!!THE POLICY LANDSCAP E OF THE FOUNDATION ASSISTED SCHOOL ( FAS) PROGRAM: COUNTING THE HUMAN COSTS IN POLICY DISCOURSE S By Andleeb Sharif A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Curriculum, Instruction, and Teacher Education ÑDoctor of Philosophy 2015!!ABSTRACT THE POLICY LANDSCAPE OF THE FOUNDATION ASSISTED SCHOOL (FAS) PROGRAM: COUNTING THE HUMAN COSTS IN POLICY DISCOURSE S By Andleeb Sharif Since the introduction of Education for All (1990), governments have sought ways to educate all children to high levels of global preparedness. In order to achieve this goal , in many places around the glob e there has been a drive to introduce cost -effective strategies such as public-private school partnerships . For the most part, the evaluations of these economic efficiency based reforms in the educational system of developing countrie sÐsuch as in Pakistan, the focus of this study Ðhave narrowly focused on economic considerations, neglecting other aspects of reform, such as human cost . Yet a substantial body of literature indicates that all educational reforms that are Òperson -dependentÓ have the potential for consequent heavy human costs, an unintended consequence of which can lead to overall program failure. Such is the tension around which this study revolves. The government of PakistanÕs per -child subsidy program to low -cost private schools, referred to as the Foundation Assisted Schools (FAS) program, in Punjab Province, Pakistan, reflects the current global rhetoric of efficiency and performativity. The target population of the FAS program is largely students from rural, low -income families with limited or no parental support. Based on its ability to increase studentsÕ enrollment and academic achievement (in terms of studentsÕ test scores), the FAS program has been declared one of the most cost effective interventions amon g developing countries. My dissertation is a comparative case study that aims to introduce humanistic perspectives to the study of the FAS program. This comparative study employs a mixed method !!approach and draws upon surveys, school observations and interviews with FAS and public school personnel to explore the human costs (task, social, and psychological) associated with schools in both sectors. The study also explores the possible impacts of these costs on the criteria of quality education prescribe d by Education for All and the National Educational Policy of Pakistan 2009. The study concludes that the FAS program compromises the personal, professional, psychological and social needs of teachers, aspects which are critically significant for the achi evement and sustainability of quality education goals in Pakistan. The findings of this study suggest the need to re -evaluate and re -define the practices of cost effective interventions. The study also stresses the need to develop a comprehensive and stand ardized strategic framework for teacher induction, training and reception of job entitlements within the FAS sector. Absent such counter reforms, there is a potential to segregate the teacher labor force in Pakistan and adversely impact the goals of q uali ty and equity in the future. !!Copyright by ANDLEEB SHARIF 2015 !!"! Dedicated to my parents, teache rs, students, friends and every one else whom I met at different phases of my life ÑI am indebted to you all for the moments of intellectual, emotional and professional support . You all have left me inspired, encouraged and ready to face the future ahead. I will strive to keep the personal and scholarly connections alive and stimulating. !!!"#!TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Context Of The Study ..................................................................................................................... 4 Structure Of The Dissertation ......................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 8 Section I : International Policy Landscape And Its Impacts On Pakistan ....................................... 9 The Educational Context Of Pakistan And The Rise Of Low Cost Private Schools: An Overview ....................................................................................................................................................... 12 Educa tional Governance Reform In Pakistan: A Move From State Responsibility To Multiple Stake Holders In Education .......................................................................................................... 15 Public School System ................................................................................................................ 17 Foundation Assisted School Program ....................................................................................... 18 Features, Vision And Goals Of The Fas Program ........................................................................ 19 Size, Growth, And Estimated Impacts Of The Foundation Assisted Schools (Fas) Program ...... 22 Section II : Perspectives From Academia ...................................................................................... 23 Impacts Of Efficiency Based Reforms On TeachersÕ Status .................................................... 24 Impacts On TeachersÕ Working Conditions .............................................................................. 25 Impacts On The Teacher Labor Market .................................................................................... 27 Summary: The New Accountability Regime And Teaching .................................................... 28 Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 29 Section III : Theoretical Framework: Human Cost ........................................................................ 30 Task Cost ................................................................................................................................... 33 Psychological Cost .................................................................................................................... 35 Social Cost ................................................................................................................................ 38 Section Iv: Defining Quality Education And The Place Of Teachers In National And International Discourse On Quality In Education ......................................................................... 38 Defining Quality Education ...................................................................................................... 39 Place Of Teachers As Per Quality Parameters Defined In Efa (2000 -2015) And National Educational Policy (2009) ......................................................................................................... 39 Towards Developing A Comparative Frame Of Reference For Teacher Quality And Human Cost ........................................................................................................................................... 43 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 46 Structure Of The Chapter .............................................................................................................. 46 Context Overview ......................................................................................................................... 47 Research Questions, Setting And Participants .............................................................................. 50 Methods Of Data Collection ......................................................................................................... 52 Administration Of Survey And Structured -Observation Sheet ................................................. 53 Teacher Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 53 !!!"## !Structured - Observation Sheet ............................................................................................... 54 Semi-Structured Interviews, School Documents And Visual Artifacts .................................... 55 Semi-Structured Interviews ................................................................................................... 56 School -Related Documents, Visual Data, And Artifacts ...................................................... 57 National And International Policy Documents On Quality In Education ................................. 58 Methodology Of Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 59 Descriptive Analysis Of Survey Questionnaire And Structured Observation Sheet ................ 59 Qualitative Analysis Of Interview Data .................................................................................... 60 Document Analysis Of National And International Policy Reports With Reference To Effectiveness Of Fas Reform And Quality Education Goals .................................................... 61 Phase I .................................................................................................................................... 61 Phase II .................................................................................................................................. 61 Limitations Of The Study ............................................................................................................. 62 Challenges While Collecting Data ................................................................................................ 65 Locating The Schools ................................................................................................................ 65 Access And Approval ................................................................................................................ 66 Lack Of Involvement And Participation Of Teachers From The Fas Sector ............................ 67 CHAPTER 4: TASK COST ......................................................................................................... 69 Structure Of The Chapter .............................................................................................................. 69 Total Work Hours And Their Distributi on ................................................................................... 70 Before School Arrival Policy And Penalty System For Late Arrival ....................................... 70 Long And Intensive Work Hours And Rule Of Sequential Study ............................................ 71 Absence Of Non -Teaching Time Or Fre e Periods .................................................................... 75 Increase In Paperwork Requirements ........................................................................................ 76 Increase In Workload During Assessment Periods ................................................................... 78 After-School Work Policy ......................................................................................................... 80 Out -Of-Field/Split Teaching Assignments ................................................................................... 81 Burden Of Non -Teaching Assignments ........................................................................................ 86 Class Size ...................................................................................................................................... 90 Summary And Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 93 CHAPTER 5: PSYCHOLOGICAL COSTS ................................................................................ 95 Structure Of The Chapter .............................................................................................................. 96 Section I: Salary, Job Status And Entitlements ............................................................................ 96 TeachersÕ Salary Range In Public And Foundation Assisted Schools (Fas) ............................. 97 Job Status And Job Entitlements ............................................................................................. 104 Subsection I: A Comparative Analysis Of Leave Structure In Fa s And Public Schools .... 106 Subsection II : Social And Living Benefits .......................................................................... 109 Section II : Professional And Instructional Resources ................................................................ 111 Section III : Professional Support ................................................................................................ 114 Professional Support For New Teachers ................................................................................. 115 Professional Development (PD ) .............................................................................................. 119 Summary And Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 125 !!!"### !CHAPTER 6: SOCIAL COST ................................................................................................... 127 Sustained Interactions Over Time ............................................................................................... 129 Time For Planning And Collaboration ....................................................................................... 131 Teacher Empowerment ............................................................................................................... 136 Decision -Making And Autonomy ........................................................................................... 137 Realization And Awareness Of Their Professional Status ...................................................... 140 Self-Efficacy ............................................................................................................................ 142 Role Of The Principal: Supportive Versus Author itative ........................................................... 143 Role Of The Principal In Fas ................................................................................................... 143 The Role Of Principals In Public Schools ............................................................................... 147 Summary And Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 150 CHAPTER 7: SITUATING THE HUMAN COST CONSTRUCT IN CURRENT GLOBAL AND NATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR ENSURING QUALITY EDUCATION ..................... 153 Quality Education In National And EFA Contexts And The Place Of Teachers In Quality Oriented Parameters .................................................................................................................... 154 National And Efa Strategic Framework For Quality Education With Reference To Teachers .. 157 Impacts Of TeachersÕ Human -Related Costs (Task, Psychological, And Social) On National Quality Educ ation Goal ............................................................................................................... 159 Impacts Of Task Costs On Quality Education Goals .............................................................. 160 Class Size Or Teacher -Pupil Ratio (Tpr) ............................................................................. 161 Out -Of-Field Assignments Vs. TeachersÕ Subject Compet ency ......................................... 162 Non -Teaching Assignments On Cost Of Instructional Time .............................................. 164 Impacts Of Psychological Cost On Quality Education Goals ................................................. 167 TeachersÕ Salary, Job Status And Entitlements ................................................................... 168 Professional And Instructional Resources ........................................................................... 169 Professional Support For New Teachers ............................................................................. 170 In-Service Trainings ............................................................................................................ 171 Impacts Of Social Costs On Quality Education Goals ............................................................ 173 Summary And Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 177 Study Implications ...................................................................................................................... 178 Strengthen The Public Sector Or Redefine/ R e-Evaluate The Idea Of Low Cost Interventions ................................................................................................................................................. 178 Align Fas Program With Mainstream Public Schools By Defining Teaching Standards, Contract Conditions And Job -Entitlements ............................................................................. 180 Discourage The Culture Of Out -Of-School Services In The Public School System And Redefine TeachersÕ Teaching Assignments ............................................................................ 181 Develop A Culture Of Ownership And Participation Between Public And Private School Setups ...................................................................................................................................... 182 Develop Public School And Fas Teachers Combined Professional Networks ....................... 182 Address The Contradictions And Cleavages Within The 2009 National Education Policy With Reference To TeachersÕ Professional Qualifications .............................................................. 183 Contextualize And Identify Human Cost As An Integral Part Of Comparative Studies Related To SchoolsÕ Effectiveness ....................................................................................................... 183 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 185 !!!#$!Appendix A: Interview Protocols For Teachers ......................................................................... 186 Appendix B: Interview Protocols For Principals ........................................................................ 188 Appendix C: TeachersÕ Demographics In Public And Foundation Assisted Schools ................ 189 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 190 !!!$!LIST OF TABL ES !Table 1: PakistanÕs Experience with Private Schooling ............................................................... 13 Table 2: Characteristics of Private vs. public school Teachers in Pakistan .................................. 14 Table 3: Number of Schools and Students in the FAS Program .................................................. 22 Table 4: Results of the Quality Assurance Tests, 2006 -2009 ....................................................... 23 Table 5: Identified Parameters of Q uality Education By EFA (2000 -2015) & NEP ................... 41 Table 6: Comparative Framework of Human Costs and Quality Education Standards ............... 44 Table 7: Research Participants ...................................................................................................... 52 Table 8: School Related Data Artifacts Collected and their Purpose ........................................... 58 Table 9: De scription of Research Question, Variables and Data Sources .................................... 69 Table 10: Distribution of Hours for Teaching Main and Other than Main Teaching Subjects .... 83 Table 1 1: Teachers' Teaching Assignments (by Subject) in 01 - FAS .......................................... 86 Table 12: Non - Teaching Assignments ........................................................................................ 87 Table 13: Research Question, Indicators and Data Sources ......................................................... 96 Table 14: FAS Teachers' Spontaneous Responses about the Adequacy of Salary ..................... 100 Table 15: Public School Teachers' Spontaneous Responses about the Adequacy of Salary ...... 103 Table 16: Comparative Analysis of the Nature and Conditions for Job Contracts for FAS and Public School Teachers ............................................................................................................... 105 !Table 17: Summary of the Leave System in Public and FASs ................................................... 108 Table 18: Comparative Analysis of Instructional an d Professional Resources .......................... 112 Table 19: Teachers' Academic and Professional Background in FASs ...................................... 116 Table 20: Frequency, Duration and Focus of PD in FASs and Public Schools .......................... 120 Table 21: FAS Teachers' Responses about Schools' Social Environment .................................. 132 !!!$#!Table 22: Public School T eachers' Responses about Schools' Social Environment ................... 135 Table 23: FAS Teachers Perceptions About Their School Principals ........................................ 144 Table 24: Public School Teachers Perceptions About Their School Principals ......................... 148 Table 25: Identifie d parameters of Quality Education by EFA (2000 -2015) and NEP (2009) .. 155 Table 26: Comparative Framework of Human Costs and Quality Education ............................ 158 Table 27: Teacher's Demographics ............................................................................................. 189 !!!$## !LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Human Cost Indicators ................................................................................................. 32 Figure 2: Percentage of Teacher's Assigned Teaching Periods per Day ...................................... 72 Figure 3: Class Size in Pub lic and Foundation Assisted Schools ................................................. 91 Figure 4: Teachers' Salary Range in FASs and Public Schools .................................................... 99 !!!%! CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION This comparative case study is an effort to bring a humanistic perspective into the business discourse about educational reforms in international policy dialogue. It seeks to do so by considering the often -invisible human costs to reforms driven by more purely economic considerations. This study is centered in the Southeast Asian country of Pakistan. PakistanÕs failures to meet its international commitments to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education fo r All (EFA), the phenomenal growth of low cost private schools since 2000, and changes in the international policy landscape, are some of the important factors that have led to governance reforms in the Pakistani educational sector Ñand some of the reasons that make Pakistan such a compelling site for this study. During this new era of governance reforms, Pakistan has adopted the policy of Òmultiple actors in educationÓ or a ÒblendedÓ approach of public -private partnerships (PPP) to ensure effective and eff icient education delivery services. The objective behind these public -private partnerships (PPP) is to leverage public financing to contribute to the growth of an open and accessible private school system in Pakistan that might ensure more equitable access to education for all (Barrera -Ontario& Raju, 2009; Malik, 2008; 2010). The most successful model that has emerged under the PPP regime is the Foundation Assisted School (FAS) program, which was initiated in 2006 in the Lahore district of Punjab, Pakistan . Based on its economic efficiency and studentsÕ test score results, this program has been declared the most successful and cheapest educational interventions amongst developing countries in the world (World Bank, 2009). For example, a World Bank Assessmen t Report (2009) has claimed: !!!&!The most conservative estimates suggest that the FAS program expanded schools by, on average, 85 students, 3 teachers, 4 classrooms and 3 blackboards. Using the conservative impact estimate on enrollment and an annual per stude nt subsidy cost of PKR 3, 600, the annual per student cost of increasing enrollment in FAS program schools by 1% is estimated at roughly PKR 100. The cost -effectiveness ratio for the FAS program places it among the cheapest programs for increasing enrollme nt among evaluated programs around the developing world, which have also generated enrollment gains. (World Bank, p. 9) Critical analysis of these reports indicates that recent policy discourses at the national and international levels on the achievements of the FAS program have revolved its economic successes. Yet these very same reports seem to displace teachersÕ roles as policy implementers and professionals in current educational reform debates . From the literature, it is evident that all initiatives t hat are Òperson dependent enterprisesÓ not only demand resources, expenditures, and equipment, but also the time, will, effort, and motivation of the actors who will mediate the process of policy implementation (Rice & Malen, 2003, p. 639). These studies f urther state that the implementation of any educational program as ambitious as the Foundation Assisted Schools program will have drastic impacts on the manner in which the roles and responsibilities of teachers and school administrators are realized (Rice & Malen, 2003). Ignoring these human related costs may therefore be very costly to an organization responsible for carrying out such an ambitious reform agenda and for individuals of which the program is meant to serve (Rice & Malen, 2003). !!!'!The identific ation of teachersÕ program -related sacrifices and efforts is critically important when evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of any educational reform. It is an integral part of total program cost for the sustainability and scaling up of educational reforms (Rice & Malen, 2003, p.639). This identification is also important in order to develop appropriate policy actions so as to avoid potential risks that could lead to program failure. From a policy perspective, contextual analysis of the education se ctor in Pakistan shows that policy in Pakistan is informed by the EFA goals Ñgoals that identify teachers as the most important parameter of quality education. In relation to teachers, the EFA strategic framework encourages its signatory countries to promo te the Òstatus, morale and professionalism of teachersÓ and suggests the development of policies that Òidentify and address the professional, social, and psychological needs of teachersÓ (EFA, 2000, p. 9). In this context, excluding teachers as perhaps the most essential parameter of quality education while at the same time promoting the ideas of economically efficient reforms may serve to hinder the achievement of EFA goals. In the current policy climate of economic efficiency and outcome -driven reform (in terms of student test scores), PakistanÕs FAS program is being evaluated through comparison with the public sector. Yet there are several problems with such an approach. Fir st, there are substantial differences between the two sectors that make such comparison difficult. Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, this study seeks to explore the degree to which overlooked human costs are skewing the claims being made on behalf of the FAS system. Through a comparative exploration of the human costs in both the public schools and FAS sectors, this study aims to gain an understanding of teachersÕ working conditions and an !!!(!evaluation of the institutional practices of both sectors aga inst the quality education criteria prescribed by both the Education for All framework (2000 -2015) and PakistanÕs National Educational Policy framework (2009). Understanding of the human costs involved in both sectors should therefore contribute to a more accurate understanding of the entire set of costs associated within both sectors of the reforms needed to achieve the goal of quality education for all. Context Of The Study In 2010, the management of the educational sector in Pakistan was devolved to the provinces Ñmaking provinces autonomous in all educational matters . Amongst all provinces, Punjab is the only province that has introduced an integrated and comprehensive plan to reform educational governance by taking substantive initiatives to restructure the educational system. This province therefore acts as a role model for other provinces. Given these reforms, as well as the fact that Punjab Province is the most densely populated province of Pakistan, with 60% of the population of Pakistan residing th ere, Punjab province was selected as the primary site for this analysis. The performance of Punjab on the educational index in terms of literacy rates and school enrollments has been far better than the rest of the provinces of Pakistan. Yet by global stan dards, Punjab Province continues to lag in many educational outcomes: a low literacy rate (almost 40%), a high dropout rate at the primary school level, a high ratio of gender disparity (female enrollment of only 43.1%), inadequate physical and instruction al resources, and low educational spending (Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2004; World Bank, 2004). Thus, in order to address the problems of access, quality, and equity in education, the government of Punjab designed a road map program through the reform o f its educational sector !!!)!(UNESCO, 2011). The strategic plan of the Punjab Education Sector Reform Program (PESRP) increased public spending on education and restructured the governance of the educational sector in order to facilitate the process of reform by making it more efficient and responsive to local educational needs (UNESCO, 2011; World Bank, 2003). The dual goals of strengthening the public sector along with encouraging the participation of the private sector through public -private partnerships ( PPP) were the main initiatives of PESRP. Under the category of governance reforms in education, Punjab took a leading role in national reform by launching per child subsidy under its Foundation Assisted School (FAS) program. Punjab has 36 districts, and amongst these districts, Lahore was chosen as the implementation site for the launching of FAS on a pilot basis in 2006 (ADB, 2010). Now t hat FAS has completed almost eight years of implementation in Lahore, it has gone through the complexities of implemen tation and transitions that might affect the authenticity of data. Considering these factors, the Lahore district was chosen as the primary research site. Structure Of The Dissertation This dissertation is comprised of seven chapters; the details of these chapters are as follows: Chapter 1 presents an overview of the study in terms of background and lays some initial groundwork for the conceptual frameworks, research questions, and research methods of the study. Chapter 2 is comprised of four main sections . The first section provides the details about the current national and international policy discourses in Pakistan and the role of contextual !!!*!factors that have led to structural reforms in education there. This section also provides a brief introduction t o the units of analysis for the study: public schools and the Foundation Assisted School program. The second section draws upon current policy debates and rhetoric related to strengthening of efficiency reforms and reshaping institutional practices. Concer ns and perspective from academia are also discussed in this section as they help to develop the research questions and conceptual framework of the study. The third section explains the conceptual framework of human cost. The fourth section provides details about the goals of quality education for all in the EFA and NEP frameworks that will help to situate human costs in current policy debates. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the research methodology, details of the research site, participantsÕ information , data sources and mode of analysis for the study and limitations of the study . Chapter 4 presents the data related to human costs associated with task. This chapter looks at teachersÕ work requirements and teaching assignments in public and FAS schools a nd explains those institutional practices that intensify their work in both sectors. Chapter 5 presents the data findings related to human costs associated with individual psychological burdens. This chapter looks at teachersÕ working conditions in terms o f job status, remuneration, availability of professional and instructional resources, and opportunities for training in both sectors. It helps to identify those institutional practices that are critical for teachersÕ psychological well being and profession al commitment. Chapter 6 discusses the human costs associated with social community. This chapter looks at the social aspect of the school environment in both sectors and provides an overview of !!!+!schoolsÕ cultural and institutional practices and their role in teachersÕ professional learning and growth. Chapter 7 discusses the possible impacts of these three aspects of human cost Ñtask, psychological, and social Ñon quality education goals as prescribed by the EFA (2000 -2015) and the NEP (2009) strategic framew orks. The last section of this chapter summarizes and concludes the study with study implications. !!!,!CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW The unit of analysis for this study is public schools and the Foundation Assisted Schools (FAS) program. FAS is a per child public subsidy program implemented by the Punjab province in Pakistan. Public schools are financed and managed by the government. However, the FAS program falls under the category of a Public -Private Partnership (PPP) model in Pakistan. The emergence of t he PPP model in Pakistan is part of global governance reforms supported by major international aid/donor agencies to accelerate efforts to achieve the Education for All (EFA) goals of increased school enrollment and quality education for all children acros s the world by 2015. Given this context, it is important to understand the historical trajectory of this newly implemented public subsidy program in Pakistan. The structure of this chapter is as follows: Section I: this section will provide details about t he PPP initiatives in education from both the policy and economic perspectives. This section will illuminate the role of international and national policy with regards to the educational context in Pakistan, leading to the introduction of the Foundation As sisted School program. In a subsection, details about public schools and FAS will also be discussed. Section II: this section of the literature review presents a shift from policy debates to the concerns of people in academia in response to the implementa tion of efficiency based models or the Òdiscourse of performativityÓ in education. This section will assist in the generation of the research questions for this study. Section III: theoretical framework: human cost. This section provides the details of the theoretical framework of human costs posited by Rice and Malen (2003), as well as the rationale !!!-!for the selected indicators used to assess the different aspects of human costs involved in the implementation of the FAS program in Pakistan. Section IV: this section provides the details about the strategic frameworks of Education for All (2000-2015) and the National Education Policy, Pakistan, (2009) for quality education that are used to situate the concept of human costs in current policy debates regarding quality education. Section I : International Policy Landscape And Its Impacts On Pakistan Currently, the need to adopt public -private partnership (PPP) models in education is a central theme of international policy debates. The achievement of Education for All and Millennium development Goals (MDGs) related to education are the impetus for the emergence of PPP models in education. Education for all is a global educational movement that was initiated in 1990 by the major wings of the United Nations such as UNESCO , UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF, and the World Bank (UNESCO, 2000). The aim of this global educational movement is to eradicate illiteracy across the world by ensuring the right of basic quality education for all children regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, an d geographical restriction (UNESCO, 1990). This global commitment to education was reaffirmed at Dakar in 2000, and 164 countries attended this EFA World Conference in 2000. The countries pledged that combined efforts will be made to ensure access and qual ity education for all children across the world by 2015 (UNESCO, 2000). However, recent reports indicate that EFA is far behind in achievement of its goals because 62 million children are still out of school; these reports further indicate poor quality of education, lack of instructional and physical infrastructure, and teacher shortages in the developing part of the world (UNESCO, 2011). These findings opened a global debate on the need to restructure educational systems in EFA signatory countries in order to accelerate the efforts to meet the EFA goals (Verger et al., !!!%.!2013). Based on the EFA monitoring reports, it has been argued that the public sector in many EFA participant countries cannot face the challenges of education alone due to financial constra ints and poor governance in education. However, in many of these countries, the private sector has played a significant role in achieving the EFA objective of increased enrollment. Therefore, it is crucial that the public and priva te sectors work collabora tively. Public governments should consider the private sector a Òpotential partnerÓ in their efforts to achieve EFA goals (ADB, 2010). Thus, in discussions of EFA, the public -private partnership has become Òa technical idea that provides the interpretation of a policy problem and prescribes a precise course of action to solve itÓ (Verner, 2011, p. 2). There is no concrete definition of public -private partnership; however, it is generally understood as Òinstitutional cooperation between the public and privat e sectors designed to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of public service deliveryÓ (Farah & Rizvi, 2007, p. 340). The characteristics of the public -private model in education are provided below. a. ÒIt is the formation of cooperative relationships am ong the state, profit -making firms, and nonprofit private organizations to fulfill the function of providing services where the state is unable to meet an increased demand;Ó b. ÒIt is a means of institutionalizing flexible and collaborative arrangements where by private provision and public provision of goods and services are not viewed as merely competing alternatives locked in interminable conflict;Ó c. ÒIt is not a means for turning responsibility entirely over to the private sector, but rather it is a mechanis m for enabling critical objectives to be met in collaboration, that could certainly not be met by either partner on its own;Ó and !!!%%!d. ÒIt involves a sharing of responsibility and financial risk for both partnersÓ (ADB, 2010, p. 7). In recent years, PPP models in education have gained a centrality in international policy debates. The major wings of the EFA movement such as the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, UNESCCO and USAID perceive the adoption of the PPP model in education as a cost effective and efficient strategy to address the problems of inefficiencies in the field (Verger, 2011). In relation to the emergence of PPP models in education, a review of the literature indicates that: Influential international organizations mani fest themselves as global carriers of PPP programs by pushing global policies into national politics. Currently, PPP education reform programs are being implemented in all parts of the world, particularly across developing countries and they are shaping th e provision of education and the working conditions of teachers. (Joe -Brans, 2013, p. 74; see also: EI, 2009; Verger & Vander -Kaaij, 2012; Rose, 2010) Thus, international trends in the educational policy landscape have also impacted educational governance in Pakistan. Pakistan became a signatory of the EFA movement in 1990, and the World Bank, the Asian development Bank, and UNESCO fund these educational reforms in Pakistan. Therefore, the initiation of PPP models such as the per child subsidy program (FAS) and voucher scheme for the children of low income families in Pakistan are the outcomes of international policy change (Bano, 2008). !!!%&!The Educational Context Of Pakistan And The Rise Of Low Cost Private Schools: An Overview Pakistan has been committed to the International Declaration of Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals (MDG) since 1990. Despite PakistanÕs strong commitments to EF A and MDG, Pakistan is far behind in achieving the goals of access, equity, and quality in education by 2015 (UNESCO, 2009). Recent reports issued by the Government of Pakistan (2010) and UNESCO (2008) indicate that, although Pakistan has made progress in achieving the target of increased enrollment, other challenges remain, including a high dropout rate and grade failure rate, gender disparity, and poor quality education, particularly in economically underprivileged areas. According to these reports, 6.5 m illion school age children are not enrolled in school, and among those, 80% have never been to school. Out of the 23 million children who attend schools, 40% of them drop out before reaching fourth grade, and the dropout rate is 77% by tenth grade. In term s of gender parity, the Pakistan index is 0.78, the lowest in the world. Furthermore, national and international assessment reports have cited an overall poor quality of education in Pakistan (AEPAM, 2007; Government of Pakistan, 2008; Government of Pakist an, 2008; Malik, 2010; UNESCO, 2008). These assessment reports indicate that, at the national level, the low participation rate is attributed to the demand and supply dimensions of public education. In terms of demand, poor household income and the absenc e or distance of schools from different social settings are responsible factors for the low participation rate. In terms of the supply side, poor quality of education in public schools is mainly due to lack of an accountability to attend (Andrabi et al., 2 006; Malik, 2010; World Bank, 2010). Consequently, these demand !!!%'!and supply side factors of public schooling have led to growth in private schools in Pakistan. The rise of the private sector is considered a drastic change in the educational context of Pakis tan. Since 1990, the number of private schools in Pakistan has grown substantially. Before 1990, private schools were growing only in the urban part of Pakistan, but after 1990, a substantial growth in low cost private schools was observed in rural areas. Recent reports indicate that, between 2000 and 2008, a 69% increase was observed in the number of private schools, whereas the increase in the numbers of public school institutions was only 8% (I -SAPS, 2010). Furthermore, these studies report that between the time frame of 2000 and 2008, the increase in the percentage of private schools in rural and urban areas was 87.76% and 54.44%, respectively. The following table presents PakistanÕs experience with private schools (I -SAPS, 2010). Table 1: PakistanÕs Experience with Private Schooling PakistanÕs experience with private schooling A Most private sector growth is in primary schooling (in most countries the share of private schooling is higher for secondary compared to primary) B A large fraction of the growth is in rural areas: indeed the fastest growth segment for private schools is the rural poor. C Private schools are cheap and used by a large segment of the population: A typical private school in Punjab charges PKR 60 -70 per month in fees. D Private sector schools are mostly co -educational and used both by girls and boys Source: World Bank, 2006. Improving Educational Outcomes through Choice and Decentralized Management; Salman, A. (2009). Liberate to Learn: A Study of Educational Voucher in Lahore, Pakistan. A study conducted by Andrabi and colleagues (2006) indicates that the rise in low cost private schools, particularly in the rural areas of Pakistan, is driven by low fee and a higher quality of education in these s chools. The average fee in these private schools is as low as PKR 60 (<1$); in other words, these low cost private schools charge less than the average daily pay of an unskilled laborer (Andrabi et al., 2006; 2008; 2010). Andrabi and colleagues report: !!!%(!The per -child annual expenditure in the median public school of Rs.2039 is twice that of the median private school of Rs.1012. Multivariate regression analysis shows that these differences remain just as large even with controls for parental wealth and edu cation and village wealth and literacy. (2008, p. 40) In order to keep fees low and to make education affordable, these low cost private schools hire less qualified teachers with no formal training or experience (see the table below). In addition to this factor, the lack of job opportunities for local women is another factor that contributes to teachersÕ low wages. As identified by Andrabi and colleagues (2010), Òdue to a lack of outside opportunities, these women have lower wage rates than educated men. T hese low wages are then passed onto the students in terms of low fees in the competitive marketÓ (Andrabi et al., 2010, p. 211) Table 2: Characteristics of Private vs. public school Teachers in Pakistan School Type Female Average Age Unmarried FA/Fsc MA Lack Professional Training Experience of less than 1 year Private 76% 25 77% 36% 4% 71% 21% Public 43% 38 15% 19% 19% 6% 6% Source: Andrabi et al., (2008). Pakistan: Learning and Educational Achievements in Punjab Schools (LEAPS): Insights to Inform the Education Policy Debate. Islamabad: World Bank. In addition, these reports indicate that the salaries of teachers who work in low cost private schools are five times lower than teachers working in government schools and in certain cases it is even lower than the national minimum wage for unskilled labor (Andrabi et al., 2006; Bari, 212). The other critical factor responsible for the substantial growth of low cost schools is !!!%)!the quality of education offered in these schools. A three -year longitudinal study sponsored by the World Bank on the performance of low cost schools compared to public schools in Pakistan indicated that children in private schools outperformed their counterparts in public schools (World Bank, 2008). The r eport also claimed that teachers in low cost private schools exert more effort in teaching to compensate for their low qualification and training (Andrabi et al., 2006; 2008; 2010; Aslam 2007; Bano, 2008; Des et al, 2006). The phenomenal growth in low cost private schools in Pakistan is the most significant development in the educational landscape of Pakistan since 1990. According to one estimate, one third of primary school children are enrolled in private schools (Andrabi et al., 2010). In addition to international pressure, the substantive growth of the private sector, particularly of low cost schools, is one of the factors that provide a significant push for educational governance reforms in Pakistan. Educational Governan ce Reform In Pakistan: A Move From State Responsibility To Multiple Stake Holders In Education In Pakistan it is primarily the responsibility of the government to provide free and compulsory education to all children . In order to meet its obligation, Pakistan has introduced multiple programs at all school levels. However, despite these efforts the performance of Pakistan is still low on EFA indices (0.68). Thus, international pressure by donor agencies, commitments to Education for All (EFA), prolifera tion of low cost private schools, low participation rates in education and poor spending on education due to budgetary constraints are all factors that have led to the call to restructure the educational system of Pakistan by adopting a public -private part nership model (Farah & Rizvi, 2007). !!!%*!Studies on PakistanÕs national educational policies indicate that the term Òpublic Ðprivate partnershipsÓ was introduced into the policy discourse in Pakistan in the early 1990s (MoE, 2004; MoE, 1998; Naeem, 2012). In or der to accelerate the efforts to encourage private partnerships in education, foundations were established to finance and provide technical support to the private sector for the establishment of schools in underprivileged parts of Pakistan (SEF, 2010). How ever, the need to strengthen the public -private partnerships received momentum by the Education Sector Reform Program in 2001 (Jamil, 2012). In this reform program, the Ministry of Education identified the need for the creation of PPPs and issued the stat ement that Òthe government has officially recognized that the public sector, on its own, lacks all the necessary resources and expertise to effectively address and rectify low education indicatorÓ Ó (MOE, 2004b, quoted by Khan, 2011, p. 15). Public -private partnerships, on the other hand, offer: 1. ÒA less radical alternative to sometimes controversial and less desirable wholesale privatization;Ó 2. ÒA more transparent and proactive manner of engaging the private sector for improving access and quality of educat ion;Ó and 3. ÒEnhanced managerial performance, and entrepreneurial spirit through capacity building inherent in the model.Ó (MOE, 2004b, quoted by Khan, 2011, p. 15) Thus, to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the educational system and to make it mor e responsive to local needs, the Government of Pakistan introduced the public -private partnership (PPP) model. Under this educational governance reform, the government introduced the approach of Òmultiple stakeholders in educationÓ so that education is now a Òjoint ventureÓ of the private and public sectors. However, the state is still the Òprimary provider of education.Ó !!!%+!The most commonly adopted and successful models that emerged under the PPP regime are the per child subsidy program, voucher scheme, and the Òadopt a schoolÓ program. The per child subsidy program is officially called the Foundation Assisted School (FAS) program and is run by the Punjab Education Foundation, which is considered the most successful, efficient, and cost effective program of the public -private partnership (PPP) initiatives. Therefore, the unit of analysis for this comparative study is public schools and public -private schools in the Foundation Assisted School (FAS) program. The subsequent section provides the details on public schools and the Foundation Assisted School program. Public School System The public school system in Pakistan is governed, financed and managed by federal and provincial governments. The policies related to teacher recruitment are defined by federal and provincial governments and include school polices related to teachersÕ recruitment, place of induction, school infrastructure, and school curriculum. These schools offer education from grade one to grade twelve. The details of grade division are as follows: ¥ Grade 1 to Grade 5 = Primary ¥ Grade 6 to Grade 8 = Middle ¥ Grade 9 to Grade 10 = Secondary ¥ Grade 11 to Grade 12 = Higher Secondary Currently, the government has taken initiative to revise the grade division as follows. This plan is still in the implementation stage: ¥ Grade 1 to Grade 8 = Elementary ¥ Grade 9 to Grade 12 = Secondary !!!%,!In public schools, free education is given to all students and the government is responsible for providing textbooks to all students. Foundation Assisted School Progra m The Foundation Assisted Schools (FAS) program is considered the Òflagship program Ó of the Punjab Education Foundation. The Punjab Education Foundation (PEF) is a semi -autonomous intermediary organization; the objective behind the establishment of PEF was to leverage public financing to aid in the growth of the low cost private school system in Punjab to increase equitable access to schooling (Barrera -Ontario & Raju, 2009; Malik, 2008, 2010). Initially, the Punjab Education Foundation was established throu gh the Punjab Education Foundation Act of 1991 of the Punjab Assembly. Primarily, the function of the Foundation was to generate funds and provide loans to private entrepreneurs to establish the schools in order to achieve the target of access to education , particularly for less privileged segments of society (Malik, 2010). This PEF Act was reapproved in 2004. The scope of functions of the PEF was broadened by moving from financial support to technical support of low cost private schools (i.e. working with teachers and administrators in low cost private schools). To some extent, the functions and responsibilities of PEF remained the same even after the reestablishment of the Act in 2004. However, in terms of a governing structure, a major shift occurred as p ower and control was shifted from the government to a board of directors (Malik, 2010). The FAS is one of the biggest PEF programs, with the Punjab Government spending PKR 1.1 billion on this program in one fiscal year. This amount constitutes 65% budget o f the PEF budget (Barrera -Ontario & Raju, 2011). !!!%-!Featu res, Vision And Goals Of The FAS Program The goal of Foundation Assisted Schools (FAS) program is to promote access to education and to provide quality education to low income families in Pakistan, part icularly those residing in rural and slum parts of Punjab by: Promotion of quality education through public -private partnerships, encouraging and supporting the efforts of private sector through technical and financial assistance, innovating and developing new instruments to champion wider educational opportunities at affordable cost to the poor. (Naeem, 2012, p. 6). Under this program, the Government of Punjab provides technical and financial assistance of PKR 350 ($4) per child per month to participant sc hools, based on their performance on quality assurance tests (QAT). The change in the amount of assistance is indexed to inflation. Primarily, private schools are selected for partnership that charge a maximum tuition fee of PRK 300 or less per month (Bano , 2008; Malik, 2010; Salman, 2009). As a part of this program, the government of Punjab generates recurrent funds for the Foundation and holds the Foundation responsible for ensuring fair and transparent allocation of the funds to the partnering low cost p rivate schools. In addition to this task, the PEF is also responsible for monitoring the progress of partner schools in terms of student learning. Therefore, the Salient features of the FAS program are as follows: Financial Assistance by the Government ¥ Per student subsidy with the provision that the participant schools ensure free schooling for all enrolled students ¥ The government will provide a per student subsidy of PKR 350 for elementary schools and PKR 400 for secondary schools !!!&.!¥ The amount of funding f or the participant schools in the FAS program is subject to change on an annual basis and will be related to the countryÕs inflation rate (Barrera -Osorio & Raju, 2009; CFBT, 2011; Malik, 2010) Quality Assurance Test: Determinant of Funding ¥ Funding will b e based on studentsÕ performance on a written test devised and administered by the Punjab Education Foundation called the Quality Assurance Test (QAT) ¥ This test will measure a studentÕs competency in math, Urdu and English and will be conducted twice per a cademic year (Barrera -Osorio & Raju, 2009; CFBT, 2011; Malik, 2010). Provisions of Incentives for Teachers ¥ Monetary bonuses of PKR 1000 ($143) will be given to five teachers in participating schools on the basis of their studentsÕ performance on the biannual QAT ¥ However, teachers in these schools will only be awarded this bonus if at least 90% of their students score 40% or more on the biannual QAT (Barrera -Osorio & Raju, 2009; CFBT, 2011; Malik, 2010). School Performance Related Incentive ¥ The highest scoring schools in each district, in terms of student pass rate in QAT, will receive extra compensation ¥ Once in an academic year, a monetary bonus of PKR 50,000 ($714) will also be given to one of the highest performing FAS across all districts (Barrera -Osorio & Raju, 2009; CFBT, 2011; Malik, 2010). Selection Criteria and Terms of Partnership !!!&%!¥ Minimum enrollment requirement is 100 students and the maximum is 500 ¥ Presence of qualified teaching staff (however, the termÓ qualifiedÓ is unclear as it does not d efine any criteria in terms of the qualification and training of teachers in FAS schools) ¥ Preference will be given to schools located in rural areas with the highest level of illiteracy and to female -only schools ¥ Participant schools should have a supportiv e learning environment in terms of the physical infrastructure ¥ 67% of the students in the participating schools must pass the Short -Listing Quality Assurance Test (SLQAT) with scores at least 37% or higher in math, English, and Urdu to qualify for the part nership (Barrera -Osorio & Raju, 2009; CFBT, 2011; Malik, 2010) Terms and Rules for the Continuation of Subsidies ¥ Financial support will be based on the performance of schools as determined by the biannual QAT that are aimed to assess studentsÕ competency i n math, English and Urdu ¥ For the continuation of financial support, the participating schools must ensure that 67% of the tested students (selected across grades and tests) secure 40% or higher on the QAT ¥ The duration of a partnership will be five years ¥ Subsidies are to cover tuition fees, lab requirements, stationary, and other co -curricular expenses of students ¥ Participating schools will not charge or collect any fee, or any amount of money in the form of fines, recreation funds, stationary costs, or any other type of cost ¥ Participating schools are responsible for reporting accurate information about the schoolsÕ enrollment trends to ensure timely and adequate public subsidy payments !!!&&!¥ The administration of the schools will be responsible to ensure a support ive learning environment for the students within six months of the execution of a partnership plan ¥ The teacher pupil ratio should be 1:30 ¥ Representatives of the Punjab Education Foundation will inspect participant schools randomly at any time during the wo rking hours of the schools (Barrera -Osorio & Raju, 2009; CFBT, 2011; PEF, 2006; Malik, 2010) Size, Growth, And Estimated Impacts Of The Foundation Assisted Schools (FAS ) Program Initially, the FAS program was launched in 54 schools in five districts in November 2005 on a pilot basis. Recent reports indicate a phenomenal growth of the program across the Punjab to cover additional low cost private schools. The following table presents the details of the FAS growth (Malik, 2008; 2010). Table 3: Number of Schools and Students in the FAS Program Year Number of schools Number of students Total Male Female 2005 54 8,573 4,321 4,252 2006 184 70,345 35,140 35,205 2007 678 256,456 128,100 128,356 2008 1,085 449,712 229,311 220,401 2009 1,337 529,210 267,107 262,103 Source : Malik . (2010). Public -Private Partnership in Education: Lessons Learned from the Punjab Education Foundation (p. 7). The program has successfully completed its first five phases. A recent report shows an addition of 500 schools in phase six. According to one estimate, 87% of FAS are located in districts with the lowest adult literacy rates (Barrera -Osorio & Raju, 2009; M alik, 2008, 2010). In addition to the growth in the number of schools and pupils, recent reports issued by the Punjab Education Foundation also indicate a substantial growth in studentsÕ test scores on the Quality Assurance Tests (QAT) conducted by PEF. These QATs are conduc ted biannually in the !!!&'!months of March and October. Every year, two classes from elementary schools and three classes from middle and high schools in the FAS are tested. The following table presents the details of improvement in test scores: Table 4: Results of the Quality Assurance Tests, 2006 -2009 Year Percentage of studentsÕ test scores >90% >80% >70% > 60% >50% >40% <40% 2006 1.0 5.8 11.9 19.4 19.6 20.7 21.6 2007 1.3 8.4 9.6 19.9 19.7 24.7 16.5 2008 16.6 18.5 18.9 19.8 12.8 9.5 4.3 2009a 17.6 18.7 19.3 16.8 13.6 9.8 4.3 Source : Malik. (2010). Public -Private Partnership in Education: Lesson learned from the Punjab Education Foundation (p. 9). These reports regarding the performance of students in FAS claim that, on average, the test scores of students have improved from 63% to 79% over the period of four years (Malik, 2010). These figures, if accurate, seem, at first glance, quite impressive. B ut because students in the public sector do not take the QAT, and because it is unclear exactly which students are being pulled into the FAS sector, such figures must be interpreted with an air of caution. One goal of the present study is to gain a clearer perspective on the FAS achievements by placing the FAS context into a descriptive comparison with the context of the schools in the public sector. The opening sections of this chapter have provided details of the international and national policy debate s regarding efficiency based reforms and the details of the FAS program. The following sections present the debates between educational scholars in relation to the impacts of efficiency -based reforms on teachers. Section II : Perspectives From Academia Thi s section presents the perspectives of educational scholars and researchers in relation to the impacts of efficiency based reforms on teachers. From previous literature, it is evident that these efficiency based policy discourses in education are driven by the global rhetoric of cost !!!&(!effectiveness, accountability, measureable outcomes, and performance benchmarks to improve the quality of education. Debates and concerns amongst academic scholars are broad and divergent, ranging from teachersÕ professionalism , to bigger policy questions related to the exploitation of teacher labor market. Verger and Altinyelken (2013) state that the current global managerial reform in education: Aims at transforming education systems in many ways, however, among other effects, their actual and potential effects on teachers are remarkable. Managerial reforms do not necessarily target teachersÕ work directly, but might affect teachers by altering the regulatory and normative environment in which they operate. [They might] tend to modify the working conditions of teachers and their responsibilities, as well as how teachersÕ performance is assessed and judged by the state and society. Managerial reforms also challenge the professional status of teachers, and reshape teaching as a profession. To some extent, this is the consequence of the fact that the managerial focus of GMERs converts teachers into objects of intervention and assets to be managed rather than to subjects of educational change. (p. 2) For the proposed study, discussions related to the impact of efficiency -based reforms on teachers are presented. These impacts can be separated into three domains: teachersÕ roles and status, working conditions, and labor market. Impacts Of Efficiency Bas ed Reforms On TeachersÕ Status A review of the literature in relation to recent impacts of efficiency -based reforms indicates that they have impacted the status of teachers from a Òchange makerÓ to an Òobject of interventionÓ (Ball, 2003). Likewise, in re lation to teachersÕ status and role in policy debates, in his analysis of the World BankÕs strategy to improve teaching quality through educational !!!&)!governance reforms, Mark Ginsburg (2010) argues that views of teachers have changed from either professional s, learning actors or political agents into ÒassetsÓ that are to be managed. In another study, Ball and Youdell (2007) argued that this Òperformativity discourseÓ in education has transformed teachersÕ identities from teachers to technicians, by making th eir work intensive and demanding. In order to improve the quality of education, these efficiency based reforms employ stick and carrot mechanisms. Using studentsÕ performance on tests as measurement, incentives and punishment are dealt to teachers (Ball, 2 003). In his analysis of recent educational policies, Ball (2003) stated that in these policies: Teachers are presented and encouraged to think about themselves as individuals who calculate about themselves, Òadd valueÓ to themselves, improve their productivity, strive for excellence and live in existence of calculation. They are Òenterprising subjects,Ó who live their lives as an Òenterprise of the selfÓ (Ball, 2003, p. 217). Therefore, some educators and researchers believe that emerging instituti onal practices in the wake of the accountability regime and performance oriented approach to education work against the professionalism of teaching (Verger & Altinyelken, 2013). Because these practices make teachers accountable to state and society in new and very particular ways, they are forced to work in a regulated and controlled environment of Òbureaucratic accountability.Ó Some believe that this policy action not only deprives teachers of their labor rights, but also harms their status as professional s (Frymier 1996; Hargraves et al. , 2007; Sahlberg, 2006; Verger et al., 2013). Impacts On TeachersÕ Working Conditions The school as a Òworkplace can be understood as having many features that together create the context for individual teachersÕ workÓ (Joh nson 1990, p. 2). In relation to the importance of teachersÕ work environment, substantive evidence suggests that teachersÕ ability and commitment to continue their work are influenced by their working conditions and climate (Johnson et al., 2003). Physica l resources, volume of workload, and the sociocultural context of !!!&*!schools are some of the significant factors that shape the climate of teachersÕ work (Day, 2002; Johnson, 2003; Johnson et al, 2005; Leithwood; 2006; Loeb & Darling -Hammond, 2005; Valli & Buese, 2007). These studies further argue that the declining quality of teacherÕs working conditions has the potential to undermine any educational reform effort (Leithwood, 2006). In relation to the implementation of accountability and performance based re forms, scholars and researchers share the concern that the new Òaccountability regimeÓ has increased teachersÕ workload by making it more intensified (Day, 2002; Dee & Jacob, 2010; Hargreaves, 1994; Reback, Rockoff, & Schwartz, 2011). This academic discour se in relation to teachersÕ working conditions also indicates that the intensification of teachersÕ work causes low morale and lack of professional commitment amongst teachers. In a study related to the impact of testing in education, Byrd -Blake and colle agues (2010) reported that the Òtest driven cultureÓ is one of the most important factors responsible for the frustration and low level of morale amongst teachers. The literature indicates that performance oriented reforms not only impact the organizationa l aspect of teachersÕ work, but also negatively influence their state of mind and relationships with colleagues (Johnson et al., 2003; Leithwood, 2006). As reported by MacBeath and colleagues (2006): Intensification refers to increasing pressure to do more in less time, to be responsive to a greater range of demands from external sources, to meet a greater range of targets, to be driven by deadlines. The more intensive the demand and external pressure the less is teachersÕ sense of control over their own pl anning, decision making, classro om management and relationships (p. 13) A substantive body of literature indicates that Òaccountability regimesÓ always bring some type of anxiety and stress with implementation and negatively impact teachersÕ working environment !!!&+!by placing undue Òperformance pressureÓ on teachers (Haladyna et a l., 1998; Mulvenson et al., 2005). Impacts On The Teacher Labor Market The current dynamics of the teacher labor market have changed as a result of privatization and the emergence of PPP models in education. These reforms have caused deregulation of teach ersÕ labor market by changing hiring policies. This deregulation further exploits the labor market for teachers due to the lower salary structure for teachers on contracts hired for PPP positions. Koning (2013) reported, Òcontract teachers receive lower sa laries than regular teachers, have poor job security and lack of social benefitsÓ (p. 102). However, expectations for the quality of work and other factors involved in teaching remain the same for contract teachers compared to their colleagues serving in r egular positions in these schools. Ball and Youdell (2007) stated that the current efficiency based reforms negatively impact the concept of teachersÕ quality. Specifically, teachersÕ worth is inadvertently reflected in terms of money because Òlower pay an d softer contracts allow significant efficiency savings to be madeÓ (p. 49). This may lead to a segmented teaching force in terms of wage and quality, meaning some groups of children will be served by teachers with less commitment, morale and professional training. The literature in relation to the impacts of efficiency based reforms also report some positive impacts on teachers. A few studies have indicated that Òperformance pressureÓ caused by these reforms may increase teachersÕ motivation to improve the ir instruction (Fish, 1988; Hamilton et al., 2007; Maduas, 1985; Herman & Golan, 1991). In addition, this aspect of the literature also indicates an increase in teachersÕ salaries, instructional resources, and improvements in physical structures in low inc ome schools. !!!&,!Summary: The New Accountability Regime And Teaching The aforementioned literature regarding the implementation of efficiency based educational reforms indicates that these reforms have the potential to incur costs at the institutional level. T hese reforms not only restructure the normative framework of school operations and teachersÕ workload, but also redefine school arrangements and legitimate the distribution of certain pressures and costs in educational institutions (Kang, 2009; Rice & Male n, 2003). Initiation of the FAS model in Pakistan is an example of this performativity discourse in education. The FAS program represents the global ideals of cost effectiveness, accountability, and measureable outcomes in external assessments. The FAS pr ogram has been declared a successful model of PPP and reports improvement in studentsÕ test scores as compared to public schools in Pakistan. However, a discussion of the role and importance of mediating actors such as teachers is missing in debates about the success of FAS compared to public schools. A promising body of literature indicates that Òteachers are the Ômain stakeholderÕ group in policy and are linked to policy Ðrelevant outcomesÓ in ways that policymakers cannot ignore (Grissom, 2011). These re searchers stress the need to engage teachers in policy dialogue and argue that Òyou cannot expect to produce a quality education system, and exclude the practitionersÓ (Gulpers, 2013, p.47; see also Grissom, 2011). Thus, there is need to identify teachersÕ role as a significant mediating actor in the implementation of different educational interventions by valuing their contribution and sharing their efforts, struggles and constraints. Goodson (1995) claimed that: Periods of reform may be characterized as extrinsic critical incidents in which macro political changes impinge on and interact with classroom and personal life. Given that reforms are intended to raise stand ards of teaching and learning it is important then to chart their effect on teachers as persons as well as professionals (p. 96). !!!&-! Considering this viewpoint, the present study is an effort to contribute to the existing literature regarding the nature of human cost that teachers incur while working in FAS and public schools. In the policy debates over cost effective models in educat ion, Rice and Malen (2003) argued that educational reforms that are Òperson -dependent enterprisesÓ not only demand resources, expenditures, and equipment, but also the time, will, efforts, and motivation of actors who mediate the process of policy implemen tation at the classroom level. Rice and Malen further direct us to examine the Òhuman costsÓ associated with cost effective models; that is, Òreform -related sacrifices made by individuals and groups of individuals in the organization to implement and achie ve the targets of a particular reformÓ (p. 639). This study aims to bring a humanistic perspective to the business discourse of international educational policy by considering and exploring the human costs that incur to teachers in public schools and FAS. Research Questions Based on the review of the literature, the proposed study seeks to address the following research questions. 1. What is the nature and extent of human costs (task, social and psychological) associated with FAS program in comparison with th e public schools in Pakistan? In order to examine the human costs associated with both of these institutions, teachersÕ workload, working conditions, and the social aspects of their work environment will be examined. The second question will address: 2. How does human cost affect the desired goal of quality education as prescribed by contemporary educational policies such as EFA (2000 -2015) and National Education Policy (NEP) of Pakistan (20009) in their strategic frameworks? !!!'.!The desired goals of quality in education prescribed by EFA (2000 -2015) and NEP (2009) in their strategic frameworks will be used as a frame of reference for comparison and cross analysis of human costs with education quality. Chapters four, five and six will address question one while c hapter seven will use the data presented in those chapters to address question two. Section III : Theoretical Framework: Human Cost The study is informed by the theoretical perspectives on human cost provided by Rice and Malen (2003). In their conceptual fr amework, Rice and Malen (2003) articulated that all educational reforms cast some type of cost; that is, the Ò value of what is given upÓ in order to achieve the goals of the initiative. Thus, they explained that Òall costs represent the sacrifice of an opp ortunity that has been foregone. By using resources in one way, we are giving up the ability to use them in another way, so a cost has been incurredÓ (Rice & Malen, 2003, p. 44). These authors further argued, as stated above, that these educational reforms that are Òperson dependent enterprisesÓ that demand not only resources, expenditures, and equipment but also the time, will, efforts and motivation of actors who mediate the proc ess of policy implementation at the classroom level. The implementation of any educational reform may bring drastic changes in the roles and responsibilities of teachers and school administrators (Rice & Malen, 2003). Identification of these commonly ignor ed costs may be very costly to such an organization, challenging notions that they are serving a population well and with minimal expenditures. Rice and Malen (2003) identified three categories of costs in relation to human cost: Task costs : the time and effort that individuals in the organization expend to meet work demands; !!!'%!Social costs : the tolls paid collectively in the form of worker turnover and loss of community, trust, and collegiality between employees; and Psychological costs : the burdens borne by individuals, often in the form of a general loss of professional efficacy and self -worth. (Rice & Malen, 2003, p. 640) While there is obviously overlap among these three catego ries (for example, if a valued colleague leaves for more steady work or higher pay, a psychological cost is probably born by the individual), the three categories are in themselves helpful. That said, in order to examine the nature and extent of human co st, a synthesized body of literature will be used to select indicators in relation to each category of human costs in order to operationalize each of these three constructs: task, psychological and social costs (see Figure 1 below). Each construct will be examined in turn. !!!'&!Figure 1: Human cost Indicators Task Cost(Time & Effort) Psychological Cost(Job satisfaction & Stress level)Social Cost(Loss of community/professional network)Class sizeNon teaching assignmentsTime for teaching and administrative workLack of Job security & salary structureLack of Instructional resources & opportunities of PDLack of Teaching experience & poor quality of mentoringIncrease in Human CostDecrease in Human CostHuman CostIncreasedDecreasedOut of field assignments!!!''!Task Cost According to Rice and Malen (2003), task cost involves the Òtime and effort that individuals in the organization expend to meet work demandsÓ (p. 640). In order to examine the nature, distribution, and emerging trends in task cost associated with public sc hools and FAS, the concept of Òintensification of workÓ will be used, which refers to: Increasing pressure to do more in less time, to be responsive to a greater range of demands from external sources, to meet a greater range of targets, to be driven by deadlines. The more intensive the demand and external pressure the less is teachersÕ sense of control over their own planning, decision making, classroom management and relationships. (MacBeath et al., 2006, p. 13) The current academic discourse has identified longer working hours, out -of-field/split teaching assignments, multi -grade teaching, large class sizes, and the burden of non -teaching assignments as some of the factors responsible for intensification of work for teachers (Johnson et al., 2004; Hargreaves, 1994). In order to analyze the task cost, the following indicators will be used: ¥ Total work hours and their distribution (teaching, planning, socialization, and collaboration) ¥ Out of field assignments ¥ Burden of non -teaching assignments ¥ Class size Each of these will now be discussed in turn. First, for the improvement of instructional practices, researchers have argued that Òthe most important resource for improvement is time with colleagues; time for teacher s to study, !!!'(!analyze and advance their pr acticesÓ (Bird & Little quoted by Hargreaves, 1994, p. 97). Researchers such as these indicate that quality teaching requires adequate time for lesson planning, collaboration, and team work to enhance the quality of instruction at the classroom level. Lack of time creates stress amongst teachers, leading to depersonalization of instruction, and compromising of quality standards (Futernick, 2007; Hargreaves, 1994; Janson, 2005; Klette, 2000; Stinnet, 1968). TeachersÕ t ime is generally divided into two broad categories: teaching time (allocated for classroom instruction) and non -teaching time (allocated for other school related activities) (MacBeath et al., 2002). Campbell (1985) is among those who has argued that the a vailability of contact (preparation) time is exceptionally significant for the improvement of teaching practices and the development of collegiality and a sense of community amongst teachers (see also Hargreaves, 1994). Thus, teachersÕ time is one of the i mportant indicators for this study and will be used to describe the dimension and distribution of teachersÕ time (teaching vs. non -teaching) in public and FAS. Second, It is a general practice in low -cost schools to assign teachers to teaching assignments that span different fields of studies other than their areas of specialization. In addition to out -of-field assignments, multi -grade teaching is another common practice in low -income schools. Accomplishments from such out -of-field/split assignments demand more effort and time from teachers in order to prepare themselves for these assignments (Johnson et al, 2005; Johnson, 2006). This study will use this as another indicator to assess the teachersÕ work assignments in both sectors. Third, excessive administ rative duties and paper work (e.g. filing, collecting and keeping studentsÕ records), organizing parent -teacher meetings and extracurricular activities, and school !!!')!and classroom monitoring duties all intensify teachersÕ work (Leithwood, 2006; Jonson, 2006; Stinnett, 1969; MacBeath; 2002). Literature on teachersÕ working conditions indicates that excessive non -teaching assignments make it difficult for teachers to balance their teaching and non- teaching assignments, which may lead to poor quality of instruc tion, burnout, and stress amongst teachers (Johnson al., 2005; Leithwood, 2006). Finally , class size also impacts teachersÕ work load. Research indicates that teachers with a large class size have to put more effort and energy into engaging students in the learning process and this extra burden intensifies their workload and leads to stress and dissatisfaction (Johnson et al., 2005). FuternickÕs (2007) study also supports the effectiveness of small class size to achieve better instructional quality. Though this finding is not consistent across the literature, his claim for the benefits of smaller class sizes are hard to ignore (more time to work with special needs children and meet with parents). These four indicators --total work hours, out of field assignm ents, non -teaching assignments, and class size Ñwill all be used to operationalize the notion of task cost in this study. Psychological Cost This category involves the burdens and pressures that individuals bear in meeting their job demands. Loss of effica cy, low morale, stress, burnout, and lack of professional commitment are some of the psychological costs associated with certain educational reforms (Johnson, 2006; Rice & Malen, 2003). Quality in education demands teachersÕ commitment to the profession in relation to students and the organization (Johnson, 2006; Leithwood, 2006). Prior literature indicates that teachersÕ ability to teach effectively and to continue in their profession depend upon their internal states and thoughts that are shaped by their school environment (Leithwood, !!!'*!2006). Therefore, it is highly important to understand how and in what ways certain schoolsÕ conditions and practices may impact teachersÕ relationship to their work (Leithwood, 2006). In the discussion of teachersÕ profess ional commitment, job satisfaction and level of occupational stress are considered important (Johnson et al., 2003; Johnson, 2006, Leithwood, 2009; Leob & Darlin -Hammond, 2009; Shin & Reyes, 1995). In order to operationalize the psychological cost associat ed with the public sector and FAS program, two constructs will be used: job satisfaction and stress, to understand the effects of teachersÕ working conditions in both institutions on their psychological wellbeing and professional commitment. Job satisf action, as understood in the present study, will be defined as a Òpositive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of oneÕs job or job experiencesÓ or the Òdegree to which an employee has positive emotions toward workÓ (Leithwood, 2006, p. 22). Stres s, as understood in the present study, is the experience by a teacher of unpleasant, negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration or depression, results from some aspect of their work as a teacher (Kyricou, 2001, p. 28). Substantial e vidence suggests that salary, job security, lack of structural support for new teachers and professional development impact the job satisfaction and stress levels. For this study, I will use the following indicators to examine teachersÕ stress level and j obs satisfaction in FASs and Public schools. First, teacherÕs salaries and job security. The literature in relation to teachersÕ job satisfaction and commitment indicates that teachersÕ salaries work as an ÒattractorÓ and ÒretainerÓ for teachers in the profession. This body of literature indicates a low salary as one of the major reasons for teacher at trition (Buckley et al., 2004; Tye & OÕBrien, 2002). Teachers with higher pay levels are more likely to remain in the teaching profession, while a low sala ry !!!'+!structure and lack of job security cause frustration and stress amongst teachers, leading to high teacher attrition (Gritz & Theobald 1996; Johnson et al., 2005; Murnane et at ., 1991; Stinebrickner, 2001). Second, access to instructional resources and opportunities for learning and professional development . Studies in relation to availability of school supplies and instructional materials identify lack of instructional resources as one of the major reasons for teachersÕ frustrations and job dissati sfaction (Berry, Smylie & Fuller, 2008; Buckley, Schneider, & Shang, 2004). These studies report that inadequacy of instructional resources intensifies teachersÕ work and increases their stress level, because in these situations, teachers have to struggle to make necessary arrangements and substitutions to meet their instructional needs (Corcoran et al., 1988; Firestone & Rosenblum, 1988; Hansen & Corcoran, 1989). The studies based on the role of instructional materials and professional development provide compelling evidences that the availability of instructional resources and opportunities to grow and learn reduces teachersÕ anxiety and increases their job satisfaction (Dinham, 1994; Gritz & Theobald, 1996; Johnson, 1990; Leob & Darling -Hammond, 2009). In addition to the availability of resources, opportunities of self -growth in relation to mastery and acquisition of professional skills are also critical for teachersÕ job satisfaction (Dinham & Scott, 1998). Finally, available support for new teachers. It is evident from previous literature that a lack of teaching experience, coupled with poor support structures available for new teachers, potentially exposes them to the dangers of Òsink -or-swim,Ó Òtrial -by-fireÓ or Òboot -campÓ experiences that significan tly impact their job satisfaction and stress levels (Johnson 1990; Johnson & Birkeland, 2003; Sizer 1992). For instance, structural support, available in terms of mentoring and assistance, impacts teachersÕ decisions to stay longer in the teaching professi on !!!',!and also impacts the level of satisfaction towards their assigned task (Feiman -Nemser, 1996; Johnson, 2006). In another study, Smith and Ingersoll (2003) also identified the role of Òbasic inductionÓ on teachersÕ probability of turnover. Social Cost Soc ial cost is characterized by the dissembling of professional networks, loss of community, and a lack of collegiality between employees (Rice & Malen, 2003). In order to analyze public schoolsÕ and FASÕs social environment, the concept of teacher community will be used. Teacher community is defined as a Ògroup of people sharing and critically interrogating their practice in an ongoing, reflective, collaborative, inclusive, learning -oriented, growth -promoting wayÓ (Stoll et al., 2006, p. 223). Scant research exists in the Pakistani context regarding the school structure, characteristics of teachers, and teacher communities within schools. To fill this gap, the current analysis will investigate and compare the institutional practices of public schools and FAS including information on teachersÕ daily routines, opportunities for socialization and collaboration, and the nature of the relationship between teachers and school principals. This data will help to compare which institution provides a better work environ ment that helps teachers to grow, learn, and act as professionals. Section Iv: Defining Quality Education And The Place Of Teachers In National And International Discourse On Quality In Education This section explains how quality in education is defined in national and International policy debates and how these policy initiatives identify teachersÕ role in their strategic frameworks. !!!'-!Defining Quality Education Quality education is a contested term and has been defined in various ways in different contexts. Currently, one of the most commonly used standards to define quality education is studentsÕ test scores on state level examinations and quality assurance tests. However, the analysis of the global educational movement on education and National Education P olicy of Pakistan indicates that no standard definition exists to define quality education. Furthermore, the EFA strategic framework does not support the idea of using studentsÕ test scores as the only criterion for determining quality education. As the re cently published EFA monitoring report states: Good quality education is more than learning outcomes as measured by international, regional and national assessments. The evidence reviewed in this chapter highlights various dimensions of education quality: more and better -trained teachers, improved learning materials available to all learners, school time in which teachers and pupils are actively engaged in learning activities, inclusive and relevant curricula, pedagogical renewal, more welcoming learning en vironments and better school governance ( EFA-Global Monitoring Report , 2015, p. 217). The analysis of the EFA strategic framework and National Education Policy, 2009 emphasize the need to improve quality in education and identify certain parameters to main tain quality in education. The details of these parameters are discussed below. Place Of Teachers As Per Quality Parameters Defined In Efa (2000 -2015) And National Educational Policy (2009) Pakistan is a signatory of the Education for All (EFA) initiative since 1990 and national policies within the country are aligned with and informed by this strategic framework. Although !!!(.!quality education has been part of the international commitment to edu cation, the EFA Dakar framework 2000 suggested the need to further improve education across the world by 2015, and outlined the parameters constituting a quality education. In 2009, for the first time in the history of educational policy development, the national education policy of Pakistan allocated a chapter on quality education and identified important parameters to track and monitor the quality of education in Pakistan. Among these parameters, teacher quality was identified as the most significant. T he policy emphasized the need to initiate national efforts to restructure the system with a focus on improving teacher quality. Thus, an analysis of the EFA and NEP frameworks shows that teachers play an important and leading role in achieving the goals of quality in education (see table below). !!!(%!Table 5: Identified Parameters of Quality Education By EFA (2000 -2015) & NEP Policy Framework Parameters for quality education Place of teachers in policy framework EFA, 2000 ÒGovernments and all other EFA partners must work together to ensure basic education of quality for all, regardless of gender, wealth, location, language or ethnic origin. Successful education programs require: (1) healthy, well - nourished and motivated students; (2) well -trained teachers and active learning techniques; (3) adequate facilities and learning ma terials; (4) a relevant curriculum that can be taught and learned in a local language and builds upon the knowledge and experience of the teachers and learners; (5) an environment that not only encourages learning but is welcoming, gender -sensitive, health y and safe; (6) a clear definition and accurate assessment of learning outcomes, including knowledge, skills, attitudes and values; (7) participatory governance and management; and (8) respect for and engagement with local communities and culturesÓ( p. 17) . ÒTeachers are essential players in promoting quality education, whether in schools or in more flexible community - based programs; they are advocates for, and catalysts of, change. No education reform is likely to succeed without the active participation and ownership of teachersÓ (p. 20). National Education Policy, 2009 ÒMost of the inputs in the system have an impact on quality. However, there are five - six basic pillars that have the major contribution. These are curriculum, textbooks, assessments, tea chers, the learning environment in an institution and relevance of education to practical life/ labor marketÓ (p. 42). ÒThe most significant action is required in improving the teaching resources and the pedagogical approaches teachersÕ employ. The reform of teaching quality is of the highest priorityÓ (p. 42). !!!(&!In order to ensure the effective participation of teachers in policy implementation regarding quality education goals, the EFA (2000) strategic framework and NEP, 2009 stress the need to improve the Òstatus, morale and professionalism of teachersÓ and suggest policy actions to restructure recruitment policies with a focus on hiring academically an d professionally qualified candidates. These polices also identify the need to strengthen the system of school based professional trainings and incentives, and also ensure that teachers participate in school related matters and policy debates (EFA, 2000, p . 9 & NEP, 2009). The fifteen -year cycle of the EFA Dakar strategic framework has recently come to an end. Recently, monitoring reports were issued that assess the progress, success, and challenges of EFA goals to improve the policy framework for post -2015 goals. The suggested EFA strategic framework for post -2015 also reaffirms its commitment to the continuity and improvement of policy actions to enhance quality education through teachersÕ status and professionalism. Teachers have an important role in both national and international policy frameworks, with reference to quality improvement. These policies emphasize the need to invest in teachers to address their personal and professional needs. From the literature, it is evident that Òperson - dependentÓ inte rventions are associated with some costs, whose intensity may vary across different contexts, but nevertheless exist. The primary focus of current policy debates is on how much it costs to teach a child, while excluding the costs that teachers incur while achieving the assigned targets. These implicit and hidden costs may hinder the efforts of achieving quality education. Given this context, it is highly important to evaluate the current educational discourse aimed at restructuring the system of educational delivery that promotes and encourages low -cost -rationale interventions like the FAS program. !!!('!The next section explains the analytical framework tha t will be used to evaluate the e ffects of human costs related to teachers on quality education in Pakistan. Towards Developing A Comparative Frame Of Reference For Teacher Quality And Human Cost In order to explore the impacts of human costs on quality education goals, the EFA and NEP strategies were compiled with reference to what this study found in regards to teachersÕ work requirements, working conditions, and schoolsÕ social environments that aim to enhance the Òstatus, morale and professionalismÓ of teachers (EFA, 2009, p.9). The following policy documents were used to develop the standard criteria against which l evaluated the institutional practices of Public and FAS with reference to teachers. ¥ EFA Dakar Framework, 2000 ¥ EFA, Global Motoring report: Quality Imperative, 2005 ¥ EFA, Global Motoring report, Quality Teaching and Learning, 2013/14 ¥ Education for All: Achievement and Challenges, 2015 ¥ PakistanÕs National Educational Policy, 2009 All reports were thoroughly reviewed, including the consistency and frequency of strategies and policy actions related to teachersÕ work assignments, working conditions (sal ary, resources, job status, PD) and schoolsÕ social environment (autonomy, decision making, collegial environment). A comparative framework was developed by choosing the most consistent and most frequently occurring themes across these reports (see table b elow) and will be used as frame of reference to evaluate the findings on the institutional practices of FAS and public schools against the national and EFA strategic frameworks. !!!((! Table 6: Comparative Framework of Human Costs and Qu ality Education Standards Human cost Quality education criteria with reference to teachers Task Cost (time and effort) ¥ Total work hours and their distribution ¥ Out of field assignments ¥ Class size ¥ Burden of non -teaching assignments ¥ Small class size ¥ Ensure teachersÕ subject -matter competency for teaching ¥ Increase and ensure quality instructional time Psychological Cost (stress and job satisfaction) ¥ Salary, job status and entitlements ¥ Professional and instructional resources ¥ Professional support o For new tea chers o For In -service teachers ÒTeachers at all levels of the education system should be respected and adequately remunerated; have access to training and on -going professional development and support (EFA, 2000, P.20) ¥ Strengthen the incentive system to improve teachersÕ morale and status and to retain the best teachers in the profession. ÑÒSalaries are just one of many factors that motivates teachers, but they are a key consideration in attracting the best candidates and retaining the best teachers. Low salaries are likely to damage morale and can ¥ lead teachers to switch to other careersÓ ( EFA-GMR, 2013/14, p.254) ¥ Teachers must have access to quality instructional and professional resources to be effective ( EFA-GMR, 2013/14) Social Cost (loss of community/professional networking) ¥ Collaboration/team work ¥ Teacher empowerment o TeachersÕ involvement in decision making and autonomy o Realization and awareness of professional status among teachers o Self-efficacy ¥ Role of the principal ¥ ÒDevelop the policies and codes of conducts to enhance the physical, psycho -social and emotional health of teachers and learnersÓ (EFA, 2000, p.20) ¥ Encourage teachersÕ participation in decisions related to their work and profession at policy and as well as school level matters (EFA, 2000 & EFA-GMR, 2005) ¥ ÒParticipatory governance and managementÓ(EFA, 2000, P.17) -- Establish normative frameworks in order to promote teachersÕ involvement into matter related to institutional re -structuring and improvement by encouraging teamwork. Develop the culture of teachersÕ community, and encourage teachersÕ participation in decision making (EFA, 2000) Recognize importance of teachersÕ empowerment for creating better schools environment (EFA, 2005). Source. EFA, 2000; EFA-GMR, 2005; EFA-GMR, 2 013/14; EFA-GMR, 2015 & Rice and Malen, 2003 !!!()!This literature review will help us to situate the current research study in the quality education debate. In the coming chapters, I will first introduce the methodology that guides the data collection of this s tudy, before then turning to chapters on human cost Ñtask, psychological and social Ñbefore ending by examining the impact of human cost on goals for quality education in the context of the two sectors of the Pakistani national educational system. !!!(*!CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study is a comparative case study and employs a mixed method approach to understand and explore the nature and extent of human costs associated with Foundation Assisted Schools (FAS) and public schools in Pakistan and their possible impacts on educational quality. Considering the comparative nature of the study, both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to obtain valid data on important variables. Some of these variables include: as a scho olÕs faculty composition and distribution based on academic qualifications and teaching experience; teachersÕ job status and remuneration, teachersÕ teaching and non -teaching assignments; and the availability of physical and instructional resources in both types of institutions. This data was collected through surveys and observation sheets (291 surveys and 24 structured - observation sheets). These data sources enabled analysis of the variations and similarities in these indicators in numerical form and on a relatively large scale. The qualitative aspect of this research study involved interviews with school teachers and principals (36 interviews) and helped to e xplore and compare the impacts of these school level variations in terms of teacher composition (based on academic qualifications) as well as work culture and resources (physical and instructional) on teachersÕ work environments, psychological wellbeing, teaching practices, and career orientations. Finally, the collection of qualitative data allows f or an investigation of what implications these factors hold for national and international goals toward quality education. Structure Of The Chapter The chapter is divided into four main sections. These include !!!(+!o The context of the study, along with a descrip tion of research questions, research sites, and participants; o The sources/methods of data collection; o The phases and methodology of the data analysis; and o The challenges that occurred while collecting data. Context Overview This comparative case study is an effort to bring a humanistic perspective to the neo -liberal ÒbusinessÓ discourse about educational reforms. By utilizing the lens of human costs as posited by Rice & Malen (2003), this analysis adds a new caveat to the existing international policy dial ogue on educational reforms, which has typically focused on the economic costs to the exclusion of all other costs. In Pakistan, it is primarily the responsibility of the government to provide free and compu lsory education to all children. However, Pakist anÕs repeated failures to meet its international commitments to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All (EFA) by 2015, combined with the phenomenal growth of low cost private schools since 2000, are some of the important factors that led the government to institute these reforms in education. During this new era of government reforms, Pakistan adopted the policy of Òmultiple actors in educationÓ or a ÒblendedÓ approach of supporting public and private entities to ensure effective and e fficient education delivery services. Under the new management model of Public -Private Partnerships (PPP) in education, Pakistan introduced many initiatives, such as a per child subsidy program for low -cost private schools, a voucher system for parents to support such schools, and other school initiatives to establish affordable private schools in underprivileged areas. !!!(,!Economic rationality and cost -benefit assessments, rather than pedagogical and academic perspectives, mainly inform these current approach es in education policy. PakistanÕs current per child subsidy program and the Foundation Assisted School program reflect this business -oriented approach to education. Under the FAS program, the Government of Punjab provides technical and financial assistan ce of PKR 350 ($4) per child, per month, to low -cost private partner schools based on their performance on the biannual Quality Assurance Tests (QAT) conducted by the Punjab Education Foundation (Bano, 2008; Malik, 2010; Naeem, 2012; Salman, 2009). The re cent assessment reports on the progress of FAS indicate the success of the program in terms of studentsÕ performance on the Quality Assurance Tests (QAT) and the percentage increase in student enrollment. Based on these achievements, the FAS program has be en declared one of the most Òcost effectiveÓ interventions among developing countries, especially in Pakistan. As reported by the World Bank (2009), The most conservative estimates suggest that the FAS program expanded schools by, on average, 85 students, 3 teachers, 4 classrooms and 3 blackboards. Using the conservative impact estimate on enrollment and an annual per student subsidy cost of PKR 3,600, the annual per student cost of increasing enrollment in FAS program schools by 1% is estimated at roughly PKR 100. The cost -effectiveness ratio for the FAS program places it among the cheapest programs for increasing enrollment among evaluated programs around the developing world, which have also generated enrollment gains. (p. 9) It is therefore clear that recent policy discourses at the national and the international levels about the achievements of the FAS program in comparison to public schools have revolved around the economic costs involved in its success and seem to have neglected the human costs invol ved in the implementation of this program. !!!(-!Currently, economic efficiency is one of the indicators that has played a critical role in the support and promotion of efficiency -based educational interventions, such as FAS. The promotion of this intervention i s justified by studentsÕ test scores, which are still controversial and contain contested criteria in the assessment of educational quality, but such schools are still less expensive compared to the public ones. However, a critical analysis of this policy reform reveals a human factor involved in the learning process, such as teachersÕ learning process, teachersÕ roles, and their status as professionals. Unfortunately, these crucial aspects in assessing education interventions are entirely missing in policy debates that solely compare the economic efficiency of public schools and FAS as indicators of quality education. A review of the relevant literature for evaluating the effectiveness of educational interventions indicates that educational reforms that ar e Òperson dependent enterprisesÓ not only demand resources, expenditures, and equipment, but also actorsÕ time, will, efforts, and motivation, as they tend to mediate the process of policy implementation at the classroom level (Rice & Malen, 2003). Thus, t his body of literature stresses the need to identify human costs as an integral part of total program costs for the sustainability and upscaling of educational reforms in order to develop policy actions that lessen the potential risk of program failure. Gi ven this context, this study aims to bring a humanistic perspective to the neo -liberal discourse of international educational policy through the comparative analysis of public schools and FAS using the lens of human cost as a frame of reference. The detai ls of both participant schools are as follows. Public Schools : These schools are owned and m anaged by the federal and provincial governments. These schools provide free education. In these schools, the government recruits teachers and schools principals . Federal and provincial governments devise civil service rules !!!).!that define teachersÕ salaries, social benefits, leaves, and termination. Once appointed on a regular basis to teaching positions, teachers can serve up to 35 years. Foundation Assisted Schoo l Program: The Foundation Assisted Schools (FAS) are the Òflagship program Ó of the Punjab Education Foundation (semi -autonomous body) with the goal to promote access and provide quality education to low -income families in Pakistan, particularly those resid ing in the rural and slum parts of Punjab. These schools are Òself -ownedÓ by private individuals (often, the principal) that work with the public sector under the Public -Private Partnership (PPP) agreement. Under the PPP agreement, the Government of Punj ab provides technical and financial assistance of PKR 350 ($4) per child, per month, to Òself -ownedÓ and low -cost private partner schools based on their performance on the biannual Quality Assurance Tests (QAT) conducted by the Punjab Education Foundation. These schools also provide free education and are not allowed to charge fines, recreational charges, or stationary charges directly to students or their parents (Amjad & Macleod, 2012). It is important to note that the management of these schools is free to run the school according to their own rules and regulations. Thus, these schools are able to independently devise and enforce policies about teachersÕ recruitment, termination, and workload. The provincial government has no role or interference in these school management operations. Research Questions, Setting And Participants This study is informed by the conceptual framework of human costs as posited by Rice and Malen (2003) and aims to address the following research questions by using a comparative a nd mixed methods research approach: !!!)%!1. What is the nature and extent of human costs (task, social and psychological) associated with FAS program in comparison with the public schools in Pakistan? 2. How does human cost affect the desired goal of quality educatio n as prescribed by contemporary educational policies such as EFA (2000 -2015) and National Education Policy (NEP) of Pakistan (20009) in their strategic frameworks? In 2006, a pilot FAS program was launched in the Lahore District of Pakistan, and was one of the first five districts to serve as a test area (Malik, 2008). Since the programÕs institution in Lahore seven years ago, FAS in this area have completed the tran sitional and complex phases of implementation. Because the program in this region has passed through these initial phases, insights from Lahore can provide a better understanding of FAS programs in Pakistan overall. Thus, the Lahore district was chosen as the research site for this analysis. This district is divided into 9 administrative zones and includes: (1) Aziz Bhati Town; (2) Data Ganj baksh Town; (3) Ravi Town; (4) Iqbal Town; (5) Nishter Town; (6) Wahga Town (7) Shalimar Town; (8) Gulberg Town; and (9) Samanabad Town. The survey data was collected in all of these towns, except for Gulberg town and Ravi Town because of the absence of FAS elementary schools in these zones. The second round of data collection involved conducting in -depth interviews at selected public schools and FAS s. Four schools were chosen, two from the already sampled FAS, and two public schools. Because only two of the FAS permitted in -depth interviews of teachers, these two schools were chosen. In contrast, there were no challeng es in gaining access and approval to interview teachers in the public schools; all public schools approved the request to conduct in -depth interviews of teaching staff, including principals. !!!)&!Considering the comparative nature of this study, schools were chosen that were located in the same administrative zones with similar socioeconomic categories. The details of schools and participants are as follows: Table 7: Research P articipants Administrative zone Socioeconomic category School type Participants Number of interviews 01-Town Low SES 01-FAS Teachers from grade 1 to grade 8 School principals 8 1 01-Public School Teachers from grade 1 to grade 8 School Principal 8 1 02-Town Low SES 02-FAS Teachers from grade 1 to grade 8 School principal 8 1 02-Public School Teachers from grade 1 to grade 8 School principal 8 1 A total of 36 interviews were therefore conducted. All interviews were conducted in Urdu. Methods Of Data Collection This study was conducted in the Lahore district of Punjab, Pakistan. The data for the study was collected from mid -March to mid -June 2014 in two distinct phases. In the first phase, questionnaires and structured observation sheets was administered to teach ers in 24 schools (12 Public and 12 FAS). From FAS, 140 teachers filled out the questionnaire, whereas 151 teachers from the public sector filled them out. The response rates were 95% and 87%, respectively. In !!!)'!addition, structured -observation sheets that examined the schoolsÕ physical and instructional resources were filled out by school administrative staff in each of the studyÕs 24 schools. In the second phase of data collection, in -depth interviews of teachers and principals from four schools (two Pub lic and two FAS) were conducted. A total of 32 teachers and four principals from these four schools were interviewed. Administration Of Survey And Structured -Observation Sheet During this phase of data collection, questionnaires and structured - observation - sheets were administered in 24 elementary schools (12 FAS and 12 Public) located in seven administrative zones of the Lahore District. Considering the comparative nature of the study, the criterion of local proximity was used while matching p ublic schools to FAS schools as questionnaires and observations sheets were being distributed. The details of the teacher questionnaires and structured observation sheets are as follows. Teacher Questionnaire The questionnaire was used to obtain an overvie w of current trends in the schoolsÕ teacher faculty composition, work assignments, and working conditions in FAS and public elementary schools. For the development of the survey, the Learning and Educational Achievements in Punjab Schools (LEAPS) project ( Andrabi et al., 2007) and survey reports on workloads commissioned by the UK National Union for Teachers in 2002 and 2004, were used as frames of reference. These studies mainly provided the structure and framework of the questionnaire. However, considerin g the nature and objectives of the present study, the questionnaire was restructured and a few more items were added with the consultation and supervision of dissertation committee members . The questionnaire was also translated into Urdu. Overall, the questionnaire consisted of five main sections. Each of these sections contained 43 !!!)(!items with predefined responses. Surveys were distributed amongst elementary schools teachers in both sectors ( FAS and public schools). The response rate from FAS was 96%, as 140 teachers out of 146 who received a survey filled it out. In contrast, the response rate from teachers in public schools was approximately 87%, as 151 teachers o ut of 171 filled out the sur vey. The distribution and item details within each of the questionnaireÕs sections are as follows. Section 1 of the questionnaire consists of seven items with close -ended/pre -defined options to gather data on teachersÕ demographics in terms of their age, a cademic qualifications, and professional experiences. Section 2 is comprised of 15 items with pre -defined response options to gather data on teachersÕ job status and remuneration. Section 3 includes five items with close -ended responses to gather data on t eachersÕ professional growth. Section 4 includes 14 items with close -ended responses to gather data on teachersÕ workload in terms of class size and daily teaching and non -teaching assignments. Section 5 includes two items, whereby teachers are asked to id entify the schoolÕs work environment. The second item of this section requires teachers to provide a short description of their thoughts on how the schoolÕs work environment could be improved to assist with the development of their professional life. This last section was added to enable teachers to voice their perspectives, particularly the identification of those factors that they think are important and relevant for their professional betterment, and to suggest policy implications that reflect teachersÕ perspectives and insights. Structured - Observation Sheet In addition to the survey, a structured observation sheet comprised of three categories and 33 items in total was used to gather information about the nature, availability, and adequacy of schoolsÕ p hysical and instructional environment, as well as teachersÕ professional resources in FAS and publ ic schools . !!!))!Based on the Pakistani school context and the literature reviewed for this study, the observation sheet was developed to assess the physical and instructional resources of both institutions. The rationale for using a structured observation sheet to assess these categories of resources was to maintain uniformity of data across schools and to validate the comparison by confirming the fact that I h ad selected roughly comparable FAS and public schools. The school administrative staff was requested to provide the required information and fill in the sheet with their observations. With principalsÕ permission, administrative staff assisted in providing the most relevant and accurate information about their schoolÕs physical and instructional resources . The first category of institutional descriptions (12 questions) included a few items with predefined options; however, the remaining questions were open -end ed and required information in numeric form, such as the enrollment ratio and number of teachers in the school. In the second category, information was collected about the school infrastructure and consisted mainly of questions with dichotomous response op tions (yes/no). In the third category of the observation sheet, data was collected about the school instructional resources, which required a short description of the availability and adequacy of instructional resources within the school. Semi -Structured Interviews, School Documents And Visual Artifacts In the second phase of data collection, in -depth interviews with elementary school teachers (32) and school principals (4) from four schools, two each from the FAS sector and the public school sector, were conducted. Given the comparative nature of this study, schools that were located in the same administrative zones with the same socioeconomic categories were chosen for this second round of data collection. The details of data sources for the second phase are as follows. !!!)*!Semi -Structured Interviews The purpose of this study is to bring a humanistic perspective into the discussion on policy reform. Currently, economic discourses dominate policy debates on educational quality, but by sharing teachersÕ pers pectives in policy debates, a humanistic perspective can also be incorporated. For this study, 32 teachers from grades one to eight were interviewed; they were selected based on their availability and willingness to participate. In addition, school prin cipals were also interviewed from each of the four participant schools. A total of 36 interviews were conducted. No structured interview pattern was used while interviewing the teachers and principals; rather interviews were semi -structured in nature ( Appendix A&B ). This mode of interviewing allowed for the expression of teachersÕ opinions, which are currently ignored in current policy debates. Interview protocols were developed around the themes of human costs, namely: task costs, psychological costs, and social costs (s ee appendix A ). Each interview session attempted to cover the main areas of human cost. A strict question -and -answer pattern was not used during interviews; instead, interviews were kept to a discussion -type format. Each interview was one -on-one, and lasted approximately 40-60 minutes, depending on teachersÕ convenience and availability. All interviews were conducted in the Urdu language and were audio recorded. While conducting analysis, I was intrigued by certain responses and themes and felt the need to conduct follow u p interviews. Thus, in order to address a few queries and validate certain responses I conducted follow up interviews with schools principals over the phone. !!!)+! School -Related Documents, Visual Data, And Artifacts Prior research suggests that the use of artifacts, documents, and visual data is important in qualitative research studies because these materials provide contextual dimensions to observation and interview data. Thus, these sources enrich a study by supporting, challenging, and expanding the res earchersÕ understanding of a certain problem and phenomenon (Glesne, 2010, p. 89). Considering the comparative nature of this study, documents related to school policies, including teachersÕ recruitment, work policies, and duty rosters as well as photogra phs of school and classroom settings were collected. The following table presents the details of the documents, visual data, and artifacts that were collected during the second phase of data collection. !!!),!Table 8: School Related Data Artifacts Collected and their Purpose Data Description Documentation Purpose of use Setting Appearance How a setting and/or people look Observation notes and photographs To describe the physical aspects of schools and classrooms; to narrate the socio -cultural context of schools; to explore the, modes and patterns of interactions among school personnel; to inform interview protocols; to verify the interview findings Events and Practices Everyday behaviors; generally involved more than one perso n; bounded by time; planned or unplanned Observation notes, research diary, and photographs To capture teachersÕ engagement, roles and responsibilities, mode of working; to inform the data analysis related to socio -cultural aspects of teachersÕ working conditions Documents Explicit and implicit rules, regulations, and rituals that describe how a program, institution, or groups work Institutional documents: institutional rules and regulations, copies of job contracts, duty rosters, office notices, detai ls of meeting minutes, calls, financial records To provide a detailed description of school operations Adapted from Glesne, C. (2010). Becoming Qualitative Researcher: An Introduction (p. 90). National And International Policy Documents On Quality In Education Policy documents were collected i n order to explore the impacts of the human costs associated with the FAS program in comparison to the public school sector in Pakistan on quality education goals . For this study, I collected policy reports issu ed by EFA from 2000 to 2015. I also collected the National Education Policy reports issued by the government of Pakistan. !!!)-!In addition, policy briefs, papers, and reports issued by international organizations such as The World Bank, UNESCO, and UNICEF on quality education in the EFA context were also collected. These documents detail the parameters and factors that have been i dentified in relation to quality education, including teachersÕ roles and the teacher -related attributes and characteristics associated with quality education. Methodology Of Data Analysis This section presents the details of the methodology employed fo r the data analysis. Data analysis is divided into three phases and the details of these phases are as follows: ¥ Descriptive analysis of survey and structured observation sheet; ¥ Qualitative analysis of interview data; ¥ Document analysis of national and inter national policy reports with reference to effectiveness of FAS reform and quality education goals. Descriptive Analysis Of Survey Questionnaire And Structured Observation Sheet Descriptive statistics, such as percentage, ratio and mean values were computed for the surveys and structured observation sheet data. Primarily, mean values and percentages were calculated and presented graphically using bar graphs. Statistical software s uch as SPSS and Excel were used to calculate the percentage values of responses. As noted, the data derived from 24 schools with 291 teacher responses. This data helped reveal current trends in teachersÕ distribution in terms of academic qualifications an d teaching experience in both sectors, along with current institutional practices in terms of teachersÕ job status, remuneration, work assignments (teaching and non -teaching), and opportunities for professional growth in FAS and public schools. The data fi ndings of structured -observation sheet !!!*.!provided a complete institutional description with details of Teacher -Pupil ratio, schoolsÕ physical and instructional environment, which helped to compare the different versions of learning environment in both sector s. Qualitative Analysis Of Interview Data Interpretive and comparison techniques were applied to conduct the analysis of interview data. Because this study is informed by Rice and MalenÕs (2003) conceptual framework of human costs, a thematic framework wa s developed before collecting data that included selected indicators to examine the subcategories of human costs, namely: task costs, psychological costs, and social costs. All interviews were conducted in Urdu. In the first step, all interviews were trans lated into English. Emerging themes of the interviews were then placed in their respective columns, which were developed according to the thematic framework of human costs. Excel spreadsheets were used for compiling and organizing interview data. As previo usly mentioned, a structured interview pattern was not used while interviewing teachers in order to provide them with the opportunity to share their work -related experiences while working in particular schools. During this process, multiple themes arose i n addition to the pre -defined themes prevalent in policy discourse, such as quality education, the government policy of engaging teachers in conducting UPE surveys, and establishment of mentoring practices. The emerging themes enhanced the study and provid ed significant insights to understand the conundrum of quality education in Pakistan, particularly in relation to the effectiveness of FAS versus the public school system. !!!*%!In addition to verbal responses, teachersÕ facial expressions, gestures, and voice tone were also noted. While transcribing the data, these factors were incorporated and helped to validate teachersÕ responses about certain school -related policies. After transcribing and coding data, comparative and cross case analyses were conducted to understand the nature and intensity of the factors responsible for similarities and variations among the four selected schools in terms of human costs. Document Analysis Of National And International Policy Reports With Reference To Effectiveness Of Fas Reform And Quality Education Goals The document analysis was conducted in two phases. Phase I In this phase, I reviewed international and national policy documents. Specifically, the governmentÕs stated goals, mechanisms, and rationales regarding the effectiveness of the FAS model in education were interrogated. An investigation of the PPP policy at the international level and how it defines and approaches the term Òcost effectivenessÓ was conducted, including how these PPP reforms and interventions define teachersÕ roles and ef forts in policy debates. Since this study is an attempt to put the possible impacts of these refo rms into dialogue with such policy documents, documents which fail to identify and acknowledge the human costs of FAS in the EFA context, so the content analysis of policy documents helped to elucidate the context and role of international and national pol icies in shaping teachersÕ work lives in FAS and public schools in Pakistan. Phase II This phase of document analysis involved collection and analysis of Educational For All reports from the year 2000 t o the year 2015, along with National Education Policy of Pakistan (2009), !!!*&!especially with reference to quality education. The analysis of these policy reports was guided by the following question. ¥ How do these policy reports define quality education? ¥ What are the given parameters with reference to quality education? ¥ How do these policy reports place and position teachersÕ role s in their quality education goals? ¥ What are the required standards/criteria for teachers with reference to their academic and professional qualifications as identified by these reports ? ¥ What do these policy reports say about teachersÕ workload? Are there any standard s related to their work hours, teaching assignments, and class size? ¥ What are the given/identified standards for the working conditions of teachers with reference to inducti on, job status, remuneration, professional growth, and instructional resources? ¥ What do these policy reports say about teachersÕ social environment within the school, in terms of collaboration, their empowerment , and involvement in school and instruction related matters? This phase of analysis helped me to develop the framework of quality education against which I compared the data related to human costs associated with FAS and p ublic schools. Limitations Of The Study The limitations of the study are as fol lows. The research data was collected from the Public and FAS sector within Lahore, a district in the Punjab province of Pakistan. Although I was able to capture the practices in the FAS schools in this particular area, it is hard to generalize if similar trends exist in other FAS across !!!*'!the province of Punjab or the rest of Pakistan. In addition, while the majority of FAS and public schools in the study did complete the research survey, the FAS located in a high SES administrative zone did not participate in follow -up interviews. Absence of teachers perspectives from FAS located in high SES zone constrained the study in two ways: it limited further and deeper interpretation of survey results and did not allow a comparison with the interview findings obtain ed from the schools located in low SES administrative zones. A cross comparison of insights between schools located in low as well as high SES might have given a better sense if some of the identified challenges by teachers in terms of intensive work requ irements; lack of personal, instructional and professional resources and support; and a strained and isolated work environment are specific to those FAS located in low SES zone or generic to all schools. The study mainly focused on measurable indicators of human cost like work routines, class size, out of field assignments, etc., to examine the human cost associated with the FAS and public school sectors. TeachersÕ insights, through interviews, further illuminated the dynamics between these measurable indic ators and teachersÕ classroom practices. However, the study does not make any assessment of teacher competencies within study contexts based on the data obtained. It is quite possible that, in spite of the relatively poor working conditions of FAS teache rs, their students performed higher on standardized metrics of performance. That said, the study continues to raise doubts about the long term viability of any such results. The study does not aim to establish any causal relationships and claims. There is research based evidence that high quality professional development can support teaching and student learning. How ever, the study cannot comment upon the actual quality of the professional development received by teachers in these contexts. Therefore, the study cannot claim that professional development opportunities would either positively or negatively impact teacherÕ !!!*(!classroom practices or allev iate their teaching related stress. The goal of the research was to give teachers in this context a voice, hear their concerns and perspectives about their working conditions, and understand their perceptions about what might improve their working conditio ns. This limitation can be extended not only to professional development opportunities, but to the overall efficacy of the teaching in both sectors. That is the study should not be misunderstood to be making assertions about the competency of teachers bas ed on prescribed criteria of quality education. In other words, as should be clear by this point, the study did not aim to appraise teachersÕ work against any standards related to teaching competency. For the category of social cost, the study focused on schoolsÕ social environments in terms of collegial relationships and the role of principal. Most of the current debates about success of FAS program revolve around studentsÕ self-reported test scores. In these discussions, some have made arguments in favor of teacher accountability as one of the significant factors responsible for enhancing studentsÕ performance. I have tried to question these findings in this study. However, the study itself cannot directly refute any such claims. That is, accountability was not explored in this study. However, accountability emerged as an important dimension of schoolsÕ social environment. Teacher interviews, in both FAS and public sectors, did reflect the theme of accountability at different occasions. For example, publi c school teachers reported that they are held accountable by the local administration for attendance. Similarly, FAS teachers are held accountable for studentsÕ performance on the tests organized by the program funders. In this particular study, the theme of accountability was therefore raised by the teachers themselves. While teachers must be held accountable for their work, one of the points of this study has been to stress the psychological cost associated with particular ways of carrying out accountabil ity reforms (undue pressure and questioning their professionalism). In summary, this research study !!!*)!did not dig into how teachersÕ accountability practices in these two different institutional contexts may or may not influence their performance or competen cies. The definition of quality education and its comprising elements continue to be an unsettled mystery among stakeholders in education. Still, each national context sets its own standards for quality education. The frameworks that define quality educ ation for Pakistan have been established by the National Education Policy, 2009 and EFA (Dakar Framework, 2000). This research study does not use these frameworks to appraise the quality of teaching in FAS or public schools. The researcher instead used the standards within these frameworks as a set of expectations: as standards that systems should meet to align with national standards of quality education. That said, this study should not been viewed as intending to establish or promote any features (academ ic qualifications, professional development, small class size, etc.) that may directly or indirectly enhance or deteriorate the quality of teaching in these contexts. Challenges While Collecting Data This section narrates the nature and extent of challeng es faced during data collection. The details of these challenges are as follows. Locating The Schools Finding and locating the schools was the most challenging aspect of data collection. However, locating the public schools was less challenging as compared to locating FAS. Because there are only two to three public schools in any locality, it was easy to l ocate the public schools. However, it was challenging to locate the FAS because there are multiple private schools on practically every street of a specific locality. These schools are opened in rented or small Òself -ownedÓ buildings. Since there are multi ple small -scale private schools, it is a complicated process to locate any specific school. !!!**!It is also important to mention that in small areas, there are no signs indicating street names. People in these areas are aware of private schools, but are unable to provide street names to locate them. Second, streets are very narrow so a person typically must walk or rent a small vehicle to pass through these streets, which is costly. Therefore, finding schools, especially private ones, was very difficult. It too k nearly a full day, and sometimes 50 -60 minutes, to search for FAS from the main bus stop. Oftentimes, locating a FAS required hiring a local assistant and renting a small local vehicle. Access And Approval The second biggest challenge that presented its elf during the data collection process was gaining approval and access to schools, particularly FAS. Because this is a comparative study, schools from both sectors had to be from within the same locality. Getting approval from public schools was not diffic ult, as every year many education students visit the public schools to gather data for their research. Therefore, the public sector is encouraged to support the research of prospective teachers or educational researchers. All public schools granted access during data collection. However, the FAS sector was reluctant and resistant to providing access and approval. For example, the public sector from Shalimar Town agreed to participate in this research, but the FAS located in that zone refused to participate . Thus, it was necessary t o move to another school located in a different administrative zone. Furthermore, a few FAS allowed for the collection of survey data, but disapproved requests to conduct interviews. Ultimately, interviews were conducted with two FAS from the low SES zone, because none of the FAS in the high SES zone gave approval. Although from a comparative perspective, insights from FAS and public schools !!!*+!located in high and low SES zones could better inform this study, this was not possible and was a limitation of this study. Lack Of Involvement And Participation Of Teachers From The Fas Sector The most challenging part while interviewing was to garner a response from teachers in FAS. Although 01 -FAS and 02 -FAS permitted interviews, a senior teacher accompanied me during this process and hindered lower ranking teachersÕ honesty in their responses. Initially, only general questions were asked and most of the responses were in yes or no form. During interviews, eye contact between participant t eachers and senior teachers was also apparent, especially in regards to questions related to salary and school working environment. Therefore, it became apparent that questions related to salary and school working environment were sensitive for school admi nistration. Consequently, two or three interviews were limited to general questions about teaching experiences, career orientations, and work routine in the particular school. However, after two or three interviews, the senior teachers was confident that interview questions were not very critical and therefore did not require further supervision, so they left the room. The rest of the interviews were conducted in one -on-one sessions. During interviews, a discussion -oriented approach was used to be able to hear the teachersÕ voice on different aspects of their work lives rather than relying on a question -and -answer format that would limit this aspect. However, it was difficult to follow this discussion mode of interviewing for FAS teachers. Most of the time , teachers responded with yes or no answers, or with a short phrase, thereby refusing to provide a more elaborate response. Instead, it was necessary to continue asking probing questions or provides options to garner more detailed responses. These teachers seemed to lack empowerment and autonomy. !!!*,!Because most FAS teachers are not involved in any kind of activities that could help them to engage in critical and reflective discussions about educationa l policy, they often demonstrated a more linear mode of understanding educational problems, especially at the classroom level. In contrast, public school teachers were very confident, critical, and open in their interviews while talking about their profess ion and the overall educational landscape of Pakistan. It is to these teachers that we next turn in Chapter Four. !!!*-!CHAPTER 4: TASK COST This chapter present s findings related to the nature and extent of the task cost associated with the elementary level Public and Foundation Assisted School (FAS) program in Pakistan . The term Òt ask cost Ó involves the Òtime and effort that individuals in the organization expend to meet their work demandsÓ (Rice & Malen, 2003, p. 640). Based on previous research, the variables of interest used to explore the task cost include: (1) the distribution of teachersÕ work hours; (2) the nature of out -of-field/split teac hing assignments; (3) class size; and (4) the burden of non -teaching assignments . The following table presents the research question s, variables, and the description of the data sources used to examine the task cost . Table 9: Description of Research Question, Variables and Data Sources Research q uestion Variables used to assess task cost (intensification of w ork) Data s ources What is the nature and extent of t ask cost associated with FAS program in comparison with Public schools ? Total work h ours and their distribution TeachersÕ survey Split/out -of-field assignments TeacherÕs interviews Non -teaching a ssignments Descriptive o bservation notes Class s ize Structure Of The Chapter This chapter is divide d into four sections as follows. Section I presents the findings in relation to total work hour s and their distribution in p ublic schools and F AS. Section II describes the results regarding the practices of split/ou t-of-field -teaching assignments in both public schools and FAS . Section III provides details on the nature of non -teaching assignments in !!!+.!public schools and FAS . Section IV r epor ts the distribution and range of classroom size in both school types . Finally, section V presents the summary and conclusions. Total Work Hours And Their Distribution In order to explore teacher sÕ daily work routine s in public and FAS, survey data was gathered from 24 Schools ( 12 FAS and 12 p ublic) and in -depth interviews with teachers working in two FAS and two public schools were also conducted. The f ollowing themes em erged in relation to teachersÕ work hours and their distribution : ¥ Before school hour arrival policy and penalty system for late arrival ¥ Long and intensive work hours and rule of sequential s tudy ¥ Absence of no n-teaching time ¥ Increase in paperwork requirements ¥ Increase in assessment schedules ¥ After school stay p olicy Before School Arrival Policy And Penalty System For Late Arrival The F AS requires all teachers to be in school at least 15 to 20 minutes prior to the actual school start time . During the interviews , teachers repor ted that the primary problem is not with the policy itself, but with the way that the policy is impleme nted. Specifically, teachers reported stress over the penalty associated with failure to adhere to the policy. According to the school arrival policy, if a teacher is late even by a fraction of time, a red line will be marked in the attendance register for that particular teacher . If a teacher receives three red lines, one day Õs salary will be deducted from the teacherÕs pay . In relation to this policy , one of the teachers commented: !!!+%!The policy of pay deduct ion for three red line s is really unfair. Sometimes because of transportation or house hold issue s, we may be late. Even if we are late by two minutes past the actual school start time , the school administration marks a red line in front of our names and then deducts our pay for one day. However, when it comes to after school , sometimes we h ave to stay for an hour more; in that case the school administration should also know that our fami lies receive a Òred line ,Ó too. S chool s should consider and respect our familiesÕ concerns , too (2nd grade teacher , 02-FAS). In contrast, interview data showed that although the public school system encourages an on-time school arrival policy for the ir teaching staff, this system does not promote a penalty culture in case of late arrival. Long And Intensive Work Hours And Rule Of Sequential Study Information on teachersÕ daily teaching schedules was collected to examine teaching patterns , schedules , and daily routines in p ublic schools and FAS . The findings indicate d that in most FAS system s, teachers are required to teach for eight consecutive periods within a day, meaning that they must teach for a full day . The following figure sho ws trends in teachers Õ per day schedules in bo th publi c schools and FAS . !!!+&!Figure 2: Percentage of Teacher's Assigned Teaching Periods per Day This figure indicates that 46.3% of FAS teaching staff teach for eight periods per day. In addition, the percentage of teaching for fewer periods (four periods per day) is higher in p ublic schools ( 7.8%) as compared to FAS (4.4%) . Interview data confirmed these findings. The Punjab Education Foundation provides a limited amount of money for FAS , and the school administration has to meet all expenses , including teaching staf f salaries . Consequently , these schools hire teachers only on an as -need ed basis , thereby leading to a policy of obtaining maximum work efficiency from each teacher. Under these circumstances , FAS teachers must teach for a full day and also follow a prescrib ed teaching schedule . The s chool administration uses the prescribed teaching schedule as a mean s to track and maintain teachersÕ performance against the efficiency standard set by the school administration . This devised instructional plan is cal led the Òsequential study pattern ,Ó and teachers reported that they must follow this sequential plan in all eight teaching periods per day . As one teacher described: The sequential s tudy plan is a five -phase activity that instructs us on how to carry out our teaching assignment during each period. For the first five minutes of class , we ask questions about previous lesson s and provide feedback to students. I n the next 15 !!!+'!minutes , we t each or deliver a lesson; in the next seven minutes we assign and review class work ; in the next eight minute s we have to grade students Õ home work ; and in the last five minutes we provide feedback on classroom work (5 th grade teacher, 02 -FAS). Teachers from FAS reported that under this assigned plan, they must complete their teaching assignments and studentsÕ assessment s mainly within the classrooms. The teachers found this very challenging because of the diversity of students in terms of their work pace and intellectual abilities . One of the participant teachers stated: Class room management , lesson delivery , and studentsÕ c lasswork and grading of home work assignments is really challenging , especially when you have a good number of students in your classroom. I have 35 in my class. ItÕs really hard to manage ; every stud ent has a different work pace , so sometimes it is very difficult to keep all stud ents at the same learning level. No matter what, we have to strictly follow the sequential study plan . We donÕt even have time to sit for one minute , and we spend all day repeating this practice [of sequential study] for each subject . (5th grade teacher, 02-FAS) Similar practices were also observed at the second FAS. In this school , teachers were also required to teach for a full day and meet all teaching goals determined by the school administration . Furthermore, a school management committee decide s the goals and content for any particular week, and teachers are instructed to follow and complete the assigned teaching goals within that particular week. These teachers are also required to submit their daily work report to the schoo l principal. From the data and descriptive school notes , it is clear that FAS school system teachers are required to abide by a very mechanical, struc tured , and no n-flexible work culture that not only limit s, but dispels teachersÕ right s of instructional i ndependence and !!!+(!authority. This leads to exclusion of their personal need s for interaction , collaboration, and relax ation in their work environment. In order to investigate the culture of teaching practices and activities in p ublic schools, principals and teachers were interviewed . In response to questions about teachersÕ teaching assignments, the principal of 01 -Public school explained that : In our schools , what to teach and how to teach is based on an individual teacherÕs will. For example , in our schools at the primary level teachers must teach all subjects of their assigned classes and they are required to spend the whole day in their respective classes. Since there are four subjects for primary classes, it is based on teachersÕ will as to whether they complete their teaching assignments in four periods or five. We do not dictate them (Principal , 01-Public School) . In regards to the homework and class assignment grading system, most of the public school teachers reported that they freely plan their lessons, decide studentsÕ work schedules , and other instructional activities. While discussing their work routine, one of the teachers stated: Òwe have large class size s, so most of our time is consumed in classwork grading. W e donÕt have time to mark homew ork daily, so usually we check and mark student sÕ homework every third or fourth day of the week Ó (5th grade teacher, 01 -Public School ). In response to a question regarding who decide s the course c ontent for any particular week, m ost of the teachers interviewed from the p ublic sector r esponded that it is their individual responsibility and that they make decisions about content selection and distribution for a specific term independent of school administrators . As compared to the FAS system, interview results suggest that teachers in p ublic school s have more authority in planning and implementing their daily teaching assignments. All teachers in p ublic school s freely adopt the ir daily teaching schedules based on their own convenience and !!!+)!teaching goals. In contrast, the FAS system impos es and prepare s its teachers to follow its structured sequential study patterns. I n other words , the FAS system seems to maintain its efficiency goals by compromising teachersÕ independence and teaching authority. Absence Of Non -Teaching Time Or Free Periods Absence of non -teaching time and free periods is the definin g characteristic of the FAS system. In these schools , teachers generally spend whole day s engaged in teaching. There is no provision or policy for free periods in most FAS . The absence of free or non -teaching time burdens teachersÕ work assignments. For example, th ey complained that they sometimes must take asse ssment sheets home because they do not get time during the school day to complete them, and that they also plan lessons at home. While discussing her daily schedule, one of the teachers commented: Òsince we donÕt have even a single free period, sometimes itÕs really hard for us to manage all teaching requirements during school and prepare lessons for the next day of classes. Mostly , we have to take our work home, and this happens almost every day Ó (6th grade teacher, FAS -02). Another teacher stated: Òthe biggest problem is that we donÕt get time to plan and prepare our lessons in school. Instead, we have to work on lesson planning and preparation at home Ó (3rd grade teacher, 02-FAS). In addition, FAS have small self -owned or rented buildings and therefore lack play grounds. Because of the lack of playgrounds, FAS teachers do not get a lunch break. As o ne teacher commented: Òw e donÕt have a playground at our school. We only get a ten minute break, and even during that break time we have to stay in the classroom to maintain disciplineÓ ( 5th grade teacher , 01-FAS). In contrast , in the p ublic school system t he p olicy of free periods or non -teaching time is followed particularly at the middle school or secondary level. I n response to interview questions !!!+*!about the Pakistani governmentÕs policy on te achersÕ free periods , the principal from 01-Public School explained: The g overnment has a policy of two or three free period s for all teachers who teach from grade six onward. However, primary teachers must spend their day with their students. Since p rimary teachers are only responsible for teaching four courses within eight periods , they practically have four free periods. In addition , they have 30 minutes for lunch break , too (Principal , 01-Public School) . In regards to the governmentÕs free period policy , the p rincipal further commented Òthe purpose of the free period sys tem is to lower the teachersÕ work load so that they can mark or assess studentsÕ homework assignments with ease and prepare their lesson plans Ó (principal , 02-Public School ). In interviews with teachers from p ublic school s, teachers reported that they complete their class diaries , lesson plans , and other tea ching -related tasks during their free periods. As one of the teachers stated: ÒI have two free periods. So, during this time I check studentsÕ homework and tests and plan my lesson s. I would say the option of having free time actual ly helps to reduce work tension Ó (4th grade teacher, 01 -Public School). Overall, i n relation to teach ersÕ non -teaching time , the data indicates a long and extensive work culture in the FAS system, while the public sector recognizes the importance of non -teaching time f or teacher productivity . Increase In Paperwork Requirements Lesson planning and t eacher diarie s are currently promoted as an effective practice to sustain teaching quality and to track teachersÕ work performance. Teachers in both sectors are equally responsible for adopting these practices on a regular basis. However, in the FAS system , teachers must manage both of these activities daily. Teachers i n FAS are also required to obtain !!!++!principalsÕ feedback on their diaries. Dat a shows that FAS are frequently monitored and inspected by the Punjab Education Foundation. In addition to maintain ing their diaries and lesson plans, teachers must also maintain their student sÕ attendance, test, and classwork records on a daily basis. As one of the teachersÕ commented: Ò since the Punjab Education F oundation visits the school for inspection and check s the s tud entsÕ records, we have to maintain our registers in terms of student attendance details, their test scores, and their enrollment. We also have to maintain our diaries and lesson plan s on a daily basisÓ (2nd grade teacher, 02 -FAS). D uring inspection s, the personnel of the Punjab Education Foundation check teachersÕ work registers, studentsÕ attendance, and studentsÕ test score register s. Since these visits are unplanned and unexpected , teachers must regularly maintain these details . Teachers explained that they sometimes have to stay after scho ol to complete these tasks, or t ake home these assignments. Generally , these tasks take up a great deal of teachersÕ time and energy. Public sc hools teachers are also r equired to maintain lesson plan details, as well as details about their accomplished teaching goals. However, they are not required to submit these diaries to school pri ncipals for review . Although the principal may review teachersÕ diaries, th ere is no rule that they must do so. Within public schoo ls, teachers exercise their authority in maintain ing the details of their lesson plans and teaching goals base d on their convenience and schedules. However, t he government of Punjab recently introduced a school inspection system to track teachersÕ work performance and studentsÕ attendance , so that now even public school teachers must maintain these record s. Nevertheless, the system of inspection is di fferent from FAS in terms of its approach. For example, in the public sector the inspection system is teacher -focused , particularly in relation to their attendance . Inspection committees mainly inspect te achers Õ and !!!+,!studentsÕ school attendance . A majority of the teachers complained about this approach because they felt that the inspection committ ee tends t o be concerned with teacher attendance , and ignore s other important factors critical for studentsÕ learning in terms of resources and class size. However, in FAS the focus is on studentsÕ performance, attendance , and their learning progression over the cou rse of the school year. FAS not only monitors student attendance , but also work plans, making the job hard er for FAS teachers in mai ntaining records . Increase In Workload During Assessment Periods FAS funding is based on the performance of students on quality assurance exams , which are conducted biannually by the Punjab Education Foundation (PEF) . Thus , teachers from FAS reported that the schoolsÕ assessment culture has doubled their teaching assignments. The teachers communic ated that they must conduc t studentsÕ test s on a weekly basis , and at the end of month the school administration conduct s their tests. Sometimes during an assessment period , teachers must conduct classes after school and on weekends . Teachers from FAS also identified lack of paren tal support in terms of student sÕ learning, which create d stress and more work pressure for the teachers . One of the teachers reported, Òlack of parental support is the mo st challenging part of our job because we have to exert extra effort to maintain a studentÕs per formance on PEF assessments. T heir better performance determines our job securityÓ (4 th grade teacher , 01ÐFAS). Interview s with FAS teachers further revealed the time before t he PEF assessment as the most Ò challenging and effort consuming Ó period. During this time fra me, teachersÕ workload increased because they must conduct multiple student assessment s per day. Consequently, they must teach extra classes one month prior to the PEF assessments. As reported by a school principal , Òduring PEF exams , teachers co nduct extra classes for all subjects covered on the PEF !!!+-!assessment. According to school policy we conduct approximately ten tests for each subject before PEF exams are administered ( principal, 02 -FAS). The checking of assessment sheets a nd maintaining test score record s, in addition to regular teaching responsibilities, greatly i mpact s teachers Õ workload. During interviews, FAS teachers Õ tension and annoyance with this practice was apparent , as they must first teach classes for a full day, then conduct extra classes for assessment preparation , review test she ets, and prepare tests scores. All of these tasks add to their work load , and in turn , result in increased stress and fatigue. As some interviewees explained , Òit Õs too much workÓ; Òwe must work even during the assessment periodÓ ; and Òit is a really tiring and stressful time .Ó These were the most commonly occurring phrases during interviews in relation to an increased work load during assessment periods. Recently , a teacher sÕ coaching program was launched to assess students and teachers for grades three through five in the public schools . This program was devised and is i mplemented by the Directorate of Staff Development (DSD) of Punjab . Under this program , DSD staff conduct teacher assessment s through class observations, and also conduct studentsÕ tests at the end of each month. The test sheets are sent to other adjacent public school s for assessment and com pilation of assessment results. This practice occurs ev ery month, thereby increasing the work requirement for public schoolteachers , especially within grade s three through five . As one of the public school teachers commented: Monthly checking of student assessments and compilation of results under the DSD syst em has increased our work. Though it is a good policy for tracking studentsÕ performance, it is also very time consuming and distracting for teacher s. We cannot effectively focus on students . There is a need for others to understand that it is difficult to teach well and effectively when we are mentally and physical ly occupied with all these !!!,.!assessment sheet preparations and deadlines each month . (5th grade teacher , 01-Public School) During interview s teachers also reported that they must teach students from two entirely different types of course materials. One set of material is the course material for the state level exam, which is presented in the Punjab textbook. The other set of material covers DSD assessments, which teachers must cover using the prescribed content modules covered on those exams . Teachers complained that these diverg ent course materials complicate their work responsibilities and increase their workload. Perspective s of teachers from both sectors indicate that under the current national educational reforms and policy initiatives , particularly with reference to monitoring students Õ academic performance through assessment s, teachers Õ work load has drastically increased . However, this workload pressure is perhaps greater for FAS tea chers across all grade levels as compare d to teachers within the p ublic school system . After -School Work Policy The interview data shows that policy requirements for working after school hours are common in FAS . Teachers from FAS reported that it is school policy for teachers to stay after school hours. Time limit s for staying after school ran ge from one to two hours . During this period , teachers must write in their diaries and explain their accomplished teaching assignments for t hat specific day. One of the teachers reported that , Òwe have to stay after school hours in order to complete ou r diaries, in which we write a detailed account of our accomplished teaching assignments and then get the p rincipalÕs feedback Ó (8th grade teacher , 01-FAS). Teachers also reported that since they donÕt have free p eriod s or break time s, they sometimes must complete grading of student notebooks and assessment sheets after school . The !!!,%!interview data shows that the public sector does not have this type of requirement regarding teachersÕ work time after school hours, particular ly in reference to finishing teaching -related tasks. Public school teache rs are free to leave the school as soon as it ends, except for two or three teachers who migh t remain on duty. This after school policy i s quite dif ferent from FAS , where, as we have seen, all teachers must remain after school . Specifically, they must ensure that no students remain in the classrooms or on school grounds for safety purpose s. This duty is assigned to two or three teachers on a weekly basi s, or sometimes on a daily basis , and rotate s among public teachers. Out-Of-Field/Split Teaching Assignments The practices of out -of-field assignments, or split teaching assignments, are also consi dered a defining characteristic of the intensification of teachersÕ work. The educational context of Pakistan , especially within the private sector , presents a very different version of the Òsubject specialization or expertiseÓ within teaching . Though the concept of specialization , which is defined as having a specialized degree in any particular area , is understood and practiced in educational circle s, in pr ivate schools in Pakistan teachersÕ teaching experience in any specific field define s their area of teaching expertise . This may also be referred to as the Òmain teaching sub ject .Ó In the survey used in this analysis, the term Ò main teaching subjectÓ is used as an indicator to understand teachersÕ expe rtise in any specific area, either because they obtained a degree in a specific area or have t eaching experience in a particular subject. The survey data on the demographics of teachers from FAS shows that more than 50% teachers hold K-12 certification with minimal to no training. Thus, many teachers in FAS donÕt possess a specialization ; for these teachers , Òteaching experienceÓ define s their assigned teaching area . In contrast, the public school system hires teachers who possess a Bachelor Õs degree in teaching for !!!,&!primary grades , and specialists are hi red for e lementary and secondary classes where such specialization is required . In order to explore the practices of out -of-field and split teaching assignment s, survey data was collected on the following themes. See below (Table 2) for survey questions and findings. !!!,'!Table 10: Distribution of Hours for Teaching Main and Other than Main Teaching Subjects Questions Preferences Responses from FAS (140 respondents) Responses from public (151 respondents) Comments How many hours do you teach your main teaching subject ? 1-2 hours 3-4 hours 5-6 hours More than 6 hours 42.2% 7.0% 7.8% 42.2% 13.3 % 30.7% 28.7% 37.3% In public Òacademic qualificationÓ determines area of expertise, however in FAS teachers Õ teaching experience tends to determine their area of expertise. How many hours do you teach other subject s? 1-2 hours 3-4 hours 5-6 hours More than 6 hours 44.6% 6.9% 17.8% 30.7% 47.9% 27.7% 11.8% 12.6 % In relation to the first question, Òhow many hours do you teach your main teaching subject?Ó , it is clear that , for a great number of FAS teachers (42.2%), only a small amount of the school day (1 -2 hours) is spent teaching their main subject. Therefore, the probability of teachi ng out-of-field assignment is higher in FAS. If data are further analyze d, it is also apparent that the percentage of teachers teaching main subjects from three to five or more hours is higher in the public sector compared to the FAS. The percentage of teachers that are less involved in teac hing their main area of expertise is just 13.3% within public schools . The data shows relatively clear difference s in terms of teachersÕ teaching assignment s in their main area of expertise between both sectors. The second question , Òhow many hours do you teach other subjects?Ó, aims to explore teachers Õ engagement in subjects other t han their main area of expertise. The data findings !!!,(!reaffirm that most FAS teachers either teach o ther subjects for a few hours (one or two) or for most of their teaching time ( more than six hours ). In contrast, fin dings from public schools show that teachersÕ are less involved (12.6%) in teaching subjects other than their main area of expertise. Teachers from public schools are more involved in teaching within thei r area of expertise, as the percentage of teaching hours (more than six hours) for subjects ot her than main teaching expertise is quite low (12.6%) for public school teachers compared to FAS teachers (30.7%). While t he meaning of these findings is not completely clear, general trends are clear. Interviews were also conducted to understand the se practices and their impacts on teacher sÕ workload. Interview data revealed problems with teacher shortage because of financia l constraints and the absence of teacher recruitmen t policies in terms of qualification -based appointments in FAS. These are both major factors responsible for the out-of-field assignment culture within FAS . The interview data shows that the p ublic sector has a ver y clear policy on qualification -based teaching assignments. At the primary level , the minimum qualification is a B.A/B.Sc with two years of teacher education . However, for middle (grades six through eight) and secondary school (grades nine throug h twelve ) teacher appointments are typically subject -based, which decre ases the probability of out -of-field assignments in the p ublic sector. For example, in response to a question related to teach er recruitment policies and teaching assignment s, the p rinc ipal from one of the public school s explained: With the passage of time , the teaching standards and the requirements for teachers ha ve changed. We once used to hire people with a high school diploma for our primary and middle school classes. However, now t he system and qualification requirements for primary and secondary school teachers have totally changed. Now the minimum requir ement for p rimary teacher s is a B.A/B.Sc with two years of teacher education, and !!!,)!for secondary school, the g overnment hires M.A/M.Sc s ubject specialist teachers. T hese teachers usually teach within the ir specialized field (p rincipal , 01-Public School ). Therefore , in the p ublic school context the recru itment policy discourages or limit s an out-of-field assignment culture , partic ularly at the elementary level , unless there are certain logistic and staff -related administrative problems. Generally , in p ublic schools at the primary level , teachers are required to teach all subjects . In contrast, interviews with p rincipals of FAS schools show that these schools lack clear policies in relation to teacher recruitment and job assignments. These jobs are filled on an as -need ed basis. B oth of these factors play an important role in promoting the culture of out -of-field assignments in FAS. The data further shows that in most of the FAS, the minimum academic qualification requirements for teachers is only a high school diploma and there is no training requirement for job entry. T eachers can be assigned any class or subject based on the school Õs needs. As one of the p articipant teachers commented, Òthough I have experience in teaching science, the s chool principal ne eded a class teacher for grade three, so he asked me to take charg e of grade three and teach all subjects Ó (3rd grade teacher , 01-FAS). Interview data also shows tha t in FAS , teacher shortage s are a bigger problem due to limited financial resources. Thus, either one teacher i s hired to teach all subjects for one particul ar grade , or one teac her is assigned with two entirely diff erent subjects that they must teach in different classes (see the table below) . !!!,*!Table 11: Teachers' T eaching Assignments (by Subject) in 01 - FAS FAS-01 1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade 5th grade Assigned Subjects Gen. Knowledge & Urdu Urdu & Studies Science & Islamic Studies English A & B Science & English 6th grade 7th grade 8th grade Urdu & Mathematics Mathematics & Science General Science & English During interviews teachers from FAS also reported difficulty while planning the le ssons for two different subject areas . As one of the teachers stated, Òsometimes itÕs really hard to manage two different lesson plans for totally d ifferent subjects. But wha t option do we have ?! We have to do this. Initially it was really hard , but now we are getting used to it Ó (4th grade teacher, 01 -FAS). Data shows that the practice of split teaching assignments coupled with out -of-field teaching makes teachersÕ job s more intense and demanding, particularly for FAS teachers . The teachers from p ublic schools did not show or express concern s or problem s related to their job assignments. Part of the reason that public school teachers differed from FAS teachers in their respons es is because public school teachers tend to teach the same classes for long periods of time at the primary level. In addition, because specialists within subject areas are hired to teach at the el ementary lev el, teachers have fewer concerns within public schools . Burden Of Non -Teaching Assignments Under this component of teachersÕ workload , data was gathered about the nature, frequency , and duration of non -teaching activities in both FAS and public schools . The following !!!,+!table presents details about the q uestions and findings in rel ation to the burden of non -teaching assignments . Table 12: Non - Teaching Assignments S/no Questions Response options Public (151) FAS (140) Comments 1 Do you have additional duties other than teaching? Yes No 86% 14% 69.0% 31% 2 How often do you perform these duties? Daily Twice a week Once a week Monthly Other Missing responses 36.3% 0.6% 17.% 17.8% 4.5% 23.8% 34.5% 11.9% 41.7% 10.7% 1.2% 0% 3 What is the nature of these duties? Select as many as appropriate. Assembly Supervising students (break time, and school removal) Administrative work Other Missing responses 16.5% 13.3% 0% 0% 70.2% 24.3% 16.4% 0% 0% 59.3% Assembly and supervising students were coupled together in most of the responses , which shows that teachers perform these duties daily, especially in FAS. 4 What is the average duration of these duties? 30-35 minutes 40-45 minutes More than 1 hour Missing responses: 29.1% 9.5% 20.9% 40.5% 68.6% 29.1% 2.3% 0% Based on a review of previous literature , the aforementioned factors related to non -teaching assignments were selected. Assembly and studentsÕ supervision during break time are generally common to both FAS and public schools . Typically, t eachers perf orm these activities !!!,,!on a daily basis. No large difference in terms of the nature and frequency of these non -teaching assignments was observed in either sector . However , in relation to non -teaching assignments, interview data revealed interesting characteristics about the nature of administrative jobs in public schools and FAS. Data shows that teachers in both sectors are involved in administrative jobs , but the nature a nd intensity of this non -teaching assignment is quite d ifferent between both sectors . For example, in FAS few teachers are assigned to perform management related tasks. Among those who are responsible, they are mainly resp onsible for monitoring teacher attendance registers and teacher performance records for different subjects as well as preparing teacher timetables. During interview s, in response to non -teaching assignments , one of the teachers explained: Òin addition to teaching eight periods, I also perf orm management duties with three other teachers. Our job is to monitor teacher work assignments, their timetables, and to help them in developing their lesson plans Ó (8th grade teacher, 02 -FAS). Data shows that in FAS , a few teachers are responsible for performing management related tasks. Otherwise , teachers are mainly responsible for managing their a ssigned classes and keeping record s of their student sÕ test scores and attendance. In the public schools , the nature of these non-teaching assignment s is very stressful and exhausting . In response to the interview question related to the nature of non -teaching assignments, UPE (Universal Primary Education) duty was the most frequently occurring theme. All teachers from p ublic schools expressed annoyance over UPE duty. As one of the participants explained: At the start of every academic year, the government assigns us any street, locality or area , and we must conduct a household survey for the total population of that area. We are !!!,-!asked to visit each home , to gather information about the total number of children attending school, and about the schools in that particular locality. If the children of a certain family are not enrolled in school, we must convince th e parents to enroll their children in school. Similarly, if we find any child living on the street, we must bring them to school , too. We are responsible for collecting and compiling all ho usehold survey data and then submit it to the government . (5th grade teacher, 01 -Public S chool) In relation to this non -teaching assignment, teachers also identified gender -related issues. One of the female teachers stated: These kind of duties are really dangerous because we have to travel all alone . We donÕt receive transportation to conduct house hold survey s and we also have to enter other peoplesÕ home s to gather the information. So, you nev er know what kinds of people might be living in a particular house. For me , it is a very disrespectful duty and kind of really degrading for us. Would you beli eve that sometime s people donÕt even open the doors for us and we have to keep standing there for a long time ? (6th grade teacher, 02 -Pub lic School). One of the male teachers commented, For me , this duty is really hectic . Women are mainly at home in the morning because men must go to work. I have to wait until evening to make sure that the men are home so that I can gather the required information from them. This activity takes five to six hours of effort a day . (8th grad e teacher, 01 -Public School ) Interview data revealed that the UPE duty was the most annoying responsibility for public school teachers . In their interviews , these teachers bluntly rem arked that these activities were not only disrespectful to the teaching profession as a whole, but are also responsible for !!!-.!studentsÕ p oor learning in p ubli c schools. These teachers from the p ublic schools further reported that since they are forced to perform the governmentÕs imposed duty of UPE, it often becomes very difficult for them to effectively meet their teaching goals and complete school -related activities . In general, then, it is clear that, in both sectors, there are significant out -of-classroom work respon sibilities. The nature and frequency of these tasks as well as their alignment with national and international goals do differ, however. Class Size The substantive body of literature identifies class size as a significant factor responsible for the intens ification of teacherÕs workload and poor i nstructional quality ( Corcoran & Goertz , 1995; Futernick, 2007 & Johnson et al., 2005). In relation to this component of teachersÕ workload , the survey data shows that larger class sizes are the biggest problem for teachers in public schools, which makes it difficult for them to effectively manage their instructional responsibilities. A r eview of reports by the Punjab Education Foundation and survey data reports show that in FAS, the standard class room size is 35 st uden ts per class and that all FAS follow this policy. In contrast , in public school s the average classroom size fall s between the ranges of 50-60 (see the figu re below), and in some cases , this may range from 70-80 (since this is exceptional, these higher figures are not reflected in the figure below) . !!!-%!Figure 3: Class Size in Public and Foundation Assisted Schools During interviews i n relatio n to class size limits , teachers in both sectors expressed that this aspect impact s their workload . FAS teache rs showed contentment with their class size s. Generally , teachers from FAS think that class sizes are manageable within their schools . However , for the teachers who teach lower grades, such as grades one or two , they expressed the opinion that class size s should be smaller than 35 students . As one of the teachers stated: 35, ah ! Well , itÕs ok at grade one. I have really small kids and they all need individual attention . In that case , itÕs really hard for me to keep track of each childÕs performance and to address his/her learning problems individually. Though it Õs manageable , but the more we h ave , the less we can teach (1st grade t eacher, 02-FAS). The su rvey data shows that in relation to class size , the situation in p ublic school s is worse . In public schools the teachers are overwhelmed and exhausted because of overcrowded classrooms , especially teachers for primary grade s. These teachers reported that itÕs very difficult for them to maintain discipline , to keep track of studentÕs work performance , and to manage classroom assignments. For example, one teacher from a public school commented: *.!')!).!')!.!%.!&.!'.!(.!).!*.!+.!/012#3!435662! /7#"89:!435662! !"#$$%&'()% ;8$#<0-.?! %>-.?! (>(.?! -%>,.?! +.>,.?! &+>%.?! .>..?! &.>..?! (.>..?! *.>..?! ,.>..?! %..>..?! &...@)-..!*...@--..!%....@%'-..!;67:!958=! %(...!%&#"#*+%*#,-)$%',%./&%#,0%123"'4% $4566"% /012#3! AB4! !!!%..!Table 14: FAS Teachers' Spontaneous Responses about the Adequacy of Salary Teachers 01-FAS 02-FAS Grade -1 Salary is inadequate to meet my personal expenses. Salary is just ok. Grade -2 Salary is low. Salary is too low. If you compare it with our work requirements then it is nothing. We are underpaid. Grade -3 I had to provide private tutoring to meet my living expenses, as salary is too low. Extremely low, we are not paid as much as we work. Grade -4 Salary is just ok. But honestly it is not even adequate to meet the expenses of an individual. Salary is inadequate even for a single person. Grade -5 Salary is too low. I provide private tutoring to meet my expenses. Salary is too low to meet my personal needs. Grade -6 SalaryÉoh, it is very low. Though it should be better. I spend all day working like a machine; I canÕt even relax for one minute. You can se e there is no chair for me to sit. I stand all day. So I will say that we are not paid as much as we work. Grade -7 Salary bothers me sometimes. Our needs are not fulfilled, so I have to provide private tutoring after school hours. They are not paying us our due right. Grade -8 Salary is low, so I have to work after school. I would say we are underpaid. We work a lot. The table above clearly indicates that teachers in FAS are not satisfied with their salary and that they have a sense of being underpaid, which is a critical indicator of their lack of satisfaction with their current jobs. The interview data further reveal s that the economic cost associated with their work plays a critical role in determining both their career choice and their !!!%.%!commitment to their current work place. Overall, the low pay may force them to rotate and move to different schools. During the int erviews, when asked about their future plans regarding jobs and their preferences for their workplace, most of the teachers expressed interest in working in the public sector. For these teachers, salary and job security are important factors in making the decision to continue in their career. As one of the teachers explained, ÒI would prefer to join the public sector; they have a better salary scale for teachers, and are also well resourcedÓ (1 st grade teacher, 01 -FAS). Another teacher shared similar though ts, Òfirst, the public sector has a good pay structure and offers many benefits. Secondly, they hold prestigious positions as compared to these common private schoolsÓ (5 th grade teacher, 01 -FAS). From the interviews, it is also evident that since most F AS teachers are less qualified and have limited to no training, these types of schools work as the best starting place for them to practice and gain teaching experience. FAS teachers may switch to another school as soon as they are provided with a better j ob opportunity, which leads to issues of teacher retention in FAS schools. Overall, it is common for FAS teachers to switch school positions or rotate positions. When school principals were asked about the reasons for this problem and schoolsÕ policies to address it, one of the school principals from FAS commented, Òsee, these teachers are not well paid, so I personally feel it is not fair to discourage these teachers from school switching in case of a better job opportunity. Progress is part of human natur eÓ (principal, 01 -FAS). Low salary seems to be a bigger problem in FAS schools, and the school principals also tended to feel that teachers are not adequately paid. Since these schools are working in collaboration with the government, the governmentÕs stan ce towards teachersÕ salary and working conditions was also explored during interviews. In response to a question related to the !!!%.&!governmentÕs agenda and policy towards teachersÕ salaries, both of the principals from the two FAS acknowledged that their scho ols pay teachers low salaries, despite requests to the government for a plan to raise them. In general, they reported, the government has been non -responsive to this issue. One of the principals commented: In Punjab Education Foundation (PEF) meetings, we have raised concerns about teachersÕ low salary and need for an increase in teachersÕ pay. We always get the same response from the government: that teachers need to sacrifice; we are supposed to facilitate students, not teachers (principal, 02 -FAS). The p rincipal from 01 -FAS shared the same thoughts on this problem and commented, ÒWe have requested that the government set a minimum salary scale for these teachers, the same way that we have a system for public school teachers where the government pays 50% o f this amount and we will pay the rest. But PEF never pays attention to this issueÓ (principal, 02 -FAS). The notion that Òteachers need to sacrificeÓ clearly indicates that the government is excluding attention to teachersÕ financial needs, which in turn i mpacts teachersÕ satisfaction levels with their current workplaces and may motivate them to switch to different schools. The teachers from the public sector showed variation in their perceptions regarding the sufficiency of their salaries, but most of the teachers tended to think that their current salary is adequate. Table 3 provides the details of public school teachersÕ responses regarding their satisfaction with their salaries. !!!%.'!Table 15: Public School Teachers' Spontaneous Responses about the Adequacy of Salary Teachers 01- Public school 02- Public school Grade - 1 Salary is inadequate under current economic conditions. Salary is fine. Grade -2 Salary is ok. Salary is low according to our qualifications. Grade -3 Salary is good. Salary is ok. Grade -4 Salary is just ok. Salary is just fine. Grade -5 Salary is ok. Salary is good. Grade -6 Salary is fine. Pay scale is good. Grade -7 Salary was low, but now under the current governmentÕs initiatives, it is getting better. Under the current economic conditions of the country, the salary is not adequate. Especially when you have college -going children, it becomes very difficult to manage household expenses along with the college expenses of children. Grade -8 Salary is good. Salary is ok. Data also shows that the salary factor does not impact teachersÕ job commitment, in part, no doubt, because these teachers have permanent jobs. However, a few teachers expressed concerns and tended to think that the government is still not paying them adequately. As the 7 th grade teacher noted, the salary is perceived to be inadequate for sending children to college. This comment, however, stands in stark contrast to statements from the FAS teachers about a salary tha t is insufficient for meeting their most basic personal and household needs. A few other public school teachers shared similar concerns that given the countryÕs high rate of inflation, their pay is not adequate to meet their current financial needs. Howeve r, !!!%.(!teachers from public schools generally showed satisfaction with their current salary range and commitment to continuing in the profession. In summary, though both public school and FAS teachers are serving the same population and trying to achieve the same national goal of quality education, they in fact represent two totally different groups in terms of privileges. Teachers at FAS clearly report more financial challenges due to poor salary. Job Status And Job Entitlements TeachersÕ job status in terms of regular or contract -based employment determines their job entitlements and other privileges. Survey data was collected about teachersÕ status in both sectors. The data shows that 93.6% teachers in public schools have permanent jobs and only 6.3% have co ntractual jobs. However, in FAS 70.7% of teachers have contractual jobs and 20.0% are working on a temporary basis without a contract. Since most public school teachers have permanent jobs, comparing them with FAS teachers who have contractual jobs is not helpful in understanding FAS teachersÕ working conditions. Currently, in the wake of teacher shortage problems in certain areas, the government hired many teachers on contracts. Therefore, data was collected on the nature, duration, and details of job enti tlements for contract -based teaching staff in public schools. In general, the data shows that the nature of contracts for both sectors is quite different (see table below). !!!%.)!Table 16: Comparative Analysis of the Nature and Conditio ns for Job Contracts for FAS and Public School Teachers Contract details FAS Public Duration One year (renewable) Five year (renewable) Academic qualification No specific requirement Aligned with the current national recruitment policy Training Not required Mandatory for teachers for continuation of contract Pay scale and increase No description: varies from teacher to teacher, even within the same school National pay scale Letter of agreement Uncommon, mostly verbal agreements Mandatory, clearly delineating terms and conditions of job and details of privileges Job entitlements Entitled to pay raise, though no established criteria for its award; provision of six casual leave absences in an academic year. Entitled to pay raise , medical assistance, travel allowance, and governmentÕs prescribed leave structure as per permanent teachers Source: Contact copy from 01 ÐFAS & Government of Punjab Notification no. SO (SE -IV) 2 -43/2011 Data shows that teachers who are working under contracts in public schools are eligible for all privileges and entitlements that regular employees enjoy in other areas of the public sector. Clear and accessible contract agreements issued by the government of Punjab limit the exploitation of contract -based teachers in the public sector. In contrast, during interviews and informal discussions with teachers in FAS, it became apparent that the rule of ÒequalityÓ in dealing with teachers in these schools is not practiced. Within the same institution, differe nt policies in relation to teachersÕ assignments, salary, and other privileges are devised and implemented. !!!%.*!The previous section has presented an analysis of teachersÕ job status in both sectors and the nature of their contracts. In subsequent paragraphs, a comparative analysis of job entitlements provided to teachers in public (regular and contract -based teachers) and FAS will be presented. Data on job entitlements, including leave structures, the provision of social and living benefits, healthcare, and h ardship allowance in terms of family and academic support, was collected from public schools and FAS and is presented in the following section. This section is divided in to two subsections. Subsection I, includes a comparative analysis of the leave structu re in FAS a nd public schools. Subsection II, details the social and living benefits of teachers in FAS and public schools. Overall, the data revealed great variation between both sectors in terms of these factors. Subsection I: A Comparative Analysis Of Le ave Structure In Fas And Public Schools Although both sectors have very clear policies in regards to the leave system, the public sector has a more structured and supportive system to assist teachers. The data shows that the public sector identifies, acknowledges, and considers the importance of teachersÕ personal (family and health), academic, and professional needs in its devised leave structure. In the public sector, all teachers are allowed to request and take leave for study, the birth of a child, medical reasons, and casual reasons. For tra nsparency and protection of its leave policies, the government issues public notices, which are distributed among all public school employees. Therefore, teachers in the public schools are kept well informed of their rights and entitlements, which minimize the chances for exploitation, violation, or corruption. In contrast, interviews with school principals and teachers from FAS revealed that a very rigid and inflexible policy is followed in terms of a leave structure. The data shows that in most !!!%.+!cases, the FAS teachers are allowed to take only 12 days of leave in an entire academic year without a pay deduction. Thus, teachers are bound to follow the rule of only one leave in a month and if they take more than one for any personal or health reason (irresp ective of the intensity), their salary is deducted for those specific days. The following table presents the comparative analysis of the leave structure in both sectors. !!!%.,!Table 17: Summary of the Leave System in Public and FASs Leave structure Public FAS Casual leaves Twenty -five in an academic year; maximum two allowed in a month; teachers can take up to six in a month, based on severity of need without any pay deduction Twelve in a year; one is allowed in a month, irrespective of severity of need; these leaves can only be taken under certain predefined conditions Maternity Leaves Ninety days leave for female teachers No system Paternity leave Seven days leave for male teachers No system Special leave One hundred thirty days leave on the death of a female teacherÕs spouse No system Pilgrimage leave Study leave Forty days pilgrimage leave To pursue higher studies with/without pay based on years of service No system No system Source: Civil service rule, Punjab From the data, it has become evident that teachers in FAS are low paid, contributing to their job dissatisfaction. In addition, the presence of inflexible leave policies further reduces reported levels of job satisfact ion and increases reported levels of physical and psychological stress for these teachers. For example, while discussing the schoolÕs policy about the leave system, one of the teachers from FAS complained about the negligence and rigidity of the school ad ministration towards teachersÕ personal, financial, and emotional needs: You know, my brother, who was only two years older than me, died this year, and since I am the oldest among my siblings, I had to stay home to take care of my family and the !!!%.-!visiting relatives. I had to take two -week-long leaves. My school administration knows that I am from a low -income family that needs money, particularly in this painful situation, but despite knowing all this they deducted my salary for two weeks. Their attitude re ally hurt me; we work for them. The school administration should consider our needs as well. I was going through a painful experience, which was totally ignored by the school administration. (2 nd grade teacher, 02 -FAS) The data from FAS also indicates inconsistency in teachersÕ and principalsÕ views on teachersÕ salaries during summer and winter vacations in an academic year. In response to interview questions about schoolsÕ policies regarding salaries during summer and winter vacations, one of the prin cipals from an FAS responded, Òwe pay our teachers during summer vacations as well. Salary is given to them 12 months a yearÓ (principal, 02 -FAS). However, one of the teachers from the same school stated, Òonly teachers who have worked in this school for almost an entire year get paid a salary during the summerÓ (1 st grade teacher, 01 -FAS). During the survey administration in FAS, it became apparent that many schools deduct teachersÕ salary even if they take only one leave in a month, and that the policy of no pay during summer vacations is also a common practice. Overall, it is clear that a poor salary structure coupled with a pay deduction policy (irrespective of intensity of teachersÕ problem and/or need) is one of the defining factors for teachersÕ decis ions to switch schools before completing an academic year of teaching. Subsection II : Social And Living Benefits Government policy documents were reviewed to explore the different forms of social and living benefits, which are provided to academic staff in public schools. The analysis of documents shows that a number of benefits are provided to the school employees, including !!!%%.!teachers and administrators. The following are some of the social benefits provided to employees in public schools: ¥ Medical allowance : The medical allowance, which is equal to 15% of the employeeÕs basic pay, is given to teachers on a monthly basis. All government employees are eligible for free medical treatment in civil hospitals. In the case that any employee is referred to a non-civil hospital, a majority of the cost of treatment is reimbursed to the staff. ¥ Transport allowance: A travel allowance is also offered to teachers and other public sector employees to cover their travel charges from home to their respective workplaces. ¥ Residential allowance/ house rent : House rental cost is also given to teachers and other employees to reduce the burden of their living costs. The amount of allocated house rent depends upon the pay scale of the employees. ¥ Benevolence fund: In addition to the aforementioned benefits, a benevolence fund has also been established to provide assistance to teachers and other public sector employees. Under this fund, financial support is provided to government employees in the form of scholarships and grants for the education of their children, a marriage fund, and a funeral fund. The public sectorÕs recognition of teachers and the privileges they are afforded seem to foster a sense of admiration for public sector jobs amongst FAS teachers. In response to an intervie w question related to their future job prospects, most of the teachers from FAS showed interest in joining the public sector in the future. They tended to think a teaching job in the public sector is well resourced , more competitive, and carries more value in terms of status as compared to an ordinary private school. !!!%%%!Section II : Professional And Instructional Resources The structured observation sheet, photographs, and descriptive field notes were used to gather data on the availability, adequacy, and qual ity of instructional resources in terms of teachersÕ manuals, supplemental teaching resources, and instructional manipulatives. The data indicates huge variations between both sectors in relation to the availability and quality of instructional resources. The following table presents the comparative details of the availability of instructional resources. !!!%%&!Table 18: Comparative Analysis of Instructional and Professional Resources Resources Public schools FAS Supplemental resources for teachers, such as manuals and guides Department of Staff Development (DSD) provides their manual to teachers for math, science, and language classes Teachers do not get any kind of supplemental resources for teaching other than textbooks School suppl ies (paper, pencil, markers, photocopier) The government provides all required school supplies to the teachers, there are discretionary funds for extra materials should teachers request them Schools provide the required resources; however, if teachers need something different for making their work more creative or colorful, then the teacher must arrange for these materials on their own Library Each participant public school owns a library for students No culture of having a library Instructional manipulatives (for teaching science, math, and language); other audio -visual instructional supplies The public schools own some resources; however, these resources are not adequate to effectively teach complicated concepts Absence of instructional manipu latives; teachers mainly use paper charts Interactions with school administrators from FAS indicate that current textbooks have been revamped with an increased focus on conceptual and activity -based learning. However, these schools do not receive any kind of assistance from the Punjab Education Foundation (PEF) for implementing their demands in terms of promoting activity -based learning. The data also indicate that FAS schools often lack professional resources, as teachers in these schools do not recei ve any kind of manual or supplemental resources to teach new course content. In response to an interview question related to the availability and adequacy of resources, a school principal replied: We get a very limited budget from PEF. My school building i s rented and a big chunk of funds goes for rent and utilities. And then we have to manage teachersÕ salaries as well. !!!%%'!In this situation it is really hard to manage instructional resources for these students. We try to manage some, but we donÕt get all that is required. We use school funds to get these resources. However, PEF sh ould provide us with resources (principal, 02 -FAS). Another principal also emphasized the need to either increase funds or arrange instructional resources: ÒPEF does not help us or pr ovide instructional resources; we have to arrange all kinds of instructional resources ourselves. We need resources to impart education effectively, and I believe PEF should facilitate us in this regardÓ (principal, 01 -FAS). Teachers from FAS also indicate d insufficient instructional resources. Unlike public school teachers, FAS teachers donÕt receive instructional kits that could help them to plan their lessons to meet current content demands. The observation notes show that the paper chart is the most com monly available resource in FAS. Absence of equipment for teaching science and math concepts was also observed in FAS. During interviews, teachers said that the lack of instructional resources for teaching, especially math and science concepts, makes their job difficult because they must put more effort into explaining the concepts, particularly for junior classes. As one of the math teachers stated, ÒThe resources are really low; I donÕt have sufficient resources to teach even the basic concepts of math. U ltimately, I have to invest more timeÓ (5 th grade teacher, 01 -FAS). Other teachers also showed their dissatisfaction with the lack of available resources. For example: Òit is very true that the more resources we have, the better we can teach, and the more likely students will learn. But what can we do? We have to teach in any case so we mostly use books as the only resourceÓ (7 th grade teacher, 02 -FAS). The public schools seem to be more resourceful in relation to the adequacy and availability of instructio nal and professional resources. Interview data shows that in the public !!!%%(!sector, the government is responsible for providing teaching resources to the schools. However, it is the responsibility of school principals to ensure the adequacy of these resources. Under DSD training, teachers are also encouraged to develop low cost materials for instruction. Training is provided to teachers to help them in this task, especially at the primary level, and a toolkit is also provided for the development of low -cost re sources. However, teachers in a few public schools reported that they still feel that their school lack resources, especially for junior classes. These teachers tend to think the government needs to focus on this aspect, too, for effective instruction. For example, teachers at the elementary level tend to feel that they lack laboratories with adequate equipment, particularly for teaching science concepts. One of the participant teachers from a public school responded, Òthough we have low cost resources, the re is a need for a good lab for effectively teaching science and to develop studentsÕ interestÓ (7 th grade science teacher, 02 -Public School). Another teacher shared a similar concern that Òthere is need to have a good lab. Though I have resources that are kind of low cost, a well -resourced and well -equipped lab can help us to effectively teach studentsÓ (6 th grade science teacher, 01 -Public School). Overall, public schools seem to be better resourced and equipped as compared to FAS, in part, because the go vernment is responsible for generating the funds and resources for these schools as part of its annual educational strategy. In contrast, in FAS, the school administrator is solely responsible for making decisions for school resources and other administrat ive units, and these decisions depend more or less on that particular schoolÕs financial stability. Section III : Professional Support It is evident from the literature that lack of teaching experience, coupled with poor support structures for new teachers within schools, potentially exposes them to the dangers of !!!%%)!Òsink -or-swim,Ó Òtrial -by-fire,Ó or Òboot -campÓ experiences that significan tly impact their job satisfaction and stress levels (Johnson 1990; Johnson & Birkeland, 2003; Sizer, 1992). For instance, structural support available in terms of mentoring and assistance impacts teachersÕ decisions to stay longer in the teaching professio n and also impacts the level of teachersÕ satisfaction towards their assigned tasks (Feiman -Nemser, 1996; Johnson, 2006). In addition, opportunities for self -growth in relation to mastery and acquisition of professional skills are also critical for teacher sÕ job satisfaction (Dinham & Scott, 1998). Surveys and interviews were used to explore the nature of structural support available to newly inducted teachers, the frequency of PD in an academic year, and the PDÕs relevance to teachersÕ professional needs i n public schools and FAS. The findings in relation to this component of psychological costs are categorized into the following two sub sections: ¥ Professional support for new teachers; and ¥ Opportunities for professional development for in -service teachers. Professional Support For New Teachers Interviews were primarily used to examine the nature of professional and structural support available to newly inducted teachers in both types of institutions. The data shows that in the FAS, certification or qualific ation criteria for teachersÕ recruitment are not clear and that the institutions fail to provide mentoring or induction support for new teachers. Before discussing the interview findings and nature of the challenges that teachers in FAS struggle with while teaching, it is important to know the demographics of the teacher population in FAS. This will help to provide a better understanding of the nature of the pedagogical challenges that newly inducted teachers face, especially in FAS. The following table pre sents the findings of the survey data in relation to teachersÕ academic and professional background in FAS. !!!%%*! Table 19: Teachers' Academic and Professional Background in FASs Academic qualification Matriculation F.A/F.Sc B.A/B.SC M.A/M.SC 8.6% 50.7% 27.9% 11.4% Teacher training No training -- CT/PTC B.Ed or more 46.4% 39.1% 14.5% Teaching experience Less than 1 Year -- 1-5 years More than 5 years 38.8% 50.4% 10.8% The table above shows that 50% of teachers working in FAS hold a high school diploma with minimal (39.1%) to no training (46.6%). Most of these teachers are teaching for the first time (38.8%). Thus, it is important to explore what type of professional sup port is provided to these teachers to effectively perform their job by sustaining the balance between their assigned teaching tasks and quality. During interviews, teachers were asked to recall their teaching experience on the first day and to identify th eir fears and challenges. The most common challenges facing FAS teachers included a lack of confidence to face children and a lack of knowledge about basic instructional processes such as lesson planning, lesson delivery, and classroom management. These re sponses clearly show that most FAS teachers are not ready to teach. In response to a question asking how they overcame their fears and addressed their teaching challenges, almost every teacher identified time and experience as the most significant factors. Specifically, teachersÕ responses included, Òlearned with time,Ó Òin the beginning, it was hard, now itÕs okay,Ó Òyou know, you learn with time,Ó and ÒI just did it, though it was really hard in the beginning.Ó A sense of unhappiness and tiredness in thei r voice was audible in these responses, which clearly indicated !!!%%+!that these teachers generally learned through Òsink or swim Ó methods in the initial stages of their teaching. Interviews with school principals and teachers revealed that the FAS sector lacks a structured system for the mentoring of newly inducted teachers. On the first day of teaching in FAS, teachers are generally introduced to their assigned classes and course details are provided. FAS do not offer new teachers the opportunity to observe sen ior teachersÕ classrooms prior to starting the job. Thus, teachers in most FAS are left alone to address classroom challenges in their first year of teaching, which can be referred to as the Òsurvival stage.Ó Interviews with principals revealed that a sequ ential pattern is provided in terms of curriculum guidelines, including what course content must be taught. However, these guidelines also do not provide guidance as to how to perform and maintain balance in the classroom using the sequential pattern. Esse ntially, delivery of the curriculum is more or less a teacherÕs sole task. In response to one of the questions related to the availability of support structures during the first day of teaching, one of the teachers responded, Òhonestly speaking, this schoo l doesnÕt provide any kind of assistance in terms of training and school/classroom observation to new teachers. They assign classes the very first dayÓ (2 nd grade teacher, 01 -FAS). During interviews, teachers also identified a shortage of teaching staff as the main factor responsible for new teachersÕ lack of training. Specifically, because teachers are in short supply, they must start teaching immediately upon hire to fill empty positions. As one of the teachers commented, Òhere we have really limited staff, so it is not possible to provide training by giving them opportunities to observe other teachersÕ classroomsÓ (8 th grade teacher, 01 -FAS). In contrast, the Directorate of Staff Development (DSD) is responsible for providing in -service and pre -service tr ainings to teachers in the public sector. This directorate is also !!!%%,!responsible for organizing training sessions for newly appointed teachers. Since teachers in public schools are appointed by the government, regardless of whether they are selected for a permanent job or a contract -based job, it is mandatory for them to complete two to four week -long training sessions prior to starting their position. In order to understand how public schools facilitate newly inducted teachers from the initiation of their em ployment, principals were asked about the school practices in this regard. In response, one principal replied: You know, the government already hires well -trained teachers and they are also required to attend induction training before joining. So, from a t eaching and pedagogical aspect, they are ready to teach. However, since they are new to the system or to the school, we do not immediately assign them classes. We ask them to observe the school and classes with senior teachers for a week or two so that the y become familiar with the school working environment and encounter challenges that may occur while teaching. Then, we assign them classes or courses with their consultation. (principal, 01 -Public School) Most of the teachers interviewed in public schools were teaching for more than five to ten years. Among all the interviewed teachers from public schools, therefore, only one teacher was newly inducted. She was asked to share her experiences as a new teacher and the nature of the types of support that were available. While sharing her experiences, she commented: I joined the school two weeks ago. Currently, I am not teaching any classes. The principal advised me to observe the teachers who are teaching the subjects that I am supposed to teach (science), to s pend time with teachers in the staffroom, to get familiar with the schoolÕs work environment and teachers, and to seek their suggestions on issues/challenges related to teaching in this school. (7 th grade teacher, 01 -Public School). !!!%%-!The data show that the public sector has a very organized, systematic, and structured system for providing training to newly appointed teachers. Schools also facilitate newly inducted teachersÕ adjustment phase by providing them with the opportunity to observe senior teachersÕ classrooms and to get familiar with the school and other staff during formal and informal staff gatherings. In contrast, due to limited staff and a need -based hiring policy, teachers in FAS do not get the opportunity to observe senior teachers and to share their fears and challenges in the early days of their teaching. FAS teachersÕ expressions, gestures, and tone of voice during interviews helped to capture the tensions and struggles they faced at the start of their teaching positions. Professional Development (PD ) Currently, major reforms have been implemented in Pakistan (National Education Policy, 2009). At the school level these reforms include a change in the language used for instruction and the promotion of concept and activity -based learning . When this reform was implemented in textbooks, a need arose to explore what kind of PD opportunities were available to teachers in both sectors to equip them with the skills necessary to effectively teach current and updated course content. In the first round of data collection for this study, a survey was used to gather information about the frequency, duration, and focus of PD trainings in public schools. In the second round of data collection, interviews with school principals and teachers from public and FAS were conducted to examine the quality and relevance of PD trainings to teachersÕ needs. The findings of the survey data are shown in the table below. !!!%&.!Table 20: Frequency, Duration and Focus of PD in FASs and Public Schools Questions Preferences FAS (140 respondents) Public Schools ( 151 respondents) How often do you get teacher training in an academic year? Never Once a year Twice a year More than twice a year 15.7% 45.5% 25.6% 13.2% 5.6% 60.1% 10.5% 23.8% When was your last training session? Last month Last year Two years ago Never 54.0% 31.0% 4.0 % 11.0% 18.2% 41.3% 37.0% 5.0% If you had a chance, what was the duration of your last training session? Less than a week 1-2 week 3-4 week Other --- 32.4% 48.6% 16.2% 2.7% 17.4% 47.8% 31.2% 3.6% What was the focus of the last training you attended? Subject -based Classroom management Teaching methods 35.0% 9.3% 33.6% 38.6% 5.7% 34.2% The table above shows the frequency, duration and focus of PD trainings in both sectors. The survey findings do not show any meaningful difference between both of these sectors in relation to training frequency, focus, and duration. The survey findings indicate that teachers in public schools and FAS receive PD trainings that focus on teaching methods and particular subjects at different levels. However, the extent to which these trainings are relevant to school needs and teachersÕ classroom challenges needs to be explored. In order to address this question, interviews were conducted. During school interviews, school principals from FAS stated that textbook content was changed for 2013, including the addition of new and complex concepts. In terms of the difficulty !!!%&%!level of textbook content, one of the principals stated, Òthe lessons hav e been changed drastically in terms of content difficultyÓ (principal, 01 -FAS). In a question related to the relevance of PD to current curriculum reforms, one of the principals reported, ÒI have no idea if the PEF has scheduled any training so far in the wake of current textbook reform; however, they aim to provide subject -based training in this regardÓ (principal, 01 -FAS). Another school principal reported, ÒIn previous years, the focus of PEF training has been mostly on classroom management and handling classes. The frequency of subject -based training is quite lowÓ (principal, 02 -FAS). In terms of effectiveness of these trainings, a school principal showed dissatisfaction in his comments: The focus of FAS training is quite advanced, and to some exte nt irrelevant, to daily classroom needs. They ask for model development for learning, but how can we manage these requirements with a limited budget? It is not possible to create the classrooms that they demand. Our teachers donÕt have time for all these r equirements. They already work a lot here. We cannot force them to work at home for the school. There is a need to understand that they do have family responsibilities, too. ( Principal , 01-FAS) The interviews with teachers revealed that PD is not very helpful in regards to enhancing studentsÕ engagement; especially for slow learners and assisting teachers in helping these students learn the basic concepts. A few teachers explained that they still struggle to balance their time between lecture deliveries and meeting other assigned teaching -related tasks in class. In response to the question related to the nature of the challenges that teachers still face, most of the participants responded that the ir greatest challenge is reaching students of all levels; for example, one FAS teacher noted she wanted to understand Òhow to ensure weak studentsÕ !!!%&&!learning and their participation in classÓ (4 th grade teacher, 02 -FAS). Another participant responded, ÒIt i s still hard to understand studentsÕ psychology; how to make them learn and get appropriate feedback from themÓ (1 st grade teacher, 01 -FAS). A third teacher responded that her greatest challenge is Òhow to prepare lessons to accommodate weak studentsÕ need s in the learning processÓ (2 nd grade teacher, 02 -FAS). These teachersÕ statements clearly indicate that teachers still struggle with issues of studentsÕ engagement during the learning process. Teachers from FAS reported that the focus of PEF -PD workshop i s generally on classroom management and classroom decoration. Although teaching methodology is also discussed during the workshops, it is not presented in a focused and systematic way. The interviews show that PEF trainings are mostly focused on preparing these less experienced teachers to keep students engaged by making the classroom environment pleasant and colorful. Learning pedagogy is currently absent from the training. The interviews also show that PEF trainings donÕt follow a systematic, organized pa ttern or structure. Although PEF identifies a sequential pattern in their trainings in official government documents, in reality, the implementation pattern of these training schedules is quite contradictory to official policy recommendations. An absence o f subject -based trainings, particularly at the primary school level, was also identified in interview data. In terms of schedules for these trainings, it became apparent that PEF does not follow any particular schedule for trainings and that these may occu r any time during an academic year. This inflexibility in training schedules presents most teachers in FAS, particularly the inexperienced ones, with severe problems. Specifically, these teachers must manage classrooms and teach without receiving the prope r training beforehand. In contrast, much attention has been placed on teachersÕ professional development in the public sector over the past few years. A Directorate of Staff Development (DSD) has !!!%&'!strengthened this focus on teachersÕ professional development by not only providing in -service training, but also providing pre -service training to all public school teachers in Punjab. Under the paradigm of continuous professional development, primary school teachers receive training under the system of mentoring and coaching, and subject -based training is also provided to elementary and high school teachers. In response to the question related to how mentoring and coaching works, one of the participant teachers responded: Teachers from DSD regularly vis it the school on a monthly basis. They conduct studentsÕ assessment on the first of every month, and they assess and observe teachers on the 30 th of every month. During observation, they assess teachersÕ teaching methodology, class organization, and instru ctional process, and then assign the teachers different grades on an assessment sheet. Based on teachersÕ cumulative score, they decide the needs for coaching and mentoring sessions for the teachers whose performance is less than their criteria scale. (4 th grade teacher, 01 -Public School) The interview data also shows that the public sector follows fixed interval patterns for teachersÕ professional development. For example, these professional development trainings are scheduled every third month of an acade mic year and they last for one to two weeks. In some cases, one -day trainings are also conducted. In terms of the effectiveness and relevance of these trainings, divergent views arose in interviews. A few teachers tended to think that these trainings are v ery helpful, especially since the time that the curriculum was revised. Therefore, these trainings help them to be informed of newly emerging techniques in teaching. Teachers also identified and affirmed that the government sector follows a very structured and organized pattern in conducting these trainings. !!!%&(!However, the primary grade teachers in public schools raised some concerns with DSD trainings and coaching structures in terms of a lack of compatibility between DSD developed modules and actual school textbooks. It is important to note that at grade five, the state assesses students and that the Punjab Education Commission (PEC) is responsible for preparing and conducting these student assessments. The PEC develops the tests with the use of state appro ved textbooks. However, during DSD trainings teachers are advised to prepare lessons and assess students from their recommended books in math, science, and English. Teachers are forced to use DSD and state approved textbooks to prepare students for state a nnual assessments that are administered and developed by another state agency, and are therefore not well aligned. Thus, a lack of compatibility not only increases their workload, but also makes it difficult them for them to focus on studentsÕ learning. As one of the teachers explained, We have to prepare students from two different textbooks. DSD provides science, math and English textbooks, and also conducts monthly tests from these books. However, the board exams are conducted from textbooks issued by P unjab. So this is an incompatibility between the DSD books and textbooks, which complicates the process and increases our work. (1 st grade teacher, 01 -Public School) Overall, the data shows that the public sector is more organized, focused, and responsive to current reforms in education, and tends to offer PD trainings on a regular basis. In contrast, since the PEF is dealing with inexperienced and less qualified teachers with limited to no training, it seems to be more focused on classroom management. As a result, teachers in FAS struggle to engage weak students in the learning process. These teachers know how to ensure a !!!%&)!happy class, and how to keep students busy, but find it difficult to meet the learning needs of all students. In interviews, teachers fro m FAS identified this problem as the most challenging and stressful part of their job. Summary And Conclusion This chapter was an effort to identify and explore teachersÕ working conditions and their perceived impacts on their job satisfaction, work -rela ted stress, and job commitment in both sectors by using the following parameters: salary, adequacy and availability of instructional and physical resources, and opportunities for professional development. In previous research, the aforementioned factors ha ve been identified as significant for teachersÕ psychological wellbeing. However, because it is difficult to measure stress levels, the present study did not attempt to directly measure this factor. Considering the nature of this qualitative research, tea chersÕ facial expressions, spontaneous responses, gestures, and tone of voice were used as means to understand the intensity of their work -related stress. The study identifies that in FAS, a poor salary structure, lack of resources, and intensive work requ irements are significantly stressing factors for teachers. Interviews revealed complaining tones in their responses, which indicated that they are not satisfied with their current work place. Responses included: Òsee my class has no chair to sit;Ó ÒI canÕt continue my studies after working here;Ó ÒI have to provide tutoring;Ó ÒI cannot fulfill my personal needs;Ó Òwe donÕt get enough [money];Ó ÒI have to work like a machine;Ó Òwe are underpaid;Ó and Òwe donÕt get our due right. Ó These phrases clearly reflec t the nature of the challenges that these teachers face in FAS. Consequently, these teachers tend to switch schools even before completing an academic year, !!!%&*!resulting in teacher shortages and an ongoing process of hiring that continues all year within FAS. The scarcity of instructional and physical resources was also observed in FAS. In most of the classrooms there is not even a chair for a teacher to sit on, so they must spend all day standing. Furthermore, they do not have access to instructional resourc es, which further increases their workload. In order to save money, FAS hires less qualified teachers who are then left alone to manage classes without support. These teachers openly admitted that time and experience were the only factors in the school tha t helped them to manage the classroom assignments. While it was not possible to gather direct data on the training modules of PEF, conversations with teachers and principals in FAS revealed that the PEF seems to be more focused on classroom management iss ues and classroom decoration. Teaching pedagogy and content delivery appear to be mostly absent in the PD workshops organized by PEF. In order to maintain school funding in FAS, studentsÕ test score must meet a certain criteria; therefore, teachers appear to struggle and experience stress over the performance of slow learners who may not do well on these tests. This was the most concerning factor that FAS teachers identified, and was considered the most challenging and stressful part of their teaching job. Results of the interviews also clearly show that teachers are not getting relevant and adequate training that could help them to address this challenging aspect of their job. In contrast, teachers in public schools have permanent jobs and tend to have pr ofessional experience of five to ten years. They also tend to receive better salaries; however, newly inducted teachers tend to think that the current salary structure is not adequate to meet the current economic conditions of the country. In terms of trai ning, teachers from grades three to five identified the lack of coherence between the Punjab textbook course material and DSD teaching !!!%&+!modules as a stressful part of teaching. However, the rest of the teachers expressed satisfaction with current training p ractices. In terms of instructional and professional resources, the public sector is significantly better than FAS. However, elementary teachers identified the need for a well-resourced science lab. This study establishes that teachers in FAS have relati vely poor working conditions that lead to significant psychological costs. Although FAS are run under the public -private partnership agreement, the component of teachersÕ status as professionals has been ignored in this reform. This has led to the deprivat ion of FAS teachers in terms of the privileges afforded to public school teachers. This study also suggests that FAS teachersÕ unhappiness and lack of satisfaction with their current job placement is primarily due to work related stress. Consequently, FAS teachersÕ work related stress has led to the practice of frequent job rotation and switching schools. Most of the teachers seem to use these schools as an entry point into the profession to gain teaching experience, but as soon as they get a better teachin g opportunity, they switch positions. The job -induced stress that leads to frequent job switching has not only a personal cost on the teachers who leave, but most certainly, one would think, impacts the school community left behind Ñchildren, their parents, the remaining teachers and principals. It is to these social costs that I shall turn in the next chapter. CHAPTER 6: SOCIAL COST This chapter presents the analysis of data in relation to the social environment in FAS and public schools. In order to assess the nature and extent of social costs (dissembling of professional networks as well as the loss of community, trust, and collegia lity between employees) associated with Public and the FAS program in Pakistan, this analysis employs the !!!%&,!lens of teachersÕ professional community, or a Ògroup of people sharing and critically interrogating their practice in an ongoing, reflective, collabo rative, inclusive, learning -oriented, growth -promoting wayÓ (Stoll et al., 2006, p.223). Before discussing the findings, it is important to note that scant research exists on the structure and characteristics of teachersÕ professional learning communities in Pakistan. Thus, there is a need to understand how the concept of community is perceived and practiced in Pakistani schools. This chapter is an effort to provide some insight on the characteristics of teachersÕ community or schoolsÕ social working envir onments in both instituti ons and to explore the impacts of these teachersÕ communities (in public schools and FAS) on teachersÕ professional growth and learning. In order to understand the nature of teacher communities, open -ended field research was condu cted. As I analyzed the data, I paid particular attention to teachersÕ interview responses, facial expressions, and non -verbal gestures during the data collection process. Data analysis reveals that the public sector has a stronger sense of community as compared to FAS. Teachers in public schools receive ample opportunities to work collaboratively in the presence of collegial and principal support. The analysis shows that these stronger communities in the public sector possess the following characteristi cs, which are generally not available to FAS teachers: ¥ Sustained interactions over time ¥ Time for planning and collaboration ¥ Teacher empowerment ¥ Role of the principal: supportive versus authoritative !!!%&-!Sustained Interactions Over Time The type of institution , whether public or private, is one of the most significant factors in developing a stronger teachersÕ community. The type of institution emerged as a powerful factor in shaping teachersÕ stronger communities within public schools, in particular. Specifica lly, working in the public sector provides teachers with opportunities to have continued and sustained interactions with one another. During informal discussions with teachers and principals, it became apparent that the characteristic of having a permanent job in the public sector provides teachers and school principals with the opportunity to remain in the same school for extended periods of time. This allows for strengthened relationships between teachers, which help them to learn and grow professionally over time through the shared experience of policy changes or reforms. Data on teachersÕ demographics show that more than 70% of surveyed teachers from public schools have been teaching in the same school for more than three years, while only 15% of teache rs in FAS have remained in the same school for this amount of time. The practice of teachersÕ school switching is common in private schools. The data indicates poor working conditions, temporary job appointments, and low salary are the major factors respon sible for teachersÕ school switching practices amongst FAS teachers. Since these teachers stay for a short time in these schools, the probability for community development and trust between teachers is low. During interviews and informal talks with public sector teachers, teachers often talked in groups and shared with one another about the major changes in government policies over the years, including how they responded to these changes. Recently, the government of Punjab introduced English as the only a cceptable medium of instruction in schools, and a few teachers were appointed during the time when only high school !!!%'.!certification was required to become a primary school teacher and no competency in English language was required. During interviews where ot her teachers and the principals were present, a few teachers that have taught for the past 10 to 20 years openly shared their problems with this shift in policy. These teachers did not hesitate to discuss their problems and issues despite the presence of t he other teachers and principals. This collective approach provided the opportunity to better observe and experience the construct of community between teachers and principals. In particular, these series of interactions with public school teachers and pri ncipals demonstrated what it is like to be part of a larger community within the same institution, whereby everyone is allowed to voice their concerns and provide their input. In addition to these informal talks and observations, multiple visits to these schools for interviews as well as survey administration and collection also helped to elucidate the nature of the bond between teachers and school principals. Upon each visit to these schools, it became apparent that teachers liked to talk and sit together in the principalÕs office during their free time. In public schools, the principalÕs office served as a place for Òphysical proximity,Ó where teachers discuss and reflect upon national policy and its impact on academic and personal issues. In contrast, i n FAS, this type of collaborative or collective approach towards shared issues was not observed. During interviews with FAS teachers, a lack of confidence was readily apparent among teachers while sharing their educational problems. During interviews, most of the teachers also admitted that they are afraid of the principal because he tends to get angry. Thus, a lack of confidence was apparent amongst teachers during interviews, particularly in those cases where a senior teacher accompanied them. In the pres ence of a senior teacher, most teachers restricted their answer to only yes or no responses. Extracting adequate and appropriate responses from these teachers in the presence of other teachers was a difficult task, suggesting !!!%'%!that the teachers are insecure about their jobs and do not trust their fellow teachers. Overall, results from public schools and FAS demonstrate that sustained interactions among teachers and association with the same institution are important factors in promoting and developing strong er teachersÕ communities. However, FAS currently lacks these factors, making teacher communities weaker or non -existent within these schools. Time For Planning And Collaboration Researchers have identified that collaboration amongst teachers is a systematic process. This process requires continuity and allocation of adequate time to arrange teachersÕ collaborative meetings to develop trust, cooperation, and collective relationships amongst teachers, which are the essence of teachersÕ communities. T eachers could become engaged in the process of reflection, seek expert opinions from colleagues to address their common problems, and build a community (Berry et al., 2009 ; Britton, 20011; Du four et al., 2005; Sweetland, 2008) Previous research suggests that collaboration not only involves group work, but also demands teachersÕ engagement. Furthermore, teachers must focus on improving their teaching practices through collective instructional planning, sharing with other teachers , and seeking instructional practices, resources, and adequate feedback from fellow teachers (Hord, 1997). Interview data suggests that although FAS teachers indicate that they utilize the concepts of collaborative work and friendly environments in their interview responses, field notes and analysis of schoolsÕ work -related policies do not provide sufficient evidence to support the presence of these practices in actuality. Before discussing these findings in details, FAS teachersÕ responses to the questio n related to the school working environment are shared below. !!!%'&!Table 21: FAS Teachers' Responses about Schools' Social Environment Teachers FAS-01 FAS-02 Grade -01 Teachers usually cooperate with each other. I usually prefer to ask the principal in case I get stuck with any difficulty. Grade -02 Overall, the working environment is good and the principal is also nice. The school environment is friendly; fellow teachers cooperate with each other. Grade -03 Here teachers work together. Teachers are not allowed to talk during school hours. Here we follow no communication policy. Grade -04 We work in groups and sometimes we share our personal concerns as well We canÕt even greet informally. The moment we reach school, we are advised to go directly to our classes. We donÕt even get time to socialize or talk during breaks. Grade -05 The school environment is quite friendly, so we donÕt have any issue here. The working environment is good. Grade -06 We work like a family. No response Grade -07 We work like a team. The work environment is okay. Grade -08 The principal encouraged us to work together. Otherwise, the situation was not very friendly. Teachers are not allowed to talk with fellow teachers and school principals during school hours. We can talk and socialize only after school hours. We work together. We support and guide each other. In relation to time for planning and collaboration between teachers, analysis of FAS teachersÕ responses indicate that they reported the school environment to be friendly and that teachers work like teams. However, in -depth analysis of schoolsÕ work -relate d policies and !!!%''!teachersÕ daily routines (discussed in Chapter Four) indicate that a very narrow and restricted version of collegiality and collaboration is supported and practiced in FAS schools. Overall, data from FAS indicates that a Òno communication po licyÓ is followed during school hours and teachers are not even allowed to talk with each other during breaks. The analysis of the school environment in FAS indicates that teachers only receive the opportunity to collaborate and work together after schoo l hours, particularly since an after school policy is followed in most FAS (see Chapter Four). During the 30 minutes that teachers are required to stay after school, they are required to write in their diaries and share the details of their daily teaching -related accomplishments with their principal. The data also shows that a management committee comprised of three to four teachers is responsible for developing the weekly lesson plans for all the classes within these schools. Therefore, the teachers in F AS follow scripted lessons, which limit their involvement in the instructional planning process. Interestingly, this component of collaboration is also missing amongst the management committee, as school administration do not provide them with time to plan lessons during school hours. Below is the extract of an interview of an 8th grade teacher, who is also a member of the schoolÕs management committee: We, the members of the management committee, are responsible for lesson planning for the whole school. Since we donÕt get enough time for planning during school hours, we distribute the classes amongst our group and then take the work home. Then, every Monday we distribute the weekly lesson plans to all teachers and identify teaching goals for the respectiv e week. (8 th grade teacher, 01 -FAS) !!!%'(!This statement clearly indicates that teacher collaboration is missing in FAS. Teachers do not receive the time to critically engage in the teaching process. The required after school time is the only opportunity when t eachers would be able to talk about their daily challenges or other personal matters, while also writing in their diaries. The effectiveness of their discussions, including whether they are reflective or work -oriented, remains to be explored. However, conv ersations with FAS school teachers and analysis of their daily teaching routines indicate that they are so consumed in meeting their assigned teaching tasks that they do not feel motivated to get involved in an additional intellectual task. In contrast, t he policy of non -teaching time is followed in all public schools. The purpose of this policy is to provide teachers with the opportunity to interact with one another, collaborate, and complete their assigned teaching tasks together. Below are the details o f teachersÕ responses about their school social environment. !!!%')!Table 22: Public School Teachers' Responses about Schools' Social Environment Teachers Public -01 Public -02 Grade -01 The school environment is very friendly. We work and plan teaching activities together. The school environment is good. Here teachers manage duties and timetables in collaboration. Grade -02 Here the staff is very cooperative. If we need, we easily switch our administrative and teaching duties with each other. We work together and understand each otherÕs problems. Grade -03 No response It is a very cooperative environment. I work with elementary students,, since we have a staff shortage in mathema tics. I have a background in mathematics, so I take classes for other sections, too. We share expertise with each other. Grade -04 The school environment is very supportive. The school environment is really good. We plan lessons together during free peri ods and during that time, if we need any help, we freely ask our colleagues. Grade -05 The work environment is really good here. I never realized or felt gender discrimination. We have very good relations with each other and help each other. Grade -06 The school environment is friendly; we donÕt have any issue here. Very friendly. Grade -07 The work environment is very friendly here. We manage duties and work collaboratively. The teaching staff is very co -operative here. We all have respect and regard for each other. Grade -08 Teachers are very cooperative here. Prior to teaching at this school, I was teaching to a high school. I was transferred to this school !!!%'*!Table 22 (ContÕd) in 2008. Based on my experience, I will say that collaboration in terms of resources and expertise is more common in high school. Here, in elementary school, we donÕt get much time to collaborate and work together. It is apparent from teachersÕ responses from public schools that they perform tasks collaboratively with one another, such as lesson planning, scheduling duties, sharing personal concerns, and helping each other. An analysis of school -related work policies shows that, unlike FAS, public schools do not restrict teachersÕ communication in school by imposing a Òno communication policy.Ó Although teachers in public schools are encouraged to stay in their classes and complete their assigned teaching tasks, there is no formal policy prohibiting communication with other colleagues during school hours. The data colle cted through observation notes and school interviews very clearly indicate that the public sector identifies and acknowledges the importance of teachersÕ interactions and provides adequate support to encourage communication and collaboration amongst teache rs. Teacher Empowerment The construct of empowerment emerged while interviewing the public school teachers. During interviews, it became apparent that teachers in public schools are generally more confident, outspoken, critical, and know how to exercise t heir power in school affairs. Teacher empowerment is a very complex construct; specifically, it is difficult to explain and variations !!!%'+!may exist in the way that it is perceived and practiced in different contexts (Short, 1992). Short (1992) identified six dimensions of teacher empowerment, which include: (1) participation of teachers in critical decisions that directly affect their work; (2) teacher impact as an indicator of influencing school life; (3) teacher status concerning professional respect from co lleagues; (4) autonomy or teachers' beliefs that they can control certain aspects of their work life; (5) professional development opportunities to enhance continuous learning and expand one's skills; and (6) self -efficacy, or the perception of having the skills and ability to help students learn (Short, 1992, p. i) ShortÕs (1992) framework would seem to match the concept of teacher empowerment in the public sector in Pakistan. In what follows, I outline the critical types of opportunities that public schoo ls provide in Pakistan for teachersÕ active involvement in instructional matters. An analysis of this component of teachersÕ professional communities was conducted, with a focus on the following three constructs: ¥ Decision -making and autonomy ¥ Realization an d awareness of their professional status ¥ Self-efficacy Decision -Making And Autonomy This dimension of empowerment is defined as ÒteachersÕ beliefs that they can control certain aspects of their work life. This may be control over scheduling, curriculum, textbooks, and instructional planningÓ (Short, 1992, p.12). Before analyzing this comp onent, it is crucial to note that this analysis is based on teachersÕ views regarding their work environment and seeks to explain the nature of control that teachers exercise in school -related matters. In Pakistan, at both the national and state levels, ma ny educational reforms have been introduced. However, most of !!!%',!the teachers within the public sector are not in favor of these reforms. This, in turn, shows the degree to which their authority, status and empowerment are ignored on issues of broad public policy and reform. However, in terms of school -related affairs, the data show that teachers in public schools experience much freedom in the planning and selection of their duties as well as in instructional and curriculum scheduling. The public sector provi des teachers with the opportunity to decide and plan their teaching assignments independently. In response to the question related to who decides or devises teaching assignments, most teachers from the public sector responded that they choose the topics an d lessons themselves. The principal from a public school also very clearly stated that, Òin our schools, what to teach, and how to teach is based on an individual teacherÕs will Ñwe do not dictate themÓ (principal, 02 -Public School). Teachers from public schools reported that they plan and decide their teaching assignments and tasks based on their professional judgment and that their school does not impose rules in this regard. In terms of other school - or management -related duties, teachers also reported th at this planning is done independently, and in case of need, teachers are able to easily switch their duties. For example, one of the teachers responded, Òin case of need, we easily switch our administrative and teaching duties with each other. We work tog ether and understand each otherÕs problemsÓ (2 nd grade teacher, 02 -Public School). Teachers in public schools have more authority in planning, and implementing their daily teaching assignments based on their day -to-day needs. In contrast, the FAS system re stricts teachersÕ authority and control over instructional and teaching independence by forcing them to adhere to its structured sequential study patterns and keeping them away from lesson planning. !!!%'-!For example, in 01 -FAS, teachers are trained and advised to follow the schoolsÕ prescribed sequential study pattern. As noted previously, this sequential study pattern is a five -phased activity and involves: (1) five minutes of discussion on the previous lesson; (2) 15 minutes for new lesson delivery; (3) seven minutes for assigning and marking classwork assignments; (4) eight minutes for checking homework; and (5) feedback and revision of lesson during the last five minutes. Teachers from 01 -FAS reported that they must follow this pattern in all eight of their consecutive classes per day. These teachers further reported that they are held accountable in case they fail to follow this pattern. As one teacher explained: Classroom management, lesson delivery, and studentsÕ classwork and homework assignment markin g is really challenging, especially when you have a good number of students in your classroom. I have 35 in my class. ItÕs really hard to manage, but we have to strictly follow the sequential study plan in any case. We donÕt even have time to sit for one m inute and we spend all day repeating [sequential study pattern] this for each subject. (5 th grade teacher, 02 -FAS) The comment from the teacher at 01 -FAS also provides important insights regarding teachersÕ involvement in, and control of, their teaching as signments. In 01 -FAS, the management committee is comprised of three to four teachers that plans and distributes the lesson goals for the whole school on a weekly basis. Teachers from the respective classes are advised to meet these instructional goals wee kly, and must also report to the school principal on a daily basis about their teaching accomplishments. In addition, school management committees also decide the nature, frequency, and schedule of non -teaching assignments. These practices of FAS very cl early indicate that teachers !!!%(.!have minimal or no control or authority in the instructional process and decision -making of these schools. These schools also limit teachersÕ participation by restricting them to following already prescribed teaching and workin g schedules. Consequently, teachers in FAS are less engaged in critical and intellectual debates on instructional quality. Realization And Awareness Of Their Professional Status This dimension of empowerment refers to Òteacher perceptions that they have professional respect and admiration from colleagues. In addition, teachers believe that they have colleaguesÕ support. Teachers also feel that others respect their knowledge and expertiseÓ (Short, 1992, p.11). Teachers in the public sector express annoyance at the following three major government initiatives: ¥ Unexpected and uninformed school inspections to monitor teachersÕ attendance; ¥ Rigidity of the approval system for teachersÕ leaves; and ¥ TeachersÕ as leading actors in the campaign for universal primary education, who are responsible for collecting survey data about school age children by visiting their assigned localities. TeachersÕ annoyance with these government initiatives was abundantly present in interviews. Most of the public sector teachers very clearly expressed their anger about these reforms; according to these teachers, these initiatives have challenged their prof essional status. During interviews teachers stated: Òwe are teachers;Ó Òthis is very disrespectful;Ó Òthey should respect our profession;Ó Òour job is to teach;Ó and Òthe government is depriving us of our due rights.Ó These were the most commonly occurrin g phrases amongst public sector teachers. !!!%(%!These statements and phrases demonstrated that these teachers have an understanding of their status and rights as professionals and expect the government to respect it. However, the government is currently more foc used on achieving the goals of access and quality; in the process, they are seemingly ignoring teachersÕ voices. Nevertheless, at the school level, public school teachers and principals openly discussed the impacts of these reforms on their professional s tatus and criticized these reforms without fear during observations. During interviews, a collective approach amongst teachers while criticizing these reforms and their impacts on their status as teachers was also readily apparent. Although state administr ators have imposed these duties on teachers, teachersÕ criticism and disapproval is continually communicated to the government. These teachers are well aware of their rights as government employees and are not afraid to openly express their opposition to t he governmentÕs policy. Overall, the study results show that teachers in the public sector are confident and well aware of their status as professionals, and therefore openly criticize and oppose government initiatives that challenge their professional sta tus. On the other hand, the analysis of data shows that the academic culture in FAS promotes dependence, lack of confidence, and fear of getting fired amongst teachers. The school policies of FAS restrict teachersÕ participation in intellectual tasks, whi ch indicates a lack of trust from administration and promotes a lack of confidence amongst teachers about their academic capabilities. As the data also shows, teachers in FAS are trained to follow prescribed and scripted teaching activities; indeed, as we have seen, they are not even allowed to talk to fellow teachers during school hours. These school practices isolate them from critically evaluating their role as a teacher and as a professional. Therefore, they seem less concerned with their expected roles and rights in terms of respect and trust and rely more on senior teachersÕ opinions and instructions. !!!%(&!The data shows teachers in FAS operate in a dependent and suppressed environment, which results in a lack of courage to speak for themselves. This claim is based on observations while interviewing FAS teachers; teachersÕ statements during interviews audibly changed whenever a senior teacher was present. These teachers are apparently so afraid of losing their jobs that they do not have the courage to chall enge practices in FAS, which, in their opinion, are rigid and inappropriate. For example, FAS teachers said at more private moments that they disagree with the after -school teacher attendance policy, the lack of free periods, the mandatory adherence to the sequential study pattern for eight consecutive periods, lack of involvement in instructional planning, and the schoolsÕ no communication policy. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy refers to teachersÕ perceptions that they have the skills and ability to help stud ents learn, are competent in building effective programs for students, and can effect changes in student learning (Short, 1992, p.12). In relation to this factor, interviews revealed that public school teachers were more flexible and adaptive in switching and making adjustments in their teaching strategies. Peer work, assigning a mentor to weak students, and switching the seating positions of student in class were identified as some of the strategies that public school teachers employ in their classes to he lp slow learners. These teachersÕ confidence about their competency and ability to address the learning problems of students was very much visible in their interviews. In contrast, a lack of confidence was visible amongst FAS teachers about their competen cy; they were more dependent on school management staff and the principal for help. During interviews most of the teachers commented that they seek guidance from school management and the principal for their teaching assignments. In response to the questio n on what strategies !!!%('!they use for slow learners, most teachers shared a similar concern that they struggle to prepare slow learners for the PEF exams. The only strategy that emerged amongst FAS teachers regarding how to teach slow learners was providing mo re time or having these students take extra classes. It would seem, therefore, that the working environment in FAS limits teachersÕ intellectual involvement in the teaching and learning process. In general, it would seem that these practices undermine teac hersÕ ability to be confident about their practices and abilities as professionals. Role Of The Principal: Supportive Versus Authoritative In this section, the role of principals is discussed. The section is broken down into the following two sub -sections: ¥ Role of the principal in FAS; and ¥ Role of the principal in public schools. Role Of The Principal In F AS The social environment in FAS presents the existence of complex, strained, and blurred types of relationships between the staff and the school administ ration. Before discussing the major findings in relation to this aspect of schoolsÕ work environments, teachersÕ perceptions about their relationship with their principals are detailed below. This overview of teachersÕ responses will provide a better under standing about the nature of relationships between teachers and school principals and the overall school -working environment (see table). !!!%((!Table 23: FAS Teachers Perceptions About Their School Principals Teachers 01-FAS 02-FAS Grade -01 I am hesitant to talk to the principal and afraid of him, too. Sometimes he gets angry when we donÕt finish an assigned task. I usually prefer to ask the vice principal in case I get stuck with any difficulty. Grade -02 Overall, the working environment is good and the principal is also nice. Our principal is really good. Grade -03 The principalÕs attitude depends on his mood; if we donÕt complete an assigned task on time, or if school results are not good, [then he is not happy]. I feel he values parentsÕ opinions more compared to teachers. Then he really gets angry. The principal cooperates with us in case we have any difficulty. Grade -04 The principal is nice and easily accessible. No response Grade -05 The school environment is quite friendly, so we donÕt have any issues here. The working environment is good, especially because our principal is very cooperative and nice. Grade -06 No response No response Grade -07 Our principal encourages us to work together. The principal is accessible. He usually spends time with us weekly or monthly. The work environment is okay. Grade -08 The principal encourages us to work toge ther. Otherwise, the situation i s not very friendly. In fact, management has more access to principal. The principal is nice. In the responses above, it is apparent that strained and blurred relationships exist between school principals and teachers. Examples such as, ÒI am afraid of him,Ó Òhe gets angry,Ó and Òhe is more accessible to managementÓ are present, while at the same responses l ike Òhe is accessible,Ó Òhe is nice,Ó and Òhe encourages us to work togetherÓ are also present. In general, !!!%()!02-FAS presents a different picture than 01 -FAS since the most common statement in 02 -FAS was Òthe principal is nice.Ó These mixed responses do not provide a clear picture of the school environment. Therefore, in order to get a deeper understanding of this component of the study, school observations, field notes and schoolsÕ work -rel ated policies were used as a frame of reference. The analysis of these data sources provides another picture. Specifically, in the two FAS, principals who seem very cooperative and supportive of school staff also exercise authoritative and top -down approa ches in schoolsÕ affair. In particular, they take this approach when it comes to maintaining institutional goals. The data shows principals in these schools are more concerned with maintaining the governmentÕs demands and standards. As a few teachers state d during their interviews, Òthe principle gets angry if we fail to accomplish assigned tasks,Ó suggesting that the principalsÕ focus is on maintaining institutional goals and meeting the government policy demands. During interviewing and while visiting th e school, it was also apparent that teachers do not feel confident in the presence of their principals. Even in 02 -FAS, when the school principal suddenly visited, teachers seemed to express greater fear and a more precautionary attitude as visible through their behavior and speech. Furthermore, as vice principals started to visit classrooms and teachers were informed that the principal was present in the building, their fear became even more apparent. In 02 -FAS, it was very difficult to get the opinion of teachers about school principals because they were not very comfortable in responding to questions related to school principals. Additionally, it was also evident that teachers in 02 -FAS were more comfortable with the vice principal rather than the princip al. !!!%(*!During interviews, a lack of personal and professional trust in teachers was also observable. The analysis of these schoolsÕ work cultures show a lack of trust in teachersÕ competency. In both FAS institutions, management committees actually decide wha t to teach and how to teach it. Thus, in these schools, the teachersÕ role is more about following rules, which indicates that school administration does not consider these teachers competent enough to devise and decide their work and plan accordingly. Ins tead, these FAS teachers are required to follow the prescribed instructional plans. Teachers also reported that without the principalÕs permission and approval, they cannot make changes in their work assignments. A lack of personal trust between school principals and teachers in FAS was also readily observable. For example, when the schoo l principal in 01 -FAS was asked for permission to interview the teachers, he responded positively, but a senior teacher from the management committee was present during the interviews. Another observation I made during interviews was the amount of eye cont act between senior teachers and classroom teachers while commenting about salary and work environment. The moment a management committee member left the room, teachers provided serious and problematic responses such as Òthe principal always values the pare ntsÕ complaintsÓ and Òhe gets angry when we donÕt complete assigned tasks.Ó 02-FAS presents another complicated and complex context characterized by a lack of trust and a suppressed environment. The school clearly follows a Òno communication policy,Ó and teachers in this school are required to stay in class from the start of the working day until its end. Throughout the entire day, teachers only receive a ten -minute break and are able to talk only while they are in the staff room. This Òno communicationÓ p olicy clearly suggests that the school limits the chances for interaction and collaboration amongst teachers and promotes an isolated !!!%(+!work environment. Furthermore, in 02 -FAS, teachers were not very comfortable talking about the principal, which was appare nt during interviews. Answers were typically short and included non-threatening statements such as Òthe principal is nice.Ó Overall, the data shows that the role of teachers in FAS is more akin to followers, whose only task is to perform assigned duties ac cording to a planned and devised course of action created by school administration. Additionally, teachers are also required to abide by a Òno communicationÓ policy, except during short breaks or while in the staff room. These practices clearly indicate th at the environment in FAS promotes a more isolated and mechanical work culture, in which principalsÕ role is to decide and teachersÕ role is to follow. The Role Of Principals In Public Schools The analysis of data shows that principals in the public secto r play a significant role in creating a positive and collaborative environment in their schools. One of the major reasons for this attitude is their association with the public sector for an extended period of time. Teaching experience, academic qualificat ions, and administrative work experience are some of the factors that qualify a person for the position of principal in any particular school. Management of school affairs, state level communications, and dealing with governmental pressures are the major t asks that a school principal fulfills in the public sector. However, school principalsÕ involvement in instructional affairs was not very visible. For example, in public schools, teachers manage most of the school -related tasks, such as the upkeep of time tables, assigning of school duties, and instructional matters. Before discussing the nature of the relationship between school principals and teachers in public schools, teachersÕ responses are detailed below. These responses provide an overview of the rol e of the principal in the public sector and the nature of the relationship between teachers and school principals (see table). !!!%(,!Table 24: Public School Teachers Perceptions About Their School Principals Teachers 01-Public School 02-Public School Grade -01 The principal is very cooperative. The principal is very nice and supportive. Grade -02 Here the staff is very cooperative and the principal is, as well. The principal is very professional and never gives undue favor to anyone. Grade -03 Our principal is very nice and has a very protective attitude towards us. No response Grade -04 The principal is very cooperative and he treats us respectfully. Sometimes we are late by about five to seven minutes, and he never says anything rude. We never realized that we are working under a male administration. The principal is very kind and cooperative. I am allowed to bring my child to school. Grade -05 We never realized or felt gender discrimination. Our principal is so polite that sometimes a few people take advantage of his politeness as he cannot force anyone or show a harsh attitude. The principal is very cooperative and protective of us. Grade -06 No response We all have respect and regard for each other. Grade -07 The principal treats us very respectfully and supports us. No response. Grade -08 Our principal is a very helpful and resourceful person. We recently increased the number of classrooms to accommodate teachers. Once, I was late on a day that th e district education officer arranged a visit for inspection, and the principal placed leave on my behalf at once. Otherwise, the Education Department wouldÕve called for an explanation. He has been very protective of us. The principal is very professional and manages all school matters smoothly. !!!%(-!If teachersÕ statements are analyzed, it becomes apparent that public school teachers used very powerful phrases to communicate about their work environment and the role of the principal; many of thes e responses were positive. For example, teachers used phrases such as Òno gender discrimination,Ó Òrespects us,Ó Òprotects us,Ó Òno undue favor,Ó Òprofessionally sound,Ó and ÒresourcefulÓ to describe the school principal. Indeed, the fact that one of the p ublic school principals was a female is an important point, but teachers in both schools felt that their principal was supportive and protective of them. Observation notes also support and verify these responses. During visits to both public schools, it wa s apparent that the principalsÕ office is used as a place for socializing between teachers and principals. During each visit to the schools for survey administration and interviews, teachers gathered in the principalsÕ office and discussed the political si tuation of Pakistan or critiqued the governmentÕs policies and factors responsible for quality education. Notably, a few interviews were conducted in the principalÕs office and in her presence. Uniformity in teachersÕ and principalsÕ responses was most pre valent in relation to the governmentÕs policies and issues of poor quality education. A level of confidence and trust between staff and principals was also observed. For example, most of the teachers commented that although the government has introduced a system of random school inspections, in case of late arrival or other personal issues requiring an absence, they are able to inform the school principal and be assured that he or she will know how to handle the situation. From the data, it is also evident that principals in these schools not only can identify teachersÕ personal problems, but also their academic problems, and can take the necessary initiatives in assuring the capacity building of schools (see above the response of the 8 th grade teacher, 01 -Public School). Teachers also communicated that although !!!%).!there is additional pressure related to extra duties, the principal sometimes rejects the governmentÕs demands. One of the schoolÕs principals is male and the staff in this school consisted of both m ale and female teachers; however, the teachers communicated that they never experienced gender discrimination and that the principal is able to maintain balance in terms of workload and administrative duties. Overall, a top -down approach within FAS in rel ation to principalÕs involvement in academic matters and a lack of trust between school leaders and classroom teachers was readily apparent through interviews and observation. In contrast, collegial relationships seem to more readily exist among teachers a nd school principals in the public schools that I visited. In the public sector, teachers have more participation and autonomy in academic and school -related matters, while principals are more involved in managing state level affairs. In doing so, they protect their staff from unjustified questioning by the government and extra administrative duties. Summary And Conclusion The purpose of this chapter was to analyze the nature and extent of social costs associated with the FAS program in Pakistan. In order to fulfill this goal, this analysis focused on the nature of schoolsÕ social environments in both sectors and the types of opportunities teachers receive in terms of interaction, collaboration and principal support. The study shows that teachers in public schools are generally exposed to better social environments, experiences that provide opportunities for interaction and discussion with their fellow teachers, and time to reflect upon different educational and societal issues. TeachersÕ understanding of t hese social issues is very important for filling the gap between school and community needs. In public schools, the policy of free periods or non -!!!%)%!teaching time helps teachers to plan their work collaboratively and provides opportunities for professional di scussion. In relation to this factor, data shows that in public schools, sustained interactions amongst teachers, permanent jobs, merit -based appointments, prescribed teacher designations, and clear policies regarding privileges and job termination are som e of the factors that help teachers to grow and collaborate in the public sector. In the public sector, policies such as those found in FAS are not found in school operations; thus, these factors collectively minimize the chances of stress and competition amongst staff and school principals. In the public sector, teachers are well aware of their rights and responsibilities as professionals and exercise their authority in their teaching and job -related matters inside schools and within other forums. They en joy independence in planning and deciding on their instructional practices, consider themselves professionals, and feel competent enough to address their classroom problems independently. In contrast, FAS restricts teachersÕ interactions and opportunities for collaboration. An analysis of FAS environments show that teachers are required to work for a full day under a strict no communication policy, which prohibits them from any kind of inte llectual or professional interactions with their fellow teachers. During school hours teachers donÕt get time to discuss and reflect upon their practices, challenges, or other educational issues. Thus, these teachers have a very narrow understanding of ped agogical practices or on -going educational reforms. FAS teachers are not exposed to a culture of discussions, group collaboration, or professional interactions that help them to discuss, critique or reflect upon general and specific educational problems. C onsequently, teachers in FAS do not get the chance to engage in instructional process as professionals; their role in the school setting has been restricted to be more akin to followers, whose only job is to carry out the prescribed course of teaching acti ons. !!!%)&!This culture restricts their intellectual growth to grow and act as professionals and ultimately undermines their self -confidence. It may also undermine the chances the children of Pakistan have for a quality education. It is to these issues, then, t hat I will ultimately turn in the final chapter of this dissertation. !!!%)'!CHAPTER 7: SITUATING THE HUMAN COST CONSTRUCT IN CURRENT GLOBAL AND NATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR ENSURING QUALITY EDUCATION ÒThe quality of an education system is only as good as the quality o f its teachersÓ ( EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013/14, p . 233). This chapter aims to present the impacts of overlooked human costs associated in both the Public and FAS sectors on global and national initiatives for quality education in Pakistan. Economic efficiency --in terms of percentage educational expenditure per child --and quality of education --based on students test scores --are at the center of current policy discourse for shaping and re -structuring the school system in Pakistan and in other resource -constrained contexts. The emergence of the Foundation Assisted School (FAS) program parallel to the public school system under the public -private -partnership approach is an example of this current policy discourse. Currently, in international as sessment reports, the FAS program has been declared the ÒcheapestÓ and most cost effective intervention for providing access and quality education across developing courtiers (World Banks, 2009): The most conservative estimates suggest that the FAS program expanded schools by, on average, 85 students, 3 teachers, 4 classrooms and 3 blackboards. Using the conservative impact estimate on enrollment and an annual per student subsidy cost of PKR 3,600, the annual per student cost of increasing enrollment in FAS program schools by 1% is estimated at roughly PKR 100. The cost -effectiveness ratio for the FAS program places it among the cheapest programs for increasing enrollment among evaluated programs around the developing world, which have also generated enrollm ent gains. (World Bank, 2009, p. 9) !!!%)(!A critical analysis of these assessment reports would suggest that the success of the FAS program is measured in terms of percentage increase in resources, student enrollment, and test scores. However, these reports seem s to neglect the teaching and learning process and do not provide sufficient information about teaching forceÕs composition (in terms of qualification and professional competency), their working conditions, and the adequacy of professional and instructiona l support and resources. Understanding these teacher -related institutional practices is important, especially at a time when Pakistan is restructuring its national goals of quality education with a focus on improving teacher quality (NEP, 2009). In the nex t section, I will explain the Pakistan governmentÕs own parameters of quality education Ñwhich includes the EFA context --and the status and place of teachers within these contexts. Quali ty Education In National And EFA Contexts And The Place Of Teachers In Quality Oriented Parameters Pakistan became a signatory of the Education for All (EFA) initiative in 1990 and national policies within the country are aligned with and informed by this strategic framework. Although quality education has been part of the i nternational commitment to education, the EFA Dakar framework 2000 suggested the need to further improve education across the world by 2015, and outlined the parameters constituting a quality education. In 2009, for the first time in the history of educat ional policy development, the national education policy of Pakistan allocated a chapter on quality education and identified important parameters to track and monitor the quality of education in Pakistan. Among these parameters, teacher quality was identifi ed as the most significant. The policy emphasized the need to initiate national efforts to re -structure the system for teacher recruitment. Policy actions were suggested to ensure teachersÕ selection based on subject matter and professional competency thro ugh !!!%))!competitive processes. In addition, the need for an incentive system and improved teacher working conditions were also suggested (see table below). Table 25: Identified p arameters of Quality Education b y EFA (2000-2015) and NEP (2009) Policy Framework Parameters for quality education Place of teachers in policy framework Suggested policy actions EFA, 2000 ÒGovernments and all other EFA partners must work together to ensure basic education of quality for all, regardless of gender, wealth, location, language or ethnic origin. Successful education programs require: (1) healthy, well - nourished and motivated students; (2) well -trained teachers and active learning techniques; (3) adequate facilities and learning materials; (4) a relevant curriculum that can be taught and learned in a local language and builds upon the knowledge and experience of the teachers and learners; (5) an environment that not only encourages learning but is welcoming, gender -sensitive, healthy and safe; (6) a clear definition and accurate assessment of learning outcomes, including knowledge, skills, attitudes and values; (7) participatory governance and management; and (8) respect for and engagement with local communities and culturesÓ( p. 17). ÒTeachers ar e essential players in promoting quality education, whether in schools or in more flexible community - based programs; they are advocates for, and catalysts of, change. No education reform is likely to succeed without the active participation and ownership of teachersÓ (p. 20). ÒTeachers at all levels of the education system should be respected and adequately remunerated; have access to training and on -going professional development and support, including through open and distance learning; and be able to pa rticipate, locally and nationally, in decisions affecting their professional lives and teaching environmentsÓ (p. 20). !!!%)*!Table 25 (ContÕd) National Education Policy, 2009 ÒMost of the inputs in the system have an impact on quality. However, there are five - six basic pillars that have the major contribution. These are curriculum, textbooks, assessments, teachers, the learning environment in an institution and relevance of education to practical life/ labor marketÓ (p. 42). ÒThe most significant action is required in improving the teaching resources and the pedagogical approaches teachersÕ employ. The reform of teaching quality is of the highest priorityÓ (p. 42). ÒA BachelorÕs degree, with a B.Ed., shall be the requirement for teaching at the elementary level. A Masters level for the secondary and higher secondary, with a B.Ed., shall be ensured by 2018. PTC and CT shall be phased out through encouraging the present set of teachers to improve their qualifications, while new hiring shall be based on the a dvanced criteriaÓ (p. 42) ÒGovernments shall take steps to ensure that teacher recruitment, professional development, promotions and postings are based on merit alone. All teachers shall have opportunities for professional development --In-service training shall cover a wide range of areas: pedagogy and pedagogical content knowledge; subject content knowledge; testing and assessment practices; multi -grade teaching, monitoring and evaluation --Governments shall take steps to improve social status and morale of teachers. These include: Upgrading of teacher salaries as part of establishing a separate teaching cadre and teaching career; teachers' professional development, and a reward system based on performance measuresÓ (p. 43). The fifteen -year cycle of the E FA Dakar strategic framework has recently come to an end. Recently, monitoring reports were issued that assess the progress, success, and challenges of EFA goals to improve the policy framework for post -2015 goals. The suggested EFA strategic framework for post -2015 also reaffirms its commitment to the continuity and improvement of !!!%)+!policy actions to enhance quality education through teachersÕ status and professionalism. Teachers have an important role in both national and international policy frameworks, wi th reference to quality improvement. These policies emphasize the need to invest in teachers to address their personal and professional needs. From the literat ure, it is evident that Òperson -dependentÓ interventions are associated with some costs, whose intensity may vary across different contexts, but nevertheless exist. The primary focus of current policy debates is on how much it costs to teach a child, while excluding the costs that teache rs incur while achieving the assigned targets. These implicit and hidden costs may hinder the efforts of achieving quality education. Given this context, it is highly important to evaluate the current educational discourse aimed at restructuring the system of educational delivery that promotes and encourages low -cost -rationale interventions like the FAS program. The next section explains the analytical framework that will be used to evaluate the possible impacts of human costs related to teachers on quality education in Pakistan. National And Efa Strategic Framework For Quality Education With Reference To Teachers In order to explore the impacts of human costs on quality education goals, the EFA and NEP strategies were compiled with reference to what this study found in regards to teachersÕ work requirements, working conditions, and schoolsÕ social environments that aim to enhance the Òstatus, morale and professionalismÓ of teachers (EFA, 2009, p.9). The following policy documents were used to develop the standard criteria against which l evaluates the institutional practices of Public and FAS with reference to teach ers. ¥ EFA Dakar Framework, 2000 ¥ EFA, Global Motoring report: Quality Imperative, 2005 !!!%),!¥ EFA, Global Motoring report, Quality Teaching and Learning, 2013/14 ¥ Education for All: Achievement and Challenges, 2015 ¥ PakistanÕs National Educational Policy, 2009 All re ports were thoroughly reviewed, including the consistency and frequency of strategies and policy actions related to teachersÕ work assignments, working conditions (salary, resources, job status, PD) and schoolsÕ social environment (autonomy, decision makin g, collegial environment). An analytical framework was developed by choosing the most consistent and most frequently occurring themes across these reports (see table below) and will be used as frame of reference to evaluate the findings on the institutiona l practices of FAS and public schools against the national and EFA strategic frameworks. Table 26: Comparative Framework of Human Costs and Quality Education Human cost Quality education criteria with reference to teachers Task Cos t (time and effort) ¥ Total work hours and their distribution ¥ Out of field assignments ¥ Class size ¥ Non-teaching assignments ¥ Small class size ¥ Ensure teachersÕ subject -matter competency for teaching ¥ Increase and ensure quality instructional time Psychological Cost (stress and job satisfaction) ¥ Salary, job status and entitlements ¥ Professional and instructional resources ¥ Professional support o For new teachers o For In -service teachers ¥ ÒTeachers at all levels of the education system should be respected and adequately remunerated; have access to training and on -going professional development and support (EFA, 2000, P.20) ¥ Strengthen the incentive system to improve teachersÕ morale and st atus and to retain the be st teachers in the profession. -ÒSalaries are just one of many factors that motivates teachers, but they are a key consideration in attracting the best candidates and retaining the best teachers. Low salaries are likely to damage mo rale and can lead teachers to switch to other careersÓ (EFA -GMR, 2013/14, p.254). ¥ Teachers must have access to quality instructional and professional resources to be effective ( GMR, 2013/14) !!!%)-!Table 26 (ContÕd ) Social Cost (loss of community/professional networking) ¥ Opportunity for sustained interactions over time ¥ Collaboration/team work ¥ Teacher empowerment o TeachersÕ involvement in decision making and autonomy o Realization and awareness of professional status among teachers o Self-efficacy ¥ Role of the principal ¥ ÒDevelop the policies and codes of conducts to enhance the physical, psycho -social and emotional health of teachers and learnersÓ (EFA, 2000, p.20) ¥ Encourage teachersÕ participation in decisions related to their work and profession at policy and as well as school level matters (EFA, 2000 & EFA-GMR, 2005) ¥ ÒParticipatory governance and managementÓ (EFA, 2000, p.17) -- Establish normative frameworks in order to promote teachersÕ involvement into matter related to institutional re -structuring and impr ovement by encouraging teamwork. Develop the culture of teachersÕ community, and encourage teachersÕ participation in decision making (EFA, 2000) ¥ Recognize importance of teachersÕ empowerment for creating better schools environment (EFA, 2005). Source. EFA, 2000; EFA-GMR, 2005; EFA-GMR, 2013/14; EFA-GMR, 2015 & Rice and Malen, 2003 Impacts Of TeachersÕ Human -Related Costs (Task, Psychological, And Social) On National Quality Education Goal This section presents findings in relation to task cost (teachersÕ work assignments, as discussed in chapter 4), psychological costs (related to working conditions, as discussed in chapter 5) and social costs (related to schoolsÕ social environment, as dis cussed in chapter 6) and their possible impacts on national quality education goals. The subsections of this chapter are as follows: Sub-Section 1 : Summary of findings related to task cost (teachersÕ work assignments, as discussed in chapter 4) and a discussion of its possible impacts on individual teachers and quality education. !!!%*.!Sub-Section 2 : Summary of findings related to psychological costs (related to working conditions, as discussed in chapter 5) and an elaboration of its possible impacts on teachersÕ job satisfaction, professional commitments, and quality of education. Sub-Section 3 : Summary of findings related to social costs (related to schoolsÕ social environment, as discussed in chapter 6) and its possible impacts on teachersÕ professional growth, learning, and quality education. Impacts Of Task Costs On Quality Education Goals This sections aim to present the findings in relation to the impacts of task costs on EFAÕs prescribed standards/criteria to sustain and achieve instructional quality w ith reference to teachersÕ teaching assignments. Task cost is defined as the Òtime and effort that individuals in the organization expend to meet their work demandsÓ (Rice & Malen, 2003, p. 640). For this study, the following indicators were used to explo re the nature and extent of task costs: (1) the distribution of teachersÕ work hours; (2) the nature of out -of-field/split teaching assignments; (3) class size; and (4) the burden of non -teaching assignments. In this section of the study, only those param eters in relation to teachersÕ teaching assignments that have been identified as crucial in EFAÕs and NEPÕs 2009 reports to enhance instructional quality will be discussed. Specifically, the findings will be analyzed against the following EFA and NEP presc ribed criteria to examine the degree to which current teaching practices in relation to teachersÕ work assignments in the public and FAS programs align with EFA and NEP (2000) prescribed standards for teachersÕ work assignments and how they affect teachers Õ workload and national goals for achieving quality education. !!!%*%!Class Size Or Teacher -Pupil Ratio (TPR ) The review of EFA reports from 2000 -2015 indicates that small class size has been identified as one of the most important factors to ensure quality edu cation. These reports stress the need to reduce class size so that teachers can accommodate the needs of a diverse population of students (EFA, 2000; EFA-GMR, 2005; EFA-GMR, 2013/14 & EFA-GMR, 2015). The National Education Policy of Pakistan (2009) also id entified the need to reduce class size and to introduce a standardized system of class size across Punjab and across Pakistan (p. 49). Currently, in policy papers, the teacher -pupil ratio for public schools in Pakistan is 1:40 and 1:35 for FAS. Both of the se class size ratios are higher than the EFA standards recommend. However, the findings of the current study indicate that although the policy in the public sector is to maintain the 1:40 TPR, the situation is not upheld in practice. For example, the data of this study shows that, on average, the teacher -pupil ratio in public schools falls in the range of 50-60 students per teacher, and in some cases, one teacher was found to be responsible for around 80 students. The study shows that in public schools, on average, the high TPR is more common at the elementary or primary level. To reiterate, the objective of this study was not to compare and analyze the impacts of class size on studentsÕ achievements or test scores, but to provide teachers with a voice in current policy debates that seem to compare the teachersÕ effectiveness by ignoring the contextual realties of teachersÕ work assignments that heavily impact their teaching quality. During interviews, public school teachers complained that most of their t ime is spent in classroom management and controlling students, and in their opinion it is unrealistic to expect high teaching quality given this situation. Furthermore, according to public school teachers, unless the !!!%*&!government addresses the problem of lar ge class sizes, educational quality will remain questionable in the public sector. On the other hand, though a standard TPR of 1:35 is followed in FAS, which is much better than in public schools, teachers responsible for lower grades think that for maxim um effectiveness the number of students should be lowered to less than 35. The analysis of data shows that the class size puts teachers in public schools at a disadvantage compared to FAS teachers and restricts them from putting their efforts into instruct ion/teaching and shifts them to classroom management. Thus, until this condition is somewhat equalized, making a comparison of educational quality in terms of studentsÕ test scores in public schools and FAS is questionable. Out-Of-Field Assignments Vs. Te achersÕ Subject Competency In debates of quality teaching and learning, teachersÕ subject -matter competency has been identified as an important factor to enhance studentsÕ learning achievement (EFA-GMR, 2005). Considering the importance of teachersÕ subject -matter competency to ensure quality education, the government of Pakistan revised its recruitment policy and it is now mandatory to recruit academically qualified and well -trained teachers or subj ect specialists for teaching elementary and high school students. In this context, there is a need to understand who is teaching and what they are teaching in different school settings (public, private, and public -private partnership). A vast body of literature identifies that out -of-field teaching assignments burden teachers, which may impact their teaching efficiency or quality (for example, see Johnson et al, 2005; Johnson, 2006). Considering the current policy reforms at the national level in Pakistan and the EFA strategic framework with reference to having teachers qualified in their subject matters, information was collected about teachersÕ academic and professional qualifications in both the !!!%*'!public and the FAS sectors as well as the nature of their t eaching assignments. Study results show that in public schools from grade 6 to grade 10, subject specialists are recruited for teaching, although multi -grade teaching is common in public schools. Teachers in these schools are responsible for instructing in their area of specialization to different grades, which means that the practice of multi -grade teaching with out -of-field and split teaching assignments are rare, especially at the elementary level, in public schools. By way of contrast, the data show th at teachers in FAS tend to only have high school diploma (50.7%) with minimal or no training (46.4%), which indicates that the component of hiring teachers qualified in their subject -matters is missing in these schools. It is also important to note that i n FAS, teachers use their teaching experience as a proxy for their subject expertise. The use of teaching experience as a proxy for subject competency by FAS teachers is questionable because data shows that 50.4% of those surveyed had teaching experience t hat fell between one to five years. Furthermore, given the fact that FAS teachers are prone to school switching, this expertise is perhaps further diminished. Interviews with school principals and teachers revealed that recruitments are mostly need -based i n FAS, so teachersÕ teaching assignment are defined by the needs of a particular grade rather than by subject. Therefore, the claim that FAS teachers have subject expertise is questionable. In current policy debates, problems associated with multi -grade te aching have been identified as barriers for achieving quality education goals. However, discussions about split and out-of-field teaching are not focal areas. This study used the construct of out -of-field assignments as a frame of reference to explore the current trends in both sectors and their possible impacts on teachersÕ workload and on the educational sector in Pakistan. The study found that at the individual level, the practice of out -of-field assignments, coupled with poor !!!%*(!content and pedagogical kno wledge, might make teaching more difficult for FAS teachers. Data analysis also revealed that the current teacher recruitment and job assignment practices of the FAS program contradict EFA and national goals for competency in the area of expertise in subje ct-matter for the teaching staff. In addition, current practices might also alter the composition of the teacher labor market in Pakistan by separating it into two different types of teachers: subject specialists and teacher generalists. This practice rais es the issue of quality and equity in education. It is important to evaluate the current teaching practices in both sectors by using the lens of out -of-field assignments at a time when Pakistan is reforming its teacher education requirements and implementi ng recruitment policies with a focus on subject -matter specialization to enhance student learning. The promotion of less qualified teachers with minimal understanding of subject -matter knowledge by FAS programs may impact the national efforts of achieving quality. Non -Teaching Assignments On Cost Of Instructional Time Current policy debates about the effectiveness of public schools and FAS in education do not provide adequate knowledge about teachersÕ daily routine, their teaching assignments, or how these teachers spend most of their school time. In the EFA strategic framework, the need to increase and ensure quality of instructional time has been identified as an important factor for studentsÕ leaning ( EFA-GMR, 2005). Since current policy rhetoric about th e effectiveness of public schools and FAS revolves around economic gains and studentsÕ test scores, it is important to know how teachers in both types of institutions spend their time. Understanding this factor will help facilitate a better understanding o f what contextual or school level factors facilitate or restrict teachers in using their teaching time more effectively. !!!%*)!Given this context, this study gathered information about teachersÕ time distribution and teaching routines. Findings indicated that FAS teachers spend their entire school time teaching, except for a few teachers who also perform management -related tasks such lesson planning, timetable schedules, and maintenance of studentsÕ and teachersÕ attendance registers. There is no free period (a bsence of non -teaching time) policy so most of the FAS school teachers (46.3%) teach up to eight periods during school hours (in other words, teach for a full day). In contrast, the percentage of teachers who teach for eight periods in public schools is 33 .3 %. While maximizing teachersÕ instructional time with students is important, this time cannot come at the expense of the ability to plan lessons, assess student work, and collaborate with colleagues. In terms of teachersÕ non -teaching assignments (super vising students upon school arrival, during break and after school hours), no meaningful differences were observed between FAS and public schools. However, the study found that the nature of job responsibilities has drastically changed for public school t eachers; along with teaching and performing school -related assignments, these teachers are also required to perform state -level administrative tasks (universal primary education campaign, UPE) which might restrict them from effectively performing their tea ching jobs. At the start of every academic year, teachers are assigned to a particular locality or area and they must conduct household surveys and gather information about the number of children in a particular family and the educational institutions chil dren attend. Public school teachers reported that they must perform these duties for five to six hours in a day , at the cost of studentsÕ instructional time. These teachers complained that along with this duty, it is difficult for them to effectively perf orm their teaching assignments. During interviews, almost all participant teachers from public schools expressed their annoyance and frustration with the state level imposed duties !!!%**!and pressures. These teachers tended to think that the enforcement of such duties is disrespectful to their profession. This section of the chapter presents the impacts of teachersÕ task costs on quality education goals, especially with reference to instructional quality. For this study, task cost was used as a construct to high light the hidden and/or implicit school contexts related to the challenges and practices that have the potential to significantly alter and shape teachersÕ practices and the overall national educational progress in Pakistan. Analysis of current policy rhet oric about effectiveness and efficiency of different educational systems (public, private, and public -private partnership) indicate that these comparative and evaluation studies tend to use test scores and economic efficiency as means to validate the effec tiveness of any educational system, but ignore the contextual realities of each system. On the other hand, teacher quality and effectiveness are the most important quality parameters of the EFA strategic framework, and excluding teachersÕ work -related and professional challenges may undermine the current policy efforts to enhance quality education. This study reports that that burden of non -teaching assignments and large class size practices in public schools take away teachersÕ energy, motivation, and ins tructional time. As public school teachers reported, they must perform the governmentÕs imposed UPE duties, which compromises their studentsÕ instructional time. In contrast, due to financial constraints, FAS promotes a culture of out -of-field assignments in their school systems by hiring less qualified and less professionally trained teachers. These kind of teaching assignments not only intensify teachersÕ work in these schools, but also work against national and international efforts to improve teachersÕ status and professionalism which can be accomplished through recruiting qualified subject -matter specialists. !!!%*+!It is important to mention that teachers are considered the Òmain determinant of educational qualityÓ ( EFA-GMR, 2013/14, p. 70). Thus, this study suggests the need to critically evaluate current school practices related to teachersÕ task assignments: in particular, to discourage the practice of involving teachers in non -teaching state level task assignments that place a burden on studentsÕ instruct ional time. In the public sector, teachersÕ involvement in UPE campaign and the practice of having large class sizes must be identified as possible factors hindering the goal of quality education. Efforts, therefore, should be made to address these practic es. Alternative policy actions should be suggested to discourage the practices of out -of-field assignments by providing logistical and professional support to teaching staff or by setting minimum standards for teachersÕ recruitment in this sector. If teach ersÕ task related costs remain absent in policy debates, there is, perhaps, a high probability that the goal of quality teaching and learning will remain unattainable. Impacts Of Psychological Cost On Quality Education Goals ÒTo solve the learning crisis, all children must have teachers who are trained, motivated and enjoy teaching, who can identify and support weak learners, and who are backed by well -managed education systemsÓ ( EFA Global Monitoring Report , 2013/14, p.18). TeachersÕ morale, status, and p rofessionalism are the focus of the EFA strategic framework to ensure quality education (EFA, 2000). Therefore, in the EFA strategic framework, a list of strategies and policy actions have been suggested to achieve the goals related to teachers. In this s ection of the chapter, findings are presented in relation to teachersÕ working conditions in both institutions and their possible impacts on teachers at the individual level as well as on goals for quality educational in Pakistan. This section presents a s ummary of findings related to teachersÕ working conditions in FAS and public schools and evaluates them against the EFA !!!%*,!strategic framework and discusses their possible impacts on quality education goals. TeachersÕ Salary, Job Status And Entitlements Teachers in FAS and public schools show distinct differences in terms of pay, special funds, and leave policies. For example, the data shows that the teachersÕ salary in public schools is 5 -6 times higher ($140 and above) than teachers in FAS ($20 -30). Teachers in public schools have permanent jobs and can serve up to 35 years, while more than 70% of teachers in FAS are inducted on 1 year renewable contracts, and the rest of teachers are hired on a temporary basis. Teachers in public schools are entitled to livi ng and social benefits such as residential, medical, and transport allowances and benevolence funds. In contrast, teachers in FAS do not receive any specific funds or assistance. The public sector also has a well -organized and defined structure of leave sy stems to accommodate the personal and professional needs of teachers. In contrast, in FAS teachers are not allowed to avail themselves of more than one day of leave in a month without pay deduction. The severity of the problem related to the need for leave does not change this pay deduction policy. All of these factors contribute to psychological stresses and a culture of teacher turnover that may impact quality educational goals. Overall, the data from this study show that teachers in FAS work in very chal lenging and stressful environments. FAS teachers state that they feel they are underpaid and not receiving what they are worth. Teachers identified low salary as the most stressful aspect of their job, and it is also one of the major factors responsible fo r the practice of frequent school switching among FAS teachers. School switching is apparent in the data, with 70.7 % of FAS teachers working in their specific schools for less than 1 year. FAS teachers also tend to think their job is not as respected and well-esteemed as a public school job. Most of the participant teachers showed their aspiration to join the public sector, !!!%*-!provided they get the chance and meet their recruitment criteria. Public school teacher jobs in Pakistan are competitive, require comp etency in certain subject areas, and professional training. In addition, public school teachers are eligible and entitled to all privileges and incentives associated with civil service in Pakistan. These factors enhance the status of public sector teachers as they are recruited through a competitive process and are entitled to social benefits that other employees in the public sector enjoy. Professional And Instructional Resources Data was collected on the availability and adequacy of professional and inst ructional resources. The study shows that in terms of supplemental instructional resources, teachers in public schools have greater access. Currently, Pakistan introduced changes in course content for teaching mathematics, English, and science with a focus on conceptual and activity -based learning. Therefore, the Directorate of Staff Development (DSD) has provided a teaching manual to public school teachers that helps them to plan and deliver their lessons according to these new content delivery approaches. Teachers in FAS do not have access to these supplement resources and instead only receive textbooks. In terms of school supplies, such as paper, pencils, markers, and highlighters, these are provided by the school administration since they receive funding from the government to manage and arrange these school supplies. FAS also provides certain basic instructional resources to teachers (pencils, papers, photocopies of material). However, if a teacher wants to add color to her work to make it more attractiv e for students, they must arrange for these supplies on their own. Data on the adequacy and availability of instructional manipulatives (for teaching science, math, and language) and other audio -visual material was also collected. The data !!!%+.!showed that publ ic school teachers have access to these instructional manipulatives. Teachers also receive instructions and toolkits from the government to develop these resources on their own. Overall, teachers in public schools have access to certain teaching manipulati ves, but they are not adequate and sufficient for teaching complex and complicated concepts. In FAS, teachers do not have instructional manipulatives, and instead rely mostly on paper charts for instruction. FAS teachers report that this absence and lack o f instructional resources intensifies their jobs and makes it challenging and stressful. Teachers from FAS showed concern that the absence of these instructional resources is a barrier for effective delivery of complicated concepts. If ambitious teaching i s to be promoted, then it is reasonable to think that the resources provided in the public sector give these teachers a head start in this domain. Professional Support For New Teachers TeachersÕ demographics from the public sector show that 44.3 % of teachers hold a MasterÕs Degree and 99.4% teachers have professional training. The public sector has a clear policy on teachersÕ recruitment in terms of qualification and professional training. No exceptions are made in terms of professional training for t eachersÕ recruitment. Despite having professional training, newly inducted teachers are required to attend a one - to two -week long induction training provided by the DSD. Once new teachers are appointed in schools, their respective schools provide them wit h opportunities to observe classes of senior teachers and hold discussions, both formal and informal, with fellow teachers so they can become more familiar with school instructional and cultural practices. These experiences help teachers to become adjusted during this transitional phase of their career. In FAS, there is absence of a standard recruitment policy for teacher training. Therefore, no criteria for teachersÕ recruitment in terms of academic and professional training is followed. !!!%+%!The data shows 50 .7% teachers in FAS hold a high school degree and 46.4% teachers are without training. In addition, teacher shortages are another factor that complicates the process of providing professional and structural support to newly inducted teachers in FAS. Since teachers in FAS are inducted on an as -needed basis, newly inducted teachers are required to take charge of their class starting on their first day. Teachers in FAS face many challenges related to instructional delivery, lesson planning, and classroom manag ement due to the lack of structural support to address their professional needs. Study results also revealed that teachers in FAS mainly learn through Òsink and swim phasesÓ without any support from the school, which makes their job harder and more stressf ul at the beginning of their career. If quality teaching is to be a national priority, it is quite reasonable to believe that recruiting more qualified candidates and supporting them in the beginning phases of their career is a wise policy choice. In-Servi ce Trainings Within both sectors, teachers are provided with opportunities for in -service training. The data did not show any meaningful difference in terms of frequency, duration, and focus of on -going professional development practices. Classroom manage ment and the teaching of different subjects at various levels are the focus of these trainings in both sectors. In terms of effectiveness and relevance of PD with current curriculum reforms and teachersÕ classroom challenges, teachersÕ from FAS express dis satisfaction. The data shows that the public sector is more organized, focused, and responsive to current reforms in education. In contrast, the training offered by the Punjab Education Foundation deals with inexperienced and less qualified teachers with l imited to no training and seems to be primarily focused on the most elementary aspects of teaching: basic classroom management. During interviews, teachers in FAS revealed that they struggle to engage students with special needs in the learning process. Th ese teachers report that !!!%+&!they know how to ensure a happy class and how to keep students busy, but find it difficult to meet the learning needs of all students. In interviews, teachers from FAS identify a lack of relevance and responsiveness of PD to their classroom challenges as the most stressful part of their job. In debates about quality education, the need to have highly qualified, trained, and motivated teachers has been the center of attention. As we have seen, the analysis of EFA policy and monitorin g reports between 2000 and 2015 reveal the consistency of efforts to Òimprove teachersÕ morale, status and professionalismÓ in the EFA strategic frame work. The need to improve teachersÕ salary, job incentives, and to ensure access of instructional resourc es and opportunities for professional development are the main strategies of the EFA framework. Policymakers are encouraged to introduce a competitive recruitment and teacher induction policy to enhance the status of the teaching profession and to attract qualified candidates (EFA, 2000; EFA-GMR, 2005; EFA-GMR, 2013/14; EFA-GMR, 2015). Recently, the government of Pakistan also developed national goals and strategies to improve teaching quality by suggesting a merit based system informed by competitive evalu ations. They also developed national goals for teachersÕ recruitment, a standardization in terms of teachersÕ qualifications, and required professional training for teaching a certain grade level. Finally, they developed goals to accelerate efforts to impr ove teachersÕ salaries and incentives (NEP, 2009). However, the study results showed that FAS institutional practices and orientations toward teachersÕ working conditions deviate from national and EFA goals related to teachersÕ status and professionalism. The FAS program seems to segregate the teaching labor force in Pakistan by pooling less qualified, trained, and committed professionals in some of the poorest and hardest -to-reach locations of the country. This strategy needs to be questioned in light on t he !!!%+'!larger rhetoric around teacher quality. Impacts Of Social Costs On Quality Education Goals ÒExcluding teachers not only is demoralizing but can also lead to inapprop riate policiesÓ ( EFA Global Monitoring Report , 2013/14, p . 221). In order to improve the quality of education and to devise effective and appropriate policies for improving teaching and learning, the EFA strategic plan highlights the importance of teachersÕ participation in policy development and school related affairs by encouraging the practices of team teaching and promoting the culture of teachersÕ professional communities (EFA, 2000; EFA-GMR, 2005; EFA-GMR, 2013/14 & EFA-GMR, 2015). EFA global monitoring reports show that a large majority of the student population i n EFA signatory countries are far behind in achieving the target of quality education in terms of learning competency in basic skill areas. Consequently, there is a need to develop more socio -culturally relevant and context -embedded policies to accommodate a diverse population of students and this is starting to be realized in current EFA policy rhetoric by encouraging teachersÕ participation in policy debates. Thus, teachersÕ empowerment, autonomy, and their participation in decisions related to their inst ructional and school related matters are a few of the constructs used to create better schools through school based management and to involve teachers in national policy debates ( EFA-GMR, 2000; EFA-GMR, 2005 & EFA-GMR 2013/2014). In this context, when EFA Õs strategic framework is promoting the ideas and practices of creating teachersÕ professional communities and ensuring their participation in national and school related matters, it is important to understand what kind of social environment is available to teachers in both sectors of Pakistan. Understanding this component will help to understand the nature of learning and social experiences that are available to teachers and to anticipate the !!!%+(!possible impacts that these different schools may have on national goals related to quality education. The construct of teachersÕ community was used as a frame of reference to examine the social working environment of both institutions. Before discussing the find ings, it is important to note that it is difficult to make any claim about teachersÕ communities in terms of their orientation, specifically whether either of these communities are learning oriented or merely a gathering of people who share the same place of work. However, one aspect that emerged from data and field visits to these schools is that public school teachers have a stronger sense of community than FAS teachers. An ease of interactions amongst public school teachers was apparent while taking abou t different school problems. StudentsÕ learning, the imposed challenges of out -of-school duties, and the irrelevance of the national educational policy were all brought up during interviews. From the data, it is quite evident that teachers in public school s receive ample opportunities to connect with their fellow teachers. One significant factor in this regard is the status of the job (regular/permanent) that helps them to stay in a particular school for a longer time and the presence of a school culture t hat facilitates and encourages teacher interactions, collaboration, and open dialogue amongst about social and educational problems. Teachers in public schools are treated as independent professionals who are given the opportunities to decide and devise th eir instructional plans independently. Therefore, their exposure to a supportive and collegial work environment that welcomes their critiques, complaints, and opinions helps them to feel empowered and confident. During the interviews, they appeared to be c onfident and professional in their views while talking about the challenges of quality education in Pakistan. They shared very important insights that are usually not conveyed in any policy document. As a researcher and educationist, !!!%+)!I learned a great deal about the context and policy associated problems that are generally ignored in policy debates about quality education in Pakistan. In contrast, the interview data showed that the FAS restrict the probability of community development amongst teachers. Beca use of a low pay scale, temporary teacher recruitments, and other school conditions, logistics and operations, FAS teachers are prone to job switching. Consequently, the probability of trust and collegiality amongst FAS teachers and principals is quite low . Data also showed that since the government funds these schools based on their studentsÕ performance on quality assurance tests, these schools restrict and impose a very isolated, mechanical, and systemic school routine to engage teachers in teaching stud ents for entire school days Ñhoping thereby to increase test scores. During interviews, teachers and school principals revealed that they follow a Òno communication policyÓ that means teachers are not allowed to talk with their colleagues during school hou rs. The absence of a preparation period in FAS further minimizes the opportunities for collaboration amongst teachers. The data showed that due to budget restrictions, FAS hire less qualified teachers with minimal teaching training and less teaching experi ence. These teachers appear, therefore, less empowered. School principals seem to control the instructional practices of these teachers, with the help of a few senior teachers, who decide and plan teachersÕ instructional routines and teaching activities. T herefore, this study shows that most teachers in FAS take the role of follower, whose job is to complete an assigned task. This practice makes them less confident about their abilities as teachers. It is evident from the study that teachers in FAS donÕt re ceive the time to socialize with other teachers or become involved in reflective dialogue or talks related to studentsÕ learning, teaching practices, and school related matters. Their lack of exposure to such a reflective and !!!%+*!discussion -based culture restr icts their professional learning and growth; this factor was visible in their interview responses. During interviews, they appeared to be less confident, thoughtful, and informed about current educational policy reforms in Pakistan related to quality educa tion and studentsÕ learning. During interviews it was difficult to garner responses from FAS teachers, as they seemed to be unable or unwilling to communicate about classroom challenges. These are some of the individual costs that these teachers bear while working in FAS. But these factors may also incur costs to the national goals of having well skilled, competent, and critically informed teachers. Teachers can be viewed as the implementers of policy as they deal with students on a daily basis and have a b etter understanding of their learning challenges and problems. Since their insights are more context -embedded, teachersÕ participation in policy development can assist policymakers to develop more context relevant policies. Although teachersÕ voices are no t appreciated at the national level in Pakistan, public sector teachers nevertheless have some power to make changes in national policies about studentsÕ learning, teachersÕ earnings, curriculum reform, and protecting teachersÕ rights through unions and participation in national forums. To some extent, public sector teachers have voice and power in national policy debates and know how and when to exercise their power and use their agency. The study showed that teachers working in FAS will, at times, avoid t alk about current policy debates and their rights as professionals. Furthermore, their lack of involvement and representation in school matters appear to make them less critical about school practices and school culture. Their identity as professionals who se insights can help to develop better policies seems to be lost in national policy debates. Literature indicates that participation in school level matters and other instructional practices develops a sense of ownership amongst implementers, which in tur n boosts their !!!%++!morale, motivation, self -confidence, and worth to ensure effectiveness of practices/implementation of a certain plan or activity (Higgins & Rwanyange, 2010). Therefore, teachersÕ participation as informed professionals might be considered a critical component for quality education. But the FAS sector discourages the practice of teacher participation even in instructional matters, leaving them insecure about their practices as professionals, and with a lack of empowerment to plan and execute t heir instructional practices, ability to make decisions about their instructional matters, and have a sense of ownership over their profession. The higher social cost associated with the FAS program plays a critical role in promoting a separate cadre of teachers who lack confidence, which may impede PakistanÕs progress toward the education goals of having well informed teachers to improve the quality of education through their active participation in addressing classroom challenges and informing the policy discourse by sharing their insights. Summary And Conclusion The comparison and cross -analysis of human cost with the EFA (2000 -2015) and NEP (2009) strategic frameworks indicates that the FAS program does not align with the prescribed criteria of quality in education. The institutional practices of the public schoo ls and FAS were evaluated by analyzing teachersÕ composition, workload, working conditions (job status, salary, PD), and schoolsÕ social environment, particularly in terms of collegial relations and role of principals. The analysis results showed that the practices of larger class size and involvement of teachers in out -of-school service in the public sector do not comply with the EFA standard of quality instructional time. On the other hand, the widely used practices of out -of-field assignments, low salar y structure, stressful work environment, lack of instructional resources, irregularity and irrelevance !!!%+,!of PD opportunities, and lack of teacher involvement in school related and instructional matters among FASs negates/deviates from the NEP (2009) and EFA (2000-2015) criteria to achieve quality in education. Thus, the FAS program undermines the national efforts of achieving and sustaining quality education in Pakistan. Based on the findings, the study concludes that the FAS program, which reflects the curr ent global economic discourse of cost -effective educational interventions for developing countries, compromises teachersÕ personal, psychological, and professional needs, which are critical for the achievement of quality education in Pakistan. Study Implic ations This section of the chapter aims to present the implications of the study in relation to the need to strengthen existing public schools in Pakistan, the alignment of Foundation Assisted School programs, and the need to improve the status and profess ionalism of teachers, w hile acknowledging the possible impacts of human costs on quality education and taking contextual realities into consideration while conducting research. Strengthen The Public Sector Or Redefine/ Re -Evaluate The Idea Of Low Cost Interventions Basic economic theory tells us that there is an opportu nity cost with every decision. Current policy discourses ignore some costs while highlighting the relative absence of others. In particular, this study suggests that education quality cannot be achieved without taking into consideration the human cost of reform. Since Pakistan already has a well -established public sector education system working across the country, it would be perhaps more fruitful to make efforts to improve and strengthen th e existing public sector school system rather than !!!%+-!experimenting with new interventions that rely on a disempowered and unqualified teaching force (Annexure C) . This study questions whether the FAS can be considered a cost effective intervention, as it bears a large human cost by overlooking the personal and professional needs of teachers. This oversight on the part of the FAS program agenda encourages institutional practices that contradict the strategic framework of EFA and 2009 Pakistan National Educa tional policy to achieve quality education by encouraging these institutions to recruit less qualified and less professionally educated teachers to reduce costs. These lower paid teachers contribute to the problem of poor teacher retention in these schools , which is a consequence of demoralization of these teachers by making them work in authoritative and isolated environments. The EFA framework identifies these practices as a barrier to achieving the goal of quality education. This study, however, does no t argue for dismantling the FAS programs altogether. It would be an utter waste of energies and resources used in establishing these schools across Pakistan. Instead, it is suggested that rather than shutting these institutions down, efforts should be made to strengthen the existing FAS schools through regularization and standardization of these schools in alliance with the public sector. In contrast, the study showed that the public school is more aligned with the national and EFA strategic frameworks as c ompared to FAS schools, although this sector has its own challenges in the form of critical administrative problems such as a high teacher -pupil ratios and a culture of imposed out -of-school administrative duties. It is suggested that addressing these issues directly may help to improve the quality of education in public schools instead of developing a parallel system with new flaws and challenges, as is the case with FAS schools. Thus, this study suggests accelerating the efforts at the national level to s trengthen the public !!!%,.!sector by addressing the administrative gaps and by aligning the existing PPP models of education in Pakistan with that of mainstream public education rather than developing and experimenting with new so -called low cost models which pr ove to have high human costs in reality. Align Fas Program With Mainstream Public Schools By Defining Teaching Standards, Contract Conditions And Job -Entitlements The study suggests the need to align the FAS program with mainstream public schools. There i s a need to devise standards for FAS schools that are matched with those of public schools, with room for exceptions under certain circumstances. For example, in case a local population does not meet the qualification criteria for the recruitment policy wi th reference to teachersÕ qualification, exceptions could be made. This change in policy is vital to achieve the goal of equity in education and to ensure all children in Pakistan have an equal access to well qualified and trained teachers. Likewise, the p ay structure of teachers who are working in FAS should be devised to discourage any practice of teachersÕ exploitation in the private sector. Since teacher switching is very common in FAS, conditions of teachersÕ contracts need to be redefined in terms of duration. Specifically, contracts should be extended from one year to three years. This will help to overcome the problem of frequent school switching by teachers. In addition, with the collaboration of the private sector, efforts should be made to map out an action plan to ensure teachers receive certain social benefits that are currently provided to public school teachers. !!!%,%!Discourage The Culture Of Out -Of-School Services In The Public School System And Redefine TeachersÕ Teaching Assignments The study indicates that in the public sector, teachers are forced to be involved in many administrative jobs assigned by the provincial government. These teachers are forced to organize many awareness campaigns (such as Polio vaccinations and control of Dengue viru s) and conduct universal primary education surveys of assigned localities. During interviews, teachers reported that they are required to perform these duties at the cost of instructional time. These practices raise questions and concerns about the role a nd responsibilities of teachers in terms of performing duties for which the provincial government lacks administrative and clerical staff. According to public school teachers, these kinds of duties and activities restrict them from effectively performing t heir teaching duties. FAS presents another form of exploitation in relation to teachersÕ work assignments; FAS keeps teachersÕ busy teaching and ignores and compromises their professional needs for interaction and collaboration. These teachers are forced t o teach all day and in certain contexts, they are not even allowed to sit and must spend all day standing. This is violation of their rights on humanistic grounds as well as professional grounds. Given this situation, the study suggests the need to initiat e national dialogue to define clear policies regarding teachersÕ work assignments. A standard national policy should be developed that sets the standards for teachersÕ teaching and non -teaching assignments, along with details of their working hours per day to discourage exploitation and violation of teachersÕ rights as humans and professionals. These national standards for teachersÕ work assignment should be implemented across the entire school system of Pakistan. The policy of involving teachers in state l evel management duties should be discouraged. Teachers must be responsible for spending their time and effort for teaching students. !!!%,&!Develop A Culture Of Ownership And Participation Between Public And Private School Setups Interviews with FAS principals reveal that the government seems to be less involved and interested in taking the lead role in the development and strengthening of the PPP model in Pakistan. In many responses from principals in FAS related to issues of the budget, resource constraints, a nd teachersÕ pay scales, it was very clearly indicated that the government is not willing to cooperate on these issues. If the purpose of these reforms and collaboration between the public and private sectors is to ensure access to and improvement of quali ty education, then the government needs to participate as a collaborator in this reform program to address the pertinent challenges of the private sector to ensure their performance meet national goals. Otherwise, this partnership will lead from integratio n to segregation of the educational system and could raise issues of equity at the national level between the public and private sectors. Develop Public School And Fas Teachers Combined Professional Networks The goal of all FAS and public institutions is to meet the national goals of access and quality through collaboration and partnership. In this case, public school teachers play an important role in helping less trained teachers in FAS in addressing their teaching challenges. From the study, it is evide nt that teachers in public schools are experienced and qualified (Annexure C) and are exposed to a collaborative and collegial support system whereby they receive the opportunity to share, express their concerns, and think about studentsÕ learning and poli cy shifts. Public school teachers also receive the opportunity to participate and attend different policy talks at various forums. In contrast, FAS teachers are novice to the profession, with or without adequate content and pedagogical knowledge to teach t heir assigned subjects. They are also less likely to be exposed to forums that encourage reflective and critical dialogue !!!%,'!between teachers on studentsÕ learning and other professional issues. Therefore, in this case, interschool communities of public schoo l and FAS teachers can work as an additional source to address some of the educational problems in both sectors and to enhance quality education. Address The Contradictions And Cleavages Within The 2009 National Education Policy With Reference To TeachersÕ Professional Qualifications Currently, Pakistan is reforming its teacher qualification requirements and phasing out short term certification programs and developing a four year teacher education program to improve teacher quality. Teacher academic qualifi cations and training are two main constructs that have been associated with teacher quality in Pakistan. National policy is on the one hand developing and encouraging systems and practices to ensure professionally trained teachers while simultaneously prom oting a school system (FAS) that overlooks the importance of having qualified teaching staff and justifies teaching quality by providing a week -long training. In addition, the issues of irregularity and lack of relevance of PD workshops were also identifi ed by FAS teachers and principals. Their views raise the question of effectiveness of these week long PD workshops conducted by the Punjab Education Foundation. Policymakers at the national level need to address the discrepancies within these policy regard ing teachersÕ professional development. Otherwise, the national goals of quality education and equity will likely remain unattainable. Contextualize And Identify Human Cost As An Integral Part Of Comparative Studies Related To SchoolsÕ Effectiveness The s tudy also suggests the need to identify human cost as an integral part of program evaluations. A lack of identification of this component of the program might obscure many cultural and institutional practices that have the tendency to produce unintended co nsequences. !!!%,(!From the literature, it is evident that any reform or intervention that is Òperson dependentÓ casts some costs through their intensity and nature. These costs may vary by context, but this does not mean they do not exist. Thus, understanding th ese costs may help to improve any educational reform program or intervention by addressing them in a timely manner. Study results also suggest that comparative studies need to be conducted that aim to evaluate and validate the effectiveness of different ed ucational programs within various contexts. For example, while it is outside the scope of this study, we know that FAS and public schools are located in the same administrative zones, serving the same population demographic, but this does not mean that the children coming from a particular locality to the FAS and public school represent the same population and family status. Thus, identification of human costs associated with any program and adopting a context embedded perspective may help to inform future policy discourse through context specific research. Indeed, it is the need for such context embedded perspectives that has been the goal of this study. It is my hope that such perspectives will help Pakistan and the other countries of the world to reach t heir goals of quality teaching and learning for all children. !!!%,)! APPENDICES !!!%,*!Appendix A: Interview Protocols For Teachers Could you please walk me through your teaching experience? How would you describe it? Is it challenging or exciting? What motivated you to join the profession? What are your future plans regarding your teaching? Category A: Task Cost Could yo u please share your everyday routine in the schools? What is the most difficult/ challenging part of this routine and which part of this routine do you enjoy the most? What kind of responsibilities do you generall y do other than teaching school? How demanding are they? Do these non -teaching responsibilities affect your teaching? Category B: Psychological Cost s (working c onditions) Do you enjoy teaching? What is the best part of your job? What is the most difficult part of your job? Is your salary sufficient to cover your living costs? Where do you see yourself in 10 years? Do you still want to be teaching? If you could change one thing about this school, what would it be? Why? Could you please share with me some details about th e nat ure of your job (temporary vs. contract), and terms and conditions of the job in terms of job removal, resignation, paid leaves and about salary or job related incentives? In addition to teaching in school, do you work after school; I mean do you pro vide any private tuition? If yes , then would you share with me some of the details about student population in terms of their grade level and school association? Could you please describe your teaching experiences as a new teacher in the school and what kind of support was available to you? !!!%,+!You currently must prepare the students for Quality Assurance test s; what kind of professi onal training opportunities does your school provide you? Do you think that these workshops adequately help you to address your classroom and teaching challenges? Are there any encouragements (compensations/incentives) for attending these workshops? What kind of instructional resources are available to you and are they adequate to meet instructional demands? Category 3: Social Cost (lack of professional networking and collaboration Collegial Support How would you describe the working relationship among teachers in this school? Do teachersÕ mostly work together or by themselves? If you work together, do you meet regularly or irregularly ? If you work together, what do you talk about: students, curriculum resources, instructional strategies, school climate, etc.? Do you see teachers outside of the school setting? What do you talk about in that scenario ? Principal Support Tell me about your principal. How does she /he spend her/his day? In what ways do you interact with your principal? How often do you see her /him , and for what purposes? !!!%,,! Appendix B: Interview Protocols For Principals What is the process of teachersÕ recruitment? What criteria do you use to recruit teachers? What school factors are detrimental to decide the number of recruitments? (School budget, infra structure, enrollment etc.) On what basis do yo u decide their salary package? Is it a lre ady decided or is it based on negotiations? Is there any provision for teachersÕ allowances/benefits? If yes , what is the nature of these allowances/benefits? What a re your strategies to retain a teacher? Who finalize s the timetable for the schools? What is the nature of teachersÕ task s? Are they only responsible for t eaching or do they also have certain additional services they are required to provide ? If yes , do you provide any compensation for the additional tasks? What kind of instructional reso urces do you provide to teachers? What kind of structural/professional support is available for newly inducted teachers? Is there any provision for in -service training for teachers in these schools? What is nature of these trainings? (Short term vs. lon g term) Who organize s them and how frequently are they provided to teachers? How do you ens ure the participation of all teachers in the training? Do you think these trainings sufficiently address the classroom challenges of teachers? !!!%,-! Appendix C: TeachersÕ Demographics In Public And Foundation Assisted Schools Table 27: Teacher's Demographics Personal Informa tion Public schools (151 respondents) Foundation Assisted Schools (140 respondents) Gender 84.2% Female 15.8% Male 97. 1% Female 2.9% Male Age 62.4% more than 40 years in age 72.9% between the age of 17-24 years Marital Status 90.5% Married 9.5% Single 14.3% Married 85.7% Single Academic and Professional qualification and Teaching Experience Public Schools (151 Respondents) Foundation Assisted Schools (140 respondents) Academic qualification 44.3% M.A/M.sc 25.3% B.A/B.SC 19.6% F.A/F.Sc 10.8% Matric 11.4% M.A/M.sc 27.9% B.A/B.SC 50.7% F.A/F.Sc 10.0% Matric Teacher Training 61.4% B.ed or more 38.6% CT/PTC 14.5% B.ed or more 39.1% CT/PTC 46.4% with no training Number of years in teaching profession 93.5 % are in profession more than 5 years 1.9% less than 1 year 10.8% more than 5 years 50.4% between 1 -5 years 38.8 % less than 1 year !!!%-.! 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