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thesis entitled
Men and Masculinity as Portrayed in Esquire Magazine,
1933 - 1945
presented by
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2/05 c':/Ci_ncroat'—eoue.indd-p.1'5"

 

MEN AND MASCULINITY AS PORTRAYED
IN ESQUIRE MAGAZINE, 1933-1945

By

Kyoung-Mi Nam

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Human Environment and Design

2005

ABSTRACT

Men and Masculinity as Portrayed in Esquire Magazine, 1933-1945
By

Kyoung-Mi Nam

The purpose of the study was to examine the expression of masculinity in
Esquire: 1933-1945. Esquire helped to establish class boundaries by focusing
on upper middle class business and professional men as well as the Ivey League
set. Fashion illustrations portrayed men as mature, lean, slim, and lightly
muscled involved in life style “settings” related to business, leisure, and sports.
The magazine editors were not reluctant to refer to fashion; text involved detailed
description of dress for men in a straightforward format with a lesser degree of
opinionated commentary. Esquire promoted a concept of sartorial masculinity
which was consistent with masculine themes of practicality, comfort, financial
independence, intelligence and ambitious achievement.

WWII had a huge impact on fashion content. Before the outbreak of
WWII, British styles were frequently mentioned as the fashionable ideal. This
declined after the USA. entered into WWII. Themes of simplicity and practicality
replaced the mention of resorts and leisure activities. A t this time both visual
imagery and written text expressed patriotism and protectiveness as masculine

traits.

Copyright by
Kyoung-Mi Nam
2005

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank all the individuals have helped me finish this study. In
particular, the following individuals have played a special role in the completion of
this thesis, and to them I am especially grateful.

First, I wish to express my sincere respect and appreciation to my advisor,
Dr. Sally l. Helvenston who provided the valuable advice and guidance. Also I
wish to thank my committee members, Dr. Gretel Geist and Dr. Kyoung-Nan
Kwon. They offered their knowledge in shaping and strengthening this thesis.

I extend my grateful appreciation and love to my family for their support

and encouragement.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. 'vii
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Statement of Problem ........................................................................................... 4
Research Questions ..................................................................................... 4
Review of Literature .............................................................................................. 6
History of the time period: 1933-1945 ........................................................... 6
Men’s fashion: 1933-1945 .......................................................................... 11
Masculinity: 1933-1945 ............................................................................... 14
About Esquire magazine ............................................................................ 16
Method - Content Analysis .................................................................................. 20
Definition of Content Analysis and the Application ..................................... 20
Research objective ..................................................................................... 23
Data collection ............................................................................................ 23
Definition of Terms ..................................................................................... 25
Limitation of fashion information ................................................................. 27
Analysis .............................................................................................................. 32
Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 74
Limitations and Suggestions ............................................................................... 77
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 78

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Unemployment Rates, 1929-1945 .......................................................... 7
Table 2 Average Weekly Movie Attendance, 1926-1945 ................................... 10
Table 3 Count of fashion related content found in Esquire magazine, 1933-1945

..................................................................................................................... 24

Table 4 Age of the models of the Esquire’s fashion images and the frequency.33

Table 5 Occupations presented twice or more in Esquire fashion images. ........ 36
Table 6 Americans in College: 1930-1944 ......................................................... 37
Table 7 Frequently described clothing categories in Esquire ............................. 42
Table 8 Frequently portrayed leisure activities in Esquire .................................. 43
Table 9 Body proportions ................................................................................... 45
Table 10 Frequently described main items in Esquire ....................................... 49
Table 11 Suits and frequently appeared occasions ........................................... 50
Table 12 Frequency of fashion and the synonyms ............................................ 55
Table 13 Frequently presented themes in Esquire fashion illustrations ............. 63
Table 14 Stereotypic Traits ................................................................................ 64
Table 15 Influential area and event .................................................................... 67
Table 16 Influential universities and people from fashion illustration ................. 72

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Esquire, 1934, June. 115 ...................................................................... 29
Figure 2 Esquire, 1937, January. 132. ................................................................ 30
Figure 3 Esquire, 1944, October 1944. 92. ......................................................... 31
Figure 4 Illustrations of each age group .............................................................. 34
Figure 5 Esquire, 1944, March. 108. ................................................................... 41
Figure 6 Esquire, 1939, February, 102 ............................................................... 47
Figure 7 Body proportions with Suits or Jackets ................................................ 54
Figure 8 The changes in silhouette ..................................................................... 54
Figure 9 Esquire, 1941, June, 104. ..................................................................... 73

vii

Introduction

Popular thinking in early twentieth century America is that fashion belongs
to the woman’s domain and that men are not interested in fashion. Jennifer
Craik in her book, The Face of Fashion, explored the concept of fashionless men
from a historical p erspective pointing o ut that u p through the 1 8th century a nd
after the mid 20th century fashion was very much a part of the male role.1 She
suggested that since male fashion style had changed in accordance with the
ideal masculinity: “the lack of fashion and the lack or interest by men,” was not
always true.2

Multiple domains including “appearance, behavior, personality, and
interests” can play a role in defining masculinity,3 and clothing is one of “the most
immediate and effective ways” in which gender can be expressed.‘ Several
costume historians have pointed out that men’s fashion styles have expressed
the ideal masculinity of the time.5 Also masculinity and the role male appearance

played in defining masculinity has been the subject of several investigations.6

 

1 Jennifer Craik, The Face of Fashion : Cultural Studies in Fashion (London ; New York:
Routledge, 1994), 176.

2 lbid., 176-203.

3 A. S. R. Manstead and Miles Hewstone, eds., The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social
Psychology (Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass, USA: Blackwell, 1995), 370.

‘ Joanne Entwistle, "5. Fashion and Gender,” in The Fashioned Body: Fashion, Dress
and Modern Social Theory (Cambridge, UK : Polity Press ; Malden, MA : Blackwell Publishers,
2000), 141.

5’Valerie Steele, "Appearance and Identity," in Men and Women : Dressing the Part, ed.
Claudia Brush Kidwell and Valerie Steele (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press,
1989), 6-21. Valerie Steele, "Clothing and Sexuality,“ in Men and Women : Dressing the Part, ed.

In his book Men in Style: The Golden Age of Fashion From Esquire,
Woody Hochswender stated that, “The conventional thinking was that men were
not interested in fashion, at least not interested enough to be caught dead
looking at it in a magazine.”7 So why did Esquire magazine emerge as the
harbinger of men’s fashion in the early 19303? Hoschwinder’s book opens to the
reader a visual cavalcade of fashionable men golfing, yachting, and hunting,
parading into the office in pinstriped suits, or elegantly dressed for an evening on
the town. The fashion plates which comprise the bulk of his book are a marvel to
behold. However, Hoschwinder never attempts to explain why Esquire emerged
at this time, and what this signaled about masculinity.

No researcher has examined‘extensively American men’s masculinity

expressed through Esquire’s fashion content during its early years, 1933 through

 

Claudia Brush Kidwell and Valerie Steele (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press,
1989), 42-63.

Claudia Brush Kidwell, "Gender Symbols or Fashionable Details?," in Men and Women:
Dressing the Part, ed. Claudia Brush Kidwell and Valerie Steele (Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Institution Press, 1989), 124-43.

6 Tim Edwards, Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and Consumer Society
(London ; Herndon, VA: Cassell, 1997).

Giannino Malossi, Material Man : Masculinity Sexuality Style (New York, N.Y.: H.N.
Abrams, 2000).

Diana Crane, Fashion and Its Social Agendas : Class, Gender, and Identity in Clothing
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).

Sean Nixon, Hard Looks : Masculinities, Spectatorship and Contemporary Consumption,
Consumption and Space. (London: UCL, 1996).

Christopher Breward, The Hidden Consumer: Masculinities, Fashion and City Life 1860-
1914, Studies in Design and Material Culture. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999).

7 Woody Hochswender, Men in Style: The Golden Age of Fashion from Esquire, ed. Kim
Johnson Gross (New York: Rizzoli, 1993), 7-10.

1945. Since American magazines were barometers ofAmerican culture,8 it is
important to examine Esquire because it was the first magazine that embodied a
coherent image of the new modern masculinity,9 and most of all, Esquire was
considered the first magazine for men that dealt with fashion information and had
a regular fashion section. It was important to examine the impetus for its

inauguration and its philosophy related to men and fashion.

 

‘3 Dorsey Schmit, "Magazines, Technology, and American Culture," Journal of American
culture 3, no. 1 (1980): 3-16.

9 Tom Pendergast, Creating the Modem Man : American Magazines and Consumer
Culture, 1900-1950 (Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 2000), 206-23.

Statement of Problem

The purpose of the study was to examine the expression of masculinity in
Esquire: 1933-1945 from its fashion-related content. It was expected that
masculinity, as expressed through Esquire’s fashion text and illustrations, might
help us understand men’s fashion style, ideals and attitudes about men and
fashion. The time period: 1933-1945 was chosen for several reasons. First, this
time period has been described as the commencement of a new modern
masculinity10 and the newly introduced Esquire captured this masculinity. T he
period is long enough to examine change over time, and it extends through the
period of WWII to see how this major world event influenced Esquire’s approach

to men’s fashion.

Research Questions
1. What was Esquire’s concept of masculinity?
- Who were the main role models for the fashion image?
- In what activities were they engaged?
- What were the ideal physical characteristics of men?
2. How was masculinity suggested by the Esquire fashion image related to

fashion style?

 

‘° lbid.

3. Given men’s supposed aversion to fashion", what evidence can be found in
the fashion content related to attitudes about fashion and the fashion process

for men?

 

" .". . .On the other hand, we feel that men have long since ceased to believe that there is
anything effeminate or essentially unbusinesslike about devoting a little care and thought and

study to the selection of clothes." Esquire, Autumn, 1933.

”The conventional thinking was that men were not interested in fashion, at least not
interested enough to be caught dead looking at it in a magazine.” Hochswender, Men in Style:
The Golden Age of Fashion from Esquire, 7.

Craik, The Face of Fashion : Cultural Studies in Fashion, 176.

Review of Literature

Due to the nature of the study, the review of literature was conducted in
four areas: (1) general history of the time period, (2) history of menswear at this
time, (3) masculinity and, (4) the history and format of Esquire magazine. The
first section of this review was to present the historical background of the
research time period. It would provide some information, which was related to
socio—economic change and political events. The next section dealt with men’s
clothing during 1933-1945 briefly. The third section covered the concept of
masculinity, especially appropriate for middle class men, during 1933-1945.

Finally, the background information on Esquire magazine is presented.

History of the time period: 1933-1945

This time period could be divided into three periods, “The Great
Depression, New Deal, and World War II.” The Great Depression was the
“deepest and longest economic collapse” in American history.12 In October 1929,
the stock market crashed; by 1933 the stock on the New York Stock Exchange
was valued at less than a fifth of what it had been at its peak in 1929.13 By early

1933, one quarter of the US. workforce was jobless (See Table 1 Unemployment

 

‘2 Robert S. McElvaine, The Depression and New Deal: A History in Documents, Pages
from History. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 13.

‘3 “Chapter 9: War, Prosperity and Depression (cited November 9 2003); available from
http:/Iusinfo.state.gov/usafinfousa/factslhistorylch9.htm.

Rates, 1929-1945). Even though the unemployment statistics were not precise,

they describe the context of the Great Depression better than any other sources.

Table 1 Unemployment Rates, 1929-1945“
In thousands oLpersons 14 years old and over. Annual averafis]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Percent of Unemployed
Year Total
Civilian Labor Force Nonfarrn Employees

1945 1,040 1.9 2.7
1944 670 1.2 1.7
1943 1,070 1.9 2.7
1942 2,660 4.7 6.8
1941 5,560 9.9 14.4
1940 8,120 14.6 21.3
1939 9,480 17.2 25.2
1938 10,390 19.1 27.9
1937 7,700 14.3 21.3
1936 9,030 17.0 25.4
1935 10,610 20.3 30.2
1934 11,340 22.0 32.6
1933 12,830 25.2 37.6
1932 12,060 24.1 36.3
1931 8,020 16.3 25.2
1930 4,340 8.9 14.2
1929 1,550 3.2 5.3

 

 

 

 

 

It was believed that the one of the main causes of the Great Depression
was the enormous disparity between the country's productive capacity and the

ability of people to consume. ‘5 McElvaine pointed out that from the late 19th

 

“ Quoted from Ross Gregory and Richard Balkin, Modem America, 1914 to 1945,
Almanacs of American Life. (New York, NY: Facts on File, 1995), 101.

‘5 Chapter 9: War, Prosperity and Depression (cited November 9 2003); available from
http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/history/ch9.htm

century the ways in which people live have been transformed by mass production
and mass consumption. Thus, consumers were convinced to change their habits
and values: from the tradition of thrift and community to “consumption ethics.” ’6
The Great Depression transformed the “consumption-oriented values of the
market place, extreme individualism, and materialism” that had become so
prominent in the twenties to the more “cooperative values of an earlier day.” ‘7
Reinders argued that the New Deal was a hurried response to the Great
Depression and stressed the values and influence of the leader of the New Deal,

president Franklin D. Roosevelt. ‘8

According to Irving Howe, “the lasting
contribution” of the New Deal was “the socialization of concern."19

Generally, historians appraised the significance of the New Deal as it
established the foundations of the modem welfare state in the United States. 2°
The first objective of the New Deal, which was helping people to survive, was
successful; however, it was not quite successful in helping recovery from the

Depression. The Depression did not end until 1941 when the US. entered into

WWII which stimulated the economy.21

 

‘6 McElvaine, The Depression and New Deal: A History in Documents, 13.
‘7 Ibid., 14-15, 169-79.

1° Robert C. Reinders, "The New Deal: Relief, Recovery, and Reform," in The Thirties:
Politics and Culture in a Time of Broken Dreams, ed. Heinz lckstadt, Rob Kroes, and Brian Lee
(Amsterdam: Free University, 1987), 11-34.

‘9 Quoted in Ibid., 25.

2° Chapter 10: The New Deal and World War (cited November 9 2003); available from
http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/history/ch1 0.htm.

2' McElvaine, The Depression and New Deal: A History in Documents, 15.
Gregory and Balkin, Modem America, 1914 to 1945, 103.

On December 8, 1941 Congress declared a state of war with Japan; three
days later Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. 22 The nation
rapidly geared towards war. All the nation's activities - farming, manufacturing,
mining, trade, labor, investment, communications, even education and cultural
undertakings - were in some fashion brought under new and enlarged controls.
During 1941-1945 the United States had more military forces than all nations
except the Soviet Union; it spent more money than any belligerent. By the end of
1943, approximately 65 million men and women were in uniform or in war-related
occupations.23

In spite of the Great Depression and WWII, popular culture and the
entertainment business — movie, magazine, sports, etc., which were closely
related to the fashion industry, fashionable images, and the ideal of proper
masculine a nd feminine a ppearance24 of the time — were in g rowth. 25 Movies
were a major feature of American life during the Depression, and the 19303 and
19403 were the Golden Age of Hollywood.26 (See Table 2 Average Weekly
Movie Attendance, 1926-1945) As Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. mentioned, movies

during the Depression were “near the operative center of the nation’s

 

22 Chapter 10: The New Deal and World War.
23 Gregory and Balkin, Modem America, 1914 to 1945, 245-53.
Chapter 10: The New Deal and World War.

2‘ Barbara Clark Smith, Kathy Lee Peiss, and National Museum of American History
(US), Men and Women : A History of Costume, Gender, and Power (Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), 64.

25 Gregory and Balkin, Modern America, 1914 to 1945, 338-45.
2° McElvaine, The Depression and New Deal : A History in Documents, 149.
Gregory and Balkin, Modern America, 1914 to 1945, 339-40.

consciousness."27 Movies played an important role in creating and popularizing
new notions of gender28 and “Hollywood became a new source of fashion.”29
The social rules for appearance have changed frequently and dramatically since

1940, and naturally men’s fashion also changed accordingly. 3°

Table 2 Average Weekly Movie Attendance, 1926-194531

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Year Average Weekly Attendance
1926 50,000,000
1927 57,000,000
1928 65,000,000
1929 95,000,000
1930 90,000,000
1931 75,000,000
1932 60,000,000
1933 60,000,000
1934 70,000,000
1935 75,000,000
1936 88,000,000
1937 85,000,000
1 938 85,000,000
1939 85,000,000
1940 80,000,000
1941 80,000,000
1942 85,000,000
1943 85,000,000
1944 85,000,000
1945 90,000,000

 

Source: Steinberg, Film Facts, 40-41.

 

27 McElvaine, The Depression and New Deal: A History in Documents, 149.

2" Smith, Peiss, and National Museum of AmeriCan History (US), Men and Women : A
History of Costume, Gender, and Power, 58.

2" lbid., 59.
3° Ibid., 64.
3’ Quoted from Gregory and Balkin, Modern America, 1914 to 1945, 341.

10

Men’s fashion: 1933-194532

The decade of the 19303 saw remarkable changes in men’s clothing. It
began with the Great Depression. Little or no work meant little or no money to
spend 0 n clothing. T he a pparel industry 3 hrank, a nd tailors responded to the
change in consumer circumstances by offering more moderately priced styles.

The male physique reflected the masculine ideal of the time. In the 19303,
men’s suits created the appearance of a large upper torso. Broad shoulders
were emphasized by wedding or shoulder pads, and sleeves were tapered to the
wrist. Peaked Iapels framed the v-shaped chest and added additional breadth to
the wide shoulders. During 19303 the double-breasted suit, the precursor of the
modern business suit, was also popular. Masculine elegance demanded jackets
with long, broad Iapels, two, four, six or even eight buttons, square shoulders and

ventless tails. Long trousers with generous cut completed the look.

 

32 Farid Chenoune, A History of Men's Fashion (Paris: Flammarion, 1993), 156-220.

0. E. Schoeffler and William Gale, Esquire's Encyclopedia of 20th Century Men's
Fashions (New York,: McGraw-Hill, 1973).

Kidwell, "Gender Symbols or Fashionable Details?," 124-43.

Carol Nolan, Mens Fashion of the 19303 (cited November 10 2003); available from
http:l/www.murrayontravel.com/carolnolan/fashionhistory_1 930mens.html.

Carol Nolan, Mens Fasihion of the 19403 (cited November 10 2003); available from
http://www.murrayontravel.com/carolnolan/fashionhistory_1 940mens.html.

R. Turner Wilcox, Five Centuries of American Costume (New York,: Scribner, 1963), 163-
64, 67-69.

William Harlan Shaw, "Chapter Vi. From the Repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment in
1933 to 1945,” in American Men's Wear, 1861-1982 (Baton Rouge, LA: Oracle Press, 1982), 172-
95.

Sutart Cosgrove, "Chapter Twenty. The Zoot-Suit and Style Warfare," in The Gender
and Consumer Culture Reader, ed. Jennifer Scanlon (New York: New York University Press,
2000), 344-54.

11

In 1935, as a result of New Deal, signs of prosperity returned. The
rebounding economy demanded a redesign of the business suit, to signal the
successful status of the man who wore it. This new look was designed by the
London tailor, Frederick Scholte and was known as the “London cut,” the suit
was known as the “London drape" or “drape cut” suit.

Other versions of the new suit included four instead of six buttons, lapels
sloping down to the bottom buttons, and a longer hem. This version was known
as the Windsor double-breasted and the Kent double-breasted, named after the
Prince of Wales and the Duke of Kent respectively. Some Hollywood Stars
(Clark Gable, Jimmy Stewart, Fred Astaire and Cary Grant) wore those suits in
their movies, and it became popular in mainstream America. Lateron, itwas
recognized as the “American cut.”

The famous “Palm Beach” suit emerged during the 19303. It was named
after the famous Florida resort. I could be either Kent double-breasted or single-
breasted, with two or three buttons. It was popular because of the lightweight
tropical fabrics from which it was made - seersucker, shantung and linen. During
this time, blazers became popular for summer wear. Gangster influence on
men’s fashion during the 19303 could not be ignored. Gangsters, while despised
as thieves, paradoxically projected an image of “businessman” because of the
suits they wore. However, they did not choose typical business colors and
styles, but took every detail to the extreme. High-style New York clothiers could

not totally escape from the gangster style and created the “Broadway” suit

12

instead. Hip-huggingjackets, which had broad lapels and “pagoda” shoulders
and wide trousers with pleats at the waist created the style.

Over the next three decades, American garment makers rose to a new
level of sophistication, successfully competing with the long-established English
tailors. However, WWll made the development of the fashion world stumble.
Once again, men’s fashion would change as a result of historic events. The
United States officially entered World War II in 1941. On March 8, 1942, the US
Government War Production Board issued regulations which controlled every
aspect of clothing and restricted the use of natural fibers.33 All countries turned
to the production of artificial fibers. It was the designer's patriotic duty to design
clothing that would remain stylish through multiple seasons and use a minimum
of fabric. Therefore, men’s suits were made without vests and pocket flaps, and
manufacturers were not able to make trousers with cuffs and multiple pleats.

There was O ne exception to the strict rationing of the ear1y forties - the
zoot suit. It was an exaggerated look comprised of an oversized jacket, wide
lapels and shoulders, with baggy low-crotched trousers that narrowed
dramatically at the ankle. Zoot suits were illicit items during WWII; however, the

zoot influence remained through the 19403 and men’s coats were noticeably

 

33 “The first official act of the Board affected all suits containing wool. Entirely eliminated
were two-trouser suits, full-dress coats, cutaway coats, double-breasted dinner jacket, patch
pockets, fancy backs, belts, and pleats... The WPB also restricted the length of the inseam of
trousers to 35 inches on a size 32 regular and eliminated cuffs, but bottom and knee length were
curtailed only slightly. These orders took effect on March 30, 1942, but custom tailors were
granted an extension until May 30... In the autumn of the year, the WPB ruled that all trousers be
cut narrower and cuffless. . Quoted from Schoeffler and Gale, Esquire's Encyclopedia of 20th
Century Men '3 Fashions, 25-26.

13

roomier as a result of it. Higher-waisted trousers were also due to the influence of
the zoot suit.

Men’s fashion style reflected masculine ideals of the time period. In the
19303, men’s fashion style conveyed the image of athletic white-collar workers
and clean-cut masculinity. During WWII, masculine ideals seemed clear and

men’s fashion incorporated details of the military look.

Masculinity: 1933-1945

Masculine characteristics during this period typically included
aggressiveness, logic, emotional inexpressiveness, and dominance, while
femininity was associated with peaCefulness, intuitiveness, emotional
expressiveness, and submissiveness.34 However, it was common knowledge
that the concept of masculinity has changed over time and region and needed to
be understood in the context of culture and gender relations.“5

Traditional “gentry masculinity"36

or macho characteristics changed during
the late nineteenth century and earIy twentieth century. “A bureaucratized

corporate capitalism would require of the middle class a model of masculinity

 

3‘ Allan G. Johnson, The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology : A User's Guide to
Sociological Language, 2nd ed. (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 2000), 279-81.

”Feminity / Masculinity," in Encyclopedia of Sociology, ed. Edgar F. Borgatta and Rhonda
J. V. Montgomery (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2000), 997.

35 Tony Lawson and Joan Garrod, Dictionary of Sociology (London ; Chicago: Fitzroy
Dearborn, 2001), 147. .

R. W. Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 67-71, 185.
3° R.W. Connell, Masculinities, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 191.

14

different from the rougher, more “macho” ideal characteristic of the frontier."37 It
was impossible to point out exactly what caused the changes; however, Connell
suggested that three were central: “challenges to the gender order by women,
the logic of the gendered accumulation process in industrial capitalism, and the
power relation of empire.”38 Cultural notions of masculinity in the early 20th
century largely suited the corporate capitalist socioeconomic order.39

Joseph and Elizabeth Pleck identified five general periods of masculinity.40
They were: (1) the Agrarian Patriarchal period, 1630-1820, (2) the Commercial
period, 1820-1860, (3) the Strenuous Life period, 1861-1919, (4) the
Companionate Providing period, 1920-1965, and (5) after 1965. The time period
of this study: 1933-1945 fell into the fOUrth category: “the Companionate
providing period.” It was this time when the fact that the male as provider
became a dominant characteristic of masculinity. A “real man” paid his bills on
time, took care of his family by purchasing numerous goods and provided for
them in the best way possible. This meant that work, aggressiveness, providing,

competitiveness, and In essence, “getting ahead” became integral features of

 

37 Jane Sherron De Hart and Linda K. Kerber, "Gender," in Encyclopedia of American
Social History, ed. Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gom, and Peter W. Williams (New York:
Scribner, Maxwell Macmillan International, 1993), 485.

3" From Connell’s work, “the logic of the gendered accumulation process in industrial
capitalism” is understood as masculinity has been changed in relation to the industrial capitalism
of the society, and the industrial capitalism has had hegemonic masculinity considered good or
suitable at a certain period. Connell, Masculinities, 191-99.

3° Pendergast, Creating the Modern Man : American Magazines and Consumer Culture,
1900—1950, 2.

‘° Clyde W. Franklin, ”Chapter 1. Meanings of Masculinity in the United States,“ in The
Changing Definition of Masculinity (New York: Plenum Press, 1984), 5-9.

15

masculinity.“ Also real men were those who had virility and who could be team
players.42

Masculinity of this time period could be expressed as “men as the
provider,” and the concept of masculinity, so called “self-made men,” had been
proven in the work place.43 However, the Great Depression, which meant
widespread unemployment, emasculated men both at work and at home.
Heroism characterized masculinity, and the muscular body was a way of
expressing masculinity physically. 4“ “WWII meant another opportunity to
emphasize strenuous masculinity, another chance for men to exhibit their

courage in defense of their country and families.”45

About Esquire magazine
Esquire was first published in October 1933,46 during the middle of the
Depression. Despite depression conditions and the outrageous price47 of fifty

cents per issue, the magazine was very successful in circulation and readership.

 

“ lbid., 7-8.
‘2 Hart and Kerber, “Gender,” 485.
‘3 Franklin, "Chapter 1. Meanings of Masculinity in the United States.“ 1-28.

Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America : A Cultural History (New York: Free Press,
1996), 192-93.

4‘ Kimmel, Manhood in America : A Cultural History, 212.

‘5 Sylvia D. Hoffert, A History of Gender in America : Essays, Documents, and Articles
(Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003), 325.

‘6 Esquire, Autumn, 1933.

‘7 John William Tebbel and Mary Ellen Zuckerman, The Magazine in America, 1741-1990
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 186.

Peter N. Stearns and Mark Knapp, "Men and Romantic Love: Pinpointing a 20th-Century
Change," Journal of Social History 26, no. 4 (1993): 777.

16

lts subscription list totaled 180,000 within the first six months. By autumn 1935
Esquire reached the quarter million mark, and it boasted 750,000 subscribers by
1941. A survey in 1936 estimated that 4,687,000 were reading Esquire
regularly.“8 Esquire won a substantial audience, supporting its validity as cultural
evidence. It became one of the most successful magazines in the history of
American publishing.”

“Man at his best,” Esquire’s byline, defined its audience and its emphasis.
The first issue specified its aim “to become the common denominator of
masculine interests — to be all things to all men.”50 The target group of Esquire
was, as the title represented, men of a certain social rank. While the audience
has varied over the years, their main readership rests in the middle to upper-
middle class men:51 college-educated, often professional men, aged twenty-five
to forty-five.52 By 1933, even in the middle of economic depression, the stage

was set for a new male magazine. The males in this audience had no magazine

 

‘8 Esquire, September, 1936.

‘9 Dean Howd, “Esquire," in American Mass-Market Magazines, ed. Alan Nourie and
Barbara Nourie (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 108-15.

5° Esquire, Autumn, 1933, 3.

5’ Steven Seidman, Romantic Longings: Love in America, 1830-1980 (New Brunswick,
NJ., 1991 ), pp.65ff. For an important recent corrective, which parallels many arguments in this
article. see Kevin White, The First Sexual Revolution: The Emergence of Male Heterosexuality
in Modern America (New York, 1993). - cited from Peter N. Stearns, and Mark Knapp, “Men and
romantic love: Pinpointing a 20th-century change,” Journal of Social History, 26, no. 4 (Summer
1993): 769-795.

52 Howd, "Esquire,” 108.
Stearns and Knapp, ”Men and Romantic Love: Pinpointing a 20th-Century Change,“ 778.

17

expressly for them, which could partially explain why it became so instantly
popular.53

Esquire publisher David Smart and his brother, Alfred Smart, began
advertising in 1921 in Chicago; they were joined in 1927 by William H.
Weintraub. One of their main interests was men’s wear, and they ventured into
advertising booklets as a way to inform buyers in local retail stores aboutthe
latest products. Encouraged by the success of ad booklets and retailers’
suggestions, they decided to publish a men’s magazine.54 That was the starting
point of the idea for Esquire: to sell a magazine to men geared toward their
interests, through clothing stores.55

Esquire’s main content was “articles, departments, fictions, satire,
personalities, pictorial features, poetry, semi-fiction, sport, trend in dress.”56
While Esquire covered subjects such as business, sports, and fashion regarding
a male perspective, it also published features ranging from national and
international politics to fiction. Esquire’s founding editor, Arnold Gingrich,
combined publishing the leading writers of America with humor and a slick style.
The whole tone of this publication was quality: quality clothes, writing, art,

photography, and features.57 Gingrich knew good writing when he saw it and put

 

53 Howd, ”Esquire," 108.
Stearns and Knapp, ”Men and Romantic Love: Pinpointing a 20th-Century Change,“ 777.
5‘ Howd, “Esquire," 108-09.

55 Arnold Gingrich, Nothing but People; the Early Days at Esquire, a Personal History,
1928-1958 (New York,: Crown Publishers, 1971 ), 80-175.

5" Esquire, 1933 - 1945.
57 Howd, "Esquire," 108-15.

18

it in Esquire. The work of such authors as Ernest Hemingway, Ring Lardner, Jr.,
and John Dos Passos, appeared in the first issue. The articles were intelligent
and “lively explorations of contemporary culture.”58

One of Esquire’s main aims was being a “fashion guide for men.”59
Vamer described Esquire as a “fashion-oriented men's magazine that combined
quality writing with current trends in apparel.”60 As shown above, fashion was an
important content of Esquire, and Esquire had its own fashion staff. Many of the
illustrators were those who worked for the men’s trade fashion magazine,
Apparel Arts.61 Fellow, Goodman, Saalberg, Hurd, Sharp, Peters, Oxner, and
Erman were some of the artists of Esquire’s early years. Fashion pages
contained color sketches or photographs and some descriptions. Sometimes
they showed sophisticated fabric pictures, too. Even though trends in dress were

the main content, the number of fashion related pages was not uniform; it ranged

from zero to fourteen (during 1933-1945).

 

5° Tebbel and Zuckerrnan, The Magazine in America, 1741-1990, 186.
5° Esquire, Autumn, 1933.

6° Carroll Vamer, "Gq: Gentlemen's Quarterly," in American Mass-Market Magazines, ed.
Alan Nourie and Barbara Nourie (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 136-40.

6‘ In 1931, “Apparel Arts” was founded as a men’s fashion magazine for the trade. Its
purpose was to bring an awareness of men's fashion to middle-class male consumers by
educating sales people in men's stores, who in turn would make recommendations to the
consumers. It became the fashion bible for middle- class American men. (Nolan, Mens Fashion of
the 19303 ).

19

Method - Content Analysis

Definition of Content Analysis and the Application

According to The Content Analysis Guidebook, content analysis is “a
summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific
method (including attention to objectivity-intersubjectivity, a priori design,
reliability, validity, generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not
limited as to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which
the messages are created or presented.”62

Jack R. Fraenkel and Norman E. Wallen defined content analysis as “a
technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in an indirect way,
through an analysis of their communications. It is just what its name implies: the
analysis of the usually, but not necessarily, written contents of a communication.
Textbooks, essays, newspapers, magazine articles, cookbooks, songs, political
speeches, advertisements, pictures — in fact the contents of virtually any type of
communication can be analyzed.”63

Earl Babble explained content analysis as "T he study of recorded human
communications, such as books, Web sites, paintings, and laws,” and pointed out
that it was “particularly well suited to the study of communications and to

answering the classic questions of communications research: ‘Who says what,

 

“2 Kimberly A. Neuendorf, The Content Analysis Guidebook (Thousand Oaks, Calif:
Sage Publications, 2002), 9-25.

83 Jack R. Fraenkel and Norman E. Wallen, How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education, 4th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 469.

20

to whom, why, how, and with what effect?"64

Fraenkel and Wallen suggested three types of content analysis: “Analysis
in terms of frequency counts” “Qualitative or nonfrequency analysis,” and
“Contingency analysis.” In the first approach, “the units for coding are identified
and coding categories are defined. A careful count is then made of the number
of times the units that fit the various categories are found.” In the second
approach, there is no counting of the frequencies. “Instead, the attempt is made
merely to ascertain whether certain categories of units are or not present in the
communication.” In the third approach, “the intent is to count the number of
instances in which combinations of two or more categories of units are found in
the same communication."65

Fraenkel and Wallen also presented eight steps to conduct a content
analysis. 1) Decide on the specific objectives. 2) Define the terms. 3) Specify
the unit of analysis. 4) Locate the data that will be analyzed and that are relevant
to the objectives. 5) Develop a rationale. 6) Develop a sampling plan. 7)
Formulate coding categories. 8) Analyze the collected data. 66

In terms of content analysis in the field of the study of historic costume, Jo

B. Paoletti conducted content analysis in two of her studies.67 Paoletti expanded

 

6‘ Earl R. Babbie, The Practice of Social Research, 10th ed. (Belmont, CA:
ThomsonNVadsworth, 2004), 314.

65 Fraenkel and Wallen, How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, 471 -72.
6" lbid., 472-77.

“7 Jo B. Paoletti, "The Role of Choice in the Democratization of Fashion: A Case Study,
1875-1885,” Dress 6 (1980): 47-56.

21

her study to outline procedures for using content analysis in the study of history
of costume. 68 She states that, “Content analysis provides a systematic,
disciplined methodology in situations where objectivity might be difficult to

maintain due to the number or the nature of the sources.”69

In developing
research procedures using content analysis Paoletti pointed out five important
steps to be conducted. First, the source for data collection must be chosen.
Second, the unit of analysis must be determined. Third, the researcher must
determine if the data of the source is manifest or covert. Fourth, the instrument
categories will be defined. Lastly, the researcher must choose how the data will
be quantified.70

The distinctive advantage of the Content analysis method lies in its
unobtrusiveness and economy in terms of time, money, and safety. The main
disadvantages of this method are that it is often limited to recorded information,
and that it is difficult to establish validity.71

Referring to studies above, this researcher concluded that the content

analysis method was appropriate to apply for this study. Thematic analysis of

 

Jo B. Paoletti, "Changes in the Masculine Image in the United States 1880-1910: A
Content Analysis of Popular Humor About Dress" (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland,
1980)

6" Jo B. Paoletti, “Content Analysis: Its Application to the Study of History of Costume,"
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 1 (1982): 14-17.

“9 lbid.: 14.

7° Paoletti, ”The Role of Choice in the Democratization of Fashion: A Case Study, 1875-
1885," ‘14-‘16.

7' Fraenkel and Wallen, How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, 468-99.
Babble, The Practice of Social Research, 323-24.
Paoletti, ”Content Analysis: Its Application to the Study of History of Costume,” 14-17.

22

Esquire‘s fashion information was conducted. After themes were identified

”72

“Analysis in terms of frequency counts was applied. Five important points to

be determined as suggested by Paoletti are described in Data Collection section.

Research objective

From 1933 to 1945, every issue of Esquire magazine was the primary
source. Total number of 145 issues, specifically 926 pages of fashion images,
79 fashion related articles, which were not included in fashion images, 73 were
examined for this research. Most images consisted of fashion illustrations by
artists or photographs. Texts that described them were adjacent to the images.
(See Figure 1 on page 29) Some images presented illustrations or photographs
only with the title. (See Figure 2 on page 30) Other images introduced the
illustrations or photographs with very brief explanation. (See Figure 3 on page
31) The number of pages of fashion articles was not counted because this was
an irregular feature. The articles covered from half page to two pages. (See
Table 3 Count of fashion related content found in Esquire magazine, 1933-1945

on page 24)

Data collection
The source for data collection was Esquire magazine. The unit of analysis

was fashion information provided in Esquire magazine. To answer each question

 

72 Fraenkel and Wallen, How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, 471-72.

73 Hereinafter the fashion related information, which was not included in fashion
illustrations, would be referred to as “fashion article.”

23

different sub-samples were required, and specific sub-samples for each question
can be found in the Analysis section under each question. The types of unit of
observation were categorized into two areas: text evidence and visual evidence.
Manifest data were examined. The categories for data collection for this study
were not pre-defined because it was impossible to know beforehand what type of

themes would be found. The data was quantified by simple counting.

Table 3 Count of fashion related content found in Esquire magazine, 1933-1945

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

. Types of
information TotaLrggaegjzine Fashggggage Fashion articles Fashion quiz“
Year

1933* 118 14 ° 0
1934 2024 124' 1 0
1935 2264 109 0 0
1936 2632 100 0 0
1937 2824 84 0 0
1938 2344 89 o 0
1939 2264 78 11 O
1940 2308 74 12 0
1941 2268 42 11 0
1942 2268 44 9 0
1943 2246 52 1° 0
1944 2292 60 11 0
1945 2348 56 11 3
Total 28200 926 76 3

 

* ln autumn 1933, the first issue of Esquire magazine was published.

It was meant to be a

 

quarterly magazine; therefore only one issue was published in 1933. From 1934, it became a
monthly magazine, and thus total pages in print increased.

*’ The ‘Fashion Quiz" was a regular column appearing in the last few months of 1945 which was
designed to test men’s knowledge of occasion-specific clothing selections.

24

Definition of Terms

Fashion: In New Perspectives on the History of Western Dress: A
Handbook fashion was defined as “both a form of human behavior and a product
of behavior, which is widely accepted fora limited time and is replaceable by
another fashion that is an acceptable substitute for it.“ 7“

Sproles and Burns’ general definition of fashion was “A fashion is a style
of consumer product or a way of behaving that is temporarily adopted by a
discemable portion of members of a social group because that chosen style or
behavior is perceived to be socially appropriate for the time and situation.” 75

Fashion Process: Several authors describe the fashion process. 76
Some of the theories about the fashion prOcess include “trickle down, trickle up,
trickle across,” etc. Trickle down theory describes the downward flow of fashion.

Upper classes inspire new fashion trends that later are adopted by the lower

social classes. Trickle up theory describes a situation in which new fashion

 

7‘ Mary Ellen Roach, Kathleen Ehle Musa, and Anne Hollander, New Perspectives on the
History of Western Dress : A Handbook (New York: NutriGuides, 1980), 19-26.

75 George B. Sproles and Leslie Davis Burns, Changing Appearances: Understanding
Dress in Contemporary Society (New York: Fairchild Publications, 1994), 4.

7° Roach, Musa, and Hollander, New Perspectives on the History of Western Dress : A
Handbook.

Sproles and Burns, Changing Appearances: Understanding Dress in Contemporary
Society, 13-21.

J. A. Hamilton, "The Macro-Micro Interface in the Construction of Individual Fashion
Forms and Meanings," Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 15, no. 3 (1997): 164-71.

Dorothy Behling, "Fashion Change and Demographics: A Model,“ Clothing and Textiles
Research Joumal4, no. 1 (1985-1986).

Rita C. Kean, "The Role of the Fashion System in Fashion Change: A Response to the
Kaiser, Nagasawa and Hutton Model," Clothing and Textiles Research Joumal15, no. 3 (1997):
172-77.

Bernard Barber and Lyle S. Lobel, "Fashion" in Women's Clothes and the American
Social System,“ Social Forces 31, no. 2 (1952).

25

styles created by the young or relatively lower social classes are diffused to
established and relatively higher social classes. Trickle across theory describes
the fashion process when styles are created and adopted by the same social
classes, age groups, or ethnic groups. Fashion process includes many
variables, for example, economic condition, political events, distribution of the
population, sprit of the time, etc. From previous studies, it was understood that
the fashion process was not explained by one theory. However, there is always
a “proposer” (or creator), “adopter“ and communication between them. In this
study Esquire was the communication agent. As a communication agent,
Esquire conveyed fashion style and contributed to the legitimizing of fashion.
Lower Class: “In the study of social STRATIFICATION, the lower class is
the level designed as the lowest position in virtually every dimension of equality.
Members of the lower class have no WEALTH and little INCOME. They neither
own nor control any MEANS OF PRODUCTION and are at the bottom of
economic and political AUTHORITY structure.”7
Middle Class: “In the study of social STRATIFICATION AND
INEQUALITY, middle class is a concept that has eluded precise
definition...Today “old” middle class is distinguished from the “new” middle class;
it has lost much of its economic independence and is now associated primarily

with the prestige attached to white-collar occupations such as clerical workers,

office supervisor, government officials, professionals, and teachers. As an

 

77 Johnson, The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology: A User’s Guide to Sociological
Language,179.

26

analytical concept, middle class is problematic in several ways. The line
separating it from the WORKING CLASS, for example, is unclear because white-
collar occupations are not necessarily associated with higher levels of education,
WEALTH AND INCOME, and skill, or training when compared with highly skilled
blue-collar jobs...A second problem lies in the use of the term “middle,” for it is
arguable that the middle class is in any sense of the word midway between the
UPPER CLASS and the lower and working classes..."78

Upper Class: “In the study of STRATIFICATION, the upper class is
identified by its dominant position in relation to the distribution of WEALTH,
POWER, and PRESTIGE... Under CAPITALISM, upper-class privilege based on
ownership and control of the MEANS OF PRODUCTION and the employment of
workers in exchange for wages...”79 According to Riess, in the United States,
“the upper class comprised about 1-3 percent of a country’s inhabitants, drawn
from the richest 5 percent of the population. Their status depended on how their
affluence was achieved, as well as family background, education, religion,

ethnicity, residency, and access to power.”80

Limitation of fashion information
“Fashion includes widespread social norms that may be modified by

individual self-expression;” this implies that there is a difference between

 

7“ Ibid.
79 -
lbld., 334-35.

8° Steven A. Riess, “From Pitch to Putt: Sport and Class in Anglo-American Sport,"
Journal of Sport History 21, no. 2 (1994): 140.

27

“fashionable ideals” and “reality.” 8‘

Therefore, it was important to understand
that the fashion information in Esquire magazine represented the ideal fashion of
the time period; however, it did not necessarily mean that the information always

represented the real clothing.

 

8‘ Claudia Brush Kidwell and Valerie Steele, Men and Women : Dressing the Part
(Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), 2-3.

28

 

 

o

2...“. zfi

..._. m. _;a-_...x

LOOKING AT HOME
AT BELMONT PARK
OR AT SARATOGA

Figure 1 Esquire, 1934,

l

5..

a,
l
i=
‘2.
I:

 

 

The outfits shown on this age are
typical of the current preferences of
ose men who, by their every appear-
ance at outdoor sports events, exert a
erceptible influence on e as ion
ends of the country. These fashion
setting sportsmen constitute a small
roup, numerically, bu 0 large im-
portance socially and financially. Their
whim of today IS next month’s loa a1w
designers’ workroom nthe
lefi wears a double breasted suit ofn blue
tropical worsted minus a waistcoat. His
shirt IS a pleated front blue batiste with
a white rounded- -comer stare e co
a blue foulard bow tiei with white
spots“ This is news. Take w,for
what it’s worth, but ou ’ll be seein it
again and again in the future. His ha is
a sennit straw with a club color band
and it’ 5 nice to be sure, in emulatin DE
this example, that it is your own an

not some other fellow’ 5 club colors that
adorn your hat. (Americans a re

quently wonder why red faced and hvvite
mtéstacnhed uEn‘glishmens isghuddenlgrsmgan bristle

an 1”’P
that some clerk recomm indlg
ve nice. The socks are eof ribbledb lis

an es oes are brown buckskin with
black leatheri soles and colder
man’s suit athree-buttsonT neotched
lapel model of grey Glen plaid, of which
the trousers are cu ess, worn wiath
double breasted fawun-colored linen
waistco a white shirt with white stiff
collar, co oorful striped tie, Homburg hat
and brown bluecher shoes. He IS mg
one of those bamboo sticks which ave
a go ld pencil inserted at the turn of the
handle. The diostinfiusishing characteer-
istic in clothes pe is
to emphasize the natural line of the
and the soft construction.

den
shou der,

(F or sources of Merchandise address Esquire Fashion Slaflf 40 E. 34th, N. Y.)

June. 115. (Texts are retyped.)

29

 

OPENING NIGHT AT THE ROYAL HAYMARKET THEATRE, LONDON
Figure 2 Esquire, 1937, January. 132.

30

 

.moocm use an: :32: 6: 32:8 vaccines»:
, .Esm 5288.5 68.803 chew Em: 2:3 :5 I... .
_. _o:§c 0:3 Pox who? 5.: 988m .=8 05 :o
8855 5:5 .moofi use “a: .565 .0: 22:8
{Em Eome £3 80>: oconmEtu; 0:3 Env—
ana a». “a 52 .m=o_m._o> 92 E. a: 959%
.053 v5 .33 we 283 6:5 Fox :28 =£
oEacoEma 58E 2:. .32» £5 mar—om 2.83
05 B 223: Em E =Eomen .«o .5293 2C.

motom 283 05 8 03m on

43-3-
1;

hr‘n ,.

.“.-."..“ f

.
I
a
1

,

 

 

Figure 3 Esquire, 1944, October 1944. 92.

31

Analysis

In order to answer the question “What was Esquire’s concept of
masculinity?” all the fashion images were examined. To determine “Who were
the main role models for the fashion images?” age, ethnicity, and occupation
of all the fashion images were examined.

The age of the models was determined in two ways. First, the age of the
models was sometimes indicated in the text of the illustration. For example, the
models who were described as college students or “preps”"‘Z were categorized as
“young.” Second, the visible signs of age of the figures in the illustration were
judged by the researcher. Those figures who had mustaches and some facial
wrinkles were considered to be “middle aged,” and the figures without a
mustache but looked older than the college student were classified as “younger
than middle aged.” White hair was used as an indicator of the most advanced
age. If the models in a fashion illustration represented two different age groups,
they were counted separately. (See Figure 4 Illustrations of each age group) If
the models in a fashion illustration represented the same age group, it was
counted as one age group. In some cases, illustrations showed more than two
age groups in an illustration, and it was categorized as “from young to old.”

Most of the models were twenties to middle aged people. The youngest
were preps, and the oldest were those who were considered to be grandfathers.

(See Table 4 Age of the models of the Esquire’s fashion images and the

 

“2 Preps were described as “very young” in the text. Esquire, 1935, October, 154.

32

frequency). Since the age was counted by group, the sum of the total numbers
in the table was not the same as the total number of fashion images. The result
that middle aged men were most frequently presented in the fashion image

revealed that Esquire’s masculine ideal was the mature man.

Table 4 Age of the models of the Esquire’s fashion images and the frequency

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age group Young thggumgledrle Middle 52333:: Advanced
Year aged aged Adfnced Age
$9
1933 2 2 8 0 0
1934 28 17 55 4 1
1935 26 14 59 1 3
1936 28 18 45 O 0
1937 35 14 ' 47 0 0
1 938 1 8 5 25 0 O
1939 28 18 45 0 O
1940 35 14 47 0 O
1941 18 5 25 0 O
1942 17 6 19 0 0
1 943 6 3 46 0 0
1 944 2 5 57 0 O
1 945 1 6 14 30 0 0
Total 259 1 35 508 5 4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

33

 

 

    

\ .»_ ,1" J t .-

Younger than middle aged
Esquire. 1937, August. 152

 

      

Middle aged Old
Esquire, 1937, May. 202 Esquire. 1935, April. 140

 

Figure 4 Illustrations of each age group

 

To determine the race/ethnicity of the models, the complexion and facial
features of all the figures in the fashion images were examined. All the models
were Caucasian. In very rare cases, other racial/ethnic groups appeared in the
background setting. Those cases were not counted because they were not the
main models in the images.

The occupations of the models were determined by the text and the
illustration. In most of the cases occupations of the models were not mentioned.
Some of the occupations frequently mentioned were college student, prep
(preparatory school student), businessman or executive, and stockbroker. 83
Other occupations that were mentioned in the fashion images were lawyer, M.D.,
filmmaker, clerk, salesman, manager, sportsman, rancher, soldier, factory boss
and worker, scientist, etc. (See Table 5 Occupations presented twice or more in
Esquire fashion images.)

Models in the fashion images presented those who were wealthy and/or
had a sure means of living. It reflected that the dominant characteristic of
masculinity of the time period, “male as the provider.” During WWII, military men
were shown in the fashion images quite often as background. This showed that
during war time, the focus of masculinity changed from “male as the provider" to

“male defending their country and families.”

 

“3 Businessman or Executive included C.E.O., financial leader, boss.

35

Table 5 Occupations presented twice or more in Esquire fashion images.

 

ccupafion

Year

College
student

Prep

Businessman
or Executive

Stockbroker

Architect

MD.

 

1 933

.—L

 

1934

 

1 935

 

1 936

04>0

 

1937

0000

 

1 938

—L

A

 

1 939

000000

 

1 940

u-L

 

1941

A

 

1 942

 

1 943

0000000000

 

1944

 

1945

#OQGGGQODNNUI

0000000

OO-bOJOJMNO-AQNCOQO

0000000

 

Total

 

 

O)
CO

 

 

A
0

 

000000

 

 

 

36

 

Table 6 Americans in College: 1930-194484

[Resident students in thousands, except percentage]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Year Number Percentage of Population Aged
(Undergraduate and Graduate) 18-24
1930 1 ,101 7.2
1932 1 ,154 7.4
1934 1 .055 6.6
1936 1 ,208 7.5
1938 1 .351 3.3
1940 1 .494 9.1
1942 1 .404 8.4
1944 1 ,155 6.8

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Wattenberg, Statistical History, 383.

The number of Americans who went to college during the early 20th century was small -
only about 3% were of standard “college age” during 1914-1918. However it increased
every year until the worst part of the depression of the 19305, when the number
dropped. The number moved up again as early as 1936 and was on the way toward
10% of the age group when WWII intervened. During the early 19405 young people
were expected to be either in the armed forces or engaged in some form of work for the
defense effort, and so fewer were in college.

It could not be surely said that the statistics of college students itself
support well the idea that Esquire magazine’s fashion illustrations described the
upper middle or high class men’s masculinity. However, the text describing an
illustration, for example, often mentioned the name of the university - Yale,
Princeton, or Harvard. This serves as the basis of the interpretation that the
fashion illustrations expressed the upper middle to high class men’s masculinity.

It also could be assumed that only men of means could afford to attend college.

 

8‘ Quoted from Ross Gregory, Modern America, 1914-1945, 312.

37

In what activities were men engaged?

To discover activities in which men were engaged, all the fashion images
were examined. The categories of the clothing and the categories of leisure
activities presented as the setting of the fashion images were identified and then
the frequencies were counted.

The categories of the clothing were determined mainly by the text of the
fashion images. In case the text did not mention the categories of the clothing,
the settings of the fashion images were used as the standard of judgment. For
example, the setting of town street or the clubs in town were categorized as town
wear, because many other images which described the similar setting and the
fashion items mentioned the clothing as “town wear" in the text. When the
images represented several categories on one page, these were categorized as
“several.” Some images, which did not indicate the categories of the clothing in
the text and were not describing an identifiable setting, were categorized as “not
available.”85 (See Table 7 Frequently described clothing categories in Esquire)

Before and during WWII, the frequency of clothing categories changed.
Before WWII, active sportswear, spectator sportswear, resort wear 8. beachwear
were presented frequently. After the outbreak of WWII, the numbers of the
illustrations that presented active sportswear, spectator sportswear, resort wear
& beachwear declined remarkably. Town wear appeared more frequently than

any other category of clothing. In one case, the illustration described defense

 

“5 79 illustrations categorized as “not available,” were not included in the table because it
did not help to answer this research question.

38

plant workers” clothing and mentioned, “Never expected to find fashions in a
factory, did you?”86 It could be said that war affected the masculine image in
some way. Those w ho enjoyed leisure a ctivities b efore the outbreak of WWII
devoted themselves to defending their country and families. (See Figure 5 on
page 41) The appearance of leisure during wartime was not considered patriotic.

As a result of analyzing Esquire magazine’s fashion images in terms of
leisure activities by frequency count, the researcher identified that resort and
related activities, golf, boating (yachting, sailing), horse race & riding, hunting 8.
shooting, skiing, fishing, and tennis were frequently suggested to Esquire’s
audience. The fashion images mostly suggested high class (upper class)87
men’s leisure activities. (See Table 8 Frequently portrayed leisure activities in
Esquire) It was also found that the number of frequency of leisure activities
presented in the Esquire fashion images decreased noticeably after the USA.
entered WWII. It also supported the idea that those who enjoyed leisure
activities before the outbreak of WWII devoted themselves in defending their
country and families.

The m odels p resented in the E squire’s fashion images were those who
worked in urban environments, mostly engaged in the financial world or in

business, and who lived in the suburbs or in the city. They enjoyed luxurious

 

‘6 Esquire, 1943, June, 126.
‘7 Riess, "From Pitch to Putt: Sport and Class in Anglo-American Sport,” 138-84.

William H. Young and Nancy K. Young, The 19303, American Popular Culture through
History. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002), 133-45.

39

leisure activities. During weekends they enjoyed sports or country life. Also,

they could afford occasion-specific clothing.

40

 

Figure 5 Esquire, 1944, March. 108.

41

Table 7 Frequently described clothing categories in Esquire

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Category .. §
.. - - ._ a 8 ~ .. ..
$5 E ‘8'?) 87% '9 S :‘a‘ E 5 “>’ E85
Yea, 2% .9 38 as .3 8 8 .2 a F: as
1933 1 3 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 O
1934 30 10 13 7 6 11 9 5 9 4 0
1935 26 11 13 9 6 8 4 5 1 5 O
1936 23 9 8 13 2 6 6 9 6 6 O
1937 23 11 8 6 10 5 2 4 2 3 5
1938 17 16 1O 13 6 7 5 5 1 3 7
1939 12 8 11 13 8 7 6 6 0 1 5
1940 12 6 4 7 8 2 4 5 3 4 2
1941 9 6 5 5 2 1 4 3 3 1 1
1942 6 5 6 5 2 0 3 0 4 1 1
1943 2 15 3 1 2 2 2 3 4 2 1
1944 7 13 5 4 1 2 0 4 5 4 0
1945 6 14 3 3 1 1 4 1 5 O 1
Total 1 74 1 27 90 86 55 53 51 51 44 34 23

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

* The sum of the total numbers and the total number of fashion images were not the
same because this table only presented 11 most frequently described categories.

 

‘8 Some of the definitions of semi-sportswear provided by Esquire magazine were:

“... medium between the extremes of formality and informality as typified by the more
orthodox models for town and country.” Esquire, 1937, March, 158.

“. .. a type of turn out that may be worn either for informal occasions in town or for
spectator sports in country." Esquire, 1937, May, 156.

“ meaning that they are most appropriate for spectator wear in the country and may be
worn informally in town for lunch and cocktails although they are not recommended for business
wear except Saturday morning before the football game or the races in the afternoon.” Esquire,
1937, November, 200.

“ the semi-sports type, ideally bringing the gap between town and spectator sports
wear for those who go direct from their offices to the game.” Esquire, 1938, November, 132.

42

Table 8 Frequently portrayed leisure activities in Esquire

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

””333; Resort Horsey .. Hunting . . . . .
8. occasion Golf Skllng 8. ' Boatlng lese Flshlng Tennls
Year beach Shootlng
1933 0 2 O 0 O O O 0 0
1934 5 6 4 2 6 4 3 2 4
1935 8 7 3 1 2 1 3 1 3
1936 12 6 5 2 2 2 3 2 1
1937 4 7 3 O 1 4 2 4 1
1938 11 8 3 4 1 2 1 1 O
1939 13 3 2 3 4 #1 1 2 0
1940 6 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 1
1941 4 4 2 2 1 1 O 0 0
1942 4 3 1 3 0 0 0 0 1
1943 1 2 O 0 0 O 0 0 0
1944 4 2 1 0 O 0 0 0 1
1945 4 0 1 1 0 O 0 0 1
Total 76 52 27 21 19 16 14 13 13

 

In order to find out the ideal physical characteristics of men, body sizes,

skin color, and body hair were examined. First, fashion illustrations showing the

male physique were examined. The assumption was that fashion illustrations

would show the ideal physical characteristics of men due to their ability to be

manipulated by the illustrators. Before data were collected, the sampling method

needed to be decided. A purposive sampling method was adopted to answer

this question. Sampling criteria for selecting Esquire’s fashion illustrations were:

43

 

- Every illustration in which a male figure in a swim trunks or swim shorts

was pictured.

- % to full—length body.

- Pose showing % or more of the front body.

- Standing position.

- Not wearing hat. (for ease of measuring)

The total number of illustrations examined to determine the ideal physical
characteristics of men was 18. First, several body parts: head height, total
height, shoulder width, waistline width, hipline width, thigh width, from head to
waist, from head to hip, were measured using the metric system. Later the body
parts were divided by the head height or‘waistline width. (See Table 9 Body
proportion) The researcher was not able to determine a trend in ideal male
physique through the research time period because the result did not show
consistency. The mean values measured from the selected samples were
presented in the table along with the values measured from other sources.

Esquire fashion illustrations’ total height, head to waist length, head to hip
length were a little bit shorter than those of the figure in a contemporary fashion
illustration textbook. Esquire fashion illustrations’ shoulder width, hipline width,
thigh width were narrower than those of the figure in the contemporary fashion
illustration textbook. Only waistline width was a little bit wider than that of the
figure in the contemporary fashion illustration textbook.

Esquire fashion illustrations presented slim to medium-build, healthy and

tall body. Lean and slim muscular bodies were shown. Compared to

44

contemporary body image, Esquire fashion illustrations showed a less
voluminous muscular body. Neither well-developed abdominal muscles nor
brawny biceps were presented. (See Figure 6 on page 47) It was interpreted that
Esquire fashion illustrators did not put much emphasis on bodybuilding. Physical
strength as a masculine characteristic was not emphasized, possibly associated
with manual labor. Modern bodybuilding, which began in nineteenth century, did

not become fashionable until the 1970s and became most popular in the 1990s.89

Table 9 Body proportions

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sources £223.23??? fyalues ”9933”?“ Values 3‘93”?“

B°dy parts 53‘7““ expfessed tgxnt‘btggkfli'rgfitgteg‘? ftrngbtggkfliwzgfiltc'lg?
1n head heghts

L22; fleeig‘tt/ 8.34 I 8 9 or over
figgz'figrigzitdm’ 1.93 2 2 or over
agitmnggfldm’ 1.39 About 1 1.25 or over
flg'gigg? I 1 .45 1 .5 1 .8
flag: $52] 0.75 0.77 0.92
:2: Seams” 3.11 2.75 3.5
:22: 11:13:; 4.03 4 4.5
1717;315:1115; 3131?. I 1-4‘ 2 1-6

 

 

 

 

 

 

3° Yvonne Wiegers, ”Male Bodybuilding: The Social Construction of a Masculine Identity,"
Journal of Pupular Culture 32, no. 2 (1998): 147-61.

9° Hazel R. Doten and Constance Boulard, Fashion Drawing, How to Do It (New York
London,: Harper and brothers, 1939), 39-40.

9‘ Bina Abling, Fashion Sketchbook 3rd ed., (New York: Fairchild Pulications, 2000),
122-123.

45

The presence of body hair has been associated with masculinity in
modern times. The fashion illustrations were examined to determine how Esquire
presented men’s body hair. N0 fashion illustrations showed the body hair of the
model; it was not evident in swimming or sporting scenes. One article mentioned
the “hairy-chest”92; however, this was not included in Esquire’s image of
masculinity.

To determine the ideal skin color of the time period, all the fashion
illustrations were examined. Supposedly the 19305 was an era when tanned
skin became fashionable."3 Most of their skin color looked bronzed and healthy,
seemingly tanned colors. However, because the color of the illustration was
faded, precise measure of the skin color was not possible. Sometimes the

editors mentioned tanned sking‘, especially when they introduced swim trunks or

swim shorts, and it was considered a healthy look.

 

92 “... This tolerance was extended, during the past winter, to include the public beaches

at the Southern resorts so it looks like a bare-backed and hairy-chested summer." Esquire, 1934,
July, 118.

“3 Elizabeth Beckett, Holly Bemitt, and Vishwa Chandra, (1998, cited April 20 2004);
available from http://library.thinkquest.0rgl15215/Foe/Tanning/history.html.

9‘ “. . .well-tanned limbs make the most flamboyant color seem subdued hand-sewn

goatskin pair is rugged enough for the most masculine male.” Esquire, 1939, 102.

46

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 6 Esquire, 1939, February, 102

47

How was the masculinity suggested by Esquire fashion images related to
fashion style?

To answer this question all the fashion images and the fashion articles
were examined. First, the main items worn by the models were identified and the
frequency was counted. Second, the specific styles described in the text of the
images and the fashion articles were examined. Third, some clothing proportions
were measured to examine how the styles affected visual perceptions of body
sizes. In this case, a purposive sampling method was applied and the criteria
can be found in the back of this section. It was assumed that recognizing what
men wore and what the fashion styles were like would offer some basis to
understand the masculine fashion style of the time period.

Main items were identified by the text. Almost all the fashion images
showed the whole attire that men would wear except for the underwear. For
example, the text described the suit, shirt, tie, hat, shoes, and other accessories
that the model was wearing. The items, which were described most in detail,
were identified as the main items. In case an illustration described all the items
in the illustration in the same manner, it was categorized as several. (See Table
10 Frequently described main items) The items were named as the text
described them. “Suit” includes all the suits, for example lounge suit, business
suit, evening suit, etc. “Coat” includes all the coats, for example, overcoat,
topcoat, raincoat, guards coat, etc. “Jacket” includes all types of jackets.
“Accessories” meant that only some accessories were described in an

illustration, and not one accessory was given a lot more details.

48

In addition to the items mentioned in Table 10, there were many items
categorized as main items, however, those were not mentioned in this paper
because they did not offer the strong basis for determining what men usually

wore during the time period.

Table 10 Frequently described main items in Esquire

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Main Item Suit Coat Several Jacket A6963”. Slacks Hat
Year rles
1933 7 4 0 2 0 0 O
1934 33 27 16 12 3 1 4
1935 35 20 30 19 8 9 2
1936 37 22 19 12 11 7 1
1937 33 20 24 g 18 9 8 0
1938 35 21 21 14 12 4 3
1939 29 15 17 20 12 2 0
1940 25 12 26 12 4 3 3
1941 10 11 12 11 3 2 0
1942 16 3 7 8 4 8 2
1943 25 13 2 7 4 3 3
1944 20 13 10 12 0 2 3
1945 20 14 10 10 5 3 3
Total 325 195 194 157 75 52 24

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Suits were the most frequently presented main items, followed by coats.
From the result, Esquire fashion editors’ emphasis on suits, it was understood
that occasion-specific clothing was emphasized in Esquire fashion information.
Not much emphasis was put on physical labor, uniforms, or professional attire

(ex. MD.) compared to formal types of clothes. The researcher interpreted that

49

Esquire’s masculinity was more conservative and more prescribed than
contemporary concept of masculinity. This idea was supported by the result that
Esquire's fashion style was more formal even for the leisure events. The most
frequently appeared occasion for suits was spectator sports. (See Table 11 Suits

and frequently appeared occasions)

Table 11 Suits and frequently appeared occasions

 

 

occasions sports town campus bag'ggfé, office travel
frequency 83 52 25 24 18 14

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Esquire suggested some information for obese and short men to make
them look “slim” and/or “tall.”95 The magazine also suggested some information
for the “thin” Man.96 Offering this information accompanied by the items that
men wore, Esquire tried to achieve medium build, tall and slim shape, which is

similar to the physical characteristics portrayed in the fashion images.

 

”5 Esquire, 1935, February, 132.
Esquire, 1935, March, 136.
Esquire, 1936, May, 140.
Esquire, 1937, January, 170.
Esquire, 1943, February, 125.
Esquire, 1945, January, 166.
Esquire, 1940, March, 100.
Esquire, 1940, April, 104.
Esquire, 1941, October, 86.
Esquire, 1941, November, 94.
Esquire, 1943, November, 113.
Esquire, 1944, October, 132.
9" Esquire, 1935, May, 148.

50

Esquire also mentioned high quality, high fashion, “first ranking"97 or “good
fashion”98 in the text. The researcher interpreted that this information was
interconnected with the model’s social status: upper middle to high class.
Specific settings of the fashion illustrations,99 and suggestions for special

material100 and rigid propriety101

support this idea. The editors themselves
described their fashion as the best: “How do we get these fashions? We have
observers, trained almost from birth, who practically commute to England where
they haunt the very best places and ignore all but the very best people.”102 As
mentioned in Esquire ’5 Encyclopedia of 20th Century Men’s Fashion,“ it was the
cosmopolitan life-style of the rich and socially impeccable American that inspired
the new fashion that American manufacturers were busily creating”1°3

The change of life style caused by WWII was reflected in the change of

fashion style in Esquire magazine. As Hoschwender described “Cracks in the

 

9’ Esquire, 1934. May, 91.
9" “Good fashion always eschewed the superfluous - the fancy back, the leather buttons,
the zoot effect. Take, for example, the well styled overcoat...” Esquire, 1944, February, 102.

99 “Coronation of HIS MAJESTY GEORGE Vl” Esquire, 1937, May. 140.

“Horse show ball of the National Horse in New York at Madison Square Garden"
Esquire, 1937, November, 209.

1°° Esquire, 1936, February, 154.
Esquire, 1937, April, 150.

‘°‘ “The trousers are full cut and, to give the right effect, ought to hit you just a bit below
your lowest rib. The brief waistcoat comes down to the comers of the coat front, and shouldn't
miss...” Esquire, 1934, January, 98.

‘°2 Esquire, 1935, August, 160.
1°3 Schoeffler and Gale, Esquire's Encyclopedia of 20th Century Men’s Fashions, 18.

51

magazine’s stylish elitism began to appear.”104 The fashion editors described
this trend as “simplicity.”105

In order to determine the fashionable style visually, fashion illustrations
from March and September issues of each year were examined. The months of
March and September were chosen because Harper's Bazaar published special
issues in March and September to introduce new Paris fashion to women. It is
assumed that the months were the two most important times in a year that new
fashion was introduced. Sampling criteria were:

- Representing full-length body.

- Pose showing ‘74 or more of the body.

- Standing position.

- Not wearing hat. (for ease of measure)

- With Suits or Jacket. (No coat. To see the silhouette)

The total number of illustrations examined was 25. In case there was no
illustration which quite fit into the criteria, some exceptions were applied in
selecting samples. For example, some of the figures with hats were examined.
If the issue that published in March, 1945 did not have any illustration that was
close to the criteria; therefore, the illustrations that were carried in April, 1945
issue and most closely fit into the criteria was selected.

Head height, total height, shoulder width, waistline width and hipline width

were measured by metric system. Later the values were divided by head height

 

"’4 Hoschwender, 73.
”5 Esquire, 1944, February, 126.

52

and/or hipline width. Shoulder width in relation to head height ranged from 2.0 to
3.3. The mean value was 2.6. Since the result did not show meaningful
consistency or difference, the researcher was not able to determine exactly when
the wide shoulder commenced to appear in the pages of Esquire. (See Figure 7
Body proportions with Suits or Jackets)

In relation to the changes of silhouettes, Kidwell states, “In the late 19305,
narrow hips on men were seen to emphasize broad shoulders...”106 (See

Figure 8 The changes in silhouette) This was not confirmed from the result.
However, it was found that broad shoulders were in fashion before WWII.107 After
the outbreak of WWII broad shoulders and loose fit were in fashion ,1” and
American designers created the style called “American Blade.”109 This was a
new style which gave fullness to men’s shoulders and allowed their movement.
Note that, according to Kidwell’s typology, pant legs became slimmer, giving the

illusion of broad shoulders.

 

‘°° Kidwell, "Gender Symbols or Fashionable Details?," 129.

1°7 “. .. The double-breasted jacket with long, roll lapels has narrower shoulders than

some of the overly emphasized shoulders of his pre-uniform past...” Esquire, 1945, November,
110.

1°“ . .fairly broad shoulders with a slight shape at the waist...” Esquire, 1944, March,

120.

“...It features reasonably broad shoulders, softly draped, regular pockets and no cuffs. . .”
Esquire, 1945, November, 144.

109 “It’s called the American Blade which is descriptive of the fullness at the shoulder of
he jacket, right in the back of the sleevehead...” Esquire, 1945, February, 10.

53

Figure 7 Body proportions with Suits or Jackets

 

Body proportions with suits or jackets in relation to head
height or hipline width

 

—I— ShoulderA
width/Head
_ I height
I + Waistline
I width/Head
height
+ Hipline
width/Head
height

+ h l r
0:0 J—r—r—Ffi'fifiT—t—rfi I | l I l l I I I l I l 'T—I S OUde

width/Hipline
M¢$P@«M%%%QQWQ width
(9 <9 <9 \’9 (3‘ (919 \'\ M99 19$? 1&9»?

— 0 - M ean of
0‘06 Q9129 g2? 909 90‘? 699 (goQ 929 OQ’Q 32.9 race gee %0Q\

 

 

 

Body proportion

 

Shoulder/Hea
d height

 

 

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Month/Year I
I
vI

 

 

Figure 8 The changes in silhouette

Source: Claudia Brush Kidwell, “Gender Symbols or Fashionable Details?" in Men and Women:
Dressing the Part, ed. Claudia Brush Kidwell and Valerie Steele (Washington: Smithsonian
Institution Press, 1989), 131.

54

Given men’s supposed aversion to fashion, what evidence can be found in
the fashion information related to attitudes about fashion and the fashion

process for men?

“We don’t know whether women dress to please men or to please other women, but we
are sold on the theory that men dress to please themselves. ”"0

To answer this question, first, the frequency of the word “fashion” and the
synonyms for “fashion" were counted. Second, thematic analysis of the fashion
images and fashion articles was conducted. Third, the influential factors of the
fashion images were identified.

Counting the frequency of the word “fashion” or a synonym for “fashion”
such as “smart” or “new” would help to verify that the authors were not reluctant
to refer to fashion, understanding that it was acceptable for men to follow fashion
or be interested in fashion. If the word “fashion” were avoided, it would show
reluctance to associate fashion with masculinity. Using synonyms would indicate

a tacit association of men and fashion.

Table 12 Frequency of fashion and the synonyms

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fashion, New,
Words Fashionable Newest Smart Well—dressed
Frequency 498 391 133 96

 

 

 

From the result it was understood that men were not reluctant to refer to

fashion and were not reluctant to associate fashion with masculinity. The editors

also frequently used the words: “smart,” “well-dressed," “new

 

“° Esquire, 1940, September, 136.

55

, “newest,”

“handsome,” etc. to describe their fashion images. “New“was the most frequently
used word as the synonym for fashion. It was the natural result because Esquire
fashion illustration was meantto present “new" styles. The word “smart” was
used often to describe fashionable people or their clothing choices. It meant that
fashionable people were considered not only fashionable but also smart, and
“smartness” was one of the characteristics that ideal men of the time period were
supposed to posses. This reinforces the concept that men could succeed using
their intellect rather than physical strength. The editors were not reluctant to use
the word fashion, however, they did not use the word “fashionable” often to
describe their models. “Well-dressed” was the word often used to describe the
fashionable ideal for men.

As mentioned in the content of Esquire, regular features were “T rend in
dress - Picturing the New Clothes and Accessories in Sketches”, or “Trend in
dress - Picturing the New Clothes and Accessories Sketched by. ...”"1 Naturally,
most of the apparel illustrations introduced fashionable items, out, fabric, color,
coordination, etc. Therefore, fashionableness was considered as the main
theme and was not identified as one of the categories.

The themes of the fashion images and fashion articles were determined
by analyzing word phrases in the text and some indicators in the images. To

determine what kind of themes were mentioned in the text, the researcher

 

111

Esquire, February 1934 - January 1943.

From February 1943 to November 1945, the content mentioned “Trend in dress - Clothes
and Accessories.” The word “new" was excluded. December issue does not have any comment
about trend in dress.

56

recorded the words from the text and then sorted them into several categories.
(See Table 13 Frequently presented themes in Esquire fashion illustrations)
Also, some visual indicators in the images were described in words and then
sorted into the categories.

The most frequently introduced theme used in Esquire’s fashion image
was “Appropriateness.” This category included the words: propriety, appropriate,
right, correct, acceptable, accurate, etc. Some of the examples were: “The
tailcoat that’s just right, right now, is the one on the right... Tailors say that the
coat hangs straighter with the breast pocket eliminated and besides many men
who wear a boutonniere feel that the addition of a breast pocket handkerchief
makes them look too much like a Christmas tree. The tails extend only a fraction
of an inch below the bend of the knee and...”112 “A new midnight blue homburg —
correct with dinner clothes."113 The possibility of “working one’s way up the
social ladder”114 was still a distinct possibility in the 1930s, and may be why this
social-climbing male may have needed Esquire to act as a manual for how to
dress since his upbringing wouldn’t have taught him how to dress.

“Practicality” was represented by the words: practical, functional, cool,
durable, comfortable, etc. Some of the examples were: “...The main trend in ski
wear, for reasons apparent to the naked eye, is toward this lightweight pullover

type of wind jacket, worn usually with matching or contrasting peg-top trousers.

 

"2 Esquire, 1938, January, 98.
“3 Esquire, 1935, February, 110.

1“ Valerie Steele, ”Dressing for Work," in Men and Women: Dressing the Part, ed.

Claudia Brush Kidwell and Valerie Steele (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
1989). 86.

57

Besides its light weight, the jacket is wind-resistant and snow-shedding. All
unnecessary pockets and gadgets have been purged for the sake of

practicality.”115 “

...As a matter of fact, this outfit is cooler from the inside looking
out than it is from the outside looking in. The man isn’t dressed to appear cool so
much asto be cool...; but this blue-grey double breasted suit with alternating
single and double stripes is just as comfortable and, at the same time, closer to
fashion’s forefront. . .”1 16

When the illustrations showed soldiers or war related figures, and the text
explained war related information, for example WPB regulation or battle jacket,
they were categorized as a “War” theme. (See Figure 5 on page 29)

“Specific material” meant that the text mentioned some specific fabric
names or the specific material for some accessories. The purposes of
mentioning the specific names were not always the same. Some of the purposes
were to convey a sense of luxury or to introduce the fashionable and/or correct
material.117

The information which represented American style, Americana theme or

evoked patriotism were categorized as an “American & patriotic” theme. Some

expressions that included this theme were: “...In Americanizing this fashion, we

 

“5 Esquire, 1939, January, 133.
“6 Esquire, 1940, July, 112.

"7 “The point is, it isn’t every guy can get a coat with a fur collar. Of course, it isn’t
every girl can have a coat and hat of Persian lamb, either, so maybe she knows best. Persian
lamb,.... Old King George’s boys started it for men.... Their coats, as it happens, are also lined
with eastern mink...” Esquire, 1936, February, 154.

“...Newmarket pipe mad with cherrywood bowl, quill stem and rubber mouthpiece...”
Esquire, 1937, April, 150.

58

call itAir Blue..."118 “That brisk stride and jaunty look are giveaways thatthis
smiling chap is pretty happy that he’s a citizen of these United States. He’s on
the verge of singing Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean, and he’ll really go to town
when he gets to ...three cheers for the red, white, and blue. All of which sets the
proper patriotic background for us to discuss the Americana theme which he has
so ably carried out in his clothes and accessories...”119 This theme could be
understood as a part of a “War” theme; however, since it contained specific
meaning compared to “War" the researcher separated it from the “War" theme.
The theme named “country versus town,” means that the content
explained the fashionable style by contrasting country style with town style.
Country style was considered rough, casual, informal or sporty compared to town
style.120 The researcher interpreted that this suggested a duality of environments
for executing fashion. It implied that the target audience of Esquire magazine
needed this information to imitate the English model established by the “Prince of
Wales’s Casual Stylishness.”121
Thematic analysis of the fashion articles revealed similar results as the

thematic analysis of the fashion images. “Appropriateness” was the most

frequently introduced theme followed by “War” and “Practicality”. Thinking about

 

“8 Esquire, 1941, April, 154.
”9 Esquire, 1941, May, 106.

12° “...,this suit of black and gray checks, that once would have yelled “racetrack” to the

discerning, now basks in the sunlight of fashionable favor...,because age has proved no barrier to
the invasion of the mode for business and town wear by fabrics that were once considered
suitable only for country and sports clothes. Note, however, that the outdoorish aspect of cloth
does not necessarily imply a similar informality in the accessories...” Esquire, 1933, Autumn, 88.

121 Chenoune, A History of Men's Fashion, 165.

59

the time period that fashion articles were published (See Table 3 Count of
fashion related content found in Esquire magazine, 1933-1945), “Wat’s”
outnumbering “‘Practicality" seemed natural. l n 1945, 2 articles out of total 1 1
articles provided information for the returning veterans.

The researcher interpreted that the frequently presented themes were
related to Franklin’s stereotypical male-valued traits. (See Table 14 Stereotypic
Traits).122 The editors needed to offer “logical” and/or “objective” explanation to
appeal to their audience who were men.

On rare occasions Esquire writers compared their copy to the fashion
information in women’s fashion magazines. E squire’s fashion information was
descriptive, and included little commentary. Writing those cream-puff
descriptions must be all very stratospheric, with time out only for a fresh sheet of
carbon paper. We’d like to put a little éclat into our fashion copy too, but what
can you do with a man who is wearing a brown suit and a silly grim About all

we can do is give you a blow-by-blow account of what he has on,...”123 “.

by
now we have run so many direct color photographs of men’s fashion models
(two) that we should be able to take it in our stride and proceed directly with the
descriptions, as do the blasé veterans of Harper’s Bazaar and Vogue. But no,

we have to go ahead and spoil everything by revealing our naiveté."124 The

implication is that a direct approach was required for a male magazine.

 

‘22 Franklin, "Chapter 1. Meanings of Masculinity in the United States,” 5.
‘23 Esquire, 1939, September, 91.
‘24 Esquire, 1940, July, 154.

60

There were some texts which described other male-valued traits. The
quote, “You needn’t be a munitions magnate to feel man’s instinctive love of

firearms."125

, expressed an “aggressive” male-valued trait. Lack of emotion was
also represented: ‘When a woman feels either very blue or very blithe, she can
do justice to the occasion by going out and buying a new hat. Men have moods
too, but they’re supposed to ignore them.”126

Some texts exposed “thinks men are superior to women” male-valued trait
by using words disregarding women or by describing women’s fashion that was
influenced by men’s fashion. Some of the examples are: “Pin-up wears a snug

flannel coat.” ‘27

“The dashing Jill flaunts a vivid fashion note...”128 “Men are
fighting for a lot of things on many fronts. They’re anxious to finish their big job
so they may enjoy these ambitions again. When you reduce them to personal
objectives, you come down to a few simple rights. This scene portrays some of
the basic elements, a pretty girl, a man’s dog and his own mellow blend of

n 129

tobacco. “The gal’s jacket effectively copycats an idea of her betters, being

patterned after a man’s drape model with narrow lapels and broad shoulders.” 13°
Thinking about the time period that this kind of information was suggested in
Esquire, mostly after 1941, it would not be wrong to interpret that this male-

valued trait, men are superior to women, and the war had some relationship.

 

'25 Esquire, 1935, November, 110.
‘26 Esquire, 1944, April, 104.

127 Esquire, 1945, February, 85.
‘2‘ Esquire, 1945, April, 136.

‘29 Esquire, 1945, August, 99.

13° Esquire, 1944, May, 106.

61

The fact that the frequency of the themes changed after the US. entered WWII
was not negligible. During 1942-1944, most frequently featured theme was
‘War.”

The result that businessman and executive were frequently described
occupations (Table 5 Occupations presented twice or more in Esquire fashion
images.) also support one of those male-valued traits: “skilled in business.” The
most frequently described clothing category (See Table 7 Frequently described
clothing categories in Esquire), which was “Active sportswear" (clothes for golf,
skiing, hunting 8 shooting, boating, fishing, tennis, etc.), could be understood as
an evidence of “Active” male-valued trait.

The researcher interpreted that these male-valued traits and the themes
presented in Esquire reflected how men perceived their fashion. Men were not
reluctant to refer to fashion, but they needed some explanation related to their
fashion, which was different from women’s fashion and was presenting

masculinity.

62

Table 13 Frequently presented themes in Esquire fashion illustrations

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Yel:me Appropriateness Practicality War 32:23: flggfig 0°32?“ vs
1 933 9 2 0 0 0 3
1 934 42 22 0 3 0 1
1 935 43 1 0 0 8 0 2
1 936 44 14 O 1 1 0 1
1 937 37 1 4 O 3 0 0
1938 38 1 5 0 4 0 1
1 939 38 1 5 0 2 0 3
1 940 26 1 9 0 0 0 1
1 941 13 1 1 2 0 4 0
1 942 9 1 0 13 0 1 0
1943 2 13 44 0 6 o
1 944 8 1 7 43 0 7 O
1 945 1 1 18 17 5 1 1
Total 320 1 80 1 1 9 36 19 1 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

63

Table 14 Stereotypic Traits

 

Aggressive

Independent

Unemotional

Hide emotions

Objective

Easily influenced

Dominant

Likes math and science
Not excitable in a minor crisis
Active

Competitive

Logical

Worldly

Skilled in business

Direct

Knows the way of the world

Avoids harsh language
Talkative

Tactful

Gentle

Aware of feelings of others
Relkiious

Male-Valued Traits

Feelings not easily hurt
Adventurous

Makes decisions easily

Never cries

Acts as a leader

Self-confident

Not uncomfortable about being aggressive
Ambitious

Able to separate feelings from ideas
Not dependent

Not conceited about appearance
Thinks men are superior to women
Talks freely about sex with men

Female-Valued Traits

Interested in own appearance
Neat in habits

Quiet

Strong need for security
Appreciates art and literature
Expresses tender feelings

Source: Clyde W. Franklin, II, The Changing Definition of Masculinity (New York:

Plenum Press, 1984), 5.

64

Analyzing influential factors on American men’s fashion during the
research time period was conducted by following two steps. F irst, the factors
were identified from the text. The researcher read through the text and recorded
the influential factors as the text provided.131 Second, the factors mentioned in
the text were sorted and the frequency was counted. Some of the most
frequently mentioned factors are presented in the tables. (See Table 15
Influential area and event, Table 16 Influential universities and people from
fashion illustration)

The most frequently mentioned influential country was England. The
wordings were various: British, English, England, etc.132 In terms of city, London

was the most frequently cited place. New York133

was the most frequently
mentioned city as a fashionable place in the USA. Eastern area and Southern
area of the USA. were mentioned for different reasons. Eastern areas were the
places where men’s businesses wear and/or town wear were influential.
Gentlemen’s fashions, which originated in England, were introduced in New York
and then the fashions were disseminated.

Southern areas were the places where resort fashions were influential.
Frequently described influential resorts were Nassau, Palm Beach, and the

Riviera. Nassau’s and Riviera’s fashion styles were the origin of resort fashions.

The fashion was introduced to Palm Beach and then spread over the country.

 

13‘ Those words, Norwegian and Tyrolean in “Norwegian model shoes, Tyrolean hat”
were not counted as the influential factors because they meant specific style name.

‘32 Scottish influence was not included in it because it focused on Scotland and did not
seem to represent the country.

‘33 It included Wall Street.

65

War and Military influence were presented distinctively after the outbreak
of WWII. As mentioned in thematic analysis, “American” meant the American
style,”4 American color, or so called Campaign color: “The newest things in the
civilian wardrobe are accessories in the brave new colors inspired by American
Service Ribbons...lts colors are Middle East Maroon, Atlantic Blue and Asiatic

‘36 into the influence of

Gold.”135. The researcher did not include WPB regulations
WWII because the text specifically mentioned WPB. Military influence was
presented usually by describing the m aterial o r some styles (I eveloped forthe

purpose of military use.137

 

‘3‘ Esquire, 1940, June, 100.
‘35 Esquire, 1943, September, 144.

‘36 “...just notice his grey-blue herringbone tweed topcoat, and if you look closely,

gentlemen, you'll see that the sleeve has a fake cuff, made by welt seams across the lower part
of the sleeve. This is just another WPB camouflage trick, ...” Esquire, 1943, April, 130.

‘37 “His rough Shetland jacket is accented by red and Sandune markings and the well-cut
cavalry twill slacks reveal the military influence in the new sports clothes." Esquire, 1942, March,
140.

“...His coat of natural tan worsted gabardine is based upon the newest scientific
developments in military garments. The same philosophy of protection, that of layers of fabrics in
military uniforms, is applied to the civilian coat..." Esquire, 1944, November, 126.

66

Table 15 Influential area and event

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Category . War & Military
Country City USA. Resort influence
(0
(u . a, .
g '2 <. a <. 5
'6 1‘5 < ”’- E "’- ‘° c

E E. C o E 3 0) 3 3 8 8 a
m ... .8 >' a) o I: o 8 9 'C — m
a m r: g 7;,“ .1: ‘5 .c m g '9 a, m ’5'
c g o a) 10 3: o I: m (B .2 E E g -'=
Year LU .1 z LU o (0 o z o. 0: <1: 2
1933 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1934 19 0 10 4 3 1 0 5 1 0 0 0 0
1935 15 0 5 2 2 4 5 3 4 0 0 0 0
1936 24 0 20 2 1 2 7 8 7 0 O 0 2
1937 13 3 12 5 0 1 5 1 3 0 0 0 0
1938 15 2 5 4 1 2 3 3 3 0 0 0 0
1939 6 7 1 2 0 4 6 6 4 0 0 0 0
1940 3 0 0 1 1 2 5 2 0 1 0 0 2
1941 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 8
1942 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 3 4
1943 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 6 0
1944 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 6 4
1945 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3
Total 100 13 53 22 11 16 35 29 22 9 6 16 23

 

In terms of the influential universities, Yale and Princeton were the two

most distinctive universities. Esquire itself mentioned these two universities as

some of “the most prominent birthplaces of style.”138 Other universities such as

 

138 It

acts and dresses like the young broker type who haunts New York’s financial district... 9.
Princeton: Where a large portion of the student body are some of the top-rankers in American
social, financial and diplomatic circle“s. They spend their vacation abroad and in general reflect
the younger generation’s version of what is being worn and what is being done in the smart world

67

4. Yale: The undergraduate, often with a Wall Street career in his future, already

 

Harvard, Cambridge, and Oxford were presented in the table for the purpose of
comparison. In addition to these, Esquire mentioned “leading universities, ivy
Ieaguer, college fashion,” etc. However these were not counted because the
information was not presented frequently and was not specific enough to put
them into some categories. (See Table 16 Influential universities and people
from fashion illustration)

It was needless to say that the Prince of Wales (or Duke of Windsor) was
the most frequently mentioned person. (See Figure 9 on page 73) “As Prince of
Wales, Edward Vlll (reigned January-December 1936) had successfully carried
out a n umber of regional visits T hese visits a nd his official tours overseas,
together with his good war record and genuine care for the underprivileged, had
made him popular ...In 1930, the Prince, who had already had a number of
affairs, had met and fallen in love with a married American woman, Mrs. Wallis
Simpson. ....On 10 December 1936, Edward VIII executed an Instrument of
Abdication which was given legal effect the following day, when Edward gave
Royal Assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act, by which Edward
VIII and any children he might have were excluded from succession to the
throne. In 1937, Edward was created Duke of Windsor and married Wallis
Simpson During the Second World War, the Duke of Windsor escaped from
Paris, where he was living at the time of the fall of France, to Lisbon in 1940. The

Duke of Windsor was then appointed Governor of the Bahamas, a position he

 

of their elders.” Esquire, June, 1934. Quoted from Schoeffler and Gale, Esquire's Encyclopedia
of 20m Century Men's Fashions, 17-18.

68

held until 1945.”139 He was the most prominent person who proposed new
fashion and was the fashion icon.140 Chenoune called it “T he Prince of Wales
cult” and explained that it was possible because the men in the USA.
enthusiastically followed his style.141 He described the Prince of Wales’ influence
as “For rich kids on the campuses of Princeton and Yale, as well as for ambitious
sons of the middle classes and for young go-getters during that period of
prohibition and speculation, the charming prince’s audacity was all the more
attractive for having come straight from the holy of holies of British tradition, itself
the repository of Anglo-Saxon America’s own past.”142 He also mentioned that
the Prince of Wales had opened “American stylishness.”

English gentlemen were frequently mentioned in the text; however,
because of the vagueness of the information they were not counted as specific
persons. Tailors were not specific person either, but they were counted because
at least they represented an authority who could suggest appropriate or
fashionable clothing.143 The “drape cut” or “London cut” was created by a
famous British tailor on Savile Row, Frederick Scolte. He was the Prince of
Wales’s tailor and the prince’s reputation in the United States made the style

popular in the USA. The “London out,” which was introduced in the United

 

‘39 EDWARD VIII (cited March 10 2004); available from
http:/Iwww.royal.gov.ukloutput/Page143.asp#

11° Esquire, 1941, June, 104.

“1 Chenoune, A History of Men's Fashion, 165-69.

1“lbid., 169.

“3 In the text, they were mentioned as best tailor, better tailor, best custom tailor, etc.

69

States by the Prince of Wales and Duke of Kent144 was accepted by the
American elite, and they made it the basis of American stylishness.145
Interestingly, no American men were mentioned by name as fashion idols.

The numbers presented in the tables not only indicated the frequency in
each category but also indicated how enormous the influence of W" was. After
the beginning of WWII, specifically after the USA. declared war on Japan,
almost all the influences except for “War and Military Influence” showed zero
frequency.

As the editors mentioned in the first issue they tried to guide men’s
fashion,146 which was achieved by offering appropriate fashion and a logical
basis to support their idea. Esquire’s role as the communication agent in the
fashion process was accomplished by introducing innovative fashion style.
Influential factors and the models presented in Esquire fashion content were the

evidence that Esquire offered innovative fashion style. The editors described

 

1“ The Duke of Kent, former Prince George, was the fourth son of King George V. Prince
George received the title in 1934 when he married Princess Marina of Greece. In 1942 the title
passed to the present Duke. Hm the Duke of Kent (cited April 12 2004); available from
http:l/www.royal.gov.uk/output/page532.asp.

“5 Chenoune, A History of Men's Fashion, 181-82.

“6 “ Esquire aims to be, among other things, a fashion guide for men. But it never
intends to become, by any possible stretch of the imagination, a primer for fops. We have been
studying men, and men’s clothes, for many years, and we have come to the conclusion that the
average American male has too much inherent horse sense to be bothered very much by a lot of
dress rules that nobody but a gigolo could possibly find either time or inclination to observe. On
the other hand, we feel that men have long since ceased to believe that there is anything
effeminate or essentially unbusinesslike about devoting a little care and thought and study to the
selection of clothes.” Esquire, 1933, Autumn.

70

their models as the fashion leaders, who were very important socially and

financially. “7

 

“7 "You might call this page the All-English selection of fashion notes, since all the items

depicted here are of London origin, although established in American acceptance, at least within
that numerically small but fashionably important group of business and financial leaders who set
the seal on this country's fashion...” Esquire, 1934, January, 121.

“. . .These fashion setting sportsmen constitute a small group, numerically, but of large
importance socially and financially...” Esquire, 1934, June, 115.

“. . .typical of those front runners of fashion whom you see at the horsey gatherings on
Long Island. These fellows stick with a fashion only until the mob catches up, and then they drop
in cold...” Esquire, 1934, September, 116.

71

Table 16 Influential universities and people from fashion illustration

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Category Universities People
'0 § 3% fig 3 "5 1: “' g: 3%:

Year >- I o. o O mmsdgeg 0:: (D (D E
1933 1 O 1 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 2
1934 2 0 2 2 1 0 3 0 1 0 3
1935 1 1 0 2 2 0 11 3 0 0 1
1936 2 1 3 0 0 0 3 3 0 O 1
1937 3 0 1 0 O 0 0 0 1 2 2
1938 1 0 2 O 0 1 O 0 O 1 1
1939 3 1 1 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 0
1940 2 1 1 1 O 1 O 0 0 1 0
1941 O 0 0 0 0 0 1 O O 0 0
1942 0 0 1 O 0 0 1 O 0 O 0
1943 0 0 0 O O 0 0 0 0 0 0
1944 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0
1945 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 15 4 12 5 5 4 20 6 2 5 10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘“ George V is the father of Prince of Wales (or Duke of Windsor), George VI and Duke
of Kent. He died in 1936 and his son Edward succeeded to the throne. George V (cited April 18
2004); available from http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page139.asp#.

“9 After Edward vm executed an Instrument of Abdication on 10 December 1936, his
brother, George VI succeeded to the throne. George VI (cited April 18 2004); available from
http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page147.asp.

Edward VIII (cited March 10 2004); available from
http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page143.asp#.

72

 

Figure 9 Esquire, 1941, June, 104.

73

Conclusion

The results of this study revealed that Esquire’s fashion content revealed
a masculine ideal by describing upper middle to high class men’s life style,
fashion style, and physical characteristics. College students to middle aged
Caucasians were the main models. The most frequently presented age group in
the fashion image was middle aged, and this implied that Esquire’s masculine
ideal was the mature man. Main models had a sure means of living and/or were
wealthy, for example, lvey League students, businessmen, or executives of
companies. This reflected the dominant characteristic of masculinity of the time
period: the male as the provider or ambitious achiever. The male ideals
presented in Esquire’s fashion illustrations were those who worked in the city
mostly engaged in the financial world or in business, and who lived in the
suburbs or in the city. They enjoyed luxurious leisure activities, weekend sports
or country life, and could afford occasion-specific clothing.

Esquire fashion illustrations presented men as slim to medium-build,
healthy and tall. Lean and slim muscular bodies were suggested. Compared to
the late 20th century/early 21St century body image, it showed a less bulky
muscular body. Tanned and healthy skin was represented without any body hair,
suggesting leisure and sophistication.

It was also found that WWII had a huge impact on fashion and
masculinity. Before the outbreak of WWII, English gentlemen, for example the

Prince of Wales, were frequently mentioned as the masculine or fashionable

74

ideal. Esquire’s fashion styles, which were mostly influenced by English
gentlemen, changed to simple and practical styles. However, before or after the
beginning of WWII, when Hollywood movie stars were leading the men’s fashion,
the movie stars were not mentioned in Esquire’s fashion content. The zoot suit or
its influence was not referred to because the fashion editor considered it
“superfluous” and no doubt associated with lower class origins.150 After the
United States entered into WWII war, WPB regulations and soldiers were often
represented in the fashion images and text. This showed the dominant
characteristic of masculinity: defending their country and families was the most
important concept of masculinity.

Esquire tried to achieve its concept of ideal masculine physique by
introducing fashion advice which would enable men to look tall and slim and
present their social status. Esquire’s readers were provided with detailed
description in a no nonsense way that related to stereotypical male-valued traits.
Men were n ot reluctant to refer to fashion, b ut they n eeded some explanation
related to their styles, which was different from women’s magazines and
coincided with masculine ideals. Esquire’s role as the communication agent in
the fashion process was accomplished by introducing innovative fashion style in
a no nonsense way. The context in which it was presented accompanied by fine

literature and art emphasized refinement.

 

‘5‘) Esquire, 1944, February, 102.

“T he zoot suit was a refusal: a substructural gesture that refused to concede to the
manners of subservience. . ., what is certain is that during the summer months of 1943 “the killer-
diller coat" was the uniform of young rioters and the symbol of a moral panic about juvenile
delinquency that was to intensify in the post-war period." Cosgrove, ”Chapter Twenty. The Zoot-
Suit and Style Warfare," 342-54.

75

The question as to why Esquire emerged at this point in history is not one
which can be answered from internal evidence alone. Its existence reflected the
rise of mass production and retailing of men’s wear in the United States. Though
the content showed a reliance on aristocratic British models for fashion
inspiration, there was a need to recognize a uniquely American interpretation of
the model unique to American lifestyles and social and economic conditions.
The emergence of Esquire as a manual for dress conduct reflected a transition in
class structure the indicators of which must be conveyed by some sort of
communication device to rising new professionals. Esquire emerged to fulfill this

need.

76

Limitations and Suggestions

As Fraenkel and Wallen explained, the use of content analysis in historical
research has the limitation that “The researcher has records only of what has
survived."151 This researcher encountered this problem. Some of the magazine
pages including fashion illustration pages were missing. Presumably, it might
have affected the result of this study to some degree: the number of fashion
illustration pages decreased, particularly from 1941 to 1943. The decrease in the
frequency of some analysis could have been caused not only because of the
impact of WWII but also because of the missing pages.

As masculinity and femininity were “originally conceived of as representing

”‘52 examining masculinity from the perspective of

ends of a single continuum,
men’s magazines compared to femininity from women’s magazines can be
suggested for further study. Further study of Esquire beyond 1945 would reveal
the point at which American fashion ideals began to replace European ones. A

comparison of Esquire to other forms of prescriptive literature for men would

reveal the consistency of themes regarding masculinity in a broader arena.

 

‘51 Fraenkel and Wallen, How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, 480-81.

‘52 Carol Lynn Martin, "Masculinity/Femininity,” in The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social
Psychology. ed. A. S. R. Manstead and Miles Hewstone (Oxford, UK ; Cambridge, Mass., USA:
Blackwell, 1995), 370.

77

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