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The Inﬂuence of Achievement Related Memorable Messages

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THE INFLUENCE OF ACHIEVEMENT RELATED MEMORABLE MESSAGES
FROM PARENTS ON BEHAVIORAL INTENTION

By

Christine Marie Skubisz

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Communication

2006

ABSTRACT

THE INFLUENCE OF ACHIEVEMENT RELATED MEMORABLE MESSAGES
FROM PARENTS ON BEHAVIORAL INTENTION

By

Christine Marie Skubisz
An investigation of achievement related memorable messages was conducted using the
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as a framework. The TPB is concerned with the ways
in which attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control about a particular
behavior may inﬂuence intentions to behave and actual overt behavior. The purpose of
this research was to determine if memorable messages from parents serve as persuasive
messages that inﬂuence attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control to
achieve. A sample of 249 participants were asked to recall an achievement related
memorable message from their parents that was received during adolescence.
Additionally, participants were asked about their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived
behavioral control, and behavioral intentions for achievement. Correlational analyses
revealed that the valence of memorable messages affects attitudes signiﬁcantly, but not
subjective norms or perceived behavioral control. Attitude is related signiﬁcantly to all
other TPB variables. The ﬁndings also include categories of memorable message types

and primary sources of memorable messages.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................. v
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Theory of Planned Behavior ............................................................... 3
Memorable Messages ....................................................................... 6
Parent-Child Relationships ................................................................. 8
Self-Efﬁcacy ................................................................................. 9
Perceived Achievement Motivation ...................................................... 10
Sex Differences in Achievement ......................................................... 11
Research Questions ......................................................................... 12
Hypotheses .................................................................................. 13
METHOD
Independent Variable ...................................................................... l4
Dependent Variables ....................................................................... 14
Instrumentation ............................................................................. 14
Procedure .................................................................................... 15
Participants .................................................................................. 16
Message Characteristics ................................................................... 17
Message Content and Circumstances Surrounding the Message ..................... 19
Message Valence and the Theory of Planned Behavior Variables ................... 20
RESULTS ..................................................... - ....................................... 22
DISCUSSION ....................................................................................... 25
Limitations and Future Research ......................................................... 26
APPENDIX: Memorable Messages about Achievement Survey ............................. 38
REFERENCES ...................................................................................... 52

iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Demographic Information, Frequencies, and Percentage of Total ................. 28

Table 2: Primary Sources of Memorable Messages, Frequencies,
and Percentage of Total ............................................................................ 29

Table 3: Locations where Memorable Messages were Received, Frequencies,
and Percentage of Total ............................................................................ 30

Table 4: Number of Times Memorable Messages have been heard, Frequencies,
and Percentage of Total ............................................................................ 31

Table 5: Types of Achievement Related Memorable Messages, Frequencies,
and Percentage of Total ............................................................................. 32

Table 6: Situations when Memorable Messages were First Heard, Frequencies,
and Percentage of Total ............................................................................. 33

Table 7: Situations when Memorable Messages were Recalled, Frequencies,
and Percentage of Total ............................................................................. 34

Table 8: Descriptive Statistics: Message Valence, Attitude, Subjective Norms,
Perceived Behavioral Control, and Behavioral Intention ...................................... 35

Table 9: Valence of Memorable Messages, Frequencies, and Percentage of Total. . ......36

Table 10: Correlations among Valence of Memorable Messages, Attitude,
Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control ......................................... 37

iv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Theory of Planned Behavior Model ............................................... 4

The Inﬂuence of Achievement Related Memorable Messages
from Parents on Behavioral Intention

Adolescence is a critical period in development, near the end of childhood and the
beginning of adulthood, and the establishment of a personal identity is the psychological
connection between these two life stages. At this stage of development, adolescents tend
to have a heightened awareness of their self-image and their focus is shifted to questions
of self-identity and potential talents (Rosenberg, 1965). A child must receive meaningful
recognition of his or her accomplishments in order to acquire a strong and healthy
identity (Erickson, 1950). The choices made during this formative period cause some
options to close and others to become attainable (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara &
Pastorelli, 2001).

Many choices are made in the later years of adolescence that shape the course of
an individual’s life. Educational choices such as valuing education, ﬁnishing high
school, or attending college can create opportunities or limit choices later in life. An
educational or career choice leads to more than a degree or a job. These choices move
individuals toward different life trajectories (Bandura et al., 2001). This leads to the
question of why some individuals feel that they can achieve success in their endeavors,
while others feel they carmot.

According to the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), behavioral intention is
predicted by the attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral
control about the behavior in question (Ajzen, 1985, 1991). During adolescence, parents
have the potential to have a profound inﬂuence on the attitudes, subjective norms, and

perceived behavioral control regarding the self-efﬁcacy and perceived achievement

motivation of their children. Individuals who perceive they are more effective, more
conﬁdent, and more able will accomplish more than individuals who have less positive
self-beliefs (Marsh, Trautwein, Ludtke, Koller, & Baumert, 2005). Messages sent to
children during adolescence by parents are predicted to inﬂuence attitudes, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control. These variables are predicted to be associated
with behavioral intention to engage in achievement related behaviors including, but not
limited to, valuing education, ﬁnishing high school, and going to college. Therefore, this
investigation will focus on the affects of parental memorable messages to adolescents
concerning intentions to achieve.

To provide background for this investigation, a literature review will be
conducted to explore how adolescents process this type of persuasive message, and more
speciﬁcally how parental messages serve as memorable messages inﬂuencing self-
efﬁcacy and perceived achievement motivation. The TPB will be reviewed and utilized
as a framework for this research. Hypotheses that consider the relationships between
attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, derived ﬁ'om the TPB, will
be offered. The perceived valence of memorable messages is the independent variable of
interest here. The dependent variables include attitude, subjective norms, perceived
behavioral control, and behavioral intention towards achievement. It is predicted that the
perceived valence of parental memorable messages affect attitude, subjective norms, and
perceived behavioral control. These variables should be related to behavioral intention to
achieve. A research design will be implemented to test these hypotheses. Finally, the

results and a discussion of this investigation will be given.

Review of the Literature

Theory of Planned Behavior

The TPB is one social inﬂuence theory that considers the links between attitude,
subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention. This theory has
been employed to predict behavioral intention in a variety of contexts including:
attending class (Aj zen & Madden, 1986), participating in elections (Watters, 1989),
searching for ajob (Van Ryn & Vinokur, 1990), and the decision of Aﬁican American
students to complete high school (Davis, Saunders, Williams, & Ajzen, 2002). It is
concerned with the ways in which attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral
control about a particular subject, like achievement, may inﬂuence intentions and
behaviors that are relevant to that subject (Ajzen 1985, 1991). The theory makes it
possible to account for volitional behaviors of various kinds by reference to a small
number of concepts within a single theoretical ﬁamework.

The goal of the TPB is to explain and predict behavior. It serves as a mechanism
to link attitudes and overt behaviors. The theory rests upon three assumptions: humans
are rational and systematically use information that is available to them, this information
is used in a reasonable way to form a behavioral decision, and behavior is the result of a
rational decision or intention (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The theory also asserts that
individuals generally behave in the way that they intend to behave. According to the
TPB, an individual’s overt behavior is inﬂuenced directly by behavioral intention, thus
making intentions the principal guide to behavior. Behavioral intention is inﬂuenced, or
weighted by, the attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral

control. This framework is illustrated in Figure 1.

 

Attitude
ﬂ Toward
Behavior

" Subjective ‘ '1 . I .
i Norm . , Intention J—.' Behavror

Perceived ' ﬂ-----""'"
Behavioral " “

Control m.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1: Theory of Planned Behavior Model (Ajzen, 1991)

The attitude toward the behavior is the evaluation of the consequences of
performing a given behavior, meaning that an individual must evaluate the implications
of a particular act. Attitudes are predispositions that are assumed to constitute past
experiences, and therefore are learned by the individual (F ishbein & Ajzen, 1975). These
attitudes are a function of outcome evaluations and beliefs. Outcome evaluations are the
consequences, positive or negative, of the behavior. Beliefs are the probability that the
behavior will actually result in the consequences. An individual’s attitude about being
successful or being a high achiever may include having academic success, getting into a
good college, obtaining a good job, or excelling in athletics.

The second factor, subjective norms, consists of perceptions of social pressures
from close others placed on the individual to perform or not perform the particular
behavior. These perceptions are a function of normative beliefs and motivation to
comply. Normative beliefs are expectations about whether important reference groups or
individuals endorse performing the particular behavior or what the individual thinks.

others think he or she should do. Motivation to comply is the degree to which the

4

individual cares about the opinions of signiﬁcant others. Subjective norms consider the
inﬂuence of important others, like parents, in an individual’s social environment.

The ﬁnal predictor of behavioral intention is perceived behavioral control. This
refers to an individual’s perception of the ease or difﬁculty of performing the behavior in
question. Perceived behavioral control considers how an adolescent feels about his or her
ability to be successful in his or her endeavors. If an individual feels that he or she is
unable to produce the outcome that he or she desires, there is little incentive to continue.
Therefore, perceived behavioral control is a critical factor in career choice and
development (Bandura et al., 2001).

The TPB will serve as a guide to this investigation on parental memorable
messages. Given that parents have the potential to inﬂuence the attitudes, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control of their adolescent children, memorable
messages from them should be inﬂuential in shaping self-efficacy and perceived levels of
achievement. Memorable messages oﬁen serve as guides to behavior (Smith & Ellis,
2001 ). These messages are a medium through which attitudes, subjective norms, and
perceived behavioral control can be inﬂuenced. Memorable messages, parent-child
relationships, self-efﬁcacy, perceived achievement motivation, and sex differences in the

achievement literature will now be discussed further.

Memorable Messages

Knapp, Stohl, and Reardon (1981) originally deﬁned memorable messages as
“verbal messages which may be remembered for extremely long periods of time and
which people perceived as a major inﬂuence on the course of their lives” (p. 27).
Individuals receive hundreds of verbal messages in a single day and most of these
messages are simply processed and then forgotten. Yet, some messages are seen as
meaningful units of communication that affect behavior and guide sense-making
processes (Holladay, 2002). These retained messages are referred to as memorable, and
are most often received from a person who is older and of higher status. Thus, messages
from parents ﬁt this deﬁnition well. This research predicts that memorable messages
have the ability to serve as persuasive messages from parents to their children.

Knapp et a1. (1981) established that the age of the memorable message receiver
was often young. Eighty percent of the participants were under 21 years old when they
heard the reported memorable message. In contrast, 85 percent of the senders were over
21 years old. Most messages (62%) were exchanged in a private setting like at home or
in the car. Ninety percent of the message recipients believed that the memorable message
received had a long-term and positive impact on their lives. Knapp et a1. (1981) found
that messages perceived as memorable are most often brief and prescribe rules of conduct
for solving problems. These messages tend to be able to transcend a speciﬁc context and
are applicable to a variety of situations.

Smith and Ellis (2001) conducted an investigation of memorable messages as
guides to behavior, focusing on messages that were recalled by an individual in the

context of self-assessing personal behavior. Almost all of the participants (99%) were

able to report messages that they recalled when self-assessing behavior. The memorable
message types reported most often were about kindness, loyalty, and patience.
Memorable messages are often received within the context of an important relationship,
such as a child’s relationship with his or her parents. Smith and Ellis (2001) found that
participants reported receiving memorable messages most oﬁen from both parents, then
mothers, followed by a number of additional sources. In most situations a parent is the
principal adult ﬁgure in an adolescent’s life, allowing many opportunities for memorable
messages to be exchanged.

An individual’s current self-image will include those messages that he or she
recalls as important in forming that image (Knapp et al., 1981). Thus, a relationship
between successful individuals and encouragement in the form of memorable messages
that have “stuck with them” is predicted. Both positive and negative messages can
signiﬁcantly impact an individual’s attitude, subjective norms, and behavioral intention to
achieve, depending on the source and the context. Memorable messages have been shown
to have a profound impact, and individuals who are sent positive messages are expected
have greater perceived efﬁcacy and success than individuals who received negative
messages. Positive memorable messages are conceptualized as messages that have an
encouraging motive or tone. Negative memorable messages have a pessimistic,
discouraging motive or tone.

Memorable messages have been studied within the contexts of ﬁnal conversations
about religious faith (Keeley, 2004), aging (Holladay, 2002), gendered socialization
(Dallirnore, 2003), and newcomer socialization in organizations (Stohl, 1986). This

investigation considers memorable messages in another important context, parent-child

relationships. Adolescence is a time when the parent-child relationship is changing. This
unique interpersonal relationship will now be explained further.
Parent-Child Relationships

Verbal interactions between parents and adolescents include expressions of
feelings, asking and answering questions, discussion of ideas, arguments, and
negotiations (Saphir & Chaffee, 2002). In the academic literature, adolescence is
associated with important life changes. Parents serve as attachment ﬁgures and
information sources that provide resources that other adults or peers cannot (Williams,
2003). Most scholars agree that the adolescent-parent relationship is generally fulﬁlling,
continuous over time, and dissatisfaction in this type of relationship is generally short-
lived. According to Williams (2003), the best model for good adjustment is one in
which the adolescent feels autonomy but at the same time is embedded within a system of
attachments. Relational partners, such as parents, have an important task in sending
memorable messages that will be recalled when an individual is deciding how to behave
or when self-assessing prior behavior (Smith, Ellis, & Yoo, 2001).

A study conducted by Biddle, Bank, and Marlin (1980) found that parental norms
are more likely to inﬂuence an adolescent than peer norms. This is explained by the fact
that parents have a longer time to inﬂuence their children. In contrast, peers may be
shunned if they attempt to impose standards on their adolescent ﬁiends (Biddle et al.,
1980). The authors also determined that parents have more inﬂuence on school
achievement than peers. Kniveton (2004) found that parents are shown to have a greater
inﬂuence than teachers and that the same-sex parent is most inﬂuential followed by the

opposite-sex parent.

Parental aspirations are positively linked to children’s academic, social, and self-
regulatory self-efﬁcacy (Bandura et al., 2001). This is important because the content of a
parental message is likely to be a reﬂection of the parent’s own aspirations for his or her
child. The importance of self-efﬁcacy on behavioral intention will now be discussed
further.

Self-Eﬂicacy

Bandura (1977) deﬁned self-efﬁcacy as beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize
and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments. Self-efﬁcacy is
the conﬁdence, or lack thereof, in an individual’s ability to learn something or do
something new. The most prominent and pervading mechanism of agency involves an
individual’s belief about his or her capabilities to exercise control over life events
(Bandura, 1992). Self-beliefs of efﬁcacy have an affect on thought patterns and can
enhance or undermine performance. Human accomplishments prosper on the belief in an
individual’s own ability and in the worth of what he or she is doing (Thomas, 2005). All
factors that serve as guides and motivators of behavior are ﬁxed in the belief that an
individual has the power to produce effects by his or her own actions (Bandura et al.,
2001).

Parents, who let their children know that they have conﬁdence in them, build
their children’s self-esteem and personal efﬁcacy (Williams, 2003). An adult’s high or
low self-efﬁcacy level is likely to be shaped largely by his or her parents. In a study by
Huang (1999), family communication patterns were found to have important
consequences on individuals’ social lives, choice of occupation, and health. This

perception of ability is more important in some situations than the actual ability of the

individual. Bandura et al. (2001) calls this a persuasory process, through which parental
academic aspirations can raise children’s perceived self-efﬁcacy for academic pursuits.
Consequently, “children’s perceived efﬁcacy rather than their actual academic
achievement is the key determinant of their perceived occupational self-efﬁcacy and
preferred choice of work life” (p. 187). .
Perceived Achievement Motivation

While self-efﬁcacy is the belief an individual has about his or her capability,
perceived achievement motivation involves the drive to carry out one’s endeavors.
Perceived achievement motivation is conceptualized as an individual’s assessment of his
or her ability to achieve the success he or she desires in educational and vocational
endeavors. This also encompasses how an individual feels about his or her current
academic and social achievements, and how he or she feels about the prospect of ﬁrture
vocational and social success. A sense of achievement is a key aspect in a young
person’s preparation for the future. Both psychological and motivational factors
inﬂuence an individual’s achievement, with intellectual ability contributing as only a
small factor. To achieve academic and personal success, adolescents need to be

conﬁdent in their abilities and persistent in their efforts (LeCroy & Daley, 2001).

10

Sex Differences in Achievement

The achievement literature brings attention to the sex differences in achievement
related behaviors. The majority of the research on sex differences in academic
achievement has traditionally been focused on girls. Beginning in the mid 1990’s a
distinct shiﬁ toward examining boy’s educational and achievement related behaviors has
occurred (Weaver-Hightower, 2003). A summary of the literature on adolescent girls
will ﬁrst be given, followed by the more recent research on adolescent boys. The term
“gender” is often used interchangeably with biological sex in this literature.

Women make up an increasingly larger share of the American workforce, but few
are selecting careers in scientiﬁc ﬁelds, technical ﬁelds, or a variety of other vocations
that have traditionally been held by men (Bandura et al., 2001). Recent ﬁgures on
national undergraduate enrollment in engineering (2002) consisted of only 18.5% female
students versus 81.5% male students (National Science Foundation, 2002). The number
of women with a graduate degree in this ﬁeld is even smaller. In contrast, the self-
efﬁcacy of male college students is equally high for traditionally male dominated
professions and female dominated professions (Bandura et al., 2001). It is troubling that
many girls may not be pursuing or achieving the success they are capable of and desire
for themselves. Further, for many girls career aspirations are not based on capability, but
on conﬁdence. Low conﬁdence is often the cause of girls’ low educational and career
aspirations, primarily in the ﬁelds of math and science (Eccles, 1994). Women are more
likely than men to base their occupational preferences on perceived efficacy than on the
potential beneﬁts the choice may provide (Bandura et al., 2001). This gives memorable

messages to daughters the potential to be highly inﬂuential.

ll

The ﬁeld of research on adolescent boys and academic achievement is a new one.
Weaver-Hightower (2003) calls this shift in focus the “boy turn,” meaning that there is a
new and immediate concern for adolescent boys. Hunsader (2002) states that instead of
the frightening statistics about school age girls, researchers are now discovering that boys
are falling behind. According to Hunsader (2002), boys are given 70% of the D’s and F’s
on school report cards, boys are three to ﬁve times more likely to be labeled learning
disabled, and boys report a less positive schooling experience in terms of enjoyment,
useﬁrlness of the curriculum, and teacher responsiveness. Given this focus in the
literature on sex differences in academic achievement, the following research questions
are posed:

RQl: Do sex differences exist in the perceived valence of memorable messages received
from parents?
RQ2: Do men and women report different levels of attitudes, subjective norms, and

perceived behavioral control toward achievement?

12

Hypotheses
It is predicted that parental memorable messages affect attitude, subjective norms,
and perceived behavioral control. Accordingly, positive or negative messages should be
associated with the likelihood of behavioral intentions for the future. These predictions
are offered in the following hypotheses:
H1: Perceived valence of parental memorable messages will be positively related to
attitude to achieve.
H2: Perceived valence of parental memorable messages will be positively related to
subjective norms of achievement.
H3: Perceived valence of parental memorable messages will be positively related to
perceived behavioral control over achievement.

The TPB predicts that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
lead to behavioral intention. According to the theory, behavioral intentions lead to overt
behavior. This is predicted in the following hypotheses:

H4: Attitude to achieve will be positively related to behavioral intention to achieve.

H5: Subjective norms of achievement will be positively related to behavioral intention to
achieve.

H6: Perceived behavioral control over achievement will be positively related to

behavioral intention to achieve.

13

Method

Independent variable

The independent variable of interest in this investigation was the perceived
valence of memorable messages adolescents received ﬁ'om their parents. Memorable
messages were operationalized as reported messages from parents that stand out in the
participant’s mind relating to the topics of academic achievement, advancement,
motivation, or self—efﬁcacy. The participants were asked whether they perceived their
message to be more positive or more negative.
Dependent variables

The dependent variables of interest, derived from the TPB, included attitude,
subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and perceived achievement motivation.
Perceived achievement motivation is the reported objective of the individual to engage in
achievement related behaviors such as working hard in school, ﬁnishing high school,
going to college, or reaching his or her goals. This variable served as the behavioral
intention concept in the TPB model.
Instrumentation

This study utilized a web-based survey questionnaire for data collection. The
questionnaire consisted of seven-point bipolar adjective scales, open-ended questions,
and ﬁxed answer questions that were analyzed quantitatively. The survey was divided
into three sections. The ﬁrst section contained questions about achievement related
memorable messages. Other researchers successfully used questionnaires to collect
memorable message data (Kmpp et al., 1981; Smith & Ellis, 2001). In addition to the

actual reported memorable message, several other features have been found to be

14

important in determining if a message is memorable and signiﬁcant. Participants were
asked a combination of open and closed ended questions about the message sender and
the circumstances surrounding the message.

The second section of the survey contained items designed to assess the major
constructs within the TPB. Measures of parental inﬂuence on attitude, subjective norms,
and perceived behavioral control were taken. Participants were asked about their
intentions to engage in certain achievement behaviors. Additional questions measured
attitudes about achieving success, self-efﬁcacy, and feelings about how successful
participants have been in the past or feel they can be in the future. Direct and indirect
measures of the constructs within the TPB model were taken (see the Appendix for the
questionnaire). The TPB research manual Constructing questionnaires based on the
theory of planned behavior (Francis, Eccles, Johnson, Walker, Grimshaw, F oy, Kaner,
Smith, & Bonetti, 2004) and Constructing a T pB Questionnaire: Conceptual and
Methodological Considerations (Ajzen, 2002) were used when developing the
questionnaire for this study. Finally, in the last section, demographic information was
asked of all participants.

Procedure

Participants were given an intemet web address and completed one survey online.
First, participants were asked to report an achievement related memorable message, if
one came to mind, that they had received from a parent or guardian during childhood or
adolescence (ages 10 to 18). This age range was chosen because adolescence is the period
of development that bridges childhood and adulthood. It is a period of physical,

emotional, social, and mental growth. This is an important time for young people to form

15

their own identities, separate from their families, and prepare for their future as members
of society. Participants who recalled an achievement related memorable message were
then asked about the source of the message, what they were doing when the message was
ﬁrst received, a situation when the message was recalled, and whether they believed the
message to be more positive (encouraging) or more negative (discouraging). If a
participant did not recall a memorable message, he or she did not complete the TPB
questions and was directed to a set of demographics questions.

Participants who reported a memorable message were then asked a series of
questions based on variables derived from the TPB. Measures of attitude, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control were taken about the behavioral intention for
academic achievement. Finally, these participants then completed the same set of
demographics questions as the participants who did not recall a memorable message.
Participants

Participants were recruited from communication courses at a large midwestem
university and some participated in this study as part of a course requirement. All
participants were asked to send the web address of the survey to peers who were not
attending a four-year college or university. There were 249 respondents who completed
the survey in this study. One hundred and ﬁfty seven participants (63.1%) were female
and 92 (36.9%) were male. Their ages ranged from 18 to 45 years old. The age of 236
(95%) participants ranged from 18 to 22 years old The mean age was 20.03. Two
hundred and twelve (85.1%) participants were Caucasian, 16 (6.4%) were African
American, 10 (4.0%) were Asian American, 5 (2.0%) were Hispanic, 1 (0.4%) was

Native American, and 5 (2.0%) participants indicated another ethnic or racial group. All

16

participants were high school graduates and 272 (97.2%) were enrolled in college. Of
this, 235 (97.1%) were enrolled in a four-year college or university and 6 (2.5%) were
enrolled in a two-year institution. One participant attended a 2-year community college
and then transferred to a 4-year institution. Seven participants (2.8%) were not enrolled
in any type of college institution. Table 1 presents additional demographic information.
Message Characteristics

One hundred and ninety seven (79.1%) participants reported an achievement
related memorable message and 52 (20.9%) did not report a memorable message.
Previous research suggests that memorable message senders tend to be of higher status
and older than the message receiver (Holladay & Coombs, 1991; Knapp et al., 1981).
This research conﬁrms those ﬁndings (see Table 2). Sixty-seven participants (34.2%)
reported both their mother and father as the sender, 48 (24.5%) reported their mother
only, and 39 (19.9%) reported their father only. Parents were most often reported as the
message sender suggesting that messages ﬁ'om parents have the ability to serve as
memorable messages to their children. Most participants were in late childhood 'or early
adolescence when the message was received. The mean age when the message was
received was 12.83 (ages ranged from 3 to 23). Eighty-six (43%) participants were age 12
or younger when the message was received and almost all of the participants (n = 189,
96%) were age 18 or younger when the message was received.

Previous research also found that memorable messages were more likely to be
exchanged in private settings rather than public settings (Knapp et al., 1981). This
research conﬁrms those ﬁndings as well. One hundred and thirty four (53.8%)

participants were at home when they ﬁrst heard the memorable message they reported.

17

Twenty-six (10.4%) were at school and 16 (6.4%) were in the car. Table 3 presents all
locations where the reported memorable messages were ﬁrst received. Participants were
asked whether other people were present when the message was ﬁrst heard. Ninety-seven
participants (49.2%) reported that they were alone with the message sender when the
message was ﬁrst received. Sixty-seven (34%) participants reported that family was
present when the message was ﬁrst received. Most participants (n = 172, 87%) heard
their reported memorable message more than once. Eighty-one participants (41.1%)
reported hearing their memorable message 2 to 10 times. This data is presented in Table
4.

Participants were asked with whom they lived during late childhood and
adolescence, ages 10 to 18. Two hundred and thirty nine (96.8%) of the participants
reported living with their mother during this time. When asked about their mother’s level
of education, 143 (57.8%) reported that their mother graduated from college. Fifty-eight
(23.3%) mothers went beyond college or attended graduate school. Two hundred and
eleven (85.1%) participants reported living with their father during this time. When
asked about their father’s level of education 158 (63.9%) rcported that their father
graduated from college. Seventy-two (28.9 %) fathers went beyond college or attended
graduate school. Two hundred and ﬁve (82.3%) participants reported living with both
parents during adolescence. Ten (4.1%) participants reported living with another

caregiver during late childhood and adolescence.

l8

Message Content and Circumstances Surrounding the Message

Two independent coders coded the variables of memorable message type,
situation when message was received, and circumstances when message was recalled to
allow for inter—coder reliability to be assessed. After assessing reliability, both coders
recoded the instances in which there had been disagreement. One coder then coded the
remaining variables. The types of achievement related memorable messages were coded
into 20 different categories. Inter-coder reliability was .82. All message types and
frequencies can be seen in Table 5. Thirty-two (16.2%) participants reported a message
telling them that they could “do anything or be anything” they wanted. Twenty-six
participants (13.2%) reported a message that told them to “do your best and work or
study hard.”

Participants were asked what they were doing when they ﬁrst heard the reported
memorable message. These activities were coded into 24 categories by two coders that
achieved an inter-coder reliability of .82 (see Table 6). Twenty-nine (14.7%) participants
reported hearing the message during general conversation with family. Seventeen
participants (8.6%) reported hearing the message while at an athletic practice or
competition. Seventeen participants (8.6%) reported hearing the message while talking
or thinking about the future.

Participants were then asked to report a time when they recalled their memorable
message. They were asked to report the situation in which the message was remembered.
These situations were coded into 28 categories (see Table 7). Inter-coder reliability was
.80. Fifteen participants (7.6%) reported recalling the message when doing poorly in

school. Fifteen participants (7.6%) recalled the message when selecting a college major

19

or changing a major, and 13 (6.6%) participants recalled their reported message at an
athletic practice or competition. Many of the reported message types can be applied to
both academic achievement and athletic achievement. Two key features of memorable
messages are that they serve as guides to behavior and can be applied to a variety of
situations (Knapp et al., 1981; Smith & Ellis, 2001). Memorable messages can
potentially be heard in one context and recalled in another.

Message Valence and the Theory of Planned Behavior Variables

Table 8 presents descriptive statistics among the major variables of interest.
Participants were asked if they believed the message they received was more positive
(encouraging) or more negative (discouraging). Participants indicated how positive or
how negative they believed their message to be on a seven point Likert-type scale. One
hundred and ﬁfty one (76.6%) participants believed their message to be very positive.
The mean score was 6.48 (SD = 1.28) with a potential range of 1 to 7. Perceived valence
of the reported memorable messages is presented in Table 9.

Attitude toward the behavior was measured indirectly with ﬁve questions
assessing behavioral beliefs and ﬁve questions assessing outcome evaluations. The
attitude score was calculated by multiplying each behavioral belief score by its
corresponding outcome evaluation score. The total attitude score is the total of each pair
divided by ﬁve [attitude = (B1 x 0E1) + (B2 x 0E2) + (B3 x 0E3) + (B4 x 0E4) + (B5 x
CBS) /5]. The mean score was 42.35 (SD = 6.22) with a potential range of l to 49. The
alpha reliability was .82.

The subjective norms variable was assessed with four questions measuring

normative beliefs and four corresponding questions measuring motivation to comply. The

20

subjective norms score was calculated by multiplying each normative belief score by its
corresponding motivation to comply score [subjective norms= (NBl x M1) + (NB2 x
M2) + (NB3 x M3) + (NB4 x M4) + (NBS x M5) /5]. The mean score was 42.34 (SD =
5.07) with a potential range of l to 49. The alpha reliability was .78.

Perceived behavioral control was assessed with 12 items. A combination of direct
and indirect measurement was used to assess perceived behavioral control. These
questions evaluated the participants’ self-efﬁcacy to perform the behavior, controllability,
control beliefs, and perceived power to inﬂuence behavior. Direct measurement was
utilized due to the fact that self-efﬁcacy emerged as an important construct in the
achievement literature. Therefore, it was important to measure this construct directly.
The formula for indirect measurement that was used for the previous two variables would
not allow for this. Also, keeping the survey at a length that was manageable for the
participants was also a consideration. The mean of all 12 scores was calculated to give an
overall perceived behavioral control score. The mean score was 5.53 (SD = .75) with a
potential range of l to 7. The alpha reliability was .77.

Behavioral intention to achieve was assessed with three items. Several methods of
measuring behavioral intention can be utilized. The behavioral intention in this study is
achievement, which is a very broad concept. Therefore, generalized intention to achieve
was measured. One item was removed to increase reliability to .74 from .56. The mean

of the two remaining intention items was 6.56 (SD = .49) with a potential range of 1 to 7.

21

Results

Perceived valence of parental memorable messages was predicted to affect
attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Accordingly, positive or
negative messages should be associated with the likelihood of behavioral intentions for
the future. According to TPB, behavioral intentions lead to overt behavior. Therefore,
relationships were expected to exist between parental memorable messages, attitude,
subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention to achieve. The
correlations for all of these variables are presented in Table 10.

Hypothesis I predicted that valence of parental memorable messages would be
positively related to attitude to achieve. This research ﬁnds that the perceived valence of
memorable messages from parents is positively related to attitude to achieve, supporting
this hypothesis. The correlation for the effect of perceived valence of achievement
related messages on attitude was r(193) = .23, p < .01 . Hypothesis 2 predicted that the
perceived valence of parental memorable messages would be positively related to
subjective norms of achievement. The correlation for the effect of achievement related
memorable messages and subjective norms for achievement was r(l94) = .11, p > .05.
Thus, the data do not reveal a signiﬁcant relationship between the valence of the reported
message and subjective norms of achievement. Hypothesis 3 predicted that the perceived
valence of parental memorable messages would be positively related to perceived
behavioral control over achievement. The correlation for the effect of parental
memorable messages on perceived behavioral control was r(l94) = .045, p > .05.

Therefore, this relationship was not found to be statistically signiﬁcant.

22

Hypothesis 4 predicted that attitude toward achievement would be positively
related to behavioral intention to achieve. This was found to be the case as attitude was
correlated signiﬁcantly with behavioral intention to achieve (r(192) = .28, p < .01).
Hypothesis 5 predicted that subjective norms of achievement would be positively related
to behavioral intention to achieve. This was not found as the relationship between
subjective norms and perceived behavioral control was not statistically signiﬁcant (r(193)
= .11, p >.05). Hypothesis 6 predicted that perceived behavioral control over
achievement would be positively related to behavioral intention to achieve. There was a
signiﬁcant relationship between perceived behavioral control and intention to achieve
(r(193) = .58,p < .01).

In addition to the predicted relationships, several other relationships were found
between the dependent TPB variables of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioral control. A relationship between attitude and subjective norms was present
(r(19l) = .345, p < .01). The correlation for attitude and perceived behavioral control
was signiﬁcant as well (r(191) = .22, p < .01). There was also a signiﬁcant relationship
between subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (r(192) = .21 , p < .01).

Two research questions were presented in the current study regarding sex
differences in achievement. Research question 1 explored sex differences in the
perceived valence of memorable messages received from parents. This study did not ﬁnd
major sex differences in terms of memorable messages received or behavioral intentions
to achieve. Men and women were equally likely to believe a parental message is positive
or negative. Research question 2 asked if men and women report different levels of

attitude, subjective norms, or perceived behavioral control toward achievement. Women

23

have slightly higher attitudes (M = 43.29, SD = 4.88) towards achievement than men (M
= 40.3, SD = 8.11). There was a signiﬁcant effect for sex, t(80) = -2.67, p < .01, with
women receiving higher attitude scores than men. Non-signiﬁcant sex differences were
seen in the subjective norms (t(99) = -1.46), perceived behavioral control (t(99) = -1.52),

and behavioral intention variables(t(86) = -1.73).

24

Discussion

The TPB is a valuable theory in terms of memorable message research. It
provided a theoretical framework to examine how memorable messages have the
potential to act as persuasive messages to affect behavioral intention. This study veriﬁed
and advanced memorable message research by considering these messages to be
persuasive messages for the that time. This research indicates that there is a persuasive
inﬂuence available to parents in the form of memorable messages. In terms of the TPB,
valence of memorable messages affects attitude only, yet attitude is related signiﬁcantly
to all of the other TPB variables (subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and
behavioral intention). A very strong relationship was found between perceived
behavioral control and behavioral intention to achieve. This supports previous ﬁndings
that argue that perception of ability is a more important factor in some situations than the
actual ability of the individual (Bandura et a1, 2001).

This study also serves as an extension of prior research on memorable messages.
Previous research deﬁnitions suggest that parental messages are likely to be remembered
as memorable messages (Knapp et al., 1981; Smith & Ellis, 2001), and this research does
show that messages from parents can be remembered as memorable messages.
According to this research, adolescents are listening to their parents and recalling
messages from them in a variety of contexts. Achievement related memorable messages
were often recalled during times of stress or decision-making when guidance was needed
(see Table 6).

This research also has practical implications for parents. Parents may feel that it

is difﬁcult to make time to talk to their children about important issues. Public service

25

commercials emphasize how important it is for parents to talk to their children, implying
that having a meaningful conversation is difﬁcult or takes planning. In this study, the
majority of the participants remember hearing their memorable message during typical,
everyday activities. Twenty-eight participants (14%) report ﬁrst hearing the memorable
message they reported while eating dinner or doing homework. This is encouraging to
parents who feel that they do not have enough quality time with their children. Eating
dinner together as a family has often been considered an important activity. This
research shows that dinner time or homework time can serve as important opportunities
for parents to talk to their children. Finally, this research addresses the sex differences
that are discussed in the achievement literature. In this study, women do not appear to
acknowledge or be affected by subjective norms that promote lower levels of
achievement, if in fact these subjective norms exist, nor do women report lower levels of
self-efﬁcacy toward achievement related activities.
Limitations and Future Research

There are several potential limitations of this investigation that could be addressed
in future research endeavors. First, the majority the participants in this study were
college students. Therefore, this was a sample of students that have already proven to be
high achievers and value education enough to continue on past high school. Future
research should include a larger sample of participants that are not attending colleges or
universities. In addition, almost all of the participants believed their reported memorable
message to be very positive. Perhaps participants are more likely to remember positive
messages than negative messages or individuals were just more likely to report positive

messages for various reasons. This is something that future research should investigate.

26

A third limitation of this study is in the measurement of behavioral intention to achieve.
This variable was measured with two items after one item was removed to increase
reliability. Future research should include more items to assess this variable more
accurately.

Finally, the results of this study provide a method for considering parental
messages as persuasive messages. A natural follow up study could be conducted with a
sample of adolescent participants. Variables such as message valence may be different
with a younger sample. It is important to determine if adolescents believe memorable
messages are as positive as older participants believe them to be. As individuals grow
older, are messages from their parents perceived to be more positive? This is a future
direction for this line of research. In addition, future research could explore social and
economic status and its affect on the types of memorable messages received. It is
important to determine whether adolescents from different social and economic
backgrounds are receiving different types of messages from their parents. Achievement
related messages that adolescents are hearing from parents at home would be of interest

to teachers and guidance counselors who are helping students prepare for the future.

27

Table 1 Demographic Information, Frequencies, and Percentage of Total

 

Frequencies Percentage of Total
Sex
Male 92 36.9
Female 157 63.1
Participant’s Education Level
graduated ﬁom high school 249 100
2-year institution 6 2.4
4-year institution 235 94.4
2-year then 4-year institution 1 0.4
no college 7 2.8
Mother’s Education Level
8th grade or less 2 0.8
some high school 4 1.6
graduated from high school 35 14.2
some college/technical school 63 25.5
graduate from college 85 34.4
beyond college 58 23.5
don’t know 0 0
TOTALS 247 100.0
Father’s education level
8th grade or less 1 0.4
some high school 0 0
graduated from high school 33 13.4
some college/technical school 53 21.5
graduate from college 86 34.8
beyond college 72 29.1
don’t know 2 0.8
TOTALS 247 100.0

 

28

Table 2 Primary Sources of Memorable Messages, Frequencies,

 

 

and Percentage of Total
Primary Sources of Memorable Messages Frequencies Percentage of Total
Both Mother and Father 67 34.2
Mother 48 24.5
Father 39 19.9
Teacher or Professor 14 7.1
Coach 8 4.1
Grandmother/Grandfather 5 2.6
Television/Message was written 3 1.5
Aunt 3 1.5
Friend 3 1.5
Co-worker/Work supervisor 2 1.0
Judge in competition 1 0.5
Religious leader 1 0.5
Stepmother 1 0.5
Did not specify 1 0.5
TOTALS 196 100.0

 

29

Table 3 Locations where Memorable Messages were Received, Frequencies,

 

 

and Percentage of Total
Location Frequencies Percentage of Total
At home 134 53.8
At school 26 10.4
In the car 16 6.4
Miscellaneous 9 3.6
At an athletic practice/competition 6 2.4
At a restaurant 3 1.2
At work 2 0.8
Did not answer the question 1 0.4
TOTALS 197 100.0

 

30

Table 4 Number of Times Memorable Messages have been heard,
Frequencies, and Percentage of Total

 

 

Number of times Frequencies Percentage of Total
2t010times 81 41.1

11 to 20 times 37 18.8

51 or more times 29 14.7

21 to 50 times 25 12.7

1 time 22 11.2

Did not specify 3 0.20
TOTALS 197 100.0

 

31

Table 5 Types of Achievement Related Memorable Messages, Frequencies,

 

 

and Percentage of Total
Memorable Message Frequencies Percentage of Total
You can do anything/ You can be anything 32 16.2
Do your best and work/study hard 26 13.2
Encouragement 14 7. 1
Advice for how to live life 14 7.1
Independence/Individuality 12 6.1
I’m proud of you 11 5.6
Athletic achievement 10 5.1
Praise or a compliment 10 5.1
Mention or suggest a speciﬁc job/career path 10 5.1
Education-College/Higher education 9 4.6
Be happy 8 4.1
Education-General 7 3.6
Dream big/don’t settle 7 3.6
Warning messages 6 3.0
Negative/critical messages 6 3.0
Never give up/overcome an obstacle 6 3 .0
Rewarding good grades 3 1.5
Have an opportunity I did not 2 1.0
Money themed 2 1.0
Religious/Faith themed 2 1.0
TOTALS 197 100.0

 

32

Table 6 Situations when the Memorable Messages were First Heard, Frequencies,

 

 

and Percentage of Total
Situation Frequencies Percentage of Total
General conversation with family 29 14.7
Athletic practice/competition 17 8.6
Talking or thinking about the future 17 8.6
Doing homework/studying or learning 15 7.6
Eating Dinner 13 6.6
In class or at school 10 5 .1
Preparing or talking about college 9 4.6
Talking about school 8 4.1
Watching television 8 4.1
Talking about grades/ looking at grade reports 7 3.6
Don’t remember 7 3.6
At home/doing chores around the house 6 3.0
Crying/upset/stressed 6 3.0
Did not answer the question at all 6 3.0
At a school activity/event 5 2.5
Talking about jobs/work 5 2.5
Traveling in the car 5 2.5
Complaining/trying to avoid school 4 2.0
Playing/ leisure activity 4 2.0
Talking to a teacher 3 1.5
Working/at work 3 1.5
At church/church activity 3 1.5
At a non-school activity/event 3 1.5
Shopping 2 1.0
Did not give an appropriate response 2 1.0
TOTALS 197 100.0

 

33

Table 7 Situations when Memorable Messages were Recalled, Frequencies,

 

 

and Percentage of Total

Situation Frequencies Percentage of Total
When doing poorly in school 15 7.6
Selecting a college major/changing a major 15 7.6
Athletic practice or competition 13 6.6
Making a decision 1 1 5.6
Applying or preparing for college/

graduate school (prior to being accepted) 10 5.1
When stressed 9 4.6
After a success 9 4.6
Going through a difﬁcult tirne/

faced with a challenge 9 4.6
At school 8 4.1
Doing a homework assignment/ studying 8 4.1
Alone/thinking 8 4.1
When uncertain or worried about the future 7 3.6
With friends or peers 7 3.6
Thinking about the future 6 3.0
Life changing event/at a transition point 6 3.0
Watching TV/at home 6 3.0
Being told others were proud of them/

receiving praise 5 2.5
When feeling like a failure/

having self-doubt 5 2.5
Dealing with or trying to understand others 5 2.5
Did not answer the question at all 5 2.5
Helping others 4 2.0
Did not give an appropriate response 4 2.0
When frustrated or upset 4 2.0
When struggling (not academically) 4 2.0
Before or during a test or exam 4 2.0
At an audition or interview 4 2.0
Having a disagreement with parents 3 1.5
After a disappointment 3 1.5
TOTALS 197 100.0

 

34

Table 8 Descriptive Statistics: Message Valence, Attitude, Subjective Norms,
Perceived Behavioral Control, and Behavioral Intention

 

 

Variable M SD Alpha Range
Message Valence 6.48 1.28 --- 1-7
Attitude 42.35 6.22 .82 1 -49
Subjective Norms 42.34 5.07 .78 1-49
Perceived Behavioral Control 5.53 .75 .77 1-7
Behavioral Intention 6.56 .49 .74 1-7

 

35

Table 9 Valence of Memorable Messages, Frequencies, and Percentage of Total

 

Valence Frequencies Percentage of Total
Very positive 151 76.6
Somewhat positive 27 13 .7
Slightly positive 5 2.5

Neutral 5 2.5

Slightly negative 1 0.5
Somewhat negative 2 1.0

Very negative I 6 3.0
TOTALS 197 100.0

 

36

Table 10 Correlations among Valence of Memorable Messages, Attitude,
Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control

 

 

Variable 1 2 3 4 5

1. Message Valence - .23* .11 .045 .062
2. Attitude — .345* .22* .28*
3. Subjective Norms - .21* .11
4. Perceived Behavioral Control - .58*

5. Behavioral Intention

 

*The correlations are signiﬁcant at p < .01.

37

Appendix

Memorable Messages about Achievement Survey

The goal of this study is to see what factors inﬂuence achievement motivation. You must
be 18 years or older to participate in this study. You will complete one survey online that
should take about 30 minutes in total. Your participation is completely voluntary. You
may skip any question that you do not want to answer or that makes you feel
uncomfortable. You may stop participation at anytime without penalty. No identifying
information will be collected from you. Your answers will be kept conﬁdential and your
privacy will be protected to the maximum extent allowable by law. This software uses
128-bit encryption. Any data that is uploaded to the server, submitted to the server, or
downloaded from the server is encrypted. The data ﬁ'om the server is downloaded on to
one speciﬁc computer, which is protected by a login and password. When downloaded,
the data itself does not contain a unique id for respondents.

If you are a Communication student at Michigan State University and completing this
survey in exchange for course credit points you will receive '/2 hour credit for your
participation.

If you have any questions about this study, contact the investigator, Dr. Sandi Smith at
353-3715 or by email at smiths@msuedu. If you have questions or concerns regarding
your rights as a study participant or are at any time dissatisﬁed with any aspect of this
study, you may contact - anonymously if you wish - Peter Vasilenko, PhD, Chair of the
Social Science, Behavioral, and Education Institutional Review Board (SIRB) by phone:
(517) 355-2180, email: irb@msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI
48824.

Clicking the next page box below indicates your voluntary agreement
to participate in this study.

38

1. This is a study about memorable messages and achievement motivation. People
frequently receive memorable messages that inﬂuence them for the rest of their lives.
When we are adolescents and teenagers our parents often tell us things about our ability
and the future. We are interested in learning about a message related to achievement that
you remember receiving from a parent or main caretaker when you were an adolescent
(ages 10-1 8).

This can be something POSITIVE or something NEGATIVE that you were told about
SUCCESS, EDUCATION, JOBS, or YOUR ABILITY TO REACH YOUR GOALS.
The critical point is that you feel this message has signiﬁcantly inﬂuenced your life in
some way such as how you behave, what you think about, your attitudes, or other aspects
of your life. This message could be about your strengths, your talents, or what you
should become as adult. 9; this could be about your weaknesses, jobs you should not
pick, or goals you will not be able to reach. There is no right or wrong answer.

Do you recall an achievement related memorable message? YES NO

2. Please type the actual achievement related massage you received (use exact words
if possible).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. About how old were you when you first heard this message?

 

4. Who told you this message?
1. mother
2. father
3. both mother and father
4. Other (please specify)

39

5. Where were you when you first heard this message?
' 1. at home
2. at school
3. in the car
4. at a friend or family members home
5. other (please specify)

 

6. What were you doing when you first heard this message?

 

 

 

 

7. Were any other people there with you when you ﬁrst heard this massage?

 

 

 

 

8. About how many times do you think you have heard this message?

 

9. Think of a time when you have remembered this message. What was the situation
when you recalled this message?

 

 

 

 

40

DIRECTIONS: For the next set of questions, mark the response that best describes
your opinion. Circle one response for each question.

10. Do you believe the massage you wrote down is more positive (encouraging) or
more negative (discouraging)?

11.

12.

13.

99509959!"

very positive

somewhat positive

slightly positive

neither positive nor negative
slightly negative

somewhat negative

very negative

This message has influenced my job or career choice.

>199?pr

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

This message has influenced my decision to go or not go to college.
1. agree strongly
2. agree somewhat
3.
4
5
6
7

agree slightly

. neither agree nor disagree

. disagree slightly
. disagree somewhat

. disagree strongly

This massage influenced how I behaved in school.
1. agree strongly
2. agree somewhat
3 . agree slightly
4.
5
6
7

neither agree nor disagree

. disagree slightly
. disagree somewhat

. disagree strongly

41

l4. Doing well in school will help me get a good job.
very likely

somewhat likely

slightly likely

neither likely nor unlikely

slightly unlikely

somewhat unlikely

very unlikely

NP‘V‘PP’N?‘

15. Doing well in school helped or will help me get into a good college.
1. very likely

2. somewhat likely
3. slightly likely
4. neither likely nor unlikely
5. slightly unlikely

6. somewhat unlikely

7. very unlikely

16. If I do well in school, I will feel that I am doing something positive for myself.

. agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat
disagree strongly

SP‘P‘PE’JN“

17. A
1. agree strongly
2. agree somewhat
3. agree slightly
4. neither agree nor disagree
5. disagree slightly
6. disagree somewhat
7. disagree strongly

18. Getting good grades will help me reach my goals.
agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree

disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

NP‘MP‘P’E"?

42

dults who have good jobs probably were good students when they were kids.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

Doing well in school is
very good
somewhat good
slightly good
neither good nor bad
slightly bad
somewhat bad

very bad

$999959?

8’
5
as
8‘
i
if
5

very good
somewhat good
slightly good

neither good nor bad
slightly had
somewhat bad

very bad

$999939!“

Doing something positive for myself is
1. very good

2. somewhat good
3. slightly good
4. neither good nor bad
5. slightly bad

6. somewhat bad

7. very bad

Getting a good job is
1. very good

2. somewhat good

3. slightly good

4. neither good nor bad
5. slightly bad

6. somewhat bad

7. very bad

Getting good grades is
. very good
somewhat good
slightly good
neither good nor bad
slightly bad
somewhat bad

very bad

NP‘MPP’N"

43

24. My parents think I should do well in school.
1. very true
2. somewhat true
3. slightly true

4. neither true nor false

5. slightly false

6. somewhat false

7. very false

25. My parents would be proud of me if I earn a college degree.
very true

somewhat true

slightly true

neither true nor false

slightly false

somewhat false

very false

SP‘V‘PP’P!‘

26. When I was growing up, my parents didn’t care if I did well in school.
agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree

disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

NQMPP’P?‘

27. My parents felt it was important that I graduate from high school.
1. agree strongly

2. agree somewhat

3. agree slightly

4. neither agree nor disagree

5. disagree slightly

6. disagree somewhat

7

. disagree strongly
28. My parents want me to make good choices.
1. very true

2. somewhat true
3. slightly true
4. neither true nor false
5. slightly false

6. somewhat false

7. very false

29. How much do you care about what your parents think?

$999939?"

30.

H
l
2
3.
4
5
6
7

I care very much

I care somewhat

I care slightly

I neither care nor don’t care
I don’t care slightly

I don’t care somewhat

I don’t care at all

ow important is it for you to make your parents proud?
. very important
. somewhat important

slightly important

. neither important nor unimportant
. slightly unimportant

. somewhat unimportant

. very unimportant

31. What my parents think matters to me.

NQP‘PP’N!‘

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat
disagree strongly

32. It is important to do what my parents want.

.‘IP‘Y‘PP’NT‘

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat
disagree strongly

33. I care if my parents agree with the choices I make.

HQMPPPr‘

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat
disagree strongly

45

34. I am confident that I can be anything I want to be in the future.

35.

36.

37.

38.

\lg‘V‘PP’N?‘

R
l.
2
3.
4
5
6
7

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

. disagree strongly

caching my goals is

very easy

. somewhat easy

slightly easy

. neither easy nor difﬁcult
. slightly difficult

. somewhat difficult

. very difﬁcult

It was or still is difficult for me to get good grades in school.

$999993!"

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat
disagree strongly

I am certain that I can be successful

NP‘MPP’PT‘

very true

somewhat true
slightly true

neither true nor false
slightly false
somewhat false

very false

Having any job or career I want is beyond my control.

NP‘MPP’P!‘

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat
disagree strongly

46

39. I usually did not get good grades in school because it was too hard.

41.

- 42.

43.

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

7. disagree strongly

99:59PM"

. Whether I am successful or not is completely up to me.

agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

$999939!“

If I wanted to, I could have any job I desired.
agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree

disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

NP‘V'PP’NI"

Nothing is stopping me from having any job or career I want.
@mmmw

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree

disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

NQP'PPJN!‘

I have control over my own success.
. agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat
mwmmmm

seesz—

47

44. Lots of things are preventing me from reaching my goals.
agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree

disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

$999959!"

45. How likely are you to give up when it gets hard for you to do well in school
or at work?

1. very likely

2. somewhat likely

slightly likely

neither likely nor unlikely
slightly unlikely
somewhat unlikely

very unlikely

>19???”

46. What would allow you to achieve your future goals? Select all that apply.
doing well in school

getting good grades

going to a good college

my parents

having ﬁ'iends that support me

other (please specify)

QMPPP?‘

47. What might keep you from achieving your future goals? Select all that apply.
I can’t decide what I want to be.

my parents

my friends

I am not smart enough.
money

I don’t have good grades.

other (please specify)

NP‘V‘PP’I‘N‘

48. I want to graduate from college.
agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree
disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

NQMPP’E"?

48

49. I will be whatever I want to be in the future
very likely

somewhat likely

slightly likely

neither likely nor unlikely

slightly unlikely

somewhat unlikely

very unlikely

$999939?

50. I expect to reach the goals I have for myself.
. agree strongly

agree somewhat

agree slightly

neither agree nor disagree

disagree slightly

disagree somewhat

disagree strongly

saweww~

DIRECTIONS: This is the final set of questions. Please answer the following
questions about yourself.

51. What is your gender? Male Female

52. What is your age:

 

53. What is your ethnicity or race?
Aﬁican-American
Caucasian
Asian-American
Hispanic
Native-American
Other (please specify)

QMPP’N?

54. What job or career do you aspire to have in the future?

 

55. Did you graduate from high school? YES NO

If NO, what did you do after leaving high school?

 

 

w

56. Are you enrolled in college? YES NO

If YES, What type of institution do you attend?
I. 4 year college or university
2. 2 year community college

3. Other (please specify)

If NO, Do you plan on attending a college or a university?
1. Yes
2. No

3. I’m not sure

What type of job do you have now?

 

What are your future job plans?

 

57. Did you live with your mother for the majority of your childhood until age 18?
1. Yes

2. No

58. What is the highest level of education your mother has completed?
eighth grade or less

some high school

graduated from high school

some college or technical school

graduated from college

beyond college/ graduate school

I don’t know.

$999959!“

59. Did you live with your father for the majority of your childhood until age 18?
1. Yes
2. No

60. What is the highest level of education your father has completed?
eighth grade or less

some high school

graduated from high school

some college or technical school

graduated from college

beyond college/ graduate school

I don’t know.

NP‘MPP’NE‘

50

61. Did you live with someone who was not a parent for the majority of your
childhood until age 18?
1. Yes, Who was this person?
2. No

 

62. What is the highest level of education this caregiver has completed?
eighth grade or less

some high school

graduated from high school

some college or university

graduated from college

beyond college/ graduate school

I don’t know

$999959?“

Thank you very much for taking the time and effort to complete this survey. If you are a
Communication student at Michigan State University and taking this survey for course
credit, please print this page. Write your name and the COM course you are enrolled in
on the page you printed and turn this into Sandi Smith's mailbox, CAS 470.

We would like to get responses from people who are doing many different things at this
point in their lives, so please email this web address to your friends or peers who are 18-

24 years old and who are not attending a four year college or university and ask them to
take the survey.

http://research.adv.msu.edu/ss/wsb.dll/christine/survey.htm

Do not forget to click the submit survey box below.

51

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54

   

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