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THE EFFECTS OF MOBILE ADVERTISING FORMATS

By

Jung hwean Kim

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Department of Telecommunication, Information Studies, and Media.

2005

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTS OF MOBILE ADVERTISING FORMATS
By
Jung Hwean Kim

This research examines the effects of three mobile advertising formats (Mad with
text, still image, or moving image) and the influence it may have on one’s intention to
watch movies. With three PDA’s, each PDA for three specific types of mobile advertising
formats, this experiment shows that each group of people has different emotional
responses (pleasure and arousal) towards his or her attitude towards advertising (Am), and
attitude towards movies (Am), which in turn affect his or her intention to watch movies.
The results of the laboratory experiments show that the format of a moving image does
not cause the intention to watch movies that was expected. However, the arousal brings
out the intention in all formats of advertising. Especially, moving image is more effective
to the advertising than other formats. On the contrary, the pleasure is not directly related
to the type of advertising formats (text, still image, or moving image) for movie
advertising on mobile media. Although this modified new model shows that all of the
paths from emotional response to intention to watch are not supported, the success of
generating mobile commerce revenues from advertisings presented in the mediated
context may be originated from various factors not just volumes of contents and technical
bandwidth developments. Using moving or text advertising formats will not directly
affect consumer’s intentions to behave in the desired manner, but various integrated
formats among advertising types may stimulate significant effect on people’s intention to

watch a movie.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. iii

LIST OF FIGURE ................................................................................... iii

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 1.

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 6
1-1. Dimensions of Emotion to Advertisement ................................................ 6
1-2. Effect of emotion in advertisement ....................................................... 11
1-3. Attitude toward the advertising (Aad) and Attitude toward the brand (Ab) ......... 13
1-4. Relationship between emotional response with attitude toward the advertising

(Aad) & Attitude toward the brand (Ab) ...................................................... 18
(a) Classical Conditioning Theory ...................................... 4 ..................... 18
(b) Balance Theory ............................................................................. 19

CHAPTER II.

RESEARCH MODEL & HYPOTHESE ......................................................... 21
‘2-1. Emotional response ......................................................................... 23
2-2. Emotional response with attitude toward the advertising (Aad) & Attitude toward

the movie (Am) ................................................................................. 25
2-3. Attitude Toward the advertising (Aad) & Attitude toward the movie (Am) .......... 27
2-4. Attitude toward the advertising (Aad), Attitude toward the movie (Am), and

Intention to watch ........................................................................... 29

CHAPTER III.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................. 30
3-1. Stimuli & Material ........................................................................... 31
3-2. Data Collection ............................................................................. 34
3-3. Measures ..................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER IV. DATA ANALYSIS & RESULT ................................................. 36

iii

CHAPTERV. GENERAL DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION, & LIMITATION ................ 45

APPENDIX 1 ........................................................................................ 51
APPENDIX 2 ........................................................................................ 52

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................... 55

LIST OF TABLE

Table 1. Dimensions of emotion ................................. ‘ ................................. 10
Table 2. Summary of empirical study about Aad and Ab ........................................ 15
Table 3. Theoretical Explanations for Relationships of And, Ab, and PI ...................... 20
Table 4. ANOVA result for Hla and Hlb ........................................................ 36

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure]. From Alternative Specifications of the Mediating'Role of Aad ................... 17
Figure 2. Balance theory in advertising context ................................................ 19
Figure 3. The communication model by Holdbrook and Batra (1987) ..................... 21

Figure 4. Proposed theoretical model for the effects of mobile advertising on emotional

response, And, and Am ................................................................ 22
Figure 5. Three different mobile advertising formats on PDAs. . . . ............33
Figure 6. The pass coefficients from causal effects with a text ............................... 41
Figure 7. The pass coefficients from causal effects with a still image ........... , ........... 42
Figure 8. The pass coefficients from causal effects with a moving image. . . . . . . . . ....43

Figure 9. The pooled data from' PLS analysis ................................................... 44

vi

INTRODUCTION

Mobile advertising is spreading rapidly through mobile devices (e. g., cell phones,
PDAs, and handheld computers), and is strongly considered to be one of the success
factors for mobile commerce (Skygo, Inc. 2001). Although few consumers are familiar
with the traditional or online advertising markets, mobile advertising will become a hot
issue due to the fast development of wireless networking, technology, and the significant
increase of mobile device users (Vittee-Philippe, p., & Navarro, J .M. 2000).

Bruno (2001) said one of the most popular mobile services is mobile advertising.
According to Bruno (2001), the UK has shown the dramatic grth in the usage of
mobile devices, with the overall penetration at almost 70 percent of using mobile
advertising services (Jupiter Media Metrix consulting group 2002). Underlying the above
facts, data show that advertising with mobile devices would prove to be a big success
factor in the mobile business of the future (Harvey, 2001).

In the GFK NOP market research company’s study, twenty-four UK mobile
device owners agreed to mobile advertising services, and expected to get better
advertising services (NOP world 2001). The Kelsey Group estimated that US. companies

spent just $35 million on mobile advertising in 2000 (Kelsey Group. 1999). Moreover,

Jupiter Media Metrix predicted that the market would grow to over $900 million by 2007
in US while the worldwide mobile advertising market would be $6.5 billion (AllNet
Devices Staff. 2001).

Mobile Advertising has already become a useable advertising technique today
with mobile technology, which is improving at a fast pace. There are many possibilities
for services that advertiser can offer customers such as special communication platforms,
customizing content, Mobile Commerce, remote access to databases or voice mail
services. With tools like these, the customers receive not only an advertising message, but
also a bonus service.

Today, many people are already aware of Push— and Pull-applications, and they
have several ways of receiving advertising formats in their lives. According to the fast
growth of mobile technology and increasing volumes of mobile device users, advertisers
think that several formats are essential to capture customers’ attention to influence a

buying intention (Avesair, Inc. Push Marketing. 2002).

This study is about Mobile Advertising as a new kind of advertising channels via
the use of mobile communication devices such as PDAs. These devices make it possible

to get the message or advertising across to customers in a "mobile way.” The new

mobile advertising channel enables a much more effective business-to-customer
communication. The target group is now reachable all the time and anywhere.

Although mobile devices have many limitations (e. g., tiny screen display, limited
screen resolution, small and compact keyboards, troublesome input mechanisms), there
are several advantages of mobile advertising: cost effectiveness, a personal touch and
customization (Avesair, Inc. Push Marketing. 2002). Unlike traditional e-commerce
applications, mobile applications offer ubiquity, location awareness and personalization.
Mobile-commerce applications should be adapted to the client’s device infrastructure and
can offer broadcasting in order to disseminate information of common interest to users
within a specific geographical region (Tsalgatidou, A. Veijalainen, J & Evaggelia, P.
“Challenges in Mobile Electronic Commerce,” In Pros. of 3 rd International conference
on innovation through E-commerce, UK 2000).

Some analysts point out that in order to make mobile advertising work, it is
crucial to attract the attention of people in the current and future generations. However, it
is more complicated (R. Prasad, “Mobile Advertising: The Emerging Revolution”,
Advertising Express, January) than existing media forms (e. g., newspaper, magazine, TV,
radio, and online advertising). Mobile advertising can offer a more individual advertising

service to customers with individual needs.

Undaunted, early advertisers have tested a variety of advertising formats. The
viability of these advertising formats depends primarily on the type of products and
consumers an advertiser wants to target. Recently, advertising providers have worked
with entertainment service providers to offer people advertising along with a movie or
music service. In particular they have been creating and implementing advertising and
promotional efforts designed to make a movie stand out in a competitive market
environment: movie advertising typically uses the same methods other products do.
However, movie advertising can take months of planning and organization and its

success can make or break a movie.

’ Mobile advertising providers expect people to focus on several formats of
advertising such as text, still image and moving image. Some people are more attracted
by text or a brief story-like review. Some focus on viewing through an image, a still cut,
or a moving image. Because of the limitations of mobile advertising, people are restricted,

not only to the screen’s real size, but also to its limited emotive powers.

From the many previous studies “the emotional response” is a term has been used
to describe the increased use of emotional advertising appeals over the past decade.
Researchers have recently begun to place more emphasis on the study of emotional

advertising appeals (Batra and Ray 1985), emotional responses, and the role that this

effect can play in decision-making and the intentions of the viewers (MacKenzie, Lutz,

and Belch 1984).

The main purpose of this study is to examine which mobile format (mobile
advertising with text, still image, or moving image) is more effective in influencing
people’s intentions to watch a movie. It is a focus on the feelings and attitudes toward the
advertising (Aad), and the attitude toward how the movie models how mobile advertising
works. While emotion can be distinguished from other effective constructs, there is still
an uncertainty about different types or dimensions of emotional responses and how to
measure them. Thus, this study will investigate consumers’ emotional responses to
advertising and examine how to affect their intentions to watch a movie, in addition to

examining how these effects may differ as result of mobile advertising exposure.

This study provides theoretical and managerial contributions; it also describes an
empirical investigation of the effects of advertising formats on emotional response.
Managers can benefit from the knowledge of how different emotional advertising formats
and their responses ultimately affect the intention to watch a movie. This is especially
important given the increasing use of emotional advertising in the mobile environment. In
addition, this study shows that attitudes toward the advertising (Aad) can directly affect

intentions and behavior without a set attitude toward to the brand (Ab).

Chapter I provides a literature review for this study. It begins with a review of the
literature about responses from emotional feelings, attitudes toward the advertising (Aad),
and attitudes toward the brand (Ab).

Chapter 11 contains the Research model, hypotheses, and then chapter III presents
a description of the methodology and data collection used to test hypotheses. Chapter IV
contains data analysis. Chapter V follows with general discussion, implication, and

limitation.

1. LITERATURE REVIEW

1-1. Dimensions of Emotion to Advertisement

Generally, psychologists have studied the concept of emotion and have tried to reveal
its dimensions for many years. While there are a very large number of possible emotions,
it would be desirable to know if different emotions share any underlying dimensions.
Both theatrical and empirical perspectives have been taken in attempting to identify the
dimensions of emotion.

The most popular typology of emotional content is categorized as three dimensions:
Pleasure, Arousal, and Dominance (PAD) (Holbrook and O’Shaughnessey. 1984).

According to the positive area, factors are happy, pleased, satisfied, contented, hopeful,

and relaxed. Stimulated, excited, frenzied, jittered, wide awaked, and aroused are
examples of the positive as well.

Empirical support for PAD typology comes from the work of Russell and
Mehrabian (1977) who found three dimensions both necessary and sufficient to define
emotional states. They found that forty-two verbal report emotion scales could be
considered to be a function of the three dimensions, and, in a second study, found that
subjects’ ratings of 151 emotion-denoting terms could be adequately categorized into the
three dimensions as well. Additional support for the PAD dimensions comes from
Plutchik’s review of studies examining facial expressions (Plutchik 1980, pp. 250-253).
Seven studies (ranging in time fiom 1938 through the mid 19605) essentially supported a
three-dimension conceptualization of emotion with two of the dimensions equivalent to
the Pleasure and Arousal dimensions; although in most of these studied, the third
dimension was uninterruptible. Holbrook and Westwood (1985) have attempted to
validate the Emotions Profile Index (EPI) from Plutchick (1980) in an advertising
situation.

Other conceptualizations of emotions can be found in the advertising literature. Stout
and Leckenby (1984) coded respondent verbatim reposes after exposure to an

advertisement and developed three categories of “Energizing” (feelings of arousal),

“Hedonic Tone” (pleasant / unpleasant feeling), and “State Anticipation” (feelings of
appraisal) emotional reactions. They emphasized that for a response to be coded as an
emotional reaction, the respondent would have to indicate that the emotion was felt
personally rather than simply recognizing that the actors in the commercial were
experiencing that emotion. Notice that the “Hedonic Tone” and the “Energizing”
categories correspond directly to the “Pleasure” and “Arousal” dimensions.

Stout and Leckenby (1984) distinguish between what they call “progressive” types of
emotional feelings. The first type of response is a “Descriptive” or “Non-affective”
emotional reaction where the individual can recognize the feelings the characters in an
advertisement feels. A meaningful emotional response would involve an interpretation of
the event in the context of consumers’ personal experiences and include an emotional
response that may occur when a person sees an event in the advertisement.

Mitchell (1997), in a summary of the theoretical issues confronting research on
emotional response to advertising, concluded that one of the most critical concerns is
conceptualizing and measuring emotion. Mandler stated, “. .. there is no commonly, even
superficially, acceptable definition of what a psychology of emotion is about” (Mitchell.
1986. 1979, p. 279). Thus, there is a need to define “emotion” and “emotional response to

advertisement.”

Kreshel (1984) noted a tendency to confound emotion with affect, attitude, liking and
preference. Batra and Ray (1986) identify the term “Affect” which encompasses all
emotions, moods, feeling and drives. Therefore, affect is too broad a description.
Holbrook and O’Shaughnessy (1984) differentiated emotion from each concept as
sentiment and mood. Emotion is a short-lived response whereas sentiment is a persistent
reaction to external stimuli but emotion is a response to some specific stimulus (e.g., an
advertisement) while mood is a general reaction. “Emotion,” then, can be defined as a
short-lived reaction to a specific stimulus. “Emotional response to advertisement”
specifies the advertisement as the stimulus.

There is little consensus on what constitutes emotional response to an advertisement
or how to measure it (Batra and Ray 1986). Izard (1972) identified two approaches to
defining emotional response: the typological and the dimensional. The former stipulates
that there are different types of emotions that are distinct qualitatively. Each emotion is a
special state that has particular experiential properties. “Basic” emotions, evoked by a
stimulus, are identified and measured for their intensity.

The dimensional approach holds that emotion is not a special state but part of a more
general process of arousal. Emotional experience is a function of physiological and

attitudinal processes. Indices of these processes can be obtained by developing

dimensions of the verbal expression of emotion.

Many researchers have used data reduction methods, such as factor analysis, cluster

analysis, and multi-dimensional scaling to explore the dimensions of emotion. All

recovered multiple factors. The two factors found consistently are labeled “Pleasure” and

“Arousal”. The former appears to be a physiological manifestation of emotion; the letter

an emotional evaluation of arousal (Table 1).

Table 1. Dimensions of emotion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Researchers (U n) Pleasantness Arousal Others
Frijda & Pleasantness Intensity Attentional Activities vs.
Philipszoon (1963) Unpleasantness Disinterest, Social
Submission vs.
Condescension
Osgood (1966) Pleasantness Activation Interest. Control
Davitz (1969) Pleasantness Activation Relatedness, Competence
Unpleasantness
Frijda (1969) Pleasantness Level of Attention — Rejection, Social,
Unpleasantness activation Evaluation, Surprise, Self-
Awareness
Izard (1972) Pleasantness Arousal or Self-Awareness
(Hedonic Tone) Activation
Averill (1975) Evaluation Activation Depth, Uncontrolled
Bottenberg (1975) Pleasantness - Activation Depth
Unpleasantness
Osgood, May & Evaluation Activity Potency
Miron (1975)
Russell & Pleasure Degree of Dominance
Mehrabain(1977) Displeasure Arousal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Russell (197 8) Pleasure Degree of Control, Potency, Dominance,

Displeasure Arousal Depth of Experience, Locus
of causation

Mehrabian (1980) Pleasure Arousal Dominance

Russell (1980) Pleasure Arousal
Displeasure Sleepiness

Russell & Steiger Pleasure Arousal

(1982) Displeasure Sleepiness

Daly, Lancee & Pleasantness Intensity Activity

Polivy (1983)

 

 

 

 

Applied to advertisements with several types of media, an interpretation of these
two factors is that advertisements generate arousal in the view. The arousal felt triggers
an appraisal of how pleasant or unpleasant the advertisement makes viewer feel. That is,
arousal causes an (un) pleasant reaction to the advertisement. The appraisal is the
emotional response to the advertisement.

Several researchers have shown similar explanations. Russell and Steiger (1982)
proposed that emotional response to advertisements “exhibits valence feelings occurring
as reaction to self-relevant event”.

“Valenced feelings” may correspond to the (un) pleasantness factor since
advertisements with arousal and pleasantness can affect the viewer’s emotional response
to the advertisement and to subsequent advertisements.

1-2. Effect of Emotion in Advertisement

11

 

The earlier researcher on affect in advertising considered differences in “emotional
and rational appeals” (Prestion 1968), and “thinking versus feeling appeals” (Golden and
Johnson 1983). Since emotion is multidimensional in nature, any further study of emotion
in advertisement would benefit by considering the type of emotion present in the
advertisement. In particular, Holbrook and O’Shaughnessey (1984) give suggestions of
when one of the PAD dimensions may be more effective than another.

The following two articles show explanations of the benefits of generating
emotional responses through advertisements. Ray and Batra (1983) give several reasons
why what they refer to as “affective advertisement” may be more effective advertising.
To begin, affective advertising may generate greater attention since anindividual’s
feelings act as a screen in selecting incoming information. A favorable or unfavorable
feeling evoked by an advertisement can allow the message to pass through the screen.
And an afiecfive reaction may increase the amount of processing or thought the
individual gives to the advertisement after it has caught that individual’ attention. Next,
since judgments are influenced by a person’s affective state, a positively evaluated
affective advertisement may lead to more positive judgments. In result, affective
advertising seems to be better remembered. There exists the most empirical support for

the assertion of increased memory for emotional advertisements.

12

Mizerski, White, and Hunt (1984) provide a discussion of how emotion can be
effectively used in advertising. They discuss how emotion can be used to generate
increased attention.

Many of the empirical studies of affective responses to advertising have usually
focused on Attitude toward the advertising (Am) and Attitude toward the brand (Ab) as
responses. But, one study has considered consumers’ feeling after being exposed to an
advertisement as a response separate form Aad. Allen and Madden (1985a) empirically
evaluated responses to humorous and serious radio commercials for a new milk product.
They found that the positive feelings (called “positive affect”) that subjects had after
listening to the humorous radio commercial had a small, yet significant, effect on the
subjects’ Aad and Ab depend on the product.

1-3. Attitude toward the advertisement (A...) and Attitude toward the brand (Ab)

The role of emotional response to advertisements has been studied in the context of
consumers’ attitudes toward the advertisements (Aad). And several studies indicate that
the attitudes toward brands (Ab) can be influenced by ad attitudes as well as beliefs about
product attributes. Following the theorization in Petty and Cacioppo’s ELM, researchers
in recent years have paid increased attention to the notion that peripheral cues in

advertising stimuli may evoke favorable emotional, affective reactions that in turn will be

13

transferred to the advertised brand (Batra & Ray, 1986; Holbrook & Batra, 1987). As a
specific form of viewers’ affective response to advertising stimuli a large number of
researchers have shown an interest in the construct of attitude toward the advertisement
(Aw)-

Shimp (1981) first suggested that Aad consisted of birth cognitive and affective
dimensions. The cognitive dimension of Aad was conceptualized as a result of consciously
processing specific elements of the advertisement. The afl’ective dimension, on the other
hand, was seen as those emotional feeling such as happiness which occurred without any
conscious processing of exceptional elements. He also argued these different dimensions
would have differential effect on the viewer’s Ab because of the different underlying
mechanism.

Lutz (1985) noted that little systematic study had been conducted concerning the
conceptual origins of Aad. Consistent with Petty and Cacioppo (1981, 1986) and Shimp
(1981), he also viewed Aad as having different degrees of cognitive and emotional
antecedents such as perceived credibility of the advertisement.

Mackenzie and Lutz (1989) proposed that the cognitive and emotional reacting to
an advertising stimulus should be treated as antecedents to the general attitudinal

response to a specific advertisement denoted as Aad. Lutz (1985) also noted the transitory

14

nature of Aad by saying that “Aad focuses on a particular exposure to a particular

advertising and not on consumers’ And in general or even their Aad stimulus of interest at

another point in time”.

Many researchers have empirically investigated the relationship between Aad and

A4, and have documented the significant explanatory power of Aad. Presented below is a

review of empirical literature. This literature is also summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Summary of empirical study about A... and Ab

 

 

Authors(s) & Purpose Finding Contribution
Mitchell & Olson ,1981 Significant effects in Discuss conceptual
Determine if Aad is a mediator AN OVA & regression of Aad meaning of Aad
of the effects of as on Ab on Ab, Am, and PI construct. Empirically

(purchasing intention).

found Aad effects.

 

 

Galb & Pickett, 1983 Examine Aad significantly related to Considered a specific
effects of Aad on Ab, credibility the four effectiveness appeal.

& persuasiveness of the measures independent of

advertising, and buying perceived humor in the Aad.

intention. Also considered

effects of humor on Aad.

Mitchell, 1983 Raise a number No difference in Aad for Considered

of issues regarding visual & processing conditions. Apic components of the ads
emotional ads & present results has stronger effect on Aad and how they affected

of the three experiments

than the number of positive
or negative ad statements

And. Presented a
conceptual model of

 

 

 

 

given by subject the process.
Mitchell, 1986 Discover effect Photos affect Aad & Ah but Additional empirical
of affective photos and verbal not attribute beliefs. And also findings of effect of Aad
components of ads on And and affects Ab for ads with no on Ab and effects of
Ab. photograph. visual and verbal

 

15

 

 

 

 

 

 

components on Aad.
Lutz, MacKenzie, & Belch,1983 Aad had strong effect on Ab; Provided a discussion
Find potential moderating Cb had no effect on Ab. of a large number of
variables of the And-> Ad - possible causal
relationship. antecedents of Aad.
Gardner,1985 Examine causal Effect of Aad on Ab Empirical analysis of
effects of Aad & brand beliefs on equivalent for both processing effects.
Ab under different processing processing sets.
MacKenzie, Lutz, & Belch,1986 See Figure 1. Empirical test of
Test four alternative structural alternative models.
models.

 

 

 

Mitchell and Olson (1981) found that Ab and Am (attitude toward act) could be
explained by both belief structure and Aad rather than by belief structure alone. They also
found that Aad mediates advertising effect on brand attitude.

Regarding affective responses (Am), Batra and Ray (1985, 1986) confirmed that
affective responses represent strong mediating influences on brand attitudes and affective
responses appear to be antecedents of the Aad to have impact on Aad. They, therefore,
suggested the relevant chain of effect is: Ars -> And -> Ab

Galb and Pickett (1983) examined the effects of Aad on Ab, credibility and
persuasiveness of the advertisement, and buying intentions. They also considered the
effects of humor in the advertisement on Aad. Advertisements for stop-smoking kits were
mailed along with a questionnaire to 2,400 subjects. One half of the subjects received a

humorous advertisement. An analysis of the twenty percent of the questionnaires returned

16

 

indicated that Aad was significantly related to the four effectiveness measures independent
of the level of humor the individual perceived in the advertisement.

In a series of experiments, Lutz, MacKenzie and Belch (1983) have significantly
advanced the literature by considering variables simultaneously and hypothesizing about
the causal relations among them. This sequence of studies is below. This model of the
first study (Lutz, MacKenzie, and Belch 1983) illustrated an alternate model that was
specified to explain the mediating role of Aad on brand attitude and intention. All of the
models include the relationships specified by solid lines. Figure 1 shows the relationship

among the AM, Ab, and PI as alternative Specifications of the Mediating Role of Aad

 

 

 

Figurel. From Alternative Specifications of the Mediating Role of A“
Source: Lutz, MacKenzie, and Belch (1983).

This model showed two of the facts related to this study; this illustrated mutual
causation between And and Ab. And Am and Ab will have independent effects on purchase

intentions (PI).

17

Batra and Ray (1985) examined the effect of Aad on what they call attribute-
sensitive brand attitudes (pleasant and nice ratings of the brand) and execution-sensitive
brand attitudes (usefulness and importance ratings of the brand). They found that Aad had
a significant effect on both brand attitude constructs. However, their measures for Aad
included ad liking, the emotion of advertising, and the net valence of “feeling” statements
given during cognitive response listing. It is possible that what they actually found was

that emotional feelings have an effect on brand attitude.

1-4. Relationship Emotional response, Attitude toward the advertising (Am), and
Attitude toward the brand (Ab)

In this section, for an overview, theoretical explanations on the aspects of the
relationship between emotional response, Aad, and Ab are reviewed. The explanations will
be extended into dynamic views in the following section. The theoretical perspectives, (a)
Classical Conditioning theory, (b) Balance theory offer convergent interpretations of how
Aad and Ab are related with emotional response.

(a) Classical Conditioning Theory

Shimp (1981) posited that Aad is transferred to Ab via a conditioning effect. He
expected that the pairing of a connotative response (e.g. a feeling of pleasure) with a

denotative response (e.g., a new brand name) would lead to a conditioned emotional

18

affect to Ab. When an advertisement creates positive And, the advertised brand can
precipitate the same positive attitude toward the brand due to classical conditioning
Summarizing classical conditioning theory could give a good explanation of the
Aad and Ab association. Based on the theory, a positive relationship is expected between
And and Ab. Therefore, it is expected that a positive Ab would be formed when a positive
Aad is developed from advertisements. Figure 2 shows the relationship among the

advertisement, Aad, and Ab as balance theory in advertising context

 

ADVERTISEMENT

/ \

Aad } [ Ab

 

 

 

Figure 2. Balance theory in advertising context

(b) Balance theory
Figure 2 represents balance theory in the advertising context. Since the
relationship between the advertisement and the brand is always positive, the consumer
must either like both the advertisement and the brand or dislike them both (Edell and

Burke, 1984). In the same vein, if Aad is positive then Ab must be positive and if And is

19

negative then Ab must be negative to maintain the balance. The expected relationship is a
reciprocal between Aad and Ab. That is, Ab also can influence Aad. The theory has received
partial support by Messmer (1979) in the study of un-broadcasted TV advertising for
well-known products. After measuring Ab before measuring Aad, he found that prior Ab
favorably influenced Aad.

In summary, balance theory predicts a positive relationship between Aad and Ab.
Based on the theory, the expected relationship is that positive (negative) Aad will cause
positive (negative) Ab and vice versa. To summarize the empirical literature, Table 3
illustrates that many researchers have found relationships between Aad and Ab.

Table 3. Theoretical Explanations for Relationships of Aad, Ab, and PI

 

 

Relationship Tested by Relationship of the
Theoretical Hypothesis
Aad -> Ab Michell & Olsen, 1981 Classical Conditioning
Gelb & Pickett, 1983 between Aad and Ab

Mitchell, 1983
Lutz, Mackenzie, & Belch,
1983
Mackenzie & Lutz, 1983
Gardner, 1985
Mackenzie, Lutz, & Belch,
1986
Batra and Ray, 1985
Gresham & Shimp, 1985
Madden, Dillon, & Twible,

 

 

 

 

1984
Aad -> Ab Mackenzie, Lutz, & Belch,

1986 Balance Theory
Ab -> Aad Mackenzie and Lutz, 1983

 

 

20

 

Aad -> Ab Mackenzie, Lutz, & Belch,

 

1986 Cognitive Response
Aad-> PI Mackenzie, Lutz, & Belch, Howard’s Two Attitudinal

 

1986 constructs
A}, -> PI '
Mackenzie & Lutz, 1983

 

 

 

 

 

II. RESEARCH MODEL & HYPOTHESES

 

 

 

 

Ad content Emotional Aad Ab

Pncmnen

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3. The communication model by Holdbrook and Batra (1987)

This model establishes the mediating role of Aad as a variable that intervenes
between advertising content and Ab. With this many previous studies dealt with a forward
flow of effects from advertising content through several variables to intervening variables
to brand attitude. However, this study assumes that emotional response affects directly

both ways to Aad and Ab. Following model (Figure 4) is modified from Figure3.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FORMAT Emotional Attitude Intent Behavior
Resoonse

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mw/ Text
Pleasure Aad
l Intention Buy to
M / Still
'd to watch Tinl’nt
Image
Arousal _ Am

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

21

Figure 4. Proposed theoretical model for the effects of mobile advertising formats on
emotional response, A... and Am.

This model showed the framework that was used in this study from analysis of
the emotional response, attitude toward advertising (Aad), and attitude toward movie (Am)
in a mobile environment setting. Especially, this study deals with several media formats
that chose a specific brand, the movie “THE TEXI.” This adjusted framework assumes
that three different mobile formats (mobile advertising with text, still image, or moving
image) with a movie advertisement. This study estimates three different advertising
formats will generate different emotional feelings, Aad, and Am. In addition, in this study,
the variables that are described as the mobile environment to be mobile formats depended
on whether the person was presented with mobile advertising with text, still image, or
moving image. Verbal and visual preferences were substituted for individuals’ preference,
depending on individual differences such as emotional feeling, attitude, and rate. It is also
associated with how consumers understand their information processing about
advertising. This area is investigated in marketing and consumer behavior. Different
consumers, faced with a variety of situations, have been shown to get different
information and to make different decisions (Bettman 1979; Bettman and Park 1980;

Capon and Burke 1980; Capon and Davis 1984; Jacoby, Chestnut, and Fisher 1978;

22

Moore and Lehmann 1980; Park 1976). Studies have found that individuals differ
significantly in their acquisition of information. In this study, some of the people might
feel more emotionally familiar with advertising in mobile formats. Furthermore,
dependency on several advertising formats shows reveals people’s attitudes are different
toward the advertisement and toward the movie itself. The result of intention to watch a

movie is further mediated by consumer’ tendency fiom emotional rate, Aab, and Am.

Basically, intention to watch is based on buying intention’ theory. Although
buying tendency is often considered by many previous studies, intention to watch a
movie is a more practical issue than buying intention in this study. Thus, for this study the
personal inclination of verbal, visual, and intention to watch were specified and

considered mediating variables.

2-1. Emotional response

Proposition: Respondents have different emotional response depending on the three
different advertising formats.

In a general approach to understanding interaction between individual and
emotional factors with various environments, it is essential to identify those responses

that are the result of stimulation and which occur in varying states in all environments.

23

The study of emotion and psychological reaction shows that emotional reactions
represent the common core of human emotional response to all types of environments.
This contains the rationale and the supporting evidence for the designation of pleasure
and arousal as two basic emotional reactions. However, most environments that are
encountered are much more complex and simultaneously include stimulation in all sense
modalities (e.g., the many colors in a typical setting, together with various combinations
of sound, image, and text).

Rossiter and Percy (1983) studied advertising images in information processing
and Scott (1994a) thought that peripheral processing influenced consumer emotions.
Research in this area has concluded that moving images can stimulate~ consumers’ feeling
to evaluate a product. (Edell and Staelin 1983) In addition, this research indicates that
moving images elicit superior recall when compared to low imagery copy (Babin and
Burns 1997).

The following research by Scott (1994a) concluded that a complex image is a
more meaningful element in advertising than verbal copy because still images can help
consumers to interpret and understand.

To figure out the knowledge of image effects developed through the information

processing approach, advertising researchers turned to the study of rhetoric. Although

24

researchers had examined advertising images in symbolic ways before (e.g., Mick and
Politi 1989; Stern 1993), Scott’s (1994a) fresh way of thinking about advertising images
brought new interest to this line of research. From a rhetorical perspective, an image is a
meaningful element in an advertising that by itself can convey advertising’s implicit
message from its images. Scott (1994a) and other researchers argue that many of the
images found in advertising deserve study as meaningful rhetorical elements.

These studies implied that the effect of the different understanding could depend
on different format as an environment (Mick and Politi 1989).

To find out the plausible relationship between advertising formats and emotional
responses, this study propose that people exposed to moving images (have more positive
emotions than people who are exposed to still images and than a text image on mobile

environment.

Hla: people exposed to moving image experience more pleasure than people
exposed to still image experience, followed by people exposed to text experience
on mobile situation.

Hlb: people exposed to moving image experience more arousal than people exposed
to still image experience, followed by people exposed to text experience on
mobile situation.

2-2. Emotional Response with A... & A...

25

Empirical evidence shows that emotional matters could be positively related with
the attitude in the assessment of the effectiveness of advertising (Edell and Burke 1987).
Asker, Atayman, and Hagerty (1986) found that emotion, a volatile feeling, made a
positive link to an advertisement and behavior intention. And Bagozzi, Gopinathg, and
Nyer (1999) also found that a consumer in a positive emotional state compared with a
negative emotional state, tends to be better at integrating information and at attaining the
goal. Several other studies show that people tend to form their preference on the basis
of elements such as feeling, emotions induced by advertising or familiarity triggered by

exposure to advertising (Batra and Ray, 1986; Stuart, Shimp and Engel, 1987).

Bartra and Ray (1986) showed the relevant chain of effect is “affective responses -> A... -
> A.” and following research in a positive emotional state tends to believe that systematic
processing of a message would help maintain their emotion, and therefore may engage in

more detailed processing (Bagozzi, Gopinath, and Nyer 1999).

On top of that, Holbrook and Batra (1987) also suggest the possibility of the direct

relationship between emotional response and A...

Emotions and the attitude toward the ad mediate the relationship between content factors

and the attitude toward the brand remains, mostly due to the direct positive contribution

26

of cerebral content

This direct relationship between emotional response and the Ab was supported by
Kroeber-Riels’ (1983) experiment which tested and revealed that a brand name alone
aroused significant emotional reactions and the stronger the emotional scenes the more
effective attitude toward the brand that resulted. The direct association between affect and

brand attitude was also supported by Bierley, McSweeney, and Vannienwkerk (1985).

Consequently, this study hypothesizes that the status of positive feeling with mobile

advertising leads to both A... and A...

H2a: The more people feel a positive pleasure, the more they. have positive the
attitude toward the advertising

H2b: The more people feel a positive pleasure, the more they have positive the
attitude toward to the movie

H3a: The more people feel a positive arousal, the more they have positive the
attitude toward the advertising

H3b: The more people feel a positive arousal, the more they have positive the
attitude toward to the movie

2-3. Attitude toward the advertising and Attitude toward the movie

There is support for the following two theories: Classical Conditioning Theory

27

and Balance Theory.

As one of empirical study Classical Conditioning Theory shows the relationship
between emotional response, A..., and A... Shimp (1981) posited that an A... is transferred
to an A. via a conditioning effect. Shimp (1981) expected that the pairing of a
connotative response (e.g. a feeling of pleasure) with a denotative response (e.g., a new
brand name) would lead to a conditioned emotional affect toward the advertised brand.
When advertising creates positive A... the advertised brand can precipitate the same A.
due to classical conditioning.

Another researcher represents balance theory in an advertising context. Since the
relationship between the advertising and the brand is always positive, the consumer must
either like both the advertisement and the brand or dislike them both (Edell and Burke,
1984). In the same vein, if A... is positive then A. must be positive and if A... is negative
then A. must be negative to maintain the balance. The theory has received partial support
by Messmer (1979) in the study of unbroadcasted TV ads for well-known products. After
measuring A. before measuring A..., be found that prior Ab favorably influenced A...

The affect transfer hypothesis (ATH) that posits a direct one-way causal flow
from A... to Ab, has received the most attention in the literature (Gardner 1985; Mitchell

and Olson 1981; Moore and Hutchinson 1983, 1985; Park and Young 1984; Shimp 1981).

28

The affect transfer hypothesis has some empirical support. Using covariance analysis,
Michell and Olson (1981) found that A... explained significant variance in A. beyond that
contributed by measures of brand beliefs and evaluations. Moore and Hutchinson (1983,
1985) observed a positive linear relationship between A... and A...

In summary, balance theory predicts a positive relationship between A... and A...
Based on the theory; the expected relationship is that positive A... will cause positive A...
In this study, people feeling positive toward the ad after an experiment were the people
feeling positive toward the movie as well. Thus, this study assumes that both positive A...

affect A... in one way.

H4: The more positive people’s attitude toward the advertising will be, the greater
they have positive attitude toward the movie

2-4. Attitude toward the advertising (A...), attitude toward the movie (A..,), and
Intention to watch

A..., A.., and intention to perform a certain behavior have long been examined as
advertising outcome variables. The independent influence hypothesis (IIH), Scott B.
MacKen (1996) shows no causal relationship between A... and A..; instead, following
Howard (1977, p. 22-33), A... and A. are assumed to be independent determinants of
behavioral intention to act. In this analysis Howard showed as representing “consumers’
feelings about the conditions of behavior” (Journal of Marketing Research, May 1986).

29

Although A... and A. are independently and positively affect intention to behavior,
Howard (1977) seems to have intended attitude to capture all aspects of the behavioral
situation of a product that are remarkable at least momentarily but are not enduring
properties of brand. In an advertising situation, it appears to be a rather straightforward
extension of Howard’s logic to assert that A... and A. are reflections of reactions to one
aspect of behavioral situation to product. Hence, in this movie advertising, attitude is
represented by A... and A.. As shown “the independent influence hypothesis (III-I)”, Scott
B. MacKen (1996), showed that A... and A. would exert independent causal influence on
intention to act, and would have a positive relationship between A.., A., and intention to
act independently each other. The present study proposes those relationships in A.., A.,

and intention to watch with following hypothesis:

H5a: The more positive people’s attitude toward the advertising will be, the greater
they have intent to watch movie

H5b: The more positive people’s attitude toward the movie will be, the greater they
have intent to watch movie

111. Research Methodology

The hypotheses for this study have been specified in the form of a causal model
and it is essential that enough variability be present in the measures to adequately
estimate the causal parameters. The experiment consisted of two steps. First, post-test

30

between subjects experiment, movie advertising, was conducted. Second, all data from
the experiment that are collected through a survey to measure the following variables:

emotional response (pleasure and arousal), A.., A..,, and intention to watch movie.

To measure the factors are three mobile formats (M... with text, still image, or
moving image), which are measured with advertising effectiveness from above four
factors.

3-1. Stimuli and material

The experimental stimuli included three different mobile advertisements that
utilized the two different emotional advertising appeals for the movie preview of mobile
advertising. This product was selected for two reasons. First, a movie is a very interesting
subject to everyone, especially, college students. Also East Lansing is a college town. In a
survey after the experiment, movie previews weren’t just playing anybody and any place.
This is more effective to trigger student to expect which advertisement will be playing.
Moore and Hutchinson (1983) have shown that prior attitude toward a brand can affect
advertising attitudes and related construct, and results. Thus, for a familiar subject, prior
brand attitudes may account for variations in relationships involving advertising attitudes.

Second, established brand attitudes toward a familiar subject are unlikely to be as

31

strongly affected by advertising attitudes as are brand attitudes toward novel brands about
which consumer has little other information (Johnson & Eagly, 1989).

The preview of the movie, “THE TAXI” is from France, and has not played in
the US yet; however the film director is very famous in US and other western countries.
The preview is playing with a different movie “THE TEXI” (US version) which is
modified from original one, but is different. It is possible to see people who are
wondering about the original “THE TEXI” from France after seeing the US version. It
is enough to attract experiment participants.

For the experiment, there were designed three pages on PDAs; first, a text
stimulus contained the movie poster and text format with a brief synopsis. Second, an
image stimulus contained the movie poster as well and a still image from the movie. The
last, it did not show any text or still image, just a moving graphic for 45 seconds after one
clicked the movie title such as SMS (shore message service) on screen. Following by

figure 5 shows the three different advertising formats with PDAs.

32

l> Mobile advertising with moving image

 

  

~——-wewmz

 

Figure 5. Three different mobile advertising formats on PDAs.

33

3-2. Data Collection

Participants were recruited from undergraduate and graduate students at
Michigan State University in the US. and offered extra credit in their class for their
participation. The experiments were administrated in three different mobile devices,
PDAs in the communication, art and science buildings. The participants made
appointments to participate in the study at intervals of 10 min. The experiment was
started after the researcher-received approval fi'om Michigan State University’s
Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS). The participants were
randomly assigned to one of three forms of experiments (Mad with moving image, with
still image, and text).

After they completed the experiment, participants were asked to fill out a paper-
based questionnaire containing self-report measures about their emotions response,
attitude toward ad, attitude toward the movie, and intention to watch movie. Only those
who volunteered for participation for this study will be considered as subjects and they
will receive extra credits (the points will be depends on instructors’ decision). Final
sample size was 61 (55.5%) male participants and 49 (44.5%) female participants. The
birth of year was distributed from 1977 to 1985 years. The people consisted of the birth

of 1982 (21.8 %), 1983 (29.1%), and 1984 (28.2%), the high distribution. With regard to

education level the sample consisted of undergraduates were 98.2 % and graduates were
2 %. Thirty-seven respondents were exposed to both the still image and the moving
image stimulus, and thirty-six respondents viewed the text stimulus.

3-3. Measures

Based on the literature review, measurement items were chosen for each
questionnaire. All of the items were measured with semantic differential scales that range
fi'om 1 to 5 to derive an emotional response, attitude toward the advertising format, and
attitude toward the movie. Intention to watch was measured by five-point scale with three
items.

Emotional responses were measured by 12 items modified fifom Meharabian and
Russell’s (1994a) scale that consisted of three emotional response factors (pleasure,
arousal, and dominance). In this study, however, dominance was not assessed, since this
experiment assumed that there is no control for participants to decline the mobile
advertising. Thus, two emotional factors, pleasure and arousal, were only considered, and,
as suggested by Russell (1980; Russell, Weiss, and Mendelsohn 1989), the dominance
dimension can be dispensed with. A... and A. were considered as key links in the
communication model and advertising effects (Morris B. Rajeev 1987). Those two

attitudes were measured by four factors with five scales respectively from Morris B and

35

Raj eev (1987). In this study, the movie title can be representative of a brand.

Intention to watch the movie was measured using three items about the
likelihood of watching the movie. By Bearden, William O., Donal R. Lichtenstein, and
Jessie E. Teel (1984) and Doo-Hee Lee (1990) behavior intentions regarding the
likelihood of purchasing product in the future. Since this study is more focused on movie
advertising, the intention to watch the movie was substituted for purchasing intention.

The likelihood was operational zed on five point scales differentials.

IV. Data analysis & Results

Table 4. ANOVA result for Hla and Hlb

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_ Number
Variables Pleasure Arousal . .
of partrcrpant
Format Mean SD F (If Mean SD F df
Text 3.111 .679 1.496 2 2.648 .697 5.658* 2 37
Still image 3 .263 .619 2.928 .795 36
Moving image 2.986 .760 3.207 .628 37

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hypothesis 1a and Hypothesis 1b predicted that people have different emotional

responses such as pleasure and arousal depending on the three different advertising

36

formats (i.e. text, still image, and moving image). Hypothesis 1a examined if people
exposed to moving image on mobile station experience more pleasure then either people
exposed to still image or people exposed to text, while hypothesis 1b looked at if pe0ple
exposed to moving image on mobile station experience more aroused than either people
exposed to still image or people exposed to text. Analysis of ANOVA was used to
examine the effects of each advertising format on subjects’ pleasure and arousal. In these
hypotheses, pleasure and arousal were separately studied. The result of hypothesis 1a for
pleasure showed that there was no difference among the three types of formats, F (2,107)
=1.496, p<. .005, n=. 09. This suggested hypothesis 1a was not supported so that the
subjects’ three different types (Mad with text, still image, or moving image) of orientation
as a covariate on emotional responses (i.e. pleasure) were found as non-significant.
Hypothesis lb predicted that people who are treated by different advertising
formats would be different in their arousal for each advertising format. ANOVA was also
employed to examine the arousal differences among three types of format. The result
showed there were differences among groups, which meant that types of format had a
significant effect on arousal, F (2,107) = 5.658, p<. .005, n=. 79. Post hoc comparisons
using tukey’s procedure at 95% confidence level showed that people who watched the

format of moving images (M=3.21a, SD=. 63) had more been aroused by the adverting

37

than people who watched the format of the text (M=2.65b, SD=. 70), while people who
watched the format of still images (M=2.93ab, SD=. 80) did not differ from either people
who watched the format of moving images or people who watched the format of the text.

Hypothesis 2a investigated the relationship between pleasure and A... This
relationship was examined with Partial Least Square path analysis. From the table, one
can find that these two constructs explain 80% of validity of X (positive pleasure) and
87% of that of Y (positive attitude toward the advertising). The examination of the path
coefficient (b=.534, p<.001) between two variables showed that positive pleasure is
mainly responsible for positive attitude toward the advertising. The predictor X times a
beta effect of .534 resulted in the prediction equation of Y’=.534X. Considering the
finding of the test, hypothesis 2a was supported. This means that positive pleasure is
associated with the positive attitude of the advertising.

Hypothesis 2b examined the relationship between pleasure and A... This
relationship was also observed by PLS. The path coefficient between two variables was —
.065 which was not statistically meaningful. This suggested that pleasure had a non-
sigrrificant effect on attitude toward the movie. Given the test results, hypothesis 2b was
not supported. This means that there was no positive relationship between positive

pleasure and attitude toward the movie.

38

Hypothesis 3a investigated that there would be a relationship between arousal
and A... This relationship was also examined using PLS. The examination of path
coefficient (b= .340, p<.001) showed that positive arousal has a relatively weak, but
statistically significant, impact on positive A... The relationship between positive arousal
(X) and positive Aad (Y) could be explained by the prediction equation Y’=.340X.
Therefore, the hypothesis was supported, meaning that there would be a positive
relationship between arousal and A...

Hypothesis 3b looked at the relationship between arousal and A... This
relationship was also observed by PLS. The path coefficient between two variables
was .080, which was not statistically significant. It suggested that there was no significant
relationship between arousal and A... The test results did not support hypothesis 3b,
indicating that the true effect of positive arousal on A... was of no practical importance.

Hypothesis 4 examined the relationship between A... and A... The result of PLS
path analysis indicated that the path coefficient between two variables was .856 and
p<.001, which showed that A... was mainly responsible for A... The coefficient of .856
was so meaningful that it suggested that A... had a significant effect on positive A... Given

the test results, hypothesis 4 was supported.

39

Hypothesis Sa investigated the relationship between A.. and intention to watch
the movie. The intention to watch the movie (Y) was examined how much it might be
predicted by the attitude toward the advertising (X), employed PLS. The path coefficient
between two variables was -.029, which was not statistically significant. Therefore,
hypothesis 5a was not supported, which reflected a virtually no effect of A.. on intention
to watch the movie. It suggested that people with a positive A.. did not always intend to
go out to see the movie.

Hypothesis 5b examined the relationship between A... and intention to watch the
movie. The result of PLS showed that the path coefficient between two variables
was .679 and p<.001, suggesting that that attitude toward the movie (X) had a main
impact on intention to watch the movie(Y). The coefficient of .679 was statistically
significant and the prediction equation of two variables is Y’=. 679x. Given the finding

of the test, hypothesis 5b was supported.

40

Pleasure

0537

 

8951
059""

023 I
Am

   
   

 

Arousal

* P<.05
’1‘ P<.01
”P9001

Figure 6. The path coefficient from causal effects with a text

Figure 6 shows the standardized direct and causal effects represented by model. All types
of hypothesis 2a, 2b, 3b, 4, and 5b were statistically significant. Beginning with A.., the
outcome of ultimate effect, the determinant with the largest causal effect (0.694) was A...
The second most important determinant of intention was Am with an effect of 0.614. The
next most important determinant of A.. was pleasure with 0.537. The forth most
important determinant of A.. was arousal with 0.374. The remaining determinants of A...
had effect of 0.049 respectively. The model explained substantial variance in case of

intention (R2=O.386), and modest variance in both Aad (R2=O.615) and fihn (R2=0.793)

41

 

Phone
M
0.43
. . m .
Intention
-0m8 ""

032......
0361*
. 0.735!»
0151
Am

 

Aroma!

* P<.05
*1" P<.01
”P9001

Table 7. The path coefficient from causal effects with a still image

Figure 7 shows the standardized direct and causal effects represented by model. All types
of hypothesis 2a, 3a, 4, and 5b were statistically significant. Beginning with A.., the
outcome of ultimate effect, the determinant with the largest causal effect (0.827) was A...
The second most important determinant of intention was Am with an effect of 0.735. The
next most important determinant of A.. was pleasure with 0.438. The remaining
determinants of A.. had effect of 0.367 respectively. The model explained substantial
variance in case of intention (R2=0.395), and modest variance in both Aad (R2=0.510)
and film (R2=0.760)

42

 

 

 

Arousal

"‘ P<.05
“ P<.01
“P9001

Figure 8. The path coefficient from causal effects with a moving image

Figure 8 shows the standardized direct and causal effects represented by model. All types
of hypothesis 2a, 3a, 4, and 5b were statistically significant. Beginning with Am, the
outcome of ultimate effect, the determinant with the largest causal effect (1.037) was A...
The second most important determinant of intention was A... with an effect of 0.689. The
next most important determinant of A.. was pleasure with 0.571. The remaining
determinants of Am had effect of 0.305 respectively. The model explained substantial
variance in case of intention (R2=0.342), and modest variance in both Aad (R2=0.510)

and film (R2=0.760)

The following figure 8 shows the statistic result of all paths from emotional

response to intention.

43

       
  
   
 

Pleasure 3 Pleasure
0.836 (30836434)
0344 .
I( "’
'leasure
0.002

...... 0.044
P “'4 (0.302) . (9272)

0.649 0.534
Advertisin ;

 

Intention 1
0.928
0856 Intention. -
0.679 Intention 3
0.428 0.880
(0.328)
@ 0.91 5
(0.287)
Intention 2

0.939
0.740 0.272
0.918 ) -
(0.267)
Attm 4

Attm 3
Attm 2

Figure 9. The pooled data from PLS analysis

44

V. General Discussion, Implication, and Limitation

General Discussion

The result of this study indicated that the presence of a moving image did not
generate the degree of intention to watch movies that was expected, nor did not the
exposure of moving images increase more arousal about movie advertising on mobile
media. On the contrary, the pleasure was not an influence to any advertising formats (text,
still image, and moving image) on mobile media.

It can be expected as an operational definition that the arousal variable is explained as a
state of feeling that varies from stimulation, alertness or activeness such as environmental
stimuli (Mehrabian and Russell 1974). Otherwise, the pleasure variable can be defined as
a state of feeling as the degree to which person feels happy, pleased, or hopeful without
specific stimulation from environment (Mehrabian 1980). Meharabian (1972b) stated that
pleasure can be reliably scored on a dimension of just pleasances, which is independent
of both their arousal variables. In this study, arousal variables were stimulated from the
mobile environment; using PDAs and unfamiliar experience from participants, new
mobile advertising formats. Moreover, the explanations from the results would reveal

why moving images have a greater influence than other types of advertising in relations

45

to an emotional response. Several empirical studies in this area concluded that moving
images could stimulate consumers’ feeling in evaluating a product (Edell and Staelin
1983). In addition, this research indicated that moving images elicited superior recall
when compared to low imagery copy (Babin and Burns 1997; Unnave and Bumkant
1991). As it was indicated by empirical studies, moving images could create a higher

recall, attention, and emotional effect on consumers compared to other types of images.

A second explanation could be that although Holbrook and Batra (1987) suggest
the possibility of the direct relationship between emotional response and A..; the
relationship of between emotional response and A., as well as the path between emotional
response and A... is not supported. Since a positive emotional reSponse could make a
positive attraction towards an advertising, it could be possible for people to want to see
the advertising again. Otherwise, positive emotional response has no direct relationship to
A... Alba and Hutchinson (1987), Suan (1985) described that “in an information
processing context, ability to defined as skill or proficiency in interpreting brand
information in an advertising”. If a consurner’s ability to interpret advertising is low, or
the provided information from the advertisement cannot be interpreted well, the

consumers will not have a favorable A. compared to others. In this study, without the A..

46

process, this advertising couldn’t be interpreted for what it is. It could be possible for
some people to misunderstand what the advertising is about. Without cognition of
advertising with information about the brand, people will not be able to interpret what is
the displaying scene on the screen is about. Thus, this study could not support the direct
relationship between emotional response and A... without A..' process.

Thirdly, moving images could bring strong relationships between emotional
response (pleasure and arousal) and A... While A.. could be potentially influenced by a
number of advertising execution elements, visual imagery in advertising has been shown
to be an important determinant of A.. (Rossiter and Percy 1980, Mitchell and Olson 1981,
Mitchell 1983). Otherwise, the text is the strongest path between emotional response and
A... In the advertising context, the large majority of inference research has focused on
examining the effects of verbal message content on consumers’ evaluations of partially
described brand. This literature suggests that partially described objects are less favorably
evaluated than fully described, (Yates, Jagacinski, and Faber 1987) because the inferred
value of missing attributes is discounted due to uncertainty (Meyer 1981). It is also clear
that consumers use available information about partially described brands and other
brands in the product category as the basis for verbally based inference (Meter 1981;

Huber and McCann 1982; Johnson and Levin 1985). The study found that text is less

47

complicated in comprehension of the content than other advertising formats, e. g., still and
moving images. Particularly, mobile situations with PDA’s may transmit much more
information; people can also pay more attention to what the advertising is about.

Moreover, based on the balance theory, a positive relationship exists between A..
and A., which results in positive A.. causing positive A... In the study, people who feel
positively toward the advertising also feel positively toward the movie after the
experiment. Movie advertising such as previews that briefly summarize storylines are
especially effective, making it easier for people to understand about movies.

Lastly, attitude is represented by A... and A... in this study. As proved by Acott B.
MacKen’s “the independent influence hypothesis (III-I)” (1996), A.. and A. exert causal
influences on intentional acts independently from each other. However, the relationship
between A.. and intention to watch movies is not supported; it cannot be possible to
recognize the exact kind of advertising. Without A...’ process, it could not be explained.
Moreover, the still image is the strong relationship between A... and intention to watch
movies, because major still shots from movies could help people to understand with small
screens. Overly complicated moving images and extremely small texts on mobile

situations are paid less attention by people than still images.

48

Limitations and Implications

This study seeks to propose a theoretical model of which mobile advertising
formats may influence the intention to watch movies and tests several parts of overall

models. However, this work was subject to some limitations.

First, utilizing college students as participants in this study may be a concern that
limits the generality of the results. However, undergraduate students are particularly
appropriate for experiments because they comprise a homogeneous target market for
electronic marketer.

This study also recognizes that participants were exposed to several different
types of stimuli in a field study as opposed to laboratory. This possibly yielded different
results, because new modified model is not supported and not fitted with full hypotheses.

Third, this experiment is not a real situation. Originally, the experiment should be
designed that mobile advertising sends to participants directly on mobile situations. But
in this experiment, each format of advertising was saved in each PDA. Thus, every time,
participants clicked on screen to see advertising without any notice in PDAs. In
addition, the movie “THE TEXI” was a French movie, not in English on the moving

image format. Future studies should change to fit the correct language for participants.

49

The result of this study may assist theoretical and managerial contributions; it
also describes an empirical investigation of the effects of mobile advertising formats with
emotional response and attitude. Managers can benefit from the knowledge of how
different emotional advertising format responses ultimately affect intention to watch
movies. This is especially important given the increasing use of emotional advertising in
the mobile environment. In addition, advertising manager could know easily which
format is more fit and available to each of different situation (e.g., Arousal -> A..).

In overall, the result from this study implies that moving images may not be as
effective of an advertising tool as it was initially thought to be. Therefore, the success of
generating mobile commerce revenues from advertisings presented in the mediated
context may be dependent on other characteristics rather than the simple increase of
associated content and bandwidth. Affecting consumers’ intention of behaviors may not
always be achieved by moving images or text advertising formats. Rather, the
integration of many different advertising formats that are related to each other can

accomplish the greatest effect.

50

APPENDIX 1

You are being asked to participate in a study about the effects of mobile advertising
formats. We study the kinds of factors that influence emotional response, attitude toward
advertisement, and attitude toward the movie. Especially, movie advertisement with a
mobile handset such as cellar phone or PDA, we may feel to intent to watch, but it
depends on different factors. Probably, major factor is your interest in the movie. Beside
that factor, we think some other factors will effect on your intention. We believe that
advertising factor affects your intention to watch the movie. This is focus on the effects
of the advertising formats in mobile context. Your responses to the questions on the
questionnaire are very important for us.

We would like you to answer the survey questionnaire, based on your experience with
mobile advertisement. This procedure should take around 10 minutes to complete, and all
answers will be strictly anonymous. Your participation in this study and completion of the
questionnaire is voluntary. You may withdraw from participation at any time during study.
You may refuse to answer any questions you wish. You will be rewarded with extra
credits as our way of saying thanks.

If you have any questions about this study, please contact Jung Hwean, Kim,
kimjung9@msu.edu or Dr. Dan. J. Kim, dankim@msu.edu. phone munber at (517) 353-
6712. If you have any aspect of this study, you may contact - anonymously, if you wish —
peter Vasilenko, Ph.D., Chair of University Communittee on Research Involving Human
Subject (UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 432-4503, email: UCRIHS@msu.edu. or regular
mail: 202 Old Hall, East Lansing, MI 48823

Jung Hwean, Kim

Dr. Dan. J. Kim

Advisior Telecommunication,

Information Study & Media
Michigan State University

51

APPENDIX 2
Survey Questionnaire }

Welcome. Your answers will be kept completely confidential. Select your answers by
clicking the appropriate circle next to each question.

General description: This movie advertising is for preview of the movie. This movie
was never played on any movie theaters in United State.

General instruction: Most of the scales used in this survey use a rating system with
descriptions at either end. The end position points of the scales take the form of
continuum such as “happy, somewhat happy, neutral (so-so), somewhat unhappy, and
unhappy”. You are asked to answer circling one of the numbers in a box.

Example

Hwy 5 4 3 2 I fauna...

: By circling the number five, you would be saying you are happy

52

1. Which is your belief to describe your feeling more appropriate after seeing
mobile advertising?

 

5 4 3 2

5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2

   

5 4 3 2

5 4 3 2

5 4 3 2

5 4 3 2

3. How would you rate your feeling about this movie?

3.91 . 5 4 3 2 1
3-2 5 4 3 2 1
.3~3 '_ 5 4 3 2 1
394 1. 5 4 3 2 1

   

53

4. How would you rate your intent to watch the movie, TAXI, after seeing the
mobile advertising?

4.1" ‘
5 4 3 2 1
4-2
5 4 3 2 1
‘ 433
s 4 3 2 1

   

5-1 €11. Have you experienced with mobile handset such as PDA

 

 

5-2

 

 

1) Yes 2) No
5-3

 

1) Never 2) 1-5 3) 5-10 4) 11-15 5) More than 15

6. Here are just a few personal questions to help us classify your responses.

 

6—1 3 Are you? I H U H ' ‘I '_ 1) Female 2) Male
6-2 What is your year of birth? ., ’ 19

   

 

6-3 Wh tis,’ your current academic level? . ..

 

l) Undergraduate (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, 2) Graduate

Senior)

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