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DATE DUE

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DATE DUE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2/05 CVCIRC/DltthDJndd-pjs

 

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

TEE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA AS A
CONTRIBUTOR TO'NAIEONAL DEVELOPMENT

presented by

Keith David Miller

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Administration &

Ph.D. degree in
. Higher Educapdon

 

Michigan ‘ '

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Major professor

 

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THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA AS A

CONTRIBUTOR TO NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

BY

Keith David Miller

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Higher Education

1980

HE.

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ABSTRACT
THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA AS A

CONTRIBUTOR TO NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT//

BY

Keith David Miller

In this study the writer describes the Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala and then draws some conclusions concerning the appropri-
ateness of its organization and programs for contributing to the
development of Guatemala. To guide the study, the following research

questions were posed:

1. What characteristics have been identified by development

experts as appropriate for development-oriented universities?

2. What are the physical, economic, social, and educational
conditions of the country in which the Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala operates?

3. What are the perceptions of Guatemala's educational leaders
with regard to the Nation's development needs and the role

local universities can play in responding to those needs?

4. How did the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala originate

and develop, how is it organized, and what are its functions?

 

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Keith David Miller

5. What are the perceptions of the students, professors, admin-
istrators and trustees of the Universidad del Valle with
regard to its purposes, organization, facilities, programs,

and contribution to national development?

6. To what extent are the characteristics of the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala appropriate for contributing to the

development of Guatemala?

The study provides a model for the evaluation of a university
vis-a-vis its role as a contributor to national development. In
light of the similarity of problems and common concerns of the
developing countries, the writer has drawn on the thinking and
experiences of authorities in the development process from around
the world to furnish a general evaluative framework. Allowances
are made in the evaluative model for the peculiarities of the
country in which a university operates. Thus, the writer includes
in the study, in addition to a review of the world literature on
development, a description of Guatemala and the thinking of Guatemalan
educational leaders concerning Guatemala's needs and what local uni-
versities can do to meet them. By matching descriptions of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala and the setting in which it
operates with the thinking of authorities (world-wide and local) on
the appropriate characteristics of development-oriented universities,
the writer is able to draw conclusions concerning the appropriateness
of the University's organization and programs for contributing to the

development of Guatemala.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Keith David Miller

When one compares the organization and programs of the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala with the criteria established from
the review of the literature and the thinking of authorities in
Guatemalan education, it is evident that many of the characteristics
of the University are appropriate for contributing to the development
of Guatemala. The University is a centralized institution with
capable leadership devoted to the training of leaders in natural
science, social science, education, and research. It engages in
research and service activities aimed at improving the quality of
life in Guatemala. It has a general studies program aimed at pro—
viding a liberal, broad-based education; it carefully selects its
students on the basis of merit and provides financial assistance to
many qualified students who cannot afford to pay for their university
studies. It remains autonomous and nonpolitical, but does cooperate
with the Guatemalan Government on a variety of development-related
projects. It has become increasingly successful in attracting large
sums of money from major donors to support its research, service,
and development activities. It cooperates with many other insti-
tutions. Its programs, instruction, and facilities are rated high
by students and professors.

The University is weak in communication between staff and
administration, and between the institution and the community. The
curriculum does not provide for much instruction in interdisciplinary
approaches to problem solving, nor does it treat national development.
Its planning and evaluation functions have not received the attention
they merit. There has been little effort to improve the teaching

capabilities of the staff. In the teacher certification program,

Keith David Miller

there is little emphasis on general studies and insufficient attention
to preparing teachers to work in the difficult conditions faced in

the nation's schools. The amount of educational research is insuf-
ficient. Research conducted at the University is not adequately
disseminated. Students are not involved in service activities.

Teaching, service, and research activities are not integrated.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are due to many people who contributed in one way or
another to the completion of this study. Dr. Van Johnson, Dr. George
Meyers, Dr. Stan Hecker, Dr. Howard Hickey, and Dr. Richard L.
Featherstone reviewed drafts of the dissertation, made comments,
and offered encouragement. Dr. Featherstone, in addition to serving
as chairman of the doctoral committee, gave me guidance and friend-
ship throughout my graduate studies at Michigan State University.

Dr. Jean H. Miller provided assistance and support at critical
periods during the writing of this study.

Personnel at The American School of Guatemala were immensely
cooperative. Many helped directly in such ways as reviewing drafts,
administering questionnaires, proofreading, referencing, and typing.
Others helped indirectly by taking on some of my work to permit me
more time to write.

The task of writing this study was made easier thanks to the
patience and encouragement of my wife, Carmela, and our children,
Alexander and Krutzchencka.

This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Ralph and Jean
Miller, who not only gave their children a loving and stable home, but
also provided a model of propriety in personal conduct and excellence

in physical and intellectual pursuits.

ii

 

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . . . . 1

Statement of Purpose . . . . . . . 4

Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Limitations . . . 9

Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Overview of Subsequent Chapters . . . . . . . . 10

2. UNIVERSITIES AS CONTRIBUTORS TO NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT . . 13

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l4

Aims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Institutional Structure . . . . . . . . . . 17

Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

New Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

3. GUATEMALA: THE SETTING FOR CHANGE . . . . . . . . 108

Physical Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Physical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Settlement Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . 109

iii

 

 

..
..~

Chapter Page

Economic Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Industry and Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Manpower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Economic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Social Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
The Two Cultures. . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Social Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Constitutional Framework. . . . . . . . . 120
The Administration of Education. . . . . . . . 120
Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Enrollment in Preprimary, Primary, and

Secondary Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Preprimary Education . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Primary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Secondary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Higher Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

4. THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA. . . . . . . 160

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . 160

The American School of Guatemala . . . . . . . . 161
History and Organization . . . . . . . . . . 161
Laboratory School Experience. . . . . . . . . 162

The Organization of the Universidad Del Valle de

Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Aims and Establishment. . . . . . . . . . . 169
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Institutional Structure . . . . . . . . . . 174
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Calendar and Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . 200

iv

Chapter ' Page

The Functions of the Universidad Del Valle De

Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5. SURVEY METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS . . . . . . . . . 256
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Selecting the Instruments. . . . . . . . . . 256
Selecting the Sample . . . . . . . . . . 257
Preparing the Survey Instruments . . . . . . . 258
Administering the Survey Instruments . . . . . . 258

Results of the Interviews of Guatemalan Educational

Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Interview Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Interview Question 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Interview Question 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Interview Question 4 . . . . 265
Interview Question 5 . . . . . . . . . 267
Interview Question 6 . . . . . . . . . 268
Interview Question 7 . . . . . . . 269
Interview Question 8 . . . . . . . 269
Interview Question 9 . . . . . . 270
Interview Question 10 . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Interview Question 11 . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Interview Question 12 . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Interview Question 13 . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Results of the Interviews of Professors at the Uni-

versidad del Valle de Guatemala. . . . . . . . 273
Interview Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . 274
Interview Question 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Interview Question 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Interview Question 4 . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Interview Question 5 . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Interview Question 6 . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Interview Question 7 . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Interview Question 8 . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Interview Question 9 . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Interview Question 10 . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Interview Question 11 . . . . . . . . . . . 279

 

'1.

 

 

Chapter Page

Interview Question 12 . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Interview Question 13 . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Interview Question 14 . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Interview Question 15 . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Interview Question 16 . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Interview Question 17 . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Results of the Questionnaire on Student Opinion at

the Universidad Del Valle De Guatemala . . . . . 285
Information Section. . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Opinion Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Results of the Interviews of Leaders at the Uni-

versidad Del Valle De Guatemala. . . . . . . . 289
Interview Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Interview Question 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Interview Question 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Interview Question 4 . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Interview Question 5 . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Interview Question 6 . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Interview Question 7 . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Interview Question 8 . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Interview Question 9 . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Interview Question 10 . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Interview Question 11 . . . . . . . . . . . 294

6. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR

FURTHER STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Institutional Structure . . . . . . . . . . 299
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
New Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala vis-a-vis
the other universities in Guatemala. . . . . . 314
Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Implications for Further Study. . . . . . . . . 322

vi

APPENDICES page

APPENDIX
A. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SELECTED GUATEMALAN EDUCATIONAL
LEADERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
B. INTERVIEW OF PROFESSORS AT THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE
DE GUATEMALA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
C. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL
VALLE DE GUATEMALA . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
D. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TRUSTEES AND ADMINISTRATORS
AT THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA. . . . . 342
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Enrollment in Preprimary, Primary, and Secondary
Schools: 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

2. Primary School Enrollment: 1972-1977 . . . . . . . 126

3. Rural Public Schools Offering 1, 1-2, 1-3, etc. Grades

as Percentage of Total Public Rural Schools . . . . 128
4. Secondary School Graduates: 1977 . . . . . . . . 134
5. Normal School Graduates: 1977 . . . . . . . . . 139

6. Enrollment at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala:
1966-1979. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

7. Graduates of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala:
1972-1978. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

8. Number Grades and Letter Equivalents at the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . 187

9. 1978 Budget for Current Operations for the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . 199

10. Income from Outside Sources for the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala: 1967-1979. . . . . . . . . 201

11. Teaching Staff at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala
by Academic Degree and Time Contracted: 1979. . . . 203

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1. Model of Program Development . . . . . . . . . . 48
2. Educational System of Guatemala . . . . . . . . . 121
3. Administrative Structure of the Ministry of Education. . 123
4. Pre-Vocational Program . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

5. Organization of the Foundation of the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala. . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

ix

 

.-.-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Since the end of World War II, considerable attention has
been focused on poor nations around the world as they attempt to
advance toward prosperity. The success of the Marshall Plan gave
hope that national development could be achieved quickly with a
moderate amount of financial and technological aid from the wealthy
countries. However, this early optimism diminished in the ensuing
years as development efforts in Asia, Africa, and Latin America met
with frequent failure.

The frustrating experiences of the developing nations in the
last three decades have led authorities to realize that there are no
simple formulas or easy solutions for development. Development is
now seen as an intricate process similar to that of weaving a fabric:
many strands must be interwoven simultaneously.

Although there is no concensus among authorities as to the
exact materials and pattern of the fabric, there is nearly universal
agreement that education is one of the critical elements of develop-
ment. Rusk believes that the European nations responded well to the

Marshall Plan because they had a highly educated population capable

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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of making effective use of the aid. The third world countries, in
which development efforts have been less successful, do not have
this educational base. Thus, Rusk argues, "Education is not a
luxury which can be afforded after development has occurred; it is
an integral part, an inescapable and essential part, of the develop-
ment process itself."

In their study on manpower and development, Harbison and
Myers make the following comment on the importance of developing
human resources:

In the final analysis, the wealth of a country is based

upon its power to develop and to effectively utilize the
innate capacity of its people. . . . It takes skilled
human agents to discover and exploit natural resources, to
mobilize capital, to develop technology, to produce goods,
and to carry on trade. Indeed, if a country is unable to
develop its human resources, it cannot build anything else.

Burns states:

Investment in education is the real limitation to further
economic growth. . . . If there is any truism in develop-
mental operations, it is the fact that the formal institution
of education--the school--can and must be employed as a
deliberate instrument of national development.

Development authorities believe that universities can and
should participate in the development process. The contribution of
the landgrant colleges to development in the United States of America
. . . . 4
is frequently Cited as proof of this p01nt. McConnell calls on
universities everywhere to ". . . take an active and imaginative
, . . . 5
interest in the whole program of modernization. . . ." In a recent
report of the Latin American Scholarship Program of American Uni—

versities (LASPAU) it is stated that "the university is one of the

few institutions in Latin America offering the skills and resources

. . 6 7 .
essential for baSic development." Others such as Butts, Vaizey,
9 10 . ll . . , .

Thompson, Todaro, LeWis, and the United Nations Economic Com-

. . . . 12 . . . .
m1551on for Latin America argue for univer51ty involvement in
development activities ranging from teacher education to research,
to the training of leaders in science and technology, to community
service.

Traditionally, universities in poor countries have had little
involvement in their country's development. This is especially true
of Latin American universities, most of which were built on the
Napoleonic model with emphasis on the humanities, fine arts, medicine,
and law. Accordingly, Latin American universities have received
considerable criticism for their weak role in supporting development

. . . . 13
goals in their respective nations.

Recently some changes have occurred in the university tra-
ditions of Latin America. Several institutions of higher education
have become involved in identifying and contributing to the solution

. . . l4 . . .
of problems confronting their nations. This new trend in Latin
America merits the close attention of those interested in the
relationship between higher education and national development.
However, because of the relatively small number of universities
with programs devoted to national development, and the short time
they have been functioning, little research has been conducted which
pertains to these universities. Accordingly, detailed studies of
purposes, programs, and roles of these universities are needed.

One such university, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,

was established in 1966 to "produce persons who are able and willing

 

 

 

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to assume responsibility in promoting the economic, political, edu-
. . 15
cational, and cultural development of Central America." Its
objectives are to
1. promote understanding of regional problems,
2. develop education in Guatemala and the Central American
region,
3. conduct long-range research and train research workers,
4. further the aims of general education, and 16
5. educate teachers and educational specialists.

The writer chose to study the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala for three reasons: first, it is a university in a poor
country conceived and established to play a role in development;
second, there had been no systematic study of this institution to
date; and third, the writer lives in Guatemala and has access to

the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala as well as to educational

leaders in the country.
STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to describe the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala and then draw some conclusions concerning the
appropriateness of its organization and functions for meeting
Guatemala's development needs. It is hoped that the study will not
only contribute to the scant body of knowledge concerning the role
of higher education as a modernizing agent, but also be useful to
scholars, educational leaders, and others who are interested in
bringing the resources of higher education to bear on the complex

process of national development.

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PROCEDURE

This study is descriptive, employing library research and

survey techniques. To guide the study the following research

questions were posed:

1.

What characteristics have been identified by development

experts as appropriate for development-oriented universities?

What are the physical, economic, social, and educational
conditions of the country in which the Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala operates?

What are the perceptions of Guatemala's educational leaders
with regard to the nation's development needs and the role

local universities can play in responding to those needs?

How did the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala originate

and develop, how is it organized, and what are its functions?

What are the perceptions of the students, professors, admin-
istrators, and trustees of the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala with regard to its purposes, organization,
facilities, programs, and contribution to national

development?

To what extent are the characteristics of the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala appropriate for meeting Guatemala's

development needs?

The review of the literature produced information on character-

istics of universities appropriate for contributing to national

development and a description of the physical, economic, social,
and educational conditions in Guatemala.

The survey research produced information on national develop-
:ment needs for Guatemala, the role of universities in Guatemala as
‘modernizers, and a description of the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala. Survey instruments were administered to four key groups:
(1) selected Guatemalan educational leaders, (2) trustees and admin-
istrators of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, (3) professors
of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, and (4) students of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.

It is hoped that this study will provide a model for the
evaluation of a university vis-a-vis its role as a contributor to
national development. In light of the similarity of problems and
common concerns of the developing countries, the thinking and exper-
iences of authorities in the development process from around the
‘world furnish an evaluative framework. It is recognized, however,
that allowances must be made in the evaluative model for peculiari—
ties of the country in which the university operates. As Benjamin
suggests, the kind of higher education suitable to a given country
"is closely related to the course and level of the country's develop-
ment."17 Thus, the writer has included in this study, in addition
to a review of the world literature on development, a description
of Guatemala and the thinking of Guatemalan educational leaders con-
cerning Guatemala's needs and what local universities can do to meet
them. By matching the descriptions of the Universidad del Valle de

Guatemala and the setting in which it operates with the thinking of

(experts (world-wide and local) on the appropriate characteristics of
development-oriented universities; it will be possible to draw con-
clusions concerning the appropriateness of the University's organi-

zation and functions for contributing to the development of Guatemala.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Below are definitions of certain terms used in the study:

Bachillerato.--A five—year secondary level, college prepara-

 

tory course comprising the equivalent of high school grades eight

through twelve but requiring more courses per year.

Development.--

 

The process by which a nation maximizes its physical
power and productive capacity, making the most of available
natural resources and thereby increasing the level of living
. . . (and) freeing the potential in people . . . to share
in the determination of the goals of their society and to
participate creatively and effectively in the realization of
these goals.

Empirico.--A teacher with little formal education and no

teacher training whose only qualification to teach is experience.

Illiterate.—-A person who cannot with understanding read

 

or write a short, simple paragraph on his everyday life.

Illiteracy rate.--The incidence or percentage of persons

 

who are illiterate.

Indian.--A native Guatemalan who lives within the native

non-Spanish speaking Indian culture.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Ladino.--Any Guatemalan who lives within the Spanish culture,

even though he may be an Indian by ancestry.

Licenciatura.--A professional degree requiring a thesis and

 

five to six years of undergraduate studies, conferred in such fields
as law, education and engineering. As a degree bestowed for under-
graduate work it is often equated with the Bachelor's degree, but
because of the required thesis and up to six years of study, it is

sometimes equated with the Master's degree.

Normal School.--A secondary school institution for the

 

preparation of elementary teachers. Graduation from the normal

school requires one year more than the bachillerato program.

 

Underdevelopment.--A condition of relative poverty determined

 

by comparison with other nations. The following is a list of the
usual indicators of underdevelopment:

(a) high birth and death rates,

(b) poor sanitation and health practices (great lack of health
services),

(c) poor housing,

(d) high percentage of population in agriculture,

(e) low per capita income (and high percentage amount of this
income for food),

(f) low food intake,

(9) High illiteracy and very low enrollment in schools (par-
ticularly secondary and higher schools),

(h) weak and uneven feelings of national cohesion,

(i) tradition-directed behavior and an ascribed system of
stratification,

(j) low status for women,

(k) poor technology (communication and transport systems limited),

(1) high prevalence of child labor,

(m) export of raw materials in any foreign trade arrangements,

(n) low savings and low net investment,

(0) poor yield on the land and much soil depletion,

(p) military or feudal domination of state machinery,

 

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(q) wealth in hands of landlords (a very tiny class as a
proportion of the population) and the absence of a middle
class,

(r) poor credit facilities and high interest rates,

(5) prevalence of conmonetized production,

(t) much of the productive land in small holdings (often
tenant-held),

(u) wealth concentrated in one or two large cities (or exported
to "safe" developed countries),

(v) social loyalties and concern mainly family-centered or
local in focus.19
Wastage.--Attrition or dropout of students in formal

schooling.
LIMITATIONS
The following limitations apply to the design of the study:

1. Statistics on education in Guatemala are not plentiful,
making the acquisition of some pertinent information
difficult or impossible.

2. There is a paucity of research on education in Guatemala.

3. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala's short life and

small size limit the amount of work accomplished to date

and make its impact on development difficult to assess.

DELIMITATIONS

Even though the interests which prompted the writer to con-

duct the research cover a broad range of university development tasks

in underdeveloped countries in general, the writer delimited this study

to one university in one less-developed country. The focus of this

10

study was purposely narrowed in order to permit an in-depth exami-
nation of one institution so that conclusions can be drawn about

its role in development.

OVERVIEW OF SUBSEQUENT CHAPTERS

In Chapter 1, the writer describes the problem, purpose,
procedure, and limitations of the study; defines terms; and presents
an overview of subsequent chapters.

In Chapter 2, the writer reviews the literature concerning
the role of higher education in the development of nations in an
effort to formulate general principles concerning university char-
acteristics appropriate for development.

In Chapter 3, the writer describes physical, social,
economic, and educational conditions in Guatemala in order to show
the setting in which the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala operates.

In Chapter 4, the writer describes the origin, organization,
development, and programs of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.
The University in some ways is an outgrowth of the American School
of Guatemala, therefore, some attention is given to the American
School's history and laboratory program.

In Chapter 5, the writer describes the survey methodology
used and presents the results of the interviews and questionnaires.

In Chapter 6, the writer presents conclusions concerning the
appropriateness of the University's organization and programs for
meeting its aims as a contributor to national development, offers

recommendations, and lists implications for further study.

 

 

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CHAPTER 1 --NOTES

lDean Rusk, "Address at the Opening Session at the Depart-
ment of State," in Education and the Development of Nations, eds.
John W. Hanson and Cole S. Brembeck (New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1966), p. 28.

 

2Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers, eds., Manpower and
Education: Country Studies in Economic Development (New York:
McGraw Hill, 1965), p. ix.

 

 

3Hobart W. Burns, ed., Education and the Development of
Nations (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1963), pp. 2-3.

 

4Kenneth W. Thompson and Barbara R. Fogel, eds., Higher Edu—
cation and Social Change: Promising Experiments in Developing
Countries, Vol. I (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976), p. 169.

 

 

5John W. McConnell, "Business, Labor and the Universities in
the Modernizing of Nations, in Education and the Modernization of
Nations, ed. Elizabeth N. Shiver (Washington: American Council on
Education, 1964), p. 13.

 

6LASPAU, Latin American Scholarship Program of American

Universities, Higher Education and National Development: A Proposal

 

to Strengthen the Responsiveness of Higher Education to the Problems

 

of Poverty in Selected Latin American Countries (Cambridge: LASPAU,
1976), P. 2.

 

7R. Freeman Butts, "Teacher Education: A Focal Point," in
Education and the Development of Nations, eds. John W. Hanson and
Cole S. Brembeck (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966),
pp. 372—381.

 

8John Vaizey, "Priorities Within Education," in Education
and the Development of Nations, eds. John W. Hanson and Cole S.
Brembeck (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966), pp. 369-370.

 

11

12

9Kenneth W. Thompson and colleagues, "Higher Education and
National Development: One Model for Technical Assistance," in
Education and Development Reconsidered, ed. F. Champion Ward (New
York: Praeger Publishers, 1974), pp. 202-203.

 

10Michael P. Todaro and colleagues, "Education for National
Development: The University," in Education and Development Recon-
sidered, ed. F. Champion Ward (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974),
pp. 204-213.

 

1 . . . . . .
1 Arthur W. LeWis, "The Univers1ty in Developing Countries:

Modernization and Tradition," in Higher Education and Social Changg,
Vol. II, eds. Kenneth W. Thompson and Barbara R. Fogel (New York:
Praeger Publishers, 1976), pp. 526-528.

 

2 . . . . . .

Economic Comm1551on for Latin America, Education, Human
Resources and Development in Latin America (New York: United
Nations, 1968), pp. 97-171.

 

 

l3Don Adams and Robert M. Bjork, Education in Developing

Areas (New York: David McKay, 1969), p. 116.

 

l4 . . . . . . .
Latin American Scholarship Program of American Un1vers1ties,

op. cit., pp. 2-3; "Latin American Case Studies," A report of the
Latin American Regional Team, Higher Education and Social Change,
Vol. II, eds. Kenneth W. Thompson and Barbara R. Fogel (New York:
Praeger Publishers, 1976), pp. 305-436; Gabriel Velésquez P., "The
University and Community Development," in Education and Development
Reconsidered, ed. F. Champion Ward (New York: Praeger Publisher,
1974), PP. 241-251.

 

 

 

5Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, A Description of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, A public information brochure
prepared for distribution July 1976, p. 3.

 

 

l6Ibid., pp. 3-6.

17Harold R. W. Benjamin, Higher Education in the American
Republics (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965), p. 3.

 

18John W. Hanson and Cole S. Brembeck, eds., Education and

the Development of Nations (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1966), p. 12.

 

 

19Adams and Bjork, op. cit., pp. 5-6.

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Chapter 2

UNIVERSITIES AS CONTRIBUTORS TO

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

This chapter contains a review of the literature on the role
of higher education in the development of nations. The authorities
cited represent two groups of participants in higher education from
various parts of the world: (1) university administrators and
leaders in third world countries who are directly involved with
development planning and implementation, and (2) observers and con-
sultants from Western countries who are recognized experts on
development. These authorities consistently agree on the importance
of the universities as contributors to national development.

The word "contribute" is an important concept with regard
to the role of universities in national development. Velésquez, a
leading force in university reform in Colombia, says,

"To contribute" indicates that universities cannot be

expected to assume direct responsibility for all programs
needed to promote community development. Rather, uni-

versities should participate as "agents or instruments for
change" in furthering development.1

13

 

 

 

 

 

l4
ORGAN I ZAT I ON

For a university to be effective, says Stinchcombe, it must
deliberately create "an organizational structure, a hierarchical
network of roles, ordered in such a way as to systematize human

. . . 2 .
behav1or toward ach1ev1ng a goal." On the following pages, the
writer reviews the literature related to appropriate organizational
structure for universities that would contribute to national

development.

Aims
. . . any university, like any social institution, is
governed by an idea, in the same sense given to the word by

Hauriou. The idea is never fully realized, but if it is not

there as a guide, all that is left is routine or improvi-

sation. The most serious problem facing the Latin American
universities has been the inability of their leaders, and in
general all intellectuals, to create an idea of the uni-
versity which is in accordance with the needs of the time.
Habte calls for a "profound, pervasive, new philoSOphy that
will characterize the underlying values and purposes of the uni—

. . . 4 .
ver51ty as a vehicle for national progress." Nyerere, Pres1dent
of Tanzania and Chancellor of the University of East Africa,
articulates the idea of a university saying, ". . . The role of
a university in a developing nation is to contribute; to give ideas,
manpower, and service for the furtherance of human equality, human

. . 5
dignity, and human development."
Recently some Latin American universities have adopted a
philosophy of contribution to development. King found that several

of the provincial universities of Mexico have aims which go beyond

"the transmission of culture and the training of professionals . . .

 

 

LI..'

5.

 

 

 

 

 

 

15

to special efforts in regular and extension training and research
directed at regional development."6 Velésquez states, "The funda-
mental 1ong-range, or 'terminal,‘ goal of universities should be to
contribute toward the well-being of the people-community develop-
ment."7

It is evident, then, that some university leaders in the
developing nations perceive the role of their institutions as one

of contribution to improvement in the quality of life for all.

Leadership

 

The quality of leadership is critical in determining the
success of a university in carrying out effective programs consis-
tent with its aims. Research indicates that talented, dedicated
individuals are the major source of educational innovation:

A program is generally started by one individual who pro—
motes it and dedicates all his time and abilities to it. The
program's success depends fundamentally on the competence,
motivation, and dedication of this person. It is he who
creates an atmosphere of enthusiasm and builds a group of
able people from whom his successors can emerge. All the
cases studied have been initiated by a devoted leader.8

The most common source of opposition to change in universities
is the "vested interest of establishment faculties that, for reasons

. . . . 9 .
of influence and pr1v1lege, fight to preserve the status quo." This
traditional resistance to change, combined with the complexity of
the development process, demands strong leadership committed to using
the university's resources to promote development, adept at managing

people, flexible on matters of detail, and practical in the implemen-

tation of programs.

 

 

 

16

King discusses university leadership suggesting that there is
a need for full-time professional administrators
. . . who can effect fundamental change in the institution's
internal and external systems of communication . . . adminis-
trators who are not mere improvisors, but understand fully
their area of action and its vital importance to the total

life of the institution. . . . Administration is more than
a technique: It is understanding.11

A successful leader will have to lead, in part, by example.
Habte calls for a "philosophy of work and sacrifice" which is
"reflected in the life-style of higher officers of the university
and by the faculty, so that all practice what must be pervasively
preached."12

Finding university leaders is not an easy task, in part,
because developing nations tend to be lacking in trained and exper-
ienced administrators. The recruitment of good leaders becomes,
then, a major responsibility of a university if it-hopes to make a
contribution to development.

An attempt should be made to improve the leadership skills
of the present university leaders. Authorities suggest that certain
techniques and conditions can be helpful in this task. It is recom-
mended that a university atmosphere "which encourages ideas to
spread and take hold" is important to developing leadership in
people who have the potential.13 Also recommended is the promotion
of dialogue with other leaders who have been successful in development-
oriented programs. Benjamin proposes "conferences of administrators
within particular countries or regions, where common problems can be

studied by men who are well-acquainted with one another's difficul-

14
ties" as being useful in leadership development.

 

 

17

As a final point, in addition to the need for capable
leaders with strength and vision, there is a need for internal
stability and continuity of leadership within the university organi-
zation. Development is a long-range process requiring enduring,

l
long-term leadership. 5

Institutional Structure

 

Most older universities in Latin America are structured on
the model of the universities of Bologna and Salamanca: loosely
federated, highly independent professional schools.16 As new pro-
fessions were added to the original schools of theology, law,
medicine, and humanities, the faculties tended to become increas-
ingly autonomous, "jealously guarding their traditions and indepen-
dence, each building up student loyalty."l7 This feudal pattern of
organization has carried into the twentieth century and been rein-
forced by the proliferation of professional schools and the dis-
persion of buildings throughout various parts of the city.18 An
extreme, but not uncommon, result of this kind of structure can be
seen at the University of Brazil, in which, with an enrollment of
less than 10,000, there are 533 separate chairs. Elementary
chemistry, for example, is given independently in nine different
faculties with each faculty having its own laboratories and equip-
ment.

Most authorities argue that the traditional structure is
inadequate for meeting modern national needs, and the universities
in Latin America will need to be restructured so that their

"graduates are better able to cope with the larger problems of

 

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18

. . 20 . . .
the community and of soc1ety as a whole." Soedjatmoko, writing
about Asian universities, states that there must be "a fundamental
structural university reform" possibly including a "shift from a

discipline-oriented to a problem-oriented structure. . . .

Centralization. There is no single structure ideal for all universi—

 

ties. Appropriate structure depends on the nation's needs and the
university's purposes. It is generally agreed among the authorities,
however, that there is a need for a centralized university structure
to unite separate faculties into a cohesive unit.

. . . Strong autonomous faculties tend to erect barriers
against ideas or methods from other faculties or adminis-
trators and even against the needs of the community. There
must be some central planning and authority to encourage
interdisciplinary programs and to spread new ways of doing
things, including circulating information on innovative
projects. The existence of an initiating nucleus within
the institution . . . is of great importance since it "can
radiate the spirit of community service throughout the entire
institution. . . ."

Centralization of a university already established is no easy
task, especially if it has a tradition of semi-autonomous faculties.
The very interest groups which inhibit appropriate development activ-
ities are usually powerful and firmly entrenched. Strong leadership
is required to effectively confront and overcome the formidable
resistance to the centralization process.

Some centralization of the university structure has occurred
in several institutions in the last few years. At the University of
Bahia, in Brazil, "many isolated chairs were grouped under depart-

mental structures and the departments were organized under a better-

. . . . . 23
defined univer51ty structure of schools and institutes." Many of

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19

the private universities established in the last quarter century are
centralized in structure, including the four private universities

in Guatemala.24

Students. Access to the university is an often discussed and con-
troversial topic. To date, most university students in developing
nations have been from the middle and upper classes. This has led
to criticism that the universities perpetuate a rigid social class
structure and as such will not be very effective in bringing about
the changes which will result in true development. The situation
is complex, for the educational and social systems in most countries
are such that the majority of the students who manage to acquire
the education prerequisite to enrollment in universities are from
the middle and upper classes. Few of those students from the lower
classes who finish secondary school are well prepared for successful
university participation because of the inferior secondary education
they receive. In addition, poverty requires them to be employed
while at the university, increasing their chances for academic
failure and prolonging the time required for obtaining a degree.
Thus, even an open admission policy would not equalize access to
higher education or insure equal opportunity in the university.2
Should admission be open, or should universities select
their students? Those in favor of open admission point out that
selection invariably discriminates against the poor and thus per-
petuates an elitist system. Those who argue for selection say that
a poor nation cannot provide a good university education for all

secondary school graduates who wish to go to college, thus must

 

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20

take the most qualified candidates in order to be most effective
. . . 26
in contributing to the development of human resources.

The answer to the dilemma lies, in part, in a combination
of financial aid and an extensive search program for talented stu-
dents from all levels of the social strata. If qualified students
from lower socio-economic levels can be located and their education
subsidized, then a university for development will have a reasonably

. 27

adequate solution to the problem of access.

Wastage is a serious problem at all levels of education in

. . 28 . .
the developing countries. As Will be seen in Chapter 3, the
dropout rate in Guatemala is particularly high, especially at the
university level. If a university is to be effective in training
people needed in development, it must find ways to retain its stu-
dents and encourage their rapid progress toward graduation. Low
retention at universities is caused, in part, by high failure rates
at universities. At the Universidad de San Carlos, on the average,
. . 29 .

students fail more than half their courses each term. The high
failure rate is caused by a variety of phenomena: interference
from student activities, inadequate previous academic preparation,
need of students to work while studying, inadequate personnel and
academic guidance, and a tendency of Latin American professors to
equate low grades with high teaching standards. The president of
a private university in Guatemala suggested that a combination of
careful selection, appropriate placement, continuing guidance,
supervision of professors to guard against unreasonable failure

rates, scholarships for capable students from low income families,

21

and better curriculum and teaching are needed to improve retention
and graduation rates.30 Vaizey recommends two practices which he
believes may increase retention. First, he suggests improved
selection of students, "to discourage pupils from beginning an
education that they will never be able to complete." Second, he
suggests the development of intermediate degrees "so that there is
always something to show for whatever knowledge or training has
been acquired and which can be put to economic use."31 Lewis sug-
gests that countries give "other post-secondary schools a higher
status and deflect more students there."32

According to Benjamin, today's institutions of higher edu-
cation have evolved from the universities of Paris and Bologna. At
both institutions, the term universitas referred to the groups of
people who operated the university. In Paris, the universitas
was the corporation of masters (teachers). In Bologna, it was the
corporation of students. The Paris concept of "university teachers
directing students" became the model for universities in northern
Europe and the United States. The Bologna concept of a "university
of students served by teachers" became the model for Italy and
Iberia and thus found its way to Latin America via the Spaniards
who founded the first universities there.

Today direct student participation in the governing of uni-
versities (co-government) is common in Latin America. Co-government
grew out of the Bologna model and was greatly strengthened by the
C6rdova movement of 1918 in which the right of the university to

determine its course without interference from government was

 

22

established. Co—government usually "takes the form of student
representation in a fixed ratio on all the governing boards and
councils of the institution as well as a fixed percentage of votes
in the elections for rector and dean."34 In many Latin American
universities, the alumni also are represented on boards of governance
and in elections for university officials. Thus, since decisions
concerning policy, budget, and hiring and firing administrators are
made by the boards of governors; the students, both current and
graduates, have an important voice in determining university affairs.
Student participation in governing the university has few
defenders among the authorities who write on universities concerned
with national development. Undue student influence in university
governance has resulted in lowering the academic quality of courses,
undermining the atmosphere of discipline, discouraging the practice
of full-time study, and as a result, reducing the number of graduates
in relation to the enrollment.36 The graduates, representing their
professional associations, may also play a negative role. The pro-
fessional associations have an interest in university decision making
since future graduates become the business and professional compe-
tition for those already graduated. It is believed that this self-
interest, combined with governing power, is "largely responsible for
extending the program of studies and, in general, for the measures
designed to limit possible competition from future graduates."37
The negative role of graduates is one of the factors which causes
the universities "to be so lethargic about helping the process of

. . . 38
change in their respective countries."

 

23

It is recognized by many authorities that student partici-
pation in university decision making is not conducive to sound uni-
versity management and, thus, inappropriate for development-oriented
universities. At some universities, action has been taken to limit
student power and provide more responsible administrative leader-

. 39
ship.

The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
summarizes much of the writing on co-government as follows:

It is understandable that students should be consulted

regarding the services directly affecting them (dining—
rooms, scholarships, etc.), but it is difficult to justify
their participation in the drawing up of curricula and pro-
grams, or their having a say in teaching appointments, etc.
The establishment of a university policy in all these matters
presupposes that those who formulate it are competent to do
so. By definition, students would appear to lack this com-
petence.4O

Benjamin points out that there is a negative correlation in
Latin America between the general level of development of a country
and the degree of student control of universities; i.e., countries
at the lower levels of development tend to have universities with
more student participation than countries at the upper levels.
There is a tendency, he says, in the more advanced countries, such
as Chile and Costa Rica, to move away from student co-government
and towards lay boards of control.

Student participation in community service projects and
research related to national development is generally recommended
by development authorities. It is recognized that students should

be given counseling and supervision in their field work, and

encouraged to "use their training to solve local and national

 

 

24

problems after graduation."42 Thompson and Fogel lay great stress
on involving students in work-study programs in both the rural and
urban areas. They recommend financing the theses of students who
will work in national development projects, including the students
in planning community development programs, and assigning theses
in community and national development matters.

Involvement of both students and professors in political
and union activities on campus is another tradition at Latin
American universities. Many students belong to organizations which
take active roles in the political, social, and economic concerns of
the nation. To influence national and international affairs, stu-
dents employ their organizations in a variety of ways, some illegal,
such as strikes and acts of group violence. On occasion, student
movements have been influential in bringing down government, as was
the case in Guatemala when General Ubico was overthrown in 1945.44

There are some compelling arguments in favor of politics on
campus. Many students are deeply concerned about the myriad social
problems which exist and want to use their privileged position in
society to effect social change.45 This involvement would appear
to be in keeping with a university philosophy aimed at development.
However, there are several problems related to political activism
on campus. Much political activity is manipulated by strong national
political organizations for the purpose of acquiring power. In
addition, political activism tends to make the disinterested pursuit
of knowledge difficult. Points of View and the tone and substance

of instruction and research are likely to be determined on the basis

 

 

 

25

of political strength. Indoctrination replaces free thinking.4
Paddock, in his strong criticism of student activism at universi-
ties, decries the tendency of students who, "depending on their
whims of the moment, shout down and terrorize anyone voicing an
opinion different from theirs, whether fellow student, faculty
member, dean, or visiting lecturer."

Political activism not only takes study time away from the
direct participants, but it also frequently results in strikes which
close the university for all. At the Universidad de San Carlos, as
an example, it is estimated that student activism may result in the
loss of up to 20 percent of class time per year.

It is the thinking of the authorities, in general, that in
spite of some of the good intentions of student political involve-
ment, the general result of student activism is to retard a uni-
versity's contribution to national development. Paddock believes
that universities under the control of student organizations "are
incapable of giving the hungry nation the trained men and leaders

9
it so desperately needs."4

Autonomy. University autonomy is a complicated issue related to
university governance in Latin America. The concept of autonomy as
it applies to most universities is a product of the university reform
movement of 1918 at the University of Cdrdova in Argentina which
attempted to free the University from government interference. The
movement spread slowly to other universities and today exists in
theory at least at almost all Latin American universities. Autonomy

generally means a constitutional guarantee that the government will

26

not interfere in the internal affairs of the university. It
usually includes an annual income as a fixed percentage of the
national budget with no government control over how the money is
spent.

Autonomy of higher education is extremely important in
Latin America, especially when recognized that prior to its
inception, universities were under the control of the incumbent
governments which used them for political purposes. A university
free from outside interference is much better able to pursue its
important functions of teaching, research, and learning. Thus,
the advent of autonomy was a positive step in the evolution of the
Latin American universities.51 However, autonomy brings with it
some negative effects especially with regard to the development
functions of the university. In many Latin American countries,
universities are divorced from their governments and the communi-
ties in which they operate. Butts discusses the deleterious effect
of autonomy on teacher education in Latin America, pointing out the
wide gulf between the ministries of education and the universities
concerning the preparation of teachers. This inability of the two
institutions to communicate and cooperate, caused in great part by
autonomy, results in the "duplication of effort and proliferation
of small, weak teacher training institutions. . . ."

Adams and Bjork, while recognizing the need to protect the
university against "crude attempts at governmental coercion," argue
that the isolation of the universities limits their ability to

contribute to national development. They note that there are great

27

mutual benefits in contacts between universities and their govern-
53

ments. Beltran states that autonomy "does not and should not

mean a divorce from the state, since this would imply a cloistering

. . . . . "54
and sterilization, a divorce from the community. Hannah has been
paraphrased as saying that "the single most urgent factor affecting
the contribution higher education makes to development in the

. . . . . 55
developing countries is its relation to government. . . ." It
has been pointed out by others that a university is more likely to
be successful in carrying out development projects if government

. 56
people are involved.

Medina Echavarria proposes a useful formula for a middle
ground between the extremes. He believes that there should be
neither the "cloistered university," nor the "militant university,"
but a "participating university." This formula favors a nonpolitical
institution which is free to choose its own personnel, determine its
own programs, and establish its own budget, but which maintains con-
tacts with the community and government in identifying problems and
. ' " . 57
carrying out pr03ects to solve them.

There are several models of university cooperation with
government in which university autonomy is maintained. Velazquez
describes the Norte del Cuaca Program of the Universidad del Valle
in Colombia in which the Schools of Health, Engineering, Education,
and Economics of the Universidad cooperate closely with three
governmental agencies to "test and experiment with practical models
to improve well-being (agricultural productivity, nutrition, edu-

cation, health, electrification, housing, and income) for farmers

owning small plots."58 Other successful development programs

 

 

 

28

involving universities cooperating with government have been carried
out at the University of Antioquia in Colombia, the University of

Bahia in Brazil, and the Monterrey Institute in México.

Interdisciplinary activity. Solutions to many social problems

 

require the use of skills and knowledge from a variety of disci-
plines. Consequently, people prepared as leaders in development
must have training not only in several disciplines but also in the
practice of employing various areas of knowledge simultaneously in
, 6O , . . . .
solv1ng problems. Velasquez complains that at most univer51ties,
. . . the rigid departmental structure . . . does not
train an engineer or a doctor to understand the interdepen-
dence of all segments of society or how to solve problems 61
except in the limited area of their specialized knowledge.
Authorities call for the restructuring of universities and
the retraining of staff and administration to achieve an interdisci-
. . . 62 .
plinary approach to training students. They mention several ways
to achieve interdisciplinary programs at universities. One way is
to initiate a project in one faculty and then invite staff from
other faculties as participants. This approach has proved success-
ful in a community health program at the Universidad del Valle in
Colombia and in the urban development program at the Federal Uni-
. f . . 63
ver51ty of Bahia 1n Bra211.
Interdisciplinary instruction may be carried out through
curriculum reorganization. In 1971, for example, the Faculty of
Arts and Sciences at the University of Dar es Salaam was reorganized

64
to make problem-solving the central theme of the curriculum.

29

Interdisciplinary activity may also be accomplished by
involving several institutions in projects which require various
kinds of competence which no one institution can provide by itself.
An example of this approach is the Maeklong Project in Thailand, in
which Thammasat University, with expertise in social sciences;
Kasetsart University, with expertise in agriculture; and Mahidol
University, with expertise in medical sciences, joined forces to

carry out a rural development project.

Interinstitutional cooperation. To enhance development efforts of

 

universities, various forms of cooperation among institutions are
recommended.66 Cooperation can be an effective way to pool
resources and expertise, especially for small institutions in poor
countries in which there is a scarcity of academic talent and in
which different institutions engage in different specialities.
Accordingly, in many areas, the interdisciplinary approach to
attacking societal problems requires interinstitutional efforts.
As was mentioned previously, three universities ". . . are pooling
their institutional specialities in agriculture, medical science,
and social sciences in the Maeklong Project in rural development."6
In Nigeria about eighty teachers' colleges have become
affiliate members of the Institute of Education at Ahmadu Bello.
Their plan is very similar to Butts' suggestion for setting up
institutes to bring peOple together, ". . . people who man the
several principal agencies necessary for the improvement of edu-
cation of teachers."68 The Institute of Education "organizes boards

for curriculum study, provides subject area specialists, moderates

 

3O

examinations, and sends mobile teacher training teams from one
. . . . 69
college to another to adv1se, aSSist, and train as required."

An African educator recommends "advanced-level joint degree
programs with other universities" located both locally and in
foreign countries which would provide "more relevance and more
efficiency in the process of granting a Ph.D. or similar qualifi-

. 7O
cation."

An example of interinstitutional cooperation in Central
America has the added dimension of internationality. The Central
American Council of Higher Education (CSUCA) was established in

71 . . . .

1948, and reVitalized in 1958, to promote "cooperation among

the five national universities of Central America and functional
integration for specific regional programs at both the graduate

72 .

and undergraduate level." CSUCA, conSidered one of the most
successful interinstitutional and international endeavors in higher
education, has sponsored a variety of projects related to research
and curriculum. Not all the projects have been successful, but
Mitchell believes that, on balance, CSUCA has established itself
"as the principal source of new ideas and innovation in higher

. . . 73
education in Central America."

International involvement. Closely related to the concepts of

 

interdisciplinary and interinstitutional cooperation is the con-
cept of international involvement. FOgel states, "Innovation is
stimulated by a larger world of ideas and action. Higher education
must have continuing contact with life and thought outside insti-

. . . 74 .
tutional walls and out51de national borders." This contact

31

helps to broaden the vision and perspective of faculty and students,
expands contacts with institutions that have useful knowledge and
experience in meeting development needs, and permits concerted
efforts in national development projects.

Some authorities point out that international involvement
can be a double-edged sword; that is, its effects can be negative
as well as positive. The "brain drain" is an unfortunate phenomenon
related to international involvement. This phenomenon usually
occurs when students from poor countries study in the wealthy ones
and then remain abroad because the employment opportunities there
are better than at home. Even when the students return home, they
may encounter problems, for much overseas education is not designed
for preparing students from poor nations to meet the problems they
face in their own countries. In addition, foreign university models
cannot be imported to develOping countries without modification.
Effective international involvement, then, requires an awareness of
potential pitfalls. The following are some general patterns of

international involvement which can be useful.

1. Administration and staff members study abroad. This is an

 

important way to enhance the competence of a university's leaders,
and in many countries may be the only means for them to obtain
graduate degrees. The University of Dar es Salaam tries to take
advantage of foreign Ph.D. programs without losing touch with the
requirements for meeting Tanzania's development needs by having its

professors do some work at home and some abroad. "The University

 

32

also pays a staff salary to promising graduates during the period
. . . 7
of their overseas work as an incentive to return."

Habte believes that universities in underdeveloped countries
must work with "foreign graduate schools to devise programs that
will enable more advanced study and particularly required research.
. . . Projects could then be more relevant both to the creation of
. . . . 77
1nd1v1dual expertise and to (local) research needs generally."

Study abroad does not have to be formal. Teachers and
students may benefit greatly from visits to special innovative

. . . . . . 78
prOjects and from part1c1pation 1n workshops and seminars.

2. Aid (financial and consultative) from developed countries.

 

Foreign aid must be relevant to the recipient country's development
needs. Thus, one of the most important concepts of foreign aid for
national development is that of the participation of the recipient
institution in identifying needs, suggesting and planning appropriate
programs, providing its own personnel in carrying out the projects,
and seeing that the results are disseminated appropriately.79 Along
this line of thought, Habte argues for the "shift in general policy

. . . 80
formulation from the international 'experts' to the 'local experts.'"

3. Multinational consortia of experts. Habte recommends the

 

establishment of several small consortia of experts drawn from many

developed and developing nations to foment "new strategies of inter-

national cooperation for continuing, systematic study of the problems
. 81

of ongOing development. . . ." He suggests that there be a con-

sortium for each of such areas as agriculture, administration, edu-

cation, etc., which would meet periodically "to discuss relevant

33

theoretical advances in the field, concrete research or experimental
projects, new strategies for developing university staff, and other
related problems of institutional and professional development."82
It has also been stated that "Underdeveloped countries need to draw
upon an international fund of knowledge to hasten them along the

. . 8
path of soc1al and economic growth."

4. Regional integration of universities. The regional inte—

 

gration of universities is a means of promoting international
cooperation which can have several benefits. First, it can be used
as a way of unifying degree requirements and courses of study so
that students may transfer easily from one university to another in
the region. Second, individual universities can be designated as
regional centers for certain kinds of professional training in which
students from several countries may enroll. In addition, research
institutes can be set up and jointly operated so that resources and
money can be used most efficiently.84

Several efforts have been made at this kind of regional
cooperation, most notably the Central American Higher University
Council (CSUCA). CSUCA is an organization representing national
universities in each of the five Central American states and Panamé.
It has made efforts at COOperation in three areas: general studies,
regional courses, and regional institutes. At present, several
universities in the organization have a general studies program;
there are regional programs in such areas as sanitary engineering,
chemistry, veterinary medicine, and clinical medicine; finally, there

. . . . . 85
are several research institutes functioning at the regional level.

34

Another effort at regional cooperation in Central America
is the Federation of Private Universities in Central America (FUPAC).
FUPAC was established in 1968 as a means of coordinating the activi-
ties of private universities in Central America somewhat on the model
of CSUCA. Presently, there are eight member institutions, including
the Universidad Mariano Galvez in Guatemala. The major efforts of
FUPAC to date have been (1) the publishing of several books and
pamphlets on the role of the private universities in Central America
and (2) the convening of a series of meetings to discuss the important
issues before the Central American private universities.86

Over the years, the thinking of FUPAC's leaders has gradually
moved toward the position that universities must attempt to effect

social change. Roman Mayorga Quiros, a former president of FUPAC,

 

in his book, The University for Social Change, strongly advocates an
activist role for private universities in identifying national
problems and contributing to their solution, even taking strong

. . . . . . 87
stands on major soc1al and political issues in the area.

Formation of institutes. Occasionally in the literature on higher

 

education, reference is made to the formation of institutes within
the university as a mechanism to carry out specific tasks for which
there is no adequate existing structure. These institutes, usually
given some autonomy within the institution and flexibility to develop
unorthodox programs, "act as clearinghouses for the institution's

. "88 . .
expertise. Institutes are usually related to research or serVice,
with teaching being corollary. They are frequently problem-oriented

and multidisciplinary in structure.

35

Support facilities. To permit a university to contribute to national

 

development it must have appropriate support facilities. Generally
speaking, university facilities in Latin America are inadequate.
Unfortunately, although building construction may be accomplished
economically, the provision of sufficient and adequate science

. . . . 89 . .
laboratories and equipment is expenSive. This problem is aggra-
vated by the fact that at many universities similar courses are
offered independently in various autonomous faculties, each with
. . . . . 90
its own libraries, laboratories, and equipment. The common use
of these facilities by various departments would allow more laboratory
use and reduce expenditures for facilities.

Perhaps the most critical resource that supports teaching
and research is the library. Libraries in Latin America are notorious
for the inadequacy of their books and service. King found that of
the nine provincial universities in Mexico, only three had any central

. . 91 . . . .
library serVice at all. White, in a study of 220 univer51ty
librarians in México, found that only four had library degrees, and
only nine held university degrees of any kind; the vast majority had
92
not even graduated from secondary school.

It has been noted that year-round use of educational facilities
is practical in any country. The advantage is obvious: it permits
the speeding up of the presentation of courses and reduces the time
required for completion of programs. Paddock describes the Panamerican
Agricultural School in Honduras which adopted a three-year curriculum
by eliminating most vacations. This, he says, not only increases

efficiency but also instills in the student a sense of urgency about

36

the needs of development.93 Several African institutions are trying
out the concept of a year-round university which stays open for
both service and instruction. In addition, extension and summer
programs are being planned during evenings and vacation periods
offering standard university courses.94

Nyerere preposes that in underdeveloped countries, educational
institutions at all levels have farms and workshops as integral parts
of the community. These should not be merely adjuncts to the insti-
tutions, but working entities in which students can participate in
actual experiences and research directly related to curriculum,

9
methods, and practicum. 5

Planning

As opposed to the development of the modern Western nations,
which occurred at a leisurely pace without design, the developing
nations of today are attempting to promote rapid change with limited
resources. For them, planning is a crucial element in their progress.
Authorities argue that planning is a necessity in the efficient use
of scarce resources, but they also point out that it is not in
itself a panacea for development. Politics, human resistance to
change, financial and resource limitations, and lack of trained

. . 96
manpower are obstacles to the effectiveness of planning. However,
as Hanson and Brembeck state, "Although planning cannot solve the
. . . . . . . . . . 97
unrealistic ambitions, it can bring what is p0551b1e into being."

Planning is most often carried out at the national level in

developing countries. In general, universities have not demonstrated

much interest or involvement in planning. King, in a report that is

9__________

 

37

generally complimentary of the national development role of the
Mexican provincial universities, says that these "universities are
growing and changing more in response to social demand for education
. . 98 . .
than as a result of coordinated planning." The United Nations
Economic Commission indicates that Latin American universities have
. . . 99

not, as a group, been very effective in planning.

Given the importance of planning in a developing country
and the tendency in recent years for universities to expand in
number of students and activities, it has become crucial for planning
to take an important role in higher education. Following is a dis-
cussion of planning steps which are pertinent for a university in a

developing country.

Assessment of national needs. The planning process begins with an

 

appraisal of the needs of the present conditions. A university
which would participate in development must, therefore, have a pro-
cedure for assessing the nation's needs. There are several ways to
accomplish this. One is through research and study: "Research can
identify critical situations and the directions and occasionally the
. . . . . 100 . . .
quantitative impacts of alternative strategies." The univer51ties
involved in the Maeklong Project in Thailand identify community
problems by using field research. Project leaders list the problems
and "rank them in order of difficulty, possibility of solution, and
probable impact." A committee then "selects the problems that seem
. "101
to have the greatest chance of successful solutions.

Another method of assessing national needs is to work in

collaboration with business and government. Several universities,

38

such as the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Advanced Studies

in México and the Development Academy in the Phillipines, work on a
consulting basis with other institutions and charge fees. Others,
such as the Universidad del Valle in Colombia and the National
Agrarian University in Colombia, cooperate with their governments
gg.honorum.102 As was observed earlier, cooperation with the govern-
ment on identifying national problems has the benefit of obtaining
valuable government support for those institutions involved.

One of the advantages developing nations have is the oppor—
tunity to learn from the mistakes made by the developed countries.
Accordingly, part of the planning process requires identifying
problems which result from modernization in order to avoid committing

the same types of errors.103

Goal setting. The thoughtful setting of institutional goals, based

 

on identified needs, is one of the crucial steps of the planning
process. Well—formulated statements of goals provide the criteria

. . . 104
by which to judge whether or not the goal is eventually met.

Curle identifies two kinds of goals: (1) "investment" goals,
which result in some material advantage for the individual, and (2)
"consumer" goals, which enrich the individual ultimately. Relatively
complex goals may be analyzed and atomized into simple ones which may
be accomplished quickly and successfully but cumulatively more
. 105 ,

directly toward long-range goals. Husen argues that to serve
the society adequately, "Analyses based on empirical survey data
. . . are badly needed to arrive at a proper set of concrete

goals. . . ."106

39

Assessment of a university's ability to meet its goals. Identifica-
tion of needs is not in itself sufficient for setting goals. A
university must also assess its own personnel and physical resources
to determine which goals it can realistically meet.

Before any project is attempted, there needs to be a careful
diagnosis of all needed elements to determine if the institution has
or can obtain the necessary resources to accomplish its aims. Cer-
tain programs may require a high level of research staff, considerable
personnel, cooperative effort with other institutions or agencies, or
funding. Once it has been determined that the university has the
capability to undertake such projects and the goals are set, there is
a need for continual assessment of the required means to carry out
individual projects.107 Bowles says that little should be expected
of universities in the formative periods, that it will take twenty or
thirty years for these universities ". . . to take their proper place
on the national scene."108 The point here is that manifesting high
aspirations and a desire to confront urgent national needs is not
sufficient to permit the university to have an effect on development
problems.

Universities must not become so involved in national develop-
ment that they ignore self-sufficiency as one of their goals. "Self-
sufficiency and the ability to help oneself remain important indexes

. . . . . . . 109
of educational capaCity for both 1nd1v1duals and institutions."

Planning for change. ". . . The very nature of planning implies

 

change . . . change means reform, and . . . reform is precisely what

' 110
Latin American countries . . . need most." Planning should play

 

 

40

a central role in any institution, but it is particularly important
to an institution dedicated to innovation and change. A university
which serves a changing world must constantly engage in the process
of identifying regional needs, setting goals, assessing its ability
to meet those goals, and evaluating its efforts.

Planning for change requires emphasizing qualitative factors
more than quantitative ones. Pure expansion of programs, numbers
of students and faculty, and amount of the budget, while appearing
impressive, may actually debilitate the development process. What
is needed is a planning procedure geared toward adapting educational
structure and programs to the changing development needs of the
region so that the university does not fall into the "crisis of
painful maladjustment between unchanging educational institutions
and their rapidly changing environment."111 A suitable planning
policy, then, will combine selective growth with qualitative changes
which will keep the practices of the university in tune with changing
circumstances of the region.112

Traditionally, universities have been perpetuators of culture.
Lewis advances the interesting thesis that much traditional culture
in poor countries is "no more than the universal culture of poverty."113
With the impingement of modern technological societies upon less
developed peoples, their ancient and time-honored social relationships
will break down. Indeed this must occur if modernization is to fur-
nish a better quality of life for the masses. Therefore, a new role
of the university is to "erode traditional society," to be a bearer

114
of change and improvement.

41

In undertaking the role of change agent, universities con-
front many barriers: feudal heritage and traditional conservatism,
. . . . . 115 . .
not only of univer51t1es, but soc1ety in general; traditional
social and political values; primary concern for family and "tribe"
rather than the broader community; and suppression of rights by
. . 116
those in authority.

Planning for national change, if it is to be effective, must
involve the participation of many individuals and institutions.
Perhaps most importantly, those who will be implementing the pro-
jects should be involved in the planning to assure their satisfactory

, 117 . . . . . .
completion. It is important for all the partic1pants in a prOject
to "understand the plan, believe in it, and feel that they have a

. . .118 .
stake in it,‘ according to Coombs and Hallack. Many planned
reforms have met with resistance and been rendered ineffective
because the groups responsible for implementing them were simply
handed the final plans without having an opportunity to contribute
119
to the development of the reforms.

Some major obstacles to consider in planning for change are
the feelings and attitudes of persons who will be affected by that
change. Trying to change the basic precepts and values which people
have held much of their lives is a slow and difficult process. If
people desire change, they want to participate in the decisions of
the processes themselves. They must be convinced that something
different may be of greater benefit to them than what they pre-
sently possess. (Plans for change at any level should provide for
helping the recipients recognize and describe their problems, and

seek their own solutions.120

42

Social scientists, particularly anthropologists, need to
be involved in planning for social change. Their sensitivity to
people's attitudes may prevent a superior and ethnocentric posture
frequently adopted by industrialized societies vis-a-vis the people

of underdeveloped nations.121

Innovative programs. Planning should include innovative programs

 

if it is to serve the university in contributing to development.
Thompson and Fogel indicate that "the major source of educational
innovation is an individual or group of individuals who take the
"122 , . . . .
lead. Accordingly, the innovative process must begin with the
seeking out of peOple with creative minds and the willingness to
. . . . . . . 23
partic1pate in the planning and realization of new ideas.

Once the innovators are identified, a university should
encourage them by providing a hospitable environment for experi-
mentation. Some latitude should be allowed the innovator. Unwieldy
bureaucracies "produce fewer innovators than do societies that wel-
come open discussion and that reward innovators with attention and

"124
respect.

Innovation is a contagious phenomenon which tends to be
extended by example. Fogel believes that "innovators create their
own atmosphere of excitement, attract their own support, and may

. . . 125
change an apparently hostile env1ronment by their very presence."
Hence, their involvement in planning new programs will be useful not
only for the direct application of their intellect to problems, but

also because of the influence they may have on others. Velésquez

refers to this phenomenon and says that "the best way to introduce

43

. . . . 126

innovative change is by show1ng successful examples." A good

illustration of this in higher education is the Universided del

Valle in Colombia. In the early 19605, it became involved in a

series of innovative programs after a medical group there launched

. . 127

a successful new program of health delivery serv1ce. To enhance

innovation in an institution, it is suggested that visiting pro-

fessors and others recognized as innovators have contact with the
128

staff.

A major source of innovation is research. Research can be
used to determine the ways in which different kinds of structure and
other types of environments affect successful experimentation.
Research can also be used to determine what innovation is needed

. . . . . . 129
and how already implemented innovation is functioning.

Innovation often requires the wisdom and abilities of people
from various fields of study. Velasquez notes, however, that it
does take expert leadership to induce strong-willed individuals
from various disciplines to cooperate, modify their points of view,
and participate positively in the give-and-take planning and execut-
. . . . 130
ing of innovative prOJects.

The difficulty of assuring that educational innovation will
be adopted and generalized is a topic on which Cerych has written
at some length. It is his belief, supported in part by research,
that innovation is more likely both to take place and be generalized
. . . . . . . . 131
in a part1c1patory env1ronment than in an authoritarian env1ronment.

Innovation is neither a panacea for problem solving nor does

it necessarily result in improved practices or conditions. It should

44

be recognized that some traditional programs and methods are quite
adequate for development. For that reason, the planners of inno-
vation, while being inventive and willing to experiment with bold
new ways, must at the same time exercise good judgment as to what
kind of innovation is needed and what practices are already working
well. There must be a "reasonable balance . . . between innovation
in education and the tried and tested present-day educational

132
models. . . ."

Evaluation

 

Evaluation is essential to the decision-making process in
any system. It is especially important in a university which is
trying to break new ground. Whereas the value of traditional pro-
grams may be fairly well established, innovative programs require
extensive and careful assessment. Unfortunately, systematic evalu-
ation in higher education is not widespread. Dressel notes that
most important decisions in higher education are made on the basis
of "tradition, prejudice, and rationalization," rather than through

. 133 . . . . .
sound evaluative procedures. Cerych, writing about univerSities
internationally, echoes Dressel's observation, saying that "for a
long time self-evaluation was resisted by educational establishments
. . . . . . 134
in general and by univer51t1es in particular. . . ."

It should be noted that failure to employ evaluation tech-
niques in education is related not only to normal resistance to the

process, but also to the fact that evaluation is an imprecise and

tentative endeavor. Cartter argues that "no single index . . . nor

45

any combination of measures is sufficient to estimate adequately
. . . . 135

the true worth of an educational institution."

Given the importance of evaluation, it becomes incumbent
upon university leaders to attempt the most sophisticated assessment
possible of the institution even though pitfalls are inherent in
the process and no evaluation system has yet been evolved which
precisely measures outcomes in educational endeavors.

When evaluating innovative programs, the most important task
is to determine whether the new way is an improvement upon the old.
To get at this question, it is important that ways to assess per-
formance be built into the planning process. First, the goals of
the program must be clearly defined. Second, there must be ways
to measure the results of the program. Third, there must be a

. . . . . 136

rev1ew of the goals themselves to determine their validity.

The scientific approach is stressed by those who advocate
, , 137 , "
improved evaluation procedures. Velasquez argues that casual
observation of the effects of change" does not compare with "the
.. . .. 138
ability to predict and evaluate these effects with some prec151on.

In addition to scientific evaluation, which has its limi-
tations, there are other, less formal, ways to evaluate. Periodic
meetings with people involved in the various university tasks to
discuss projects can be a useful way of keeping informed of progress.
Observation, testing, and surveying are other evaluative procedures

139

recommended.

Qualitative evaluation is the most difficult to achieve, but

in education it is the most important. Husén recommends surveys to

46

assess the qualitative outcomes of an educational system, saying
that output cannot be measured by counting individuals, "but rather
by the amount of competence that has been imparted to these indi-

. "140 . , . .
v1duals. Todaro agrees that counting the Ph.D. 5 is an insuf-
ficient way to evaluate the university's impact and insists that
difficulty in measuring outcomes is no excuse for not attempting

. . . 141
the qualitative evaluation.

Another aspect of the evaluation process should be men-
tioned here, the involvement of as many members of the staff as
possible. Jones suggests that "Self-evaluation solidifies and
strengthens the institution chiefly by what it does for the indi-
viduals who comprise it. . . . Efficiency is not important; staff

. . 142
education is what we are after." Involvement of the staff helps
to make them aware of institutional goals and their role in the
total organization, not just in their bailiwick.

Participation of the staff is important also because it
increases the probability that meaningful exchange will occur. It
is fairly well established that those people involved in decision

. . . . . 43
making are more likely to implement the deCiSions.

The View of evaluation as a total involvement of staff in
assessing the entire institution is particularly pertinent to a
university which is attempting to unify departments and faculties
in a multidisciplinary effort to contribute to meeting national
needs. Thus, the process may be as important as the results.

Evaluation should be an on-going assessment of component

parts as well as overall program and structure. Dressel states

47

that "a proper evaluation requires that the experiment or project
is structured from the start with the design requirements of the

. . . "144 . . .
evaluation in mind. By making the evaluation process continuous,
it becomes manageable and at the same time encourages constant
attention to institutional processes.

The model of program development designed by Dressel serves
to demonstrate the concept of built-in, continual evaluation, which
may be useful as a model for a university that would contribute to

. 145 .
national development. (See model, Figure 1, on page 48.)

Some authorities recommend that a cost-benefit analysis be

included in plans for an overall evaluation in an effort to link
. 146
program results Wlth money spent.

In the final analysis, evaluation must be directed at asking
the question that Todaro presents with regard to financial aid to
a university in a developing country: " . . . how and in what way
is this support assisting the university in its efforts to contribute

to the solution of the basic problems of undernourishment, poverty,

. . 1
inequality, and values?"

Financing

Financing a development-oriented university is no mean task,
for development activities do not lend themselves well to self-
sufficiency. First, universities for development are not likely
to offer degrees in the lucrative professions, the most profitable
programs at traditional universities. Second, there must be places

. . . . 148 .

for talented students With limited income. Third, the costs of

the scientific and technical education are higher than the

48

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

..§?
y
c
96.00
0.63
.00 0
(x7 6‘
o e
x..o
o »
pcfip
.6’
{y
8?
0
Program
6L
A)
‘49
6Q.
o
0
Figure 1

Model of Program Development

SOURCE: Paul L. Dressel and associates, Evaluation in
Higher Education (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961), p. 9.

 

 

 

 

49

traditional areas of law and the arts.149 Fourth, research and
service projects do not generate income from fees. Thus, universi-
ties that would contribute to development must depend on funds from
outside sources for their survival.

Although development-oriented universities are not likely
to achieve self-sufficiency solely from fees, they may be able to
obtain financial support from large international foundations,
development banks, and governments both at home and abroad. Millions
of dollars are available to institutions of higher education in poor
countries from these sources. The World Bank, alone, has projected
expenditures on higher education in a five-year period of $300
million.150

Financial and consultative aid from other countries is vital
for the undertaking of much needed projects in many developing
nations. Without the millions of dollars from private foundations
such as Ford and Rockefeller and others, from USAID, and from United
Nations agencies, few of the well-known and successful development
projects could have been implemented. In a recent study of the role
of higher education in development, the International Council for
Educational Development reports that in most of the higher education
programs studied worldwide, foreign financial assistance "has been
a crucial addition to local resources."151

One technique for giving outside assistance to universities
is to have the assistance agencies combine forces on development

projects. This not only makes possible the large sums needed for

many projects, but also permits agencies to dedicate their effort

50

more effectively to that which they are best able to do. For
example, the World Bank can make its contribution through capital
loans, while UNESCO is best able to provide technical assistance.
Experience has shown that when donor agencies combine forces, "they
have been able to contribute the different building blocks a project
needs, and by planning together, along with local project directors,
they have provided an overall view."153

One of the difficulties inherent in seeking financial aid is
the universal tendency for the donor to want to control the project.
However, this tendency is diminishing among the international agencies
as they have come to recognize that success of programs depends in
large part on the recipient planning and directing the work. The
international donor agencies tend now to look on development projects
to which they supply aid as partnerships.154

One of the most successful activities of aid programs has
been the training of people. It is recommended that initial aid
projects concentrate on personnel training and general institution
building so that later aid can be focused on development programs
and ways to support innovation.155 It is very important for uni-
versities to build up their "critical mass of scholars" who can
participate in the task of development and take full advantage of
further aid.156

Another point related to financing is continuity. Develop-
ment is both a complex and lengthy process; one or two-year programs

are not likely to have great impact. Therefore, long-range programs

supported by long-term financing must be part of the aid process.

51

Thompson stresses this point when he says that it is futile to
attempt "to meet 20-year needs with a three-year program, two-year

. . 157
personnel, and one—year appropriations."

New Institutions

 

Overcoming the many traditions which are detrimental to
development in Latin America, such as semi-autonomous faculties and
student participation in university governance, is not an easy task.
The interest groups who favor maintaining the status quo are powerful
and not likely to relinquish their positions easily. This has led
some authors to suggest the establishment of either new units within
a university or new universities altogether in an effort to overcome
the serious obstacles to effective contribution to development.
Paddock proposes leaving the traditional university to the "student
shouters and cowed faculty" and establish a new university "separated
geographically, administratively, and financially from the national
university," to be run by its leaders with high standards and

. . . . . 158
seriousness of purpose With no student act1v1sm permitted. The
United Nations Economic Commission makes a similar argument: "It
would seem less complicated to introduce changes in fairly new uni-
versities than in those where the tradition of dispersion and separ-

. . . "159 , "
ation is of very long standing. Velasquez also says that the
only chance for experimentation may be creating a new mechanism out-

- ' - "160 u
Side the univer51ty structure. Another educator says that all
experiment, whether in methods or curricula, has taken place through
the creation of new institutions, and not through willingness of

161
long-established institutions to make room for novelty."

 

52

Fogel lists several of the "new mechanisms of higher edu-
cation" which have been created recently for implementing innovative
development projects:

(1) the Research and Education Program for Development at

the Federal University of Bahia in Brazil,

(2) the Transfer of Technology Program at the Agrarian

University in Perfi,

(3) the Research Program for Systems of Health Services

Delivery at the University of the Valley in Colombia,

(4) the University Centre for Health Sciences in Cameroon, and
(5) the Institute of Rural and Regional Studies at Gadjah Mada

University in Indonesia.162

It is pointed out, however, that each of these new institutes
or centers is attached to an institution that has some roots, that
access to personnel and established institutional organization are
important. Furthermore, it is pointed out that new institutions do
not necessarily result in change since there is inevitably a concern

. . . . . 163
for standards which are based on traditional criteria.

FUNCTIONS

The three main functions of a university are instruction,
research, and service. The following is a review of literature con-
cerning the means by which these three functions can best be employed

in an effort to contribute to development.

Instruction

 

Instruction is the oldest of the university functions and
remains the function without which it would be difficult to recognize

a university.

53

Staff. The quality of the teaching staff is the key to successful
instruction. Well-defined goals, excellent facilities, appropriate
programs, and motivated students will not guarantee an effective
program for national development if the staff is mediocre. King .
states, "The moving force in the entire university community is the
professor."164 Therefore, attention must be given to the recruit-
ment, selection, training, and retention of staff. Universities
must hire personnel on the basis of competence, successful exper-
ience, and general ability, not on the basis of "personal relation—
ships," which is a common tendency in Latin America.165 In so
doing, an institution's practices will reflect the values and pro-
cedures of development.

In many countries, unfortunately, there is no body of com-
petent university personnel from which to choose. Many universities
simply accept indiscriminately those available candidates for
faculty positions. In many cases, there are no local personnel
qualified in certain academic areas. This situation causes uni-
versities to turn to developed nations for supplying some of their
staff. One of the most common solutions to the problem of insuf-
ficient staff is the visiting faculty program in which professors
from the developed countries are hired for short periods of time
to teach at universities in the underdeveloped nations in areas in
which there are no qualified local personnel. Visiting faculty
programs have generally served well the institutions which use them,
but they are only short-term solutions. The long-term goal of

development-oriented universities should be to obtain a critical

54

mass of local scholars and, thus, become independent of foreign
personnel to carry out their development functions.

Benjamin,166 Butts,167 and Habte168 argue that improving
the quality of instruction of the local staff is of utmost importance
to universities that would contribute to national development. The
staff may be improved through a variety of means. One way is to
send selected individuals to study at foreign universities. This
has the advantage of providing them a higher quality of graduate
education than is available in their own country. In rebuttal to
the argument that persons trained abroad may return ill—fitted to
address local problems, Paddock argues that the point of graduate
study is to teach the student "principles of his subject plus the
ability to reason out and cope with the problems he will later face
in that field of work."169 To help guarantee that the persons
trained abroad receive an appropriate education, Habte recommends
that universities in developing countries establish close ties with
universities in the developed countries to which their staff may go
for training in order to fashion programs which "provide more rele-
vance and efficiency in the process of granting a Ph.D. or similar
qualification.“170

Improving the teaching ability of the staff is an important
aspect of staff development. King underlines the immense importance
of a university training its own faculty members, arguing that when
pr0perly trained a staff "knows how to renew teaching methods,
plans, programs of study, academic organization, and the very life

. . . 17
of the institution."

55

At the University of Buenos Aires, the Institute of Psycho-
Pedagogical Research is attempting to improve quality of university
teaching by experimenting with small-group methods to enliven
lectures. Other departments within the university are similarly

. . . . . 172
experimenting with group methods of learning and teaching.

. . . Deliberate efforts like these to improve university

instruction could serve the two-fold purpose of improving the
learning of the university students themselves and improving

the image of the teacher's role which could have a profound
effect upon the career ambitions of university students. . . .

173

Most professors do not receive specific pedagogical training.
Therefore, their teaching methods are patterned after the instruc-
tional procedures in classes they received in school. The training
of professors must relate to the new structures and approaches of
the universities. For example, professors must learn to work with
colleagues on interdisciplinary endeavors. Teachers must also be
taught how to relate field work and research to the classroom.174

An often discussed phenomenon at universities in Latin
America is the part-time professor. At almost all Latin American
universities, the majority of professors are professionals who work
full time elsewhere and give a few classes a week at the local uni-
versity for reasons of prestige or politics. Because these pro-
fessors must rush from their regular employment to the university
and then return, the term "taxi teacher" has been used to describe
this system.175

The authorities believe that part-time teaching is deleterious

to effective functioning of a university for several reasons. First,

it contributes to the high teacher absenteeism and tardiness which

56

are common at Latin American universities. Since the professor's
office and professional interests are distant from the campus, and
since his livelihood does not depend on his university work, there
are many distractions which reduce the number of classes he attends.
Second, part-time teaching leads to inferior instruction and
research. Full—time work elsewhere leaves little time for reading
and preparation necessary for good teaching and research. As a
result, part-time professors tend to fall back on the practice of
lecturing from the same notes year after year.176 Third, part-time
teaching sets a bad example for prospective teachers by giving the
impression that teaching is not a "career worthy of one's full
energies and powers throughout a life-time."177 Fourth, part-time
teaching makes a university community practically nonexistent. The
system of spending the time on campus only for teaching leaves
little or no time to counsel students or discuss academic matters
with colleagues or to participate in any of the usual academic
activities which are important to the instruction of fresh
knowledge.178

Authorities who write on the subject recommend that uni-
versities move toward a full-time staff of professional teachers
trained in appropriate teaching methodologies with time for and
interest in research and service and counselling students. Reaching
this goal is not easy since many of the causes of part—time teaching
are beyond the capability of the university to solve. The most
serious obstacle to full-time teaching is low salaries. Given the

already precarious financial situation of most universities in

57

Latin America, it is no mean task to raise salaries high enough
. . 179
to attract quality people full time.

It should be noted also that simply employing full-time
teachers does not guarantee that the quality of instruction and
research will improve. It is possible to have full-time professors
who lecture from the same notes year after year, do not engage in

. 180
meaningful research, and who are often absent and late to class.

There is a certain advantage in having at least some part-
time teachers, especially in training for the professions in which
practitioners have much to bring to the instruction process. Such
a practice also provides contacts with the community which a uni-

versity for development should have.181

Curriculum. The curriculum is of critical importance in preparing

 

university students to become competent, thoughtful, concerned,
and contributing members of their society. To meet these require—
ments, major shifts in existing curricula are needed. LASPAU calls
on universities to revamp their curricula "to make it more relevant
. ' . . . "182 . . . .
to national realities. . . . King calls for institutional
practices to be "in tune with their changing times and local cir—
"183 . . . .
cumstances. Butts states that institutions that train educators,
if they are to be effective as modernizers, must reform their cur—
ricula so that "foundation studies focus upon the process by which
, "184
all nations, young and old, learn to become modern.
Velasquez thinks that curricular changes should be made
to give attention to "both the theory of community development and

. . . . . . 185
practical experience With actual programs hav1ng this objective."

58

It is Velésquez's belief that the curriculum should be used to
inculcate in both students and faculty an understanding and accep-
tance of the university's goals related to development. To do this,
he advocates the organization of conferences, lectures, and seminars

on the subject and "direct involvement of staff and students in

186

research and experimentation. . . .
A curriculum molded to prepare students to successfully

confront national problems should emphasize the scientific approach,

. . . . . . . . . 187
prov1d1ng experience in problem solv1ng and critical thinking.
A good example of this is the recent reorganization of the Faculty
of Arts and Social Sciences at the University of Dar es Salaam in
which a problem-solving curriculum with a career orientation was
established: the "traditional subject divisions of the degree
structure have been replaced by multisubject 'streams' and numerous
common courses introduced under the rubric 'Developmental Studies'

I ' ' ' ° I "188 '
and East African Soc1eties and Env1ronment. The rationale
for the reorganization is to better prepare Tanzanian students "to
understand Tanzania's problems and to contribute toward their

. "189 . . . . .

solution. Several other institutions of higher education are
referred to in the literature as examples of recent efforts to make

. . 190
their curricula more relevant to development needs.

It should be pointed out that the authorities do not advo-

cate a complete and blind change to a totally "relevant" curriculum.
A curriculum too narrowly focused on development tends to prepare

technicians able to operate only in a limited area. Coombs says,

"There are certain basic intellectual tools to which the student

59

must be exposed and certain basic information that he must acquire
in order to be an educated man in the modern world. . . ."191 Much
curriculum will be similar to that in a developed nation. Good
science, mathematics, and social science, for example, draw on the
literature worldwide and give the student knowledge and techniques
universally applicable. Basic principles in a discipline, when
combined with training in problem solving, understanding of local
problems, a desire to help a nation solve its problems, and exper-
ience in research and community service, form a good model for
appropriate curriculum at a development-oriented university.

Beeby points out, however, that appropriate curriculum is
not a panacea:

Major changes in curriculum entail inevitable commitment

to changes in the training of professors and university

structure. It is a false hope that "reforms in education
can be brought about merely by altering curricula."192

l. Interdisciplinary curriculum.

 

No single discipline can claim special insight into the
variegated process of development. To successfully seek
casual relationships between the educational, social, eco-
nomic, political and psychological factors requisite to
growth, demands effort from the scholars representing many
academic interests.193
The training of people to play a role in development requires
that their education reflect the multidisciplinary nature of the
development process. Butts indicates this when he says that teachers
in poor countries must be trained to deal with "the problems of
social organization, personal attitude, moral behavior, and

religious belief when the traditional sector is confronted by the

. . 194
revolutionary soc1al changes of modernity." A narrowly focused

 

60

education will not help teachers in preparing to meet this difficult
task. It is vitally important, then, for "society's leaders and
planners to have broad social and historical perspective that is
difficult to achieve in separate academic disciplines."195

There are several ways to combine various disciplines in a
curriculum. One is to develop service projects which require exper-
tise from more than one discipline. Programs at the Universidad
del Valle in Colombia, the University of Bahia in Brazil, and three
universities in Thailand provide good examples of this kind of
interdisciplinary approach.196

Another vehicle for promoting interdisciplinary cooperation
is curriculum reorganization in which staff members and administrators
plan new divisions or "multidisciplinary streams" in the degree
structure. An example of this took place at the University of Dar
Es Salaam in 1971. In the University Centre for Health Sciences in

Cameroon, themes rather than subjects bring together both staff and

students from the various disciplines.

2. General studies. A curricular concept closely related to

 

the interdisciplinary approach and frequently recommended by develop-
ment authorities is general studies. As usually recommended,
general studies is "a compulsory common curriculum required of all
entering students for their first one or two years, after which they

. . . . 198
would enter the profeSSional faculties to complete their education."

The reasons for such a program are several. First, as has

been mentioned previously, training in several disciplines is useful

61

to the person who must deal with complex development problems.
Second, secondary education in developing countries is often of low
quality. General studies helps to compensate for the academic
deficiencies of incoming students. Third, a year or two of general
studies allows incoming students to explore various fields and
determine which they wish to enter. Fourth, general studies helps
break down the power of the professional faculties by making some
of the courses independent of their jurisdiction. It is a central-
izing influence on the institution. Fifth, in order not to extend
the time required for graduation, "the professional faculties must
revise their curriculum, eliminating the basic material that would
now be taught in general studies."199

Butts strongly advocates general studies as an integral part
of teacher education: "General education along with competence in
their academic specialties is the stock and trade of teachers."200
His argument is that if teachers are to be the vanguard of develop-
ment, they must be well versed in various disciplines.

Offering a general studies program requires a basic departure
from the university traditions in Latin America of fragmented facul-
ties with high emphasis on specialization. Indeed, there is outright
rejection of the general studies idea in many places in which it has
been tried. As will be seen in Chapter 3, general studies was ini-
tiated and later rejected at the Universidad de San Carlos in Guate-
mala during the 19605.

There are, however, models of successful general studies

programs in Latin America. The Faculty of Philosophy and Education

 

62

at the University of Chile has managed to reduce itself to just
three departments and has a strong interdisciplinary general studies
program. The Universities of Sao Paulo and Brasilia, as well as
several universities in Colombia, have made reforms involving
general studies.201 Several universities in Central America opened
general studies in the 19605 as part of a regional plan.

A tendency to prepare general studies courses in haste with
superficial planning may be responsible for their failure in some
cases. Considerable time and thought are necessary if general
studies is to be the basis upon which all of the professions build
their curricula. General education requires "careful selection of
topics to be considered, coupled with thoroughness, depth, scholar-
ship, rigor, and intellectual discipline in the study of these
topics."202

Some objection to general studies is based on what might be
called legitimate differing points of view about the most suitable
curriculum for professional training. Other objections to general
studies are based on more selfish motivations. For example, many
professors resent the centralizing tendency of general studies which
reduces their control of the students which they enjoy under the

. . . 203
traditional system of separate profe551ona1 schools.

Training of educators. To paraphrase Rousseau, "Man believes that

 

education has the power to set him free, but everywhere he is in

. 204 . . .
chains for want of good teachers." The training of educators is
one of the key tasks on the agenda for national development. Butts

views teacher training "as belonging at the very heart of any human

63

resource development plan that hopes to contribute to the moderni-

. . . . 205 .
zation and building of a free nation." Vaizey argues that "the
expansion of teacher training is perhaps the most urgent educational

‘ I206 II I!
need for the underdeveloped countr1es.‘ More can be done, says
Curle, "to raise the standards of education and at less cost through
. . . . 207

teacher training than any other act1Vity."

There is growing support for the idea that universities
should take an active part in the preparation of educators. The
Economic Commission for Latin America strongly advocates that Latin
American universities assume teacher education as one of their major

. . . . 208 . . .
responSibilities. Butts and Gamboa concur that univerSities
should bear part of the burden of teacher education in under—

, 209 . .
developed countries. The Conference on Education and Economic
and Social Development in Latin America makes the following recom-
mendation:

. . . that the training and improvement of personnel engaged
in educational services--teachers, supervisors, counsellors,
administrators, and other specialists-—be . . . coordinated
with the higher education institutions, according to the
usages in each country.210

On the following pages, the writer will review the literature
pertinent to the preparation of educators at universities in develop-
ing countries. The term "educators" has been chosen because, in

addition to teachers, other kinds of professionals involved in the

educational process must be trained at the university level.

1. The educator as an agent of chagge. Since development in
today's world is a process of rapid change, educators in a develOping

nation must be prepared to pass on values and techniques of change.

 

64

. . . the teacher of today or tomorrow should be an
agent of change, an agent of modernization, on the alert
for new ideas: that is, he ought to be not only a catalyst,
but also a person who can accept constant transformation of
the society itself. .
Education in developing countries is often characterized by
the requiring of rote memory of facts, usually through the tech-
. . . 212 . . . .
niques of lecture and rec1tation. In addition, it is frequently
little attuned to the life of the students, especially those from
the rural areas. The combination of dull classroom routine and
irrelevance of subject matter is partly responsible for low interest
and dropout.
If teachers are to be agents of change, substantial effort
in the training institutions will be required. Coombs states:
Clearly, educational systems will not be modernized until
the whole system of teacher training is drastically overhauled,
stimulated by educational research, made intellectually richer
and more challenging and extended far beyond pro-service train-
ing into a system for continuous professional renewal and
career development for all teachers.213
Science instruction is often mentioned in the literature as
of major importance in teacher training. Curle recommends that all
teachers receive science instruction "of a sort to lay the foundations
of an objective and experimental approach to nature, rather than
. . . 214 u. .
technological training." Gamboa urges immediate and long-range
plans for training of teachers in specialized areas, especially
. . 215 . .
sc1ence, mathematics. . . ." Gale believes that a major goal
in education in the developing countries is the "expansion and
' o o 216
improvement of sc1ence education at all levels."

To be agents of change, teachers must be taught the tech-

niques of problem solving and the methods necessary to teach their

65

students how to relate what they have learned to the solution of

217 . . . .
problems. Miller suggests the follow1ng regarding the teaching
of problem solving:

Creative problem solving involves identifying a problem,
viewing it from various perspectives, finding alternate ways
of accomplishing the solution, weighing the relative merits
of each alternative, and being willing to try a totally new,
unique approach, no matter how wild or inappropriate it may
seem at first.218

Teachers must also be taught techniques appropriate to
handling teaching situations in which they must work: large groups
of various-aged students, few materials, and sub-standard facilities.
According to Phillips, teachers must be taught to involve their stu-
dents in "practical tasks and actively observe their environment

. . 219
rather than merely s1t at their desks."

The use of media and programmed instruction should be pre—
sented to incipient teachers. Coombs believes that teachers taught
in the use of such technology as programmed instruction and use of
film, radio, and television will be better able to affect larger

220
numbers of students.

Butts urges the combination of general education with in-
depth training in the specialized field of the teacher:

Such preparation should include sound academic background
in a scholarly field of study, thorough grounding in peda-
gogical methods, and--what is so scarce throughout the world
today--a basic understanding of the political, economic,
social, psychological, and culture role of education in the
modernization process as it manifests itself in one's own
country and in other parts of the world.221

Butts says that teachers should be "generalists in the

modernization process," saying that this "calls for a general edu-

cation of the highest order; and it calls especially for the

66

application of the social sciences and humanities to the study

222
and practice of education."

2. Quality of teachers. In most developing countries, the

 

supply of trained teachers is insufficient now, and the population
growth will put even greater pressures on the educational system in
the next decade. Arévalo has estimated that literally millions of
new teachers will be needed in a relatively short period of time
in Latin America alone to keep up with population expansion. 23

Unfortunately, untrained teachers are not very effective.
Williams, in a study made in Guatemala, showed that children taught
by untrained teachers are much less likely to stay in school than
those taught by trained teachers. Indeed, he believes that "when
the proportion of 'qualified' teachers falls below 33 percent . . .
the resources devoted to education have been almost completely
wasted."224

Even when teachers have been trained, they do not necessarily
contribute to the development of their nation. Harbison, who has
pointed out that education can be either a constructive or destruc-
tive force depending on the kind and quality of education, laments
that in developing nations, education "is too often characterized
by 'more of the same' rather than imaginative innovation."
Whether the education of a nation is more of the same or not depends
to a large extent on the preparation of the nation's educators and
requires attention to quality and appropriateness.226

The attention a nation can give to the quality of training

of its teachers depends to a large extent on the country's stage of

67

development. Nations at the early stages of the development of an
educational system must use untrained people with limited formal
education as teachers. As the country develops and more students
enroll in secondary and tertiary levels, more attention can be
placed on providing teachers who are both well educated and properly
trained.

The training of elementary teachers is a common practice
in most countries. The training of teachers for secondary schools

is much more recent in developing countries.

3. Training of secondary school teachers. The training of

 

teachers for the secondary schools is of special importance espe-
cially in those countries which have moved into later stages of
development. Unfortunately, provision for the training of teachers
for secondary schools is lacking in most of the developing

. 227 . . . . .
countries. Thus, the United Nation's Economic Comm1551on for
Latin America advocates that "the university . . . assume responsi—
bility for the training of secondary teachers as one of its most
. . 228
imperative tasks." Butts has shown concern for the lack of
teacher training for secondary schools, especially those teachers
who will teach in "the academic secondary schools that prepare
students for the universities and the normal schools that train

. "229 . . .

teachers for the primary schools. The African Report in Higher
Education and Social Change recommends giving secondary teachers
special training in universities. Several universities in Africa

. . . . 230
have formed a consortium to accomplish this and other aims.

68

4. Training of elementary school teachers. Few universities

 

in underdeveloped countries undertake the training of elementary
231 .
teachers. This occurs for several reasons. The great numbers
of elementary teachers needed have not permitted the luxury of
. . 232 . .
univer31ty degrees for all. Thus, training of elementary
teachers is usually given at secondary-level normal schools, which
leads to the institutionalization of primary school teacher training
in nonuniversity schools. Secondary teachers, on the other hand,
in order to have more education than the students they are teaching,
must necessarily be trained at tertiary level institutions. Thus,
the few universities which train teachers have tended to concentrate
on secondary teachers, leaving primary teacher education to the
normal schools. As nations reach higher levels of development, the
traditional separation of the training of primary and secondary
. 33
teachers tends to remain.

The result of the separation is an almost complete lack of
cooperation and coordination between normal schools and universities.
Therefore, teacher education in many underdeveloped countries is
characterized by disjunction when congruity and continuity are needed.
In addition, the duplication of effort and inefficient use of per-

. . 234
sonnel result in unnecessary costs when economy is of the essence.
Butts suggests two ways of overcoming the disjunction between the
training of primary and secondary teachers: train both primary and
secondary teachers at the university level and establish ties between

. . . 235
univerSities and normal schools.

69

In countries which have passed beyond the elemental stages
of development, preparing both primary and secondary teachers at
the university level has several advantages. It renders teacher
training more efficient by offering some of the same courses to
prospective teachers at both levels.. More important, it forces
educators to begin to look at primary and secondary education as an
articulated, integrated whole rather than two distinct pieces. It
also stimulates badly needed research related to primary schooling.236
The establishment of relationships between university and normal
schools, suggests Butts, could help upgrade normal school instruction
and at the same time play a part in the integration of content and

teacher methodology at all educational levels.237

 

5. Training of university professors. As developing countries
reach the stage of rapidly increasing university enrollment, the
training of professors becomes crucial. Benjamin, writing about
universities in the Americas, says, "The most pressing problem of
professional preparation confronting all these countries in the next
three decades will be that of educating professors for higher edu-
cation institutions."238 The training of professors is especially
important in the areas of the natural and social sciences, since
these are two areas which need to be emphasized in developing

countries and in which there tend to be few well-trained professors.

6. In-service training. Simply offering teacher—training pro-

 

grams at the university level does not guarantee that the numbers

of trained teachers will be greatly increased. It is difficult to

7O

attract students into a five-year program to become teachers when,
with the same investment in time, they can become lawyers, engineers,
architects or enter other professions which offer more pay and pres-
tige. One of the solutions to this problem, long recommended by the
authorities and more recently put into effect with some success in
several countries, is the in-service training of teachers who are
presently teaching but not certified. Curle states the rationale
succinctly:

. . . There are, in fact, considerable numbers of keen and

intelligent teachers who have never had the opportunity of

obtaining higher qualifications. Many of these . . . would,

after a year's training, be excellent teachers in all but

the top levels of secondary schools.239

To give in-service teachers appropriate training, Curle
recommends the establishment of special centers, including some
attached to the universities. By permitting the course work in
these centers to count toward a degree, Curle believes that this
kind of program would provide "a powerful incentive to people both

. . . . . 240
to remain in the profe551on and to keep up their studies."

The in-service training of teachers at universities has
several advantages. First, it invariably involves two or three-year
programs, thus cutting in half the time needed to obtain other pro—
fessional degrees and making it more attractive. Second, it is
usually made available on weekends or evenings and during vacations

. . 241 . .
so that working people may enroll in the courses. Third, in-
service training is consistent with the concept of life-long training,

a particularly important point for teachers who must be knowledgeable

concerning advances in content and methodology.

71

It is certain that in a technological age we can no

longer wait until a whole generation of teachers has died

out before introducing new mathematical, scientific or

other concepts into the classroom. . . . There is some

reason to believe that teachers who have received their

basic professional training and subsequent training while

already in service might be more inclined to continue with

the procedure provided the appropriate institutions were

made available on the basis of a modern approach to genuine

adult education.242

A form of in-service training has worked well in the prepar-
ation of teachers of the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon, Syria, and
243 . . . . . .

Jordan. In this instance, training institutes were set up by
UNRWA/UNESCO in 1964 to meet the nearly overwhelming task of up-
grading the instruction given by untrained teachers who had been
pressed into service to meet the educational needs of 250,000
children. The program, carried out through a combination of cor-
respondence work and periodic field representative supervision,

. 244
trained thousands of teachers.

In-service training has also been conducted in Costa Rica

at its national Superior Normal School in which practicing, non-
degreed teachers take courses during their vacation periods, receiv-
. . . . 245 . . .
ing certification at the end of two years. In-serv1ce training
has also been used in the Faculty of Education at the University of
Antioquia, a project in "which teachers in small rural schools

receive special training and specially designed teaching materials

to improve the quality of rural elementary school education."

7. Teaching of values. Writers on development are coming to

 

place an increasing amount of importance on value orientation in

72

determining how fast and in what ways countries develop. Writing
for the Encyclopedia of Education, Hanson states
. . . changing motivations and the creation of an environ-
ment in which change or innovation can occur, or in which they
are actively prized may prove to be a more crucial contribution
than manpower education.247
Whyte argues that values prevalent in Latin America are
obstacles in themselves to development. Specifically, he mentions
strong traditionalism, paternalistic relationships, belief in
ascribed status, lack of faith in people outside the family circle,
reluctance to cooperate, little sense of loyalty to community or

. . 248 . .
nation, and averSion to blue collar work. To this list, Adams

and Bjork add the "fatalistic belief that events cannot be predicted

249
or controlled."

Brembeck argues that fatalism is a serious deterrent to
modernization. He says that "the better life will depend on our
ability to turn from fatalism to dynamism," and asks that education
be used to "unfreeze resistance to change and open the mind to new
ideas." Education, he says, must "create new values around applied
intelligence. It must teach people to move from discourse into

action. . . . Finally, it must help people control their own

, , "250
destinies.

Research by McClelland indicates that the presence of what
he calls "achievement motivation" and "other-directedness" in the
national value system are important predictors of economic growth.
.McClelland contends that the most important ingredient in develop—
:ment is people and that their values should and can be changed to

increase the speed of modernization. To accomplish this aim, he

 

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73

suggests a variety of methods including the modification of children's
textbooks and literature to contain heavy emphasis on achievement

. . . 251 . . .
motivation and other directedness values. This was tried out in
Turkey in the early 19605, and presently the Universidad de Antioquia
is training teachers to use achievement motivation methodologies for

. . . . . 252

working with rural children in Colombia.

Several authors hold that schools can be vehicles for value
training. Curle, although critical of efforts to "mould a develop-
ment-oriented personality," suggests that teachers try to inculcate
in their students "regular and constructive habits of work, an
inquiring and experimental attitude, a sense of balance between
individuals and society, a respect for accuracy, a delight in the
. . . "253 . . .
imagination. Adams and Bjork argue that some of the traditional
and inhibitive values in Latin America should be modified "in order

. . 254
to make the school more of a force for modernization." They sug-
gest that teachers provide an environment of system and order in
which behavior of others and circumstances in general are predictable.
They argue for the instruction to focus on "the scientific method,
critical thinking, and the careful analysis and evaluation of
empirical evidence" as a way of helping students overcome their
. . . 255
belief in fatalism.

The inculcation of values in children requires that the

, 256 . . . . .
teacher hold the deSired values. This has important implications
for the selection and training of teachers. If teachers must hold

attitudes appropriate for development, they must also have some

understanding of and sensitivity to their students' cultural

74

backgrounds.257 Teachers with modern values are unlikely to have
much success in inculcating their values if they misunderstand or
degrade their students. Teachers in developing countries must be
"marginal men"; they must "bridge the gap between the traditional

and modern sectors of the society."258

8. Development of teaching techniques and materials. The

 

development of teaching techniques and materials to meet particular
educational needs is an important function of a teacher-training
institution. At the University of Antioquia in Colombia, two impor-
tant primary school programs were develOped to respond to rural
education needs. One is a program to prepare teachers and teaching
materials for instruction in the rural schools which have one teacher,
and an average of thirty students spread over five grades. The other
is a program to adopt flexible scheduling and individualized teaching
methods to rural schools in which children are unable to attend
classes every day.259

In the first program, teachers are given special training in
such areas as group dynamics, learning psychology, and evaluation.
The University has brought together normal school representatives,
Ministry of Education supervisors, and illustrators to design and
print a series of teaching materials specifically aimed at aiding
instruction under conditions in which one teacher is responsible
for five different grade levels. To date, seventy primary schools
have been supplied with trained teachers and teaching materials.260

In the second program, an attempt has been made to prepare

programmed materials and train teachers to work with students in

 

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75

rural areas in which low attendance is a problem. Students are
required to attend classes only three days a week, determined in
consultation with the parents. During the two days the children

. . . 261
are not in attendance, some work is done in the home.

9. Teacher-training institutions as a model. If a university

 

is to be an effective force for the education of educators, it must
provide an appropriate model. It must be a center for innovation
and research; it should encourage the application of research results
and innovation; it should be in touch with the community; it should
maintain close contact with teachers and schools both in appraising
the present status of education and to guide the teachers in
improving their instruction.262

The quality of instruction must also provide a model. A
former Minister of Education of Guatemala warns, ”If the teacher
trainers in initial training were to impart out-of-date methods and
attitudes in their own teaching, this would, of course, have long-
lasting and fatal consequences for the whole system.263 Butts
further asserts that "a university that would improve the quality
of teachers in its nation's schools must improve the quality of its
own instruction."264

Butts stresses the importance of full-time teaching at the
universities as a way to "strengthen the image of teaching as a
career worthy of one's full energies and powers throughout a life-
time."265 Finally he says:

As university administrators and faculties take steps to

discipline themselves and to improve their full-time teaching
practices, modernize their curriculums, and give more attention

76

to knowing their students through counseling and testing,
they are taking steps to reduce the spirit of indiscipline
among students.266

Training in science and social science. The Economic Commission for

 

Latin America states that "development is largely the result of the
. . . . 267

transformation of soc1a1 life by sc1ence and technology." The
teaching of science at universities produces scientists and tech-
nicians, but also "scientifically and technically literate people

. . . 268
who can live safely and sanely in a new kind of world." All
students should have some grounding in science since it is the base
of modern society, i.e., developed society.

The attitudes and values implicit in science are of supreme
importance for development. Snow notes that scientists are basically
optimistic concerning the ability to overcome problems and improve

. . 269 . . ‘ . .
the lot of soc1ety in general. This kind of approach to life is
crucial. For as Curle says, "The solvent for resistance to the
social and technical revolution demanded by development is hope

. . . . 270
generated by the understanding of the pOSSibility of change."
The scientific approach, with both its optimism and proven ability
to make change possible, is the ingredient needed as the "solvent"
Curle refers to.

The scientific approach, with its emphasis on observation

and control of the environment, critical thinking and problem solving,
. 271

prov1des an excellent model for the development process. The

training of teachers in science is important as a way to disseminate

the values, knowledge, and techniques of science throughout society.

The training of science teachers is implicit in the list of education

77

needs included in the Act of Bogoté, 1960. It includes a specified
national objective of "training in the industrial arts and sciences
with due emphasis on laboratory and work experiences and on the
practical application of knowledge for the solution of social and

. 272
economic problems."

Scientists are needed in developing countries to improve,
increase and exploit their natural resources--soil, water, minerals,
and plants. Scientists are needed to perform adaptive research,
i.e., "the application of already existing technological knowledge
to the climatic, geological, chemical peculiarities of the local

. . 2
Situation."

The high mortality rates, especially from infectious and
parasitic diseases, require scientists trained in biology, entomology,
. . 274 . . . . .
and med1c1ne. Agriculture is almost universally the main industry

in developing countries, but the land is usually ineffectively

farmed. One of the often cited needs in developing countries is

the preparation of agriculturists who can conduct research aimed at

improving crop production. In addition, there is a need for people
. . . 275

trained in the food sc1ences.

Training in the social sciences is also strongly recommended
by development authorities. Economists, sociologists, anthropologists,
and other professionals in the social sciences are needed to analyze
the present social conditions of their countries and plan for changes

. . . 276 . . .
which are a necessary part of modernization. The soc1al sc1entist

is needed to collaborate with the natural scientist in the development

process. Simply developing new low cost nutritious food, for example,

78

may not be sufficient to improve the nutrition of a nation. Finding
ways to induce the masses of people to eat the food is equally

. . . . . . 277
important and requires the expertise of the soc1al sc1entists.

A final recommendation is to ensure that students in the
natural sciences and social sciences have adequate opportunity to
apply their training in field work experiences. For knowledge with-
out the ability to apply it is worthless. Development is appli-

. 278
cation.

Research

Research is generally recognized as an important ingredient
in the development process. Unfortunately, the Latin American uni-
versity is based on a model which excluded research. According to
one source, the lack of research is "the main defect of the Latin
American universities."279 Recently, however, several institutions
of higher education in Latin America as well as other parts of the
world have begun conducting research on a variety of matters.280

The importance of research is made clear by many authors.
Paddock describes his frustrating and unsuccessful attempt to make
an imported cornpicker work on a farm in a Central American country.
His specific point is that successful adaptation requires local
research and development in order to design a machine to pick the
particular kind of corn grown in that locality. The more general
point he makes is that without research, development is difficult,
if not impossible.281

The Economic Commission for Latin America notes that the

lack of scientific and technological research helps keep Latin

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American countries backward and dependent.282 Hanson and Brembeck
point out that insufficient research is a characteristic of under-
development:
The establishing of policies and programs on the basis of
objective and relevant data rather than upon traditional

matters of personal whims is a characteristic of that
modernity still being sought in the developing nations.2

83

They go on to say that since education is now viewed as an important

tool for development, great effort must be expended to analyze

problems and plan programs for education in underdeveloped nations.

This requires extensive research not only in education but in related
. 284 . . .

fields as well. Similarly, the World Bank reports that educational

policy making requires research and urges the development of local

research capacity in less developed countries.

Educational research. Research is important in the field of education

 

not only because its impact is so large, but also because the general
tendency in developing countries has been to adopt uncritically edu-
cational practices from the more developed countries. There is a
need for research related to improved teaching methods, materials,

, . 286 .
and curriculum for the schools of poor nations. There is also
a need for research related to the training of educators on a wide
variety of issues such as the content of teacher education curriculum,
the length of the training courses, methods of attracting teachers
. 287
into rural areas, and causes of student dropout.

Research and analysis related to the functions of universities

is called for. Although universities have existed for many centuries,

very little research has been undertaken with respect to their

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effectiveness. With universities taking on a broader role in
society, Fafunwa argues for "analytic writing and data-based

. . . . . 288
research . . . on higher education in developing countries."

Research institutes. One common organizational mechanism for con-

 

ducting research at universities is the research institute. There
have been many research institutes established in Latin America,
including several in the Central American universities: the Insti—
tute for Educational Research and Improvement at the Universidad de
San Carlos in Guatemala, the Social and Economic Research Institute
at the Universidad de Costa Rica, the Comparative Law Institute in
Honduras, and the Penal Sciences Institute in El Salvador. These
institutes are projects of CSUCA and meant to be specialized research
centers similar to those mentioned earlier. The major problems with
. . . . . . . 289
institutes in the Central American region have been finanCing.

Research on social problems through institutes has increased
. 290 . . .
in the last ten years. To systematize and communicate this
research, Phillips recommends the establishment of "an international
center for educational research and development for the developing

, "291
countries.

One of the chief functions of research institutes is that
they provide a vehicle for bringing together researchers from various
disciplines to collaborate in problem-oriented projects. They are
frequently involved in action research as well as theoretical and
applied research. Creation of research institutes, as mentioned
earlier, is an administrative device for "breaking down artificial

9
walls between fields of knowledge."2 2

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81

Research patterns: theoretical and applied research. Traditionally,

 

research in universities has been theoretical or "pure" research.
The business of applying theoretical research findings has been left
to technical institutions. Now the authorities stress the need for
applied and action research; that is, research used directly for the
solution of problems.293

It has been pointed out that even though applied research
is important, it should not be done at the expense of ". . . the
continuous search for data needed to enhance our understanding our
own society."294 Clearly development-oriented universities must

. . 295
engage in both pure and applied research.

Relationship of research to teacher and service. The idea that

 

research should be combined with teaching and service is gaining
. . . . 296
acceptance at development-oriented univerSities. Fogel suggests

that research, training, and teaching should be blended together in

. . 297
an academic program so that each element benefits the other.

Thompson and Fogel state the following:

In all Operational programs, there should be an easy flow
among all three aspects of a project; each affects the other.
Faculty members should be required to participate in field
activities and have time to carry out field research; service
activities should be planned on the basis of solid research
and should enrich teaching. Students should have opportuni-
ties to see theory in action in the field and to bring
service or work experience back into the classroom for
analysis.298

Training of researchers. Several authorities stress the importance

 

of training people to conduct research of all kinds. Fafunwa lists

graduates specialized in research as one of the five types of

 

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82

personnel which should be trained by universities in less developed
. 299 . .
nations. Anderson emphaSizes the need to prepare educational
researchers, saying that the educational investigator in a develop-
ing nation "will have distinctively large responsibilities as com-
. . . .300

pared to his colleague in chemistry or meteorology.’ A LASPAU
report reflects the reasoning that research experience enhances the
training of students and "improves the quality and relevance of the

. "301
curriculum.

Dissemination. Many authorities insist on the dissemination of

 

research results as a crucial element of the research process.
Benjamin urges the publishing of research results in journals
sponsored by scholarly and scientific societies and by the uni-
versities themselves.302 The University of Addis Ababa places
strong emphasis on research dissemination, requiring the Research
Center of the Faculty of Education and the Institute of Development
Research to publish all research conducted in these two centers.

As part of this responsibility, the Research Center of the Faculty

303
of Education publishes the Ethiopian Journal of Education.

 

The following are some recommendations concerning the com-

munication of research projects from Design for Change:

 

1. Local research should always be published and given the
widest possible distribution nationally and even inter-
nationally.

2. Dissemination can be carried out through publication in
journals and newspapers (The Institute of Development
Studies in Nairobi has a column in a local newspaper),
seminars, general meetings with community, radio and
television.

3. The communication, either written or oral, should be made
in clear language which can be understood by intelligent
laymen.304

83

The following are some recommendations for planning and

utilizing research in universities, also taken from Design for

 

Change.

1. Encourage pertinent research in new fields related to
local environments, attracting both local and foreign
scientists. .

2. Require teaching staff and students to participate in
on-the-scene action research (agriculture, health
sciences, social sciences).

3. Give university credit to students for participation
in field work through research programs.

4. Involve people from various disciplines on projects,
and provide time for them to dialogue on such topics as
teaching, research, and service, and the relation among
these activities.

5. Arrange for technicians to work with researchers and
professional practitioners.

6. Get confidence of the community by involving village
leaders in the project, eliciting their help and
knowledge in organizing local councils, deciding on
priorities, and implementing activities. Encourage
initiative and leadership among locals.

7. Show respect for community thinking to overcome dis—
illusionment and disappointment caused by previous
government bungling in this respect.

8. Exchange knowledge and experience with government and
industry.

9. Write reports for the benefit of lay readers instead of
in heavy—toned jargon.

- . . . . . 305
10. Consult with government on soc1al and economic priorities.

Service

According to McConnell, "It is terribly important that uni-
versities abroad be persuaded to accept a responsibility for service
activities in addition to the traditional role of educating youth in

. . . ”306 . . .

liberal and profe551onal studies. The practice of requiring
students to participate in some kind of service program or "intern-
ship" is not new to Latin America. The most common application of

this concept is the sending of medical students to communities for

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84

designated periods of time to engage in work "frequently unrelated
to the student's academic program, and in no way involving the
faculty. . . ."

In the last decade or two, especially among the handful of
universities that are making serious attempts to participate in
national development, the concept of service is taking on new
meaning. Several universities are "developing extension programs,
service institutes, and research agencies directed toward regional

"308 . . .
problems. Thompson and Fogel report several educational insti-
tutions engaged in

. . . extension programs, adult education, consultancy

centers, assistance to small and medium-sized landowners,
health delivery in rural and urban areas, experimental
farming, high-priority manpower training, land reform

and human settlement, preparation of business technicians
and middle managers, and primary and secondary education.309

One-third of the faculties of Mexican provincial universities
provide community courses: adult education, in-service for teachers,
and ". . . special courses for state and federal agencies, particu-

. . . . "310 .
larly in the fields of public health and soc1al welfare. Uni-
versity staff offer courses for the Padres de familia in cooperation

. . . . 311
w1th the Institute of Soc1al Security.

The authorities point out several reasons for believing that
service should be an integral part of the university endeavor. First,
it is a direct contribution to national development which can have
many benefits for the communities in which the programs are insti-
tuted. The PRIMOPS program at the Universidad del Valle in Colombia,
for example, provides important health care that has resulted in

. 312
measurably better community health and lowered mortality rates.

85

Another benefit to the community is the contact with university
personnel which can result in changing values and attitudes that
will remain after the service program ends. The agricultural ser-
vice program at the National Agrarian University of Perfi arranges
for the students to live with the local farmers. This has had
positive results in achieving adoption by the farmers of the newer
and more effective techniques. The University of Bahia in Brazil
involves community members in its urban development service projects
in planning and implementing its program. 13

A second reason for encouraging service projects is the value
to the students who participate. Personal involvement may be a means
of improving their learning and influencing their attitudes. Working
in a health delivery service program can be of great value to the
medical student. Conducting a sociological survey as part of a
community service program should be valuable to the prospective
social scientist. Working as part of a multidisciplinary team on a
project such as the one in Thailand or the CEDUR project in Brazil
also provides invaluable experience in the combination of several
disciplines directed at solving social problems.314

Although some authors stress the importance of changing stu-
dents' attitudes to favor work for development, there is less than
universal belief that this will occur. Compulsory student service
has been opposed in many places by students and faculty members.315

Conceivably, under these circumstances, more harm than good could

be accomplished.

86

A third argument in support of service projects is that they
provide a vehicle for applying teaching and research to practical
problems.

. . . The theoretical researcher hears about practical
problems from the extension workers, and the teacher of
practical skills draws on the researcher's findings and
results. For students, service activities can illuminate
theory and link up with textbook study.316

It is recommended that the professors take part in community
service programs. Involvement by professors is likely to encourage

. . . . . 317
pOSitive student part1c1pation on the one hand. On the other,
teachers who work in the field are more likely to incorporate field
experience in their teaching, thereby making both more useful.

At the Monterrey Institute of Technology in Mexico, extension
projects are used primarily to improve teaching and only indirectly

. . 318 .
to contribute to community development. The same is true at
Haile Selassie I University in Ethiopia. In that program called
"Ethiopian University Service," service is one function, but the
primary rationale is educational. There both the faculty and stu-
dents are directly involved in the selection of and realization of

. 319
research prOjects.

A number of objections to community service are raised by
members of recipient communities, students, and professors; however,
in many cases the objections have been overcome by analysis and
planning. Sometimes community members are hostile because they
have had "experience of past deceit on the part of agencies and

politicians." Farmers often feel that research and service programs

. . . 320
are useless. Many are "pa351ve or diSinterested." Programs

’I

 

87

developed in Perfi, Thailand, and Nigeria have overcome these
obstacles by careful planning with community participants; dis-
covering the traditional practices before trying to change the
people or the methods; encouraging the community members to solve
their own problems insofar as possible; keeping communications open
between the community and university personnel; arranging for stu-
dents and farmers to live and work together if possible.321

There are numerous conditions which militate against the
students participating actively in service projects, particularly
rural ones. They may feel isolated and neglected when assigned to
a distant region; they may feel the training is substandard since
it is more physical than mental; they may show little interest in
or knowledge of local conditions; they may not desire to work in
outlying areas after graduation and, therefore, see no reason for
working there as part of their training. Again, the participating
persons must be carefully selected, prepared, counseled, supervised,
and involved in the planning of the project.322

Many staff members may be unwilling to participate in volun-
tary field activities. They usually identify education with tra-
ditional classroom lecture-from-notes methods, based on abstract
scholarship. They may feel threatened by new teaching approaches
which require practical applications of theoretical knowledge. If
the professors are included in the planning of the projects;
thoroughly informed of all the ramifications; provided more money

for appropriate housing and transportation; and compensated for

extra salary they might have received for outside consultation and

 

 

\—
a“

F?

”gnu
.

‘D‘A‘
.-

"bu

III

 

5“

v.

o..'

-
NI.

 

88

services at home; given additional security and incentive to work
on special projects involving teaching—research—consulting which,
in effect, upgrade their professional standing; and given some
prestige for their participation, these negative attitudes can be
overcome as they have been in Mexico, Ferd, Tanzania, Brazil, and
several other countries where significant contributions are being
made to nations through university service programs.323

Involvement in service projects and research may make it
possible for universities to offer full-time employment to staff
members, an idea receiving considerable positive attention.

Both staff members and students should receive appropriate
recognition in the national and international communities "as bona
fide scholars and scientists." Recognizing the cultural values of

the country, prestige factors may be purposefully manipulated through

financial and nonfinancial incentives.

I.-

:-.

 

.x.‘

a".

\..,

..

 

CHAPTER 2 - -NOTES

lGabriel Velasquez P., "The University and Community Develop-
ment," in Education and Development Reconsidered, ed. F. Champion Ward
(New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974), pp. 244-245.

 

2Arthur L. Stinchcombe, "Social Structure and Organizations,"
Handbook of Organizations, ed. James G. March (Chicago: Rand McNally,
1965), p. 142, cited by Mark Hanson, ”Educational Reform: Colombia
and Venezuela," Education and Development: Latin America and the
Caribbean, ed. Thomas J. LaBelle (Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American
Center, 1972), p. 251.

 

 

3Economic Co-mission for Latin America, Education, Human
Resources and Development in Latin America (New York: United Nations,
1968), p. 165.

 

 

4Akilu Habte, "Higher Education in Ethiopia in the 1970's and
Beyond: A Survey of Some Issues and Responses," Education and
Development Reconsidered, ed. F. Champion Ward (New York: Praeger
Publishers, 1974), p. 218.

 

 

5Michael P. Todaro and colleagues, "Education for National
Development: ‘The University," Education and Development Reconsidered,
ed. F. Champion Ward (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974), p. 204.

 

6Richard G. King, and others, The Provincial Universities of
Mexico: An Analysis of Growth and Development (New York: Praeger
Publishers, 1971), P. 32.

 

 

7Velasquez, op. cit., p. 244.

8Kenneth W. Thompson and Barbara R. Fogel, eds., Higher Edu-
cation and Social Change: Promising Experiments in Developing
Countries, Vol. I (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976), p. 198.

 

 

91bid., p. 10.

89

 
 
 
 

.ub . .
...
ulN

.
. u

90

0Barbara R. Fogel, Design for Change: Higher Education in
the Service of Developing Countries (New York: International Council
for Educational Development, 1977), pp. 34-35; John W. McConnell,
"Business, Labor and the Universities in the Modernization of
Nations," in Education and the Modernization of Nations, ed.
Elizabeth N. Shriver (Washington: American Council on Education,
1964), p. 13; Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 154.

 

 

 

llKing, op. cit., pp. 131-132.

12Habte, op. cit., p. 228.

13Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 45.

4Harold R. W. Benjamin, Higher Education in the American
Republics (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965), p. 210.

 

15Velésquez, op. cit., p. 248.

16Willard H. Mitchell, CSUCA: A Regional Strategy for

Higher Education in Central America (Lawrence, Kansas: The Uni-
versity of Kansas, 1967), p. 7. '

 

 

7 . .
l I. N. Thut and Don Adams, Educational Patterns in Con-

temporarygSocieties (New York: McGraw Hill, 1964). P. 383.

 

 

18Mitchell, op. cit., p. 7.

19Benjamin, op. cit., p. 205.
20 , .
Velasquez, op. c1t., p. 247.

21Soedjatmoko, "Higher Education and Development: An Over-
view," Higher Education and Social Change, Vol. II, eds. Kenneth R.
Thompson and Barbara R. Fogel (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976),
p. 535.

 

22Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 47.

23Velasquez, op. cit., pp. 242-243.

4 . . . . .
2 Statement by LicenCiado Guillermo Putzeys, former Minister

of Education, personal interview, Guatemala, May 16, 1979.

91

5 . . . . . .
Economic Comm1551on for Latin America, op. c1t., pp. 125,
127.

26Ibid., p. 122.

7Interview Schedule No. 11.

28 . . . .
Don Adams and Robert M. Bjork, Education in Developing_

Areas (New York: David McKay, 1969), p. 126; John W. Hanson and
Cole S. Brembeck, eds., Education and the Development of Nations
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966), p. 253.

 

George R. Waggoner and Barbara A. Waggoner, Education in
Central America (Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press, 1971),
p. 47.

 

OInterview Schedule No. 8.

31John Vaizey, "Priorities within Education," in Hanson and

Brembeck, op. cit., p. 368.

2 . . . . . .
3 Arthur W. Lew1s, "The UniverSity in Developing Countries:

Modernization and Tradition," in Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II, op.
cit., p. 253.

3Benjamin, op. cit., p. 47.

34Mitchell, op. cit., p. 9.

35Ibid., p. 39.

6 . . . . . .
Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, op. c1t., p. 164.

37Ibid., p. 139.

8 . . . .
3 Jean Labbens, "Las Univer51dades Latinoamericanas y la

Movilidad Social," in Aportes, No. 2 (October 1966), Paris, Instituto
Latinoamericano de Relaciones Internacionales, pp. 77-78, cited in
Economic Commission for Latin America, ibid., p. 139.

39Thut and Adams, op. cit., p. 383.

0 . . . . . .
Economic CommisSion for Latin America, op. c1t., p. 138.

c‘

92

41Benjamin, op. cit., pp. 205-206.

42Fogel, op. cit., pp. 54-55.
43 .
Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. c1t., pp. 64-65.
44 .
Waggoner, op. c1t., p. 46.
Economic Commission for Latin America, op. cit., p. 159.
6 .
InterView Schedule No. 8.

47William and Paul Paddock, Hungry Nations (Boston: Little,

Brown, 1964), p. 175.

 

8Interview Schedule No. 7.

49Paddock, op. cit., p. 176.

50Mitchell, op. cit., p. 8.

51Ibid.

2 . . . . .
5 R. Freeman Butts, "Latin American Univers1ties and

Teacher Education," Education for National Development Focus:
Latin America (Washington: American Association of Colleges for
Teacher Education, 1964), p. 27.

53Adams and Bjork, op. cit., p. 118.

54Mitchell, op. cit., p. 8.

55Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 39.

56Fogel, op. cit., p. 16.

7Jose Medina Echavarria, "La Reforma de la Universidad
Latinoamericana," in Filosofia, Educacion, y Desarrollo. Textos
del Instituto Latinoamericano de Planificacidn Econdmica y Social
(Mexico, Editorial Siglo XXI, 1967), quoted in Economic Commission
for Latin America, op. cit., p. 136.

 

58Velasquez, op. cit., p. 242.

A

a..~...

.....\..J

93

59Thompson and Fogel, Col. I, op. cit., p. 41.
0 .
6 Todaro, op. c1t., p. 210.

61Velasquez, op. cit., p. 247.

2 .
6 Fogel, op. c1t., p. 32.

63Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 38.

64Ibid.

65Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II, ibid., pp. 291-301.

6Kenneth W. Thompson and colleagues, "Higher Education and
National Development: One Model for Technical Assistance," in Edu-
cation and Development Reconsidered, ed. F. Champion Ward (New York:
Praeger Publishers, 1974), p. 202.

 

 

67Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 19.

68R. Freeman Butts, "Teacher Education and Modernization,"

Essays on World Education: The Crisis of Supply and Demand, ed.
George Z. F. Bereday (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 128.

 

69Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 23.

7OHabte, op. cit., p. 232.

71Waggoner and Waggoner, op. cit., p. 147.

72Mitchell, op. cit., p. 6.

73Ibid., p. 63.
74 .

Fogel, op. c1t., pp. 27-28.
75 .

Todaro, op. c1t., p. 205.
76

Fogel, op. cit., p. 27.

77Habte, op. cit., p. 299.

 

-\§

 

  
 

94

78Fogel, op. cit., p. 27.

79Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 48-53.

80Habte, op. cit., p. 233.

81Ibid., p. 232.

82Ibid.

83Thut and Adams, op. cit., p. 351.

4 . . . . . .
Economic Comm1551on for Latin America, op. c1t., pp. 102-104.

85Mitchell, op. cit., pp. 1-66.

6Statement by Lic. Roberto Mertins, General Secretary of
FUPAC, personal interview, Guatemala, April 19, 1979.

7 . , . . . .
8 Ramos Mayorga Quiroz, La Un1vers1dad Para e1 Cambio Soc1a1

(San Salvador: Universidad Centroamericano Editores: 1977), pp. 9-19.

 

88Thompson and Fogel, Vol. 1, Op. cit., p. 58.

9Russell C. Davis, Planning Human Resource Development:
Educational Models and Schemata (Chicago: Rand, McNally, 1966),
p. 254.

 

 

90Adams and Bjork, op. cit., p. 117.

91King, op. cit., p. 75.

92Carl M. White, Mexico's Library and Information Services:

A Study of Present Conditions and Needs (Totowa, N.J.: Bedminster,
1969), quoted in King, op. cit., p. 73.

 

 

93Paddock, op. cit., pp. 178-179.
94 .
Thompson and Fogel, op. c1t., Vol. I, p. 153.

5Julius Nyerere, "Education for Self-Reliance," Development
Digest, III (October 1970), p. 9.

 

 
 
 

95

96 . .
Hanson and Brembeck, op. c1t., p. 287; UNESCO: International
Institute for Educational Planning, Problems and Strategies of Edu-
cational Planning, ed. Raymond F. Lyons (Paris: UNESCO, 1965), p. 49.

 

97Hanson and Brembeck, op. cit., p. 303.
98King, op. cit., p. 123.

9 . . . . . .
Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, op. c1t., p. 170.

00
1 Mary Jean Bowman and C. Arnold Anderson, "The Role of Edu-

cation in Development," Development of the Emerging Countries, ed.
Robert E. Asher, et a1. (Washington: The Brookings Institution,
1962), p. 154.

0
1 1Thompson and Thompson, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 30.

102Ibid., pp. 29—31.

0 .
1 3Thompson and colleagues, op. c1t., p. 202.

104William W. Turnbull, "From Goals to Results in Education,"
Essays on World Education: The Crisis of Supply and Demand, ed.
George Z. F. Bereday (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 199.

105Adam Curle, Educational Strategy for Developing Societies:
A Study of Educational Social Factors in Relation to Economic Growth
(London: Tavistock Publications, 1963), p. 141.

106 , . . . . .
Torsten Husen, "Priorities of International Research in

Education," Education and Development Reconsidered, ed. F. Champion
Ward (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974), pp. 163-164.

107H. M. Phillips, Educational Cooperation Between Developed

and Developing Countries (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976),
pp. 306-309.

 

08Frank H. Bowles, "Stages of Educational Development,"
Higher Education and Social Change, Vol. II, op. cit., pp. 451-452.

 

109Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 15.

96

0 . . . .
11 Philip H. Coombs, "Some Reflections on Educational

Planning in Latin America," in Problems and Strategies of Educational
Planning, ed. Raymond F. Lyons (Paris: UNESCO: International Insti-
tute for Educational Planning, 1965), p. 6.

 

111Philip H. Coombs, in preface to The Provincial Universities

of Mexico: An Analysis of Growth and Develppment, Richard G. King and
others (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974), p. vi.

 

 

112

Ibid.
113Lewis, op. cit., pp. 516-517.
114Ibid., p. 517.
115 .
Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II, op. c1t., p. 306.
116

R. Cranford Pratt, "Universities and Social Values in
Developing Areas," in Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II, ibid., pp. 532-534.

117Fogel, op. cit., p. 22.

118Philip H. Coombs and Jacques Hallack, Managing Educational

Costs (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 230, cited in
Fogel, ibid., p. 22.

 

 

119Fogel, op. cit., p. 23.

120Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 325; Thompson

and Fogel, Vol. I, ibid., p. 68.

121Phillips, op. cit., p. 293.
122 .
Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. Cit., p. 10.
123Ibid., p. 76.
124Fogel, op. cit., p. 6.
125Ibid.

26Velasquez, op. cit., p. 241.

2;;

L‘
7‘.

 

97

127Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, 0p. cit., p. 10.

128Ibid., p. 75.

29 . . . .
l Ladislav Cerych, "Accelerating the Innovation Process in

Education," Essays on World Education: The Crisis of Supply and
Demand, ed. George Z. F. Bereday (London: Oxford University Press,
1969), p. 34; Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 75-76.

 

3OVelasquez, op. cit., p. 249.

131Cerych, op. cit., pp. 40-41.

132Phillips, op. cit., p. 295.

133Paul L. Dressel and associates, Evaluation in Higher Edu-

cation (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961), p. 8.

 

134Cerych, op. cit., pp. 43-44.

135 . .
Allan M. Cartter, An Assessment opruality in Graduate

Education (Washington: American Council on Education, 1966), p. 4.

 

136Fogel, op. cit., p. 43.

137Cerych, loc. cit.

138Velasquez, op. cit., p. 248.

139Fogel, op. cit., p. 56.

140Husen, op. cit., p. 167.

141Todaro, op. cit., p. 207.

2 .
14 F. Taylor Jones, "General Procedure for Self-Evaluation,"

Self-Evaluation and Accreditation in Higher Education (Washington:
Catholic University of America Press, 1959), p. 294.

 

143Personal written communication from Paul L. Dressel,

Professor, Michigan State University, May 1975.

144Ibid.

 

 

98

45 . . . . .
1 Dressel, Evaluation in Higher Education, op. c1t., p. 9.

 

146Fogel, op. cit., p. 47.

147Todaro, loc. cit.

148Davis, op. cit., pp. 239-240.

l491bid., p. 239.

150Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 3.

1511bid., p. 49.

152Ibid., pp. 50-51.

153Ibid., p. 51.

154Ibid., p. 48.

lsslbid., p. 49.

156Ibid.

7 .
15 Thompson and colleagues, op. c1t., p. 203.

158Paddock, op. cit., pp. 176-177.

9 . . . . . .
Economic CommisSion for Latin America, op. c1t., p. 142.

160Gabriel Velasquez P., cited in Fogel, op. cit., p. 30.

161 . . . . .
Max Beloff, "Deeper Implications of CNAA Dec1s10n Worry1ng,‘

The Times Higher Education Supplement, August 16, 1974, p. l, cited in
Fogel, ibid.

 

162Fogel, op. cit., pp. 30-31.

163Ibid., p. 31.

164King, op. cit., p. 129.

99

165 . . . . . .
Economic Comm1551on for Latin America, op. c1t., p. 148.

166Benjamin, op. cit., pp. 202-203.

167 . . . .
Butts, "Teacher Education and Modernization," op. c1t.,

p. 125.

8 .
l6 Habte, op. c1t., p. 218.

169Paddock, p. 184.

70 .
1 Habte, op. c1t., p. 232.

171King, op. cit., p. 130.

172 . . . . . .
Butts, "Latin American Un1ver51t1es and Teacher Education,"

op. cit., pp. 29-30.

173Ibid.

174Fogel, op. cit., p. 32.

175 . . . . . .
Economic CommisSion for Latin America, op. c1t., p. 150.

176Mitchell, op. cit., p. 9.

77 . . . . . .
l Butts, "Latin American UniverSities and Teacher Education,"

op. cit., p. 25.

Economic Commission for Latin America, op. cit., p. 151.

l791bid., p. 150.

180Interview Schedule No. 5.

181Ibid.

82 . . . .
l LASPAU (Latin American Scholarship Program of American

Universities) Higher Education and National Development: A Proposal
to Strengthen the Responsiveness of Higher Education to the Problems
of Poverty in Selected Latin American Countries (Cambridge, MA:
LASPAU, 1976). p. 6.

 

 

 

 

_-~

Pb.

al~x

‘\

100

183King, op. cit., p. 6.

184 . . . .
Butts, "Teacher Education and Modernization," op. Cit.,

p. 126.

85 , .
Velasquez, op. Cit., p. 245.

186Ibid.

7 . . . . . .
Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, Op. Cit., p. 166.

88 . . . . . .
Dav1d Court, "Higher Education in East Africa," Higher
Education and Social Changp, in Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II, Op. Cit.,
p. 479.

 

189Ibid.

190 . .
LASPAU, loc. c1t.; Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. Cit.,

pp. 22-25.

191Coombs, op. cit., pp. 179-180.

192C. Edward Beeby, "Educational Aims and Content of

Instruction," Essays on World Education, op. cit., p. 192.

 

9 . .
1 3Don Adams, in Conference on Education and the Development

of Nations, ed. Hobart Burns (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press,
1963), P- 6.

 

194 n

Butts, "Teacher Education and Modernization, 0p. cit.,

p. 126.

195Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 37—38.

l96ibid., pp. 38-39.

197Ibid., p. 38.

198Mitchell, op. cit., p. 32.

lggIbid., pp. 31-32.

200Butts, "Latin American Universities and Teacher Education,"

op. cit., p. 28.

 

lOl

201Ibid.

202Interview Schedule No. 10.

203Ibid.

204 . . . .
Rousseau, Cited in Butts, "Teacher Education and Moderni-

zation," op. cit., p. 111.

205 . .
R. Freeman Butts, "Teacher Education: A Focal P01nt,"

in Hanson and Brembeck, op. cit., p. 375.

O6Vaizey, op. cit., pp. 369-370.

207Curle, op. cit., p. 147.

8 . . . . . .
Economic Comm1551on on Latin America, op. Cit., p. 120.

209 . . .
Butts, "Teacher Education: A Focal POint," op. Cit.,

p. 373; Emma Gamboa, "The Task of Educational Development Confronting
Latin America," Education for National Development Focus: Latin
America (Washington: American Association of Colleges for Teacher
Education, 1964), pp. 11-12.

210Gamboa, op. cit., p. 14.

211 . . .’ . .
Silvain Lourie, et al., "Teachers," in "Enlarging Edu-

cation: Recommendations," Essays on World Education: The Crisis of
Supply and Demand, ed. George Z. F. Bereday (London: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1969), p. 351.

212Phillips, op. cit., p. 303.

213Coombs, op. cit., p. 168.

214Curle, op. cit., p. 143.

215Gamboa, op. cit., p. 15.

216Lawrence Gale, Education and Development in Latin America

(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969), p. 52.

 

217Curle, op. cit., p. 142.

102

218Jean Harbaugh Miller, "Teacher Training in Developing

Countries" (unpublished manuscript, Ashland, Oregon: 1978).

219Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 24.

220Coombs, op. cit., p. 179.

221 . . . .
Butts, "Teacher Education and Modernization," op. Cit.,

p. 120.

2221bid., p. 121.

223Adams and Bjork, op. cit., p. 108.

224T. David Williams, "Wastage Rates and Teacher Quality in

Guatemalan Primary Schools," Comparative Education Review, February
1965, p. 46.

 

225Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers, eds., Manpower

and Education: Country Studies in Economic Development (New York:
McGraw Hill, 1965), pp. 54, 57.

 

226Paddock, op. cit., pp. 154-156.

227 . . . . . .
Economic Comm1551on for Latin America, Op. Cit., p. 119.

228Ibid.

229 . . . . . .
Butts, "Latin American Un1ver51t1es and Teacher Education,"

op. cit., p. 23.

230Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 63.

231Butts, "Latin American Universities and Teacher Education,"

op. cit., p. 24.

232Adams and Bjork, op. cit., p. 124.

233Interview Schedule No. 15.

234

Butts, "Latin American Universities and Teacher Education,
loc. cit.

 

 

103

235Ibid., p. 32.

 

236Butts, "Teacher Education and Modernization," op. cit-.
p. 122.

237Ibid., pp. 122-123.

238Benjamin, op. cit., pp. 202-203-

239Curle, op. cit.. pp. 148-149-

240Ibid., p. 149.

241Interview Schedule No. 2.

242UNESCO, Better Teachers (Paris: UNESCO, 1970). P- 13-

243Ibid., p. 24.

244Ibid.

245

Doultram Chattulani, "A Study of Education in Costa Rica
with an Emphasis on Student Teaching" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Michigan State University, 1972), p. 38.

246Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 335.

247John Hanson, Encyclopedia of Educational Research, ed.

Robert L. Ebel (4th ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1969), p. 345.

 

248Adams and Bjork, op. cit., pp. 104-112.

2491bid., p. 135.

250Hanson and Brembeck, op. cit., p. 286.

251David C. McClelland, "Changing Values for Progress," in

Burns, op. cit., pp. 66-78.

252Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 340.

253Curle, op. cit., p. 145.

w.

 

 

104

254Adams and Bjork, op. cit., p. 135.

255Ibid.

256Curle, op. cit., p. 143.

257Adams and Bjork, op. cit., p. 137.

258Ibid.

259Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 24.
260Ibid.

261Ibid., p. 25.

262

Coombs, op. cit., pp. 178-179; Butts, "Latin American
Universities and Teacher Education," op. cit., p. 29.

263Interview Schedule Number 12.

264 . . . .
Butts, "Teacher Education and Modernization," op. Cit.,

p. 125.

265 . . . . . .
Butts, "Latin American UniverSities and Teacher Education,"

op. cit., p. 25.

2661bid., p. 30.

267 . . . . . .
Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, op. Cit., p. 101.

268Coombs, op. cit., p. 102.

269C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures: A Second Look (New York:

The New American Library, A Mentor Book, 1963), p. 13.

 

270Curle, op. cit., p. 51.

r 271Adams and Bjork, op. cit., p. 135.

272Thut and Adams, op. cit., p. 368.

 

 

.. .1 .v .t. r. .\._
p... \r. \. s p5. .- «w s s

105

273Hanson, op. cit., pp. 211—212.

274 . .
Statement by Dr. Carlos Tejada, Director of INCAP,

personal interview, Guatemala, July 13, 1979.

275Ibid.

Economic Commission for Latin America, op. cit., p. 166.

7 .
InterView Schedule No. 6.

2
78Fogel, op. cit., p. 41.

9 . . . . . .
Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, op. Cit., p. 166.

280Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 35-39.

281Paddock, op. cit., pp. 281-282.

282 . . . . . .
Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, op. Cit., p. 171.

83Hanson and Brembeck, op. cit., pp. 465-466.

284Ibid., pp. 466-467.

285World Bank, The Assault on World Poverty: Problems of

Rural Development, Education, and Health (Baltimore and London:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), p. 313.

 

 

6Waggoner and Waggoner, op. cit., p. 3.

287Phillips, op. cit., p. 308; Lourié, et 61-: OP- Cit-r

pp. 353-354; Bowman and Anderson, op. cit., pp. 169—170; Hanson and
Brembeck, op. cit., p. 467.

288philip G. Altbach, Higher Education in Developing

Countries: Notes on Research (Cambridge: Harvard Center for
International Affairs, 1970), p. l.

 

 

289Mitchell, op. cit., pp. 48—51.

0 . . . . . .
29 Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, op. Cit., p. 168.

106

291Phillips, loc. cit.

292Fogel, op. cit., p. 32.

293Anderson, op. cit., pp. l74-l75.

94Soedjatmoko, cited in Fogel, op. cit., p. 37.

295Bowman and Anderson, op. cit., p. 162.

6 . . . . . .
Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, op. Cit., p. 98.

7 .
29 Fogel, op. Cit., p. 38.

298Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 59.

299 . . . . .
A. Babs Fafunwa, "The Role of African UniverSities in

Overall Educational Development," in Thompson and Fogel, Vol. II,
op. cit., p. 513.

00 . . .
3 C. Arnold Anderson, "Fostering Educational Research in

the Third World," in Education and Development Reconsidered, ed.
F. Champion Ward (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974), p. 174.

 

301LASPAU, op. cit., p. 4.

302Benjamin, op. cit., p. 189.

303Habte, op. cit., p. 233.

304Fogel, op. cit., pp. 50—52.

305Ibid., pp. 4l-42.

306McConnell, op. cit., p. 12.

7 .
30 LASPAU, op. Cit., p. 5.

308Benjamin, op. cit., p. 207.

309Thompson and Fogel, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 7.

310King, op. cit., p. 41.

311Ibid.

312

Thompson and Fogel, Vol.

13Thompson and Fogel, Vol.

314Ibid., pp. 35-37.
315Ibid., p. 12.

316Ibid., p. 35.

317Ibid., p. 13.
318Thompson and Fogel, Vol.
319Habte, op. cit., p. 216.
320Thompson and Fogel, Vol.
321Ibid.

322Ibid., pp. 58-59.
323Ibid., pp. 66-67.

324

Todaro, op. cit., p.

212.

107

II, op. cit., pp. 358-367.

1, op. cit., p. 68.

II, op. cit., p. 400.

I, op. cit., p. 68.

Chapter 3

GUATEMALA: THE SETTING FOR CHANGE

PHYSICAL SETTING

Physical Environment

 

Guatemala is the northernmost nation of Central America,
bordered by Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador, with coastal access
to the Pacific and the Caribbean. In both size and shape it
resembles the state of Ohio. Its climate and landforms vary from
hot and humid coastal lowlands and rain forests to'cold highlands
where frosts are common. There are two seasons: the rainy season,
which lasts from May to October, and the dry season, which lasts
from November to April. Because of the variety of climate and alti-
tude, any crop grown in the Western Hemisphere may be grown in
Guatemala.1

Guatemala is a land of considerable volcanic and seismic
activity. A chain of volcanoes, several of which are active, extends
across the country. Their eruptions cause some damage to crops and
homes and occasionally result in death to humans. The serious danger,
however, is from earthquakes which have caused much death and

destruction throughout Guatemala's history. The most recent

108

109

earthquake, on February 4, 1976, killed 23,000 people, caused
millions of dollars of damage, and left over 1,000,000 people

2
homeless.

Settlement Patterns

 

Guatemala has a rapidly growing population of over six
million people.3 Two-thirds of the population, mostly Indian,
live in rural areas, the vast majority of whom engage in subsistence
agriculture on small plots of land or work as agricultural laborers
on the middle-sized to large plantations.4 Most rural inhabitants
are poor, living in one-room dwellings of adobe or cane stalk con-
struction.

About one-third of the population, mostly ladinos, live in
urban areas which are located in the highlands. Over one million
inhabitants reside in the capital city, Central America's largest
metropolitan area.

Migration of the poor from the country to the city, which
had risen steadily during the last few years, increased radically
after the earthquake of 1976, due in part to the fact that most of
the homes destroyed belonged to rural poor. This migration, which
has caused a population growth in the urban areas of more than twice
the amount in the country as a whole, is occurring much more rapidly
than the expansion of services and jobs in the city. The result is
crowded living, unsanitary conditions with high rates of crime,
disease, and other social problems.7

The tropical lowlands of the northern area, E1 Petén, and the

Pacific Coast are sparsely populated. Certain Pacific lowlands are

110

being developed industrially, due to the hydroelectric potential of
rivers there, and agriculturally, because of the rich volcanic and

alluvial soil.

ECONOMIC PATTERNS

Agriculture

 

Because of the favorable climate, much fertile soil, and
slow technological growth, agriculture has remained a dominant ele-
ment of the Guatemalan economy. Agriculture accounts for about
30 percent of the gross national product, commerce for 28 percent,
and manufacturing for 15 percent.9 Although the recent growth rate
in agriculture is high, the gain is principally in nonfood crops for
export.10 Even though Guatemala is an exporter of coffee, cotton,
and bananas, it has to invest heavily in imported food crops to feed
its people. This is a paradox since Guatemala has enough fertile
land which, if cultivated effectively, could feed all of Central
America.11

A small percentage of the farmers are owners of middle—sized
to large plantations, a phenomenon common to Latin America called

12
latifundismo. More than 70 percent of agricultural lands are

 

controlled by 2 percent of all landowners.l3 These are the wealthy
elite whose plantations produce the bulk of Guatemala's export crops.
Theirs is the best land, farmed with modern techniques and equipment.
Most large plantations have substantial portions of good land not in
use.14 The government also owns much uncultivated agricultural

land.15

111

Until new laws can be effected relating to transfer of land,
specifically improvement of credit facilities, the balance of land
ownership will remain as it is. Major banks will not give small
farmers credit on long-term loans, and unless one can accumulate
sufficient capital to pay cash, land purchase is ordinarily not
possible for the less affluent. Large landholders are disinclined
to sell property to small holders since they must act as the credit
agents.

In contrast to latifundismo is a contrapuntal phenomenon,

 

minifundismo, the working of small, uneconomical plots of land

 

(milpas). As has been indicated, many Guatemalans, mostly Indians,
live according to this pattern. Nine out of ten farmers work plots
of land less than five acres in size.17

The staple foods of most rural Guatemalans are corn, beans,
and squash. Usually, all three foods are grown on the milpa. Often
hogs and chickens are raised on the family plots as well. Unfortu-
nately, the milpa agriculture practiced by Indians and poor ladinos
is inefficient. Much land is exhausted from years of continuous
planting without crop rotation and slash and burn farming techniques.
Many plots are located on the sides of hills, decreasing productivity.
Corn, beans, and squash are planted in many highland areas not par-
ticularly suited for efficient growth. To date there has been
little attention paid to seed selection or improvement, nor to
careful breeding of hogs and chickens. Finally, milpa agriculture

employs primitive production techniques. A digging stick, hoe, and

l
machete are the three principal tools for planting and harvesting.

112

Given the inefficiency on the milpas in Guatemala, and the resul-
tant subsistence lives of the majority of Guatemalans, extensive
agricultural research is urgently needed.1

In addition to the milpa farmers, there are "thousands of
landless peasants who work on the large farms."20 Many farm
laborers, called colonos, work the land for the finca owners and
till a small plot of land for themselves which is loaned them in
partial payment for their work. Other farm laborers migrate from
the highlands to the coffee and cane plantations at certain times

. . 2
of the year to aSSist with the harvests.

Industry and Commerce

 

Most industry, commerce, and banking activities are concen—
trated in Guatemala City. The export of agricultural products is
the chief source of dollar influx for the country. The import of
most manufactured items, including heavy machinery, accounts for a
large part of the dollar outflow. With the encouragement of the
Central American Common Market, consumer goods produced all over
Central America can be exchanged without customs duties. This has
engendered growth in industrial and commercial activity. Guatemala
now has a growing light industry producing such products as plastics,
paper, paints, automobile tires, textiles, chemicals, and pharmaceuti-

. . . . 2
cals which are distributed throughout Central America.

Manpower

Between 1950 and 1973 the population of persons ten years
of age or older rose from almost two million to over three and one-half

million, a growth rate of 2.6 percent annually. In that same period

 

~-
‘6

4 .
.ns

113

the economically active population of the same age range grew at
the rate of 2.1 percent annually or less than the corresponding
growth of the same age group. About three-fourths of the population
ten years of age or older is economically active. Of the total
working population, about 12 percent‘are women.

The largest occupational group, about 57 percent of the
work force, includes farmers, hunters, fishermen, and loggers. The
next largest group works in industry and manufacturing, about 13 per-
cent. Professionals and technicians account for about 3 percent.
Only 1.6 percent of the work force are administrators, executives,
and managers, a lower percentage than in most other Latin American
countries. Guatemala has only 186 scientists and engineers engaged
in research: one researcher per 22,435 people.24

Two basic labor laws which are presently operative are the
Labor Code of 1961 (with alterations in 1963), and the Organic Law
of the Guatemala Social Security Institute. Indians and ladinos are
covered equally: equal pay, eight-hour work day, forty-eight hour
week, paid vacations, maternity leave, and the right to organize
and strike. Obligations of the employer, including working con-
ditions, are specified. Later additions to the code are a mandatory

Christmas bonus, a retirement plan, and survivors‘ benefits.

Economic Growth

 

Guatemala has enjoyed a period of economic growth during the
last two decades. The Central American Common Market has contributed
to the expansion of the export market, and several years of favorable

coffee prices have greatly increased revenue. There is much

114

construction evident in the capital city and, although inflation
is high, there is a general sense of economic growth in Guatemala.
Nevertheless, Guatemala confronts many obstacles to sustained
economic growth. Some of the problems are: (1) low local demand
for manufactured goods, (2) ineffective marketing and distribution,
(3) inadequate technology to enforce quality control, (4) lack of
long-term financing, and (5) lack of economic infrastructure
(shortage of roads, power, irrigation, sanitary water supplies,
etc.).26

Political instability has long had a dampening effect on
local investment. Given the political uncertainties, many Guatemalans
prefer to invest outside the country. At the time of this writing,
for example, bankers report a heavy outflow of money from Guatemala,
attributed to the fear that the recent revolution in Nicaragua may
spread to Guatemala.

Worldwide inflation has affected the Guatemalan economy.

For example, the rate of inflation in 1978 was 12.6 percent.

As an exporter of crops with but a fledgling industrial base,
much of which is in the hands of foreigners, Guatemala finds itself
quite dependent on other nations. Most manufactured goods and raw
materials must be imported. The recent increases in the price of
petroleum have put an economic burden on Guatemala since all of its
oil is imported. During the past few years, prices on Guatemala's
export crops have been high, bringing relative prosperity. However,
a substantial decrease in the price of coffee on the world market

could send the economy into a recession.

115

Guatemala is not without its supply of natural resources.
It has reserves of antimony, tungsten, nickel, copper, lead, and
zinc.30 To date, however, only nickel has been mined in quantity,
and that by a foreign company. It is believed that petroleum
reserves exist in the north of Guatemala. Several oil companies
are presently exploring the Peten area. Guatemala also has an
abundant supply of excellent hardwood in the Peten, and there are
good fisheries off both the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts. Guatemala's
inability to exploit its natural resources is rooted in its lack of

capital, technology, transportation, and properly trained manpower.
SOCIAL SETTING

The Two Cultures

 

Guatemalan society is actually two cultures in one, with
very few links between the Indian and ladino. Kinship
patterns, status in society, religious beliefs, and social
values differ radically from one culture to another.32

At the time of the last census, 1973, 44 percent of Guate-

. . . . . 33
mala's population was claSSified as Indian and 56 percent as ladino.
The Indians lead an agricultural life that has remained essentially

, 34 . . .
unchanged for centuries. The values in Indian soc1ety stress the
importance of loyalty to community, earned status, and a world con-
trolled by supernatural forces to which one must conform. The tra-
. . . . . . 3
ditional Indian Views life as an unchanging and "timeless present."

The ladino. on the other hand, is governed by values which

place more importance on the individual and family than on the com-

munity, and emphasize ascribed status and material wealth. In

contrast to the submissive view of the Indians, ladinos tend to

116

believe that "the universe can be controlled or manipulated by man,
and that an individual can determine his own destiny and guide that
of his fellows."36

There is some incorporation of the Indian into the economic
and social structure, but as an inferior. For the most part the
Indian lives on the margin of modern economic and social life.
There are enormous disparities between Indian and ladino with regard
to access to good land, employment, infrastructure, and public ser-
vices. It is this "economic dualism" which some analysts believe
is responsible for the restriction of Guatemala's development, since
only a limited segment of the population contributes to and enjoys
the benefits of economic and social progress.

It should be pointed out that the process of acculturation
of the Indian is beginning to accelerate. In the 1950 census,
53 percent of the Guatemalan population were described as Indian.
That dropped to 44 percent in the 1973 census, and is presently
estimated at 40 percent. As the communication systems continue to
improve, medical and educational services expand, and life on E2217
fundia farms becomes more difficult forcing Indians to move to the
cities, the acculturation process will continue to accelerate. Some
authorities believe that within the next century, the Indian culture

38
as it is known now will have died out.

Social Structure

 

Much of Guatemala's wealth is in the hands of plantation
owners, a few industrialists and successful professionals, and high

government officials. Their lifestyle is luxurious: an extensive

117

social life, frequent trips abroad, several homes, a retinue of
servants, the finest schools for their children. This so-called
elite, or upper class, is concentrated in the cities, particularly
the capital.39 The upper class is conservative politically, has
strong ties with the military, and exercises great influence on
government and the economy.

The middle class is composed of teachers, middle level
government employees, small businessmen, military officers, the
majority of doctors and lawyers, and a few skilled laborers. Most
of the middle class reside in the cities, although the number of
rural middle class families is on the rise.40 Generally speaking,
middle class families have reasonably comfortable homes, an auto-
mobile, several modern appliances, a servant, and access to good
medical care. Most send their children to private schools.

Recently, the middle class has begun to assume a position
of some importance in the social and political structure. It is
the hope of some that the expansion of number and influence of the
middle class in the last few years will permit Guatemala to move
decisively toward development without violent revolution.4

The preponderance of Guatemalans belongs to the lower class:
subsistence farmers, migrant and residential workers, servants, bus
drivers, taxi drivers, industrial laborers, and the umemployed. Most
of the nation's poverty is here: high illiteracy, inadequate sani-
tation and health services, poor housing, malnutrition, frequent
sickness, and early death. As in most countries, the lower class

. . . 42
exerts little or no political influence.

118

Health

Malnutrition is endemic in Guatemala, especially in the
rural areas. A survey made by the Inter-American Development Bank
shows that the average per capita consumption in Guatemala is about
2,000 calories and 25 grams of protein per day. The minimum daily
requirements for the region as estimated by the Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations are 2,550 calories and 71 grams

. 43 . . . . . . . .
of protein. Protein-calorie malnutrition is Significantly related
to many deaths in pre-school children. It is also responsible for
the mental retardation of children and reduced efficiency of

4
laborers.
. . . . . 45

The mortality rate in Guatemala is 11.8 per 1,000 inhabitants.
The average life expectancy at birth is forty-nine years, the third

46 . . . . .
lowest in Latin America. It is estimated that one child in ten dies
. 47
before reaching the age of one year.

The ratio of doctors to inhabitants is low: one to 4,344.

About 83 percent of the doctors reside in the cities. Thus, many

. . . . 48
rural inhabitants do not have adequate medical attention. As many
as one in five people who die of illness never see a doctor during the
. . . 49
illness which kills them.

The insufficient supply of doctors is not the only reason for
inadequate medical attention. Many rural inhabitants, especially the
Indians, are superstitious about their health. The use of witch

. . 50
doctors and folk cures leads to much illness and untimely death.

Water and sanitary facilities are almost universally inadequate

in rural areas. About 90 percent of the rural population and 15 per-

cent of the urban population lack adequate water and sewerage

 

A .

b .

 

‘9‘

.5

~ e
t»

n h

119

facilities. With rare exceptions, only the urban dwellers have
indoor sanitary facilities.51 Gastroenteritis, a disease directly
related to unsanitary conditions, is the largest cause of death in
Guatemala.52 It is estimated that nearly 40 percent of the deaths
in Guatemala are caused by infections and parasitic diseases.

Malaria, which had nearly been eradicated by the end of the
19603, is resurging throughout Central America. The rise in the
number of confirmed cases in Guatemala has been dramatic: from
5,000 cases in 1975, to 60,000 in 1978.54

The high mortality rate is offset by a high birth rate esti-
mated to be nearly 3 percent per year.55 This means a doubling of
the population during the next twenty years should the rate remain
constant.56 The high birth rate results in a decrease in the per-
centage of the population which is economically active with a con-
comitant increase in the number of dependents. One result is an
increasing burden for the nation's schools.

Given the rapid increase in population, some interest has
been generated in family planning. Since 1965, several organizations
have been established to train family planning personnel and to give
advice and contraceptives to people throughout Guatemala. Neverthe-
less, only a small percentage of the Guatemalan population uses
birth control techniques. Some experts point out that in order to
have a greater effect on family planning, it is necessary for sex
education to be introduced in the secondary and even elementary
schools "so that the individuals can more readily accept the idea

5
of discussing problems of contraception and asking for advice."

120

EDUCATION

The Constitutional Framework

 

The Constitution of 1965, which is in effect as of this
writing, lists the following educational goals for the nation:

. integral development of the personality,

physical and spiritual betterment,

improvement of individual responsibility of the citizen,
civic progress of the nation,

improvement of sense of patriotism, and

. respect for human rights.58

0014:.me

The Constitution proclaims the right of all to an education,
makes primary education free and obligatory for all children within
the age limits to be set by law, authorizes the functioning of pri-
vate schools under the supervision of the state, and makes contri-

. . . . . 5
bution to literacy a soc1al obligation.

The Administration of Education

 

Figure 2 provides a graphic description of the Guatemalan
education system. As can be seen, education is organized on four
levels: preprimary, primary, secondary, and higher. Of the first
three levels, public and private education are under the control of
the Ministry of Education, headed by a Minister and Vice-Minister
of Education, both appointed by the President of the Republic. Four
advisory groups assist the Minister: Technical Council of Education,
Office of Educational Planning, Legal Office, and Office for the
Coordination of International Matters.6

There are two major divisions within the Ministry of Edu-
cation: General Office of Education and Office of Culture and Fine

Arts, each managed by a director appointed by the Minister of

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Educational System of Guatemala

I
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Statistics for the Analysis of the Educational Sector:

Agency for International Development, 1974), p. 8.

122

Education. Each of the two major divisions is subdivided into offices
61 . . . .
and departments. For a diagram of the administrative structure of

the Ministry of Education, please refer to Figure 3.

Literacy

In spite of the Constitution's emphasis on literacy and
myriad literacy campaigns, only about half the Guatemalan population
can read and write.62 Literacy rates in Guatemala vary according to
sex, place of residence, cultural background, and other factors.
About 70 percent of the urban population is literate as compared
with 30 percent of the rural population. Sixty-three percent of
the ladinos are literate, but only 23 percent of the Indian popu-
lation can read and write. The literacy rate is considerably higher
among males than females: 52 percent and 38 percent, respectively.
The most literate group is urban ladino males: 85 percent. The
group with the lowest literacy rate is rural Indian females:

10 percent.63

Enrollment in Preprimary, Primary,
and Secondary Schools

 

 

About one-third of the school-age children in Guatemala are
enrolled in preprimary, primary, or secondary schools. In 1977, of
a total enrollment of 864,378 children, 37,105 (4%) were enrolled in
preprimary schools, 681,503 (79%) in primary schools, and 145,770
(17%) in secondary schools.64 School enrollment data by sector and

area are shown in Table l.

 

.K»

.ub

...
n:

 

123

Minister
Vice—Minister

 

General Office of Education

 

Urban preprimary and primary
education

Rural socioeducational
development

Secondary education

Literacy and adult education

Esthetic education

Physical and health
education

Student welfare and special
education

 

Office of Culture and Fine Arts

 

Institute of History and Anthropology

National Library

Guatemalan social integration
seminar

Censorship of public activities

Music

Dance

Theater

Literary activities

Plastic arts

National folkloric arts

National Institute of Fine Arts

 

1

Technical Council Office of
of Education Educational
Planning

T

Office for the
Coordination of
International
Matters

Legal Office

Figure 3

Administrative Structure of the Ministry of Education

SOURCE: Ministerio de Educacion, Ley Organica de Educacion
Nacional, Decreto-Ley Numero 317 (Guatemala: Centro Editorial José

 

 

de Pineda Ibarra, 1965), pp. 20-26.

124

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125

Preprimary Education

 

Preprimary education in Guatemala comprises the equivalent
in the United States of kindergarten and first grade. Only about
10 percent of the five— and six-year—old children in Guatemala are
enrolled in preprimary schools, all of which are located in urban
areas. Children are promoted on the basis of age. Since preprimary
education is not compulsory, children may enter primary school with-

65
out having studied in a preprimary school.

Primary Education

 

Primary education comprises the equivalent in the United
States of grades two through seven, and attendance is compulsory by
Guatemalan law. Nevertheless, only about half of the nation's
primary-age children, seven to fourteen, are enrolled in primary
schools.

The Ministry of Education imposes a uniform curriculum
throughout the primary school system: social studies, arithmetic,
sciences, Spanish, health and safety, agriculture, industrial arts,
home economics, handicrafts, art, physical education, and music.67
The Ministry distributes textbooks, paper, chalk, and other materials
to the public schools, but, in general, there is an insufficient

a

supply of teaching materials. Often teachers assign books which

the students cannot afford, in which case they go without.

Attrition. The attrition rate in primary schools is high. The data
in Table 2 indicate that of the students enrolled in first grade in
1972, only 24 percent were still enrolled in sixth grade in 1977 when

the group should have finished the primary program.

126

Table 2

Primary School Enrollment:

1972-1977

 

Enrollment by Year and Grade

 

 

 

 

 

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977
Sector Retention
First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth
Public 179,226 101,163 83,360 60,304 48,975 41,379 23%
Urban 68,125 47,268 43,323 38,030 33,742 29,554 43%
Rural 111,101 53,895 38,037 22,274 15,233 11,825 11%
Private 28,243 16,396 12,807 9,848 8,845 8,634 31%
Urban 10,237 9,189 8,685 8,158 7,814 7,870 77%
Rural 18,006 7,207 4,122 1,690 1,031 764 4%
All 207,469 117,559 94,167 70,152 57,820 50,013 24%
Urban 78,362 56,457 52,008 46,188 41,556 37,424 48%
Rural 129,107 61,102 42,159 23,964 16,264 12,589 10%
SOURCE: "Educacidn Primaria: Retencidn y Pérdida por Sector y

Area Cohorte 1972-1977," Hoja Estadistica No. 10 (Guatemala:
de Educacién, Unidad Sectorial de Investigacidn y Planificacidn Edu-
cativa, May 1979), pp. l-l8.

 

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127

Urban-rural differences. In Guatemala, as in most developing

 

countries, a child living in an urban area is more likely to attend
school and remain longer than a child living in a rural area.
Although two—thirds of Guatemala's population live in rural areas,
over half the total primary school enrollment is in urban schools.
The information in Table 2 indicates that whereas about half the
children who enroll in urban primary schools reach the sixth grade,
only one in ten children who enroll in rural primary schools reach
the sixth grade.

Below are several reasons why the attendance in rural schools

is much lower than in urban schools.

1. Lack of schools. Fewer schools are available in rural

 

areas. Wright points out that in 1967 there was one classroom per
140 primary-age children in rural areas as compared to one classroom
per 49 primary-age children in urban areas.70 In addition, few
rural schools offer all six grades. Thus, many rural children who
would otherwise continue their schooling are forced to drop out
before completing the sixth grade. The data in Table 3 indicate
that less than one-third of the rural primary schools offer more
than the first three years of school, and only 6 percent offer the

full primary program.

2. Inaccessibility of schools. The inhabitants in rural

 

areas are scattered throughout the countryside, and most live some
distance from the communities in which the rural schools are located.

In addition, transportation facilities are poor in most of rural

  

«\w

128

Guatemala. Thus, the limited physical accessibility to the few

. . . 7
schools which do eXist is an obstacle to school attendance. 1

Table 3

Rural Public Schools Offering 1, l-2, l-3, etc.
Grades as Percentage of Total Public
Rural Schools

 

One-grade schools 8%
Two-grade schools 19%
Three-grade schools 45%
Four-grade schools 16%
Five-grade schools 6%
Six-grade schools 6%

 

SOURCE: Peter C. Wright and Luis Arturo Lemus, "Guatemala's
Approach to Rural Education," Educational Innovations in Latin
America, eds. Richard L. Cummings and Donald A. Lemke (Metuchen, N.J.:
Scarecrow Press, 1973). p. 186.

 

3. Interference of planting and harvesting. The need for

 

rural children to help with the planting and harvesting, and in many
cases, to migrate to plantations for seasonal work, is a major factor

. . . . 72
in lowered school attendance, repitition, and dropout.

4. Unqualified teachers. Although all primary school

 

teachers in urban schools are certified, about one-third of the

. . . 73 . .
rural primary teachers are not certified. According to T. Dav1d
Williams, who studied the relationship between teacher training and
dropouts in Guatemala's rural schools, children are more likely to

. . . . 74 . .
leave schools in which uncertified teachers work. In addition,
the majority of the certified teachers in rural areas hold urban
. . 75 . .

school certificates. Wright pOints out that these teachers tend

to live apart from the rural community in which they work, do not

129

identify with the community‘s problems, and are unable to make the

. . . . . 76
curriculum relevant to the eXigenCies of rural conditions.

5. Inadequate curriculum and teaching materials. Curriculum

 

tends to be urban-oriented, theoretical, based on rote learning, and
. 77 .

little related to the rural needs. Research conducted by AID in

Guatemala indicates that the formal education is of little use to

rural farmers other than the status which it confers.

6. Inadequate sppervision and administration. Supervision

 

in rural areas is insufficient and practically nonexistent for many
schools. Most of the qualified supervisors in Guatemala work in
urban areas. Few school administrators in rural areas have any
training for handling the administrative tasks of personnel, cur-

riculum, school-community relations, and discipline.

7. Problem of language of instruction. The native language

 

of the majority of rural inhabitants is an Indian dialect, yet the
language of instruction in Guatemala's schools is Spanish. Thus,
most of the rural children in Guatemala must learn a second language

in order to study in the primary schools.80

8. Rejection of formal education by Indians. Indians do

 

not include formal education in their cultural tradition, and many
Indian parents are hostile to an educational system which teaches
new values and gives a theoretical education which appears unrelated

to local needs.81

130

Public-private differences. Approximately 80 percent of primary

 

schools are public and 20 percent private.82 Most of the rural
private schools are provided by plantation owners as required by

the Organic Law of Education. They are poorly attended and generally
of low quality.83

Quality of education in the private schools varies from the
very poor plantation schools to excellent ones in the capital which
offer modern education similar to that of good schools in developed
countries. The urban private schools have lower dropout rates than
do urban public schools. Table 2 shows that in 1977, sixth grade
enrollment in private urban schools was 77 percent of the initial
enrollment in the same schools five years earlier, while in the
public urban schools, the sixth grade enrollment was 43 percent of
the first grade enrollment five years earlier.

The better private schools are expensive and available to
only the middle and upper classes. For most children, primary edu-
cation, if it is available at all, must be taken in the public or
low-priced private schools which are, generally speaking, low in

quality.

 

Salary schedules. In the public schools, beginning primary teachers
are paid Q3,000 a year, with automatic increments of 20 percent
every five years up to twenty years and other increments based on
additional training and performance. Salaries for private-school

teachers vary.

131

There are two teaching schedules in public schools:
7:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m., and 1:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. In private

schools, the schedules also vary.

 

Special education. In the past few years there has been a growing
interest in Guatemala in education for the physically and mentally
handicapped and for children with learning problems. Recently,
several government and private institutions have been established
for the mentally retarded, and some private schools have begun to

offer programs for children with learning problems.

Secondary Education

 

Secondary education in Guatemala comprises the equivalent in
the United States of grades eight through twelve or thirteen. About
15 percent of the secondary school-age population is enrolled in

85
secondary schools.

The secondary curriculum includes two cycles, pre-vocational
and diversified. The pre—vocational cycle, three years in length,
is a general studies program required of all secondary students and
. . . . . . . 86
is prerequiSite to the programs in the diverSified cycle. In
Figure 4 is the pre-vocational program of studies.

The diversified cycle is of two or three years in length,
depending on the program. Figure 2 shows the various kinds of
programs offered in the diversified cycle, the number of years

required to complete them, and whether they are terminal or lead

to admission to higher education.

 

132

First Year Second Year Third Year
Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics
Spanish Spanish Spanish
Social Studies Social Studies Social Studies
General Sciences General Sciences General Sciences
Foreign Language Foreign Language Foreign Language
Music Music Music
Art Art Art
Physical Education Physical Education Physical Education

Industrial Arts Industrial Arts
Typing
Figure 4

Pre-Vocational Program

SOURCE: Robert B. MacVean, "Guatemala," Perspectives on
World Education, ed. Carlton B. Beck (Milwaukee: Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, 1970), p. 361.

 

 

Not many teachers hold a certificate in secondary education.
Most secondary teachers hold the normal school diploma for primary
teaching, and a few have completed some university studies.
Waggoner describes the lack of properly trained secondary school
teachers as "the most acute problem in all of Guatemalan education."
He points out that in 1969 "99 percent of secondary teachers lack
the educational background and professional qualifications for
teaching at this level."88

About 12 percent of the secondary-age children (14-20) are
enrolled in the nation's secondary schools.89 Nearly 80 percent
of the students who finish elementary enter secondary schools.

However, less than 30 percent of those students earn a secondary

9
school diploma. 0

133

Urban-rural differences. All secondary schools in Guatemala are

 

located in urban areas. Thus, rural children must move to the
cities if they wish to continue their secondary education. Although
the writer could not locate figures to indicate the number of rural
children enrolled in urban schools, several respondents indicated

91
that the number must be very low.

Private-public differences. The private schools play a major role

 

in secondary education. Whereas the vast majority of the elementary
students are enrolled in public schools, over half the secondary
students are enrolled in private schools, and the trend is toward

. . . . 92
an increased role for private schools in secondary education. The
public institutions are poorly equipped and are generally inferior
to the private schools which tend to have better installations, lower
teacher-student ratios, and better teachers.

Students in private schools are more likely to finish the
programs in which they enroll than their cohorts in the public
schools. This is attributed to the fact that private school stu-
dents are generally wealthier than public school students and thus

. . 94
less likely to drop out for economic reasons.
At present there are not enough places to accommodate all of

the students who enroll in the public schools; new schools are

needed to furnish space for the burgeoning enrollment in secondary.

Graduates. Table 4 lists the number of graduating secondary school
students by area of study in 1977. It is interesting to note that
41 percent of all secondary school graduates received teaching cer-

tificates.

134

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mum>finm oflabsm cmEoz cw:

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v magma

135

Salary schedule. Secondary school teachers are paid a starting

 

salary of Q3,700 per year for approximately twenty hours of class-
room teaching per week. Many teach extra classes for extra pay.

As do elementary school teachers, secondary school teachers receive
salary increments of 20 percent every five years, up to twenty years,
and other increments in accord with their studies and evaluations by
their supervisors. Secondary school teachers earn a higher salary
than elementary school teachers with the same amount of training

and experience.

Teacher Education

 

Because the preparation of teachers is a critical task in a
developing nation and a major program at the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, it is important to present here a brief outline of ante-
cedents of teacher education in Guatemala.

During the colonial period, formal education was entirely in
the hands of the clergy. Indians and poor ladinos received little
more than instruction in catechism and the basics of reading if
they received any education at all. For the children of the elite,
a handful of primary and secondary schools were established which
provided the traditional liberal arts education as given in Spain.
At the time of independence, with the exception of a few priests
and upper-class men, the population was almost totally illiterate.9

Independence in 1821 was accompanied by a new democratic
spirit which brought with it an attempt to extend education to more
people. The extension of education, however, required more trained

teachers than the clergy could possibly provide. An institution to

136

prepare teachers was obviously needed, and in 1835 the first normal
school was established by the liberal president, Dr. Mariano Galvez.
The school was public and free to anyone who could pass the meager
entrance requirements: ability to read and write Spanish with an
elementary knowledge of grammar and arithmetic. The curriculum
was modest: religious and moral instruction, reading, arithmetic,
drawing, geography, history, and gymnastics.97

Under the liberal leadership of President Justo Rufino
Barrios, several normal schools were established during the last
quarter of the 19th century. The first, Central Normal School for
Boys, was opened in 1875. Four years later, the Normal School for
Girls was opened. During the next few years several normal schools
were established throughout the country.98

The normal schools established during the Barrios period
required a primary school education for admission and, although not
free, trained a large number of students at the government's expense.
They soon developed into four-year institutions which offered courses
in methodology and psychology as well as standard secondary school
courses in grammar, literature, science, mathematics, history,
geography, French, and shorthand.99

The next major development in the normal school movement was
the establishment in 1920 of the Normal School for Indians. This
represented a novel approach to the problem of educating Indians
who had been excluded previously from formal education. The trainees

. . . 100
were required to return to their Villages to teach.

137

During the first quarter of the 20th century, kindergartens
became popular. It soon became evident that the regular normal
school training was insufficient to meet the requirements of teach-
ing the very young. In response to the new need, the Normal School
for Kindergarten Teachers was established in 1928. Of particular
note here is the fact that the completion of a regular normal
school program was prerequisite to entrance in the two-year kinder-
garten training program.101

Another positive though short-lived development was the
establishment of the Superior Normal School in 1929. Its purpose
was to train administrators and teachers for the secondary and
normal schools throughout the country as well as train officials
and supervisors for the Guatemalan Ministry of Education. Completion
of a regular normal school program was prerequisite to entry into
the Superior Normal School. Unfortunately, the dictator, Jorge
Ubico, closed the school for political reasons in 1932. Interest-
ingly, one of the first public ceremonies after his ouster in 1944
was the graduation of the first, and only, class from the Superior
Normal School which had completed its studies but had been denied
the ceremony because of the school's untimely closing.

Prior to 1945, little attention was given to the preparation
of teachers for instruction in rural areas. The social reform
movement of the "Revolution of 1945" brought about much concern
for the betterment of conditions in rural areas. Thus, with great
fanfare, the Rural Normal School, "La Alameda," was opened in 1946.

Some of the best educators in Guatemala were sent to staff the

138

school and help train new staff. A special curriculum provided
instruction in the following areas:

. agriculture production,

. national natural resources,
modernization of industry,
improvement of living conditions,
local dialects, and

. Indian culture.103

mmbwwr—I

In 1948, the first evening normal school was established to
. . 104
serVice those who worked during the day.

The normal school program has evolved into six years of
secondary level training: three years of general cultural education
given to all secondary students, and three years of teacher prepar-
ation courses, which include pedagogy, psychology, teaching methods,
ethics, educational organization, philosophy, history of education,

. . . . . , 105
educational statistics, evaluation, and practice teaching.

Today there are 104 normal schools in Guatemala, 76 private

. . 106
and 28 public, with a total enrollment of over 18,000 students.
Please refer to Table 5 for a listing of the normal school graduates
by area of study in 1977. Over 40 percent of all secondary school
graduates are products of normal schools. Of this group, 85 percent
receive teaching certificates in urban elementary education. Only
6 percent of the normal school graduates receive rural elementary
school certificates even though half the elementary school enrollment
is found in rural areas.

In 1945, Guatemala's national university, Universidad de San
Carlos, initiated a five-year teacher preparation program under the

auspices of the School of Humanities. The School of Humanities

also offers a Master's Degree and doctorate in pedagogy. However,

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uflumm>cH mp Hmfluouomm pmpflco .cmflomospm mp oflumumflcwz "mamEmumsov v .02 ovaumflpmumm whom :.n>ma oucme

 

 

139

 

 

 

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I- “wooav Hm iwooav Hm -- Ammo Hm moaeocoom wee:
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mum>flum ofiandm cmEOS co: m 0 memumoum
H u 9 mo mmmxe
uouowm xwm

 

BBOH “MOUMSUMHU HOOSOW HMEHOZ

m magma

140

by 1961 the teacher preparation program at San Carlos had produced
only sixty secondary teachers, an average of four a year.107

In 1964, the newly established private university, Universidad
Rafael Landivar, initiated its secondary teacher preparation program
under the auspices of its School of Humanities.

These first efforts at teacher training at the university
level were generally unsuccessful because the program took five
years to complete, just as for the more prestigious and lucrative
professions. In addition, they were not geared specifically for
practicing teachers.108

The first university program to produce large numbers of
secondary school teachers was established by the Faculty of Humanities
at the Universidad de San Carlos in 1967. The program, offered on
weekends in several towns throughout Guatemala (but not in the
capital), requires the completion of thirty courses for certification
and is aimed primarily at the certification of practicing teachers.109

In 1969, the Universidad de San Carlos launched a second
secondary teacher certification program in concert with the World
Bank and the Guatemalan Ministry of Education. This is a three-year
full-time program to train recent secondary school graduates as
science and mathematics teachers. The program enrolls approximately
one hundred students per year, all of whom receive scholarships.
The program has produced many graduates in the areas of science
and mathematics.110

In 1969, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala began the

first weekend secondary teacher certification program to be offered

141

in the capital. The program, offered on Saturdays from 8:00 a.m.
to 1:00 p.m., requires thirty courses for completion. In 1977, the
Universidad del Valle in Guatemala began an elementary teacher cer-
tification program, the first of its kind in Guatemala. Both of
these programs will be described in Chapter 4.

In 1976, the Universidad Francisco Marroquin began a weekend
secondary teacher certification program based on the model of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. Both Universidad Mariano Galvez
and Universidad Rafael Landivar also have weekend secondary teacher

certification extension programs.

Higher Education

 

The Constitution authorizes the functioning of higher edu-
cation in Guatemala, giving autonomy to the Universidad de San
Carlos, guaranteeing it a minimal annual income of 2.5 percent of
the national budget and authorizing it to direct and develop higher
education in Guatemala. The Constitution also recognizes the exis-
tence of the private universities and authorizes the creation of
new private universities provided, among other things, they "con-
tribute . . . to the study and solution of national problems."
Supervision of the private universities and responsibility for
approving their organization is given to the Council of Private
Higher Education, comprising the Minister of Education (who pre-
sides), two representatives from the Universidad de San Carlos,
two representatives from the private universities, and two repre-
sentatives without university responsibilities who are named by the

. . . . 111
preSidents of the profeSSional assoc1ations.

142

The Universidad de San Carlos. The Universidad de San Carlos was the

 

first university in Central America, established in 1676 by King

. 112 . . . . .
Charles of Spain. It has remained the dominant univerSity in
Central America and, until 1961, the only university in Guatemala.
During the Colonial period, San Carlos was the center of higher edu-
cation in the region and educated many of the Central American
leaders. Until 1944, it was controlled by the state through the
Ministry of Education. The Revolution of 1944 was strongly supported
by the University, and the ensuing Constitution of 1945 gave the

. . 113

UniverSity autonomy.

San Carlos is governed by a rector and the Superior Council
which is composed of the rector, the secretary, the deans, the
treasurer, one student and one professor from each faculty, and one

. . . . 114
representative of each profeSSional aSSOCiation.

The Universidad de San Carlos enrolls students in the follow-
ing thirteen faculties: Law, Engineering, Economic Sciences, Medicine,
Humanities, Pharmacy, Architecture, Dentistry, Agronomy, Veterinary

. . . . . . . . 115
MediCine, Psychological SCience, History, and Communication SCiences.

From 1963 through 1968, San Carlos experimented with a School
of General Studies as a part of the regional effort through CSUCA to
put general studies programs in all of the Central American national
universities. The School of General Studies offered a two-year program
required of all students prior to entering the professional schools.
However, the program was never well received by either the students

or professors and was abolished at the end of 1968. Since then, stu-

dents enter directly the faculty in which they wish to pursue their

143

116 . . .
degrees. Waggoner gives the following explanation for the
failure of general studies at San Carlos:
The existence of this large school outside of the facultad
pattern and as a direct dependency of the Higher University
Council, the belief that it added at least a year to degree
requirements, the dislike by many students of course require—
ments that did not appear to relate directly to their voca-
tional aims, the erroneous belief of many students that the
attrition rate was higher than under the old system of direct
entry to a professional school, and the assertion by leftist
groups that the basic concept of general studies was a North
American, imperialist import--all of these factors contributed
to the abandonment of the School of General Studies.117
In 1964 and 1966, the Planning Office of the Ministry of Edu-
cation criticized San Carlos for failing to define its role in
national development and for not orienting its program to provide
graduates needed for national development. The Planning Office
recommended a reduction in the length of many of its programs, a
shift in attention to intermediate level technical and scientific
. . . . . 118
programs, and more effective vocational orientation for its students.
San Carlos has a high attrition rate. The UNESCO Statistical
Yearbook for 1965 shows that Guatemala has one of the lowest rates of
. . 119
graduates compared to students enrolled in the world: 2.1 percent.
One of the causes of the high attrition rate is the fact that, on the
average, students are failed in about half their courses each term.
The average length of time in school for those who are graduated is
120

fourteen years.

About 20 percent of the professors hold full—time appointments.

The majority are graduates of San Carlos, and most hold no more than

the Licenciatura degree. Five percent hold a Master's or a Ph.D.

121

 

degree.

 

 

144

San Carlos is growing at a rapid rate. Between 1957 and
. 122
1966, enrollment increased 88 percent from 4,336 to 8,171 students.
By 1979 enrollment had increased to 37,000, an increase over 1966 of
123
353 percent.
San Carlos has several research centers, but Waggoner claims
that "at present there is no vigorous activity in research or serious
. . . 124 ,
emphaSis upon it in San Carlos as a whole." In 1962 the Institute
for Research and Improvement of Education (IIME) was established at
San Carlos as a research vehicle for CSUCA with the help of Michigan
State University. For several years IIME was funded by AID's Regional
Office for Central America and Panama (ROCAP), and the Institute pro-
duced twenty-five studies related to education in Central America.
When ROCAP funding was withdrawn, however, Michigan State University
discontinued its collaboration and the research dwindled. Although

. . . . 125
the Institute surVives, little research is presently undertaken.

The Universidad de San Carlos has tried to respond to the
criticism of its neglecting national development needs by establish—
ing extension centers in various parts of the country and offering
only the programs which are most needed there. It has also begun a
series of short courses aimed at supplying manpower in accordance with
national needs. As a requirement for graduation most students must

spend a year in the field working in their area of study. A descrip-

tion of this field work replaces the requirement for a thesis.

Universidad Rafael Landivar. The first private university in Guate-

 

mala, Universidad Rafael Landivar, was founded in 1961. It has grown

- . 127
rapidly and now has an enrollment of approx1mately 6,000 students.

145

Universidad Rafael Landivar is governed by a directive council and a
university council. The Directive Council is appointed by the Jesuit
Order which established the university. It is a thirteen-member,
self-perpetuating body made up of "the rector, the secretary-general,
. "128 . .
the general treasurer, and nine other members. The Directive
Council has the major control of the university including
. . . responsibility for the property of the university; the
budget; the organization of the university; the naming and re-
moval, when necessary, of the rector, deans and professors; the
fixing of admission quotas and student fees; and it is the
court of last resort for all university problems.129

The University Council, which includes "the rector, deans
and vice-deans, directors of departments, the secretary-general, one
elected professor for each faculty of the university, and one student,
has the responsibility for setting the academic year and approving

130
plans of study.

Universidad Rafael Landivar offers extension programs in
teacher education in four other departments of the nation. In
Quetzaltenango, the University also offers intermediate courses in

. . . . . . . . 31
tourism and industrial and finanCial administration.

Universidad Rafael Landivar offers degree programs in the
faculties of Economics, Humanities, Engineering, Architecture, and

Law. The Department of Education, located in the Faculty of Humani-

ties, offers a liceniatura degree in pedagogy and three-year secondary

 

teacher certification programs in (l) pedagogy and psychology;

(2) language, philosophy, social studies; (3) mathematics and physics;
(4) art; and (5) secretarial science. It also offers a variety of
intermediate courses in other areas such as tourism, diplomatic

. . l
serv1ce, product deSign.

146

Universidad Doctor Mariano Galvez. Universidad Doctor Mariano Galvez

 

was established by Protestant groups in 1966. Its organizational
structure is centralized with a system of departments grouped into
schools, all closely controlled by the central administration. Pre-
sently, about 2,500 students are enrolled in programs both in the
capital and its Regional Center of Chiquimula.133 The emphasis at
Universidad Doctor Mariano Galvez is on the training of technicians
in management, business administration, law, civil engineering, and
medicine. It has a secondary teacher certification program in its

. 134
regional center.

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. The Universidad del Valle de

 

Guatemala, established in 1966 as an experimental institution of

higher education, will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

I

’
Universidad Francisco Marroquin. Universidad Francisco Marroquin was

 

established in 1971 in response to what was seen by its founders as
the abandonment by the Universidad de San Carlos of "a liberal arts
. . 135 . .
focus in the claSSical sense." It also has a highly centralized
structure with no administrative decision-making authority in the

hands of professors or students. Presently there are 1,200 students

studying for Licenciatura degrees in law, economics, business admin-

 

istration, architecture, social communications, and theology.
Another three hundred students are enrolled in a Saturday program
to train secondary school teachers in the areas of language and

. . . . . 13
literature, soc1al studies, mathematics, and phySics.

147

Other institutions of higher education. The Universidad de San
Carlos officially recognizes the degrees awarded by (1) the School
of Social Service, (2) the Institute of Higher Education for Women,
and (3) the Center of Higher Education for Nutrition and Food
Sciences. The School of Social Service, part of the Guatemalan
Social Security System, offers a three-year degree in social work.137

The Institute of Higher Education for Women has two schools:
the School of Social Work and the School of Interior Design. Both
programs last three years and result in degrees in social work or
interior decorating.138

The Center for Higher Education in Nutrition and Food Sciences
is sponsored jointly by INCAP and the Universidad de San Carlos. In
its School of Nutrition, it offers four-year courses in biology,
chemistry, social science, education, economics, food and nutrition
science, public health, and mathematics. The Center also offers
post-graduate courses in public health, animal nutrition, and food
sciences. The Center is financed by several international organi-
zations and the Central American nations. It enrolls students from
all the Central American Countries.139

In addition to the five universities and the three institu-
tions mentioned above, there are three other post secondary institu-
tions whose degrees are not recognized by the Universidad de San
Carlos. The National School of Nursing, sponsored by the Ministry
of Public Health, offers a three-year program in nursing. The
National School of Physical and Occupational Therapy offers a four-
year program in Physiotherapy. The Central American School in Inter-

. . . . 140
national Relations offers a three-year degree in diplomacy.

 

148

Change
In 1950 the literacy rate in Guatemala was 30 percent, con-
141
siderably lower than the 48 percent level in 1973. In 1950,

24.4 percent of the seven-fourteen age group attended school; by
142 . .
1978, it had increased to 50 percent. The increase in the per-
centage of school attendance from 1950 to 1973 was greater for
Indians (10.8 to 29.2) than for ladinos (40.4 to 61.7) indicating
a trend toward equalizing the enrollment of the two groups. From
1960 to 1977, primary school enrollment rose by 135 percent: rural
primary school enrollment by 252 percent, and urban primary school
enrollment by 51 percent, indicating a trend toward equalizing edu-
. . . . 143

cational opportunities in the two areas.

The most marked rate of increase is in higher education. In
1957 there was one university, Universidad de San Carlos, with an
enrollment of 8,000 students. By 1979 there were five universities
with a total enrollment of nearly 48,000 students, a 500 percent
increase in a little over twenty years.

In 1955, 84 percent of the rural elementary teachers and
23 percent of the urban primary teachers were classified as

. . 144 . . . .
empiricos. At present there are no empiricos teaching in urban
primary schools and the number of empiricos in the rural schools has
145

been reduced to 30 percent.

The number of classrooms increased from 1960 to 1977 by
135 percent: 80 percent for primary schools and 200 percent for

secondary schools.146

149

The increases in enrollment and in classrooms has been much
greater than the increase in teachers. In 1960, the student teacher
ratio for elementary was 29:1 and for secondary 7:1. By 1978 the

. 147
ratio had grown to 34:1 for elementary and 17:1 for secondary.
These ratios, however, do not indicate the actual conditions. The
majority of classrooms in Guatemalan public education have well over
148
forty students, and many have up to one hundred or more.

The number of rural teachers graduated each year has also

increased greatly. In 1963, seventy-seven rural teachers were
149
graduated. In 1978, 407 rural teachers were graduated.

Finally, the retention rates have improved. In a cohort
study conducted in Guatemala from 1957 to 1962, only 15 percent of
the students who enrolled in first grade in 1957 were enrolled in

. . 150 . .-
the Sixth grade in 1962. The cohort study mentioned earlier
indicated that by 1975 the retention rate in elementary had increased
to nearly 25 percent. The greatly increased graduation rates in

secondary, because they have increased faster than the enrollments,

indicate improved retention in the secondary schools.

CHAPTER 3 - -NOTES

lJohn Dombrowski, et al., Area Handbook for Guatemala
(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), p. 39.

 

2The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1979 (New York: News-
paper Enterprise Association, Inc., 1979), pp. 540, 749.

 

31bid., p. 540.

4 . . . . . .

James W. Wilkie, ed., Statistical Abstract of Latin America,
Vol. 18 (Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1977),
p. 87.

 

5Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 56.

6 . .
Statement by Ingeniero Jorge Arias, Former Rector of the
Universidad de San Carlos, personal interview, Guatemala, October 17,
1979.

7 . . .

Statement by LicenCiado Daniel Contreras, Secretary of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal interview, Guatemala,
September 13, 1979.

8Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 40.

9Encyclopedia Americana, International Edition, Vol. V (New
York: Americana Corporation, 1976), p. 547.

 

10Richard Newbold Adams, Crucifixion by Power (Austin: Uni-
versity of Texas Press, 1970), p. 150.

 

11U.S. Agency for International Development, Economic Data

Book for Latin America (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office, 1973), p. K—6.

 

 

150

151

12Nathan L. Whetten, Guatemala: The Land and the People

(Westport: Greenwood Press, 1961), p. viii.

 

3 . . .
Encyclopedia Americana, loc. Cit.

 

l4Whetten, op. cit., p. 92.

15Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 264.

16Adams, op. cit., p. 394.

7 . . .
Encyclopedia Americana, loc. Cit.

 

18Whetten, op. cit., pp. 138-142.

19Ibid., p. 141.
20 . .
Dombrowski, op. Cit., p. 264.

21Whetten, op. cit., pp. 98-99.

2Robert B. MacVean, "Guatemala," Perspectives on World
Education, ed. Carlton E. Beck (Milwaukee: Wm. C. Brown Publishers,
1970), p. 357.

 

23La Poblacidn de Guatemala, Hoy y Manana (Guatemala: Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala, 1976), pp. 43-44.

 

24Wilkie, op. cit., Vol. 19, pp. 135, 164.

25Dombrowski, op. cit., pp. 300-301.

26Ibid., pp. 288-290.
7 .
InterView Schedule #9.

28The New World Almanac and Book of Facts 1979, op. cit.,

 

p. 540.

29Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 221.

30The New World Almanac and Book of Facts 1979, loc. cit.

 

152

l . .
3 U.S. Agency for International Development, op. Cit., p. K-3.

32Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 93.

3 . ) ~ .
3 La PoblaCion de Guatemala, Hoy y Manana, op. Cit., p. 39.

34Dombrowski, op. Cit., pp. 1-2.

35Whetten, op. cit., p. 71.

36Ibid., p. 75.
37 ., ~ .
La PoblaCion de Guatemala, Hoy y Manana, op. Cit., p. 39.
38 . . . .
Statement by LicenCiado Daniel Contreras, loc. Cit.
39 .
Whetten, op. Cit., p. 73.
40 . .
Dombrowski, op. Cit., p. 111.
1Statement by Licenciado Daniel Contreras, loc. Cit.
4

2Ibid.

3Socio-Economic Progress in Latin America (Washington:
Inter-American Development Bank, 1968), pp. 26, 233.

 

44Nevin S. Scrimshaw and Moisés Béhar, Nutrition and Agri-
cultural Development: Significance and Potential for the Tropics
(New York: Plenum Press, 1976), pp. 25, 83-84.

 

45The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1979, loc. Cit.

 

46Demographic Yearbook, 1972 (New York: United Nations,
1973), p. 606.

 

47U.S. Agency for International Development, op. cit., p. K-8.

48"History and Development of the American School of Guate-
mala and The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala" (Guatemala: Fun—
dacidn de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, 1978), p. 15.

49Whetten, op. cit., p. 217.

153

50Ibid., p. 228.

51 . . . . . .
SOCio—Economic Progress in Latin America, op. Cit., p. 234.

52Dombrowski, op. Cit., pp. 68-69.

3"History and Development of the American School of Guate-
mala and The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala," loc. cit.

54Status of Malaria Programs in the Americas (Washington,
D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, August 1979), p. 16.

5 . .
5 U.S. Agency for International Development, op. Cit., p. K-3.

56Social Change and Social Development, No. E.7O II. G. 3.
(New York: United Nations, 1970), p. 45.

57Stephan Nye Barton, David W. Coombs, and Edward H. Moseley,
Guatemala: The Interaction of Health and Development (University
of Alabama: Rural Health Clearing House, 1977), p. 126.

58Departamento de Recopilacidn de Leyes, Constitucidn de la
Repfiblica de Guatemala (Guatemala: Publicaciones del Ministerio de
Governacidn, 1965), p. 39.

 

591bid., p. 40.

60Ministerio de Educacidn, Ley Organica de Educacién
Nacional, Decreto-Ley Nfimero 317 (Guatemala: Centro Editorial José
de Pineda Ibarra, 1965), pp. ll-18.

61Ibid., pp. 20—26.

~

62La Poblacién de Guatemala, Hoy y Manana, op. cit., p. 41.

63Barton et al., op. Cit., p. 15.

64"Guatemala: Inscripcidn Inicial Segfin Sexo Por Nivel,
Sector y Area 1977," Hoja Estadistica No. 1 (Guatemala: Ministerio
de Educacién, Unidad Sectorial de Investigacién y Planificacion
Educativa, October 1978), p. l.

154

65 . . . . . .4
"Guatemala: Nivel Preprimario y Primario, PoblaCion,

Inscripci6n y Tasas de Cobertura Por Anos 1965—1982," Hoja Estadis-
tica No. 5 (Guatemala: Ministerio de Educacidn, Unidad Sectorial de
Investigacidn y Planificacidn Educativa, January 1979), p. 1; Plan
Nacional de Educacién para la Repfiblica de Guatemala 1972-1979
(Guatemala: Ministerio de Educacidn, Oficina de Planeamiento
Integral de la Educacién, 1973), p. 67.

 

 

 

66 . . . . . .»
"Guatemala: Nivel Prepimario y Primario, PoblaCion,

Inscripcidn y Tasas de Cobertura Por Anos 1965-1982," loc. Cit.

67Plan Nacional de Educacién para la Repfiblica de Guatemala
1972-1979, op. cit., p. 71.

8Oscar H. Horst and Avril Mclelland, "The Development of
an Educational System in a Rural Guatemalan Community," in Education
and Development, Latin America and the Caribbean, ed. Thomas J.
La Belle (Los Angeles: Latin American Center, 1972), p. 516.

 

69"Nivel Medio Oficial: Alumnos Graduados Segfin Rama de

Ensenanza y Sexo Por Departamento 1977," Hoja Estadistica No. 4
(Guatemala: Ministerio de Educacidn, Unidad Sectorial de Investi-
gaci6n y Planificacidn Educativa, November 1978), pp. 4-5.

 

7 . .
0Peter C. Wright and Luis Arturo Lemus, "Guatemala's Approach

to Rural Education," Educational Innovations in Latin America, eds.
Richard L. Cummings and Donald A. Lemke (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow
Press, 1973), p. 185.

71Whetten, op. cit., p. 268.
72 . .
Wright and Lemus, op. Cit., p. 189.

73Plan Nacional de Educacién para la Repfiblica de Guatemala
1972-1979, op. Cit., Cuadros 11-34 and 11-35.

74T. David Williams, "Wastage Rates and Teacher Quality in

Guatemalan Primary Schools," Comparative Education Review, February
1965, p. 46.

 

75Wright and Lemus, op. Cit., p. 187.

76Ibid.

77Horst and Mclelland, op. cit., pp. 517, 520.

155

78Wright and Lemus, op. cit., pp. 187-188.

791bid., p. 188.

80Horst and Mclelland, op. cit., p. 529.

81Whetten, op. cit., p. 270.

2"Guatemala: Nfimero de Escuelas que Funcionaron en la
Repfiblica Segfin Sector, Por Nivel Educativo y Area 1978," Hoja
Estadistica No. 7 (Guatemala: Ministerio de Educaci6n, Unidad
Sectorial de Investigacidn y Planificacidn Educativa, February 1979),

p. 1.

 

83Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 194.

4 . . . . .

Statement by LicenCiado FranCisco Nieves, Coordinator of
University College, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal
interview, Guatemala, February 28, 1979.

85Wilkie, op. cit., Vol. 19, p. 114.

86MacVean, op. cit., p. 361.

87Ibid.

8 . .

George Waggoner and Barbara Ashton Waggoner, Education in
Central America (Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press, 1971),
p. 39.

 

 

89Plan Nacional de Educacién para la Republica de Guatemala
1972-1979, op. cit., pp. 86-87.

90MacVean, op. Cit., p. 361.

1Statement by Licenciado Guillermo Putzeys, Former Minister
of Education, Guatemala, personal interview, May 16, 1979.

92Plan Nacional de Educacidn para la Republica de Guatemala
1972—1979, op. cit., Cuadro 11-41.

9 . . . . .
3Statement by LicenCiado FranCisco Nieves, loc. Cit.

94Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 197.

156

95 . , .
Statement by Dr. Jorge Antillon, Coordinator, Faculty of
Science and Humanities, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal
interview, Guatamala, November 15, 1979.

96Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 190.

97Carlos Gonzalez D., Historia de la Educacidn en Guatemala
(Guatemala: Editorial José de Pineda Ibarra, 1970), p. 245.

 

98Ibid., pp. 293-309.

991bid., p. 299.

100Dombrowski, op. cit., p. 191.

101Gonzalez 0., op. Cit., pp. 351-353.

lOZIbid., pp. 353-358.

103

Cameron D. Ebaugh, Education in Guatemala (Washington, D.C.:

 

Government Printing Office, 1947), pp. 48-50.

104Ibid., p. 51.

05Waggoner and Waggoner, op. cit., p. 35.

0 , . . .
1 6"Nomina de EstableCimientos que Imparten’la Carrera de

Magisterio y Otras Ramas de Ensenanza," Hoja Estadistica No. 9
(Guatemala: Ministerio de Educacidn, Unidad Sectorial de Investi—
gaci6n y Planificacidn Educativa, April 1979), p. l.

 

107Waggoner and Waggoner, op. Cit., p. 39.

108Statement by Licenciada Gloria Aguilar, Coordinator of the

Faculty of Education, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal
interview, Guatemala, September 10, 1979.

9 . . . .
10 Statement by LicenCiado Daniel Contreras, loc. Cit.

110Ibid.

111Departamento de Recopilacidn de Leyes, op. Cit., pp. 41-42.

112Gonzalez 0., op. cit., p. 134.

 

a -.u

a

Q Q
a. e

:N

the

157

113Harold R. W. Benjamin, Higher Education in the American

Republics (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965). P. 38.

114Catalogo de Estudios, Univergidad de San Carlos (Guate-

mala: Departamento de Registro y Estadistica, 1976), P. 16.

115Ibid., pp. 27-34.

16Waggoner and Waggoner, op. cit., pp. 48-49.

117Ibid., p. 49.

llaIbid., p. 44.

9 . . . . . .

Economic CommiSSion for Latin America, Education, Human
Resources, and Development in Latin America (New York: United
Nations, 1968), p. 117.

2 .
l OWaggoner and Waggoner, op. Cit., p. 47.

lZlIbidoI pp. 47-48.

1221b18., p. 48.

123 . . . .,
"AEU y Sinidcato Integran 1a ComiSion Creada Para Alcanzar

el Incremento y Presupuestario de la Universidad de San Carlos,"
7 Dias en la USAC (Guatemala: September 10-16, 1979). P. 1.

 

24Waggoner and Waggoner, op. Cit., p. 49.

lZSWillard H. Mitchell, CSUCA: A Regional Strategy for

Higher Education in Central America (Lawrence, Kansas: University
of Kansas Press, 1967), pp. 50-51.

126 . . . .
Statement by LicenCiado Daniel Contreras, loc. Cit.

27 . . . . . .
1 Phone Conversation With Registrar's Office, UniverSidad
Rafael Landivar, Guatemala, October 26, 1979.

128Waggoner and Waggoner, op. Cit., p. 42.

lngbid.

 

;
\LJ

 

158

130Ibid.

131Plan Nacional de Educacidn para la Republica de Guatemala
1972-1979, op. cit., p. 104.

 

132Informacidn 1977, Universidad Rafael Landivar (Guatemala:

Universidad Rafael Landivar, 1977).

 

133 . . . . . .
Phone Conversation With Registrar's Office, UniverSidad

Mariano Galvez, Guatemala, October 26, 1979.

134Waggoner and Waggoner, op. cit., p. 43.

135The Guatemala News, September 8, 1978, p. 11.

 

36 . . . . . .
1 Phone Conversation with Registrar's Office, UniverSidad

Francisco Marroquin, Guatemala, October 26, 1979.

7 . ., , .
13 Plan NaCional de EducaCiongpara la Republica de Guatemala

 

1972-1979, op. Cit., p. 107.

1381bid., p. 108.

l391bid., pp. 108-110.

140Ibid., pp. 110—111.

141La Poblaci6n de Guatemala, Hoy y Manana, op. Cit., p. 41.

142 . . . . . .
Ibid.; "Guatemala: Nivel Preprimario y Primario, Pobla-

Cién, Inscripcidn y Tasas de Cobertura Por Anos 1965-1982," loc. cit.

143Statistics for the Analysis of the Educational Sector:

Guatemala (Guatemala: Agency for International Development, 1974),
p. 3; "Guatemala: Inscripcidn Inicial Segun Sexo Por Nivel,
Sector y Area 1977," loC. Cit.

144Whetten, op. Cit., p. 277.

145Plan Nacional de Educacidn para la Republica de Guatemala
1972-1979, op. cit., cuadros 11-34, 11-35.

 

159

46 . . . . .
1 Statistics for AnalySis of Educational Sector, op. Cit.,

p. 6; "Guatemala: Nfimero de Aulas que Funcionaron en la Republica

en 1978," Hoja Estadistica No. 6 (Guatemala: Ministerio de Educacidn,
Unidad Sectorial de Investigacidn y Planificacidn Educative, January
1979). PP- 2-3.

147 . . . . .
Statistics for AnalySis of Educational Sector, op. Cit.,

p. 6; "Guatemala: Maestros en Servicio Segfin Jornada y Area Por
Nivel Educativo y Sector 1978," Hoja Estadistica No. 11 (Guatemala:
Ministerio de Educacidn, Unidad Sectorial de Investigacidn y Plan-
ificacidn Educative, June 1979), p. 1; "Guatemala: Nivel Preprimario
y Primario, Poblacidn, Inscripcidn y Tasas de Cobertura Por Afios
1965-1982," loc. cit.

 

148 . . . . . .
Statement by Sr. Julio Rizzo, Administrative ASSistant,

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal interview, Guatemala,
June 25, 1979.

49Wright and Lemus, op. cit., p. 187.

150Waggoner and Waggoner, op. Cit., p. 33.

(I)

DA.

’ ~
\
6..~

 

Chapter 4

THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

INTRODUCTION

. . . universities are rarely born full blown where
nothing existed before. Most have been based on one or
more existing institutions, programs, colleges, faculties,
or schools, and the predecessor institutions influence
their successors in many and often intangible ways.1
The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala is an outgrowth of the
laboratory school program of the American School of Guatemala. The
relationship between the School and the University is close, long-
standing, and important to both institutions. The establishment of
the University could not have been effected without the support of
the School. School personnel were influential in laying the ground-
work for the University, defining its objectives, structuring pro-
grams of study, and promoting the idea of a private, liberal-arts
institution of higher education dedicated to national development.
School personnel teach courses and work with the University's Center
for Educational Research on the programs which were originally
designed and implemented at the School. The School has long shared

its library, laboratories, cafeteria, classrooms, playing fields,

and teaching materials with the University.

160

161

Thus, to appreciate the aims and development of the Uni-
versity, it is necessary to know the history of the American School

of Guatemala, especially its experiences as a laboratory school.

THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF GUATEMALA

History and Organization

 

The American School of Guatemala is a day school established
in 1945 to provide a bilingual education employing modern materials
and teaching methodology. Until 1972, the School was operated by
the self-perpetuating American School Association, a nonprofit cor-
poration, without political or religious commitments. The membership
of the Association elected a five-member board of directors for two-
year terms which was responsible for policy making and financing. In
1972, the American School Association was transformed to a foundation,
a matter that will be discussed later.3

The American School began with an administrator, two teachers,
and thirty-five Children in a rented house. The School grew rapidly,
moving first to temporary wooden buildings on a seventeen-acre site
and, later, to its permanent brick and concrete structure on a fifty-
one acre tract. Today it has modern facilities, plentiful equipment
and educational resources, over one hundred professional employees,
and a student population of 1,350. About 80 percent of the students
are Guatemalan, 15 percent from the United States, and 5 percent from
other countries.4 The majority of the students come from middle
and upper-class homes and pay high fees by Guatemalan standards.

In order to permit the School to enroll qualified children

regardless of the financial status of their parents, a financial aid

162

program was established to assist students unable to pay the tuition.
Until the end of 1956, aid was given exclusively in the form of
reduced fees. In 1957, in light of its limited resources, the
School established a scholarship committee of interested parents
and friends who engage in extensive fund-raising activities to pro-
vide full and partial scholarships to needy and deserving students.
In 1973, the Committee was transformed to the Guatemalan Scholarship
Association and separated from the School. Now the Association
raises funds to help send Children to several schools, although most
are placed in the American School of Guatemala.5

In addition to fund raising, the Association carries out a
selection program using examinations prepared by the School. The
Association helps the scholarship recipients in a variety of ways
such as ensuring that they have appropriate Clothing, medical care,
and school supplies. To date, 120 scholarship students have been
graduated.6

In an average year, about 10 percent of the students at the
School receive some kind of financial aid. A long-range goal of the
School is to reach a maximum of 25 percent of the students receiving

such assistance.

Laboratory School Experience

 

In 1948, the School was granted laboratory status through a
presidential decree which was subsequently extended for periods of
twenty years in 1958 and in 1978.7

The decree of 1948, making the School the first laboratory

school in Guatemala, permitted the designing and realization of

163

activities pertinent to the educational needs of Guatemala within
the limits of resources available to the School. It is important to
note here that primary and secondary education in Guatemala are
controlled by the Ministry of Education. Curriculum, methodology,
testing, grading, promotion, and other aspects of education are
dictated to the public and private schools and Closely supervised.
Consequently, experimentation and change in the nation's schools are
difficult to effect. Therefore, the laboratory school status is of
particular significance, for it frees the School to offer a modern
bilingual education to its own students and at the same time experi-
ment with and develop curriculum, materials, methodology, and testing
to improve education in the nation.

In 1954, Butterfield, Corey, and Rehage evaluated the first
five years of the laboratory school activities. Their report gives
the following definition of laboratory school status:

1. The faculties include men and women who have not only
special competence in educational research, but are also
strongly committed to the use of scientific methods in
their attempt to solve pedagogical problems.

2. A laboratory school is normally freed from some of the
curricular or instructional restrictions that apply to
other schools.

3. The laboratory school has access to additional funds needed
for accumulating and interpreting data.

4. The laboratory school develops relationships with other
schools and institutions that make it possible to exchange
resources and communicate results of experiments.

5. The laboratory school develops materials and teaching
methods.

6. The program of studies must be superior and the methods of
administration, supervision, and curriculum development
subjected constantly to evaluation and improvement.9

Butterfield et al. used the above criteria in their evaluation
and concluded that "the American School of Guatemala illustrates all

. . . . 10
Six of these unique characteristics of a laboratory school."

 

.b‘

L»
‘ 1‘

164

The following is a description of the major laboratory school
activities which have been undertaken since 1948. All of the activi-
ties were begun early in the School's existence and continue to date

under the auspices of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.

Longitudinal Study of Child Development. It is generally accepted in

 

educational circles that knowledge of the physical and mental growth
patterns of Children is an important basis for developing educational
programs. However, although longitudinal growth and development
studies had been conducted in various parts of the world for several
decades prior to 1950, the School could find no evidence of such
studies having been conducted in Latin America. Generalizations
about child development in Latin America were based ". . . on simple
assumptions, individual experiences, or analogous reasoning from
studies made in Europe and the United States."11

A longitudinal study of Child growth and development in Latin
America was needed, and the School possessed the necessary personnel,
funds, and contacts with other institutions to accomplish this goal.
Thus, a longitudinal study of child development was initiated in 1954,
designed according to a model developed at the University of Michigan.
The study measures the yearly development of height, weight, grip
strength, skeletal growth, number of permanent teeth erupted, and
academic achievement of thousands of children in various schools in
Guatemala. One of the important aspects of the study is the com-
parison of children from lower, middle, and upper socioeconomic

12
levels.

165

Over the years, the School has worked with the Institute of
Nutrition of Central America and Panama (INCAP), the University of
San Carlos, the University of Michigan, and the dental Clinic of
the American School of Guatemala on the gathering of information,
writing of research reports, and dissemination of information con-

cerning the Child growth study.13

Curriculum development. Since 1948, the School has developed its own

 

curriculum and cooperated with the Ministry of Education in the
development of curriculum for the nation. In 1955, the Ministry of
Education established the Commission for Reorganization of Secondary
Education in Guatemala in an attempt to effect major change in the
secondary curriculum. Three staff members of the American School of
Guatemala participated on the Commission, one as its president.
Through its representation on the Commission, and based on its own
experimentation, the School was able to exert substantial influence
on the recommendations made to the Ministry of Education. One of the
major changes recommended by the School was the dividing of the
secondary curriculum into two phases:
1. three years of work following the elementary school, more
or less the same for all students, to provide a minimum
of experience and training in general education . . .;
2. a more diversified program during the last two years of

the secondary school during which a student could prepare

for a specific university career or follow specialized

training for a vocation.l4

Previous to this change, specialization began at the first
year of the secondary program, forcing students to make decisions

about their careers at unreasonably early ages and providing inade-

quate general education.

166

In 1956, the Ministry of Education asked the School to

develop "new courses of study in science, social studies, language,
. 15
and mathematics for the elementary schools." After a year of
intensive work, the School provided the Ministry with drafts of
curriculum guides which were then used experimentally in selected
schools in the capital City during the next three years and utilized
in The American School of Guatemala. In 1961, the programs, with
modifications by the Ministry, were instituted in elementary schools
16

throughout Guatemala.

More recently, the School has continued its experimentation
with curriculum in the areas of English as a second language, psycho-
motor and perceptual activities for children with learning disabili-

ties, and accelerated programs for outstanding secondary students.

Development of teaching materials. Since 1951, the American School

 

has reproduced low-cost teaching materials affordable by poor
families. Because there were no pre-reading materials available
in Spanish at the time, the School initiated its materials program
by publishing a teacher's guide written for inexperienced teachers.
Over the following twenty-five years, the School produced other pre-
primers and reading texts accompanied by cards with illustrations,
words, sentences, and word endings.

In 1962, the W. K. Kellogg Foundation provided a grant to
the School and INCAP to develop a nutrition education program.
During the next three years, nine pamphlets were produced and

utilized in Guatemala and El Salvador.18

 

167

In addition to the production of formal materials for sale,
the School has experimented with the making of informal teaching
aids which can be created by teachers from inexpensive items readily
available throughout Guatemala. On several occasions the School has
prepared displays of these devices for teachers from the public and

other private schools.

Test development. Until 1976, testing played a major role in Guate-

 

mala's centralized educational system. The Ministry of Education,
in its attempt to control and effect standardization of instruction,
prepared the tests which all students took. Results of Ministry
tests were of crucial importance in determining student promotion
or failure. For example, midterm tests accounted for 25 percent of
the final grade, and the final examination accounted for 50 percent.
In addition to this importance in determining final grades, the
Ministry tests required memorization of large quantities of facts
rather than development of understandings and skills.19

The American School personnel considered the improvement of
test instruments as a valuable contribution to education in Guatemala,
not only because of the importance of testing, but also because of
the influence of tests on teaching. For example, if a teacher knows
that his pupils will pass or fail on the basis of their ability to
recall large quantities of isolated facts, the major emphasis in his
class probably will be rote memory. Tests to measure understanding
are more likely to produce teaching for understanding.

The work on tests by the School has fallen into the following

two basic categories:

168

l. Adaptations and translations of standardized tests from
the United States
a) General ability tests
b) Aptitude tests
C) Reading readiness tests
d) Reading tests
e) Interest tests
f) Differential aptitude tests
2. Development of reading tests21
The School uses most of the tests it has prepared in its own
programs and cooperates with the Ministry of Education and individual
schools in Guatemala in administering these tests for such purposes
as student selection, diagnosis, and evaluation of programs. In
addition, many of these tests are made available to schools, com-

mercial entities, and professional people throughout the Western

Hemisphere.

In-service trainipg. In 1955, the School began an in-service training

 

program in which recent graduates of normal schools are paid a stipend
for one year and given a combination of course work and the opportunity
to observe and teach under the supervision of an experienced teacher
in the American School. The program has grown gradually over the
years and now produces about eight in-service trainees each year.
Many of the trainees are hired by the School as regular teachers
after finishing their year of training. Most of the remainder accept
employment in other schools or the Ministry of Education.22

In addition to its own in-service program, the School has
cooperated with the Ministry of Education in the training of public
school teachers. On one occasion, the School helped prepare forty

. . 23
industrial arts teachers. On another, the School offered an

III

I"

(f

169

intensive three-month program to six selected elementary teachers
who then became the "nucleus of personnel for the first public

24
laboratory school."

Educational services. Throughout the years, the School has received

 

requests for a variety of services related to its status and exper-
ience as a laboratory school. In addition to the kinds of services
already mentioned above, the School has given workshops and seminars
on teaching methodology, development of simple teaching materials,
and many other topics. It has received countless visits from groups
and individuals who observe the School's teaching activities, organi-
zation, physical plant, and materials. The School has accommodated
all requests for services from the Ministry of Education and most
of such requests from private institutions.

As a requirement of the laboratory school Charter, the School
publishes all of its activities each year and sends those reports to
the Ministry of Education.

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL
VALLE DE GUATEMALA

Aims and Establishment

 

Over the years, it became increasingly evident that the
School's training, research, and service activities could be better
carried out in cooperation with a university. It was Clear as well
that the laboratory school experiences provided a solid base on which
to establish a university. In 1965, the American School Association

conducted a feasibility study whose purpose was to ascertain whether

1"

/"%’

A.
‘A

'u

c_‘

170

or not a need existed for a small, private university dedicated to
research and the preparation of educators, natural scientists, and
social scientists. The results indicated that such a university was
, 26 .
needed and would be favorably accepted in Guatemala. Accordingly,
with the laboratory school experience as a substantial base and a
need for a new university in evidence, the American School Associ-
ation requested the establishment of the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala. The University's goal was to "produce persons who are
able and willing to assume responsibility in promoting progress in
economic, political, educational, and cultural development of Central
. 27 . .
America." Its objectives were to
1. promote understanding of regional problems,
2. develop education in Guatemala and the Central
American region,
3. conduct long-range research and train research
workers,

4. further the aims of general education, and~
5. educate teachers and educational specialists.

28

The request was granted by the Universidad de San Carlos,
which at that time held the power under the Constitution to authorize
the establishment of private educational institutions. Shortly
thereafter, a government decree transferred this authority to the
Council on Private Higher Education. The Universidad del Valle de

Guatemala received its Charter in January 1966, and University activ-

29
ities began that March.

Development

 

For the first decade, the small number of students and the
scheduling of classes after 2:15 P.M. made it possible for the

University to operate entirely in the American School buildings.

(L
CV

171

By the mid-19705, however, growth of the student body, the planned
addition of morning Classes, and the need to have facilities
suitably designed for a university required the construction of
buildings specifically for the University. It was decided to com-
bine the final phase of the American School development program
(construction of a multi-purpose learning center and gymnasium)
concommitantly with the initial phase of the University development
program (construction of a library and science laboratories).3

In 1974, the Foundation obtained a $2,800,000 loan from the
Inter-American Development Bank to build and equip the four buildings.
Construction on the buildings began in 1975, and was to have been
completed by the end of 1976.31 However, the earthquake of February 4,
1976, seriously damaged the partially completed learning center and
generally delayed the construction. By 1979, the laboratory and
library buildings and the learning center were in use, but the gym-
nasium was delayed and was not scheduled to be constructed until
1980.

All four buildings are intended for use by both institutions.
The learning center Classrooms, cafeteria and auditorium are shared
with the University. The School's students have access to the Uni-
versity library and laboratories. The gymnasium will be used for
physical education and other activities by both the School and Uni-

versity.

Leadership

 

Dr. Robert B. MacVean, who presently occupies the dual role

of Executive Secretary of the Foundation and acting Rector of the

 

fl

,»

.3

172

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, was the director of the American
School of Guatemala for thirty years and is the major force responsible
for the conceptualization, founding, and guiding of the University.

In addition to a Ph.D. from the University of Michigan, he holds an
honorary doctorate from Western Michigan University for his con-
tribution to the development of education in Guatemala and is highly
regarded in Guatemala for his work in educational innovation.

Dr. MacVean has been able to gather around him respected Guate-
malan educators first as staff members of the American School of Guate-
mala and later as administrators for the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala. From 1966 to 1976, the Secretary of the University was
Ricardo Estrada, an esteemed university professor and recognized
literary figure in Guatemala. It was Estrada who played the largest
role in conceiving and founding the University with Dr. MacVean. The
present Secretary, Daniel Contreras, is a well-known historian and
former Dean of the Faculty of Humanities at the Universidad de San
Carlos. The Director of Studies, Miguel Canga-Arguelles, is a Chemist
and leader in Guatemalan higher education. An invited member to the
Directive Council, who also serves as the Coordinator of the Institute
of Research at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Jorge Arias,
is a former Rector of the Universidad de San Carlos, and is respected
internationally as a demographer and researcher in population dynamics.
Francisco Nieves, Coordinator of the University College and invited
member of the Directive Council, worked as principal of the secondary
school at the American School of Guatemala for twenty-five years and

is respected in Guatemala as an educational administrator. The

173

individuals mentioned above form the Directive Council, the adminis-
trative decision-making body at the University. With the exception
of Arias, they have been associated with the Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala since its inception and were instrumental in conceiving
and establishing the University. Arias has been a long-time friend
of the University, although not a member of the administration until
1975.

The Coordinator of the Faculty of Sciences and Humanities,
Jorge Antilldn, is one of two doctors in physics in Guatemala. He
received his Ph.D. degree at the University of Texas, supported by
financial aid from the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. The
Coordinator of the Faculty of Education, Gloria Aguilar, has worked
at the University since 1966 and holds a Master's degree in Education
from the University of New Mexico. The Coordinator of the Faculty
of Social Sciences, Alfredo Mendez, is one of the few Guatemalans
with a Ph.D. in Anthropology, which he received from the University
of Chicago.

Many of the present trustees of the Foundation have been with
the institution since the establishment of the American School of
Guatemala. Their interest and dedication to both the School and the
University are well known.

The trustees have given hundreds of hours of their time over
the years to both the School and the University with no remuneration.
The salaries of the administrators at the University are below the
salaries of administrators at the other universities in Guatemala,

and the time devoted to their work is much greater.

174

Institutional Structure

 

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala is a centralized
institution in which the decision-making power is held by the Board

of Trustees and its executive body, the Directive Council.

Centralization. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala was founded

 

by the American School Association. However, to facilitate the
operation of both the School and the University, the Association
was transformed to a foundation (Fundacidn de la Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala) in 1972. The Foundation retained the nonpolitical,
nonsectarian, nonprofit Characteristics of the Association. Please
refer to Figure 5 for an organizational chart of the Foundation.

The statutes of the Foundation establish a self-perpetuating
board of trustees, not to exceed thirty, who have the following
rights and privileges:

l. to participate with voice and vote in all sessions of
the General Assembly, and, if a member is unable to
attend, to delegate his vote to another active member;

2. to elect and be a candidate for the Executive Committee;

3. to submit ideas to the General Assembly and the Executive
Committee; and

4. other rights indicated by the constitutive writ, these
statutes, and the by-laws of the Foundation.33

The Foundation is authorized to engage in the following
activities:

1. establish, create, administer, sustain, and support all
kinds of educational, academic, and cultural establishments
and those devoted to scientific and philosophical research,
at any and all levels recognized by the State; and it may
operate laboratory schools and educational extension
centers of all kinds;

2. contribute to raising Guatemala's educational level through
the development of new pedagogical systems and techniques
adapted to urban and rural conditions; the conduct of surveys,
seminars, and other activities tending to this end; and the
preparation of instructions, textbooks, and other teaching
materials;

JI75

 

Foundation of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala
(Self-perpetuating group: maximum
of thirty members by invitation)

 

 

 

 

 

Executive Committee
(Five members elected from
Foundation membership)

 

 

 

 

 

Executive Secretary
(Appointed by Executive Committee)

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The American SChOOI Of Guatemala Universidad del Valle de Guatemala
(Governed by Board of Directors . . . . .
l . (Administered by Directive CounCil
Of seven me ers appOinted a inted b Executive Committee)
yearly by Executive Committee) ppo y

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DIRECTOR
(Appointed by Board of
Directors with approval of
Executive Comittee)

RECTOR
(Appointed by Executive Committee)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Faculty of Faculty of I Faculty of
Social Science Science and Humanities] Education
Elementary Secondary University Institute
School School College of Research
Figure 5

Organization of the Foundation of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

SOURCE: Keith D. Miller, "Organization of the Foundation of the UniverSidad del
Valle de Guatemala" (Guatemala: Fundacién de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,

June 17, 1979). (Mimeographed.)

176

3. cooperate with the educational authorities of the Country
and with universities that operate in the Republic or
abroad, in accordance with the aims of the Foundation;

4. provide pedagogical assistance and any other help consonant
with its aims to institutions and entities that carry on
analogous activities;

5. receive and accept donations, contributions, loans and
economic assistance, in general, and also scientific aid
and any other kind of help which may be necessary or con-
venient for the furtherance of the Foundation's aims and
activities;

6. in general, execute all acts and contracts which may be
necessary or convenient for the furtherance of its aims.34

The General Assembly, composed of all members of the Foun-
dation, meets two times per year to hear reports from the Executive
Committee, approve the budget, elect and remove members of the
Executive Committee, elect and remove active members of the Foun-
dation, elect the members of the Superior Council of the Universidad
del Valle, and conduct other appropriate business.

The Executive Committee is composed of a minimum of five and
a maximum of seven officers elected by the General Assembly. In
addition, the Executive Secretary of the Foundation and the Rector
of the University serve as members ex oficio. The officers of the
Executive Committee hold office for two-year periods, but may be re-
elected indefinitely. Half the seats are subject to the election
each year.

The following are functions of the Executive Committee:

1. to execute the resolutions and carry out the recommendations
made by the General Assembly;

2. to administer the assets and resources of the Foundation;

3. to manage the sale, alienation, and mortgaging of assets of
the Foundation;

4. to issue the by-laws deemed convenient for the best develop-

ment of the Foundation and for the government, administration,
and organization of the same;

177

5. to designate and remove the Executive Secretary and the
functionaries and trusted employees of the Foundation and
to determine their duties;

6. to exercise all the powers pertaining to the Foundation
as the successor in totality of the Association of the
American School of Guatemala in accordance with the
statutes and regulations of the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, and which are not specifically assigned to the
General Assembly;

7. to establish the committees, commissions, work groups, and
advisory or assessorial groups that are deemed convenient,
designate their members, fix their duties, and delegate to
them the legal representation of the Foundation in those
matters which may be incumbent on them;

8. to formulate the minutes, balance sheets, and budget pro-
posals of the Foundation in order to present them to the
Ordinary General Assembly;

9. to approve or disapprove the investments which are necessary
or convenient for the pursuance of the purposes of the
Foundation;

10. to decide with regard to contracting loans, obligations,
financing, and the acceptance or refusal of donations and
contributions with conditions attached;

ll. to pass on all kinds of initiatives, proposals, motions,
and suggestions to the General Assembly;

12. to call the ordinary and extraordinary sessions of the
General Assembly;

13. to authorize the President of the Foundation to exercise
the legal representation of the Foundation in all kinds
of contracts; and

14. in general, to direct and administer the Foundation and
exercise all those functions which do not pertain specifi-
cally to the General Assembly.37

The Executive Secretary is the administrative agent of the
Foundation. He is charged with the duties of directing the personnel
of the Foundation, administering the Foundation, and representing the
Foundation before courts of law either together with or separately
from the President of the Foundation.38

The Executive Committee is empowered to select boards of
directors for all of the educational establishments it sustains. To
date, the Foundation has appointed a Board of Directors for The
American School but has no such body for the University. Policy for

. . . . . . 39
the Un1ver51ty is determined by the Executive Committee.

178

Administration of the University is managed through the
Directive Council made up of the Rector, Vice-Rector, Secretary,
Director of Studies, the Executive Secretary of the Foundation, and
invited advisors. The Directive Council meets as necessary to dis-
cuss and make decisions concerning the overall functioning of the
University.

The University comprises five academic units: the Institute
of Research, the University College, and the faculties of Science
and Humanities, Social Science, and Education. Each unit is
directed by a coordinator. Within the Faculty of Science and
Humanities, there are department directors for Chemistry, Biology,
Agricultural Sciences, Humanities, Computer Science, Civil Engineer-
ing, and Psychology. Within the Faculty of Education, there is a
director for the Master's Program in Educational Measurement, Evalu-
ation, and Research. Within the Institute of Research, there are
directors for the Center for Educational Research and the Center for
Studies in Population, Evaluation, Environment, and Natural Resources.

An Academic Council, made up of the members of the Directive
Council, coordinators of the five academic units, heads of departments,
and directors of centers and programs meets twice a month to discuss
academic plans and programs and to coordinate academic offerings.

As a group, professors have no formal role in decision making.
The Academic Council meets periodically with the Directive Council to
discuss academic matters. Occasionally, the Directive Council will
meet with groups of professors. Although the ideas of professors are

often influential, final decisions are made by the Directive Council.

~\»—

his

179

This is the general pattern at the private universities, which is
a departure from the strong influence held by professors at the
national university. As one professor stated,
It is understood that at the private universities in Guatemala,
a teacher has little voice in the institution's affairs. If
he does not like it that way, he simply leaves. At the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala, a few have left for this
reason, but the majority do not consider it a big issue.43
Students take no direct role in decision making at the

University. Occasionally students' suggestions are taken up by the

Directive Council, but that is the extent of their influence.

Students. Generally speaking, the students at the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala pursue their studies seriously. They demonstrate
little interest in politics or in exerting influence on the adminis-

tration of the University.

1. Selection. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala practices
selective admission in all but the teacher certification program.
Applicants for the regular undergraduate program must present proof
of having completed a college preparatory secondary school program
and take an academic aptitude test. Only those students who place
in the top 50 percent are eligible for admission. In addition to
the admissions test scores, secondary school grades are taken into
consideration.

Candidates for the Masters and Ph.D. programs are chosen
on the basis of their university record, recommendations from pro-

fessors, and probable influence on education.

180

The students in the medical program are carefully selected
by the Universidad Francisco Marroquin. This will be explained later
in the chapter.

Enrollment in the secondary teacher certification program
is not selective. Only proof of successful completion of a college
preparatory program is required for admission. However, students
in the elementary teacher certification program are carefully chosen.
Admission is limited to those teachers with a normal school diploma
who demonstrate special interest and intellectual capacity for meet-

ing the requirements of the program.

2. Financial aid. Fees at the Universidad del Valle are

 

approximately $1,000 per year for full-time students. The teacher
certification program offered on Saturdays charges $20 per course per
semester plus a matriculation fee of $5.00 each semester.

Financial aid is available to full-time students who can
demonstrate economic necessity. To qualify for the scholarships,
students must be in the middle to lower income brackets. Presently
about half of the full-time students receive some kind of scholarship
assistance. Students who receive scholarships are expected to work
at the University about ten hours a week during their last two years
in positions such as laboratory assistant, teaching assistant, or
librarian's helper.47

Financial aid is given to the Saturday students indirectly
by charging low fees which do not cover the operating expenses of
the program. It is estimated that the income from these fees pays

48
approximately half the total cost of the program.

181

The organization of American States (OAS) and the United
States Agency for International Development (USAID) provide scholar-
ships for students who qualify for enrollment in the Master's degree
program and workshops offered by the Faculty of Education.49

The University administers the Program of Guidance and
Scholarships for Higher Education (POES) which relates both to
selection and scholarships. Through this program, financial aid
is obtained and made available to exceptional students from needy

. . . . . . . 5
families to study at any of the five univerSities in Guatemala.

3. Enrollment. In accordance with trends throughout Guatemala,

 

enrollment at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has increased
rapidly in the last few years. Table 6 shows the enrollment figures
in the various programs at the Universidad del Valle since 1966. In
a little over a decade, the number of students enrolled in certifi-
cation and degree-granting programs has increased from ten to nearly
eight hundred students.

University officials project an ultimate enrollment of some-
where between five hundred and one thousand full-time undergraduates
in the regular degree programs, as many as five hundred students in
the Saturday program, and an undefined number in post-graduate and
special programs.

To date, 190 students have been graduated from the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala. Please refer to Table 7 for a listing of the

degrees granted.

1132

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184

Below are some enrollment statistics obtained from responses
to the student questionnaire administered by the writer.

Ninety-three percent of the students at the Universidad del
Valle are Guatemalan.‘ Seven percent come from twenty other countries,
mainly in Latin America.

Nearly half the students are women, about 62 percent of whom
are enrolled in the faculties of Education and Social Science. Men
predominate in the Faculty of Science and Humanities (57%) and the
pre—medicine program (68%).

Sixty percent of the students are employed: 85 percent of
the students in the Faculty of Education, and about 50 percent of
the students enrolled in the other programs. Of the people enrolled
in the Faculty of Education, over 80 percent are employed in
education-related fields. Interestingly, about 45 percent of the
working students in the other faculties also work in education-
related fields. Even in the pre-medicine program, 25 percent of
the students who work are employed in education.

Five percent of the students have a grade average in the
51-60 range, 35 percent in the 61-70 range, 40 percent in the 7l-80
range, 15 percent in the 81-90 range, and 5 percent in the 91-100
range.

About one-third of the students have studied at other uni-
versities. Of that number, 62 percent studied at the Universidad
de San Carlos, 13 percent at Rafael Landivar, 4 percent at Mariano
Galvez, 3 percent at Francisco Marroquin, and 18 percent at uni-

versities outside Guatemala.

185

4. Rules and regulations. Rules at the Universidad del Valle

 

de Guatemala are strict. Students are warned that behavior which
detracts from an academic atmosphere of rigorous study and research
may result in expulsion from the institution.

Students are required to attend classes regularly and
punctually, and professors are required to keep attendance records.
Students who are absent from a given class more than 20 percent of
the time without an acceptable excuse will fail the course and must
repeat it.

Student organizations are permitted to exist as long as they
are not disruptive of the academic atmosphere. Political and
religious proselytizing are prohibited.55

Generally speaking, the tenor at the University is one of
seriousness and hard work. There is no defacing of buildings as is
common at national universities. The only student organizations
formed to date are a theater group, a newspaper, and a cultural
organization. A student government does not yet exist, although
such an organization is permitted.

The strict rules, lack of political activism on campus,
and the generally serious behavior of the students are in keeping
with the behavioral norms and educational policies of the private

universities in Latin American countries.

5. Guidance. All entering students take the Differential
Aptitude Tests and receive explanations concerning their scores.
With this profile of academic strengths and weaknesses, students

are better able to choose an area of study appropriate to their

186

abilities. The year of general studies provides additional guidance
in that the students have the opportunity to study within several
disciplines and further mature before choosing a field of speciali-
zation.5

Once a student enrolls in a degree program, the department
director acts as his academic counselor. In addition to the guidance
received from the department director, many teachers give academic
counseling to students. The University has no formal guidance
office and makes no attempt to provide students with information

about career opportunities or placement.

6. Grading. Grading is done on a 1-100 number scale with 51
as the lowest passing mark. Table 8 shows number grades and their
letter equivalents. Final examinations count for a maximum of
30 percent of the final grade or less depending on the professor.
The University policy on final examinations is designed to dis-
courage the common practice in Latin American universities of placing
inordinate importance on a single examination at the end of a term.
Further, the University requires students to maintain an average of
at least fifty points in a course to be eligible to take the final
examination.

Students who fail a final examination have one opportunity to

take a make-up examination at the beginning of the next semester. A
student who fails the make-up examination must take the course again.
Re-enrollment is dependent on a student's having an average of at
least 60 in all the courses he took the previous year and no more

than one failed course. If he has less than a 60 average or has

187

failed two or more courses, his case will be reviewed by the Directive
Council for a decision as to whether he may continue and under what
conditions. Few students are forced to leave the University because

of low grades.

Table 8

Number Grades and Letter Equivalents at the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

 

 

Numbers Letters

0 to 50 E

51 to 62 D
63 to 69 C-
70 to 75 C

76 to 82 C+
83 to 93 B
94 to 100 A

 

SOURCE: Licenciado Daniel Contrerras, "Number Grades and
Letter Equivalents at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala" (chart
prepared for the writer, Guatemala, August 7, 1979).
Autonomy. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala enjoys freedom from
government interference, as do the other universities in Guatemala.
At the same time, the University has cooperated with government agen-
cies on several projects related to national development: (1) research
to eradicate the Pine Bark Beetle, (2) research on River Blindness,
(3) scoring and analyzing tests for the Ministry of Education, and
(4) the training of technicians for the Guatemalan National Malaria

Eradication Service. These projects will be discussed later in this

chapter.

188

Interdisciplinary activity. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

 

engages in the interdisciplinary training of its students primarily
through its program of general studies which will be explained later
in this chapter. Beyond that, little is done to expose students to

an interdisciplinary approach to problem solving.

Interinstitutional and international involvement. The Universidad

 

del Valle de Guatemala has long cooperated with other institutions

on a variety of projects of importance to national and regional
development. The University serves as a Multinational Center for
Evaluation and Educational Test Development for the Organization of
American States, offering short workshops on testing and evaluation
to hundreds of educators from many countries in Latin America. The
University cooperates with the Center for Disease Control by pro-
viding headquarters for its tropical research station. It also
cooperates with the National Reforestation Institute on a major
project to control the Pine Bark Beetle which is destroying much of
the pine tree population in Guatemala and the region. The University
has contracts with The Institute of Nutrition for Central America

and Panama (INCAP) and the Central American Institute for Industrial
Research and Technology (ICAITI) to cooperate on a variety of
development-related projects. The University recently entered into

a three-way cooperative project with the University Francisco Marro—
quin and the Herrera Llerandi Hospital to train medical doctors. The
University sends promising students and professors to pursue advanced
studies in the United States through the Latin American Scholarship

Program of American Universities (LAUSPAU) and hires many visiting

189

professors through the Latin American Teaching Fellowship program
(LATE). In addition, the University has obtained grants and loans
equaling several millions of dollars from foundations, government
agencies, and development banks.

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala does not belong to
any regional organization of universities. Membership in CUSCA is
not possible since this organization serves state universities only.
The University has not chosen to become a member of FUPAC because of
the tendency of this organization to make political statements on
behalf of all the member institutions, a practice which is contrary
to the nonpolitical posture of the Universidad del Valle de Guate-

mala.62

Institutes. The Institute of Research of the Universidad del Valle

 

de Guatemala was established to coordinate and oversee the Uni—
versity's research activities. It will be described later in this

chapter.

Support facilities. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has

 

several laboratories for teaching and research in the natural
sciences, a computer center, a library, a print shop, and a 110-
acre tract of land for agricultural experimentation. The following

is a description of those support facilities.

1. Laboratories and equipment. The University has teaching

 

and research laboratory facilities for physics, chemistry, biology,
and agricultural science. It is the general opinion of the pro-

fessors, department heads, and coordinator of the Faculty of Science

190

and Humanities that the teaching laboratory facilities are good to
excellent and better equipped than at any other University in
Central America. Several weaknesses are noted, however. The
agricultural science laboratory facilities are considered poor for
both teaching and research purposes and most of the laboratories

are deficient for research. In addition, the department heads point
out that due to the recent surge in student enrollment, the laboratory
facilities are now at full capacity and must be expanded soon in
order to maintain high quality facilities. Several department heads
and the coordinator note that there is a serious lack of storage
space for collections, equipment, and materials, and maintenance of
live animals.

In 1979, there were signs that the laboratory facilities
would be improved and expanded in the near future. The grant from
the American Schools and Hospitals Abroad Branch of AID included an
item of $140,000 for science equipment and an item of $40,000 to
construct the medical entomology building. The Center for Disease
Control has agreed to furnish the medical entomology laboratory

building with sophisticated research equipment.6

2. Computer Center. In 1975, the Universidad del Valle de

 

Guatemala purchased a Hewlett-Packard 21M computer with a 64,000
byte capacity to be used for administrative, teaching, research,
and service functions. The Computer Center has an optical and
punched-card reader, six teletype terminals, one console and screen

terminal, a line printer, and a card punch.

191

The computer serves the administrative needs of the Foun—
dation by printing employee checks, controlling the cafeteria and
school supply accounts for students and professors, maintaining a
statistical file on all students, keeping a record of courses taken
by the students, and scoring tests. Presently, plans are being con-
sidered to computerize the billing process.

All students in the Faculty of Science and Humanities must
take at least one course in computer programming. The Department
of Computer Science uses the Computer Center as its laboratory
facility for all computer courses. In addition, students in the
Master's degree program in Educational Measurement must take a
course in the programming and operation of computers.64

The computer has had limited use as a research tool. Several
Master's degree students have used the facilities to carry out part
of their thesis work. The writer used the computer to read question-
naire answer cards and list the results. Some research related to
the longitudinal child growth and development study has required the
use of the computer facilities.

With regard to service, the Computer Center processes many
answer cards for the Ministry of Education and other universities.

In addition, it scores the answer cards for the Program in Counseling
and Scholarships for Higher Education, operated by the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala.

The Director of the Department of Computer Science, who is
also the Director of the Computer Center, indicates that the present
computer has served the University well to date, but has reached the

limit of its capacity given the increasing work load. In 1980, as a

192

result of a grant from the American Schools and Hospitals Abroad
branch of AID, the Center will make a substantial addition to its
facilities, adding 128,000 bytes of memory, a second line printer,
3 CRP's, a 50 megabyte disk unit, and a magnetic tape unit.65

The Director projects a need for a computer capacity of
256,000 bytes memory, 400 million bytes access memory, and up to
20 terminals. He suggests purchasing all new equipment and using
the present computer for laboratory work for the students taking
computer courses. The new facilities, he says, will be large enough
to accommodate all administrative, service, and research activities
of the University for several years and can also be employed to do
major research projects for the nation and region. In addition, the
facilities can be used to do commercial work, the income from which

can repay the cost of maintenance and operation.

3. Library. The present library holdings number about 20,000
books and 150 periodical subscriptions. Many of the books and sub-
scriptions have been acquired through grants, loans, and gifts. An
annual budget for books does not exist, leading to the difficulty
that in some years many books are ordered by the library and in
other years no books are purchased. This problem is acute with
periodical subscriptions which on occasion have been canceled for
lack of funds. When funds are available again, it is difficult and
expensive to replace the back issues which were not received during

the time of the canceled subscription.67

193

The University library processes books for both the Uni-
versity and the American School of Guatemala, a practice which
increases efficiency for both institutions.

The Head Librarian holds a Master‘s degree in library science
from the University of Southern California and has forty years of
experience in library work.68 Her staff is composed of two clerical
workers and a circulation desk assistant, none of whom had previous
library experience prior to working at the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala. The Head Librarian has trained three librarians who now
hold head positions at other libraries in Guatemala.

The library tends to fall behind in the cataloging of books
and processing of journals. Many of the library holdings are not
available to the public because they have not yet been processed.

The library has shelf space for 50,000 volumes, a large area
for study tables, a medium-size conference room, a large processing
room, a photocopying machine, a microfilm reader, two electric type-
writers, a book binder, and a small mimeographic machine to duplicate
catalog cards. It also has an electronic book detector at the exit
to the stacks to protect against book theft.70

The holdings of the library are available for loan to all
personnel of the School and University. The usual loan period is
four weeks with no renewal. Material in great demand is lent for
just one week. Loans of up to one year are made to faculty for pro-
fessional use. Any individual who identifies himself may use the
materials within the library, but may not check them out unless he

. . . 7
is a member of the School or UniverSity staff or student body. 1

194

The library maintains a reserve system in cooperation with
the professors of the University and the School. The professors
determine the reserve loan policies (library use only, overnight,
weekend).

To date, there is no inter-loan mechanism operating among
the universities in Guatemala, although such a system is under con—
sideration.72

Most acquisitions are made on request from the various aca—
demic units. In spite of some of the problems mentioned above, the
library is considered to have good services, and is rated highly by
both students and professors. "In some areas, the holdings are the
most complete in all of Central America and requests are frequently
received from colleagues at other institutions for permission to use

7
the library for research efforts."

4. Print shop. The University and School have a large printing

 

facility on campus which includes an IBM Composer, four Platen
presses, one offset press, two paper cutters, one pagination machine,
and one paper-folding machine. The printing of all standardized

tests developed by the School and University, some of the teaching
materials, computer cards, and a variety of other materials is carried
out through the print shop. The print shop is staffed by a printer,
an assistant, and two helpers. The print shop has not been able to
keep up with the expanding printing needs of the School and Uni-
versity. It is the intention of the Foundation to purchase new
printing equipment to meet the increasing printing demand as funds

become available.

195

5. Preserve land tract. In order to carry out biological and

 

agricultural research, it has been necessary to request permission
for access to private and public properties. Because of the need to
exercise some control over land usage for this research, the Uni-
versity has attempted to obtain land tracts for research demonstra-
tion projects around the country to be used both for research and
extension purposes. In 1977, the first such preserve area, a 110-
acre tract in the Department of El Quichée, was donated to the Uni-
versity. Other donations of land are expected over the following

few years.

Planning

Over the years, planning has been given special attention at
both the School and University. Much time and money were spent
designing the plant and programs. Indeed, $100,000 was spent on
plans for the recent construction of buildings for the School and
University.75 However, there is little evidence of systematic long-
range planning for the University during the last few years. The
trustees and members of the Directive Council (those charged with
planning for the University) have tended to dedicate most of their
planning time to meeting the short-term needs. The writer was unable
to obtain any written long-range plans for the University.

A few weeks before the completion of this study, however, a
Future Plans Committee was formed at the University, made up of
members of the Directive Council, coordinators of the academic units,
department heads, and invited participants. The Committee meets

periodically to discuss all aspects of the long- and medium—range

196

growth of the institution. Attention is given to assessment of
national needs, the ways in which the University can meet some of
those needs, the development of new programs, expansion of present
programs, construction, financing, and other topics. The following
are the major areas of discussion of the Committee to date, as noted

by the writer who attended the Committee meetings.

Improvement of teaching. The Committee discussed the need to improve

 

the quality of teaching through the following ways:

(1) careful selection;

(2) training of professors in teaching techniques;

(3) increasing the numbers of half-time and full—time teachers;

(4) increasing incentives by offering higher salaries, better
benefits, opportunities to conduct research, opportunities
to further studies; and

(5) to improve the evaluation and supervision process.

Development of academic programs. All department directors have

 

stressed the need to increase the number of degree programs offered.
In addition, they call for greatly increased research activity. The
Coordinator of the Faculty of Education has recommended using several

public schools as laboratory schools.

Building_program. It is clear from the reports given by each of the

 

coordinators that major construction must be carried out to permit

the expansion foreseen. In fact, according to the predictions made
. 2

by members of the Future Plans Committee, over 5,000 m of new space

will be needed in the next decade.

197

Financing. Committee members have pointed out that the expansion
of the University's teaching, research and service programs will
require major, sustained efforts to obtain more income by attracting
more students to the University and by intensifying activities to
raise funds from outside sources. To attract more students, many
of the committee members have recommended that the University adver-
tise its programs extensively and engage in various promotional
activities such as television programs and open houses on campus
for graduating secondary school students.

It has been recommended that individual faculty members be
more aggressive in seeking financing from outside sources for
research projects. To do this, the University has prepared infor-

mation for the professors on how to apply for research financing.

Evaluation

 

There is no systematic institution-wide system of evaluation
at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. Department heads supervise
the professors in their departments and report periodically to the
faculty coordinators. The Academic Council meets regularly to
review the present situation and make some evaluation, but most of
the evaluation of programs is accomplished at the Directive Council
level.76

In 1979, the University prepared professor evaluation forms
to be completed by the students at the end of each course. The
writer was permitted to review the results of the first evaluation,

which were generally complimentary of the professors. The Directive

Council reviews the evaluations, using them to point out professors

198

who are rated low by their students. These professors are then
supervised more closely by the coordinators.7

There is an attempt to ensure that professors arrive
punctually at their classes by having administrators periodically
walk the hallways and observe the classrooms. It has been noted
that the full- and half-time professors are more punctual and
regular in their attendance of classes than are professors paid

by the course.

Financing

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala is unable to support
itself from student fees alone for the following reasons: (1) a small
institution with few students, the University is not cost efficient;
(2) the acceptance of qualified applicants regardless of their ability
to pay the fees necessitates an ample financial aid program; (3) the
research activities are costly; and (4) the emphasis on sciences
requires investment in expensive facilities and equipment.79

At present, student fees account for about half the Uni-
versity's income and do not pay the operating expenses. Please
refer to Table 9 for the 1978 current operations budget. Projections
indicate that when the maximum enrollment is reached, the teaching
program will be self-sufficient. However, the research and develop-
ment activities will probably always require financing from outside
sources.

Since its inception, the University has sought and obtained
outside financing for its programs. In 1972, the American School

Association was transformed to the Fundacién de la Universidad del

199

Valle de Guatemala, primarily to enhance the ability to finance the
University and the School. The Foundation status frees the insti-
tution from paying taxes and assists the procurement of outside
financial support. The loan from the Inter-American Bank, for
example, was facilitated because ththniversity is sponsored by the

. 81
Foundation.

Table 9

1978 Budget for Current Operations for the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala

 

 

Income
Student fees $225,000 56%
Grants, program assistance 125,000 31%
Donations (unrestricted) 40,000 10%
Miscellaneous 12,000 3%
Expense
Salaries $318,000 79%
Cost of subsidized programs 64,000 16%
General expense 20,000 5%
$402,000 100% $402,000 100%

 

SOURCE: "1978 Budget for Current Operations" (Guatemala:
Fundaci6n de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, January 1978).
(Mimeographed.)

To further improve its ability to raise money, the Foundation

established a counterpart organization in the United States, the
Foundation of the University of the Valley of Guatemala, which is
incorporated in Delaware and has Internal Revenue Service approval

as a tax-exempt institution. The members of the Foundation are

people of substance in their professions, their businesses, or their

government service who are willing to represent the University in

the United States among individuals, companies, foundations, and

200

organizations that may be in a position to help the University
financially or in some other way. Their first major success was
the obtainment of a development grant of $675,000 from the American
Schools and Hospitals Abroad branch of AID (ASHA) in 1979.82

Since 1967, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has
received over half its total income in the form of donations, grants,
and contracts from a variety of outside sources.83 Please refer to
Table 10 for a complete listing of the University's income from out-
side sources.

In addition to the income listed in Table 10, the Foundation

has also obtained a loan of 2.8 million dollars from the Inter-

American Development Bank which was mentioned earlier.

Calendar and Schedule

 

The regular academic year is divided into three terms as
follows:

First term February to beginning of June (17 weeks)

Second term June and July (9 weeks)

Third term August to November (17 weeks)

The Faculty of Education has a different calendar to permit
better attention to in-service teachers:

First term February to June (Saturdays)

Second term June to October (Saturdays)

Third term November (Monday through Saturday)

In the faculties of Social Science and Science and Humanities

most classes are held from 2:00 P.M. to 8:00 P.M. In the pre-medicine

201

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202

program, classes are held from 7:30 A.M. to 1:30 P.M. In the
Faculty of Education, most classes are held on Saturdays from

8:00 A.M. to 1:00 P.M.B4

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE UNIVERSIDAD
DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

Instruction

 

Four of the five academic units of the Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala serve the function of instruction: the University
College, the Faculty of Education, the Faculty of Science and Human-
ities, and the Faculty of Social Science. The writer will not attempt
to describe all of the instructional programs offered at the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala. Rather, he has selected certain
programs for description on the basis of their pertinence to the

University's role as a contributor to national development.

Staff, Table 11 lists the numbers of teaching staff by academic
degree and time contracted. The staff includes all of the Guate-
malans with Ph.D. degrees in Physical Chemistry, Physics, and Mathe—
matics, as well as one of the few with a Ph.D. degree in Anthro-
pology.85

There are three categories of teaching faculty: full,
adjunct, and assistant. The full professors are entirely responsible
for the courses they are assigned to teach. When it is necessary to
divide a class into sections, adjunct teachers cooperate with and
work within the norms set by the full professors. Assistants help
in the preparation of the teaching or laboratory activities in

. . . 86
accordance w1th instructions of the full professors.

203

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204

1. Staff development. Because there is an insufficient supply

 

of Guatemalan professors with advanced training in the natural and
social sciences, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala operates two
parallel programs to provide the needed teaching expertise. One is
the importation of visiting faculty by means of the Latin American
Teaching Fellowship program (LATF) run by Tufts University. Since
1974, there has been an average of five visiting faculty per year
in such fields as biology, anthropology, library science, physics,
sociology, and economy.87 The second is the sending of selected
faculty members and students abroad to do advanced study in areas
in which there is a scarcity of trained personnel in Guatemala. The
University has spent over $45,000 to send faculty to the United
States to receive graduate degrees: two Ph.D. degrees in Education,
two Ph.D. degrees in Physics, one Ph.D. degree in Mathematics, and
two Master's degrees in Mathematics. The University has also helped
students obtain scholarships through the Latin American Scholarship
Program of American Universities (LASPAU). To date, ten students
have obtained LASPAU scholarships to study in the United States and
returned to teach at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.

In addition to sending professors and advanced students
abroad to work toward academic degrees, the University also gives
short leaves of absence for professors to attend conferences and

89
workshops in and out of Guatemala.

2. Teaching schedules. Professors are hired on one of four

 

schedules: full-time, half-time, ten to fifteen hours, or by the

course. A full-time load is forty hours a week on campus teaching

205

three courses a semester which meet an average of three times a week.
There are many variations of full-time work: some teachers having
some time for research, others teaching more laboratories and fewer
classes, etc. The half-time assignments are from twenty to thirty
hours a week with a proportional teaching load. Many teachers, and
all but one of the Saturday program teachers, are hired by the
course.

It should be pointed out, however, that excluding the
Faculty of Education, 20 percent of the professors are full time.
When the half-time professors are added, nearly 50 percent of the
professors in the regular academic programs are hired a major portion
of the day. The professors in the Saturday program are hired by the
course since there are no full-time or even half-time assignments

possible.

3. Salaries. Salaries are determined on the basis of academic
degree. For full-time work, a person with a Ph.D. degree receives
$10,000, a person with a Master's degree receives $8,400, and a

person with a Licenciatura degree receives $7,200. There is some

 

extra pay for extra responsibility such as coordination of a faculty
or directorship of a center or program. People who work half time
or by the course are paid a proportional amount of full-time salary

. 91
according to the degree they hold.

Salaries at the University have not been increased in

several years, at a time of inflation and increased salaries at
other universities. The result is an increasingly uncompetitive

salary schedule. Many professors mention low salaries cause them

206

to consider leaving the University. To date, however, there has

been no major exodus of personnel.

4. Women on the staff. About 28 percent of the staff are

 

women, a rather surprising fact since traditionally in Latin America
university teaching has been almost exclusively a man's profession.
Generally speaking, the women have less academic preparation than
the men at the University. Fourteen percent of the professionals
with a Ph.D. degree are women. Thirty percent of the persons with

a Licenciatura are women.

 

5. Tenure. The University hires its professors for a one-year
period. There is no system of tenure. According to Guatemalan law,
if a teacher is fired, he is entitled to separation pay equalling
one monthls salary for every year of continuous work at the insti-

tution.

6. Academic freedom. The University insists on academic

 

freedom. It is nonreligious and nonpolitical in nature; proselytiz-
ing is not permitted. Any point of view is appropriate for study
and discussion, but not for indoctrination. The following statement
on academic freedom is translated from a student handbook:

The University believes that the principle of academic
freedom is an indispensable condition for teaching and must
be evidenced by respect for scientific method, teaching
methodolOgY- and the thinking of the students so that stu-
dents are prepared to formulate their own conclusions which
are honest and valid. Thus, the University maintains and
stimulates mutual respect for political and religious
opinions.95

207

University College. The University College was established in 1977.

It has an enrollment of about two hundred students.

1. Objectives. The following are the objectives of the Uni-

 

versity College:

1. compensate for any dificiencies in the education of
incoming students,

2. provide students an overview of the disciplines prior
to their choosing a field of study, and

3. provide future leaders with a general education back-
ground which will serve them in whatever field of
specialization they choose.96

2. Programs. The University College comprises the following

programs: General Studies, Bachillerato Avanzado, and Pre-Medicine.

 

a. General Studies. All regular first—year students enroll in
the general studies program for one year. Only if they suc-
cessfully meet the requirements of the general studies pro-

gram may they enroll in a faculty to pursue a licenciatura

 

degree. With a few exceptions, all students must take the
same courses, none of which is a requisite for a given
faculty program. Below is a listing of the courses required
in the general studies program:

Mathematics

. Introduction to the Biological Sciences
Introduction to the Physical Sciences
Introduction to the Social Sciences

. Introduction to Literature (Spanish)
English97

O‘U‘iIBWND-J

The University requires the general studies program of all
its students as a means of giving them basic knowledge in
the major areas of study prior to choosing a discipline for

intensive study. The program is in keeping with one of its

208

major objectives which is to "further the aims of general
. 98 . .
education." Even though the required courses in general
studies are offered formally in the first year, "there are
elective courses available to students in accordance with
the nature of the selected program during the five years of
' "99

undergraduate studies.

A discussion of the attitudes of students, professors,
and administrators toward the general studies program is

found in Chapter 5.

Bachillerato Avanzado. Bachillerato Avanzado is a cooper-

 

 

ative program between the American School and the University
which offers accelerated studies to outstanding students in
their last two years of secondary school. During the two-
year period, students enrolled in Bachillerato Avanzado take
intensive instruction in mathematics, chemistry, physics,
biology, social studies, Spanish literature, and English
as a second language. Upon successful completion of the
program, the students are able to enter the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala at the second-year level or take advanced
placement exams at other universities. OO

Cooperation between the School and the University is
essential for the successful functioning of this program.
Teachers from both institutions meet periodically to pre-
pare the curriculum content in order to facilitate the stu-

dents' transition from the School to the University. In

addition, students take Biology in the regular university

209

program. Other courses require the use of the University
library and laboratories.

The program, which began in 1977 with twenty-four
students selected from the American School and other Guate-
malan secondary schools, graduated eight students in
November 1978, four of whom have entered the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala. Recent interviews with several of
the students in the first group indicate a respect for the
program and acknowledgment that they are better prepared
academically than they would have been in a regular secon-

dary bachillerato program.

 

Admission to Bachillerato Avanzado for American School

 

students requires a grade average of 80 in the three previous
years of study and recommendations from teachers. Students
applying from other schools must take the Differential
Aptitude Test in Spanish and a general ability test. To
be accepted into the program, they must have high scores
in the psychological tests, high grades in their previous
three years of school work, and recommendations from

101

teachers.

The University plans to follow the Bachillerato Avanzado

 

program carefully to see how the graduates perform at the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala and other universities.

One Licenciatura candidate is studying the program as the

 

subject of her research thesis. Student interest in the pro-
gram has grown rapidly both within the American School and

in many other schools in Guatemala.

210

Pre-Medicine. The pre—medicine program is part of a joint

 

effort to provide high-quality private medical training in
Guatemala. The Universidad Francisco Marroquin provides
the medical training and the Hospital Herrera Llerandi the
clinical training for the program. The Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala gives a three-year pre-medicine program
in the basic sciences and general education.102

The students enroll at the Universidad Francisco
Marroquin and then take their courses at the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala. The Universidad Francisco Marroquin
selects the students carefully using an admissions program
test developed by the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.
About half the medical students receive some type of
financial aid.103

The first students (60) entered the program in 1978.
In 1979, another sixty entered the program. The students
take courses in the social sciences, humanities, English,
and the natural sciences. Since the students enroll in all
three terms each year, they take approximately thirty-five
courses. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala will grant
the Bachelor of Science degree at the end of the pre-medical

104
program.

B.A./B.S. degree. University officials have plans to offer

 

a four—year B.S. or B.A. degree in the near future. This

will be a liberal arts program designed to prepare students

. . . . 105
for speCialized work in Guatemala and other countries.

211

Faculty of Education. The largest of the three faculties, the

 

Faculty of Education has an enrollment of approximately four hundred

students. It was established in 1969.

1.

Objectives. The Faculty of Education attempts to improve

 

the general level of education in Guatemala by

2.

providing short courses leading to teacher certification
to large numbers of teachers,

giving refresher courses to in-service teachers, and
giving specialized education to carefully selected
candidates for leadership positions as counselors, cur-
riculum coordinators, teachers, and administrators for
primary, secondary, and higher education.106

Certification and degree programs. The Universidad del

 

Valle de Guatemala offers the following certificates and degrees

through the Faculty of Education:

1.

Secondary Teaching Certificate
a) Mathematics

b) Natural Sciences

c) History and Social Studies
d) Language and Literature
Elementary Teaching Certificate
a) Special Education

b) Learning Problems
Licenciatura Degree

a) Preprimary Education

b) Primary Education

c) Educational Administration
d) Special Education

e) Health Education

f) Educational Research

g) Learning Problems

Master's Degree in Educational Measurement, Evaluation
and Research107

 

As noted in Chapter 3, one of the most acute problems in

Guatemalan education a decade ago was the lack of trained secondary

school teachers. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala attempted

to respond to the problem by offering a secondary teacher

212

certification program for in-service teachers in the capital city,
the first of its kind in Guatemala. The program, which was initiated
in 1969 and now enrolls an average of four hundred students, is
offered on Saturdays to make it possible for practicing teachers
to attend. The program requires thirty courses (about sixty semester
hours) including courses in general education and the area of special-
ization, three semesters of a modern language, supervised practice
teaching, and a comprehensive final examination. Certificates are
awarded in History and Social Studies, Natural Science, Mathematics,
and Language and Literature.108

In light of the recent establishment of institutions for the
mentally retarded and interest in helping children with learning
problems in Guatemala, the Faculty of Education initiated an ele-
mentary teacher certification program in 1977 to prepare teachers
to work with the mentally retarded and the learning disabled. The
requirements for elementary teacher certification are similar to
those for the secondary program, except that more emphasis is placed
on classroom observation and supervised practice. Certificates are
awarded in special education and learning problems.109

Students majoring in special education must observe in an
institution for the mentally retarded for two semesters. To facili-
tate this requirement, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala offers
some of its courses at the National Center for Special Education.
Students majoring in learning problems must spend two semesters or
a minimum of one hundred hours observing and working with children
with learning problems under the supervision of a University pro—

fessor.110

213

Most of the courses for the teacher certification program
are offered on Saturdays from 8:00 A.M. to 1:00 P.M. The time is
divided into three ninety-minute periods so that students may enroll
in three courses each semester. Some courses are also available
during the week in the afternoons and evenings. Thus, it is pos-
sible for a student to be graduated from the teacher certification
program in a minimum of three years. For most students, however,
the time for graduation is greater.111

The Faculty of Education requires a common core of courses
for students in all the teacher certification programs: Introduction
to Philosophy, Basic Themes in Education, Psychology, Guatemalan
History, Statistics, Use of Information Sources to Prepare Reports,
Evaluation and Construction of Tests, and Teaching Techniques. All
students make field trips to observe in schools and write term papers.
In addition, supervised practice teaching is required of all teachers.
Each student must prepare, teach, and evaluate a unit in a school
approved by the Faculty of Education. Approximately forty students
complete the practice teaching requirement each year in a number of
Guatemalan schools, both public and private. The American School
of Guatemala, as a laboratory school of the University, accepts
students for practice teaching. 12

In 1979, the teacher certification program suffered a reduc-
tion in students for the first time in its history. A report pub-
lished by the Faculty of Education attributes this to three factors:

1. the existence of a similar program at the Universidad
Francisco Marroquin which offers the same secondary
certificates for fewer courses of shorter duration at

a fee per course slightly lower than the fee charged
at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala;

214

2. high academic standards required at the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala; and

3. lack of advertising of the University's programs.113

The report attributes an increase in new students the second semester

. . 114
of 1979 to a newspaper advertisement announCing the program.

The Licenciatura in Education degree program at the University

 

is designed to prepare a small number of selected individuals for
leadership in Guatemalan education. The same admission requirements
as practiced in the other faculties obtain for admission to the

Licenciatura in Education program, except that graduates of the Uni-

 

versity's teacher certification program with a 75 grade average or
better are admitted without taking entrance examinations.
The following are the requirements for the completion of a

Licenciatura degree in the Faculty of Education:

 

l. successfully complete 53 three-credit courses as
follows:
a) fourteen courses in general studies,
b) twenty-five courses in general education,
c) fourteen courses in the area of specialization;
2. complete supervised practice teaching; and
3. write and defend a thesis before a committee of
professors in the Faculty of Education.116

The courses are offered on Saturday mornings and during the
week from 4:00 P.M. on to permit working students to enroll. Pre-

sently, there are nineteen students enrolled in the Licenciatura

 

program, ten of whom have completed all the course work and are

preparing their theses. The Coordinator of the Faculty of Education

believes that within the next two years most of the present students
117

in the program will have been graduated.

Fourteen students have received the Licenciatura degree to

 

date, thirteen in Health Education. Because of the relationship to

215

national development and its example as a cooperative effort with
the government, the writer will briefly describe that program. In
1973, officials of the Ministry of Public Health approached the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala to request cooperation in giving
a professional degree to a group of outstanding nurses who had
recently graduated from the National School of Nursing. These

nurses, on receipt of the Licenciatura degree from the Universidad

 

del Valle de Guatemala would then form the nucleus of the teaching
staff of the National School of Nursing. The University designed a

Licenciatura degree program in Health Education and fifteen selected

 

nurses enrolled in it. By 1978, thirteen of the nurses had obtained

. . 118
a LicenCiatura degree.

 

In 1974, the Universidad del Valle began offering a Master's
program in Educational Measurement, Evaluation and Research to pro-
fessional educators throughout the region. Lasting a full academic
year, it is an intensive program requiring the writing of a research
thesis. As a prerequisite to admission, a prospective student must

hold a Licenciatura degree, or the equivalent, and have some profes—

 

sional experience. In addition, the candidate must score well on
an academic aptitude test administered by the Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala. Five scholarships are available through the Organi-

zation of American States. Since the students tend to be profes—

 

sionals working in ministries of education in their countries, often

The courses required are as follows:

1. Seminar on education: three terms
2. Statistics: three terms

. . . . . . 119
their home countries assume responSibility for the expenses incurred.

216

. Educational measurement and test construction: two terms
Research methodology and experimental design: three terms
Individually guided work: three terms

Introduction to computer programming: one term

. Master's thesis: two terms120

\JO‘U‘DUJ

3. Relationship of curriculum to national development. The

 

Faculty of Education attempts to relate the instruction to national
development issues. All students in the teacher certification pro-
gram must take two courses in which national development is part of
the instruction: Guatemalan History and Basic Themes in Education.
All students in the secondary teacher certification program must
take the Seminar on Secondary Education which requires them to
conduct research on matters related to national education and
development. Students majoring in History and Social Studies must
take a Seminar on National Problems, a course which focuses on the
role of education and Guatemala's development needs. All students

in the Licenciatura program must take a seminar entitled Problems

 

in Education which deals with national education and development.
Teachers in the certification and degree programs receive instruction
in the techniques of large and small-group instruction as well as
the use of simple audio visual devices. In addition, they receive
instruction in the use of inexpensive and common materials to produce
teaching materials.121

Much attention is given in the Faculty of Education to super-
vision of students and professors and insisting on punctual and
regular attendance, well-prepared classes, and the use of a variety

. . . 122
of teaching techniques and methodology in the giVing of the classes.

217

4. In-service training for University professors. In November

 

1979, the Faculty of Education offered a workshop to all of its pro-
fessors in an attempt to improve their teaching ability and their
expertise in evaluation of students. The workshop, the first of its
kind at the University, was given on each of the four Saturdays in
November from 8:15 A.M. to 10:15 A.M. and was attended by thirty-six
professors from the Faculty of Education and four professors from
other faculties. The workshop sessions focused on the following
themes:
1. Teaching Techniques in Higher Education
a) group dynamics
b) use of the scientific method
2. Planning Techniques
a) writing of behavioral objectives
b) selection of appropriate teaching-learning
activities
c) selection of appropriate teaching-learning resources
3. Techniques of Educational Evaluation123

Since this study was completed while the course was still in

progress, an evaluation of the workshop had not yet been made.

Faculty of Science and Humanities. The Faculty of Science and Humani-

 

ties was established in 1966. It has an enrollment of approximately

140 students.

1. Objectives. The following are the objectives of the Faculty
of Science and Humanities:

1. develop a basic studies program common to all degree
programs through which the science and humanities are
integrated so that the student
a) may have an integrated education,

b) can meet the faculty requirements, and
c) may be able to pursue graduate studies;

2. give a sound specialized professional training in each

discipline based on a solid scientific base; and

218

3. prepare professionals able to think critically and con-
tribute to the body of scientific knowledge.124

2. Degree prpgrams.

 

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

offers the following degrees through the Faculty of Science and

Humanities:

1. Licenciatura Degree
a) Biology
b) Physics
c) Civil Engineering
d) Mathematics
e) Computer Science
f) Chemical Engineering
2. Master's Degree
a) Biology
b) Ecology
c) Physics
d) Electronics
e) Mathematics
f) Chemistry
3. Doctorate Degree
a) Physics

b) Mathematics125

Biochemistry

Chemistry

Agricultural Science
Psychology

Letters

Food Science and Technology

Chemical Analysis

Soil Chemistry
Clinical Psychology
Guidance

Educational Psychology

The program of studies for the Faculty of Science and

Humanities is designed according to the following scheme:

1. General studies
a) Humanities
b) Social sciences
c) Education
d) Modern language

2. Basic courses in the sciences
3. Courses in the student's major area

126

Prior to the establishment of the Universidad del Valle de

Guatemala, science instruction in Guatemalan universities was given

only as part of professional training; there were no programs

available for the training of scientists.

Students who wanted to

take degree programs in the natural sciences were obliged to study

abroad.

The degree programs at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

219

were the first such programs in Guatemala. The emphasis in the

Licenciatura program is on giving the students a general grounding

 

in science, the scientific method, and critical thinking in order

to provide a sound base for those who wish to pursue graduate work

in the sciences and to provide sufficient knowledge in a scientific

specialization to be able to work professionally in that field. It

is the aim of the University to prepare future scientists capable of
27

advancing science and technology in Guatemala.

To date, the University has awarded twenty-eight Licenciatura

 

degrees and one Ph.D. degree. The majority of these graduates have
gone abroad to pursue graduate work. In addition, several University
professors have been given leaves of absence and financial support

to do graduate work in physics, mathematics, and biology.128

In the last few years, the University has expanded its pro-
gram offerings from the basic sciences into the applied sciences in
areas in which there is a perceived need for well-trained professionals
with a strong scientific preparation. The programs in Civil Engineer-
ing, Computer Science, Pre-Medicine, and the Agricultural Sciences
are cases in point.

The Civil Engineering and Computer Science programs have a
strong emphasis on mathematics and physics and are aimed not so much
at preparing technicians as at preparing professionals capable of
adapting established technology, designing new technology, and gen-
erally adding to the development of these two professions in Guate-
mala. There is a strong emphasis on instruction in structures in the
civil engineering program in light of the need for engineers able to

13
design and construct buildings capable of withstanding earthquakes.

220

As mentioned in Chapter 3, although Guatemala is primarily an
agricultural country, it must import large amounts of food. The
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has identified the following
factors which contribute to insufficient food production:

1. inadequate use of technology;

2. failure to convey technological information to the
small and middle-sized farmer;

3. deficient administration of human, physical, and
economic resources; and

4. failure to achieve a functional organization which
permits efficient development of the region's agri-
cultural resources.131

In response to these deficiencies, the Universidad del Valle
designed a program in agricultural sciences to train professionals to
perform needed tasks in agricultural production, administration,

. . . . . . 132
animal production commerCialization, and research and extenSion.

The program will prepare students to work in agriculture as
professionals and to take post-graduate work in agricultural manage—
ment. The five years of study provide students with extensive train-
ing in four areas:

1. agricultural science (biology, chemistry, physics, and
mathematics)

2. agricultural economics (money, banking, credit, marketing
and management of agricultural enterprises)

3. general education (philosophy, language, literature,
foreign language, social sciences)

4. direct experience in agricultural practice (each summer

during the five-year program, the students spend nine
weeks working on some kind of agricultural enterprises)

133

A new development in the Agricultural Sciences Program
occurred in 1978 when the Eacuela Agricola Panamericana, a well-known
agricultural technical training institute in Honduras, requested the

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala to prepare a post-technical

program for studies in agricultural science which leads to a

221

Licenciatura degree. In Central America, there are several insti-

 

tutions such as the Escuela Agricola Panamericana which prepare
agricultural technicians. Graduates of these programs are well-
trained at the technical level but are not able to carry out research
and develop new technologies.134

These technical programs are three years in length and are
considered to be of generally high quality (the Escule Agricola
Panamericana has an international reputation for excellence). How-
ever, to date, none of the other Central American universities has
recognized these programs, even though many universities in the
United States have. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has
completed plans to offer post-technical studies in agricultural

science to selected graduates of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana.

The program is incorporated into the regular Licenciatura program

 

in Agricultural Sciences and will permit students to complete the
degree in two years.
The first students will enroll in this program in 1980.
Because of the importance of selecting highly qualified students
regardless of their financial status, the Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala is presently attempting to obtain scholarship funds.13
A recognized need in Guatemala and the region is to increase
the efficiency of the production, conservation, and transformation
of food. To meet this need, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

has designed a Licenciatura degree in Food Science and Technology

 

in collaboration with the Institute of Nutrition of Central America

and Panama (INCAP).

222

The purpose of the program is the preparation of professionals
who can work to overcome the problems in the production, trans-
port, and storage of foods; to improve processing and quality
control; and to contribute to the research and development of
new foods.137

The specific objectives of the Food Science and Technology
Program are as follows:

1. provide fundamental training in the basic sciences--
biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics--as instru-
ments for research in Food Science and Technology;

2. introduce the student to the methods, success, and limi—
tations of scientific research in his particular area of
interest;

3. develop the ability to work professionally in the areas of
a) post-harvest technology,

b) production engineering of foodstuffs,

c) analysis and control of quality,

d) research and development of new products,

e) assessment of health and nutritional value of foods,
and

f) reduction of agricultural and industrial wastage in
food production and processing; and

4. introduce the future professional to the implications of
the foregoing areas regarding human affairs and the well-
being of the population.138

In 1979, the Department of Agricultural Sciences initiated a
Master's degree program in Agricultural Economics which will be

offered to professionals with Licenciatura degrees in Agronomy,

 

Veterinary Medicine, and Economics. The program is offered in the
. . . . . 139
evenings so that working profeSSionals may partiCipate.

As was mentioned earlier, the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala has become the headquarters for the Tropical Research
Station of the Center for Disease Control (CDC), United States
Bureau of Public Health. Three researchers from the CDC are now
conducting research at the University on vector-borne diseases

prevalent in Guatemala. At present, the researchers are using

existing University laboratories. However, as a result of grants

223

from the American Schools and Hospitals Abroad branch of AID and the
CDC, the University is presently constructing a medical entomology
laboratory building which will be furnished with sophisticated equip-
ment and materials. This new research facility will be complete by

. l4
mid-1980. O

In 1979, members of the CDC staff taught a course in medical
entomology to biology students at the University. In addition, the
CDC staff gave short courses to technicians who work for the Guate-

. . . . 141
malan SerVice for the Eradication of Malaria (SNEM).

In 1980, the University will initiate a program to train
specialists in medical entomology. The program will be conducted by
the Department of Biology of the University in cooperation with the
CDC, the SNEM, and the Guatemalan Ministry of Public Health. Its
objectives are as follows:

1. offer theoretical and practical training to professionals

in the areas of medical entomology: epidomology of vector-

borne diseases, and control of these diseases;

2. provide training in designing and carrying out scientific
research on biomedical programs in Central America; and

3. prepare professionals able to evaluate ecological and
entomological problems in Central America and help in

the search for their solution.142

The medical entomology program will offer training at three

levels: (1) technical, without an academic degree; (2) Licenciatura

 

degree in biology with a major in medical entomology; and (3) Master's

degree in medical entomology. Members of the CDC staff will conduct
143

the program.

An important aspect of the presence of the CDC on the Uni-

versity campus is that some of the advanced students are selected to

224

participate in the research. This provides University students with

valuable training in research of national and regional importance.

3. Relationship of curriculum to national development. There

 

is little attempt to relate the instruction in the Faculty of Science
and Humanities to national development problems in a direct and sys-
tematic way. Officials at the University argue, however, that the
programs themselves are carefully chosen for their pertinence to
development needs in Guatemala and that some of the students are
engaged in conducting research directly related to development, i.e.,

144
the Filaria studies conducted by CDC.

Faculty of Social Science. The Faculty of Social Science was estab-

 

lished in 1969. It has a small student body of approximately twenty

students.

1. Objectives. The following are objectives of the Faculty

 

of Social Science:

1. prepare professionals trained in research, able to work in
social change and improvement programs and teach at the
university level;

2. conduct social research;145

3. foment interest in the study of social sciences in
Guatemala; and

4. operate a center for bibliography and social documen-
tation to serve those interested in the study of social
problems in Central America.146

2. Degree programs. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

 

offers the following degree programs through the Faculty of Social

Sciences:

225

Licenciatura Degree

a) Archaeology

b) Anthropology

c) Social Psychology

d) Sociology

e) Economics for Development

f) Linguistics

Master's Degree in Anthropology

 

147

The following are requirements for the Licenciatura degree:

 

pass 53 three-hour semester courses as follows:

a) ten courses in general studies,

b) 27 general professional courses in social sciences,
c) four advanced courses in the area of specialization,
d) ten courses in methodology, including field research,
e) two optional courses;

prove ability to read in a foreign language by passing
courses at the University or taking proficiency exami-
nations; and

write and defend a thesis before professors in the
Faculty of Social Sciences.148

The following are the general requirements for a Master's

degree in the Faculty of Social Sciences:

NH

3.

obtain an average of 85 on a scale of 100 in ten courses;
complete three months of supervised field research; and
present and defend a Master's thesis before a selected
group of professors in the Faculty.149

Training in research. The most notable aspect of the pro-

 

grams of the Faculty of Social Sciences is the emphasis on training

students in the techniques of social research. All students must

participate in three field research activities during the five-year

Licenciatura program. The field research training is based on the

 

following premises:

practice should complement classwork;

first-hand knowledge of differing cultures and societies
can provide an objective view of one's own social world;
and

academic concerns should be balanced by an acquaintance

with the conditions and social problems of the people of
the region.150

226

Each year, a two-month field research session is offered
by the Faculty. One or more professors are charged with the organi—
zation of the research. The selection of the topics and subsequent
planning occur in March and April. The field work, usually conducted
in June and July, takes place in one or more communities with a
group assigned to each community. Each group is supervised by a
professor; students in their last two years are given auxiliary
responsibilities which usually involve assisting the professor to
supervise the group.

The students learn to develop their own research projects,
build rapport with people in the community under study, and gather
pertinent and reliable data. The data are analyzed in regular
courses and are used by the students for writing term papers,
articles, and theses. Although the main objective of the field
research sessions is training, they also provide a store of impor-
tant information on social conditions in Guatemala.151

Below is a brief review of the student field research accom-

152
plished to date:

a. Studies of cognition. For two consecutive summers, a study

 

was conducted in several localities to measure changes in
thought patterns of Indians in connection with various
stages of urbanization and modernization. The results
were presented at the IX International Meeting of Anthro-
pology and Ethnological Sciences in Chicago and later pub-

lished in Psychological Anthropology, by Thomas William

 

Mouton, the Hague.

227

b. Studies of the family. Three summer sessions have been dedi-

 

cated to studies of the family in Guatemala. These studies
have resulted in several theses, two papers (one presented
at the First Central American Congress on Sociology at San
Jose, Costa Rica, 1974, and another at the XIII Pacific

Science Congress, Vancouver, Canada, 1975), and an article

in the Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 1974, entitled

 

"Family Structure and Religious Symbolization among Guate-
"154 . , . .
malans. In addition, the research is presently being
compiled in a book on kinship and family in Guatemala. The
book, the first to deal with this topic, will encompass
historical, ethnological, organizational, demographic, and

. . . . 155
SOCial-psychological aspects of the family in Guatemala.

c. Studies of myths, rites, magic, and illness. Six field

 

sessions have been devoted to myths, rites, magic, and
illness in twenty indigenous communities throughout the
country. The amount of data collected was extensive, and

. . . 156
it is being used as the base for several theses.

4. Relationship of curriculum to national development. As in

 

the Faculty of Science and Humanities, little attention is given to
instructing students in the relationship between the social sciences
and the development of Guatemala or the region. There are no courses
which treat national development issues. There is an attempt, how-
ever, to give students a strong multidisciplinary background in the

social sciences. Well over half the courses are required of all

228

students in the program and expose them to the major social science
disciplines. All students in the program take the same field research
experiences. But there is no attempt to demonstrate to the students
how to make a concerted effort, employing several disciplines, in

researching and solving social problems.

Research
The University attempts to identify national and regional
problems that can be solved through research conducted by its per-

sonnel alone or in cooperation with persons from other institutions.

The Institute of Research (IOR). The Institute of Research was

 

established in 1975 as a vehicle for directing and coordinating
many of the University's research activities. It is headed by a
coordinator who is assisted by the Advisory Council, composed of
the Coordinator, the Directive Council of the University, and the
. . 57

persons conducting research through the Institute.

Centers have been established within the Institute to permit
better supervision of research by general area: the Center for Edu-

cational Research (CER) and Center for Studies in Population,

Environment, and Natural Resources (CSPER).

1. Center for Educational Research. The purpose of the CER

 

is to direct "basic and developmental research projects
that are related to the needs of education in Guatemala

, 158
and Central America." To date, the CER has concentrated
on the continuation of the laboratory activities of the

American School of Guatemala.

229

Longitudinal study of child and adolescent development.

 

The CER now has complete responsibility for the longi-
tudinal study of child and adolescent development which
it conducts with little change from the original
research design. Indeed, methodological constraints

of a longitudinal study require continuity.

Data from the longitudinal study are stored on com-
puter cards and made available to scholars and researchers
on request. To date, the data have been used in several
studies by researchers in Guatemala and other countries.
Doctors Barry Bogin of Temple University and Robert
MacVean of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala wrote
their doctoral dissertations based on information from
the longitudinal study. Several Master's degree students
from the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala and the Uni-
versidad de San Carlos have utilized the data for
research projects. The Institute of Nutrition of
Central America and Panama (INCAP) has also used data
from the longitudinal study in several of its research
and development projects.

The CER now wishes to expand the study to investi-
gate the development patterns of pre-school urban chil-
dren and their relationship to the environment. A pro—
posal was prepared in 1979 by the CER to initiate the
pre-school study which would, among other things,

"Identify social and demographic characteristics, as

230

well as parental attitudes, values, and behaviors which
are associated, in a casual relationship, with varia-

. . . . . 160 _
bility in cognitive performance." The study Wlll be
longitudinal and has been designed so that pre-school
children will continually enter into the ongoing longi-
tudinal program. The study will begin as soon as fund-

ing is obtained.

Program in counselingpand scholarships for higher edu-

 

cation. The CER is responsible for administering the
Program in Counseling and Scholarships for Higher Edu-
cation mentioned earlier. The CER translated and
standardized the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) with
permission from the Psychological Testing Service. With
authorization from the Ministry of Education, the CER
administers the DAT to students in Guatemala City as well
as many departments. The original intent of the program
was simply to provide senior secondary students with
information about their aptitudes to aid them in deciding
what post-secondary education would be most appropriate
for them to pursue. This counseling program was judged
to be of importance because many Guatemalan secondary
schools provide no academic guidance and since students
must enter most career programs at Guatemalan universi-
ties without the benefit of general studies to further
orient them. If a student discovers after a year or

two that he has chosen incorrectly his field of study,

231

he either re-enrolls in another faculty as a freshman

or withdraws. Thus, in Guatemala, as in many Latin
American countries, it is necessary for students to
designate their area of specialization prior to entering
the university.161

When it became evident that talented youngsters
from poor families were unable to attend universities,
the Universidad del Valle began using the test scores
to identify highly qualified poor students as part of
a scholarship program designed to subsidize part of
their studies at any university in Guatemala.

The testing program takes several weeks to complete.
Prior to the test administration, the CER personnel are
sent to many schools in Guatemala to talk to adminis-
trators and students about the program. Then, over a
period of several Saturdays, students are transported
to the University from other schools in Guatemala City
to take the DAT. In addition, the CER staff visit the
capitals of fourteen other departments in Guatemala to
administer the DAT to senior secondary students there.
Over 4,000 graduating secondary students take the tests
each year, about 25 percent of all graduating students.

The tests are scored at the University Computer
Center; the results and interpretative information are
then sent to the students. The only cost to the stu—
dents is 50 cents for postage and handling in mailing

of the results.163

DWNH

O‘U')

232

c. Test development. In the area of test development, the

 

CER has focused primarily on the training of regional
personnel although it does continue to translate and
standardize some test materials. In 1970, the Organi—
zation of American States (OAS) named the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala a Multinational Center for Evalu-
ation and Educational Test Development. As such, the
University offers periodic workshops and follow-up
seminars on educational evaluation to in-service edu—
cators throughout the region. The CER is responsible
for organizing and directing these Multinational Center
activities. The workshops are usually a month long,
are attended by approximately twenty-five people, and
attempt to give the participants instruction in the
following:

fundamentals of educational evaluation;

the nature, use, and purposes of measurement in education;

measurement theory;

systems of evaluation and measurement;

development of objective tests;

organization of test administration programs;

analysis of test results; and
preparation of scales and reports

164

The CER occasionally administers psychological tests
to students in schools in the capital at the request of
the school administrators. For public schools, there is

no fee. For the private schools, there is a nominal fee

to pay for the costs.

233

Materials production. The CER has accomplished little

 

in the area of materials production. School personnel
from The American School of Guatemala continue to revise
and develop teaching materials under the direction of
the elementary principal who has been instrumental in

the program since it began in the early 19505.

2. Center for Studies in Population, Environment, and Natural

Resources.

The Center for Studies in Population, Environment, and

Natural Resources (CEPARN) began operations in 1977. The following

is a description of its activities to date.

165

Annotated bibliography of_population studies. The

 

first accomplishment of the CEPARN is an annotated
bibliography of research on population in Guatemala

from 1960 through 1968. This compilation was prepared
by Jorge Arias, Coordinator of the Institute of Research,
under a grant by AID. The CEPARN published the bib-

1iography and prepares annual supplements.

Roster of people and institutions. This is a survey of

 

people and institutions working in population and
environment programs in Central America, financed by

the Ford Foundation and prepared by Arias and his staff.

Pine bark beetle study. A pine bark beetle (Dendroctonus)

 

is destroying pine forests in many areas of Central
America. In 1978, the CEPARN began a sixteen-month

study to determine characteristics of the beetle and

234

to suggest ways for controlling or exterminating it.

In addition, the study explores the possibility of
developing pine trees resistant to the pine bark beetle.
Personnel from CARE, the Peace Corps, and the National
Forestry Institute of the Guatemalan Government (INAFOR)
are cooperating with the CEPARN in carrying out the
research. Dr. Michael Dix, a visiting faculty biologist-
ecologist from Harvard University, coordinates the study
with the assistance of students and professors of the
Universidad del Valle. The study is subsidized by the
University, CARE, the Peace Corps, the Bank of Guatemala,
and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC)

in Canada.

Soil improvement study. The CEPARN has begun a project

 

to develop a simple technology for soil improvement
without the use of chemical fertilizer. The project is
coordinated by Miguel Angel Canga-Arguelles, a chemical
engineer with a long-time interest in this area. With
the assistance of his students, he has made studies of
soil humus and has devised techniques which can be used
by small farmers throughout Guatemala. This work is
being carried out in coordination with an experimental
station near Quezaltenango supported by the Oxford Uni-

versity Worldwide Program Against Famine (OXFAM).

235

e. Energy sources. The CEPARN recently began a study of

 

simple technology for the use of solar and other energy
sources. The goal is to develop techniques which will
be used by small farmers. Dr. Jorge Antilldn, Coordi-
nator of the Faculty of Science and Humanities, is con-

ducting the research with the assistance of his students.

f. Small-farm study, Guatemala suffers from the effects of

 

minifundia. A project to study the ways of increasing
productivity of small farms and more readily deliver
their produce to the cities has been planned and will
soon begin operation. The research will require the
efforts of geographers, economists, anthropologists,

sociologists, and agriculturists.

9. Study of Guatemalan family composition. This is an

 

analysis using the 1973 census figures.

Other research. Some research conducted at the University takes place

 

outside the Institute of Research. One such project is research on
Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) and other vector—borne diseases.
River blindness is a disease carried by insects which live on fast—
moving bodies of water. They bore into the skin of human beings and
deposit eggs which eventually cause blindness. The disease is fairly
serious in the Guatemalan hinterland and a cure for it or the erradi-
cation of the insects will produce significant health benefits. The

project is being carried out in collaboration with the Bureau of

236

Tropical Diseases, Center for Disease Control (U.S. Public Health

Service), and the Guatemalan National Service for Malaria Eradi-
. 166

cation.

The University plans to open other centers within the Insti-
tute in energy: mathematics, applied science, and other areas when
resources permit. In the meantime some research is conducted
directly through the teaching faculties using the personnel and

funds within the University. Many of the professors are conducting

research in the natural and social sciences.

Dissemination of research. The dissemination of research is limited

 

at the University. The Licenciatura and Master's degree theses are

 

published but are limited to a few copies each and are not systemati-
cally sent to other institutions. Some of the research conducted by

the professors is published in professional journals abroad. It was

evident from the interviews of professors that there is little knowl-
edge of what research is being conducted in other departments within

the University.

At the completion of this study, the Institute of Research
was preparing the first issue of an internal newsletter to communicate
to students and faculty regarding the major activities taking place
at the University in an effort to:

l. widen understanding of important University activities;

2. increase communication between persons with similar
interests;

3. recognize the efforts of those engaged in research and
innovative teaching;

4. provide a stimulus to those who have good ideas but
who are hesitant to take action on them;

5. increase the number of people who identify with the
University;

237

6. improve the understanding of the aims of the University;
and
7. give a better idea of the important contributions the
University is making to the needs of individuals, the
nation, and the region.167
The first issue contained information about the library,
transportation, and scholarships; an editorial about the importance
of this new newsletter; a questionnaire concerning the newsletter;
and a description of several current research projects being conducted
by members of the staff. Future issues will contain a history of the

. . . . . . . 168
UniverSity, its aims, and the ways in which they are being met.

Service

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala provides a variety of
services to Guatemala and the region. The following is a listing of
those services, some of which were described earlier, others which

are described for the first time.

Materials production. The materials production program which the

 

University conducts in cooperation with the School has made available

much low-cost reading materials to poor families throughout Guatemala.

Test development. The test development program has provided standard—

 

ized intelligence, achievement, and interest tests in Spanish which
are used by many institutions in Guatemala and the region for evalu-
ation, diagnosis, and selection. The University has cooperated with
other universities in Central America in the development of test pro-
grams and courses on measurement and evaluation. The University also
offers seminars and short courses on measurement and evaluation to

. l
educators throughout the region.

238

Testing. The University administers two testing programs which are
of service to schools and students in Guatemala. One is a program

of intelligence and achievement testing in twenty urban and rural
schools in Guatemala, which includes administering the tests, scoring
them, preparing scales and individual profiles, and talks with stu-
dents and teachers to interpret the results. The other is the
vocational guidance program in which tests are administered to
hundreds of graduating students each year with the results made
available to their schools. This program is also used to select

170
students for scholarships.

United Brands Foundation Scholarship Program. Since 1969, the Uni-

 

versity has administered a scholarship program for the United Brands
Foundation. The Scholarships are for university study in engineering,
mathematics, biological sciences, chemistry, and health; they are
available to persons in any of the countries in which United Brands
operates for study in those countries or, for a few students, study
in the United States.

The University is in charge of the admissions testing in
each of the countries, selecting the scholarship recipients, orient-
ing the students, dispersing the funds, supervising the students'
progress and acting as an intermediary between the scholarship stu-
dents and United Brands Foundation. The University uses aptitude
and general ability tests which it adopted to aid in the selection

171
process.

239

Education in Human Development. The first major project of the

 

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala to address national needs, and
the most extensive of its service activities, is the Education in
Human Development Program initiated in 1968. It was the thinking of
University officials that the fast increasing population in Guatemala,
and all the problems that accompany such a phenomenon, required some
kind of educational program on a national level to prepare Guatemalans
in such matters as sexual behavior, family responsibility, demographic
growth, and human ecology. Accordingly an extensive program was
planned to accomplish the following purposes:
1. train elementary and secondary teachers to give instruction
in the field of human development;
2. develop a curriculum, based on research and experimentation,
for use in the nation's schools; and
3. prepare teaching materials to be used in the training of
teachers and by them in their classrooms.172

The Education in Human Development Program has evolved in two

phases which are described briefly below.

1. Phase one. Phase one of the Education in Human Development
Program, which ran from 1968 to 1975, was a tripartite project,
financed by AID and the Ministry of Education, with the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala providing personnel, installations, and
materials. Phase one included three components: teacher training,
development of curriculum, and preparation of teaching materials. 73

From 1968 to 1975, the University offered several kinds of
training activities in human development to about 4,000 educators

throughout Guatemala. Several courses offered at the University were

given to about 200 school administrators, guidance counselors,

240

supervisors, and secondary teachers to prepare them as leaders in
the area of human development education. A series of one-month
courses was given to about 3,000 teachers throughout the country
to train them for working directly in the classroom in the field of
human development.174

A novel training project was a series of one-week courses
given in nearly all of the departments of Guatemala to train teachers,
students, and parents in a variety of human development subjects.
University personnel moved into a community for a week, working about
twelve hours a day with students, teachers, and parents. In the
morning, the personnel worked with the students in the classrooms
while their teachers observed. In the afternoon, the personnel
trained the teachers in education in human development techniques,
using the morning's experience for examples. In the evening the
personnel gave lectures to the parents with some students and
teachers in attendance. This approach to training had many advan-
tages. It permitted the expert University personnel to have direct
access to students and their parents to give them instruction related
to their daily lives, answer questions, and correct misconceptions.
It enhanced the instruction of the teachers since they could see
correct teaching techniques being used in the classroom with their
students. It also made the important point that a good educational
program should involve the participation of teachers, students, and
parents. Although exact figures were not kept, it is estimated that
800 teachers, 8,000 parents, and 18,000 primary and secondary stu-
dents received training through this part of the Education in Human

175 ~
Development Program.

241

By the end of the first phase of the Program, it is esti-
mated that at least one teacher in each of 222 of the 226 Munici-
palities in Guatemala had received one of its training courses.176

University personnel developed a complete set of curriculum
guides for use in kindergarten through secondary schools. Although
the Ministry of Education has not adopted them officially for required
use in the national schools, they are recommended as a teaching
resource in the official guides the Ministry provides to the schools
and are used by many teachers.177

University personnel have developed a variety of materials
for use as classroom teaching aides. Eleven resource guides were
prepared to accompany the curriculum guides mentioned above. The
resource guides contain models of flannelgraphs, posters, diagrams,
graphs, charts, worksheets, and information sheets on a variety of
topics such as ecology and natural resources; descriptions of edu-
cational games, manual and art projects; and instructions concerning
teaching methods and techniques.178

Several pamphlets, written in simple language, were prepared
describing sexual growth and development of pre—adolescents and
adolescents. Other pamphlets on mental health and general health
were prepared. In addition, a statistical description of Guatemala
entitled Population of Guatemala Today and Tomorrow was prepared for

. . 179
use by secondary and univerSity students and teachers.

 

A series of posters and other kinds of audio-visual teaching
aids have been prepared for use in the teaching of human development.

Much of the material produced has been published in quantity for

242

widespread use in Guatemala. Other materials are kept at the Uni-

- . . . 18
verSity and lent to schools and indiViduals. O

2. Phase two. The second, and present, phase of the Education
in Human Development Program is financed by Development Associates.
There has been a shift of emphasis in the second phase of the Program
away from the training of classroom teachers, students, and parents
in Guatemala toward the training of educational leaders throughout
the region. Since 1976, the Education in Human Development Program
has given seven major regional workshops to medical doctors, psycho-
logists, social workers, teachers, guidance counselors, and ministry
of education personnel from twelve Latin American countries. To date,
160 educational leaders have participated in these month-long regional
workshops. 81

In the second phase, the major emphasis of the training has
been on matters related to family planning and sex education. Given
this emphasis, the Regional Committee for Sex Education in Latin
America and the Caribbean (CRESALC) has given some financial support
to the program to help fund two of the regional workshops, one in
El Salvador and one in Honduras.

In addition to the month-long regional workshops, the Education
in Human Development Program conducts a variety of follow-up activi-
ties with the workshop participants, sending them recent information
and materials and asking them for descriptions of the work they are
carrying out in their countries. Often ex-participants will send the

University their plans for human development projects for consultation.

243

Program personnel also offer follow-up materials, infor-
mation, and workshops for the Guatemalan teachers in phase one.
Program personnel have prepared sex education programs for several
schools in Guatemala and lend materials from the University's grow—

ing human development library.18

CHAPTER 4--NOTES

l .
Frank H. Bowles, "Stages of Educational Development,"
Higher Education and Social Changg, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 448.

 

2 .

Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, Executive Secretary,
Fundaci6n de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal inter-
view, Guatemala, August 17, 1979.

3Colegio Americano de Guatemala, Escuela de Ensayo, Informe
Anual 1972 (Guatemala: Colegio Americano de Guatemala, 1972),

pp. 3, 5.

4 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

5"Guatemalan Scholarship Association" (Guatemala: Guatemalan
Scholarship Association, January 1979), p. l. (Mimeographed.)

6Ibid.

7Colegio Americano de Guatemala, Escuela de Ensayo, Informe
Anual 1972, op. cit., pp. 81-82.

8 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

9Clair J. Butterfield, Stephen M. Corey and Kenneth J. Rehage,
"An Appraisal of the Laboratory School Activities of the American
School of Guatemala" (Guatemala: The American School of Guatemala,
August 28, 1954), p. 5. (Mimeographed.)

10Ibid., p. 5.

11Herbert G. Vaughan, "The American School of Guatemala and
Its Relation to Guatemalan Education: A Descriptive Case Study"
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968),
p. 205.

244

245

2Colegio Americano de Guatemala, Escuela de Ensayo, Informe
Anual 1972, op. Cit., pp. 47-53.

 

3 .
1 Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

l4"Biannual Report for the Inter—American Schools Service of

the American Council on Education, Washington, D.C." (Guatemala,
American School of Guatemala, 1955), pp. 30-31. (Mimeographed.)

5"Biannual Report for the Inter-American Schools Service of
the American Council on Education, Washington, D.C., Final Report
1956" (Guatemala, American School of Guatemala, 1956), p. 10.
(Mimeographed.)

16Herbert G. Vaughan, op. cit., pp. 201-202.

l7Ibid., pp. 202-203.

18Ibid., p. 204.

19Statement by Licenciado Francisco Nieves, Coordinator of

the University College, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal
interview, Guatemala, July 18, 1979.

20 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

21 . . .
Statement by Dr. Olga Marina GarCia Salas, ASSistant
Principal Elementary School, The American School of Guatemala, personal
interview, Guatemala, March 18, 1979.

22Ibid.

23 . . . . . .
"Cooperative Program in In-SerVice Training and Curriculum

Development" (Guatemala: Ministry of Education, Servicio Cooperativo
Interamericano de Educaci6n, The American School of Guatemala, 1957),
p. 10. (Mimeographed.)

24Herbert G. Vaughan, op. cit., p. 221.
25 . . .
Statement by Dr. Olga Marina GarCia Salas, loc. Cit.

26"Description of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala"
(Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, January 1978), P. 2.
(Mimeographed.)

246

27Ibid., p. 3.

28Ibid., pp. 3-6.

291bid., p. 2.

30 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

lFundacic’m de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
Programa de Desarrollo (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, October 1976), p. 3.

 

2 . . .
3 Statement by LicenCiado Daniel Contrer as, Secretary of

the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal interview, Guatemala,
September 13, 1979.

3"Estatutos" (Guatemala: Fundacién de la Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, 1977), p. 3. (Mimeographed.)

34Ibid., p. 2.

35Ibid., p. 4.

36Ibid., p. 5.

37Ibid.- pp. 5-6.

38Ibid., p. 7.

39 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

4O"Guia para Estudiantes" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala, February 1977), p. 4. (Mimeographed.)

41"Informe del Consejo Directivo de la Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala al Consejo de Fiduciarios de la Fundacién de la Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, September 1979), p. iii. (Mimeographed.)

42"Description of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,"

op. Cit., p. 23.

43Interview Schedule Number 4.

247

4"Reglamento Academico de la Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, March
1979), p. l. (Mimeographed.)

45 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

6Statement by Licenciada Gloria Aguilar, Coordinator,
Faculty of Education, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal
interview, Guatemala, September 10, 1979.

47 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

48Ibid.

9 . . . . .

Statement by LicenCiada Beatriz Molina 8., Director,
Department of Psychology, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
personal interview, Guatemala, September 13, 1979.

50Ibid.

51 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

52"Universidad del Valle de Guatemala" (Guatemala: Uni-

versidad del Valle de Guatemala, January 1978), p. 3. (Mimeographed.)

I

S3"Guia para Estudiantes," op. Cit., p. 7.

4'fReglamento Académico de la Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala," op. cit., p. 4.

55 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

6 . . . . . .
5 Jonathan Kandell, "UniverSities of Latin American in

Political and Academic Decline," The New York Times (Tuesday,
November 30, 1976), pp. 1, l4.

 

57Statement by Licenciado Francisco Nieves, loc. cit.

58Statement by Licenciado Daniel Contrer as, loc. Cit.

59"Reglamento Académico de la Universidad del Valle de

Guatemala," loc. Cit.

248

60 . . . .
Statement by LicenCiado Daniel Contrer as, loC. Cit.

61Ibid.

2 .
6 Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

63Ibid.

4Statement by Ingeniero Julio del Pinal, director of Com-
puter Science Program, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal
interview, September 9, 1979.

651bid.

66Ibid.

67 . . . .
Statement by Gertrude Hunt, Head Librarian, UniverSidad

del Valle de Guatemala, personal interview, Guatemala, September 6,
1979.

8"Brief Overview of Resources Which Support the Academic
Programs and the Institute of Research" (Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, January 1978), P- 1. (Mimeographed.)

69Statement by Gertrude Hunt, loc. cit.

7OIbid.

71Ibid.

72Ibid.

7 . . . .
3"Brief OverView of Resources Which Support the Academic

Programs and the Institute of Research," loc. Cit.

74"Preserve Land Tracts to Serve as Research-Conservation-
Demonstration Areas" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
1978). (Mimeographed.)

75Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

76Statement by Licenciado Daniel Contrer as, loc. cit.

77Ibid.

249

781bid.

9 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

80"History and Development of The American School of
Guatemala and The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala" (Guatemala:
Fundacion de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, August 1975),
p. 17. (Mimeographed.)

81 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

82Ibid.

8 . .
3"History and Development of The American School of
Guatemala and The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala," loc. cit.

4 f . .
"Guia para Estudiantes," op. Cit., p. 5.

85"History and Development of The American School of Guatemala
and The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala," op. cit., p. 7.

86 f . .
"Guia para Estudiantes," op. Cit., p. 6.

87"Informe No. 9 al 31 de Diciembre de 1978, Preparado Para

el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo" (Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, March 19, 1979), Chart E-S. (Mimeographed.)

88Ibid., Chart E-IV.

89Statement by Licenciado Daniel Contrer as, loc. Cit.

golbid.

91Ibid.

2 . . . . . . .
9 Richard G. King and others, The Prov1nCial UniverSities of

Mexico: An Analysis of Growth and Development (New York: Praeger
Publishers, 1971), p. 58.

 

 

93"Informe del Consejo Directivo de la Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala a1 Consejo de Fiduciarios de la Fundaci6n de la Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala, September 1978), pp. 23-25. (Mimeographed.)

250

4 . . . . .
Statement by LicenCiado FranCisco Nieves, loc. Cit.
95" f . ,, .
Guia para Estudiantes, loc. Cit.
Statement by Licenciado Francisco Nieves, loc. cit.

7 » . . .
"Proyecto de Reglamento Academico" (Guatemala: UniverSidad
del Valle de Guatemala, March 16, 1979), P. l. (Mimeographed.)

98"Description of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,"
op. cit., p. 5.

99Ibid., p. 9.

100 . . . . .
Statement by LicenCiado FranCisco Nieves, loc. Cit.

lOlIbid.

102Ibid.

103 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

104"Informe del Consejo Directivo de la Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala al Consejo de Fiduciarios de la Fundacion de la Uni—
versidad del Valle de Guatemala" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala, September 1979), p. 5. (Mimeographed.)

5 . . . . .
10 Statement by LicenCiado FranCisco Nieves, loc. Cit.

0 . . . . .
1 6Statement by LicenCiada Gloria Aguilar, loc. Cit.

107"Facultad de Educacion" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala, July 1979). (Mimeographed.)

108Ibid.

109Ibid.

110Ibid.

111Statement by Licenciada Gloria Aguilar, loc. cit.

112Ibid.

251

113"Informe del Consejo Directivo de la Universidad del

Valle de Guatemala al Consejo de Fiduciarios de la Fundaci6n de
la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala," op. cit., p. 9.

114Ibid.

115Statement by Licenciada Gloria Aguilar, loc. cit.

116Ibid.

117Ibid.

118 . . . .
Statement by LicenCiado Daniel Contrer as, loc. Cit.

119 . .
Statement by Dr. Otto Gilbert, Director of Master's

Program in Educational Measurement, Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, personal interview, Guatemala, September 15, 1979.

120 . f . _, .’
"Programa Regional, Maestria en MediCion, EvaluaCion e

Investigacion Educativa (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala, February-November 1979). (Mimeographed.)

2 . . . . .
1 1Statement by LicenCiada Gloria Aguilar, loc. Cit.

122Ibid.

123Ibid.

24 f . .
1 "Guia para Estudiantes," op. Cit., p. 11.

125Ibid.

1261bid., pp. 11-12.

127 . .
Statement by Dr. Jorge Antillon, Coordinator, Faculty of

Science and Humanities, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal
interview, Guatemala, August 28, 1979.

128Ibid.

129Ibid.

130Ibid.

252

131 . . . . . .
"LicenCiatura in Agricultural SCience" (Guatemala: Un1-

versidad del Valle de Guatemala, January 1979), p. l. (Mimeographed.)

132Ibid., pp. 2-3.

33 . . . .
1 "Program in Agriculture" (Guatemala: UniverSidad del

Valle de Guatemala, January 1976), p. 2. (Mimeographed draft.)

134"Scholarships for Post-Technical Agricultural Science

Program" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, January
1979), p. l. (Mimeographed.)

l3SIbid., pp. 1-2.

l36Ibid., pp. 1-3.

137 . . . .
"LicenCiatura in Food SCience and Technology" (Guatemala:

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, January 1979), p. l. (Mimeo-
graphed.)

138Ibid., pp. l-2.

139"Informe del Consejo Directivo de la Universidad del

Valle de Guatemala a1 Consejo de Fiduciarios de la Fundacion de la
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala" (Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, January 1979), p. 3. (Mimeographed.)

140 .
Statement by Dr. Robert B. MacVean, loc. Cit.

141Statement by Licenciado Daniel Cantrer as, loc. Cit.
142 . . . .
Medical Entomology Research and Training Unit/Guatemala,

"Program Description" (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Tropical
Diseases, Center for Disease Control, U.S. Public Health Service,
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1979). (Mimeographed.)

143Ibid.

144Ibid.

145" . . u -

Guia para Estudiantes, op. Cit., p. 23.
146

"Facultad de Ciencias Sociales" (Guatemala: Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala, October 1974), p. l. (Mimeographed.)

253

147 f . .
"Guia para Estudiantes," loc. Cit.

148"Facultad de Ciencias Sociales," op. Cit., pp. 2-3.

149Statement by Dr. Alfredo Mendez, Coordinator of Faculty

of Social Science, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, personal
interview, Guatemala, September 12, 1979.

0 . . . .
15 "Field Research in the Undergraduate SOCial SCience Pro-

gram" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, March 1977),
p. l. (Mimeographed.)

lSIIbid., pp. 1-2.

152Ibid., pp. 2-4.

153Ibid., pp. 2-3.

154

Ibid., p. 3.
155Ibid., p. 4.
156Ibid.

157

Statement by Ingeniero Jorgeo Arias, Former Rector,
Universidad de San Carlos, personal interview, Guatemala, October 17,
1979.

158"Description of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,"

op. Cit., p. 15.

159 . . . . .
Statement by LicenCiada Beatriz Molina S., loc. Cit.

160"Socio-Cultural Correlates of Cognitive and Physical

Development in Urban Pre—School Guatemalan Children; a Summary of
a Proposal" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, January
1979), p. 2. (Mimeographed.)

161"Proposal to Improve the Guidance and Scholarship Program

for Higher Education" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
January 1979), pp. 1-5. (Mimeographed.)

62 . . . . .
1 Statement by LicenCiada Beatriz Molina S., loc. Cit.

254

163Ibid.

64 . . . .»
l Proyecto MultinaCional OrganizaCion de los Estados

Americanos, Adiestramiento en Desarrollo de Pruebas Educativas
(Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, March 1978).

 

165"Description of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,"

op. cit., pp. 18-21.

6 . .
16 "Request to the World Health Organization to Support

Research and Training in Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) and other
Vector-Borne Diseases" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala, January 1979), p. l. (Mimeographed.)

167 . .
Statement by Dr. Freeman Clark, Professor, UniverSidad del

Valle de Guatemala, personal interview, Guatemala, October 8, 1979.

168Ibid.

69 . . .
1 "Status of PrOjects and Requests" (Guatemala: UniverSidad

del Valle de Guatemala, May 1977), pp. 47-51. (Mimeographed.)

170 . . . .
Statement by LicenCiado Daniel Contreras, loc. Cit.

7 . .,
l 1"Programa de Ayuda EducaCional" (Guatemala: FundaCion

United Brands, Compania Bananera de Costa Rica, 1976). (Mimeographed.)

172Gloria J. Aguilar P., "Informe Final del Trabajo Realizado

por el Programa de Educacion para el Desarrollo Humano desde sus
Inicios el 1 de Agosto de 1968 Hasta su Clausura e1 31 de Diciembre
de 1976" (Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, 1977), p. 2.
(Mimeographed.)

73 . . . . .
1 Statement by LicenCiada Gloria Aguilar, loc. Cit.

174Gloria J. Aguilar P., op. Cit., p. 117.

175 . . . . .
Statement by LicenCiada Gloria Aguilar, loc. Cit.

176Ibid.

177

Gloria J. Aguilar P., loc. cit.

178Ibid., p. 118.

255

179 . . . . .
Statement by LicenCiada Gloria Aguilar, loc. Cit.

18OIbid.

181 . . . .
Statement by LicenCiada Eugenia de Monterroso, Director,

Education in Human Development Program, Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, personal interview, Guatemala, September 5, 1979.

182Ibid.

183Ibid.

Chapter 5

SURVEY METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

METHODOLOGY

Objectives

 

The writer used survey research techniques to gather facts
and opinions from Guatemalan educational leaders and personnel at
the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. Guatemalan educational
leaders were surveyed in order to bring to this study the views of
local experts concerning the country's problems and role of its uni-
versities in contributing to their solution. Students, teachers,
administrators, and trustees of the Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala were surveyed not only to gather information to describe the
institution, but also to obtain opinions and perceptions of various
groups of persons associated with the University concerning its aims,
programs, organization, and role as a contributor to national develop-

ment.

Selecting the Instruments

 

Two kinds of instruments were employed: a Closed-form ques—
tionnaire and a semi—structured interview. A Closed-form question-
naire, administered to the students at the Universidad del Valle de

Guatemala, was used because it is an effective way to gather

256

257

substantial amounts of information from a large number of respon-
dents. In addition, the writer had access to a computer facility
which made the processing of a questionnaire feasible.

A semi-structured interview, administered to professors,
administrators, and trustees at the Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala and leaders in Guatemalan education, was used because (1) a
give-and-take, open-ended survey technique is advisable when attempt—
ing to explore as fully as possible the judgment of experts;1
(2) research indicates that a higher rate of response is obtained
from personal interviews than from questionnaires, a matter of
importance considering the relatively small sample size and result-
ing need for a high rate of response;2 and (3) the limited number of

respondents made such a technique feasible.

Selecting the Sample

 

The questionnaire was administered to all the students pre-
sently enrolled in the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. All of
the University administrators and two trustees were interviewed.
Professors were selected at random using a table of random numbers.
The writer obtained 100 percent response from the selected sample.

To select the educational leaders, the writer requested five
educators respected in Guatemala and knowledgeable about educational
matters at the national level to prepare a list of leaders in edu-
cation in Guatemala. They were instructed to Choose the names on
the basis of prominence, not on the basis of personal acquaintance,
political point of view, or other criteria which might bias the

sample. The writer Chose the fifteen names most often mentioned by

258

his five informants and was able to obtain interviews with thirteen.
Those interviewed represent a spectrum of political, economic, and

educational views.

Preparing the Survey Instruments

 

The questionnaire was written in several stages. Drafts
were prepared and reviewed by two persons with doctoral degrees in
education. The completed draft was translated into Spanish and
then pretested on five Universidad del Valle de Guatemala students.
After the pretest, the students were interviewed regarding their
reactions to the questionnaire. On the basis of a careful analysis
of their responses, several questions were omitted, others modified,
and some added. At this point, the questionnaire was reviewed by
Dr. Richard L. Featherstone, Professor in the Department of Higher
Education at Michigan State University. His recommendations were
incorporated in the instrument; then the questionnaire was pre-
tested and modified a final time.

The interview instruments were prepared in much the same way
as the questionnaire: (1) several drafts were written using the
same readers for advice, (2) a pretest was conducted followed by
analysis of responses and modifications, (3) Dr. Featherstone
reviewed the instrument and made suggestions, (4) a second pretest
was given, and (5) final modifications were made. Copies of the

interview instruments are in the appendices.

Administering the Surveinnstruments

 

The writer obtained the voluntary help of personnel from the

American School of Guatemala to administer the questionnaire.

259

Several days before the questionnaires were to be administered, the
volunteers met with the writer to take the questionnaire themselves
and receive instructions on test administration. The following
week, the volunteers went to the classrooms at pre-arranged times;
explained the purpose of the questionnaire to the students; dis-
tributed the instruments, computer answer cards, and pencils; gave
instructions; answered questions; and collected the materials at
the end of the session. The average length of each session was
forty-five minutes.

The writer conducted all of the interviews because of his
knowledge of the subject matter and the need for him to interact
with each respondent. A long-time resident of Guatemala, the writer
speaks Spanish fluently and is familiar with local customs and
amenities, factors which contribute to effective interviews.

The interviews were arranged by intermediaries (known both
by the writer and the respondent) who gave each respondent infor-
mation about the writer's position in Guatemala and his reason for
requesting an interview. The intermediaries were asked to assure
the respondents that the writer would handle the interview infor-
mation with appropriate confidentiality.

RESULTS OF THE INTERVIEWS OF GUATEMALAN
EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
The writer interviewed thirteen leaders of education in

Guatemala as follows:

1. Former Rector of the Universidad de San Carlos,

2. Rector of the Universidad Francisco Marroquin,

260

3. Rector of the Universidad Mariano Galvez,
4. Rector of the Universidad Rafael Landivar,
5. Rector of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
6. Vice-Minister of Education,
7. Former Minister of Education,
8. Former Vice—Minister of Education,
9. Acting Director of the Planning and Research Office of
the Ministry of Education,
10. Director of the Nutritional Institute for Central America
and Panama,
11. Director of the Central American Institute for Industrial
Research and Technology,
12. Secretary General of the Federation of Private Universities
in Central America and Panama,
13. Assistant to the Director of the Organization of American

States in Guatemala

The sample includes representatives of public and private
university education, national and international organizations,
political and technical positions; all are directly involved in
education as it relates to development. The people interviewed
represent a spectrum of political beliefs. The writer was surprised
by the enthusiasm of the leaders for the interviews, a phenomenon
which manifested itself in the amount of time the respondents gave
him. Although the writer requested a half hour, the shortest inter-

view lasted over an hour. Several lasted about two hours, and one

261

had to be terminated after nearly four hours in order for the writer
to meet an appointment with another respondent.

The following is a summary of the responses to each of the
interview questions. For ease in reading, the questions are placed

prior to each of the summaries.

Interview Question 1

 

What modifications, if any, would you made in the defi-
nition of national development which I have just given you?

The process by which a nation maximizes its physical
power and productive capacities, making the most of avail-
able natural and human resources, in order to increase the
level of living for its people in general, not just a few,
and to free the potential of its people to share in the
determination of the goals of their society.

Several leaders thought it important to define "the level of
living" as including social, cultural, economic, biological, and
political aspects. One respondent indicated that expanding the
decision-making power of the people might not result in the best
political decisions with regard to the most efficient use of

resources. In general, however, the respondents expressed agreement

with the definition.

Interview Question 2

 

From your point of view, what are the major problems
which Guatemala confronts in its attempt to develop?

There was general agreement among the respondents on the
basic development problems which exist in Guatemala. Indeed, most
of the problems given by the respondents are similar to those found

in most of the developing world.

262

Insufficient and inappropriate education. All respondents talked of

 

the need to improve education in Guatemala. The general reasoning
was that development depends to a great degree on the presence of
trained human resources. Thus, the low levels of enrollment in ele-
mentary, secondary, and tertiary education were seen as serious
problems toward which a major remedial effort should be directed.
Most argued, however, that simply increasing the percentage of
enrollment in educational institutions is not sufficient, for much
of the education presently offered in Guatemala is not suitable to
the nation's development needs. Many respondents pointed out that
(1) whereas most of the population live in rural areas, the national
curriculum is aimed primarily at urban people, and (2) instruction
still tends to require rote memory rather than critical thinking

and understanding. Several leaders criticized the inappropriateness
of much university education in Guatemala, especially the emphasis
on traditional careers and the humanities.

All of the respondents also indicated that illiteracy is an
educational problem in Guatemala. The problem is particularly acute
in Guatemala since about half the population are non-native speakers
of Spanish. Several respondents indicated a need to prepare curricula

appropriate for literacy progress in rural areas.

Poor health. Ten of the leaders pointed to poor health as a major

 

obstacle to development. They saw longer life spans, freedom from
pain and disease, and physical well-being as conditions desirable
in themselves. They also saw good health as a means to an end in

that healthy people are more productive. Five respondents cited

263

figures showing low caloric and protein intake of much of the popu-

lation and stressed the need to better feed the nation.

Lack of technology. Eight respondents mentioned the lack of tech-

 

nology as a major obstacle to Guatemalan development. They pointed
out the need to prepare people not only to develop basic technology

but to adapt the technology developed elsewhere to Guatemala's needs.

Low productivity, Eight leaders Cited the low productivity in agri-

 

culture and industry as a serious obstacle to national development.
There were differences of opinion as to whether the emphasis should
be put on increasing productivity in the agricultural sector or the
industrial sector. The consensus of opinion, however, was that
attention must be given to both. Several pointed out that Guatemala
is an agricultural country capable of feeding itself as well as most
of Central America but that it is still importing food. They argued
that major increases in food production would not only improve the
nutrition and health of the nation but also provide a solid economic

base for industrial production.

Poor distribution of wealth. It was generally reCOgnized that most

 

of the country's wealth is controlled by a small part of the popu-
lation, while the majority of the population lives in mild to extreme
poverty. The political persuasion of the respondent seemed unrelated
to his conviction that a better distribution of wealth is important
to the development process.

Related to poor distribution of wealth is unemployment and

under-employment. Several respondents mentioned the need to develop

264

ways to provide work for those who want to and are able to work

and to match work to capabilities.

Lack of democracy. Six respondents pointed out that the political

 

and economic decisions in Guatemala are made by a small group of

people.

Inadequate infrastructure. Five leaders said that the nation lacks

 

sufficient and adequate roads, power plants, water supply, sewerage,
and housing. The inadequacy of the infrastructure makes economic
progress difficult and contributes to the squalor in which many

Guatemalans live.

Lack of social integration. Four leaders said that they thought that

 

one of the greatest obstacles to development in Guatemala is the
lack of social integration, i.e., the cultural split between Ladinos
and Indians. It was pointed out that there must be some kind of
social integration so that the nation unites on attacking develop-
ment problems and so that the fruits of development are spread more
evenly. At the moment, the Indians are almost universally on the

margin of modern society in Guatemala.

Interrelatedness of Guatemala's problems. Several leaders pointed

 

out that it is impossible to discuss Guatemala's development problems
as separate matters. Good health, for example, contributes to
improved attendance at schools. Conversely, increased education

will contribute to better health.

265

Interview Question 3

 

What are Guatemalan universities doing to contribute
to national development?

Most of the respondents said that universities are not doing

as much as they should to contribute to Guatemala's development.

They were critical of the tendency of universities to offer programs

in areas such as law, which are already over-supplied, while making

little or no attempt to offer programs in areas of great national

 

need. The following programs were mentioned as helpful in national
development:

1. secondary school teacher certification programs offered
by several universities;

2. intermediate courses in such areas as tourism, social pro-
motion, medical visitation of the kind offered by Rafael
Landivar and Mariano Galvez;

3. Licenciaturas in sciences and the social sciences offered
by the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala;

4. community service requirements by San Carlos; and

5. social and scientific research carried out at the

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.

Interview Question 4

 

What more, if anything, should Guatemalan universities
do to enhance their contribution to national development?

Six respondents recommended the addition of degree programs

in agriculture, biology, physics, mathematics, chemistry, and the

social sciences. Four indicated that universities should offer

266

more intermediate programs in technical fields. Several suggested
that universities give more emphasis to community service, although
most recognized that it is not easy to carry out feasible programs.

Many of the respondents said that the most important addition

universities should make in their programs is that of research,
particularly social and scientific research as opposed to techno-
logical research. As a rector of one of the universities put it,

We do not have the sophisticated equipment or the highly
trained personnel to make much impact on technology. It is
better to train people to adapt technology already available
from developed nations and place our research emphasis on the
social problems peculiar to our country and on biological and
agricultural research to address the health, nutrition, and
food production needs of Guatemala.3

The following are research topics suggested by the respondents

as appropriate for universities and which would contribute to national

development:

1. descriptions of the social, economic, and educational
reality of Guatemala;

2. manpower studies to determine which kinds of training
will be needed and how many people need to be trained in
each area;

3. raw materials studies;

4. sociological studies to determine how to integrate the
Indians into the mainstream without destroying their
culture;

5. agricultural research and development to increase food

production;

267

6. medical research to overcome common diseases;
7. research and development on low-cost energy technologies;
and

8. research on methods of reducing deforestation.

Interview Question 5

 

What role should a general studies program play, or not

play, in a university which aims to prepare people

capable of helping in the development of a nation?

General studies was thought to be an excellent concept in
university education but not easy to effectuate. Seven respondents
expressed the idea that development requires people with both spe—

cific training and a general educational base since development is

a complex process. Four referred to the concept of an "hombre culto,"

 

a cultivated man, and the need for a balance between the sciences
and humanities in the education of professionals. As one respondent
stated, "It is impossible to be an authentic humanist and turn one's
back on economic problems, or be an economist without understanding
social behavior."4

It was pointed out that general studies had not survived at
San Carlos because students and professors were against the program.
Some professors did not support the general studies program because
it reduced the power of the faculty system which, until the advent
of general studies, was almost all powerful.

The only university in Guatemala with a general studies
program is the Universidad del Valle. The rectors of the other

private universities described some attempt to include requirements

268

of a general studies nature throughout the students' university

studies but with each faculty in Charge of offering the courses.

Interview Qpestion 6

 

Is the political activity of students on campus a help

or a hindrance to the national development function of

a university?

The replies to question six ranged from absolute rejection
of to qualified support for the idea of student political activity
on campus. Support was nearly always accompanied by the caveat
that manipulation of students by outside political groups, as is
often the case at national universities, is unacceptable. The
respondents objected to the use of strikes, violence, and other
kinds of obstruction of the university functions. However, most
expressed the belief that the training of responsible Citizens
entails a recognition and analysis of social problems and some skill
in solving them through the political process. All agreed that
there should be academic freedom on campus and the opportunity to
study various ideologies and points of view without harassment or
indoctrination. Two respondents Cited indoctrination as an inappro-
priate and unfortunate phenomenon on the two campuses of San Carlos
and Francisco Marroquin.

Three respondents remarked that only a minority of students
at San Carlos actively participate in politics. As a case in point,
a recent student government election was Cited in which less than
5 percent of the students voted. Two persons suggested that most
of the students at San Carlos consent to strikes and other disruptive

activity out of fear or apathy rather than deep conviction. Two

269

respondents ventured a guess that one of the reasons the private
universities have become so successful is that many students are
repelled by the politics, indoctrination, and general obstruction

to the educational process that is rife at San Carlos.

Interviepruestion 7

 

To what extent should students participate in
university affairs?

One respondent argued that students should have an active
role on decision—making councils and voting in the election of uni-
versity officials. The majority, however, expressed a belief that
students should be listened to but should have no vote in decision
making. Several respondents deplored the influence of students at
the national university and thought that, generally speaking, major
decisions at a university should be made by the administrators and
to a lesser extent the professors. Several persons did recommend
that students participate in planning research and community service

projects.

Interview Question 8

 

To what extent should professors participate in
university affairs?

The answers to question eight varied; the general reaction
was that professors should have some say in academic decisions but
little in administrative decisions. Two people pointed out that
given the system of part-time professors who spend only enough time
at the university to give their Classes, decision making by the pro-
fessors is not recommended since they have little knowledge about

the affairs of the university.

270

Interview Question 9

 

Should elementary teachers be trained at the uni-
versities, normal schools, or both?

Most respondents believed that Guatemala has reached a point
in its development at which it is feasible to begin to train ele-
mentary teachers at the universities; Several respondents pointed
out that all of Guatemala's urban elementary school teachers hold
a normal school diploma and that there are now many more trained
elementary teachers than there are positions in urban schools.

The major obstacle to mass education of elementary school
teachers in universities is lack of an economic incentive. Several
respondents noted that secondary school teachers' salaries are much
higher than those for elementary school teachers. Thus, those people
who study education at universities are likely to be attracted to
the secondary school teacher certification program. Most respondents
believed that Changes in the salary system will be required to make
university-level elementary school teacher certification programs
successful on a large scale. One respondent pointed out, however,
that it is not a simple matter to equalize salaries. First, since
the vast majority of teachers teach in elementary schools, an equal-
ization of salaries would mean a large budget increase, something
which Guatemala probably cannot afford. Second, and interestingly,
the elementary teachers themselves have tended to oppose having the
matter come before Congress out of fear that the entire salary
schedule might be Changed to their disadvantage. Thus, it appears

that for the time being, the salary difference between elementary

271

and secondary will remain, dictating against the success of ele-

mentary teacher preparation programs at the university level.

Interviepruestion 10

 

What should teachers be taught?

Most stressed the need to train teachers in science and
mathematics since these areas are not only important in development
but have traditionally been weak in Guatemalan education. Others
mentioned the need for training in social science as crucial to
improving Guatemala's education vis-a-vis development. Several
mentioned the need to train teachers in modern techniques of teach-
ing with emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking rather
than rote memory. Five mentioned the need to prepare teachers to
teach effectively in the less than favorable conditions of the
public schools, i.e., large Classes with little equipment and
materials. Four respondents pointed out the importance of attempt-
ing to inculcate positive attitudes related to development and to

make national development a part of the curriculum.

Interview Question 11

 

What kinds of community service functions, if any, do
you recommend for a university?

With the exception of one university rector, the respondents
agreed that some kind of community service or extension is an appro-
priate and helpful function vis-a-vis the university and national
development. Several suggested that agricultural research should
be part of an agricultural extension program similar to that of the

land grant colleges of the United States. Others recommended

272

student involvement in community projects, but on a selected basis
depending on the individual's program, not as an automatic require-
ment that all students spend a certain period of time in the rural
area, for example, as at San Carlos. One rector suggested establish-
ing model schools in various communities as an effective means of
extension. Others pointed out that universities should open centers
in communities throughout Guatemala to teach courses needed in the
area, somewhat on the idea of community colleges. Mariano Galvez,
Landivar, and San Carlos already do some of this kind of extension.
Another community program suggested was a law service offered by
university students under the guidance of lawyer professors, such
as is being done at San Carlos and Landivar.

Several indicated that community service is a good idea but
must be carefully conceived, carried out, and integrated with

research and teaching.

Interview Question 12

 

What relationship should exist between the university
and the government?

Without exception, the respondents began by saying that the
university must be free from government intervention. Several indi-
cated that once the concept of autonomy is established, there should
be some cooperation between government and the university on
identifying and working together to solve national problems. All
of the university recotrs pointed out that a need exists for more

communication between universities and the government.

273

Interview Question 13

 

What do you think about the employment of part-time
and visiting professors at universities?

The rectors indicated a need to increase the number of full-
time professors in order to establish a core of professionals, but
they pointed out that there are limits to what can and should be
done concerning full-time professors. First, the private universi-
ties are not large enough to be able to offer full-time positions
to a majority of their professors. Second, university salaries are
not high enough to attract full-time professors who would work
exclusively for one institution. Third, there is an advantage in
having some of the faculty come from the practicing professions to
bring to the Classroom methods being utilized in current practices,
an element of the real world.

The respondents favored the hiring of professors from abroad
as long as they fill a need that cannot be filled by local people and
provided there is an attempt to train local people to eventually take
over their positions.

RESULTS OF THE INTERVIEWS OF PROFESSORS AT THE
UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

The writer interviewed twenty-five staff members of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. Each of the professors was
given an interview and then asked to fill out a slightly modified
version of the student questionnaire. The following is a summary

of their replies.

274

Interview Question 1

 

What modifications, if any, would you make in the defi-
nition of national development that I have just given you?
The process by which a nation maximizes its physical

power and productive capacities, making the most of avail-
able natural and human resources, in order to increase the
level of living for its people in general, not just a few,
and to free the potential in its people to share in the
determination of the goals of their society.

The responses of the professors were similar to those of the
educational leaders. They generally agreed with the definition; a
few suggested expanding the term, "level of living," to include

economic, social, cultural and political aspects.

Interview Question 2

 

What are the major problems which Guatemala confronts
in its attempt to develop?

Here again, the answers were similar to those given by the
educational leaders. The professors pointed to education, health
(including nutrition), productivity, distribution of wealth, and
social integration as areas in which improvements need to be made

as part of Guatemala's development effort.

Interview Question 3

 

What are the aims of the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala?

Few respondents were able to give a firm answer to the
question. Most responded by saying, "I do not know," or "I am not
certain." When asked to make a guess based on observations, the
most common answer was that the aims of the university are to pro-

vide a high-quality education to academically talented students

275

in areas that are not offered at other universities. A few thought

that the aims are to prepare scientists and social scientists.

Interview Question 4

 

What is the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala doing
to contribute to national development?

Most professors responded that the University's major con-
tribution to development is the training of students in natural
science, social sciences, and education. Many professors mentioned
research projects (such as those on dendroctonos, Robles Disease;
and small farms). Several professors mentioned services such as
the orientation testing of secondary school students, the training
of experts in educational evaluation through the Multinational

Center, and the training in human development.

Interviepruestion 5

 

What more should the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala
do to increase its impact on national development?

The most common response to this question was that the Uni-
versity should expand its research efforts. Several professors
argued that the university must significantly expand its laboratories
in order to permit increased and more sophisticated scientific
research. Others argued that much more time must be spent in
social research.

Three professors insisted that the University continue to
expand its programs which prepare scientists in such areas as geo-

physics, seismology- and oceanography.

276

Five respondents mentioned the need to stress national
development in the curriculum and teaching in a direct way. They
thought that there is no established role of the university as a
contributor to development.

Another issue mentioned by most of the respondents was the
need for promocién. This is a term used to express the need for a
campaign to communicate to prospective students and the community
about the University. Because of the general lack of promocién,
said several professors, many capable candidates for study at the
Universidad del Valle do not know what courses are offered or what
advantages there are in studying science or social sciences instead

of the more traditional courses.

Interview Question 6

 

How is the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala sub-

stantially different from other universities in

Guatemala?

It was the general opinion of the professors that the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala differs from San Carlos in that it
(1) is nonpolitical in nature, (2) has a generally high-quality
student body and teaching staff, (3) does not permit student or
professor participation in decision making and selection of admin-
istrators, and (4) emphasizes courses in the natural and social
sciences. Most respondents pointed out that all the private uni-
versities are centralized in structure but that the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala differs from the others in its attention to the

natural and social sciences and research. Several respondents men-

tioned that they thought that the highest quality students attend

277

the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. However, six professors
indicated that the quality of students has diminished in the last

few years and the University is no longer unusual in this respect.

Interview Question 7

 

What role should the students play in the affairs of
the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

The general response of the professors was that the students
should have little influence on the administrative and academic
matters of the University. The professors were generally in favor
of a student government which limited itself to student matters, and
a few were in favor of students taking part on academic councils
with a voice but no vote. All respondents emphatically opposed
indoctrination of any kind, and most were against major political
activity on campus. Several respondents pointed out that students
should become concerned about the social and political situation
of their country and should learn to take political action to
influence change but not through disruptive political activity on

campus.

Interviepruestion 8

 

What role should the professors play in the affairs of
the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

This question drew the most emotion from the professors and
the most criticism of the University. Almost all respondents agreed
that professors should have a say in academic decisions only. Only
one suggested that the teachers take an active part in administrative

decisions. But most went on to say that at the Universidad del

278

Valle de Guatemala professors play little or no role in academic
matters. Many criticized the University administrators for failing
to seriously consider the ideas of the faculty. Several indicated
that the purpose of the Academic Council was to Communicate decisions
to the faculty rather than have any meaningful faculty participation
in the academic decision—making process. One professor, who was
generally complimentary of the administration on this point, did

say that it was unfortunate that the faculty is not more directly
involved in decision making since people are more likely to support
what they have a part in creating. Others were critical of the
Directive Council for its "high handedness." Many respondents used
the expression, "lack of communication," to describe the relation-
ship between the Directive Council and the teachers. On further
questioning, it became clear to the writer that "lack of communi—
cation" refers to the belief that professors have little voice in
the University affairs and that, even when the professors are heard,

little is done to carry out their recommendations.

Interview Question 9

 

Do you plan to continue your studies?

With the exception of those who hold Ph.D. degrees, all
respondents indicated a desire to continue their studies. Many said
they would like to study abroad, not only for the experience but
also because advanced degrees in their areas of interest are not
available in Guatemala. Several respondents expressed hope that
they might receive financial assistance either directly through the

University or indirectly through its sponsorship. Some of the

279

respondents had already received degrees with help through the
University. It was generally thought that the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala has a good record of helping professors pursue

advanced studies.

Interview Question 10

 

How have you attempted to improve your teaching?

Most respondents said that they try to improve teaching on
their own through reading books, talking to other teachers, observing
in other Classes, or asking for student evaluation. Four said that
they have taken one or more methodology courses in the Faculty of
Education to help their teaching. There seemed to be a genuine
interest on the part of the professors interviewed in giving good

Classes.

Interview Question 11
Where else do you work?

The majority reported that they teach at other universities
or in secondary schools. A few practice professions. With the

exception of two professors, all respondents are employed elsewhere.

Interview Question 12

 

What are the obstacles to working exclusively at the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

Almost all respondents said that low salaries is the major
obstacle to working full time exclusively at the University. They
‘pointed out that salaries for teaching at any university are not

sufficient to permit one to work just at one institution. Thus,

280

even those professors who work full time at a university usually
have extra work elsewhere. Several indicated that the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala is not big enough to offer many full-time

positions.

Interviepruestion l3

 

What is your view of the general studies program at the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

The replies to this question were varied. The following
are reasons given in favor of the general studies program at the
University:

1. a first-year general studies program exposes the student
to a variety of disciplines before he makes his career
choice;

2. the extra year gives a student more time to think care-
fully before making a career Choice;

3. a cultured person should have a general education;

4. training for a role in development requires knowledge of
several disciplines; and

5. general education is a necessary first step at a uni-
versity to prepare the students for advanced studies.
Although no one opposed the idea of offering some general

studies work to students at the University, several professors
objected to requiring all students to take the same courses all in
the first year. This argument came mostly from professors in the
sciences who stated their belief that the first year of general

studies takes too much time away from the particular program in

281

which they teach. Some argued that a general studies program should
give students the option of choosing courses in each of the major
areas and not be rigid as is the present program at the University.
Other respondents thought that forcing students to delay their entry
into a profession for a year diminishes interest and drives them to
other universities. One professor indicated that general studies

is a good idea but should be designed to fit the particular program

of studies of each student.

Interview Question 14

 

What role do you play in national development?
The usual answer to this question was "I teach." Several
indicated that they are engaged in research which will help develop-

ment in one way or another.

Interview Question 15

 

In what kinds of service projects should the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala engage?

Most professors thought that service is an important and
necessary part of a university program. The most commonly suggested
area of service were agricultural extension, nonformal education
programs in both rural and urban areas, and applied social and
scientific research. Many of the professors, although in favor
of required student involvement in service projects, indicated that
such programs are not easy to carry out. Several criticized the
service program at San Carlos in which all graduates must work in

a rural area for a certain length of time regardless of their area

282

of study, interests, or abilities. In addition, service programs at
San Carlos are often manipulated for political purposes.
Four professors made the point that service should be coordi-

nated with the teaching and research functions of the university.

Interview Question 16

 

If you teach in the Saturday program, do you think the
program is appropriate to the educational needs of
Guatemala?

Eight of the professors interviewed teach in the Saturday
program. Their judgment was that the quality of the program is
fairly good. The writer asked if the program emphasized national
development or taught methodology appropriate to teaching large
groups of students with a modicum of teaching materials. To this
question, all eight responded that there is little stress placed on
the relationship between education and development. The course con-
tent, they said, is aimed primarily at preparing urban school

teachers. They did indicate that methodology courses stress teach-

ing for understanding as opposed to rote memory.

Interview Question 17

 

Brief description of answers to questions 26-65 of the
questionnaire given to students.

Questions 26—65 of the student questionnaire deal with
opinions about the students, teachers, and programs at the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala. The writer asked the respondents
to fill out that portion of the questionnaire in order to compare
the perceptions of the professors with those of the students. The

perceptions of both groups were strikingly similar.

283

Opinions about the facilities and programs at the University. The

 

vast majority of professors thought that the academic level is high
and the curriculum good. Over half thought that the quality of the
books and services in the library is good to excellent. The majority
thought that the laboratories and classroom facilities are good to
excellent.

Only about half the professors who took the questionnaire
gave an opinion about research and service programs at the University.
A majority of those who responded indicate that they thought the
service programs and the work of the Institute of Research are good
to excellent.

Sixteen of the respondents rated the general studies program
good to excellent. Seven rated it average, and two rated it poor.
Seventeen respondents were in favor of the general studies program
being a prerequisite to entering a faculty. Eight, however, opposed
the idea.

Responses to the question concerning the emphasis placed on
national development at the University ranged rather evenly from
excellent to poor.

Twenty—three of the respondents thought that academic freedom
at the University is good to excellent.

About half the professors thought that the guidance program

for students is good; the other half thought that it is average.

Opinions about the quality of the professors at the University. The

 

vast majority of professors thought that the quality of teaching at

the University is good to excellent. They were mildly critical of

284

their colleagues with regard to punctuality and regularity of

attendance and dedication to national development.

Opinions about the qualipy of the students. The professors indicated

 

a fairly high regard for the students. They considered the students
at the University to be generally well prepared, of a serious nature,
generally punctual and regular in attendance, and respectful of
others. The majority thought that the students are average to poor

in their concern for helping the nation develop.

Opinions about the relationship between students and the Universidad

 

del Valle de Guatemala. The vast majority of the respondents were

 

in favor of permitting students to take part in the evaluation of
professors and in the planning of curriculum. They were also gen—
erally in favor of students engaging in some kind of community
service project as a requirement for graduation.

Most respondents were in favor of the students making sug-
gestions to the administration, and about half were willing to per-
mit students to have a representative on the Academic Council. Only
three thought it appropriate for students to have a vote in the
election of university officials or the hiring and firing of
teachers. Twenty-three professors opposed the idea of student
strikes on campus, confirming the information given the writer

during the interviews.

Opinions about the Universidad del Valle and national development.
Most professors thought that little attention is given at the Uni-

versity to instructing students in the need for and ways to play a

285

role in national development. Most admitted that they spent little
or no time on any kind of matter related to national development.
However, the majority indicated that they would be willing to spend
time on projects related to national development.

RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE ON STUDENT OPINION AT
THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

Information Section

 

The questionnaire was divided into two parts, (1) an infor-
mation section, and (2) an opinion section. The responses to the
information section were incorporated into the description of the

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala in Chapter 4.

Opinion Section

 

The following is a summary of the students' responses to
the questions concerning their opinions about the organization and

functions of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.

Opinions about facilities, programs, and services. Eighty percent

 

of the students thought that the academic level of the University

is high to very high and that the curriculum is good to excellent

in appropriateness to meet their needs. Ninety percent thought that

the orientation given students, the library books and services, and

the laboratories and Classroom facilities are average to excellent.
Only 20 percent of the students responded to the questions

concerning community service and the Institute of Research, indicating

a general lack of knowledge about these programs at the Universidad

286

del Valle de Guatemala. Of the people who answered, the majority
said they thought that both programs are good to excellent.

Only about half the respondents answered the questions con-
cerning the quality of the teacher training programs and practice
teaching. A computer Check indicated that 95 percent of those who
answered are enrolled in the college of education. Of those who
responded, more than 80 percent rated the teacher training programs
good to excellent.

Ninety-one percent of the students thought that the quality
of the general studies program at the University is good to excellent.
Seventy percent said that they favored the requirement that first-
year students enroll in the general studies program.

More than half of the respondents thought that the emphasis
on national development at the University is fair to poor.

Sixty—six percent of the students thought that academic

freedom at the University is good to excellent.

Opinions about the quality of the professors. On questions concern-

 

ing professors' knowledge of material, ability to communicate that
knowledge to the students, impartiality in correction, and punctu-
ality and regularity of the attendance, over 80 percent of the
respondents rated their professors good to excellent.

On the questions concerning the ability of the professors
to stimulate thought and creativity, about 60 percent rated their
professors as good to excellent.

The question which drew the largest negative response was

the one on the dedication of the professors to national development.

287

Half rated their teachers good, but the other half rated them

average to very poor.

Qpinions about the quality of the students. The students rated

 

their Classmates fairly high on most of the categories. On the
questions concerning academic preparation, seriousness, punctuality
and regularity of attendance, and respect for others, at least

75 percent of the students gave ratings of good or excellent. The
students were most critical of each other on the matter of student
interest in contributing to national development. Over 40 percent
indicated that their Classmates rated from average to very poor

on this point.

Opinions about the role of the students. Eighty-nine percent thought

 

that students should participate in the evaluation of professors and
take part in the planning of curriculum and programs. The majority
indicated that the means of participation should be limited to
making suggestions to the administration and having a representative
on the Academic Council. Fifteen percent thought that students
should have a vote in the elections of the University officials,

and 8 percent thought students should take part in the hiring and
firing of the faculty.

Seventy-eight percent believed that students should take
part in a student government, but only 6 percent were in favor of
student strikes on campus.

Seventy percent of the students were in favor of participat-

ing (ad honorum) in a community service program as a requirement

288

for graduation. Of those who were in favor of required partici-
pation in community service programs, there was an even spread of
responses on the question of how long the program should last, with
about 20 percent in favor of each of the five categories ranging
from one month or less to five months or more. The students were
generally in favor of such a program running from one to four hours
a day. Only 10 percent thought that a community service program
should require full-time participation of students.

Eighty-five percent thought that students should participate

in research projects aimed at national development.

Opinions about the university and national development. The

 

responses to this set of questions indicate that the students
believe that there is limited emphasis in the Classroom on national
development. Thirty-seven percent thought that some of the instruc-
tion had this purpose, while 40 percent indicated that there was
little or no effort to teach students how to effect Change. Nearly
60 percent replied that their professors rarely or never discuss
national development needs in the Class or carry out activities
related to solution of national development problems.

Ninety-five percent indicated a willingness to give at least
some of their time to cooperate with teachers and administrators on
national improvement activities each month. One-third were in favor
of spending eight hours or more each month on this kind of activity.

In sum, the students had a generally high opinion of the
University programs, personnel, and facilities. They showed some

interest in participating in the affairs of the University at least

289

in making suggestions but were against student involvement in
strikes or the determination of University staff. They indicated
willingness to participate in research and community service pro-
jects. They did not think that there is much emphasis on national
development at the University.
RESULTS OF THE INTERVIEWS OF LEADERS AT THE
UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

The writer interviewed seven individuals in this category,
the five members of the Directive Council, and two members of the
Executive Committee of the Foundation of the Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala. The following is a summary of their responses to the

interview questions.

Interview Question 1

 

What modification, if any, would you make in the definition
of national development which I have just given you?

The process by which a nation maximizes its physical
power and productive capacities, making the most of avail-
able natural and human resources, in order to increase the
level of living for its people in general, not just a few,
and to free the potential in its people to share in the
determination of the goals of their society.

The responses of the Trustees and administrators were
similar to those of the Guatemalan educational leaders and the
professors of the University. One suggested expanding the term,
"level of living," to include economic, social, cultural, and
political aspects. Another mentioned that there should be a just

distribution of wealth.

290

Interview Question 2

 

What are the major problems which Guatemala confronts
in its attempt to develop?

The responses to this question were similar to the responses
of the Guatemalan educational leaders and professors at the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala. The problems mentioned include
matters related to health, education, productivity, distribution

of wealth, social integration, and transfer of technology.

Interview Question 3

 

What are the aims of the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala?

The answers to this question were complete and similar
among the respondents. The administrators gave detailed answers
Closely paraphrasing the information published in the University
literature. The Trustees were less precise but showed a Clear

knowledge of the objectives as stated in Chapter 1.

Interview Question 4

 

What is the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala doing
to contribute to national development?

Here again, the respondents were fairly consistent in their
answers, the members of the Directive Council being more explicit
than the members of the Executive Committee. All mentioned emphasis
on training in the natural and social sciences and education,
efforts in research, and service in terms of the development of
teaching materials, consulting, testing, and training in human

development.

291

Interview Question 5

 

What more should the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala
do to increase its impact on national development?

Most of the respondents mentioned the need to redouble
research efforts. Two respondents suggested that the University
needs to offer more short courses aimed at preparing individuals to
act as technicians in areas of health and agriculture. Most said
that they thought that the University must increase the number of
programs in sciences, social sciences, and education.

Two administrators mentioned the need to increase the pro-
duction of low cost educational materials, a program which was
started by the School many years ago but which has not been expanded
much in recent years.

Three administrators mentioned the need to expand the Uni-
versity's service function to include agricultural extension in
such a way that the agricultural program could incorporate training,

research, and service.

Interview Question 6

 

What role should the students play in the affairs of
the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

The Trustees and administrators were nearly unanimous in
responding that they thought the students should have no direct role
in decision making at the University. Neither, they said, should
students participate in political activities on campus or be per-
mitted to strike. Most of the respondents did recognize the advisa-
bility of students' involvement in limited student government and

of their ideas being heard periodically by the Directive Council.

292

Interview Question 7

 

What is the general quality of the students at the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala?

The respondents thought that the general quality of the
students at the University is high in comparison with the Universi-
dad de San Carlos, and better than average in comparison with the
other private universities. When asked whether or not the quality
of the students had diminished in the last few years, several
pointed out that the increased number of students had brought an
overall lowering of the quality insomuch as the first students were
a highly select group. However, none believed that the quality of
the programs had decreased; whereas there are more students of
average ability, there is still a group, larger in number but
smaller in percentage, which represents the brightest young minds
in Guatemala.

Several respondents mentioned that the academic preparation
of many of the incoming students is mediocre, but no one expressed
major concern about the ability of the students to complete the

University's program if they applied themselves.

Interview Question 8

 

Do you think the University is developing positive atti-

tudes in the students concerning their potential in

national development?

In general, the answer was that the act of offering programs
which are important to national development stimulates positive

attitudes, but that there is no overt attempt to encourage students

to become interested in national development. Three administrators,

293

however, pointed out that the field research in which students take
a direct part, and the presence of major research efforts to find
solutions for serious national problems, such as the Pine Bark
Beetle study and the program with the Center for Disease Control
contribute to an atmosphere of national development that has its

effect on the students.

Interview Question 9

 

What role should the professors play in the affairs of
the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

Most of the respondents answered unequivocally that other
than participation on the Academic Council, the professors should
have no direct say in University matters. However, upon further
questioning and reflection, the respondents did recognize the need
for some participation because (1) good morale requires some staff
involvement, and (2) people who participate in making decisions are
more likely to play a positive role in implementing them. On the
other hand, it was pointed out by several respondents, great power
in the hands of the professors fragments the University's efforts
and renders it unable to move ahead forcefully toward accomplishing

major goals.

Interview Question 10

 

What is the general quality of the professors at the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

The respondents indicated that they thought that the quality
of the professors at the University is generally high, although

since the same professors tend to work at other universities, the

294

quality of professors at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala is
not much better than at other universities. They did indicate that
the quality of supervision is better at the Universidad del Valle

de Guatemala, so that regularity and punctuality of attendance and
other matters such as testing and turning in of grades on time is
better than at other universities. The administrators were emphatic

in arguing that the quality of the professors had not gone down.

Interview Question 11

 

Should the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala play a
role as a social critic?

All respondents thought that any kind of social criticism,
no matter how legitimate, would serve only to create enemies and
give the appearance of involvement in politics. To those respon-
dents, social criticism not only goes against the University's long-
standing policy and its statutes, it could cause the University much

harm over the long run.

CHAPTER 5--NOTES

1Walter R. Borg and Meredith D. Gall, Educational Research,
An Introduction (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1974).

 

 

21bid.

3Interview Schedule Number 6.

4Interview Schedule Number 12.

295

Chapter 6

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

FOR FURTHER STUDY
INTRODUCTION

Developing universities in their founding and early formative

period . . . have many weaknesses with little in the way of

counter-balancing strength. . . . Their problem is that too

much is expected too soon in terms of national benefits of

leadership and service from university graduates. . . . The

new universities will in time come to fulfill their purpose,

when they have lived long enough to have produced enough

trained individuals to supply the nation's manpower require-

ments. When this has happened, after perhaps 20 to 30 years,

the universities will begin to take their proper place on the

national scene.1

In this Chapter, the writer will summarize findings of the
study and present some conclusions concerning the appropriateness of
the organization and programs of the Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala for accomplishing its aims as a contributor to national develop-
ment. In addition, the writer will make recommendations for enhanc—
ing the university's development role and present some implications
for further research which have resulted from this study.
To accomplish the tasks required in this chapter, the writer

has drawn on the contents of the previous Chapters. The review of

the literature in Chapter 2 provides the general criteria by which

to judge a university as a Change agent. The description of

296

297

Guatemala in Chapter 3 and the interviews of Guatemalan educational
leaders in Chapter 5 provide the setting in which the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala operates and the thinking of local experts
concerning the role local universities can play in Contributing to
Guatemala's development. For a description of the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, the writer has drawn on Chapter 4 and the survey
of students, professors, administrators, and trustees as discussed
in Chapter 5.

The statement by Bowles at the beginning of this chapter is
a reminder that it takes time for a university to mature sufficiently
to have an effect on the area it serves. The Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala is thirteen years old at the time of this writing, too
young to have reached the stage of fulfillment of its purposes.
Thus, the comments in this Chapter will be tentative and focused
on the appropriateness of the University's organization and programs
for development rather than on its impact on Guatemala and the

region.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

On the following pages, the writer will summarize the find-
ings of this study and state conclusions based on an analysis of
the information presented in previous Chapters. To facilitate the
reading of this section, in addition to the sub headings, the con-

clusions have been underlined.

298

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala was conceived and
established on the idea that a university should serve the develop-
ment of the nation and region in which it is located. This phil—
osophy is not only stated in its statutes and descriptive literature
but is firmly espoused by those charged with making policy for and
administering the University. It is in keeping with the criteria
from Chapter 2 and opinions of Guatemalan leaders that a development-
oriented university attempt to prepare leaders in natural sciences,
social sciences, and education, with an emphasis on training in

research. According to these standards, the aims of the Universidad

 

del Valle de Guatemala are suitable for a university which would

 

contribute to the improvement of the level of living of theppeople

 

in the region it serves.

 

The writer found, however, that there is little effort made
to communicate the University's aims to the students and professors.
The professors were generally unable to tell the writer what the
University's aims are, and students indicated through responses on
the questionnaire that little effort is made by the professors to

relate instruction to national development. It is a weakness of the

 

University that the_professors, those who are entrusted with carry-

 

ing out the programs, and the students, future leaders of Guatemala

 

and the region, have so little understanding of the University's

 

purposes.

299

Leadership

 

As noted in Chapter 4, the members of the Directive Council
and the coordinators of the academic units are respected and capable
educators. The members of the Executive Committee have played a
guiding role for both the American School and the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala for years. Their long-term interest in both
institutions as agents of Change is notable.

The writer finds that the members of the Directive Council
are capable leaders, articulate in their espousal of the University's
aims and expert at developing and carrying out programs to meet
those aims. In addition, given the heavy work load they carry and
their relatively low salaries, the members of the Directive Council
embody the philosophy of "work and sacrifice" which Habte indicates
is important to successful leadership in a development-oriented uni-

2
versity. Clearly leadership is one of the outstanding Character-

 

istics at the University.

 

Institutional Structure

 

The institutional structure at the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala represents a departure from the Napoleonic pattern of
loosely federated independent professional schools which is the model

for most universities in Latin America.

Centralization. All policy decisions for the University are made by

 

the Executive Committee of the Foundation. The execution of that
policy is the exclusive province of the Directive Council. Staff
members and students may be heard but have no vote in administrative

decision making.

300

It is the writer's opinion that the centralized structure

 

is one of the strengths of the University as a contributor to

 

development. An independent faculty structure in which professors

 

and students are involved in administrative decision making tends
to atomize the institution and render it unable to move forward
in a concerted and coherent way toward specific objectives. A
Classic case in point is general studies. Although the authorities
are almost unanimous in recommending general studies programs for
development-oriented universities, few universities in Latin America
in which professors and students are influential in decision making
have general studies programs. At the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, the general studies program was opposed at the outset
and probably would have been defeated had it been put to a vote of
the professors. Today, however, the program is functioning well.
Efficiency is an important concept in development. Poor
countries are attempting to accomplish much in a short period of
time with limited resources. For a university to effectively achieve
its development aims, it must have a structure which permits its
leaders to move the institution forward in a concerted way. It is

the writer's opinion, then, that the trustees of the Foundation of

 

the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala acted correctly in establish-

 

ing a centralized institutional structure and Choosing capable and

 

strong leaders to implement the University's development aims.

 

The centralized structure has been the cause of some dis-
content on the part of the staff as was described in Chapter 5.

Complaints by professors about lack of influence in University

301

affairs should be viewed in the perspective of similar institutions

of higher education. These opinions are not unique to the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala. A limited role in the decision-making pro-
cess, and resultant complaining, is the rule at the other private
universities as well. In spite of the criticism, however, there

has never been an exodus of professors from the University because

of its centralized structure.

Students. The University has addressed itself well to the issue of

 

student access by combining the practices of careful selection, a

 

search system to identify outstanding students, and a scholarship

 

program to support the studies of those who could not otherwise

 

afford to enroll. It is laudable that about half the regular stu-

 

dents at the University receive financial aid.

The lack of an active recruitment program has been a weakness
at the University. However, in 1979, University officials moved to
overcome the weakness by approving several recruiting activities,
including advertising in newspapers and conducting open houses for

secondary school seniors. The writer believes that a vigorous pro-

 

gram to inform secondary students throughout Guatemala of the Uni-

 

versity's aims and programs is a critical function of its role as

 

a contributor to national development. Such a program should

 

increase enrollment, making possible the addition of courses and
programs and, subsequently, the hiring of more full—time professors.
In addition, by encouraging capable young people to enroll in
development-related programs, the University will enhance its role

as a contributor to national development.

302

Several professors indicated that the quality of the stu-
dents has declined in the past few years. In the early days of the
University, a handful of highly motivated students enrolled in the
faculties of Science and Humanities and Social Sciences to pursue
their interests in basic science and research. As the University
has grown, programs in more popular applied sciences have been
offered in such areas as computer science, psychology, engineering,
and medicine. These programs have attracted a less capable student,
by comparison, with the initial group of select students. The
writer views this process as natural and necessary not only for
economic survival but also as a means of increasing the efficiency
of the University program. At issue here is not whether the quality
of all students is equal to the original group but whether the Uni-
versity is able to continue to offer and expand programs which are
important to national development and attract capable students to
those programs. It should be noted that a good case can be made
for the need for leaders in computer sciences, psychology, medicine,
and engineering, as well as in the basic sciences.

Co-government does not exist at the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala. The students have no voice in the administration of the
University except for minor matters related to student affairs. The
rules are strict, and little misconduct is tolerated.

The responses to the student questionnaire show that the
students, as a group, do not care to be directly involved in managing
the University. Their primary goal is to acquire a good education

in a field which interests them. Although they would like to

303

participate in the planning of curriculum and in the evaluation of
professors, they are almost unanimously opposed to strikes and
generally opposed to student involvement in choosing University
staff and administration.

The limited student involvement in administrative decision

 

making, the practice of Close supervision of students, and the

 

absence of political activities on campus are all consistent with

 

the recommendations of development experts. It is the opinion of

 

the writer that these Characteristics not only contribute to more

 

effective administration of the University but also attract to it

 

the more serious students.

 

Autonomy. The University's willingness to cooperate with the

 

gpyernment on development projects while maintaining its indepen-

 

dence is consistent with the criteria on university autonomy in

 

Chapter 2. The question of autonomy is not so much determined by

a university as it is by the government. In most Latin American
countries, governments intervene when the university's actions are
seen as harmful to the interests of the government. The fact that
the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala maintains political neutrality
and does not permit the harboring of politicians or their manipu-
lation of students on campus reduces the possibility that the Guate-

malan Government would invade the University's autonomy.

Interdisciplinary activity. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

 

engages in the interdisciplinary training of its students primarily

through its program of general studies and some work in the Faculty

304

of Social Sciences. However, there is little attempt to teach
students techniques of combining various disciplines to form a

concerted attack on development problems. Given the complex and

 

multi-faceted nature of development, the writer believes this

 

general lack of training in an interdisciplinary approach to

 

problem solving to be a deficiency in the University program.

 

Interinstitutional and international involvement. The Universidad

 

del Valle de Guatemala cooperates with many local and foreign
institutions on projects related to development. That it does not
belong to any regional organization of universities is understandable.

It would appear, then, that the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala's

 

many interinstitutional and international contacts provide a firm

 

base on which to build as the institution grows.

 

Institute. The Institute of Research of the Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala is an integral part of the University. It has an
active research agenda and is directed by a researcher known and
respected in the region. The writer will present his conclusions

about the University's research efforts later in this Chapter.

Support facilities. Generally speaking, the University's support

 

facilities are ample and of good quality. The library facilities,

 

when the American School's library is added, are quite extensive.

In addition, the University has a trained and experienced librarian,
unusual in Latin American universities. The laboratories are
excellent as teaching facilities, although their research capa-

bilities are deficient. The computer center serves well the

305

administrative, teaching, research, and service needs of the Uni-
versity. The preserve land tract is a good beginning, although
much more land will be needed to carry out extensive experimental
and extension projects. Finally, the print shop provides the Uni-
versity with an excellent facility for publishing research results
and other kinds of internal and external communication.

It is noted, however, that many of the facilities are nearing
the limit of their capacity for effective service of the institution,
and it will be necessary to continue to expand them. Fortunately,
there are signs that in the next few years the facilities will be

expanded as a result of grants from ASHA and other donors.

Planning

One of the more serious deficiencies at the University has
been the lack of systematic long-range planning. The rapid increase
in student enrollment in the last few years has been matched by
growth in the number of programs and faculty. Unfortunately, there
is no indication that the growth of the University was accompanied

by systematic long-range planning. It is the writer's opinion that

 

the recent establishment of the Future Plans Committee is an impor-

 

tant and overdue step toward improving the planning function of the

 

University. The Committee, which involves members of all units of

 

the University, should not only help give direction to the Uni-

 

versity's development, but serve as a vehicle to inform the staff

 

as a whole of the aims and accomplishments of the institution.

 

306

Evaluation

 

To date, there has been little formal or systematic evalu-
ation at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. Program evaluation
has been practically nonexistent except on an informal basis. Evalu-
ation of teachers is better, especially with the initiation this
year of the use of evaluation forms filled out by students and

reviewed the administration. It is the writer's opinion that the

 

evaluation process at the University is deficient, thus reducing

 

the effectiveness of its programs and making planning more difficult.

 

Financing

Financing is particularly difficult since the University
provides many scholarships, stresses science, and conducts much
research: activities which are important to Guatemala's development
but which require outside funds. To date, the income from student
fees is not sufficient to pay for the teaching program. However,
the rapid increase of students in the regular program is moving the
University toward self-sufficiency in its teaching function. The
data in Table 10 (page 201) show that the University has always been
able to attract money from outside sources to finance its programs.
Well over half of its total income from 1966 to date has come from
sources other than fees. It is particularly encouraging to note
the sizable increase in income from outside sources in the last

few years. The growing contacts with funding agencies in Canada

 

and the United States, the recent establishment in Delaware of the

 

Foundation of the University of the Valley of Guatemala, and the

 

$675,000 grant the Foundation was able to obtain from the American

 

307

Schools and Hospitals Abroad branch of USAID are positive signs

 

that the University has the potential for obtaining the funds it

 

will need in the future to carry out extensive development programs

 

of teaching, research and service.

 

It should be noted that the obtainment of funds from major
donors is not only indicative of the ability of a university to
maintain itself but is also a measure of the appropriateness of its
programs for national development. The Ford Foundation, Tinker
Foundation, OAS, USAID, and the Inter-American Bank have experts
on their staffs who make careful appraisals of recipient institutions
in order to determine their potential for contributing to development.

That the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has received millions of

 

dollars from these institutions is, the writer believes, a good

 

indication that development experts on the international level have

 

found the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala to be effectively

 

involved in development.

 

New Institutions

 

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has a decided advan-

 

tage over older universities because as a new institution it is free

 

from the obstacles of tradition and established empires which tend

 

to prevent many Latin American universities from being effective as

 

contributors to development. Newness does not guarantee, of course,

 

that a university will have the organization and programs appropriate

for development, but it does make it more probable.

308

Instruction

 

The major function of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala
is instruction. The majority of staff and budget are allocated to

teaching. The responses of the professors, trustees, administrators,

 

and students to the surveys indicate a consensus of ppinion among

 

the groups that the general quality of the instruction is good.

 

Staff. The University attempts to improve its staff by helping
them acquire advanced education and hires visiting professors to
take positions for which there are no qualified Guatemalans. These

efforts to develop local personnel and hire specialized staff from

 

abroad are appropriate for a development-oriented university.

 

Although much has been done to further the education of
staff members in their academic specialization, little effort has
been made to help them improve their teaching techniques. In
November 1979, the Faculty of Education offered a workshop in

teaching to the University professors. Given the importance of

 

good teaching, this workshop for professors represents an important

 

step forward in the area of staff development.

 

The need for full—time and half-time professors at the Uni-

versidad del Valle de Guatemala is particularly great since it hopes

 

to combine teaching with research. The University has increased

 

the number of full-time and half-time professors recently. How-
ever, given its small size, it is not yet feasible to have many
full-time staff members. At present there are not enough courses
offered in a given area to permit having a full-time professor to

teach in that area alone. In addition, one-third of the professors

309

work in the teacher certification program. These people cannot be
offered full-time work insomuch as the program is offered on
Saturdays only. In the regular program, the percentage of full-
time professors is fairly high: 28 percent.

Low salaries is a problem at the University and is the cause
of complaints by the professors. Unfortunately, the University's
salaries have remained static for several years during a time of

inflation and increasing salaries at other universities. The writer

 

believes that a continued failure to raise salaries in the face of

 

the increasing cost of living and higher salaries at other universi-

 

ties could result in increased difficulty in attracting and retaining

 

good teachers.

 

The writer does not pretend, however, that increased salaries
will eliminate the practice of working at several universities. The
tendency of people to want to improve their living standards is
likely to induce professors to continue working at several places

even if better salaries were to be offered at the University.

Curriculum. The University's insistence on requiring its students

 

 

to take a year of general studies is in agreement with the criteria

 

presented in Chapter 2. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala is

 

one of the few universities in the developing nations with such a

solid first—year general studies program. The general studies pro-

 

gram, then, is an important curricular accomplishment and should

 

indicate that such programs can succeed in other Latin American

 

universities.

 

310

The curriculum is not as effectively geared as it could be

 

to producing agents of Change. Little attention is given to teaching

 

students how the disciplines they are studying can be applied directly
to solving national problems. Almost no attempt is made to train
students in multidisciplinary approaches to problem solving. There
are few courses which examine or even point out national and regional
problems. Summing up the curricular approach of the university, the
emphasis is on giving students the course work which will prepare

them in areas important to national development, but little is done

to promote discussion of national development in the Classrooms.

Training of educators. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala is

 

 

contributing to educational development in Guatemala by training

 

both elementary and secondary teachers as well as leaders in edu-

 

cational administration, supervision, and measurement. The teacher

 

certification program not only attracts hundreds of students a year
but has been imitated by other universities in Guatemala. The train-
ing of elementary teachers in special education has broken new ground
in the preparation of teachers in an important and previously
neglected area of Guatemalan education. In addition to the training
of large numbers of teachers in the certification program, the Uni-

versity has rigorous Licenciatura and Master's degree programs for

 

the training of selected students for leadership positions in
Guatemala and the region. There are many courses common to both
the elementary and secondary certification programs, demonstrating
the articulation between elementary and secondary teacher education

which is called for by Butts.3 The responses to the questionnaires

311

indicate that the students in the Faculty of Education believe that

the quality of the programs is high. Generally speaking, then, the

 

writer believes that the programs of the Faculty of Education are

 

in keeping with the views of development experts.

 

The writer does note, however, that there are several weak—

 

nesses in the program. Although general studies has become an

 

integral part of the Licenciatura degree programs at the University,

 

there is no general studies requirement in the teacher certification

 

program. The writer could find little evidence that there is any,

 

attempt to prepare teachers to handle large groups of students or

 

teach with inadequate teaching materials. Finally; the University

 

has made no attempt to prepare teachers for rural schools or to

 

develop teaching methodologies and curriculum for rural areas.

 

It is evident from the responses to the questionnaire that
many of the students in the teacher certification program are ele-
mentary teachers who wish to become secondary teachers, probably to
increase their income. An unfortunate result of the secondary
teacher certification program is that good teachers leave elementary

school teaching in order to earn a higher salary. It is the writer's

 

ppinion, however, that this loss of good elementary teachers is

 

outweighed by the need to greatly increase the numbers of trained

 

secondary school teachers.

 

That the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala offers the only
University-level training program for elementary school teachers is
notable. That it has about thirty students enrolled is a sign that

the university-level training of elementary school teachers is now

312

feasible in Guatemala. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala is

 

in the forefront of elementary and secondary teacher training at

 

the University level in Guatemala.

 

Training in the natural and social sciences. The Universidad del

 

Valle de Guatemala is a recognized leader in the teaching of the
natural and social sciences in Guatemala. It was the first Guate-

malan university to offer Licenciatura degrees in the basic sciences.

 

Given many of the peculiarities of Guatemala--an agricultural
country with good fisheries and forests, high death rates from
disease, a rapidly increasing birth rate, fledgling light industry--
people trained in biology, Chemistry, or physics are needed.

It is interesting to note that the University recently began
to offer programs in the applied sciences which use the basic sciences
for a foundation. Computer science and civil engineering are based
on mathematics and physics. Agronomy, food technology, and medicine
are based on biology and Chemistry.

Training in the social sciences is also important. Social
scientists are needed to research and help provide solutions for
many social problems including the "social dualism" which exists in
Guatemala. Social scientists are needed to study ways to modify
attitudes and values in order to enhance development. In addition,
social science research is needed to help facilitate the advent of
technology.

The students in the natural and social sciences at the Uni—
versidad del Valle de Guatemala participate in a comprehensive

research program. All students must write a sophisticated research

313

thesis for graduation, and the students in the social sciences must
spend two summers in field research. Few universities require as
much field research of their students as does the Faculty of Social
Sciences at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. As a case in
point, the Coordinator of the Faculty, who holds a Ph.D. degree in
Anthropology from the University of Chicago, was not required to do
field research during his graduate studies. In addition to the
required research, the existence of major research projects on
campus, in which some students take part, further enhances the
quality of the training in the natural and social sciences.

In sum, then, the University_programs in both basic and

 

applied sciences, with a strong emphasis on research and general

 

education, are designed to prepare creative professionals who are

 

able to solve problems and expand the frontiers of knowledge in

 

their areas of specialization. By the standards of development

 

experts, the University's programs in the natural and social sciences

 

are appropriate for preparing leaders who will contribute to national

 

development.

 

Research
The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has a fairly exten-
sive research program for a young university and by comparison with

other universities in Latin America. Clearly the University has a

 

solid research infrastructure and experience in both conducting and

 

acquiring funds for research related to national development.

 

The emphasis on research as a part of the curriculum is also

 

in accord with the thinking of development authorities. The

 

314

University does meet its aim of preparing researchers by requiring

all students in the Licenciatura and Master's degree programs to

 

produce a high-quality research thesis as a graduation requirement.
As mentioned above, the preparation in research required by the
Faculty of Social Sciences is exceptional.

The dissemination of research results by the University is

 

deficient. The lack of a systematic and careful communication of
the research findings throughout the region is a weakness in the
University research program which requires the attention of the
staff and administration. The recent establishment of an internal
newsletter by the Institute of Research represents a positive first

step toward more effective dissemination of research results.

Service

Consulting by the School and University, development of

 

instructional materials and tests, the administration of tests to

 

students throughout Guatemala and the region, the administration of

 

scholarship programs, and the education in human development pro-

 

grams provide a reasonably strong service base at the University.

 

To date, staff have carried out the service work; that students do

 

not participate in any of the service activities is a weakness of

 

the University program.

 

The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala vis-a-vis
the other universities in Guatemala

 

 

A University must be evaluated in the context of the setting
in which it functions, which includes other institutions of higher

education. The appropriateness of the role of a given university

315

in contributing to development depends to some extent on what pro-
grams the other universities in the area offer. It is theoretically
possible, for example, that if the other universities offer programs
in the natural and social sciences and emphasize research, a new
university might make its most important contribution to development
by offering a program in law in order to avoid needless duplication.

In Guatemala, the traditional professional degree programs
are offered by the universities of San Carlos, Rafael Landivar,
Francisco Marroquin, and Mariano Galvez. The Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala offers few professional degrees but complements the
other university offerings with its emphasis on natural and social
sciences. Whereas the universities of San Carlos, Rafael Landivar,
and Mariano Galvez offer extension teacher certification programs
exclusively, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala and Francisco
Marroquin offer teacher certification programs only in the capital
City. The Universidad del Valle de Guatemala is the only university
to offer certification of elementary teachers. It does not offer
any courses to prepare paraprofessionals and middle-level technicians,
since several other universities do.

Whereas the Universities of San Carlos and Francisco Marroquin
have some political leanings and the Universities of Rafael Landivar
and Mariano Galvez were established by religious orders, the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala is nonreligious and nonpolitical.
The private universities are selective and the public university
practices open admission. At San Carlos students participate in

university governance and are active in national politics. By

316

contrast, students in the private universities play a small role
in institutional decision making and do not participate except in
a marginal way in national politics on campus.

Even though the numbers of secondary teachers trained in
the natural sciences is low at the Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala, it should be noted that San Carlos offers a special teacher
training program in natural sciences with large numbers of scholar-
ships for the students. In light of the many teachers trained in
natural sciences at San Carlos, the limited number of graduates in
this area at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala does not neces-
sarily indicate a weakness in the University's program.

Considering the above, it is the writer's opinion that the

 

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala complements rather well the pro-

 

grams offered at the other institutions of higher education in

 

Guatemala and that, in general, when the total offerings of uni—

 

versity programs are Considered, it is apparent that there is a

 

wide range of educational opportunity in Guatemala.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

Upon completion of the study and a review of the findings
and conclusions, the writer offers the following general recommen-

dations.

1. To more fully meet its aims as a contributor to develop-
ment, it is important that professors, students, and certain segments
of the region it serves understand the University's aims and be

aware of its programs. This will require the intensification of

317

both internal and external communication efforts. The following
are some suggestions to be considered:

(a) Attention should be given to making the new newsletter a
permanent and useful fixture of the institution.

(b) Periodic seminars should be held for administrators, pro-
fessors, students, and guests to discuss the University's
aims and programs and their relationship to national
development.

(C) The open houses should be expanded as a means of informing
prospective students about the University.

(d) Consideration should be given to preparing programs for
radio and television and articles for periodicals which
describe the work being carried out at the University.

It is the writer's opinion that a carefully prepared, dig-
nified, multi-faceted effort to communicate information about the
programs and aims of the University will have many positive benefits
such as increasing the numbers of students, improving the image of
the University, stimulating national and regional interest in the
University and the role of higher education in development, and
putting useful information into the hands of people interested in

development.

2. The recent involvement of staff in the planning process
should be carried over to and combined with institution-wide evalu-
ation. Planning and evaluation are Closely related; indeed, effec-
tive planning usually begins with an evaluation of programs to date.

The involvement of many staff members from various units of the

318

University should enhance faculty understanding of and support for
the University's aims and programs. Planning and evaluation on a
system-wide basis should tend to force the staff to look beyond
their individual and departmental bailiwicks to the functioning of
the University as a whole. Properly carried out, the kind of plan-
ning and evaluation program the writer recommends should provide
the institution with a systematic, continuous assessment of its
programs, involve the staff in an on-going process of examining

its aims and its attempts to meet those aims, and tend to unify the

various elements of the University.

3. Modification should be made of the present curriculum so
that courses address development needs and demonstrate the relation-
ship between Course materials and development goals. Specifically,
the writer recommends that courses be offered which (1) review the
development needs of Guatemala, (2) treat development theory, and
(3) show how students can apply the disciplines they are studying
to the solution of national problems. In addition, students should
be required to take at least one course which demonstrates the multi-

disciplinary approach to problem solving.

4. Although the writer does not recommend that students be
given more decision-making power at the University, he does suggest
that some formal mechanism be devised through which students may be
heard. Consideration should be given to holding periodic meetings
of students and members of the Directive Council for the purpose of

discussing a wide range of matters of importance to the students.

319

5. Consideration should be given to making the following

modifications in the teacher certification program:

(a) Specially designed courses in the social sciences, natural

(b)

(c)

sciences, and humanities could be required of all students:
courses which provide the student with a basic understanding
of those areas of study and emphasize critical thinking and
the application of the scientific method to problem solving.
As an integral part of these courses, national problems
should be defined and the students instructed in ways that
they as educators can contribute to their solution.
Attention should be given to training the students in teach—
ing techniques suitable for the difficult situations in which
many Guatemalan teachers work. The growing number of stu-
dents per teacher makes it imperative that teachers be pre-
pared to work effectively with large groups of students.

In addition, given the general lack of teaching materials,
teachers should be taught how to prepare their own materials
from common, inexpensive items and to teach effectively
without textbooks.

Ties should be established with elementary and secondary
schools, including at least one normal school. Such
relationships could be helpful in promoting experimentation
with new teaching techniques, methodology, and instructional
materials. A relationship with a normal school would permit
the University to experiment with new ways to prepare
teachers and permit it to extend its influence over teacher

training in Guatemala.

320

6. The University should continue to expand its research
activities. Highly sophisticated technological research is not yet
feasible for Guatemala, but research in simple technology directly
related to Guatemala's needs is. Accordingly, the University should
expand such programs as the utilization of solar energy on small
farms and fertilizer production, and other similar research should
be designed. In addition, the University should continue to expand
its program of research in the social sciences, giving emphasis to

development-related themes.

7. The Center for Educational Research must expand its
research and development activities to more fully address some of
the educational needs of Guatemala. The One Teacher School and the
Flexible School programs developed at the Universidad de Antioquia
in Columbia provide good models of the kind of applied research pro-
grams the writer recommends. These programs combine research with
teaching and service in accord with the thinking of development
authorities. Specifically, the Center for Educational Research
should (1) develop materials and teaching methods for teaching
large groups of students and teaching in rural areas and (2) explore
ways nonformal education can be employed as a means of attending

to a variety of community needs.

8. Wider dissemination of research results is needed. The
writer recommends that this be accomplished through (1) establishing
a journal in which research from the University del Valle de Guate—
mala as well as other universities in the region is published,

(2) hosting seminars and conferences to review research conducted

321

at the University and elsewhere, and (3) offering instruction to
the staff in methods of publishing research in journals throughout

the Americas.

9. The University should continue its present service
activities and explore ways to expand them. Along these lines,
special attention should be given to involving students in the
planning and implementation of service projects as an integral part
of training for leadership in national development. As pointed out
in Chapter 2, involvement in service projects can stimulate stu-
dents' interest in helping others while at the same time making
their classroom experience more meaningful by giving students prac-
tical experience in applying their knowledge to real life situations.

It appears from the responses to the questionnaire that many
of the students are willing to take part in service activities even
as a requirement for graduation. Given this predisposition of the
students, the writer believes that there is reasonable ground to
expect that student service programs at the University could be
successful if carefully designed to integrate with teaching and
research, if carefully tailored to each student's area of study and
if meted out in small doses rather than in a single long period in

the last year.

10. The University should explore ways to combine teaching,
research, and service in a multidisciplinary approach to solving
development-related problems. As an example, faculty and students
of the departments of Chemistry and Agricultural Science could con-

duct research in ways to make low-cost fertilizers on small farms.

322

Members of the Faculty of Social Science could conduct social
research aimed at determining ways to induce poor farmers to use
the fertilizer. Members of the Faculty of Education should coop-
erate with the other members of the activity to devise simple
methods of instruction to show farmers how to use the fertilizer
technology effectively. Students from the departments of Chemistry
and Agricultural Sciences would then be instructed in how to make
the fertilizer and how to teach its manufacture and use to farmers.
The students would spend short service periods in rural communities
helping farmers prepare and apply the fertilizer. Finally, the
University would publish and disseminate descriptions of the entire

activity.
IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

As mentioned in Chapter 3, there is a paucity of research
related to universities as contributors to national development.
This study was limited to matching the thinking of development
authorities with the description of a single university and its
environment in order to determine the appropriateness of its
organization and programs for contributing to national development.
The study was empirical, with no experimental attempt to prove
cause and effect relationships. Out of this research have come
several implications for further study, the most significant of

which are listed below.

1. In order to better estimate the impact of the Universidad

del Valle de Guatemala on development, it would be desirable to

323

conduct continuing follow-up studies on graduates of the University
to determine what kinds of employment they obtain, their own
interests in national growth, the leadership roles they take in
national development, and their views on the appropriateness of
their university preparation for contribution to national develop-

ment.

2. As the writer reviewed the literature on important
development programs at other universities around the world, he
wondered whether the programs still existed and what their long-
term effects were. Many programs which begin with much promise
end shortly or have results much less effective than originally
hoped. An investigation of the programs mentioned in this study
would be helpful to understanding the role of universities in
development. Special attention could be given to‘identifying those
development-related elements in university programs and organization
which appear to be successful and enduring and those which tend to

fail.

3. There is little in the literature showing that a cause
and effect relationship exists between university programs and
national development. Although such research is difficult, attempts
should be made to conduct controlled experiments to determine the

effects of particular programs on development.

4. Studies similar to this one should be undertaken on
universities dedicated to national development in order to contribute
to the literature on the evaluation of universities and their

relationship to development.

324

5. A subject of importance in development, but not addressed
in this study, is the role of nonformal education in national develop-
ment. There is much research which can be carried out related to
the ways universities can participate in nonformal educational pro-

grams and thus extend their influence on national development.

CHAPTER 6--NOTES

Frank H. Bowles, "Stages of Educational Development,"
Higher Education and Social Changs, Vol. II, op. Cit., pp. 451-52.

2Akilu Habte, "Higher Education in Ethiopia in the 1970's
and Beyond: A Survey of Some Issues and Responses," Education and
Development Reconsidered, ed. F. Champion Ward (New York: Praeger
Publishers, 1974), p. 228.

 

 

3 . . . . .

R. Freeman Butts, "Latin American UniverSities and Teacher
Education," Education for National Development Focus: Latin America
(Washington: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education,
1964), p. 32.

325

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SELECTED GUATEMALAN

EDUCATIONAL LEADERS

APPENDIX A

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SELECTED GUATEMALAN

EDUCATIONAL LEADERS

What modifications, if any, would you make in the definition
of national development which I have just given you?
The process by which a nation maximizes its

physical power and productive capacities, making

the most of available natural and human resources,

in order to increase the level of living for its

people in general, not just a few, and to free the

potential of its people to share in the determination

of the goals of their society.

From your point of view, what are the major problems which
Guatemala confronts in its attempt to develop?

What are Guatemalan universities doing to contribute to national
development?

What more, if anything, should Guatemalan universities do to
enhance their contribution to national development?

What role should a general studies program play, or not play,
in a university which aims to prepare people capable of

helping in the development of a nation?

Is the political activity of students on campus a help or a
hindrance to the national development function of a university?

To what extent should students participate in university
affairs?

To what extent should professors participate in university
affairs?

Should elementary teachers be trained at the universities,
normal schools, or both?

326

10.

11.

12.

13.

327

What should teachers be taught?

What kinds of community service functions, if any, do you
recommend for a university?

What relationship should exist between the university and
the government?

What do you think about the employment of part-time and
visiting professors at universities?

APPENDIX B

INTERVIEW OF PROFESSORS AT THE UNIVERSIDAD

DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

l.

10.

11.

APPENDIX B

INTERVIEW OF PROFESSORS AT THE UNIVERSIDAD

DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

What modifications, if any, would you make in the definition
of national development which I have just given you?

The process by which a nation maximizes its physical
power and productive capacities, making the most of
available natural and human resources, in order to
increase the level of living for its people in general,
not just a few, and to free the potential of its people
to share in the determination of the goals of their
society.

What are the major problems which Guatemala confronts?
What are the aims of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

What is the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala doing to con-
tribute to national development?

What more should the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala do to
increase its impact on national development?

How is the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala substantially
different from other universities in Guatemala?

What role should the students play in the affairs of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

What role should the professors play in the affairs of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

Do you plan to continue your studies?
How have you attempted to improve your teaching?

Where else do you work?

328

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

329

What are the obstacles to working exclusively at the Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala?

What is your view of the general studies program at the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

What role do you play in national development?

In what kinds of service projects should the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala engage?

If you teach in the Saturday program, do you think the program
is appropriate to the educational needs of Guatemala?

APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSIDAD

DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSIDAD

DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

Instructions

 

The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information
for a doctoral dissertation describing the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala. Because of the importance of your answers to the success
of this study, you are asked to read the questions carefully and
give frank answers.

You may mark more than one response to an item if necessary
to give an accurate reply. If you are unable to reply to a question
for any reason, make no response and proceed to the next question.
Please be sure that the number of the question corresponds to the
number of the response you mark.

If you have any questions, please raise your hand, and I
will go to your desk to help you.

Information

 

1. What is your sex?

A. Masculine
B. Feminine

2. What is your age?

A. 51 or over
B. 41 - 50
C. 31 - 40
D. 22 - 30
E. 16 - 21

3. What is your nationality?

A. Guatemalan

. From another country in Central America
. From a country in Latin America

From a country in the Caribbean

. Mexican

[1100!!!

330

10.

331

What is the average of your grades in your university work?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

91 - 100
81 - 90
71 - 80
61 - 7O
51 - 60

Do you receive financial aid to help pay for your studies at
the Universidad del Valle?

A.
B.
C.

If

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

No
Partial
Complete

you receive financial aid, what is the source?

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala
Colegio Americana de Guatemala
Government of your country
International institution

Private benefactor

In which of the following universities have you studied previously?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

If

Universidad de San Carlos
Universidad Rafael Landivar
Universidad Mariano Gélvez
Universidad Francisco Marroquin
University in another country

you studied at another university, how many courses did you

complete there?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

If

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

41 or more

31 - 40
21 - 30
11 - 20
0 - 10

you studied in another university, in what area(s)?

Education

Social Sciences
Science and Humanities
Professional

Other

What university degree(s) do you have?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

masters
Licenciatura
Bachelors
Secondary teaching
Other

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

332

How many courses have you completed at the Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala?

A. 41 or more

B. 31 - 40
C. 21 - 30
D. 11 - 20
E. 0 - 10

In what area are you enrolled at the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala?

A. Education

B. Science and Humanities
C. Social Science

D. Medicine

E. General studies

In what program are you enrolled at the Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala?

A. Masters

B. Licenciatura

C. Secondary teaching

D. Elementary teaching

E. Seminar, workshop or other short courses

Why did you choose the Universidad del Valle for your studies?

A. The institution is free from political pressures.
B. Students receive a better education.

C. One does not lose time here.

D. There is emphasis on national development.

E. The program I want is here.

Are you satisfied with your experiences at the Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala?

A. Completely
B. Mostly

C. More or less
D. Not very

E. Not at all

Before studying at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, had you
received some service or participated in some program organized by
the University?

A. No

B. Yes, a course in human development

C. Yes, workshops or seminars

D. Yes, observation at The American School
E. Yes, POSS

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

333

In how many years do you estimate you will finish the degree program
in which you are enrolled at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

7 of more
5 or 6
3 or 4
l or 2

I do not plan to finish the program at the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala.

Are you presently employed?

A.
B.
C.

No
Part time
Full time

If you are employed, in what kind of work?

A.
B.

Education
Other

IF YOU ARE EMPLOYED IN EDUCATION, PLEASE ANSWER QUESTIONS 20 T0 23

At what level?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Pre-primary
Elementary
Secondary
University
Special education

In what kind of institution?

MUOW>

Public urban school
Public rural school
Private urban school
Private rural school
Ministry of Education

In what kind of work?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Teaching
Administration
Supervision
Planning
Research

If you are a secondary school teacher, in what area(s) do you teach?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Commercial
Technical
Bachillerato
Normal school
Other

334

IF YOU ARE EMPLOYED IN SOME OTHER AREA, PLEASE ANSWER QUESTIONS 24 AND 25
24. In what area(s)?

A. Commerce/Industry
B. Government

C. Health service

D. Agriculture

E. Other

25. In what kind(s) of work?

A. Secretary

B. Accountant

C. Administrator
D. Advisor

E. Other

Qpinions

WHAT IS YOUR OPINION ABOUT THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIVERSIDAD
DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA?

26. Academic level

A. High

B. Above average
C. Average

D. Below average
E. Low

27. Appropriateness of the curriculum for meeting your purposes

A. Excellent
B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor
E. Very Poor

28. Student guidance

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Average
D. Poor

E. Very poor
29. Library: books

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

Library: services

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor
Laboratories

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor

Classrooms

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor
Community services

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor
Research Institute

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor

Teacher-training program

A. Excellent
B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor
E. Very poor

Supervised practice teaching

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor

336

37. General studies program

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor

38. Are you in accord with the requirement of general studies prior
to a degree program?

A. Strongly agree

B. Agree

C. No opinion

D. Disagree

E. Strongly disagree

39. Emphasis on national development

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor

40. Academic freedom (atmosphere in which freedom of expression is
permitted without indoctrination)

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor

IN GENERAL, WHAT IS THE QUALITY OF THE PROFESSORS AT THE UNIVERSIDAD
DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA?

41. Knowledge of material

A. Excellent
B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor
E. Very Poor

42. Ability to communicate what they know to the students

A. Excellent

B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor

E. Very poor

337

43. Ability to stimulate critical thinking on the part of the students

A. Excellent
B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor
E. Very poor

44. Ability to stimulate creativity on the part of the students

A. Excellent
B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor
E. Very poor

45. Fairness in grading

A. Excellent
B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor
E. Very poor

46. Punctuality and regularity in class attendance

A. Excellent
B. Good
C. Adequate
D. Poor
E. Very poor

47. Concern for national development

Excellent
Good
Adequate
Poor
Very poor

[HUGO-13>

IN GENERAL, WHAT IS THE QUALITY OF STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSIDAD
DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA?

48. Level of academic preparation

A. Excellent

B. Above average
C. Average

D. Poor

E. Very poor

338
49. Seriousness

A. Excellent

B. Above average
C. Average

D. Poor

E. Very poor

50. Punctuality and regularity in class attendance

A. Excellent

B. Above average
C. Average

D. Poor

E. Very poor

51. Respect for others

A. Excellent

B. Above average
C. Average

D. Poor

E. Very poor

52. Desire to help the country develOp?

A. Excellent

B. Above average
C. Average

D. Poor

E. Very poor

WHAT ARE YOUR OPINIONS CONCERNING THE ROLE OF STUDENTS AT THE
UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA?

53. Students should participate in the evaluation of the
professors.

A. Strongly agree

B. Agree

C. No opinion

D. Disagree

E. Strongly disagree

54. Students should participate in planning the curriculum and
programs.

A. Strongly agree

B. Agree

C. No opinion

D. Disagree

E. Strongly disagree

55.

56.

S7.

58.

59.

60.

339

Students should be required to participate in community service
programs in their area of studies as a prerequisite for graduation.

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Strongly agree
Agree

No opinion
Disagree

Strongly disagree

If you agree with number 55. how long should the program be?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

One month of less
TwO‘months

Three months

Four months

Five or more months

If you agree with number 69, what should be the student's daily
schedule for such a community service program?

A.
B.
C.
D.
B.

As

1 to 2 hours
3 to 4 hours
4 to 8 hours
6 to 8 hours
Full time

a requirement fdr graduation, students should take part in a

research project aimed at solving a national problem.

A.

MUOU

Strongly agree
Agree

No opinion
Disagree

Strongly disagree

Students should participate in student government.

RIC$CDU!>'

Strongly agree
Agree

No opinion
Disagree

Strongly disagree

In what ways should students participate in decision making at
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

A.

B.
C.
D.
E.

Students should not participate in decision making at
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

Make suggestions to University officials.

Have a representative on the Academic Council.

Have a vote in the election of University officials.
Take part in the hiring and firing of professors.

340

61. Students should have the right to organize strikes on campus.

A. Strongly agree

B. Agree

C. No opinion

D. Disagree

E. Strongly disagree

PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS CONCERNING THE EMPHASIS ON NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT AT THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

62. How much of the instruction is aimed at teaching students how to
effect change?

A. A lot

B. Some

C. Little

D. Very little
E. None

63. How often do teachers discuss national development needs in the

classroom?

A. Constantly
B. Frequently
C. Occasionally
D. Rarely

E. Never

64. How often are class activities related to solving national problems?

A. Constantly
B. Frequently
C. Occasionally
D. Rarely

E. Never

65. How much time would you be willing to spend on committees with other
students, faculty In: administration planning activities related
to national development ?

A. 8 hours per month or more
B. 4 hours per month

C. 2 hours per month

D. 1 hour per month

E. None

341

IN YOU PLAN TO WORK IN EDUCATION AFTER COMPLETING YOUR UNIVERSITY
STUDIES, PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

66. At what level?

A. Pre-primary
B. Elementary
C. Secondary
D. University
E.

Special Education
67. In what kind of institution?

Public urban school
Public rural school
Private urban school
Private rural school
Ministry of Education

muons»

68. In what kind of work?

Teaching
Administration
Supervision
Planning
Research

NUCCHb

69. If you plan to wrok as a secondary teacher, in what area?

A. Commercial

B. Technical

C. Bachillerato
D. Normal school
B. Other

IF YOU PLAN TO WORK IN AN AREA OTHER THAN EDUCATION AFTER COMPLETING
OF YOUR STUDIES? PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

70. In what area?

A. Commercial/Industry
B. Government

C. Health services

D. Agriculture

E. Other

71. What kind of work?

A. Administration
B. Professional
C. Planning

D. Research

E. Other

APPENDIX D

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TRUSTEES AND ADMINISTRATORS

AT THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

1.

APPENDIX D

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TRUSTEES AND ADMINISTRATORS

AT THE UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE GUATEMALA

What modifications, if any, would you make in the definition of
national development which I have just given you?

The process by which a nation maximizes its physical
power and productive capacities, making the most of
available natural and human resources, in order to
increase the level of living for its people in general,
not just a few, and to free the potential of its people
to share in the determination of the goals of their
society.

What are the major problems which Guatemala Confronts in its
attempt to develop?

What are the aims of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

What is the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala doing to Con-
tribute to national development?

What more should the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala do to
increase its impact on national development?

What role should the students play in the affairs of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

What is the general quality of the students at the Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala?

Do you think the University is developing positive attitudes
in students concerning their potential role in national

development?

What role should the professors play in the affairs of the
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala?

342

10.

11.

343

What is the general quality of the professors at the Uni—
versidad del Valle de Guatemala?

Should the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala play a role
as a social critic?

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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344

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"Nivel Medio Oficial: Alumnos Graduados Segfin Rama de Ensenanza y
Sexo Por Departamento 1977." Hoja Estadistica No. 4.
Guatemala: Ministerio de Educacién, Unidad Sectorial de
Investigacién y Planificacidn Educativa, November 1978.

 

"Némina de Establecimientos que Imparten la Carrera de Magisterio y
Otras Ramas de Ensefianza." Hoja Estadistica No. 9. Guate—
mala: Ministerio de Educacién, Unidad Sectorial de Investi-
gaci6n y Planificacién Educativa, April 1979.

 

Nyerere, Julius. "Education for Self-Reliance." Development Digest,
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Paddock, William and Paul Paddock. Hungry Nations. Boston: Little,
Brown, 1964.

 

350

Phillips, H. M. Educational Cooperation Between Developed and
Develqping Countries. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976.

 

 

Plan Nacional de Educacién para la Republica de Guatemala 1972-1979.
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Integral de la Educacién, 1973.

 

La Poblacién de Guatemala, Hoy y Mafiana. Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, 1976.

 

Pratt, R. Cranford. "Universities and Social Values in Developing
Areas." Higher Education and Social Change: Promising
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W. Thompson and Barbara R. Fogel. New York: Praeger Pub-
lishers, 1976.

 

 

Proyecto Multinacional Organizacion de los Estados Americanos.
Adiestramiento en Desarrollo de Pruebas Educativas.
Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, March 1978.

 

Quiréz, Ramos Mayorga. La Universidad Para el Cambio Social. San
Salvador: Universidad Centroamericano Editores, 1977.

 

Rousseau. Cited in R. Freeman Butts. "Teacher Education and
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of Supply and Demand, ed. George Z. F. Bereday. London:
Oxford University Press, 1979.

 

 

Rusk, Dean. "Address at the Opening Session at the Department of
State." Education and the Development of Nations, eds.
John W. Hanson and Cole S. Brembeck. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1966.

 

Scrimshaw, Nevin S., and Moises Béjar. Nutrition and Agricultural
Development: Significance and Potential for the Tropics.
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United Nations, 1970.

 

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Soedjatmoko. "Higher Education and Development: An Overview."
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Statistics for Analysis of the Educational Sector: Guatemala.
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Thompson, Kenneth W., and colleagues. "Higher Education and National
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Thompson, Kenneth W., and Barbara R. Fogel, eds. Higher Education
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Todaro, Michael P., and colleagues. "Education for National Develop-
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sidered, ed. F. Champion Ward. New York: Praeger Publishers,
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Turnbull, William W. "From Goals to Results in Education." Essays
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UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning. Problems
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Paris: UNESCO, 1965.

 

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. A Description of the Universidad
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pared for distribution July 1975.

 

 

U.S. Agency for International Development. Economic Data Book for
Latin America. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973.

 

 

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Vaizey, John. "Priorities within Education." Education and the
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Brembeck. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966.

 

 

Velasquez, Gabriel P. "The University and Community Development."
Education and Development Reconsidered, ed. F. Champion
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Praeger Publishers, 1976.

 

Waggoner, George R., and Barbara A. Waggoner. Education in Central

America. Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press,
1971.

 

Whetten, Nathan L. Guatemala: The Land and the People. Westport:
Greenwood Press, 1961.

 

White, Carl M. Mexico's Library and Information Services: A Study
of Present Conditions and Needs. Totowa, N.J.: Bedminster,
1969. Cited in Richard G. King and others. The Provincial
Universities of Mexico: An Analysis of Growth and Develop-
ment. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971.

 

 

Wilkie, James W., ed. Statistical Abstract of Latin America,
Vols. XVIII and XIX. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American
Center Publications, 1977.

 

 

Williams, T. David. "Wastage Rates and Teacher Quality in Guatemalan
Primary Schools." Comparative Education Review, February
1965.

The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1979. New York: Newspaper
Enterprise Association, Inc., 1979.

 

World Bank. The Assault on World Poverty: Problems of Rural Develop-
ment, Education, and Health. Baltimore and London: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1975.

 

 

Wright, Peter C., and Louis Arturo Lemus. "Guatemala's Approach to
Rural Education." Educational Innovations in Latin America,
eds. Richard L. Cummings and Donald A. Lemke. Metuchen,
N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1973.

 

B. PERSONAL INTERVIEWS

Aguilar, Licenciada Gloria. Personal interview. Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala, September 10, 1979.

353
Antillon, Dr. Jorge. Personal interview. Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, Guatemala, August 28, 1979, and November 15, 1979.

Arias, Ingeniero Jorge. Personal interview. Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala, Guatemala, October 17, 1979.

Clark, Dr. Freeman. Personal interview. Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, Guatemala, October 8, 1979.

Contreras, Licenciada. Personal interview. Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, Guatemala, September 13, 1979.

Garcia Salas, Dr. Olga Marina. Personal interview. The American
School of Guatemala, Guatemala, March 18, 1979.

Gilbert, Dr. Otto. Personal interview. Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, Guatemala, September 15, 1979.

Hunt, Gertrude. Personal interview. Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, Guatemala, September 6, 1979.

MacVean, Dr. Robert B. Personal interview. Fundacién de la Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala, August 17, 1979.

Mendez, Dr. Alfredo. Personal interview. Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, Guatemala, September 12, 1979.

Mertins, Licenciado Roberto. Personal interview. Guatemala,
April 19, 1979.

Molina S., Licenciada Beatriz. Personal interview. Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala, September 13, 1979.

Monterroso, Licenciada Eugenia de. Personal interview. Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala, September 5, 1979.

Nieves, Licenciado Francisco. Personal interview. Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala, February 28, 1979, and
July 18, 1979.

Pinal, Ingeniero Julio del. Personal interview. Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala, September 9, 1979.

Putzeys, LicenCiado Guillermo. Personal interview. Guatemala,
May 16, 1979.

Rizzo, Julio. Personal interview. Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala, Guatemala, June 25, 1979.

Tejada, Dr. Carlos. Personal interview. Guatemala, July 13, 1979.

354

Universidad Francisco Marroquin. Phone conversation with Registrar's
Office. Guatemala, October 26, 1979.

Universidad Mariano Galvez. Phone conversation with Registrar's
Office. Guatemala, October 26, 1979.

Universidad Rafael Landivar. Phone conversation with Registrar's
Office. Guatemala, October 26, 1979.

C. UNPUBLISHED SOURCES

Aguilar P., Gloria J. "Informe Final del Trabajo Realizado por el
Programa de Educacién para el Desarrollo Humano desde sus
Inicios el 1 de Agosto de 1968 Hasta su Clausura e1 31 de
Diciembre de 1976." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, 1977. (Mimeographed.)

"Biannual Report for the Inter-American Schools Service of the
American Council on Education, Washington, D.C., Final
Report 1956." Guatemala: American School of Guatemala,
1956. (Mimeographed.)

"Biannual Report for the Inter-American Schools Service of the
American Council on Education, Washington, D.C." Guatemala:
American School of Guatemala, 1955. (Mimeographed.)

"Brief Overview of Resources Which Support the Academic Programs
and the Institute of Research." Guatemala: Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala, January 1978. (Mimeographed.)

Butterfield, Clair J., Stephen M. Corey, and Kenneth J. Rehage.
"An Appraisal of the Laboratory School Activities of the
American School of Guatemala." Guatemala: The American
School of Guatemala, August 28, 1954. (Mimeographed.)

Chattulani, Doultram. "A Study of Education in Costa Rica with an
Emphasis on Student Teaching." Unpublished Ph.D. disser-
tation, Michigan State University, 1972.

"COOperative Program in In-Service Training and Curriculum Develop-
ment." Guatemala: Ministry of Education, Servicio Coopera-
tivo Interamericano de Educacién, The American School of
Guatemala, 1957. (Mimeographed.)

"Description of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala." Guatemala:
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, January 1978. (Mimeo-
graphed.)

"Estatutos." Guatemala: Fundacién de la Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, 1977. (Mimeographed.)

355

"Facultad de Ciencias Sociales." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle
de Guatemala, October 1974. (Mimeographed.)

"Facultad de Educacién." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala, July 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Field Research in the Undergraduate Social Science Program."
Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, March 1977.
(Mimeographed.)

"Guatemalan Scholarship Association." Guatemala: Guatemalan
Scholarship Association, January 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Guia para Estudiantes." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala, February 1977. (Mimeographed.)

"History and Development of The American School of Guatemala and The
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala." Guatemala: Fundacién
de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, August 1975.
(Mimeographed.)

"History and Development of The American School of Guatemala and The

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala." Guatemala: Fundaci6n
de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, 1978. (Mimeo-
graphed.)

"Informe del Consejo Directivo de la Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala a1 Consejo de Fiduciarios de la Fundacidn de la
Universidad del Valle de Guatemala." Guatemala: Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala, September 1978. (Mimeographed.)

"Informe del Consejo Directivo de la Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala al Consejo de Fiduciarios de la Fundaci6n de la Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala." Guatemala: Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala, September 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Informe del Consejo Directivo de la Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala a1 Consejo de Fiduciarios de la Fundacién de la Uni-
versidad del Valle de Guatemala." Guatemala: Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala, January 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Informe No. 9 al 31 de Diciembre de 1978, Preparado Para el Banco
Interamericano de Desarrollo." Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, March 19, 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Licenciatura in Agricultural Science." Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, January 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Licenciatura in Food Science and Technology." Guatemala: Universidad
del Valle de Guatemala, January 1979. (Mimeographed.)

598 we 54 I3

356

Medical Entomology Research and Training Unit/Guatemala. "Program
Description." Washington: Bureau of Tropical Diseases,
Center for Disease Control, U.S. Public Health Service,
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1979.
(Mimeographed.)

Miller, Jean Harbaugh. "Teacher Training in Developing Countries."
Unpublished manuscript. Oregon: 1978.

"Preserve Land Tracts to Serve as Research-Conservation-Demonstration
Areas." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
1978. (Mimeographed.)

"Program de Ayuda Educacional." Guatemala: Fundaci6n United Brands,
Compania Bananera de Costa Rica, 1976. (Mimeographed.)

"Programa Regional, Maestria en Medicién, Evaluacién e Investigacién
Educativa. Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
February-November 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Program in Agriculture." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala, January 1976. (Mimeographed draft.)

"Proposal to Improve the Guidance and Scholarship Program for Higher
Education." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
January 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Proyecto de Reglamento Académico." Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, March 16, 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Reglamento Academico de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala."
Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, March 1979.
(Mimeographed.)

"Request to the World Health Organization to Support Research and
Training in Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) and Other Vector-
Borne Diseases." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guate-
mala, January 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Scholarships for Post-Technical Agricultural Science Program."
Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, January 1979.
(Mimeographed.)

"Socio-Cultural Correlates of Cognitive and Physical Development in
Urban Pre-School Guatemalan Children: A Summary of a Pro-
posal." Guatemala: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,
January 1979. (Mimeographed.)

"Status of Projects and Requests." Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, May 1977. (Mimeographed.)

357

"Universidad del Valle de Guatemala." Guatemala: Universidad del
Valle de Guatemala, January 1978. (Mimeographed.)

Vaughan, Herbert G. "The American School of Guatemala and Its
Relation to Guatemalan Education: A Descriptive Case
Study." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State
University, 1968.