998) identified 12 faCtOFS that affect Career .

l’tfhedson
certain populations at risk for expen'encmg career-chmce difficulties. These dplace
. , . - - 8
include low Intelligence, poor education, cultural isolation, low selflesteem k factors
. . . . - - ' 1 /h' ' - cti‘mal
limitations, nontraditional interests, soc1a1 isolation, 0W 1811 Intelligence

. . . pared with
famin and peers, primary caretaker, and primary economic prov1der. Thes

e faCtors Plac
. . . . , . . . . e
women, rural and ethnic minorities, and lndiVldualS Wlth dlsabllmes at high ri

Sk for

car eer-choice problems (Levinson et al-, 1 998). Research has also conSiStently indicat d
e

that members 0 {certain ethnic minority groups may have lower levels of Career maturity

31
—

 

European Alnericans (Luzzo, 1998; Powell & Luzzo, 1998)- L0 ‘ e1- carecrmatm't/

than
t65 a situation in which full exploration of oneself will not be an option, 7771's W171

crea

‘ ' ' t.
1 d to identity fOl'mation at earlier stages and a poss1ble stagnation ofdevelopmen
ea

' '11 have an
Ego identity formation is another aspect of adolescent growth, which W1

' d that
at on youths’ vocational maturity. Blustein, Devenis, & Kidney (1989) state

impa
. - . n . n and
identity aChievement involves the indiVldual gomg through a period of exploratio

' - ‘ ' ‘ on
emerging With a sense of commitment to his or her ego identity. According to ErlkS

. . . d it is

(197 3), adolescence is a time of role experimentation and exploration of the self, an
. ’ /a
through these processes that the adolescent establishes a coherent sense of identity t

. bo‘l
. , ng a
sense of knowing who one is and where one is headed- The adolescent is learnl

s, This

himself or herself and developing a sense of confidence in his or her abilitie

. . she
in oneself relates to how confident the adolescent feels about the deCiSionS he OI

makes.
In a series of smdies, career indecision was related to SBI'lOus psychological

problems, including Situation and characteristic anxiety, self-percentile” diff
[cu I a
[165, and

extemalized attribution (Fugua & Hartman, 1983)- If the adOICScent has I
a 0‘»

confidence in his or her career decision making, the youth will select Caree level 0f

§Ths that he

or she thinks are achievable and easy to reach. The selection may be below t
I}
e

adolescent’s ability level, but achieving at a lower level will allow the adOIeS
Qelit t
o H

face.”
. , - ' ween c -
Finally, It appears that there IS a correlation bet areer Planning and

adolescents’ decision-making abilities. Mortimer et al. (1996) Stated that, because
Work
values are important determinants of vocational choice and actual occupational

destinations, it is important to understand their origins. Because adolescence is an

32

 

 

 

important time for the formation of vocational interests and identity ( Erikson 1973), 1th
reasonable to suppose that work experience would have a significant formative influence
on adolescents’ thinking about the potential rewards to be obtained from work (Mortimer
et a1. , l 996.) Researchers have pointed out the importance of the role that employment
during high “11001 plays in adolescents’ dI'Opping out of school (Ekstrom et al., 1986).

The researchers were focusing on the intrinsic value adolescents gain from holding a job
during high SChOOl- The important point is how much importance the adolescent places
on career Planning and future decision making. If the adolescent has no interest in career
planning, his or her decisions will reflect this lack of interest.

Researchers have discovered that there are some important aspects to adolescent
decision making with regard to future plans. Steinberg, Greenberger, Jacobi, and
Gafduque (l98l) posited three possible consequences of adolescent employment iOY
vocational socialization. The first was that part-time jobs may help adolescents acQUi‘e

attitUdeS, values, habits, and knowledge that will make them better adult workers. This
belief focuses on developing an awareness of the importance to career planning and
making plans for future career exploration and growth. In a related Study, Lindsay and
Knox (1 984) found that high monetary remuneration fostered a decline in intrinsic
values, Whereas autonomous and challenging work strengthened intrinsic values over
time. The importance the African American adolescent places on career planning will
relate directly to how well he or she makes future career decisions. As the adolesce‘“
matures, he or she will be faced with care er exploration and planning. The boner
developed the youth’s Vocational identity, the better his or her decisions Will be and the

happier the adolescent will be with those decisions.

33

me Effects of Psyc hmgisai Adiustment and Germ,
on Decision Makng

To understand the effects of psychological adjustment and coping styles on
decision making, one must first understand how stress affects the individual. Stress can
be vi ewed as the relationship between the individual’s interpretation of a situation and the
environmental aSpects of the situation (Phillips, 1993). More specifically, the stimulus-
response interaction (or relational) definition is based on the belief that there is no clear-
cut way to predict psychological stress as a reaction without reference to the
characteristics of the person (Phillips, 1 993). Thus, Lazarus and Folkman (1984)
suggested that it is more appropriate to View psychological stress as a relationship
between the person and the environment (Phillips, 1993). Two important aspects of
psych010gical adjustment and coping are the individual personality with regard to
adapting to the stressor and the influence of the environment.
CQping with stress has been an important tOpic in current research on acioleScent
development (Chapman & Mullis, 2000; W. Gordon & Caltabiano, 1996; Hastings,
Anderson, & Kelly, 1996; Munford, 1994). Most of the current conceptualizations of
adolescent coping neglect to consider the influence of adolescents’ worldview and
identity on the types ofcoping strategies they may use (Constantine et al., 2002)_ R.
Clark, Novak, and Dupree (2002) stated that adolescent coping iS one indivlClual factor
that may be proximally related to developmental trajectories (Patterson & McCubbin,
1987; Stem & Zevon, 1990), through influencing the untoward PSYChOSOClal and
physiological effects associated with perceived stressors (R. Clark, Anderson, Clark, &
Williams, 1999; Hauber, Rice, Howell, &. Cannon, 1998). African Americans’ CoPlng

strategy will play a role in how well they adjust to different situations the encounter ‘“

their Surroundings. Darwinian thought heavily influences one’5 approach to coping, in

34

which the survival function of coping is emphasized. In this approach, according to
Lazarus and Folkman (1984), coping is ofien defined as acts that control aversive
environmental conditions, thereby lowering psychophysiological disturbance (Phillips,
1993)-

In response to a range of life stressors, the type of coping strategy used by
adolescents is generally related to divergent mental health outcomes (Moos, 2002; L. D.
Scott, 2003). Phillips-Smith et al. (1999) and Blask and Unger (1995) found both ethnic
identity and self-esteem to be related to a sense of personal efficacy. Adolescents learn
W3Ys to adjust to the stress of their environment while continuing to grow and mature

under the adverse conditions. Researchers have suggested that parents play an

instrumental role in introducing modes of affect regulation and coping strategies to

YoUttlS (Chapman & Mullis, 1999; R. Clark et al., 2002; Melnick & Hinshaw, 2.000}
Constantine et al. (2002) and Daly, Jennings, Beckett, and Leashore (1995) also «ported
that When African Americans were faced with stressful situations, they used family and
Commtltlity-based resources to cope. The environment teaches adolescents ways to
behave that reduce stress levels while shaping the adolescentS’ cognitive development.

Lgokjng more closely at the cognitive development of adolescents, thei r ability to
appraise any given situation will play an important role in What types 0f decisions they
make to handle the stressors. Lazarus’s theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) emphasizes
the Person’s appraisal of what is being eXperienced and the use of this information for
coping and shaping the course of events. The processes of COgnitive appraisal and coping
are critical mediators of stressful person-environment relations and their immediate and

long-range outcomes. Before a coping strategy is selected, a stressor must be appralSCd

3S

(Renk & Creasey, 2003). The adolescent must be able to assess any given situationmd
then make a decision on how to best handle the situation.

The developmental level of the appraisal process will have an influence on the
adolescent’s ability to cope with any given stressor. Symptoms of depression are more
prevalent and more frequent during adolescence than in earlier stages of development
(Wolraich, Felice, & Drotar, 1997). Early parent-child transactions involving insecure

attachInent also have been implicated in the development of depression (Cummings &
Cicchetti, 1990). These influences do not allow for proper development of the appraisal
process, Which can lead to maladjustments to StI‘CSSfiJl situations. Inappropriate
PSYChOlOgical adjustment will affect the selection of the coping style. If this occurs, the
adolescent will not be able to respond effectively to the stressful situation. PerhapS it is
the level of maturity of these cognitive skills that allows the adolescent to engage in the
kinds of thinking associated with depression, such as guilt, hopelessness, and selt‘c iiica‘
comparisons with others in the peer culture (Eyberg et al., 1997).

As the adolescent makes sense of a situation, he or she will make appraisals
focusing on decisions to affect the situation. The two means of appraisal addressed in
Lazarus ’ s theory are primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal refers
to the COgnitive process of evaluating the significance of a situation for one’s Well being
(Phillips, 1993). The adolescent must be able to understand What iS going on in any
given Si tuation and determine the effects on his or her growth and development. The
appraisa] refers to evaluating the outcomes from an abstract point of view. Adojescents
need to be able to see how their actions Will affect them at that time and later.

Secondary appraisa] refers to a process of evaluating what, if any’thin g, can be

done to manage threatening or challenging situations (Phillips, 1993). This refers to

36

adolescents making decisions to handle a specific situation. The eve-.1 ”ation process My
occurred, where the adolescent views his or her options and now it is time to act. The
major issue is whether the youth Will make a positive or a negative decision. This
decision will affect the specific situation and will be used as a reference whenever a
similar situation occurs.

Along with the appraisal process, Strategies have to be selected to address the
situation. Renk and Creasey (2003) stated that strategies may include problem-focused
coping, which is employed when the individual determines that a harmful, threatening, or
challenging situation is amenable to change, or emotion-focused coping, which occurs
when it is judged that nothing can be done to modify a. harmful, threatening, or
Challenging situation. Traditionally, it has been reported that males tend to endorse more
active, problem-focused coping strategies than females (Folkman & Larazus, 193‘” in

contrast to males, females often endorse more emotion- than problem-focused coping
strategies (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980) and seek more social support (Houtman, 1990;
Renk & Creasey, 2003). Research with other populations of adolescents (e.g., Bird &
Harris, 1 990) has suggested that females tend to use more peaceful, less ViOIent methods
0f coping with stress. In contrast, males have been reported to be aggreSSive and to
ventilate their feelings through the use of swearing and taking anger 0‘“ 0“ others (Bird
& Harri s, 1990; Chapman & Mullis, 2000), The ability to select the correct or most
appropri ate coping strategy can influence the outcome of a situation and how the

adolescent adjusts to the problem.

37

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

The Participants

The participants in this study were 179 college freshmen. Due to missing data,
only 1 44 participants were used for this study. The sample was considered “at-ris ” on
the basis of their residential areas being labeled low social economic status (SES). Low
SES is considered as having a family income below or near the national poverty level
standards. The sample’s racial/ethnic make-up was African American, as self-identified
by the students. All students had completed high school and were first-time college
students. College freshmen were selected as participarlts because adolescent decision—
making processes have not been extensively researched, despite an awareness of the
importance of problem solving and decision making during this stage of humall

development (Friedman, 1996; Friedman & Mann, 1993; Mann, Harmoni, & Power,

1989). The definition of adolescence was expanded to include 18- and 19-year~old

college Students.

The Research Setting

I contacted the Office of supportive Services at a large, predominantly White

midwestem university. This office conducts programs and activities that target “at-risk

and underrepresented” high school students and provides support during the ir college

careers. The programs and activities provided are mentoring initiatives (resldenha

fellows and student assistants), academic guidance (time management, Orientation
seminars, stress management, and study skills), tutorial assistance (math enrichment and

general tutor support), research opportunities (McNair/SROP), scholarships, career

38

planning and exploration, student employment, and a summer university progaIn- 01%.,
activities this office conducts are welcome orientations for incoming Students,
orientations for their parents, open houses, parents’ visitation day, a recognition program
for student achievement, and an honor society (Chi Alpha Epsilon).

The ethnic/racial classification 0f the Students includes African American, Native
American, Latino/a, Asian American, and White. These students come from
predominantly urban communities and/or low-SE8 communities, or are first-generation
college students. The activities provided are designed to help students with their
adjustment to college, as well as to promote their academic performance. The focus of

the office is to increase retention rates, facilitate academic success, and enhance

graduation rates among students in its programs.

Instrumentation
The following instruments were selected on the basis of two considerati ens:
simplicity and familiarity. These instruments are easy to complete and effective with
participarlts. Each instrument takes no longer than 20 minutes to complete, and a

selection of answers is provided. Minimizing the time to complete instruments was key

in gaining student participation. Previous research using these instrumentS indicated no

difficulty in participants’ completing the measures. The ability to sample many

participants in a short time frame was a major factor in the selection of these instruments.

The element of Short tum-around time was important, as was 6356 of scoring the

instruments and coding the results.

The second faetor affecting the Selection of these instruments was my familiarity
with the use of these instruments. In a previous study, I had used some of these

meaSm‘ES. lfelt comfortable using the instruments and have witnessed their efTeCtiveness

39

a n d efficiency_ The instruments are simple to use and analyze. T he; se 16 Ctz'o a 0 f. “we

instruments aimed at on keeping data collection simple,

Scale-Form B

Black Racial Identit Attitude

. . , &
The BaCk Racial Identity Attitude Scale-Form B (BRIAS; Y aruco, Swanson

' 'can
Tokar 1 994) is a self-report attitude scale Wlth a construct base focused on Mn

Americans’ racial/ethnic identity attitudeS (See Appendix A). Identity is measured on

four subscales- Pre-encounter, Encounter, Immersion/Emersion, and internalization.

Carter (1991) defined each subscale. During the pre-encounter stage, individuals
devalue racial/ethnic groups and try to deny their membership in a particular raCial/ethnic
group, During the encounter stage, individuals “pad ence Challenges to their anti-Black
attitudes_ During the immersion/emerson stage, indiViduals become deeply invested in
diSCOVefing their Black culture. They idealize Black cultural ideals and develop intense
emOtionS toward their Black identitY- During the internalization Stage, individuals

Internal i 26 a positive Black identitY- They develop an awareness and acceptance of living

m a mu 1 tinational structure. Responses are made on a Swim Liken'type rating scale
The r ati :n gs range from strongly agree to “’0"eg disagree. Internal reliability

consist§ncy coefficients range from .50 to .79.

M V9 Cational Situation

My Vocational Situation (MVS; Wiggins & Moody, 1981) is a hand-scored
.eeXperi mental diagnostic fom” to help counselors select the most effective treatment for
vocati Qma‘ clients (see Appendix A). The measure is used as a screening device for
\ocati1~1 g high schools, colleges, and adult programs for which students need intensive

- ' I'CS' on] one is described as a scale,
Career Counseling. The MVS contains three measu , y

40

 

the 18-item true-false Vocational Identity Scale (VI). The VI score consists of the
number of false responses. The other two measures are used as checklist indicators. The
Occupational Information (01) measure lists four types of career information useful for
career exploration. The Barriers (B) measure lists four possible hazards to career
exploration. For all measures, high scores are interpreted as favorable outcomes.

KR-ZO reliability is estimated to be greater than .80 for the VI scale. The
reliability of the OI measure is lower for college students (.79) and much lower for high
school students (.39). The reliability of the (B) measure is low for college students (.45)

and very low for high school students (.23).

Affects Balance Scale

The Affects Balance Scale (ABS; Derogatis, 1975) is a self-report mood scale
focused on the idea that healthy psychological adjustment or psychological well-being is
represented by the manifestation of positive affects along with the relative absence of
negative emotions (see Appendix A). Mood and affect states are represented in the ABS
by four positive affect components (joy, contentment, vigor, and affection) and four
negative affect components (anxiety, depression, guilt, and hostility). The overall score,
the Affect Balance Index (ABI), reflects the balance between positive affects and
negative-emotion responses. The larger the ABI score, the more positive the individual’s
psychological adaptation. The ABS is composed of 40 items and takes from 3 to 5

minutes to complete.

[At—(19.1%“ Comnfig Orientation for Problem Experiences
The Adolescent Coping Orientation for Problem Experiences (A-Cope; Patterson

& MCCubbin, 1984) instrument is designed to identify the behaviors adolescents find

41

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

f:

SI

{/7

 

 

helpful in managing problems or difficult situations (see Appendix A). The normal
development of an adolescent centers on the search for an identity, both as part of a peer
group and as an individual, with specific emphasis on social, psychological, and physical
aspects. The need to develop normally, independent from one’s family, and to discover
one’s uniqueness frequently creates a conflict environment in the family. The 95-item
measure is grouped to conceptualize the following patterns of coping: ventilating
feelings, seeking diversions, developing self-reliance and optimism, developing social
support, solving family problems, being humorous, relaxing, engaging in demanding
activities, seeking professional support, investing in close friends, and avoiding problems.
Each coping strategy is represented by a subscale score. The instrument is grounded on
the belief that adolescents will use different styles of coping when dealing with day-to—

day situations. The A-COPE takes approximately 10 minutes to complete.

Risk Involvement and Perception Sca_le

The Risk Involvement and Perception Scale measures perceptions of the benefits
and risks of a number of behaviors and involvement in such behaviors (Siegel et al.,
1994) (see Appendix A). This instrument contains three separate scales: involvement in
risk behavior, perception of benefit associated with risk behavior, and perception of
negative consequences associated with risk behavior. The measure used in this study is a
modified version of the original instrument. The items include behaviors that are illegal
for all people, those that are inappropriate for younger age groups, and those that involve
some measure of social or physical risk for all people (Lavery et al., 1993). Participants
respond to a Likert—type scale ranging from 0 (never) to 8 (daily or more) for all three
scales. Test/retest reliability coefficients over a 2-week period ranged from .72 to .97 for

the involvement scale. The test/retest reliability for the perception of risk scale over a 2-

42

 

week period ranged from .43 to .81, whereas the reliability for the perception of benefit
scale over a 2-week period ranged from .33 to .82. The test/retest Cronbach’s alpha
correlations were .72 for the involvement scale, .87 for the perception of risk scale, and
.77 for the perception of benefit scale, demonstrating adequate internal consistency

(Lavery et al., 1993).

W

The full data sheet contains questions addressing the current situation of the
participants (see Appendix F). Participants were asked for background information
concerning their age, gender, ethnic/racial background, year in school, and current
employment. Other questions focused on the number of immediate family members,
salary of parents, marital status of parents, and highest educational level of each parent.

The information gathered on the data sheet is described in the Results section.

Procedure

I contacted the Office of Supportive Services located at the large, predominantly
White midwestem university that was the study site to discuss the pr0posed research.
The project focused on “at-risk” students entering the college. The director of the Office
of Supportive Services received a presentation discussing the intentions of the researchers
and the projected outcome of the interventions focused on student performance. After the
director of the Office of Supportive Services evaluated the project, it was approved.

Staff in the Office of Supportive Services provided mailing labels for all African
American freshmen associated with their office. The pool of participants came from the
list of students provided by the Office of Supportive Services. The students were sent a

packet of information covering the research project, a copy of each measure, a

43

 

 

 

demographic data sheet, a consent form, and a mailing address to which they should
return the information. The students were introduced to the study and asked to complete
the measures. Upon completion of the measures, the students mailed the packets to the
mailing address included in the information. The data were passed to the primary
researcher for data analysis.

In the selected programs, the targeted at-risk students were provided with
information about the project. As students received their packets in the mail, they had the
opportunity to decide whether or not to participate. Each packet consisted of the BRIAS,
MVS, ABS, A-COPE, Risk Involvement and Perception Scale, the demographic form,
Consent Form (see Appendix B), an introduction sheet (see Appendix B), and
instructions (see Appendix B). In total, 700 packets were distributed. After reviewing
the packets that were returned, I discovered that only 179 were fully completed and the
consent forms returned. As a result, 179 potential participants were eligible for this
study. However, due to missing data, only 144 participants were involved in the study.

After completing the measures, students returned the packets and I coded them.
The participants received a short explanation of the focus of the study and the importance
0f their participation. If any participants reported being distressed from the experience,
they were provided with counseling and/or debriefing to assist in the area where distress
occurred. The selected programs received a thank-you for their participation. Likewise,

the Office of Supportive Services received a thank-you for their participation and

assistance.

44

Data Analysis

A nonexperimental and correctional design was used in this study. The internal
validity of the study was low because the independent variables were not manipulated
systematically. The study comprised a representative sample of the larger population.
Participants were grouped according to gender, males and females, producing two groups
for comparison purposes. There was no control group. The participants came from the
pool of students who returned the informed consent forms, signed by their parents and
themselves.

Multiple linear regression analyses were performed to analyze the association
between life decision making (dependent variable) and racial identity, vocational identity,
psychological adjustment, and coping. The BRIAS was used to measure racial identity.
The MVS scale was used to measure vocational identity. The ABS was used to measure
psychological adjustment. The A-COPE was used to measure coping styles for problem
experiences. The Risk Involvement and Perception Scale was used to measure the
dependent variable, life decision making. The level of significance chosen for this study
Was p < .05. This p value was selected because standard levels of significance are
measured at a p value of .05 or lower.

A demographic analysis also was conducted. Parents’ educational level, marital
status of parents, level of family income, and age of participant were analyzed to see
whether they had any effect on participants’ decision-making abilities. The level of
significance chosen for this analysis was p < .01. This p value was selected because an

effect was noticed relating to the demographic variables of the participants, but it was not

significant at the .05 level.

45

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The data were collected over a 4—month period. This study was conducted during
spring semester 2003. Originally, there were 179 potential participants, but due to
missing data, only 144 participants were used in the analysis. Multiple linear regression
analysis was used. In this analysis, there were 5 degrees of freedom (df) with a p value of
.0002. The sum of squares was 21.445 and the mean square was 4.289. The R2 value
was .158. Based on the overall analysis of this study, there were significant findings and
the multiple linear regression model was useful.

The p value used for indicating statistical significance was .05 (p < .05) for each
dependent variable. This p value was used with the original linear multiple regression
model: (dm = bri + mvs + abs + aco) decision-making = racial identity + vocational
identity + psychological adjustment + coping. The independent variables were racial
identity, vocational identity, psychological adjustment, and c0ping strategies. The
dependent variable was decision making.

The demographic variables used in this study were participants’ age, gender,
educational level of parents (mother and father), family income, and marital status of
parents. A second linear multiple regression model was run. The original model, which
included the dependent variable (decision making) and the independent variables (racial
identity, vocational identity, psychological adjustment, and coping styles), was used, and
the demographic variables were used to make the second model. The analyses of the
demographic variables indicated statistical significance at p < .01. This value was

selected because there was no significant effect at the standard p value of .05. Thus, to

46

show that the demographic variables had some effect on the dependent variable (decision
making), the p value was reduced to .01.

Participants’ personal information is shown in Table 1. The demographic
variables were age of participant, gender, mother’s educational level, father’s educational
level, SES level of family, and marital status of the participant’s parents. The
participants’ age was either 18 or 19 years. Gender was either male or female. The
values assigned to parent’s educational level (mother or father) were 1 for grade school, 2
for high school, 3 for college, and 4 for graduate school (master’s degree, doctorate,
medical school, or law school). Family income was categorized as follows: (1) $0-
$10,000, (2) $10,000—S20,000, (3) $20,000-S300,000, (4) $30,000-$40,000, (5) $40,000-
$50,000, (6) $50,000-S75,000, (7) $75,000-S100,000, and (8) $100,000 or more. The
values assigned for marital status were (1) for single, (2) for married, (3) for divorced,

and (4) for widowed.

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of participants.

 

 

 

The SAS System 85
The FREQ Procedure

AGE

Cumulative Cumulative
AGE Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

18 53 46.90 53 46.90
19 60 53.10 113 100.00

Frequency Missing = 66

47

Table 1: Continued.

 

 

 

Class Level Information
Class Levels Values
gender 1 fema
Ed_MOM 3 2 3 4
Ed_DAD 4 1 2 3 4
marital 4 1 2 3 4
Number of observations 179
The SAS System 244
The FREQ Procedure

Ed_MOM

Cumulative Cumulative
Ed_MOM Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

 

 

 

l 1 0.62 1 0.62

2 39 24.07 40 24.69
3 102 62.96 142 87.65
4 20 12.35 162 100.00

Frequency Missing = 17

Ed_MOM is broken into the following categories: (1) grade school, (2) high school,
(3) college, (4) graduate school (master’s, doctorate, medical school, or law school)

Ed_DAD

Cumulative Cumulative
Ed_DAD Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

 

 

1 3 1.90 3 1.90
2 28 17.72 31 19.62
3 85 53.80 116 73.42
4 42 26.58 158 100.00

Frequency Missing = 21

48

Table 1: Continued.

 

 

 

Ed__DAD is broken into the following categories: (1) grade school, (2) high 8011001,
(3) college, (4) graduate school (master’s, doctorate, medical school, or law school)

 

 

 

 

SES
Cumulative Cumulative
SES Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
1 10 6.62 10 6.62
3 16 10.60 26 17.22
4 12 7.95 38 25.17
5 14 9.27 52 34.44
6 27 17.88 79 52.32
7 29 19.21 108 71.52
8 43 28.48 151 100.00

Frequency Missing = 28

SES is broken into the following categories:

 

 

(1) 010,000 (2) 1000020000
(3) 20,000-30,000 (4) 3000040000
(5) 40000-50000 (6) 50,000-75,000
(7) 75,000-100,000 (8) 100,000 or more
Marital Status
M . Cumulative Cumulative
ant£11 Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
\f gfl/
1 21 12.96 21 12.96
2 123 75.93 144 88.89
3 13 8.02 157 96.91
5 3.09 162 100.00

Fre ,
qufincy Mrssing = 17

M ' . _
(1:11;t 5.] status is broken into the folloWIn g categorres:
111 $16 (2) married (3) divorced (4) wrdowed

 

 

\/ W! K

 

 

49

Based on the multiple linear regression analysis run using the independent
variables of racial identity, vocational identity, psychological adjustment, and coping,
there was a Significant finding related to psychological adjustment
(F <- 000” The findings indicated that healthy psychological well-being has a positive
impact on the ability to make effective decisions. There was also a significamt finding
related to raCial identity (F = .0407). The results also indicated that there is a negative
relationship between racial identity and decision-making. The results show that a
positive racial identity development can have a negative effect on making positive

decisions. Looking at the analysis relating to gender, there is no significant relationShlp'

Using a p value of .05 for significance, the value of .1216 shows no significant effect on
decision making based on the gender of the participant. Table 2 ShoWS the resuils for

independent variable.

Table 2: Significant independent variables (linear multiple regressi on).

\

 

 

The SAS System
The GLM Procedure
Number of observations 179

NO '
TE 3 Due to missing values, only 144 observatrons could be used in this an I
a YSis.

De
pel"Idem Variable: m_dm m_dm

8 Sum Of
QDul’Ce DF Squares Mean Square F Value Pr > F

godel 5 21.4448625 4.2889725 5.17 0.0002
‘Tror 138 114.5214539 0.8298656

Q Qnected Total 143 135.9663163

50

336“

 

Table 2'. Continued.

 

 

________’___,,_______..————-

R-Square Coeff Var Root MSE m_dm Mean

0.157722 43.51955 0.910970 2.093242

Source DF Type 111 SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F

gendem 1 2.01338579 2.01338579 2.43 0.1216
m_bri 1 3.54289200 354289200 4.27 0.0407
m_mvs 1 0.29006006 029006006 0.35 0.5553
m_abs l 14.90804185 14.90804185 17.96 <.0001
m_aco 1 0.02809923 0.02809923 0.03 0.8543
Variables: Gendem: Male 01' female
M bri: Black Racial Identity
M_mvs: Vocational Identity
M—abs; Psychological adjustrnem
M:aco: Coping style
Parameter Estimate Error t Value Pr > M

Intercept 0806957683 0.90737285 0.89 0.3754
gendem -0.319370583 0.20503844 -l.56 0,1216

m_bri -0.359504367 0.17399193 -2.07 0.0407
m_mvs 0061876546 010466127 -0.59 0. 5 553
m_abs 1.191071656 018101627 4.24 <,0001

m_aco 0046085041 025044745 0.18 0.8543

 

\f //

\
Along with the linear regression analysis, an analysis of variance was run to
detefihine the effects of each independent variable (racial identity, vocational identity
p sy C11 Qlogical adjustment, and coping) on the dependent variable, decision making, AS
Show,“ in Table 3, only two independent variablcsuracial identity (bri) and pSyChOIOSiCal
adjustment (abs)--had an effect on deCiSiOU making. The table shows racial identity With
an Opposite effect on decision making (significant at '040) and a positive effect on

DSYQhological adjustment (p < .0001). The table also shows no effect between male and

51

 

female participants. The analysis of variance showed gender at .138, Which is not
significant. Finally, a stepwise regression model showed that two variables were
significant at the .10 level. These variables are psychological adjustment and racial

identity. These findings support the results reported earlier from the linear multiple

regression analysis.

Table 3: Significant independent variables and gender.

 

Analysis of Variance

Sum of Mean
Source df Squares Square F Value Pr > F

Model 3 21.09557 7.03186 8.57 <,0001
Error 140 1 14.87074 0.8205 1
Corrected Total 143 13596632

Parameter Std.
Variable Estimate Error Type 11 SS F Value Pr > F

Intercept 0.78664 0.69224 1.05956 1.29 0.2577
gendem -0.30180 0.20201 1.83135 2.23 0,1374
m_bri -0.35853 0.17294 3.52658 4.30 0.0400

m_abs 1.18087 0.24857 18.51714 22.57 <.0001

Bounds on condition number: 1.1218, 9.7482

All variables left in the model are significant at the .10 level.

No other variable met the .10 significance level criterion for entry into the mode]
The SAS SyStem 258
The REG Procedure
Model: MODELI

Dependent Variable: m_dm m_dm

52

 

Table 3: Continued.

 

 

 

Summary of Stepwise Selection

Variable Variable Number Partial ModelStep Entered Removed Label
Vars in R-Square R-Square C(p) F Value Pr>F

m_abs m_abs 1 0.1244 0.1244 3.4519 20.18 <.0001
m_bri m_bri 2 0.0172 0.1417 2.6277 2.83 0.0946
Stepwise Selection: Step 2

Parameter Standard
Variable Estimate Error Type II SS F Value Pr > F

Intercept 0.43560 0.65398 0.36721 0.44 0.5064
m_bri -o.27756 0.16494 2.34372 2.83 0.0946
m_abs 1.13458 0.24771 17.36369 20.98 <.0001

/
Afier running the first multiple linear regression without the demographic
variables included, the effects of the demographic variables on the ability to rnake
effective decisions were investigated. A second regression Was run. The second multil’le
linear regression analysis including the demographic variables of age, level offamily
income (SES), parents’ educational level (mother’s and father’s separately), and marital
status of parents with the independent variables of racial identity, vocational identity,
psychological adjustment, and coping. There was a significant effect regarding marital
status ofparents (F < .0249) when using the p value of .01 for significance. The p Value
of .01 was selected because no significant effects were noticed using the .05 value.
Looking at these results, it can be seen that psychological adjustment had a significant
effect (p = .05, F < .008), lending further support to the notion that psychological
adjustment has an effect on the ability to make effective or positive decisions. Table 4

shows the results related to this multiple regression analysis.

53

 

 

Table 4: Significant demographic and independent variables (combined multiple
regression.

 

 

Source df Type III SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F
AGE 1 2.53701607 2.53701607 3.11 0.0812
SES 1 0.983911 68 0.98391168 1.21 0.2749
Ed_MOM 2 2.21369689 1 . 10684844 1.36 0.2620
marital 3 8.00426659 2.66808886 3.27 0.0249
m_bri 1 0.01693481 001693481 0.02 0.8857
m_mvs 1 5.25903538 525903538 6.45 0.0128
m_abs 1 5.929297 00 532929700 7.27 0.0084
m_aco 1 0.902464 1 2 090246412 1 .1 1 0.2956

A t test was conducted to evaluate the effect, if any, of the marital status of
Participants’ parents. A difference was found in the effect on decision making 9f three Of
the four marital status categories: single, married, and divorced. It appears that such
statuses had a strong effect on participants’ decision making. Single status had at value
of -3.16, married had a t value of —1 .33, and divorced had at value of -2.06. This
indicates that single and divorced parents have a large influence on how their children
make decisions.

Table 5 shows the results of a t test comparing the various types of marital
statuses. The results indicated that participants whose parents have different marital
statuses have differing decision making abilities. There is a stronger effect on decision
making if the participant’s parents are single (category 1); that iS, these participants make
better decisions than those who are being raised by a widowed parent (category 4). It is
interesting that participants raised by single parents (category 1) make better decisions

than those with married parents (category 2).

54

 

 

 

Table 5: The effect of marital status of participants’ parents on their decision making.

 

 

 

Standard
Parameter Estimate Error 1 Value Pr > M
Intercept 1.732320067 B 0.75464133 2.30 0.0234
AGE -0.016743702 0.00867381 -1.93 0.0559
marital 1 -1.466556143 B 0.46447988 -3.16 0.0020
marital 2 -0.540724778 B 0.40524419 -1.33 0.1846
marital 3 -0.963420596 B 0.46680392 -2.06 0.0412
marital 4 0.000000000B . . .
m_mvs -0.l94243771 0. 11034054 -1.76 0.0809
m_abs 0.808570095 0.26832474 3.01 0.0032
Difference 95%
Marital Between Confidence
Comparison Means Limits
4 - 2 0.4514 -0.3646 1.2674
4 - 3 0.8693 -0.0720 1.8106
4 - 1 1.2527 0.3626 2.1428*
2 - 4 —O.45 14 -1.2674 0.3646
2 - 3 0.4179 -0.1037 0.9396
2 - 1 0.8013 0.3790 1.2237*
3 - 4 -0.8693 -1.8 1 06 0.0720
3 - 2 -0.4179 -0.9396 0.1037
3 - 1 0.3834 -0.2479 1.0146
1 - 4 -1.252‘7 -2.1428 -0.3626*
1 - 2 41.8013 -1.2237 -0.3790*
1 - 3 -0.3834 -1.0146 0.2479

*Significant at the .05 level.

Marital status comparison

Alpha .05
Error (If 158
Error Mean Square 0.820195
Critical Value oft 1.975090

 

 

 

55

 

 

The means, standard deviations, and minimums of each variable used in the
original linear multiple regression (dm= bri + mvs + abs + aco) are shown in Table 6.

Also shown is a matrix comparison of all variables involved in the first linear multiple

regression equations.

Table 6: Means, standard deviations, and minimums of variables (matrix comparison

of variables.
/

Means, SD and minimum

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The SAS System 246
The MEANS Procedure
Variable Label N Mean Std Dev Minimum Maximum
f...
m dm m dm 167 2.033 1 082 0.9470770 0.4736842 5.3684211
m_bri m’bn‘ 145 2.5225566 0.4606855 1.2666667 3.5666667
m_mvs m—mvs 131 2.5962680 0.7393378 1.0555556 4.4444444
m_abs m Tabs 167 2.0802318 0.2985754 1.2250000 2.7000000
m—aco m:aco 167 2.9886140 0.3328124 1.9814815 4.0377358
_ J
Variables: Gendem: Male or female
M_bri: Black racial identity
M__mvs: Vocational identity
Mflabs: Psychological adjustment
M__aco: Coping style
Correlation information matrix
The CORR Procedure
5 Variables: m_dm m_bri m_mvs m_abs m_aco
Simple Statistics

Variable N Mean Std Dev Sum Minimum Maximum Label

m_dm 167 2.03311 0.94708 339.52907 0.47368 5.36842 m_dm

m_bri 145 2.52256 0.46069 365.77071 1.26667 3.56667 m_bri

m_mvs 131 2.59627 0.73934 340.11111 1.05556 4.44444 m_mvs

m~abs 167 2.08023 0.29858 347.39872 1.22500 2.70000 m_abs

m_aco 167 2.98861 0.33281 499.09853 1.98148 4.03774 m_aco

56

 

Table 6: Continued.

 

 

 

m_dm
m_dm

m_bri
m_bri

m_mvs
m_m vs

m_abs
m_abs

m_aco
m_aco

Pearson Correlation Coefficients
Prob > M under HO: Rho=0
Number of Observations

m_dm
1 .00000
1 67

-0. 12466
0.13520
145

-0.00525
0.95260
131

0.32678
<.0001
167

0.16033
0.03850
16"!

 

m_bri

-O.12466
0.13520
145

1 .00000
145

-0.14876
0.11100
116

0.03396
0.68510
145

-0.01 884
0.82200
145

m_mvs

-0.00525
0.95260
131

-0.l4876
0.11100
116

1.00000
131
0.16543
0.05900
131
-0.07235

0.41150
131

m_abs

0.32678
< .0001
167

0.03396
0.68510
145

0.16543
0.05900
1 31
1.00000
167
0.41606

<.0001
167

 

m_aco

0.16033
0.03850
167

—0.01884
0.82200
145

-0.07235
0.41150
131
0.41606
<.0001
167
1.00000

167

 

57

 

 

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, LIMITATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Discussion of PM
This study was undertaken to investigate the decision-making abilities of

adolescents. The questions under investigation Were whether higher scores on the
Affects Balance Scale, Adolescent Coping orientation for Problem Experiences, My
Vocational Situation, and Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale would be correlated With
participants’ making better decisions; whether particip ants receiving lower scores on the
Affects Balance Scale, Adolescent Coping Orientation for Problem Experiences, My
Vocational Situation, and Black Racial Identity Attitude Scales would make worse

decisions; and whether male participants would receive lower scores on the Affects

Balance Scale, Adolescent Coping Orientation for Problem Experi ences, My Vocational

Situation, and Black Racial Identity Attitude Scales and W011“ make more negative
decisions as compared to female participants. The most important consequence of
approaching deCiSions is that an individual would be very likely to attain his Or her goal
(Bymes et al., 1999).
Based on the results from this study, two significant conclusions can be drawn,

First, there iS a positive effect or conneCtion between psychological adjustment and
decision making. Second, there is a negative effect or correlation between racial identity
and decision making. For an individual to be consistently successful (regarding his or her
deci Signs), the person’s beliefs about Options and strategies must be accurate (Bymes et
al., 1 999). Accurate appraisal is key in productive decision making and affects the

outcome of the decision.
58

Looking more closely at the first effect, psychological adjustment measured by
the Affects Balance Scale showed an effect on the participants’ deci Sion-making ability.
This result demonstrates that having good psychological well-being will influence how
situations are evaluated and the selection of options to handle situations. PeOple in
positive moods may be more likely to generate positive as opposed to negative
consequences (Bower & Cohen, 1982; Ganzel, 1999) Mood may affect the assessment 0 f
probabilities (Deldin & Lewin, 1986; Ganzel, 1999). Having a clear understanding of
what is going on around them and being able to handle stressful/difficult situations can
influence how people decide to resolve particular situations. Individual need to have
established a good sense of psychological adjustment and abilities to handle stressful

experiences.

The finding of a positive correlation between decision making and psychological
adjustment shows that there is a need to help adolescents develop DOSitiVC psychological
well-being and provide assistance in using g00d adjustment skills in handling life
experiences. Secure outcomes such as social acceptance (Vemberg, 1990),
psychological well-being (Notaro, Miller, 8‘ Zimmerman, 1998)’ high self-esteem
(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991), and less problem behavior (COOper, ShaVer, &
Collins, 1998) are direct results of go“! psychological well-being. AdOIescents reporting
secure attachment to friends also have better overall psychological functioning (Miller,
Notaro, & Zimmerman, 2002; Savin-Williams & Bemdt, 1990). EXperimentation With a
wide range of behaviors is seen as a prevalent activity associated With healthy
psychomgicai deve10pmentmme1mann, 1990; Siege] et al., 1994; Steinberg, 1993).

RESe archers, parents, teachers/prOfCSSOI'S, and mentors can use this inform3tion to guide

59

adolescents in gaining confidence in their ability to handle psycholo gica] stress and
respond in a positive fashion.

The second finding from this study is a negative correlation between racial
identity measured by the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale and decision making. This
result shows that racial identity had a negative effect on how adolescents made their
decisions. The participant may have a high sense of self (personal identity). This
unrealistic self-appraisal has caused some researchers to suggest a linkage between
adolescent egocentrism and risk taking, based on a faulty “it can’t happen to me” point 0f
view (Lavery et al., 1993). Research on the evaluation of consequences most often has
focused on the ability to estimate probability; adolescents do not do this well (Ganzel,
1999). It is plausible that, in American society, some young people might receive
messages that communicate to them that opportunities for their ethnic group are bloclted
and, thus, that opportunities for self may also be affected (Bowman & Howard, 1985',
Phillips, 1993). The participants are still developing their sense ofthemselves as we“ as
moving into a new eXperience (college life). As young people grow and become more

aware 0f the social perceptions derived from their ethnicity, then ethnic identity and self-
esteem may begin to converge (Phillips-Smith et al., 1999). This may affeCt their
comfort level regal-ding their identity development.

Strong identity development may influence adolescent to try things, which they
may not have Considered before. Phillips (1993) referred to Fordham and Ogbu (1986),
Who suggested that maintaining a strong ethnic identity might Present problems in

negotiating schooling in the United States. Afiican Americans who incorporate their race
as a central aspect of their identities are likely to go through a process of“tecycling”

whereby their perspectives and insights regarding their blackness are constantly

6O

 

 

 

rewarded, enhanced, and refined by new eXperi ences and encounters (Cross & Fbagen-
Smith, 200l', Scott, 2003). The confidence level is high, so the risk—taking behavior may
be increased as a by-product of this level of confidence.

Another consideration related to the second finding is the fact that there is a level
of risk-taking behavior related to being a college freshman. Being a college freshman,
especially being away from home for the fiI‘St time, will encourage students to try new
things and not be concerned about the outcomes, Based largely on Cross’s model of

nigrescence, pre-encounter attitudes can be Characterized as pro-White and anti-Blaek-

Individuals may ignore particular aspects of a decision problem, or use a

noncompensatory decision strategy (Ganzel, 1999; Payne, Betterrnan & Johnson, 1990)-

First, many individuals do not engage in form a] rational manipulation Of
information presented in decision-making situations (Bafgh & Chartrand, 1999)'
Specifically, they do not engage in controlled processing of the CO sts, benefits, and fiSkS
involved in the problem situation (Edelstein, 2000). The fact that there is more freedom
for students and the impact of the decision is less can encourage Students to try more

risky behavior.

Regardless of whether pros and cons derive from features of objects 0r features of
actions, decision makers need to combine all of this information in order to compute
goodness values (Bymes & McClenny, 1 994)- Adolescents With more experience
participating in a risky behavior hold stronger beliefs that panicipation in the behavior
could both enhance positive and reduce negative affective states (Caffray & Schneider,

2000). Because students are more seCUre in who they are, their risk-taking behavior may

be increased.

61

 

The other two variables under investigation, vocational identity and coping, did
not have a significant effect on the participants’ ability to make decisions. Also, gender
did not have a significant effect on decision making. The result of no significant effect 0f
vocational identity measured by My Vocational Situation can be understood in light of
the fact that participants at this age may not have their academic/career plans in place.
There may still be changes and adjustments being made for the next few years, so their
vocational maturity may not have developed- As their college careers continue, the
maturity level relating to vocation will increase and can later have an influence on
decision making.

Participants’ coping abilities measured by the Adolescent Coping Orientation for
Problem Experiences showed no significant influence. Coping strategies in this
population may relate to how the participants use their coping strategies to influence
decision making. Coping can affect a student on more than one level. Constantine et al.
(2002) stated that Black college students might separate how they privately feel about
their group from how they believe others may evaluate them. This separation between

public and private evaluations may represent an important survival Strategy fOr Black

Americans because ofthe prejudice and discrimination they face in the United States

(Constantine et al., 2002), If this is the case, participants in this study may have Viewed
their coping strategies on more than one level, and using coping to influence decision-
making may not be the way they use coping strategies. The participants may use Coping
mechanisms to help with other aSpects of college life.

The finding of no significant effect of partieipantsi gender on decision making

was a surprise. It appears that the dCCision-making abilities of the participants were

62

 

 

 

equal, which led to no significant difference in the decisions being made by males and

females.

Limitations
There are several limitations that should be listed regarded this research project.
First, the use of questionnaires as the sole means of data collections is a limitation. Using
survey materials allows for objective responses, but may not elicit more detailed
information that could be helpful in understanding the topics under investigation. Self—

reporting provides participants an opportunity to respond in a manner to make themselves

look better. Self-reportin g may have influenced participants to respond in a more socially

' - - uld
desrrable manner. Use of interviews or measures asking for short written responses co

have elicited more descriptive information.

A second limitation is the difficulty with generalizing the findings. Selecting
such a specific group did not allow for a random sample. The participants were all
African-Americans involved with one speCifiC Office on campus. The participants were
selected from the pool of students Who returned consent forms. This selection process
did not allow foi- Other African— American students on campus to have an oppol‘tunity to
participate. The group who were selected were current freshmen, but other freshm en
who were not involved With this office did not have an opportunity to be inVolved. Thus,
because the respondent group was homogeneous, this may limit the ability to generaliZe
the findings.

A third limitation is the use of only one office to gain access to students. The
Office of Supportive Services was the Only office used to gather mailing labels for the
Participants. This did not allow for connecting with a greater number of African

American freshmen students and hence a potentially more divergent Sarnple. Getting
63

 

involved with other support networks or other offices on campus working with A fi'ican
American freshmen would have given me a chance to collect data on students who were
not involved with the Office of Supportive Services. Also, using a random sample of

African American students from across the campus would have increased the

generalizability of the findings.

Recommendations for Future Research

In terms of the directions of future research, more work needs to be done on
decision making of adolescents in general. To date, there are no generally accepted
practices for assessing decision-making capacity (Edelstein, 2000). The relationship
between internal factors and decision making has not received much attention from
researchers. Racial identity, vocational identity, psychological adjustment, and coping
are only a few internal factors influencing decision making. It may be useful to study
each factor separately, as well as locating others (i.e., locus of control, learned
helplessness, and peer influence) to investigate.

Along these lines, researchers should focus on specific strengths or Strategies used
to assist in the decision—making process. In this study, psychological adjustment was
found to be a significant factor in making positive decisions. If this topic is Studi ed
further, speCifiC strengths of participants may be discovered. By understanding these
strengths, training, programming, or individual/group activities may be developed to help

incoming freSi'mmn gain skills in enhance their psychological deVeIOpment, which Will
have a direct influence on their ability to make effective decisions. The goal is to locate
Specific characteristics that produce 800d psychological adjustment and help freshmen

grow in these areas.

64

 

As well as understanding the psYChOlogical adjustment of l‘iTeShmen mo
r6

research on the types 0f coping strategies selected would be beneficial As the

develomnent of psychological adj UStment impt‘<)ves, a greater confidence develops that
leads to an improved ability to select more effective strategies for coping with stressful
situations Improving ceping may indirecfly affect decision making, but it Wi“ (“may
support psychological adjustment. This line of thinking focuses on ways to increase
Psychological adjustment, and selection of coping Strategies would be an important topic

to understand,

It would be helpfirl to replicate this study wi t11 different African American
Populations. Including African American StUdeUtS O f different SE8 levels would allow a
researcher to make within-group comparisons. This could lead t d t ding the

O ers an

different needs of African American college freshm en It w '
. ould replicaie
also be good ‘0

this study with majority students, using a White racial identity

SQaIe to S t up cempirison

research. Within-group comparisons, as well as comparison to
A151150

would facilitate locating similarities and differences betWeen th an Americans,
e

0
these lines, selection of other minority populations might be usef "I gl‘OuDS Along

ac
measure might be used to assess racial identity deve10pment With . 0QDir
Hispan r 61‘10);

As ' ' - - - , .
ran, Natlve American, and international student populations. The resu] alimony
analyzed separately to understand each group’s decision-making abilit 00111ch be
y
80,
could be conducted to compare various minority groups’ ability to mak Studies
e
Ositive

deci SionS The focus of these studies would be on identifying similariti
CS and diffe
renC

1?er een ethnic/racial groups, as well as understanding the differences b
ctween Spec
lfic

31.011135.

65

 

Another line of investigation could be to evaluate the decisi On_m akin g process
between upper and underclass students. A comparison study between freshmen and
seni ors could provide evidence on how decision making changes as students progress

through college and maturity levels increase. A study could also be conducted comparing
undergraduate and graduate students. The investigation could focus on whether there are
differences in how these students make decisions. Could having a degree and
knowledge/experience with college influence one’s ability to make decisions? Finally,
there could be a comparison master’s and doctoral students’ decision-making capabilities.

The focus could be on how maturity level, time in school, or life experiences shape one’s
ability to make decisions.

Implications
Implications of this research focus on understanding decision making of African
American college (adolescents) freshmen, understanding specific factors that influence
decision making, and gaining more information on what helps African American college
Students make mote effective decisions. Each of these implications is discussed in the
following paragraphs,

Understanding how African-American college (adolescents) fieSMen make
decisions is critical to colleges, university support services, parents, and students
themselves. Colleges are interested in how to help African American freshmen be
Successful Colleges have designed support services, such as the Office of Supportive
S eI‘vices and the Office of Minority Student Affairs, to help African American students
“Qt only be accepted in college but also graduate. Understanding the ways this

pgpulation makes decisions would help these offices design programs to promote better

deCision making among this group. Also, the offices can develop specific workshops and

66

 

programs, and have professionals on hand to assist in the developm em a f better dew-$1.0m

 

making skills. African American students may not have the skills necessary to
understand their new environment (a large, predominantly White university) and can
benefit from learning how to maneuver in their new surroundings. The focus of specific
programming from the support offices would be on increasing these students’ chances for
success both academically and socially.

Understanding the factors that influence decision making will have a great
influence on how researchers, faculty, staff, administrators, and parents work with
students. Decision making is not an exact science and is learned through life
experiences; this situation reinforces the fact that decision making is not easy to master.
Even when a student has been through an experience, this does not mean that he or she
will learn from the situation. The focus would be on understanding how students develop
their skill in making decisions and then improve their ability to make better dcelSlonS'
Research in this area will uncover more specific factors influencing decision making,
along with evaluating the process by which students select the information to use in
making their decisions.

To continue the discussion on decision making, selection of facts and information

analysis must be understood. Students select information from the situation and Use this
information in making a decision. Taking a closer look at how students determine What
facts to consider is important, as is determining how they rate what facts are more or less
important.

Although having a clear perception of information selection is one great influence

0“ decision making, the role that evaluation of information plays in decision making

needs to be better understood. Students analyze facts related to a situation, and this has

67

 

an influence on the solutions selected. The process of analyzing in fem a tion is not a
simple one and may need fine tuning if students are consistently making poor decisions.
Students may need assistance in making productive decisions, as well as in understanding
the consequences of these decisions. As further research focuses on factors influencing
decision making, investigators can evaluate how students make decisions and can educate
students, faculty, and parents about ways to improve the possibility of making positive
decisions. The key is to help students know when and where positive decisions can

benefit them and promote the ability to make consistent positive decisions.

68

 

 

 

APPENDICES

 

69

 

APPENDIX A

 

INSTRUMENTATION

7O

 

 

Black Racial Identity Sca..le

This questionnaire is designed to measure people’s social and political attitudes please
select the appropriate number corresponding with your desired answer. '

Rating scale:

llStrongly Disagree) 2(Disagree) flUnanain) 4 {Agree} 5 (Strongly Agree.)

 

l. __ I believe that being Black is a positive experience.

2. _ I know through experience what being Black in America means.

3. __ I feel unable to involve myself in White experiences, and am increasing my

involvement in Black experiences.

4. __ I believe that large numbers of Blacks are untrustworthy.

5. _ I feel an overwhelming attachment to Black people.

6. _ I involve myself in causes that will help all oppressed people.

7. __ I feel comfortable wherever I am.

8. __ I believe that White people look and express themselves better than Blacks.

9. __ I feel very uncomfortable around Black people.

10. __ I feel good about being Black, but do not limit myself to Black activities.

11. __ I often find myself referring to White people as honkies, devils, pigs, etc.

12. __ I believe that to be Black is not necessarily good.

13. __ I believe that certain aspects of the Black experience apply to me, and others do
not.

1 4. __ I frequently confront the system and the man. ,

l S. _ I constantly involve myself in Black political and social activities.

1 6. __ I involve myself in social action and political groups even though there are no
other Blacks involved.

1 7. _ I believe that Black people should learn to think and experience life in ways that
are similar to White people. .
18. I believe that the world should be interpreted from a Black perspective.

19. : I have changed my style of life to fit my beliefs about Black people.
2210. __ I feel excitement and joy in Black surroundings.

I believe that Black people came from a strange, dark, and uncivilized contin t
22. \_ People, regardless of their race, have strengths and weaknesses. en '
23. \_ I find my self reading a lot of Black literature and thinking about being Black
24. I feel guilty and or anxious about some of the things I believe about Black .

\—

peOple.

25. I believe that a Black person’s most effective weapon for solving problems is to
become a part of the White person’s world.

26~ I speak my mind regardless of the consequences.

27- \"

I believe that everything BlaCk is good, and consequently, I limit myself to
Black activities.

28‘ . I am determined to find my Black Identity.

29' . I believe that White people are intellectually superior to Blacks.

30 - \_ I believe that because I am Black, I have many strengths.

71

 

 

My Vocational Situation

In thinking about your present j ob or in planning for an occupation or career:

Please answer using one of the following:

1(Strongly Disagree) 2 (disagree) 3 (Uncertain) 4(Agee) 5 (Strongly Agree)

 

I need reassurance that I have made the right choice of occupation.
I am concerned that my present interests may change over the years.
I am uncertain about the occupation I could perform well.
I don’t know what my major strengths and weaknesses are.
The jobs I can do may not pay enough to live the kind of life I want.
If I had to make an occupational choice right now, I am afraid I would make a
bad choice.
I need to find out what kind of career I should follow.
Making up my mind about a career has been a long and difficult problem for me.
I am confused about the whole problem of deciding on a career.
0. I am not sure that my present occupational choice or job is right for me.

11.___I don’t know enough about what workers do in various occupations.

12 __ No single occupation appeals strongly to me.

l3.__ I am uncertain about which occupation I would enjoy.

14 __ I would like to increase the number of occupations I could consider.

15._ My estimates of my abilities and talents vary a lot from year to year-

16.__ I am not sure of myself in many areas of life.

l7.__ 1 have known what occupation I want to follow for less than one year.

1 8.__ I can’t understand how some people can be so set about what they want to do-

72

 

Af facts Balance Scale

Below is a list of words that describes the way peOple sometimes feel. I would like you
to tell me whether you have been having any Of these feelings during the past semester.
Please indicate the degree to which you have felt each emotion by putting a number that
best describes your experience. Provide a number for each word and do not skip any

 

items.

Rating system:

0 Never 1 garely 2 Sometimes 3 Frequently 4 AIM
_ Nervous _ Cheerful __ Sad __ Satisfied
_ Regretful _ Active __ Irritable __ Friendly
__ Happy _ Anxious __ Pleased __ Miserable
_ Excited __ Guilty _ Passionate _ Enraged
_ Timid _ Delighted __ Hopeless _ Relaxed
__ Blameworthy __ Vigorous __ Resentful _ Affectionate
_ Glad __ Afraid _ Energetic __ Remorseful
__ Loving __ Bitter _ Tense _ Joyous
__ Worthless __ Contented _ Ashamed _ Lively
__ Angry _ Warm

73

 

 

A - COPE
Adolescent-Coping Orientation for Problem EXperiences

 

Read each of the statements below, which describes a behavior for coping with problem.
Describe how often you do each of the described behaviors when you face difficulties or

feel tense. ONLY indicate how often you do each behavior as a way to cope with
problems.

Select from one of the following responses for each statement:
1 never 2 ardl ever 3 sometimes 4 often 5 most of the time

Go along with parents’ requests and rules.

Read

Try to be funny and make light of it all.

Apologize to people .

Listen t- music—stereo, radro, etc.

Talk to a teacher or school counselor about what bothers you.
Eat food.

Try to stay away from home as much as possible.

9. Use drugs prescribed by a doctor.

10 Get more involved in Activities at school.

11 Go shopping; buy things you like

12. __ Try to reason with parents and talk things out; compromise
13. __ Try to improve yourself (get body in shape, better grades etc )
l4. __ Cry ’ '

15. __ Try to think of the good things in your life.
16. __ Be with a boyfriend or girlfriend.

21. Talk to a minister/rabbi/priest.

22. Let off steam by complaining to family members.
23. Go to church.

17. __ Ride around in the car.

18. __ Say nice tings to others.

19. ____ Get angry and yell at people.
20. __ Joke and keep a sense of humor.

24, ___ Use drugs ( not prescribed by a doctor).

25. ____ Swear

26. __ Organize your life and what you have to do.

27, __ Work hard on schoolwork or other school projects.
28. __ Blame others for what’s going wrong.

29, ____ Be close with someone you care about.

30. __ Try to help other people solve their problems.

31. __ Talk to your mother about what bothers you.

32.

Try, on your own, to figure out how to deal with your problems,
33. __ Work on a hobby you have.

34. __ Get professional counseling.
35. _ Try to keep up friendships or make new friends.
74

 

36. E Go to a movie.

37. ~ Day dream about how YOU would like things to be.
38. __ Tell yourself the problem is not important.

39. ~_ Talk to a brother or sister about how you feel.

40. __ Get a job or work harder at one.

41. § Do things with your family.

42. _ Smoke.

43. __ Watch T.V.

44. “ Pray.

45 a Try to see the good things in a difficult situation.

46. ~ Drink beer, liquor, wine. .
47. a Try to make your own decismns.

43. K Sleep.
49. Say mean things to people; be sarcastic.

50. ‘_ Talk to your father about what bothers you.
51 ~ Let off steam by complaining to your friends.
52. _ Talk to a friend about how you feel.

53. __ Play video games

54. __ Do a strenuous physical activity.

75

 

Risk Involvement and
Perception Scale

For each of the following, select a number that corresponds to your involvement in that
behavior.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rating Scale:
Never Rarely Occasionally Often Daily or More
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3
1- __ Having sex
2. _ Riding with a drunk driver
3- _~ Drinking alcohol
4' “ Walking alone at night
5- K Getting drunk
6- E Binge eating
7. Riding a motorcycle
8. Smoking marijuana
9. Driving a car
10. Taking speed
11 __ Having sex without a condom
12 __ Shoplifting
13. __ Driving after drinking
14. __ Taking prescription drugs
1 5. __ Riding with a seatbelt
1 6. __ Contact sports
1 7. __ Taking cocaine/crack
l8. __ Smoking cigarettes
19. __ Sunbathing

76

 

 

 

Demographic Sheet L

Background Information (please print)

Name:
Current Address:
_ Hispanic _____ Freshman __ Male
__ White(non-Hispanic) ______ 301211011101? _ Female
__ Black(non-Hispanic) ____ Junior
_ Asian/Pacific Islander ____. Senior _ Age
_ Native American/Eskimo
_ Multiracial

 

_1fltemational (please specify):

 

Current Employment:

 

Number of members in immediate family:
Parents’ current annual salary:

(Please circle) 040,000 1090040900
20,000-30,000 30,000-40,000
40,000-50,000 50,000-75,000
75,000-100,000 100,000 or “lore

Parent’s marital status: (please circle)
Single Married Divorced Widowed ‘

Highest education level of mother: ‘
Highest education level of father:

 

 

77

 

 

APPENDIX B

CONSENT FORM, INSTRUCTIONS, AND INTRODUCTION SHEET

78

 

 

Michigan State University
Counseling Psychology Department

Adolescent Informed Consent Statement

Purpose of This Study
The research study is entitled: Identifying Correlates of Urban “At-Risk”
Adolescents’ Life Style Decisions: A Study of Racial Identity, Vocational Identity,
Psychological Adjustment, and Coping. This study is set up to look at the decision-
making process of adolescents. The study will look at how the participants’ racial
identity, vocational identity, psychological adjustment, and coping Styles affect how they
make positive or negative decisions.

Participation and Confidentiality
Taking these tests is completely tip to you. You may decide to not participate at

any time. You can make this decision With no penalty. Data gathered will be held in
stfiCt confidence, Confidentiality will be strictly upheld. At no time will your name or
personal information be released. Consent forms and questionnaires will be separated
from each other. Names of all participants will_never be associated with their reSponses
on the questionnaires. The investigat0r§t Mr - Hm and Dr. Smith, will have access to the
answers to all measures. The results Will be coded to 131'0tCCt the your privacy. Coded
information will remain secured with Mr. Hill and Dr. Smith. These will be the only
individuals who will have access to this information. All information will be stored
under lock and key with Mr. Hill and/or Dr. Smith. The information will remain stored
until the study is completed. Your privacy will be protected to the mmmnm extent

allowable by law.

Procedure of Research
Participants are asked to complete all five (5) measures. The packet ' '
the following measures Blaok Racial Identity Attitude Scale F mm B, My Voggggcllude
Situation, Affects Balance Scale, Adolescent Coping Orientation for Problem 3
EXperiences, and the Decision-Making Sheet. The measures should take no Ion e th
forty-five (45) minutes. g r an

Afier completing of the packet, each participant will be encouraged to fill out a raffle
ticket. The ticket is used to select three winners of Michigan State University apparel
The use of a raffle is to encourage more participation from the subjects. After collectin
Completed packets from all participants, the raffle will take place. Prizes will consist ogf
Michigan State University athletic wear. The prizes will range from a sweatshirt, Shirt
and hat. The dollar amount of the prizes will be $15.00 to $50.00. Winners will receive
their prizes in the mail no more than one month after the completion of data collection.

79

 

Agreement to Participate
At this time your permission is asked to participate in this research study.

YOU INDICATE YOUR VOLUNTARY AGREEMENT TO PARTICIPATE BY
COMPLETING AND RETURNING THESE QUESTIONNAIRES.

*1 ;, voluntarily agree to Participate in this research study.
(Adolescent please sign your name)

The investigator for this study is Martin F. Hill,.a doctoral student in Counseling

Psychology at Michigan State University, working under the supervision of Dr. Gloria S.

Smith, a professor of the Counseling PSYChOIOS)’ Department. You may contact the
Investigator, Martin F. Hill, at the listed address .below regarding any questions,
concerns, or requiring debriefing after partrcrpatron in the study. Mr. Hill will address
any questions raised about participating rn this study - If at any time you feel a need to
discuss any personal or professional concerns. please feel free to contact the Michigan
State University Counseling Center at (517) 355'3270- You may receive a copy of the
finding and a summary report from Dr- Smrth 01' myself upon completion of this
dissertation. A team of psychologist would be avallable t0 PTOVide counseling if someone
was seeking services. Since free counseling servrces are available thnr the MSU
Counseling Center to students, the researcher would make arrangement with the cc for
seeing students if their services were needed.

Thank you for your participation and for taking the time out of Your busy schedule-
Please mail the following materral in the envelope provrded to the following address or
return the completed packets to you instructor:

Martin F. Hill, MA. . Or Dr. Gloria Smith

Central Michigan Universrty 433 Erikson Hall‘

Counseling Center Counseling Psychology De

102 Foust Hall East Lansing, MI 48824 partment
Mt. Pleasant, Ml 48859 GSMITH msu. e du

hill 1mf@cmich.edu

If there are any questions or concerns, please feel free to write either of these researchers
If you have any questions about your role and rights as a subject of research, y 0“ may .
contact Ashir Kumar, MD at 517-355-2180 or ucrihs@msu.edu.

80

 

 

 

RSQMPPNF

INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING PACKET

Read and sign the consent form

Complete the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale Form B

Complete the My Vocational Situation Scale

Complete the Affects Balance Scale

Complete the Adolescent Caping Orientation for Problem Experiences
Complete Risk Involvement and Perception Scale

Complete the Demographic Form

Mail ALL completed tests back to researchers.

(Place materials in enveloge p_____rovided and mail)

81

 

 

Michigan State University
Counseling Psychology Department

Introduction sheet

Dear Potential Participant,

This memo is to introduce you to my study focusing on decision-making. Currently I am
a Ph.D. student in Counseling Psychology and I am working on my final requirement to
complete my degree. The request is for you to fill out the following surveys and sign the
consent form included.

The research study is entitled: Identifying Correlates of Urban “At-Risk” Adolescents’
Life Style Decisions: A Study of Racial Identity, Vocational Identity, Psychological
Adjustment, and Coping. This study is set up to look at the decision-making process.
The study will look at how the participants, “10131 Identity, vocational identity,
pSYChological adjustment, and coping styles affect how they make positive or negative
decisions.

Your requirement would be to fill out the surveySs Which Should not take more than 30

minutes, sign the consent form, and return all th‘? completed materials to the Counseling
Psychology Department office. The office location is W. Upon
completion of these surveys you will be entered into a drawing f0,- MSU gear. After
collecting completed packets from all particrpants, a raffle will take place. Prizes will
consist of Michigan State University athletic wear. ranging from a sweatshirt, shirt and
hat. Winners will receive their prizes in the mail no more than One month after the
completion of data collection.

Thanks fei- your time and I’m hoping you will consider giving a little of your time which

will go a long way in helping better understand the decision-making process

group and college students in general, 0f your age

Thanks again,

Martin F. Hill, M.A.
Counseling Psychology Graduate Student

82

 

 

 

 

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83

 

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