, L H .1; An. Run?” .3. l. .32.... u ii I... oil . 31:15. v.5 I. z. ‘ 31‘ g 7” char... Hui-mer.!...2V.r:.u-Is.w.:i .5. a... dun“ .v . : .5591...“ .4 iii... ; . lat- : I... . . .. . I 1.317.}? ,t 1:; u 25-: .. y... a .. {33.6 a . . y 1...! .f 3.1. 1 1.1.”. 3. . and..- .. “Eu—m. 3.x.» E‘ I 5g... 1 if .Jfl I! ‘ Titian _ .. . nag»... ”an. flu... . 35.... x... i. ii. :3. «- uglinmffiw: .5... .4154... q i eafifiu if..n.v,r.u...mm«., ;. Li 3:: $321.... . .. . $3.. in... »uuuhm.¥.hr.dgmn. v .W“.'I.,.\I. .ulutu' 1‘ i find u. .. 1.. $5. a 2. I 63.... . ‘ 1!. .2. Ma nugafifiu... i. .5... .éwnmwuw 2 2:2 ..In..vfli:fi§ flfh :04, . fiiz‘w mam. , 1).» . x. ’55! xvi. : l... ) 1.12.4 :51: .. .919, .ou..vut.:uix .rrtr.....fl§r. . .1 \c It and}. 1 xL ”gala .3 an“ ) 1.. i It «a 11....- 3! 5r! 2 1 3t? 1 tidin: .153». .15 . ”his ¢ . f3: 5:??? Twig}...- . 5.1.7 5.93.... ; $1.13 .3”le .m awash ‘"‘" 9v 5. .Il 32.x..7i (. ._ ".nn ; 155.15. - £\ a: - 3) K.“ *‘i LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A CASE STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE IN GRADUATE THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION: THE PROCESSES OF IMPLEMENTING AN ONLINE DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAM presented by PETER G. OSBORN has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD. degree in Educational Administration @4675sz Major Professor’s Signature ”(27 A c9000 U . Date MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 2/05 p:/ClRC/DateDue.indd-p.1 THE A CASE STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE IN GRADUATE THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION: THE PROCESSES OF IMPLEMENTING AN ONLINE DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAM By Peter G. Osborn A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Education Administration 2006 (3 the mos (Baldwir Kezar,2 mewms serve at beenini Educan. fromsu Dmvbe one gra Dngran ABSTRACT A CASE STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE IN GRADUATE THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION: THE PROCESSES OF IMPLEMENTING AN ONLINE DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAM By Peter G. Osborn Over the past decade online distance education has emerged as one of the most Significant issues of Change facing institutions of higher education (Baldwin, 1998; Batson & Bass, 1996; Delamarter, 2005; Dolence, 1995; Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Johnson, Hanna, & Olcott, 2003). Faculty, administrators and staff are wrestling with what role online distance education courses and programs will serve at their institution. Although many institutions of higher education have been implementing online distance education programs (National Center for Education Statistics), graduate theological education as a whole has refrained from such practices (Delamarter, 2004). The purpose of this research was to provide a rich description of the processes of organizational change by which one graduate theological school implemented an online distance education program. The following questions provided direction for the study: - What are the key factors that assist graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - What are the key forces of resistance that hinder graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? on how process this we change distance adminis factors, Facuhy; the force hinder tt - How have some of the graduate theological schools that have implemented online distance education programs managed the tension between the factors that led towards and the forces that resisted the implementation of online distance education programs? The significance of this study is the contribution it makes to the literature on how graduate theological schools can better understand the Change processes of implementing an online distance teaming program. The findings of this research support the fact that change is messy and complex. Although change is difficult, graduate theological schools can successfully implement distance teaming programs. Based on the findings of this study, faculty and administrators/staff will be well served to adopt factors that assist (i.e., motivating factors, initiating factors, and confirming factors) in the implementation process. Faculty and administrators/staff will also be well served to adequately respond to the forces of resistance (i.e., diminishing forces and persisting forces) that can hinder the effective implementation of an online distance teaming program. Copyright by PETER G. OSBORN 2006 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my wife and best friend, Karen. Without your faithful encouragement and unceasing love I never would have finished this goal. The journey of life is so much more fun with you by my side. encoura Zachary matches and Linc what it ti mother-i l forpufin ofexcel thank m Reitu M disserta resoum daSSro for thei ROben Dr. Jot. Thanks ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take a moment to thank my wife, Karen, for her support and encouragement during this educational trek. I also want to thank my children: Zachary, Sawyer, Jacob, and Isabelle who were willing to cut our wrestling matches short so I could go and work on my “homework”. To my parents, David and Linda, thank you for always encouraging me to press on and for modeling what it truly means to be life-long learners. To my father-in-law, Bill, and my mother-in-law, Merrily, thank you for supporting me by encouraging my family. I would like to thank my program and dissertation advisor, Dr. Ann Austin, for putting up with my comma deficiency and for pushing me towards the journey of excellence she models so very well in everything she does. I would like to thank my dissertation committee Dr. Marilyn Amey, Dr. Patrick Dickson, and Dr. Reitu Mabokela for their insight, direction, and encouragement throughout the dissertation process. I would like to thank my employer, Cornerstone University, for providing resources and a real world environment to live out what I was learning in the classroom. I would like to specifically thank the following people at Cornerstone for their support and encouragement during the program: Dr. Mark Lamport, Dr. Robert Neinhuis, and Dr. Chris Weber. Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank my colleague and friend, Dr. John VerBerkmoes, for modeling a healthy intensity, matched by none. Thanks for living out a true collaborative spirit, both in and out of the office. vi Re lm; Org CHAPT Gr; Dis Org TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. x CHAPTER I: FRAMING THE PROBLEM .............................................................. 1 Research Problem ......................................................................................... 2 Graduate Theological Schools ............................................................... 5 Distance Learning .................................................................................. 7 Organizational Change .......................................................................... 8 Research Question ...................................................................................... 11 Importance / Significance of the Study ........................................................ 12 Definition of Terms ...................................................................................... 13 Organization of the Study ............................................................................ 14 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 15 Graduate Theological Education Literature ................................................. 16 Background of Graduate Theological Education .................................. 16 Call for Renewal in Graduate Theological Education ........................... 18 Accreditation & Distance Learning ....................................................... 20 Distance Learning Literature ....................................................................... 24 History of Distance Education .............................................................. 25 Significance of “No Significance” Literature ......................................... 27 Unique Challenges ............................................................................... 28 Faculty & Administrative Tensions ....................................................... 32 Benefits of Distance Learning .............................................................. 34 Organizational Change Literature ................................................................ 36 Brief History of Change ........................................................................ 36 Major Terms or Concepts Related to Change ...................................... 42 Diffusion ....................................................................................... 43 lnstitutionalization ......................................................................... 44 Adaptation .................................................................................... 44 First-order Change ....................................................................... 45 Second-order Change or Transformation ..................................... 45 Models of Organizational Change ........................................................ 46 Multiple Frame Models ......................................................................... 51 Mobile Model of Change ...................................................................... 52 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 59 Statement of Purpose .................................................................................. 59 Research Design ......................................................................................... 60 Population and Case Study Description ...................................................... 62 Procedures for Collecting Data .................................................................... 64 Procedures for Analyzing Data .................................................................... 66 vii CHAPTEI Back Dhna Fact For CHAPTER IV: PRESENTATION OF DATA ........................................................ 68 Background of School and Participants ....................................................... 70 Mission and Purpose ........................................................................... 70 Campus and Culture ............................................................................ 71 Participants .......................................................................................... 73 Distance Learning Program at DTS ............................................................. 73 Development and Planning .................................................................. 74 Distance Learning Program Structure .................................................. 75 Involvement of Key Shareholders & Committees ................................. 76 Documented Successes ...................................................................... 77 Factors that Assisted Implementation ......................................................... 78 Motivating Factors ................................................................................ 78 Strategic Planning ........................................................................ 79 Issue of Access ............................................................................ 82 Initiating Factors ................................................................................... 84 Creation of New Policies, Support Structures & Positions ............ 85 Collaborative Process .................................................................. 93 Faculty Development .................................................................... 94 Senior Administrative Support ...................................................... 95 Confirming Factors ............................................................................... 97 Teaching and Learning Factors .................................................... 97 Visible Action .............................................................................. 101 Forces of Resistance to Implementation of DL .......................................... 105 Diminishing Forces ............................................................................ 106 Financial Considerations and Issues .......................................... 106 Concerns About Quality of Teaching and Learning .................... 107 Accreditation Issues ................................................................... 108 Fear and Resistance of Technology ........................................... 110 Persisting Forces ............................................................................... 1 10 Faculty Concerns ....................................................................... 11 1 Lack of Needed Support Structures ........................................... 114 Communication with Support Staff ............................................ 115 Managing the Tensions of Implementing DL ............................................. 117 CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION ............................................................................. 119 Summary of Findings ................................................................................ 120 Factors That Assisted Implementation of DL ..................................... 121 Motivating Factors ...................................................................... 121 Initiating Factors ......................................................................... 124 Confirming Factors ..................................................................... 129 Forces That Resisted Implementation of DL ...................................... 132 Diminishing Forces ..................................................................... 133 Persisting Forces ........................................................................ 136 Managing the Tensions ...................................................................... 139 Discussion ................................................................................................. 140 Value of Using a Systems Approach .................................................. 140 Value of Using a Collaborative Process ............................................. 142 viii kn; Lfir Sus Append Append Append Append Append Referer Value of Using a Hybrid Model .......................................................... 143 Value of Moving from Teaching to Learning ...................................... 144 Implications ............................................................................................... 145 Recommendations for Faculty ........................................................... 145 Recommendations for Ad ministrators/Staff ........................................ 146 Recommendations for Accreditation Associations ............................. 147 Limitations ................................................................................................. 1 48 Suggestions for Future Research .............................................................. 148 Appendix A INTERVIEW PROTOCOL ............................................................. 151 Appendix B CONSENT FORM ......................................................................... 156 Appendix C INVITATION LETTER ................................................................... 158 Appendix D PARTICIPANT INFORMATION FORM ........................................ 159 Appendix E IMPLEMENTATION TIMELINE .................................................... 160 References ....................................................................................................... 161 2.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 2.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 LIST OF TABLES Brief History of Change Models ................................................................ 37 Participant Characteristics ........................................................................ 73 Distance Learning Program Enrollment ................................................... 77 Courses Offered: Arranged by Year ......................................................... 91 Courses Offered: Arranged by Graduating Class ..................................... 91 G are facir 1998'. E: Mmma Ieaming pressure more to; general & Deal, around i researc Change distancr 1 Oiihe h i” grad. import; researr Challis CHAPTER I: FRAMING THE PROBLEM Graduate theological schools, like most organizations of higher education, are facing a number of challenges that cannot be easily ignored (Bergquist, 1998; Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Zusman, 1999). The winds of change are blowing from many directions. Technology, online distance education, teaching and Ieaming paradigms, assessment, accreditation, cost and budget issues, pressures from internal and external constituents, changing demographics and more top the list of factors that contribute to the complexity of higher education in general and graduate theological education specifically (Bimbaum, 1988; Bolman & Deal, 1997; Bowers, 1982; Farley, 1983; Ferris, 1990). Change often revolves around initiatives that garner both support and resistance. The purpose of this research is to provide a rich description of the processes of organizational change through which one graduate theological school implemented an online distance education program. The intent of this first chapter is to provide a brief overview of the literature of the history and context of change as it is related to online distance education in graduate theological schools, to outline the research problem, to justify the importance and significance of the study, to provide a brief overview of the research question, to define key terms, and to give an overview of the remaining chapters of the dissertation proposal. 'i constar Johnstc emerge Mghere Hanna. detenni at their & Clark, Research Problem Throughout the history of higher education one force has remained constant. That force is the pressure for change (Bender & Schorske, 1997; Johnstone, 1997; Kett, 1994; Newman, Couturier, & Scurry, 2004; Rudolph, 1978; Schuller, 1995). Over the past decade online distance education has emerged as one of the most significant issues of change facing institutions of higher education (Dolence & Norris, 1995; Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Johnson, Hanna, 8 Olcott, 2003). Faculty, administrators and staff are faced with determining what role online distance education courses and programs will serve at their institution (Hanna, 2000; Lamb, 1999; Novak, 2002; Willis, 1994; Verduin & Clark, 1991). Colleges and universities also face growing pressure to service the needs of an increasingly diverse group of constituents (Daniel, 1997; Dey & Hurtado, 1999). Graduate theological education is not exempt from these demands. One of the specific challenges facing graduate theological schools is the growing need and expectation to provide online distance education opportunities (Dolence & Norris, 1995; Ferris, 1990; Messer, 1995). Internal and external pressures are forcing many schools to ask what role distance education will serve in the offering of academic programs (Banks, 1999; Harcleroad, 1999). Research (Bama, 2005) demonstrates that forty percent of Protestant senior pastors do not have a seminary education. The numbers rise to fifty-four percent when one looks at the next generation of emerging senior pastors, called the Buster generation (those born between 1965 and 1980) (Bama, 2005). Endenc require, seminar they lac manage vocatior .1 the ave The ave graduat great de wmmu include: (Alagor Student: theolog SeniOr (Doien gradUa deman ministi Compie Evidence (Dingman, 1994; Virkler, 1992) shows that most search committees require, or at least prefer, a candidate for the senior pastor position to hold a seminary degree. Senior pastors who lack graduate level education often report they lack the basic skills for handling the issues of stress, burnout, conflict management and resolution, and the leadership challenges associated with vocational ministry. The Annual Association of Theological Schools Report (2004) states that the average age of a graduate theological education student is now thirty-eight. The average graduate theological education student is not the traditional graduate student (typically 22-24 years of age). Non-traditional students bring a great deal to their higher education experience (i.e., career experience, families, community experience, etc.). Many institutions, graduate theological schools included, are failing to provide adequate access to the non-traditional student (Aragon, 2001 ). This lack of access for both non-traditional students and those students who cannot geographically relocate to an area that has graduate theological education are contributing factors to the lack of seminary educated senior pastors. Many students are demanding the flexibility of distance education (Dolence & Norris, 1995). Without such flexibility, history has demonstrated that graduate theological education will not be a viable option for many clergy. The demands of employment, family responsibilities, community activities, and ministry commitments often hinder, if not prevent, clergy from relocating to complete a graduate theological degree. Although many institutions of higher education have been quickly developing distance education courses and programs, most seminaries have been slow to implement distance education (Amos, 1999). Katherine Amos (1999) found that of the 243 Association of Theological Schools (ATS) only sixty- two offered any form of distance education. In order to better service the unique needs of the non-traditional student, graduate theological schools need to explore new paradigms of distance education. Dolence and Norris (1995) argued that institutions of higher education need to respond to these new demands by transitioning from a teacher centered model of instruction to a more learner centered model. Many seminaries are so committed to a classical teaching paradigm that they have failed to respond to the significant needs of the non- traditional student. Graduate theological schools and local churches would benefit if more online distance education programs were implemented (Banks, 1999). For graduate theological schools the benefits would include: 1) greater access to prospective students who are not currently able to attend; 2) increased revenue from new students; 3) opportunity to reach a more global market; and 4) an opportunity to explore new pedagogies for online and face to face Ieaming. The benefit for churches would be better prepared and resourced ministry leaders who have the education and the resource networks to support life-long vocational ministry careers. These types of changes however, are often slow in development. Graduate theological schools, like most organizations, face significa & Ehrme E is not wi major in in highe researc learning significe compar researc Merisot E organiz imDiem gradua provide themes that W( M8885 iiiey D significant change with hesitation or outright opposition (Cheldelin, 2000; Gilbert & Ehrrnann, 2002; Green & Hayward, 1997). Distance education, and even the research that has been conducted on it is not without its critics (Novak, 2002). Phipps and Merisotis (1999) outline two major findings in their research concerning the effectiveness of distance Ieaming in higher education. The first finding indicates there is very little truly original research that focuses on explaining or predicting phenomena related to distance Ieaming. Second, and possibly of even greater concern, is that although a significant amount of literature exists that says distance Ieaming courses compare favorably with face to face instruction, the “overall quality of the research is questionable and thereby renders the finding inconclusive” (Phipps & Merisotis, 1999 p. 49). Empirical research is needed to discover and understand the process of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. The following sections on graduate theological schools, distance education, and organizational change provide a brief overview of the key literature themes relevant to this study. These themes will be covered in greater detail in chapter two. Graduate Theological Schools The goal of Puritan education at Harvard was to produce a Ieamed clergy that would serve as model citizens in the new world (Kett, 1994; Rudolph, 1978). Messer (1995) outlines four primary purposes of graduate theological schools as they prepare men and women for vocational ministry service. The first purpose is .Lzugem1;;j to transmi The third r fostering : The key these go Universit evangeli give and medium the dam graduate .l I allocate argued i hastakr pamdg article § Delamé theolog teachir face toH imDIEn DEdag to transmit theological knowledge. The second is to develop professional skills. The third purpose is promoting personal and social growth. The final purpose is fostering a deeper Christian commitment to service through spiritual formation. The key question is how does a graduate theological school best accomplish these goals? Marsden (1996) outlines in his work, The Soul of the American University: From Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief, that the evangelical reformers (Luther, Zwingli, Calvin) “formed their new doctrines in the give and take of academic debate, and the classroom lecture was the first medium they used to spread their message” (p. 13). Delamarter (2004) asked, if the classroom lecture model was the only model that can be used effectively in graduate theological education? Although significant funding (Niebuhr, 1957; Stackhouse, 1988) has been allocated for research on the status of theological education, Ferris (1990) has argued that little renewal or significant change in graduate theological schools has taken place. Although some graduate theological schools are embracing new paradigms, these institutions represent the minority rather than the norm. In his article entitled, Theological Educators, Technology and the Path Ahead, Steve Delamarter (2005) outlines two ways technology has had a significant impact on theological education. First, online distance education is impacting the teaching/Ieaming process. Students and faculty are no longer required to meet face to face in order to engage in Ieaming. Although some seminaries have implemented online distance education these changes have brought a host of pedagogical questions to the surface that still need to be addressed. The second challengE educatio that nee< distance seminar small ha approva sees se the ben highligh educati l techno Chaher QIObaIi filSt ce tome, aCfiOp Dartic challenge facing graduate theological schools that implement online distance education programs is accreditation. The ATS Bulletin outlines eight core areas that need to be addressed before an ATS school can fully offer an online distance education program. These challenges, and others, have caused many seminaries to avoid entering the turbulent waters of online distance education. A small handful of graduate theological schools has worked through the ATS approval process and are offering online distance education programs. ATS itself sees several of these schools as models for other schools that are considering the benefits and challenges of embracing such change. The next section will highlight the role of technology in the teaching and Ieaming enterprise of higher education. Distance Learning Linda Cannell (1999) says, “distance education, and its accompanying technology is attractive to higher education because it seems to address the challenges of declining enrollments, increasing costs, and increasing globalization” (p. 6). Dolence and Norn's (1995) suggest students of the twenty- first century are demanding an education that is truly accessible. Courses need to be developed and delivered with the Ieamer in mind. Providing access in action means establishing structures and systems that allow Ieamers to participate in higher education with fewer obstacles than have existed traditionally. Dolence and Norris (1995) conclude that the paradigm shift to the information age is a key foundation that adults will build upon in order to pursue advanced training and education. Wr‘ graduate effective: revampic services. i healthy ii provides underste will emb literature organizi lives, interac, or impii have “; (p. 18‘ organ: (2003 lnstiti ploce is int With all its benefits, online distance Ieaming also has its drawbacks. For graduate theological schools to employ online distance education programs effectively, they need to address the following issues: faculty adoption, revamping of bureaucratic administrations, reorientation of on-campus student services, funding issues, updating of accreditation issues, and development of healthy assessment tools (Cannell, 1999). While online distance education provides much needed access, there is also the challenge to identify and understand what factors hinder or encourage the development of a culture that will embrace such changes. The next sub-section provides a brief overview of the literature on the history and key tenets of change in higher education organizations. Organizational Change Musselwhite (2003) states that change is a part of the very fabric of our lives. To understand change we must contextualize it in the culture of our daily interactions. Johnson, Hanna, and Olcott (2003) have posited that understanding or implementing organizational change requires individuals and institutions to have “a thorough understanding of leadership, technology, and academic culture” (p. 18). Institutions need to strive not simply for change but for deep organizational change, described by some as transformation. Eckel and Kezar (2003) define transformation as something that “alters the culture of the institution by changing underlying assumptions and overt institutional behaviors, processes, and structures; is deep and pervasive, affecting the whole institution; is intentional; and occurs overtime” (p. 17). Tn departmd swsltd change t hnguagj structure rri Century process cultural. gains a change change and or i teleolog adaphi studieg matunti model, of yam COsniti inVolvr Transformation is different from change in that it impacts more than one department or program. Transformation alters more than just what an institution says. It also impacts the values and actions of an organization. When deep change takes place, the very culture of the institution begins to speak a new language. This new language then spreads across the behaviors, processes and structures of the organization (Bolman & Deal, 1997). In Understanding and Facilitating Organizational Change in the 21“ Century Kezar (2001) outlines six main categories or models of the change process: evolutionary, teleological, life cycle, dialectical, social cognition, and cultural. The value of understanding change from multiple models, is that one gains a greater appreciation for the complexity and ambiguity of change and change processes. The main assumption of the evolutionary model is that change is an adaptive response to core environmental factors that are external and or internal to the organization (Morgan, 1997). The main assumptions of the teleological model are that organizations have clear direction and the ability to be adaptive. The life cycle or developmental model finds its main assumptions rooted in studies of child development and focuses on stages of growth, organizational maturity, and organizational decline (Levy and Merry, 1986). In the dialectical model, also known as the political model, change is understood in the framework of various clashing worldviews or belief systems (Morgan, 1997). In the social cognition model, change is seen as multifaceted, interconnected, complex, and involving overlapping series of processes and obstacles (Kezar, 2001). Kezar (2001) se and diale evolutior It collabore complex (Scott, 1 found in multiple from wh unique r combing lnstitutrr (2003) I helps 0 Dioces, Strateg Kezar. deVelo is nonl Organi, (2001) says the cultural models “blend the assumptions of the social-cognition and dialectical methods” (p. 50). Of the six main models, the teleological and evolutionary have been researched and written about the most (Kezar 2001). If deep change is going to take place, organizations need to work from a collaboration or synthesis of models. The demands for change are far too complex to be adequately addressed with one model or from just one perspective (Scott, 1998; Bolman & Deal, 1997). The value of the above models will not be found in using them in isolation but rather Ieaming to combine the strengths from multiple models. Kezar’s typology is helpful because it provides a framework from which to view the various models or theories of change. Each model has unique strengths and also unique challenges. Kezar (2001) recommends combining the best assumptions from multiple models. In Taking the Reins: Institutional Transformation in Higher Education, Peter Eckel and Adrianna Kezar (2003) provide such a model. It is called the Mobile Model of Change, which helps one conceptualize and better understand the organizational change process. The Mobile Model of Change is unique in that it “requires multiple strategies happening concurrently” in order to promote transformation (Eckel & Kezar, 2003, p. 168). The model is derived from the evolutionary, teleological, developmental, dialectical, social cognition, and cultural change models. The strength of the Mobile Model is that it presents change as a complex process that is non-linear, multifaceted, and involves overlapping multiple aspects of an organization’s culture and structure. Only a model that embraces the interactivity, 10 synelgl making n Or impleme' available theologic following better u graduate The ma which a plograr synergy, and complexity of transformation will be able to provide direction in making meaning of deep and pervasive change. Only a small handful of graduate theological schools (Amos, 1999) have implemented online distance education programs. Little empirical research is available that directly speaks to the change process of how some graduate theological schools have implemented online distance education programs. The following section provides an overview of how research will be conducted to better understand the processes of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. Research Question The study examines one main research question and three sub questions. The main question is: What are the processes of organizational change through which a graduate theological school implements an online distance education program? The sub questions are: - What are the key factors that assist graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - What are the key forces of resistance that hinder graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - How have some of the graduate theological schools that have implemented online distance education programs managed the tension between the factors that led towards and the forces that resisted the implementation of online distance education programs? 11 T literature theologi distance gradual such ch underst theolog DrOgrar resistar empiric whhthe prOCest to 250 58mph Criteria fOrmat Schoo lnthel Importance / Significance of the Study The significance of this study is the contribution it will make to the literature on the process of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. While distance education is rapidly growing across the horizon of higher education, graduate theological education has proceeded with much greater hesitation to such change (Amos, 1999). The benefit of this study is twofold. First, greater understanding will be gained concerning the key factors that assist graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs. Second, greater understanding will be gained of the key forces of resistance to online distance education initiatives. This research will also provide empirical support to help administrators, faculty, and accreditation associations with the challenges associated with implementing and sustaining change processes as it relates to online distance education programs. This study will involve a single case study approach. An average size (200 to 250 students) graduate theological school will be identified through purposeful sampling (Merriam, 1998). This school will be selected based on the following criteria: they offer the Master of Divinity degree in a online distance education format; and they have received approval from The Association of Theological Schools, which is the premier accreditation body of graduate theological schools in the United States and Canada, to offer such a program. 12 organiz distanc Definition of Terms The following terms are central to the study and are defined below: organizational transformation; non-traditional student; organizational culture; and distance education. Organizational Transformation - “something that alters the culture of the institution by changing underlying assumptions and overt institutional behaviors, processes, and structures; is deep and pervasive, affecting the whole institution; is intentional; and occurs over time” (Eckel & Kezar, 2003, p. 17). Non-traditional Student - person engaged in higher education who is 25 years or older and has life circumstances (work obligation, community service commitments, family responsibilities, etc.) distinct from the traditional 18-24 year-old college student. Organizational Culture — Schein (1992) defines organizational culture as, “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that a group has Ieamed as it solves its problems of external adaptation and integration and that has worked well enough to be considered valid enough to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” (p. 12). Distance Learning - Distance education is defined by the Association of Theological Schools as, “a mode of education in which major components of the program, including course work, occurs when students and instructors are not in the same location” (Association of 13 l educat comple gradua sectior gradua distanc adnfini models Change for this SEIectj Theological Schools, 2005, p. 86). While the phrases, distance Ieaming and distance education, are sometimes used interchangeably, some would see them as having two different meanings. Distance Ieaming typically has significant pedagogical dimensions as well as technology and location distinctions. Organization of the Study In chapter two, key literature on graduate theological schools, distance education, and organizational change will be reviewed. In order to appreciate the complexity and benefits of implementing online distance education programs in graduate theological education, the literature review consists of the following sections: background of graduation theological education; calls for renewal in graduate theological education; accreditation and distance education; history of distance education; significance of the “no significance" literature; faculty and administrative tensions; history of organizational change in higher education; key models of change; and the value of a multiple model approach when engaging change processes. Chapter three outlines the research methodology selected for this study. The chapter outlines the research design, site and case study selection, data collection methods, and procedures for analyzing data. 14 Tt associate educatior graduate chapter t educatio benefits program T develop models literatun mOdels. develop Tr ansfc SEiECte. for (he ( ”Owing i Change educar CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this chapter is to provide a review of the literature associated with change in higher education in general and graduate theological education specifically. The chapter begins with an overview of the background of graduate theological education and calls for renewal that have taken place. The chapter then continues by describing the literature concerning distance education. This section provides an overview of the inherent tensions and benefits associated with the adoption and implementation of distance education programs in higher education. The chapter then reviews organizational change literature. The development and history of organizational change, as well as the concepts and models related to change are examined in the context of higher education. The literature reviewed deals primarily with higher education change theories and models. This section concludes by examining the Mobile Model of Change developed by Eckel and Kezar (2003) in Taking the Reins: Institutional Transformation in Higher Education. This change model served as the foundation for the conceptual framework in this study. The Mobile Model of Change was selected because it is a multiple frame model that respects the complexity and non-linear nature of change in higher education contexts. The Mobile Model of Change served as a lens to explore the processes of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. 15 Gr perspecti tmtheh rigid pro oommit mennev multiple guide se The fou. develoi: tosterin order it educat literati: a 88m betWe thegk Certtu theolr Graduate Theological Education Literature Graduate theological education is facing criticism from multiple perspectives: alumni who express frustration over a perceived lack of preparation for the harsh realities of vocational ministry, students struggling to fit an often rigid program and course schedule into a life already packed full with multiple commitments and, last but not least, laity who question if the seminary has taught their new minister anything at all (Farley, 1983). Messer (1995) examined multiple graduate theological schools and identified four primary purposes that guide seminaries in the preparation of men and women for vocational ministry. The four most common purposes are: transmitting theological knowledge, developing professional skills, promoting personal and social growth, and fostering a deeper Christian commitment to service through spiritual formation. In order to better understand the strengths and challenges graduate theological education faces today it is helpful to review its history and background. Background of Graduate Theological Education People have understood the value and need for theological education for literally hundreds of years. The Roman Catholic Church established the need for a seminary in every diocese during the Council of Trent, which took place between 1545-1563 (Judin, 1957). This decree did not create the graduate theological school as known today. Rather, it was not until the early nineteenth century that Andover and Princeton, in 1808 and 1812, respectively, launched theological seminaries that required three or four years of undergraduate education before admission would be granted. Jackson (1997) argues that 16 people bf general to under Hence. 5 force stu Tl three pre called th During tl reading set the 5 into its c model, a second Sevem iOCUse single chair a); COHCen! This p r provideC rather ,. f"Jillilio people began to recognize the value of ministry candidates having a “broad general background of studies in contemporary arts and sciences enabling them to understand the life and times in which ministry is to be delivered” (p. 513). Hence, seminaries began to build upon the liberal arts education rather than force students to select one against the other. The nature of graduate theological education has found itself falling into three predominant periods. The first period emphasized pious Ieaming, and is called the pious or divinity period (i.e., Harvard in the late seventeenth century). During the divinity period, everything was “ordered toward divinity, toward reading and understanding sacred Scriptures” (Farley, 1983, p. 9). Three events set the stage for the close of the pious or divinity period: the separation of divinity into its own discipline, the creation of the post-college theological education model, and the rise of denomination specific graduate theological schools. The second period, called the specialized period, began during the last half of the seventeenth century and continued into the eighteenth century. This period focused on specialized Ieaming. Institutions began to drift away from having a single person (often the college president) teaching divinity to having a division chair and ultimately additional specialized faculty (Farley, 1983). The third period concentrated on professional education and began during the nineteenth century. This period was more than an affinnation that graduate theological schools provided a professional education (similar to schools of medicine and law), but rather an education that focused on and prepared people for specific roles and functions in the local church. 17 intsde overhw Canadi aboutl quaner dxgna howev and m ofaHs thirty ( beeni numbe beeni duder exDec renew hens deu Graduate theological education has been experiencing multiple changes in its demographics. In 2005, the Association of Theological Schools listed just over two hundred and forty graduate theological schools in North America and Canada (up from 188 just a decade ago, 1998-1999 ATS Fact Book). Today about two-thirds of these graduate theological schools are Protestant, one- quarter Catholic, and the remainder being Orthodox (Banks, 1999). Five out of six graduate theological schools are connected with a specific denomination, however this number is decreasing with the rise of non-denominational churches and ministries. ln graduate theological schools associated with ATS only one-fifth of all students now come straight from college and three-fifths are over the age of thirty (Banks, 1999). The average age of the graduate theological student has been rising steadily over the past decade (in 2004 the average age was 38). The number of female students pursuing graduate theological education has also been increasing (some non-denominational schools are reporting 50% female student populations). These changing demographics along with the growing expectations of constituents are placing unique pressures for change and renewal on the very nature and activity of graduate theological education. The next section of this review will examine some of the specific calls for renewal in graduate theological education. Call for Renewal in Graduate Theological Education Significant funding (Niebuhr, 1957; Stackhouse, 1988) has been granted for research on graduate theological education and making recommendations for renewal. However, Ferris (1990) has argued these recommendations have 18 produce area to ‘ afienhor in grade educatii ( distanc (Delam traditior assumi lecture distan aDproe to be e gradu Taog instru mear Stage inforr Cont" c..l I produced little significant renewal or change in graduate theological schools. One area to which graduate theological education has failed to give adequate attention is online distance education. Very little has been written on the subject in graduate theological education and even less when compared to higher education in general (Amos, 1999; Cannell, 1999). Graduate theological schools that honestly consider implementing online distance education will have to explore some tough pedagogical questions (Delamarter, 2004; Hannum, 2002; Weimer, 2002). Since the inception of traditional theological education, a more teacher-centered paradigm has been assumed. Since the Reformation the classroom model of instruction has been a lecture-based model (Marsden, 1996). The structure and delivery of most online distance education programs begs the question, is a more Ieamer-centered approach more appropriate? Pat Davies (1999) says, “Learners themselves need to be at the center of our concerns” (p. 10). For far too long the emphasis of graduate theological education has been a teaching-centered paradigm. Barr and Tagg (1999) see the mission of higher education as no longer being one of instruction but rather “that of producing Ieaming with every student by whatever means works best” (p. 323). The teacher-centered model views the faculty member as the “sage on the stage.” The professor’s goal is to pass on or transmit his or her knowledge and information to the student. The Ieamer-centered model serves as a sharp contrast to the traditional teacher-centered model (Brown, 2000; Weimer, 2002). Cannell (1999) says online distance education can help force a shift in thinking 19 aboutt nettle 17) vocahc Adoph oane researr oane intheh ahenhe educat ouhfiar bforg denon demor Messe 90Ver mere Meg. about educational design by asking questions such as, “what do Ieamers know now, what do they need to know, and what conditions will facilitate learning?” (p. 17). Merriam and Caffarella (1999) suggest that adults are more interested in vocational and practical training than any other form of adult Ieaming (p. 253). Adopting a more Ieamer-centered approach may assist schools in implementing online degree programs (Delamarter, 2004). Delamarter (2004) has empirical research that demonstrates faculty who engage pedagogical changes in their online teaching tend to also change in how they approach teaching and Ieaming in their face-to-face classrooms as well. Another call for renewal in graduate theological education is for greater attention to the balance of theory and practice or between the task of theological education and the practice of ministry. Far too many theological graduates have outstanding theological skills but lack shepherding skills. The last call for renewal is for greater connection between seminaries and local churches or denominations. One would think this connection is natural; however, literature demonstrates it is often weak or non-existent (Banks, 1999; Fariey, 1983; Messer, 1995). One of the factors that can impact such changes is the governance of accreditation bodies, such at ATS. The next section will explore the relationships between accreditation and distance education. Accreditation & Distance Learning Institutions considering the implementation of online distance education programs have to be aware of the requirements of accreditation bodies (Milam & 20 Voor bodie dista Cane (ATE to th belo follox dista dista educ plani activ Quail dista lese. Voorhees, 2004; Swail & Kampits, 2001). Regional and specialized accreditation bodies have implemented a wide range of expectations and demands for online distance education. For graduate theological schools in the United States and Canada, the primary accrediting body is the Association of Theological Schools (ATS). The ATS Bulletin, a handbook focusing on accreditation standards related to theological education, outlines eight core areas that need to be addressed before an ATS school can offer an online distance education program. The following section will outline the eight areas identified by ATS standards for distance education. The first area focuses on the planning and evaluation of the online distance education program (Standard 10.3.2). ATS requires that online distance education programs be fully integrated into the institutional initiatives. This planning process should be collaborative and involving persons familiar and active in online distance education. The second area focuses on educational qualities (Standard 10.3.3). Schools must be able to demonstrate how the online distance education program will meet the standards of Ieaming, teaching, and research described in the ATS standards for degree programs. The school also needs to develop a system that will monitor the number of online distance education courses a student completes. Online distance education courses and programs must provide “sufficient interaction between teachers and Ieamers and among Ieamers to ensure a community of Ieaming” (Bulletin, 2005, p. 185). ATS standards also expect that development and assessment of online distance 21 educalll librariar (Send; residen appHed provide interact area to need tc and pn“ needs: librarie: 10.3.6; ensure facilita staff (A, the S‘jfil The s | demcl prOVir faCuit education programs will be a collaborative effort involving faculty, administration, librarians, technical support staff, and students. The third area deals with the teaching, Ieaming, and curriculum enterprise (Standard 10.3.4). Online distance education courses must conform to the residency requirements of the degree program to which the courses will be applied. Institutions also have to demonstrate that distance education programs provide sufficient opportunities for collaboration, personal development, and interaction among other students in a healthy community of Ieaming. The fourth area focuses on library and information resources (Standard 10.3.5). Institutions need to provide access to the campus library, including both electronic resources and print holdings. Libraries of other institutions will only be allowed to meet the needs of distance education programs when written agreements with those libraries outline sufficient availability and adequacy of resources and facilities. The fifth section covers technological and support services (Standard 10.3.6). ATS defines sufficient technology support as those services which ensure that faculty are “freed to focus upon their central tasks of teaching and facilitating Ieaming” (Bulletin, 2005, p. 186). Technological support must provide staff with adequate training and skills in online distance education and oversee the systematic evaluation and upgrading of technological resources and services. The sixth area focuses on faculty (Standard 10.3.7). The institution must demonstrate that an appropriate number of full-time faculty are available to provide leadership to the online distance education program. When hiring new faculty or adjunct faculty for online distance education programs the graduate 22 theokx goverr dgntk and O\ dhos quath taitn and rr (Slant repree and pi technr panti onine advisi VOCaIi Stan: adntl unde tqu suhi theological school must adhere to the same procedures and qualifications that govern the total institution. Standard 10.3.7.3 states, “full-time faculty shall have significant participation in and responsibility for academic development, teaching, and oversight of distance education (ensuring that the institution’s goals and ethos are evident, the program is rigorous, and the instruction is of a high quality)” (Bulletin, 2005, p. 187). Institutions also need to provide sufficient training in the use of technology, instructional design, pedagogical strategies, and modes of advisement appropriate to online distance education programs. The seventh section focuses on admissions and student services (Standard 10.3.8). This section addresses the need for institutions to accurately represent the online distance education program in recruitment efforts, services and publications. Promotion of the program must accurately describe the technology used and “the technological ability, skill, and access needed to participate in the program satisfactorily" (Bulletin, 2005, p. 188). Students in the online distance education program must also be provided with appropriate advising and administrative support, technological support, program and vocational counseling, financial aid, academic records, and ministry placement. The final section is administration, governance, and finance (10:3.9). Standard 10.3.9.1 states, “programs shall have appropriate structures and administrative procedures that are well defined, published, and clearly understood by all units of the institution” (Bulletin, 2005, p. 188). This section also requires institutions with online distance education programs to demonstrate that sufficient financial resources are budgeted to ensure educational quality of the 23 prog forr rjeg: chste (five unde unpt oflie pnog bfisr poss centL NONh (pad INOg exah program. The goal of the ATS standards is to provide a common understanding for member institutions of the kind and quality of academic work involved in a degree program. One can clearly see that the development and maintenance of an online distance education program is no small task for an ATS accredited institution. Given these high standards the benefit of this study will provide greater understanding of the process by which some graduate theological schools have implemented online distance education programs. This information will assist other graduate theological schools as they explore the implementation of such programs or move through the implementation process itself. The next section of this chapter focuses on distance education literature. Distance Learning Literature Online distance Ieaming has been considered by many to be one of the possible watershed developments in higher education during the twenty-first century (Baldwin, 1998; Batson & Bass, 1996; Delamarter, 2005; Dolence & Norris, 1995; Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Johnson, Hanna, & Olcott, 2003). While some graduate theological schools have implemented online distance education programs they represent the exception, rather than the norm. This section examines the development and history of online distance education, the significance of the “no significance” literature, faculty and administrative tensions regarding online distance education, future challenges, and the potential benefits of implementing online distance education programs. Implementing an online distance education program is a daunting task for any institution. The task is 24 equally, ti guideline. l schools tr‘ distance e | history of M 0 distance e Open Uni ' and the ce officially re College or authorizat Students ( Illtensive t founding ; co”93mm Never bell. 1933 the F argUe that Only truly ( The generatlor equally, if not more, challenging when an institution falls under the specific guidelines of ATS standards. More research is needed on graduate theological schools that have successfully completed the trek of implementing online distance education programs. The next section will review the development and history of online distance education. History of Distance Education Moore and Kearsley (1996) outline the following three generations of distance education: the correspondence study generation as evidenced by the Open University in the 1970's, the broadcast and teleconferencing generation, and the computer and the intemet generation. In the United States, the first officially recognized education by correspondence was through the Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts (Cannell, 1999). The Chautauqua College was granted authorization to grant distance education degrees by the state of New York. Students completed correspondence work during the academic year and intensive face to face courses during the summer. William Rainey Harper, the founding president of the University of Chicago, originally included correspondence study as one of the five coordinate colleges. Harper however, never believed correspondence study was a substitute for oral instruction and by 1933 the program was disbanded (Cannell, 1999). Delamarter (2004) would argue that most graduate theological schools that offer distance education are only truly offering the equivalent of a correspondence study course. The second generation was the broadcast and teleconferencing generation. During the beginning of the twentieth century almost two hundred 25 Ame 2004 ofier founr (Bow vane tie” dowr interr Hbrar thatf ofiem use“ 2001 afieg deem Syde and SIUd i degl conr has American radio stations aired distance education courses (Bower & Hardy, 2004). Western Reserve University was the first institution in the United States to offer regular distance education courses over the television. The third generation found its inception in the rapid growth and development of the intemet age (Bower & Hardy, 2004). Computers and the intemet provided opportunity for a variety of asynchronous (i.e., email and threaded discussions) and synchronous (i.e., chat sessions) communication to take place. These new technologies broke down the barriers of connecting student to student and student to faculty. The intemet has also provided students at a distance with access to class materials, library holdings, and the latest research. In 2000, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) estimated that fifty-six percent of two and four year Title-IV degree granting institutions offered distance education. Public institutions were much more likely to offer distance education than private schools (89% compared to 40%). In the 2000- 2001 academic year, NCES estimated that 2,876,000 students enrolled in a college-level credit granting distance education course. Keegan (1996) says, distance education has become “a valued component of many education systems and has proved its worth in areas where traditional schools, colleges and universities have difficulties in meeting demand” (p. 4). While the number of students enrolled and institutions offering distance education courses and degrees is growing rapidly, many questions are still unanswered for some concerning the quality of distance education. A significant amount of literature has emerged over the last several decades that argues the outcomes of online 26 learn next ygrfi Ckfii Phfifi [3flh9r techr thatt educe educe IhBIN onhne that: quest what their msol Tech fimti Ieaming are no different than that of face to face instruction (Russell, 1999). The next section will explore what some are calling the “significance of no significance” literature. Significance of “No Significance " Literature The “no significant” literature finds a host of supporters (Cobb, 1997; Clark, 1994; Saba, 1999) and critics (Ehrrnann, 1995; Moore & Thompson, 1997; Phipps & Merisotis, 1999). Thomas Russell’s (1999) work The No Significant Difference Phenomenon is an annotated bibliography of 355 reports on technology for distance education. As the title suggests, these reports conclude that there is no significant difference between face-to-face and most of distance education. Some reports even state that when a difference does occur, distance education emerges as the leader. Many (Ramage, 2002 & Twigg, 2001) argue that this literature is asking the wrong questions. Rather than asking simply if a difference exists between online teaming and face to face Ieaming, Twigg (2001) prefers to ask questions that, she says, get more to the heart of the distance Ieaming issue. Her first question is, what are our assumptions about online distance Ieaming? Second, what are the strengths of multiple Ieaming approaches? Last, how can we use the information we have gathered from the first two questions to more adequately resolve some of the online distance education issues? After asking these questions to Pew Symposium on Learning and Technology participants, Twigg’s (2001) analysis resulted in four themes. The first theme is that faculty will need to move towards a more Ieamer-centered 27 model duden bedor with th benefit coukit asopp aboutl i48).t educat Ejust. abund; What p VVfiht incorp Educa Currie surfa SOme hshr model to fully realize the benefit of online distance education. Second, to improve student teaming, institutions will need to spend more time focusing on what can be done with technology rather than what cannot be done. The third theme deals with the access. Greater access is afforded with the anytime and anyplace benefits of technology. The last theme argues that online distance education could possibly be a more cost-effective means for increased student enrollment as opposed to building or expanding the traditional classroom. Delamarter and Brunner (2005) correctly state, “informed observers talk about the potential of distance education and not the guaranteed outcome” (p. 148). No one is arguing that it is not possible to create a very bad online distance education course; many such courses exist. But one needs to also confess that it is just as possible to create a very bad face-to-face class, and the evidence is abundant that many such courses exist. The conversation needs to focus on what pedagogical methods stand out as models of best practices (Clark, 1994). With these models of best practice, one can then determine if technology can be incorporated to enhance the Ieaming to an even greater degree. Higher education has a long history of unique tensions: cost issues, funding issues, curriculum issues and pedagogical issues. These same issues continue to surface in online distance education conversations. The next section examines some of these unique challenges. Unique Challenges Bates (2000a) outlines several unique challenges that will accompany institutions as they implement new technologies, such as online distance 28 edL nev car ma is it edL par the nee Ies orie upr ins hai Ins but fun afg Re the education programs. The first challenge is the high cost typically associated with new technologies (Bates, 2000). However, he does argue that new technologies can provide improved cost-efficiencies by providing access to untapped student markets and creating more cost-efficient models of Ieaming. A second challenge is teaching and Ieaming need to be reexamined. Many institutions in higher education are based upon a classical paradigm of teaching. This teaching paradigm does not succeed often times outside the face-to—face environment of the traditional classroom. A third challenge is graduate theological schools will need to transition to more post-industrial forms of organizational structure (i.e., less hierarchical and bureaucratic, more collaborative, and more globally oriented). A fourth challenge is the faculty reward and tenure structure need to be updated to reflect the value of using technology and new Ieaming models both inside and outside the classroom. A fifth challenge is faculty and institutions will have to be diligent in understanding and complying with copyright law. Institutions will have to negotiate with not only those who develop online courses but also with the publishers of the resources used in online programs. A sixth challenge is funding. Many graduate theological schools lack funding to implement and offer online distance education programs. Bates (2000) argues that funding is one of the biggest levers for change. Institutions will need to seek new funding through grants, technology fees, and reallocation. Reallocation is one of the most significant statements institutions can make about their commitment to developing online distance programs. Reallocation also 29 bec TBS lou nee sec thir hai dis rep lax Hie on sin me Te; en becomes one of the most controversial because it attempts to generate resources for new initiatives from budgets that are already over taxed. The seventh challenge in graduate theological education is the historic commitment to the classical paradigm of teaching. Delamarter (2004) outlines four major parts of the “classic paradigm” of theological education: first, students need to be fully immersed for at least three years in theological education; second, the immersion must be in a full time resident program (face to face); third, the primary model of teaching is lecture-based; and fourth, students must have physical access to an on campus library. Although some graduate theological schools advertise that they offer distance education, the reality is often nothing more than the “classic paradigm” repackaged with some form of technology. Delamarter (2004) has developed a taxonomy that helps break down how distance education has been implemented. His taxonomy looks at distance education through the grid of three stages. Stage one is when theological educators supercharge some aspect of the classic teaching paradigm with technology. Stage one can be seen when technology is simply brought into the classroom to replace overhead transparencies with modern PowerPoint slides (complete with flashy animations). Stage two starts to emerge when graduate theological schools attempt to replicate, what they have always done in the classroom, in some electronically enhanced way. One example of this model could be when seminaries use courses provided by the Institute of Theological Studies (ITS). These courses for many years were nothing more than classic “face to face” lectures simply 3O deliver recent engag that th were i educa attemr the tor can be benefi classr theolc the to eSialit. more Cours When and, team C0er into delivered in either audio cassette, or more recently, compact disc format. Only in recent years, because of ATS standards, have institutions required any level of engagement between the student and faculty or student to other student. Delamarter (2004) says, “when they [faculty] come to the stark realization that this new medium does not lend itself well to pedagogical approaches that were forged for the face to face classroom many give up and write distance education as pedagogically unsound” (p. 136). Stage three is when seminaries attempt to engage the online distance Ieaming experience and wrestle through the tough pedagogical questions. When done effectively, the result in stage three can be online courses that are pedagogically more Ieamer-centered. One added benefit is that many times these faculty go back into their face-to-face classrooms and incorporate some of the new pedagogical changes. Graduate theological schools that have implemented online distance education courses list the following advantages: 1) online distance education provides a more egalitarian environment than the live classroom (i.e., students report they are more comfortable and confident to speak up and express themselves); 2) online courses provide a more reflective atmosphere than the real-time environment where students often blurt out poorly crafted statements in the heat of discussion; and, 3) they argue that online courses lend themselves more to collaborative Ieaming (Delamarter, 2004). Making the move from face-to-face teaching to online distance education courses is no small transition. Many objections are raised and they typically fall into one of four categories. The first argument is the financial/stewardship 31 categOr)l scarce Tl sociolog can repr Pedagor like “this teaching “I with the it impos to note, in one I develo; mmmc educati mmec deIIVen efoess and oft faculty Anita category. Administrators and faculty say things like, “we cannot use already scarce resources on untested delivery systems.” The second argument is the sociological argument. Opponents say, “there is no way a virtual environment can reproduce what takes place in the classroom.” The third argument is the pedagogical argument (Delamarter, 2004). Those presenting this view say things like “this doesn't meet our institutional or accreditation body standards for good teaching.” The final argument is a theological argument. This argument often deals with the value of community and how being separated by space and time makes it impossible to have true biblical community (Delamarter, 2004). It is interesting to note, however, that the Apostle Paul rarely spent more than six to nine months in one location, yet through the technology of the day, written letters, assisted in developing the foundation of a community that still exists to this day. One of the common challenges faced by institutions during the implementation of distance education is faculty and administrative tensions. The next section will explore some of these unique hurdles. Faculty & Administrative Tensions While administration has called for the development of alternatively delivered courses and programs, one of the key constituents that have expressed concern regarding this change is faculty. Faculty have been hesitant, and often rightly so, to embrace the recent trends of administration to push faculty to create online distance education courses. Many faculty agree with Anita Gandolfo (1999) when she expresses concern that “while the effective use 32 dtech use wil vduee change semor memb skfius and al Roger addre things bnger mode Thom tearee thath DlOgr HOWW the Si cleanS COUrs of technology has the potential to improve and enhance Ieaming the ineffective use will result in adding great cost to an already expensive enterprise without any value added” (p. 24). Johnson, Hanna, and Olcott (2003) have stated that many change attempts have failed because administration has “overlooked the role of senior faculty as change agents” (p. 156). Identifying and involving senior faculty members as change agents is one of the key steps in helping to break down the status quo. If senior faculty, specifically, and faculty in general, are not involved and allowed to help guide the change process, they most likely will become what Rogers (1995) calls resisters. Some have concerns that distance education is simply a quick fix to address the changing needs of students. Today’s “instant minded” culture wants things delivered not only right away but also their way. Higher education is no longer exempt from this type of thinking. Some have asked if the traditional models of higher education lack the flexibility needed in our modern age (Chute, Thompson, & Hancock, 1999). The distance education solution, however, is feared by many faculty to have a very costly consequence; that consequence is, that higher education is weakened, and students receive a sub par education. Faculty want answers to questions like: who will develop the courses and programs? Once the courses are developed, who will own and deliver them? How will faculty be compensated for the development of the courses? What will the shelf life be of these courses? In what ways will online distance education change the faculty profession, and will faculty receive a royalty each time the course is delivered (Bates, 2000b; Daniel, 1996)? These concerns are justified 33 and ne' educati that ad distanc constitr chaHer The ne distanc Althoui Bates. Gumpe providi is that studeh Online divide" theolog access theOIOS place it and need to be heard and addressed before faculty will embrace online distance education. While the issues are beyond the sc0pe of this paper, it suffices to say that administration and faculty need to work harder to collaborate on how distance education can effectively be used to reach its current and future constituents. Although online distance education programs have serious challenges connected to their implementation, they also bring potential benefits. The next section will address some of the benefits commonly associated with distance education. Benefits of Distance Learning Distance Ieaming is changing higher education in significant ways. Although many would argue these changes are negative, many (Aragon, 2001; Bates, 2000b; Bower & Hardy, 2004; Delamarter, 2005; Ehrrnann, 1998; Gumport & Chun, 1999; & Twigg, 2001) would also say distance teaming is providing some unique benefits to higher education. One of those clear benefits is that it can provide greater access. Access in terms of the total number of students served and in terms of the diversity of students allowed to participate. Online distance education is one of the few ways to help bridge the “digital divide” between the haves and the have-nots (Bower & Hardy, 2004). In graduate theological education specifically online distance education programs provide access to those engaged in full time vocational ministry that cannot relocate for theological education. Online distance education allows graduate theological education to take place in one of its best environments, a student’s current local church. One is 34 hard 9‘ reduce toieafi dasse educat educa‘ immec expenr filCOD' schoo model safisk produi |aw,a PUTSUe fiuder 0DDOr COurse begun deliver dgnmc hard pressed to argue that online distance education programs would not help reduce the trauma families and churches often face when men and women have to walk away from current ministry commitments and relocate in order to attend classes in a face-to-face resident program. Delamarter (2005) says distance education “provides the best possibility for a truly contextualized theological education, applying lessons Ieamed in the educational environment directly and immediately to the ministry contexts, and vice versa, bringing current ministry experience to the educational context” (p. 54). Online distance Ieaming also provides an opportunity for faculty to engage in conversations about teaching and Ieaming pedagogies. If graduate theological schools began to incorporate new Ieaming paradigms with the current classical models, the result would most likely be improved student Ieaming and satisfaction (Dolence, 1995). Leamer-centered pedagogies will also help produced more self-directed Ieamers. Unlike in other professions (i.e., medicine, law, and elementary and secondary education), many clergy do not typically pursue formal continuing education. Online distance Ieaming not only helps students become more self-directed in their teaming, but it can also open new opportunities for graduate theological schools to offer continuing education courses. This section explored the history of online distance education from its beginning of correspondence courses, to the current generation of online courses delivered by the intemet. The section continued by identifying some of the significant areas that create not only challenges but also new opportunities for 35 wwmé opport esues inufien ltenfie educa overt chang ofche and c anare Chan com; Chan tNovi thati irTlple Olga lfius: serving the changing needs of graduate theological education. With these new opportunities graduate theological schools are faced with a complex web of issues concerning how an institution can move through the change processes of implementing an online distance education program. The next section reviews literature on organizational change in general and how it applies to higher education specifically. Organizational Change Literature The literature concerning organizational change has matured significantly over the past several decades. In the section that follows, a brief history of change literature will be traced and conclude with some of the unique elements of change found in higher education. The next section will review the major terms and concepts related to change. Next, several models of organizational change are reviewed and the chapter concludes by examining the Mobile Model of Change developed by Eckel and Kezar (2003). The Mobile Change Model is a comprehensive model for change that consists of five core elements to facilitate change and fifteen supporting strategies. Such organizational change literature provides a helpful lens from which to better understand and discover the factors that influence the change processes in graduate theological schools as they implement online distance education programs. Brief History of Change During the twentieth century, practitioners have posited that personal and organizational change follows predictable patterns or stages (Bridges, 1990; Musselwhite, 2003; Scott & Jaffe, 1988). The assumption is that if one can 36 recognize about and of these it between t! Mu but conclc ingredient preference lacking. Tl environme (Bimbaurr Table 2.1; K r ix j Lewin m l KUbIer-I we recognize and understand these patterns, they will be more effective at bringing about and managing change. Musselwhite (2003) traces the history and stages of these models and provides a chart (Table 2.1) to help outline the similarities between the various models. Musselwhite (2003) sees value in identifying the various stages of change but concludes that the previous models lack a key ingredient. The lacking ingredient is the impact of our “personalities and personal and cognitive preferences” (p. 63). This researcher also sees a second ingredient that is lacking. That ingredient would be an understanding of how the culture and environment itself impacts the change process and the people involved (Bimbaum, 1988; Bolman & Deal, 1997). Table 2.1: Brief History of Change Models (Musselwhite, 2003, p. 66) Stages of Change Past FUture Lewin . . . (1947) Unfreezrng Movrng Refreezrng Kubler-Ross . Anger/ Bargaining / (1 969) Denial Depression Acceptance Bridges . . . (1980) Letting go Neutral zone New beginnings Janssen . . (1 982) Denial Confusron Renewal Contentment Scott 8e Jaffe in Denial Resistance Exploration Commitment (1988) Spencer & Losing focus / . Sense of Adams minimizing The Pit teleziihngligrlncit/s meaning /full (1990) impact 9 integration gaggilwhlte Acknowledging Reacting Investigating Implementing 37 vanou indhdd acknO' acknO' hansn dfinku leader These peopk says,r tthNI and v; becon Dde QUesfi reactie Open” enthus iUtUre peODk Musselwhite (2003) developed a four stage model that not only tracks the various transitions people move through during change but also incorporates the individual’s unique personal and cognitive preferences. The four stages are: acknowledging, reacting, investigating, and implementing. In stage one, the acknowledging stage, people become cognitively aware of the change or transition and may face emotional reactions such as: shock, denial, slower thinking, distractibility, and the feeling of being threatened. During this stage leadership is primarily providing information. In stage two, the reacting stage, people often react with strong emotions. These emotions may include: anger, withdrawal, depression, and resistance (i.e., people may determine they will try to wait out the change). Musselwhite (2003) says, many “leaders would prefer to skip this stage of the change process” but this would be more damaging than helpful (p. 67). If leaders fail to see the natural and valuable effects of allowing people to react to the transition, this stage often becomes the focus and stumbling block of the change initiative. Leaders need to provide emotional support during this stage and allow people to ask the tough questions (i.e., What are the consequences of this change for. . .?) The third stage is the investigating stage. During this stage typical reactions may involve people: tentatively exploring the value of change, an openness to new possibilities, an exploration of opportunities, or excitement and enthusiasm. This stage often represents a transition from a past orientation to a future orientation. During this stage, leaders need to provide encouragement as people explore the new possibilities of change. The final stage is the 38 implemé rdnfince responS newroc hekfing hiuma argues. Koheri (cognhi woukl: confine mews bqu a tour ct haan deckfi Senou (i.e., [ deVele how u implementing stage. During this stage, leaders need to present facts that reinforce the change initiative and help people fully embrace the new responsibilities. Typical reactions during this stage may be: the establishing of new routines, the adapting to new systems, teaming new skills and behaviors, helping others team new ways, or gaining a more optimistic perspective of the future. In Leading Change, Kotter (1996) identifies an eight-step process, that he argues, every organization must go through to achieve its goal. The first step Kotter identifies is establishing a sense of urgency. People need to both know (cognitive) and feel (emotive) the urgency of the crisis or problem at hand. Kotter would argue that people often lose direction and hope unless change agents are continually providing rational facts and providing emotional motivation to keep at the task. The second step is creating a coalition. In this step change agents need to build a coalition of change team influencers. Kotter (1996) outlines the following four characteristics that are essential for effective coalitions: position power (i.e., having key players that hold key positions); expertise (i.e., in terms of the discipline itself and work experience); credibility (i.e., if the coalition is to be taken seriously the group participants need to have solid reputations); and leadership (i.e., proven leaders to drive the change process) (p. 57). The third step involves developing a vision and strategy. People need to know where they are going and how they will get there. Kotter (1996) outlines six characteristics of an effective vision. The vision must be: imaginable (i.e., show a realistic picture of the future); 39 desirable clear and communic The change vi have sugt days in or need to p examples and the s Th following worth it; 1 tune visir they kee Step iS C SEirisitiv SYSrtemsl C0mple ”BGd iCl “transf. mOnth desirable (i.e., appeals to interest of people); feasible (i.e., realistic); focused (i.e., clear and provides guidance); flexible (i.e., allows for changing conditions); and communicable (i.e., can be explained in less than five minutes). The fourth step is communicating the change vision (Kotter, 1996). The change vision needs to be restated and reframed over and over again. Some have suggested that a vision needs to be presented at least every twenty-eight days in order for it to be continually in the forefront of an organization. Leaders need to paint a picture or share a dream by using metaphors, analogies and examples. The fifth step is to empower others. In organizations both the people and the structures they work in need to be empowered to effect change. The sixth step is generating short-tenn wins. Kotter (1996) outlines the following benefits of short-term wins: 1) they provide evidence that sacrifices are worth it; 2) they reward change agents with a pat on the back; 3) they help fine- tune vision and strategies; 4) they undermine cynics and self-serving resisters; 5) they keep bosses on board; and 6) they build momentum (p. 123). The seventh step is consolidating gains and producing more change. Change agents must be sensitive to the structure and interdependence in the systems they are serving. In systems with independent parts, moving one part will be more feasible than in complex interdependent systems, like higher education, where multiple parts will need to be aligned before a transition can take place. Kotter (1996) says, “transformation can become a huge exercise that plays itself out over years, not months.” 40 to b mo: anc the che ch; pre ide CO 5? gr The final step is anchoring new approaches in the culture. Networks need to be created between the new activities and the existing culture or the changes most likely will not remain. Kotter (1996) outlines the following key features for anchoring change in a culture: 1) the change in culture comes last, not first; 2) the level of change in the culture depends on the results or success of the change; 3) changing culture takes a lot of verbal instruction and affirmation; 4) changing a culture may involve turnover of key people; and, 5) promotion processes need to be in alignment with the new practices. Michael Fullan (2001), the author of Leading in a Culture of Change, identifies five change themes that allow leaders “to lead effectively under messy conditions” (p. x). Fullan recognizes that society in general and higher education specifically is only getting more complex. With this increased complexity comes a greater need for leaders and organizations that can handle rapidly occurring, unpredictable, nonlinear change. Fullan’s five change themes are: moral purpose, understanding change, developing relationships, knowledge building, and coherence making. Fullan argues that moral purpose is only becoming more and more important in order for leaders to be effective. Kezar (2001) reflects that most of the higher education literature on change lacks an empirical foundation. Often the literature is nothing more than generalizations or the reflections of strong leaders. Kezar (2001) also criticizes many higher education strategies of change because they tend to focus on isolated, department-specific issues and fail to offer institution wide change models. Kezar (2001) outlines a list of “unique features” that must be considered 41 when It key fee at the unique distinc sectio chang month place them. they 80m Uni when looking at change in the specific context of higher education (p. vi). Those key features are: lnterdependent organization Relatively independent of environment Unique culture of the academy Institutional status Values-driven Multiple power and authority structures Loosely coupled system Organized anarchical decision-making Professional and administrative values Shared governance Employee commitment and tenure Goal ambiguity Image and success Higher education is often characterized as being highly autonomous and at the same time needing to function as an interdependent organization. These unique features of higher education create another layer that often provides distinct opportunities and challenges when trying to implement change. This section is helpful because it outlines the history of change and demonstrates that change is complex. Change is a process that occurs over time, typically taking months and even years to become fully engaged. Change also does not take place in a vacuum, it involves real people who bring emotion and passion with them. Change will only be successful if change agents, and the organizations they serve, understand these critical components. The next section examines some of the major terms or concepts related to change. Major Terms or Concepts Related to Change The literature on change has developed to a point that it has its own unique vocabulary. The following section considers some of the major terms that 42 have eme will be dis and seco Diffusion E\ innovatic among t! an impo Diffusior before a phase t' Theind The see about t phase in past phase. lnnov; the at Una idem COn have emerged in literature on change models or theories. The major terms that will be discussed are: diffusion, institutionalization, adaptation, first-order change, and second-order change or transformation. Diffusion Everett Rogers (1995) defines diffusion as, “the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time and adopted among the members of a social system” (p. 5). While diffusion can be considered an important part of the change process, it fails to serve as a change model. Diffusion typically focuses on various phases an individual must move through before adopting a new concept or initiative. The first phase is awareness. In this phase the individual is exposed to an innovation but only in a superficial way. The individual also lacks complete information about the change or innovation. The second phase begins when the person tries to collect more information about the change or innovation. The third phase is the evaluation. During this phase the potential adopter reflects on how the innovation may have been used in past situations and considers future experiences. The fourth phase is the trial phase. In this phase the adopter engages (often in only a limited scale) the innovation and considers the possibly of entering the final phase of adoption. In the adoption phase the individual determines if she or he will use the innovation on a large scale. One of the most helpful aspects of Rogers” (1995) work is that he identifies five adopter categories. The categories are helpful for leaders as they consider the impact various individuals will play during a change initiative. The 43 innovators E andconfion be early ad explore ne‘ often seen majority m group. The cautious : typically l innovatio lnstitutio lr because focuses mmnm plenan the ch Chang Adap the C hav ref innovators are the first category and they are described as venturesome, daring, and comfortable with a high degree of uncertainty. The second category would be early adopters. Early adopters are not large risk takers but they are willing to explore new ideas and programs. Early adopters are unique because they are often seen by the early and late majority as role models. The early and late majority make up the largest segment of adopters with thirty-four percent in each group. The early and late majority are typically defined as being deliberate, cautious and somewhat skeptical. The final group is the laggards. Laggards typically have their point of reference in the past and are highly suspicious of innovation or change. lnstitutionalization lnstitutionalization like diffusion is not considered a change model because it only examines a part of the change process. lnstitutionalization often focuses on the outcome of a change process. It can be discussed as a process that moves through three phases: 1) mobilization, how the organization is preparing for the change; 2) implementation, how the institution is coupled with the change; and, 3) institutionalization, how the organization implements the new change and incorporates the change into its culture (Kezar, 2001). Adaptation Adaptation typically deals with changes that are motivated from outside the organization rather than from within. Adaptation, however, does not always have to be reactive; it can be proactive (Cameron, 1991 ). Adaptation typically refers to a change process instead of focusing on a single or handful of change 44 events ( of man) Weick ( tightly c departr distribL forces; disrupt fallout First-o, secone DEFSpe adjust (2001; Chang eleme Den/a and Sec Der as. events (Cameron, 1991). Kezar (2001) points out how the loosely coupled nature of many higher education institutions allows for adaptability to function well. Weick (1983) outlines four advantages that academic organizations have that tightly coupled institutions do not. Those advantages are: 1) individual departments can adapt to changes rather than the whole organization; 2) the distributed nature of higher education allows for more sensitivity to external forces; 3) the diversified structure allows one unit to change without significant disruption to other units; and, 4) if a poor adaptation is untaken by one unit, the fallout does not impact the other units in a loosely coupled system. First-order Change Change can also be identified as being either first-order change or second-order change. F irst-order change is connected to the theoretical perspective called organizational development. First-order change involves minor adjustments and improvements in just a few elements of the organization. Kezar, (2001) states that much of the change literature in higher education is first-order change. Typically, first-order change does not have a deep impact on the core elements of an organization or its culture because it simply is not deep or pervasive enough. First-order change is often just incremental in nature (Levy and Merry, 1986). Second-order Change or Transformation Second-order change, also called transformational change, is deep and pervasive (Eckel & Kezar, 2003). Eckel and Kezar (2003) define transformation as something that “alters the culture of the institution by changing underlying 45 assumpl and per (p.17) change UI'ITBCC chang structi meer panad transf- condL and e order Tmns tiest chang Chang Chane 198,» tollc assumptions and overt institutional behaviors, processes, and structures; is deep and pervasive, affecting the whole institution; is intentional; and occurs over time” (p. 17). Transformation often needs different processes than other types of change. While transformation does not mean an institution will become unrecognizable it does involve deep and pervasive alterations to an organization. Argyris (1982) outlines the following characteristics of second-order change: 1) it is multidimensional or covering multiple layers of the organizational structure; 2) it is multilevel, meaning the change impacts individuals, teams, and the entire organization; 3) it involves double-loop Ieaming; and 4) it results in a paradigmatic shift of the organization. According to Eckel and Kezar (2003), transformation is when institutions “alter the way in which they think about and conduct their basic functions of teaching and Ieaming, scholarship and discovery, and engagement and service” (p. 17). Senge (1990) would argue that second- order change occurs more easily when preceded by smaller first-order change. Transformation often requires that people begin to think differently. People need to establish new meanings and new understandings before deep and significant change can fully take place. The next section will examine six core models of change that Kezar (2001) identified after a thorough review of literature on change. Models of Organizational Change Kezar (2001) notes that key change scholars (Burns, 1999; Goodman, 1982; Levy and Merry, 1986; Rajagopalan and Spreitzer, 1996) have studied the following four core concepts of change: 1) the why of change (forces and 46 wumes (proacti and 4) 1 key lite! modem cycle rr cuhura change organi; change and or as beir on the evoluti Dresse the eve the sci model ability . lacuna: the Che sources); 2) the what of change (degrees of change); 3) the how of change (proactive verses reactive, active verses static, and planned verses unplanned); and 4) the outcomes of change (target of change). Kezar (2001) reviewed the key literature on change and developed the following six major categories or models of change: 1) the evolutionary model; 2) the teleological model; 3) the life cycle model; 4) the dialectical model; 5) the social cognition model; and 6) the cultural model. The following paragraphs review Kezar’s (2001) six models of change. The evolutionary model, also known as the adaptive model, sees organizations as open systems. The main assumption of this model is that change is an adaptive response to core environmental factors that are external and or internal to the organization (Morgan, 1997). The evolution process is seen as being very deterministic and an organization's constituents have little influence on the change process (Kezar, 2001). One possible critique of trying to apply the evolutional model to institutions of higher education could be that, when hard pressed, institutions are much more “internally flexible and able to respond than the evolutionary model suggests” (Kezar, 2001 p. 32). The teleological model has also been referenced as the planned change, the scientific management or the relational model. The main assumptions of this model are that organizations have clear direction, are rational, and possess the ability to be adaptive. Change takes place because leaders or change agents facilitate the change process (CarneII, 1999). Similar to the evolutionary model, the change process is considered linear and based on a well reasoned plan or 47 course of mmwdua tdeokxfie systems based or the muc Manage model. v worked Jeanie organiz today's OmaM2 Shane- Educat course of action. The main difference with the evolutionary model is that key individuals, often key leaders, play a significant role in the change process. In the teleological model, key leaders or change agents play a central role in how social systems adopt change. Key leaders set a clear and distinct vision for the future based on rational assumptions. In this model leaders have the ability to allocate the much needed resources often necessary to accomplish change. Total Quality Management (TQM) and reengineering are current examples of this change model. While Frederick Taylor’s model of scientific management may have worked to some degree in the mechanistic age, it will rarely find success today. Jeanie Duck (1993) rightly concludes that failure will be the only outcome if organizations continue to try and superimpose mechanistic models of change in today’s post-modem, post-industrial culture. Many higher education organizations are trying to enact change by breaking problems down into the smallest possible pieces and managing a solution. Graduate theological education cannot be reduced simply to its smallest components, like a factory of machines and its gears. Higher education is much more holistic and non-linear. The teleological model has difficulty explaining second-order change (Kezar, 2001) The life cycle or developmental model finds its main assumptions rooted in studies of child development and focuses on stages of growth, organizational maturity, and organizational decline (Levy and Merry, 1986). Bolman and Deal’s (1997) human resource frame is a good example of the life cycle model. The 48 emo mod orge proe on t DTOI org die Bl' he change process takes place as the members of the organization begin to flex and adapt with the ebb and flow of the organization. Some of the recent models of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 2002) can be considered part of the life cycle model. Another key assumption of this model is that people throughout the organization, not just leaders or change agents, are critical to the change process. Based on this assumption, management allocates time and resources on the education and development of people in order to assist the change process. Levy and Merry (1986) see change as a natural part of human and organizational development. In the dialectical model, also known as the political model, change is understood in the framework of various clashing worldviews or belief systems (Morgan, 1997). Leaders work through networking, coalition building, and negotiation to bring about change. Change processes are considered from Bolman and Deal’s (1997) political framework and are based on bargaining, consciousness-raising, persuasion, building coalitions, influence and power, and social movements (Bolman and Deal, 1997). One significant critique of the dialectical models is that it tends to underestimate the influence of the environmental forces on the culture of higher education. The social cognition model is unique from the preceding models in that it has its foundation in holding to the idea that a single organizational reality is generally viewed by all people in a fairly similar way. In the social cognition model, change is seen as multifaceted, interconnected, overlapping series of complex processes (Kezar, 2001). Change is tied to Ieaming and evidenced 49 through cognnka theory r. agents: asthey behavic T natural Thhsnfi thatare tfiendi The ch. an org; 1992) Others theOrie lookin theon the 0 Thee C0m through mental models and sensemaking processes (Weick, 1995). Social cognition models such as Argyris' (1994) single-loop and double-loop teaming theory reflects that organizational Ieaming and change are key concepts. Change agents are encouraged to use multiple lenses or frames (Bolman 8: Deal, 1997) as they assist people in the organization to grow, team, and change their behavior. The last model is the cultural change model which sees change as a natural response in organizations due to alterations in the human environment. This model suggests that organizations are irrational, complex and have cultures that are always changing (Morgan, 1997). Kezar (2001) says, the cultural models “blend the assumptions of the social-cognition and dialectical methods” (p. 50). The change process in this model tends to be long-term and slow. Change within an organization entails alteration of values, beliefs, myths, and rituals (Schein, 1992). Change agents need to be people who can create a shared meaning with others in the organization through use of metaphors and symbolic action. This section has provided a brief review of the six main change models or theories. Each model has its own unique strengths and benefits (i.e., benefit of looking at change as a complex process in the political and social-cognition theories). Each model however, also has its own challenges and drawbacks (i.e., the overemphasis on stages of change in the life-cycle and evolutionary models). The strongest approach is to use multiple models or theories. The value of combining multiple models is that the user can account for the challenges of one 50 moc usir Ber edi to I cu! Tl“. de model with the strengths of another. The next section will review the value of using a multiple model approach. Multiple Frame Models Bolman and Deal’s (1997) reframing of organizations in general and Bergquist’s (1992) and Bimbaum’s (1992) models specifically for higher education, affirrn the advantage of using multiple models and frames when trying to better understand complex issues or problems. Bergquist (1992) identifies four cultural frames and suggests they coexist to varying degrees in each institution. The four cultures are: the collegial culture; the managerial culture; the developmental culture; and the negotiating culture. The collegial culture finds meaning in the same areas valued by faculty, namely research and scholarship. The managerial culture finds meaning primarily in the organization, implementation, and evaluation of work that is specific towards the institution’s goals and purposes. The managerial culture is very similar to the structural frame of Bolman and Deal (1997). The developmental culture finds meaning in the creation of programs and activities furthering the growth and advancement of all members of the community. The developmental culture values research and planning and is very similar to the human resource frame of Bolman and Deal (1997). The negotiating culture finds meaning primarily in policies and procedures that are equitable and fair for all involved (departments and people). The negotiating culture values confrontation and bargaining and is very similar to the political frame of Bolman and Deal (1997i 51 Bin Colleges similar to academic consenSL on the dir anarchic. coupled loosely-c political and Dee interest represe j. eXtema Unders‘ educat Chang lnstit SlUdy lnStif; Bimbaum (1988) identifies four institutional types in his work titled, How Colleges Work. The collegial institution is the first type. The collegial institution is similar to Bergquist’s (1992) collegial culture in that it values autonomy and academic freedom. In the collegial type institution, decisions are made by group consensus and only after all constituents have had ample opportunity to weigh in on the discussion. The bureaucratic institution stands in contrast to the anarchical institution. Whereas the bureaucratic institution is rational and tightly- coupled with rules and regulations the anarchical institution is non-rational and loosely-coupled. The bureaucratic institution is slow to change or adapt. The political institution is the final type and is similar to the political frame of Bolman and Deal (1997). The political institution is made up of coalitions and special interest groups that vie for organizational resources. Each institutional type represents a unique frame of reference on higher education. Higher education is complex and often resistant to change from internal or external constituencies. A multiple frame model is necessary in order to understand the intricate web of relationships and networks found in higher education. The next section will outline Eckel and Kezar's (2003) Mobile Model of Change. Mobile Model of Change Peter Eckel and Adrianna Kezar’s (2003) book, Taking the Reins: Institutional Transformation in Higher Education, is based on a five year research study funded by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation involving twenty-three diverse institutions working on change. The Mobile Model of Change is used as a 52 tart flit arc in t org eher cog; enfl cha onge seni deve shat schc thec metaphor for the balance and interconnectedness that is needed in a change process. Eckel and Kezar (2003) state, “only as a whole is the mobile functional; tipping any one part can upset the dynamic” (p. 148). The Mobile Model is built around five core strategies and fifteen supporting strategies. The model is unique in that it “requires multiple strategies happening concurrentlY’ in order to promote organizational change (Eckel 8e Kezar, 2003, p. 168). In the model one finds elements from the evolutionary, teleological, developmental, dialectical, social cognition, and cultural change models. The strength of the Mobile Model is that it embraces the complexity of change. The model is built on the understanding that change that is non-linear, multifaceted, and involves overlapping aspects of an organization. The five core strategies of the Mobile Model of Change are: flexible vision, senior administrative support, collaborative leadership, visible action, and staff development. Each core strategy has to work in harmony with the other strategies in order for deep change to take place. Thus, if a graduate theological school desires to implement online distance education it is possible that many of the core strategies will need to be in place and functioning correctly. Flexible vision is a vision “that is consistent and has a targeting direction, and yet is opportunistic and does not foreclose important opportunities” (Eckel & Kezar, 2003, p. 93). It provides each department and the institution as a whole with a clear sense of direction and purpose (Kotter, 1996). Vision needs to be development in a collaborative fashion and must reflect the institutional values and the shared beliefs. A flexible vision is one that allows each department or 53 divis Eckr with of ti COT ad fin division to maintain autonomy but also fit within an agreed upon framework. Eckel and Kezar (2003) found in their research that flexible vision can be created with a small group of senior leaders or as a cross-campus planning project. One of the key elements of the vision-creating process was offering multiple venues (i.e., periodic retreats, surveys, roundtable conversations, or informal conversations) for campus feedback. The second core strategy is senior administrative support. Senior administrative support provides necessary elements to a change initiative (i.e., financial resources, human resources, incentives, setting new priorities, communicating a clear plan and strategy, etc.). Senior administration can also assist by framing the change process without placing blame on individuals or departments. Senior administrators also can play a key role by providing validation and affirmation of the change process itself and key change agents. The third core strategy is collaborative leadership. Collaborative leadership is listed by Eckel and Kezar (2003) as “one the most complex strategies for institutions to initiate and sustain” (p. 86). Deep change takes place best when leaders from multiple levels within the organization collaborate. Collaborative leadership is parallel to Kotter’s (1996) second step of creating a coalition. Lucas (2000) and Lick (2002) identify collaborative leadership as essential in successful change initiatives. Eckel and Kezar (2003) identified the following set of conditions that needed to be present in order for collaborative leadership to flourish: 1) trust (between faculty, staff and administration and between departments); 2) recognizing, encouraging and reconciling diverse 54 opinior develo that we that vie inhahi 8CCOTT or pcs import was p (1996 gains Chang New : initiat 00mr and t proe 89C abtr opinions; 3) being open to challenge, criticism, and different ways of operating; 4) developing a common language and shared goals; and 5) teams or task forces that were truly representative of the campus constituents. The fourth core strategy is visible action. Eckel and Kezar (2001) noted that visible action can be varied depending on the institution and the change initiative. For some institutions, visible action will be celebrating the accomplishment of a goal, while for others, it may be the creation of a new office or position. The specific action was not necessarily important, what was important was the timing. Change agents were more successful when the action was promoted quickly and broadly. This core strategy is very similar to Kotter's (1996) sixth and seventh step, generating short-term wins and consolidating gains and producing more change respectively. The fifth core strategy is staff development. In order for an institution to change, often times the individuals in the organization will need to also change. New skills, behaviors, and new capacities will be needed. These development initiatives can either be campus wide or department specific. When an institution commits itself to the development of staff, a long term relationship is established and synergy is created. Eckel and Kezar (2003) also argue that deep change is a multifaceted process. Institutions desiring change need to recognize the importance of secondary strategies, balance and interconnectedness (p. 110). Although the five core strategies play a central role in a change initiative, they alone do not bring about deep change. Eckel and Kezar (2003) outline the following list of 55 secondary strategies that support the five core strategies of the change process (p. 1 10): Putting issues in a broad context Setting expectations and holding people accountable Persuasive and effective communication Invited participation Opportunities to influence results New interactions Changes in administrative and governance processes Moderated momentum Supportive structures Financial resources lncenfives Long-term orientation Connections and synergy External factors Outside perspectives Change does not occur in a linear lockstep process. Rather, interrelated components and strategies need to work congruently or in harmony to reinforce each other. Eckel and Kezar (2003) argue that “change leaders need to find ways to connect strategies and devise approaches that satisfy multiple objectives” (p. 120). One example of such interrelationships is how staff development can be linked with outside perspectives, communication, and connections and synergy. Flexible vision provides a second example when it is partnered with momentum, communication, and long-term orientation. With a total of twenty interrelated strategies, it is crucial for institutions to maintain multiple balances during their change initiatives. Keeping the balance betWeen internal and external perspectives, between faculty and administration, between long-temi progress and short-term wins, and between the new with the old, are all key concerns that change leaders need to keep in mind during a 56 cha twer and . Kezar integr within compl functit assist theolc Mobile involve Chang theolc theo . Char bac‘ change initiative. Change is difficult. Keeping balance of five core strategies and twenty supporting strategies can be a complex task that is overwhelming. Eckel and Kezar (2003) state, This pill of complexity may be a hard one to swallow when so many management texts and much administrative common wisdom call for highly rational, straightforward process. But the interactivity, synergy, and overlapping elements of the Mobile Model will help to bring about necessary deep and pervasive changes that we call transformation (p. 168). There are several benefits to using the Mobile Model of Change (Eckel & Kezar, 2003) for this study: 1) the model is comprehensive in nature; 2) it integrates multiple elements from the other models reviewed; 3) it was developed within the context of higher education; and 4) it asserts that change is often complex, multilayered, and takes place in a unique culture. This model will function as a lens to assist the researcher in better understanding the factors that assist and the forces of resistance that are present when some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. While the Mobile Model does provide multiple benefits none of the twenty-six institutions involved were graduate theological schools. This researcher is not aware of a change model that is based upon empirical research conducted in graduate theological education. Conclusion In summary, the following literature has been reviewed: graduate theological education literature; distance education literature; and organizational change literature. The graduate theological education literature provides a background for the unique challenges (i.e., moving from a classic teaching 57 paradig” that conf educatio pedagoc associat T unique t educatit approac (2003)l becau5e underst ofanin provide SUppon Otiline ( paradigm, ATS accreditation issues, etc.) facing graduate theological schools that consider implementing online distance education programs. The distance education literature outlines the unique challenges and possible benefits (i.e., pedagogical issues, faculty/administrative issues, financial issues, etc.) associated with online distance teaming programs. The organizational change literature provides a clearer picture of the unique challenges and complexity associated with change initiatives in higher education. The literature supports the value of using a multiple model or frame approach in a change process. The Mobile Model developed by Eckel and Kezar (2003) has been selected as the foundation for the conceptual framework because it is comprehensive in nature, builds on multiple models, and understands change as being complex, non-linear, and interrelated to the whole of an institution. The five core strategies and fifteen secondary strategies will provide a foundation that will assist the researcher in discovering the core and supporting strategies by which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. 58 the pro fdkn~h study c data. proce: impler distar educ: Educ befie (MCG educ theo 199 for On th CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY This chapter outlines the research method, the conceptual framework and the procedures that were used for collecting data. The chapter is divided into the following sections: statement of purpose; research design; population and case study description; procedures for collecting data, and procedures for analyzing data. Statement of Purpose The purpose of this study was to develop a rich description of the processes of organizational change through which a graduate theological school implemented an online distance education program. The number of online distance education programs offered by institutions of post-secondary higher education increased by 72% between 1995 and 1998 (U. S. Department of Education, 1997). Online distance education has allowed many institutions to better service the needs of students, especially the non-traditional student (McGreal, 1997). Although many institutions are engaging in online distance education, the pattern of implementation has not followed suit in graduate theological education (Amos, 1999). Of the 243 graduate theological schools in 1999 accredited by the Association of Theological Schools only 62 offered any form of distance education (Amos, 1999). The research questions that provided direction for this study were found in one main question and three sub questions. The main question was: What are the processes of organizational change through which a graduate theological 59 de bre 195 pro sct ha school implemented an online distance education program? The three sub questions were: - What are the key factors that assist graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - What are the key forces of resistance that hinder graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - How have some of the graduate theological schools that have implemented online distance education programs managed the tension between the factors that led towards and the forces that resisted the implementation of online distance education programs? Research Design The theoretical construct for this study will employ a qualitative research design. Qualitative research focuses on a more holistic approach rather than breaking a phenomenon apart into component parts to be examined (Merriam, 1998). Since the research question for this study focuses on understanding the processes of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs, a qualitative framework has been selected. To facilitate the collection of data, a case study research method was employed. Creswell (2003) outlines several advantages of using qualitative research. First, it allows research to take place in a more natural setting. Second, it is more emergent rather than “tightly prefigured”. Third, it is 60 more interpretive rather than objective. Fourth, it views social phenomena holistically (p. 181 ). The conceptual framework for this study was based upon the Mobile Model of Change developed by Eckel and Kezar (2003) in Taking the Reins: Institutional Transformation In Higher Education. This conceptual model was outlined in detail in the literature review chapter. The five core strategies of this model are: 1) flexible vision; 2) senior administrative support; 3) collaborative leadership; 4) visible action; and 5) staff development. Organizational change is not a phenomenon that is easily studied. The Mobile Model of Change provides a framework that embraces the complexity found in institutions of higher education. The conceptual framework helped inform the researcher. However, given the unique characteristics of graduate theological education, empirical research is needed to identify and understand the unique core strategies through which some graduate theological schools have implemented online distance education programs. Researchers (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2003) argue that one of the benefits of the case study design is that it allows the context to remain connected to the phenomenon that is being studied. In survey research within the quantitative design, the researcher is forced to limit the number of variables to be analyzed resulting often in the context being divorced from the phenomenon. In order to better understand what factors influence an organization’s process of change, the research will be better served by the more holistic approach of a case study. As identified by Merriam (1998), the goal of case study research is to generate, 61 'unde erE relev partic cons and l COOS local cons of TI State Davi me] Dav 130 me “understanding, description, discovery, and meaning” (p. 9). The empirical evidence for this study will be collected by conducting interviews and analyzing relevant institutional documents. The case study approach will allow the participants to share their knowledge of the change phenomenon as they have constructed it in the context of the organization (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Guba and Lincoln (1994) argue that in qualitative research, knowledge and meaning is constructed in the interaction between investigator and respondents. Population and Case Study Description The target populations for this study was graduate theological schools located in the United States and Canada. The case study for this research consisted of one graduate theological school fully accredited by the Association of Theological Schools (ATS). The school was located in the mid-westem United States. The graduate theological school will be identified throughout this study as Davis Theological Seminary. The name of the graduate theological school and the participants of the study have been changed for their privacy and protection. Davis Theological Seminary has a student population of around 180 with almost 130, or seventy-two percent enrolled in the Master of Divinity degree. The following criteria were used to identify the potential graduate theological school for the case study. First, the school needed to be a fully accredited member of the Association of Theological Schools. Second, the school was identified on the ATS website as offering distance education. Third, the school needed to have implemented a Master of Divinity degree program that is delivered in an online distance education format, allowing students to remain in 62 thete ATS I died (Ncne ATS : trogr wast Sent scho« Secc was r dhta lull p dsha their current vocation and ministry context. Of the sixty-eight schools listed on the ATS web site as offering distance education, eight schools met the above criteria. From these eight schools the researcher selected one “compliant" school (Note: A “compliant” school is when a graduate theological school meets all the ATS accreditation standards and criteria for offering online distance education programs and does not have any notations from ATS). The scope of the study was limited to one school due to feasibility, access, and budgeting limitations. The following factors supported the selection of Davis Theological Seminary. First, Davis Theological Seminary represents the average size ATS school having roughly two hundred students and thirteen full-time faculty. Second, Davis Theological Seminary, at the time the research was conducted, was only in its second full year of offering the Master of Divinity degree by online distance Ieaming. Third, following an ATS site evaluation the school was granted full preliminary approval to offer the Master of Divinity degree in an online distance Ieaming format. Eighteen individuals (i.e., faculty, administration, and staff) were interviewed at Davis Theological Seminary. The researcher attempted to identify key committees or individuals during the site visits and interviewed these participants as well. Morse (1994) states that a good participant is one who has knowledge and experience in the area of the researcher's interest. The individuals of interest to this researcher were administrators, staff, and faculty that have direct knowledge and interaction with the online distance Ieaming program at the graduate theological school. At Davis Theological Seminary the 63 researcher identified the director of distance teaming and the academic dean as key participants that could help with the selection of other participants, assist with access to relevant documents, and provided assistance in the logistics of the site visit. Merriam (1998) recommends using a diverse sample of participants in order to create multiple viewpoints to understand the phenomenon of study. The researcher interviewed the following people: the academic dean, the director of distance education, the director of information technology, three to four faculty members that teach regularly in the online distance education program, two or three faculty members that were resistant to teaching in the online distance Ieaming program, the associate director of the library, and other key individuals as identified during the research process. The faculty members were selected in collaboration with the academic dean. Steps were taken to ensure that the participants were diverse in regard to gender, race, faculty rank, length of tenure at the institution, and the level of direct involvement in the online distance education program. Procedures for Collecting Data For the purposes of this study, two primary data collection methods were utilized. The first method was, document review. The researcher reviewed institutional catalogs, the web pages of the school, the faculty handbook, general publications about the school, and specific publications about the online distance education program and courses. The purpose of reviewing institutional documents was to gain an understanding of the history, mission, core values, 64 pe wh imp dur me‘ the unti app dep imp und und The (Set people (intemat and external constituents), programs, and the processes by which the school implemented the online distance education program. The researcher used this information to create a timeline that visually outlines the implementation of the online distance education program. This timeline was used during the participant interviews to assist in the collection of data. Face to face interviews served as the second of the two data collection methods. The researcher practiced sound research guidelines in order to protect the identity of the participants in the study. The research process did not begin until the Michigan State University Human Subject Board (UCRIHS) granted approval. The interview method was advantageous because it allowed more depth in making sense of factors that encourage or forces that hinder the implementation of an online distance education program. Seidman (1998) understands interviews as an opportunity for people to tell their role and their understanding of the implementation of the online distance education program. The participant’s telling of their stories becomes “a meaning-making process” (Seidman, 1998, p. 1). Each interview lasted approximately forty-five to ninety minutes in length and were semi-structured in order to provide a framework to cover the areas of inquiry, yet also allowing emerging knowledge to direct the interview (Merriam, 1998). Each interview was audio recorded and the researcher took notes during the interview. Each interview was transcribed and coded in order to determine themes and constructs that could assist the researcher in better understanding what factors encourage or forces that hinder 65 the implementation of an online distance education program within a graduate theological school. A pilot interview was conducted prior to the formal research with an administrator at a local graduate school that was not part of the case study. The pilot interview provided several benefits. First, it provided the opportunity to evaluate the interview protocol questions for clarity and effectiveness. The pilot interview also allowed further experience for the researcher to refine his interviewing skills. Last, the pilot interview evaluated whether the conceptual framework was a good fit for the research project. The interview framework or probe questions were informed by organizational change literature and specifically the work by Peter Eckel and Adrianna Kezar (2003) in Taking the Reigns: Institutional Transformation in Higher Education. The sample interview protocol is provided in Appendix A. The goal of the interview protocol was to provide direction and ensure that key points are covered. The interviewer also asked probing questions based on subject’s responses in order to encourage deeper reflection and to check meaning. Procedures for Analyzing Data According to Merriam (1998) data analysis is “the process of making sense out of the data” (p. 178). The goal of the data analysis process is to construct categories or themes that will highlight or resonate with the key concepts of the research. The following procedures were used: - Key interviews were transcribed and transcripts were checked by the researcher against the recordings for accuracy. 66 LESI an - Data was then reviewed using the “category construction” process outlined by Merriam (1998). - Categories and subcategories were constructed through the “constant comparative method” of data analysis (Merriam, 1998, p. 179). Units of data were placed into these categories and subcategories. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) units of data must meet two requirements. First, it should be heuristic. Heuristic data is information that is directly relevant to the study and helps one reflect beyond the raw data itself. Second, the data should be independent or able to stand on its own. Merriam (1998) outlines the following characteristics of effective categories: first, they adequately reflect the purpose of the research; second, they are exhaustive; third, they are mutually exclusive; fourth, they are sensitizing; and fifth, they are conceptually congruent (p. 183- 184) The intent of this chapter was to provide: a review of the purpose of the research; an outline of the research design; a description of the population and case study; a framework for data collection; and guidelines for how data was analyzed. 67 l dgmfic adnini and pr educa educa pipo chang dhhfi tiss CHAPTER IV: PRESENTATION OF DATA Over the past decade online distance education has emerged as a significant issue of change facing institutions of higher education. Faculty, administrators and staff are wrestling with what role distance Ieaming courses and programs will serve at their institution. Although many institutions of higher education have been implementing such programs, graduate theological education as a whole has been somewhat resistant to such practices. The purpose of this research was to understand the processes of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. The research questions that provided direction for this study were: - What are the key factors that assist graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - What are the key forces of resistance that hinder graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - How have some of the graduate theological schools that have implemented online distance education programs managed the tension between the factors that led towards and the forces that resisted the implementation of online distance education programs? 68 add part cate thee Cate tha edt the ant Dre CO 0‘ An initial list of themes was derived from the interview protocol and additional themes emerged as the primary documents and the transcribed participant interviews were repeatedly examined for recurring themes. Three key categories were identified from the data concerning factors that assist graduate theological schools in the implementation of distance education programs. The categories were: - Motivating Factors - Initiating Factors - Confirming Factors Two key categories emerged from data concerning forces of resistance that hinder graduate theological schools in the implementation of distance education programs. The categories were: - Diminishing Forces . Persisting Forces The final section of this chapter addresses the question of how graduate theological schools have managed the tension between the factors that assisted, and the forces that resisted, the implementation of online distance education programs. After careful review of site documents and participant interviews, conclusive evidence was not able to be identified from the data that would produce categories for better understanding how graduate theological schools manage these tensions. Although key categories did not emerge, several observations will be made concerning how Davis Theological Seminary is attempting to manage the inherent tensions of implementing distance teaming. 69 Background of School and Participants Davis Theological Seminary (DTS) is a Midwest graduate theological school with approximately 220 students. The graduate theological school was founded in the late eighteen sixties and describes itself as an “evangelical and ecumenical community of faith and Ieaming”. The seminary was established to serve a denomination of roughly nine hundred churches in the United States, Canada, and the Virgin Islands. The first building was built in 1895 and consisted of five classrooms and a chapel. By 1919 the seminary reported to its denomination that it had four faculty chairs fully endowed in the amount of $40,000 each, and a fifth was to be established in the very near future. Today the school has an endowment of over twenty million dollars. Mission and Purpose DTS defines its purpose as the preparation of called people to lead the church in mission. The following four core values are espoused in various internal and public documents: professional ministry, theological study, community, and outreach. By professional ministry DTS emphasizes its professional degree, the Master of Divinity. This degree is structured within the context of on-site Ieaming and personal growth and formation for vocational ministry. Davis Theological Seminary, however, understands that ministry is more than skills and develops, in each graduate, critical biblical and theological competencies and an appreciation for history and the traditions of the church. DTS is proud of the community that is strategically developed between students, faculty, staff, and visitors through daily chapels, weekly communion, and a daily 70 morning break. These times of interaction allow open access between students, staff, and faculty. The final core value is outreach. The seminary houses a midday hot meal program to reach out to the local community and provides continuing education for congregational leaders throughout the denomination. Campus and Culture As people approach the campus of DTS, they are immediately impressed with the architecture of the main building which houses classrooms, a chapel, faculty, administration and staff offices, a bookstore, and several open meeting areas. The main building has seen multiple additions over the past century. However, even with these new additions, the construction has been done in such a way that one must look hard to see where the historical buildings end and the new construction began. It would appear that in the development of the distance teaming program the same approach was taken. The transition for most faculty, from providing just traditional face-to-face teaching to fully embracing distance Ieaming, has not been a dramatic and bold development, but rather a gradual process that continues to evolve. Published literature (i.e., admissions literature, academic catalog, etc.) at DTS clearly communicates that community is an espoused value at DTS. This value of community can also be seen in the allocation of space in the building. While the greatest amount of space is afforded to classrooms, the next largest amount of square footage is given to the chapel and then the atrium area. In both these spaces, students, faculty, and staff have multiple opportunities each week to engage in worship, formal and informal fellowship, and community building. 71 Given for lac learnt DTEi leave ongn haHs W ith' ofth The; schc ant ast COU out hi Given the high level of value placed on community and providing opportunities for face-to-face interaction one quickly understands why the idea of distance Ieaming, and its often perceived lack of community, was challenging for some at DTS. Given the layout of the campus, visitors and everyday traffic enters and leaves the building through the historical halls and entrances of one of the original buildings. Artwork and pictures of each graduating class adorn these halls and help connect current students with the rich heritage of the school. Within a few yards of a historic bell tower and large church steeple is a new state of the art high-tech classroom and faculty center that was completed in 2003. This main campus building serves as a powerful picture of the link between the school’s classic theological heritage and its commitment to leverage state of the art technology to accomplish the mission and purpose of the school. The atmosphere towards a visitor on the campus can best be described as being one of reserved or guarded friendliness. While people are polite and courteous, there often appears to be a level of hesitation or caution towards outsiders. This fades after the intentions of the “new person” are determined. While tension has historically existed between faculty and administration in higher education, at DTS a more formal hierarchy existed in the relationships between faculty, administration, and staff. These relationships seemed to appear as being very structured, with a high level of interaction within groups but a decreasing level of interaction between the groups. This decreasing level of interaction was most visible between faculty and staff. 72 Participants Today DTS has almost twenty full time faculty and almost ten people that serve in administrative and staff capacities. Eighteen participants agreed to be interviewed. The participants were equally represented by nine faculty members and nine administration/staff members. All participants interviewed were full time employees. The length of tenure ranged from less than a year to just over twenty-one years, with the average tenure of research participants being ten years. Table 4.1 provides a list of the participants including their role and the number of years they have been at the institution. Table 4.1: Participant Characteristics Participant Pseudonyms Role: Rank Years at Institution Richard Faculty 3 Years Gilman Faculty 17 Years Steve Administration/Staff 8 Years Elizabeth Administration/Staff 18 Years Matthew Administration/Staff 4 Years Esther Administration/Staff 8 Years Ivan Faculty 5 Years Bill Administration/Staff 19 Years Herb Faculty 7 Years Gail Administration/Staff 11 Years Doug Administration/Staff 12 Years Julie Administration/Staff 2 Years Jane Faculty 6 Months Dan Faculty 5 Years Ralph Faculty 16 Years Glenda Faculty 21 Years Goliath Faculty 19 Years Victor Administration/Staff 4 Years Distance Learning Program at DTS The distance Ieaming program was officially launched in the fall of 2003. However, planning and development for the program literally began years before 73 the first cohort logged on. DTS stated in its petition to the Association of Theological Schools (ATS) that the purpose of offering the distance Ieaming program was to fulfill the mission of the school and not to “shore up dwindling admissions or weak finances”. Headcount in the residential program is at an all- time high and the financial status of the institution is very strong. The following sections will provide a brief overview of the following key areas of the distance Ieaming program: development and planning, program structure, involvement of key shareholders and committees, and documented successes. Development and Planning The distance Ieaming Master of Divinity program was one of three “pathways of service” or key initiatives that was recommended by the board of trustees in February of 2001. These three initiatives were the result of strategic ‘ planning that took place in January of 2001. The planning process involved faculty, staff, board of trustee members and one student. The board of trustees outlined four reasons for implementing the distance Ieaming Master of Divinity initiative. First, the seminary believed future ministers in their denomination would benefit and prefer a DTS education. Second, having examined other graduate theological distance Ieaming programs DTS was committed to providing a significantly better program. Third, given the fact that many diverse ministry contexts (i.e., urban ministries, multi-ethnic ministries, church plants, etc.) cannot be found in the immediate area surrounding DTS, a distance Ieaming program would allow students to remain in these contexts while completing a graduate theological degree. Finally, distance Ieaming would 74 provide DTS a greater opportunity to establish deep relationships and partnerships with churches all across the country. The president and the board of thstee determined that a capital campaign was needed to raise sufficient funds for development and implementation of the new distance Ieaming Master of Divinity degree. Over eight hundred thousand dollars was raised to cover the initial course development and launching of the program. These development costs covered everything from new computers for faculty to new servers to run course management software. Distance Learning Program Structure The distance Ieaming Master of Divinity program is a 96 credit hour degree (the same number of credit hours and roughly the same courses as the in-residence Master of Divinity degree at DTS) that is delivered utilizing both online and face-to-face Ieaming. The purpose statement is identical to the in residence Master of Divinity program with one exception. The phrase “to utilize both asynchronous distance Ieaming and intensive face-to-face learning" has been added to the Master of Divinity distance Ieaming statement. The curriculum is built around two fourteen-week semesters and one nine- week fall term. The two fourteen week semesters include a two-week on-campus module that takes place during the middle of the semester. During the two-week intensive, up to frfty percent of the required contact hours are accomplished face- to-face. This hybrid model is a unique characteristic of distance Ieaming at DTS and assists in building a community of relationships between faculty and students and between students in the program. DTS argues the hybrid model enhances 75 adult teaming by providing the best of both face-to-face instruction and online collaborative teaming. Involvement of Key Shareholders & Committees The distance Ieaming program had significant support and involvement from the board of trustees, the academic dean, the director of the library, and several faculty members. The academic dean, who served until January, 2005, was the main visionary and champion for the program. The academic dean had served in his role for over a decade and held significant respect in the eyes of both faculty and administration. This respect and credibility served the academic dean well as he presented the argument for embracing distance Ieaming. In the spring of 2002, the director of distance Ieaming was hired. The new director was assigned to take the lead role in the distance Ieaming initiative and they brought experience in the development of non-traditional academic programs. After the director of the distance Ieaming program arrived, the next eighteen months were spent setting up policies and governance for the new degree program, updating faculty computers, selecting and installing an online Ieaming management system (ANGEL), assisting faculty with course development, and preparing documents for ATS preliminary approval for the distance Ieaming degree program. The main committee responsible for the development and implementation of the distance Ieaming program was the Distance Learning Committee. This committee was made up of four or five faculty and one or two staff members. Multiple faculty and staff members have served on the committee over the length 76 of its life. Participants described the committee as being collaborative but given clear leadership by the director of distance Ieaming. The distance Ieaming initiative also had to pass through the academic committee and then finally through the full faculty committee for approval. Several participants referred to the fact that while the distance Ieaming program passed through each committee several faculty members had significant concerns about the program. The culture at DTS also appears to be that faculty often take a “wait and see” position on new initiatives and reserve judgment until the program has proven itself successful. Documented Successes Although implementation of any major initiative has setbacks and challenges, DTS has experienced several documented successes during the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. One of the most significant successes for the program was the preliminary approval that was granted by ATS in June of 2005. ATS is scheduled to conduct a full site visit and program review in November of 2008. Another key success was having a full cohort of fifteen students kick off the first distance Ieaming semester in November of 2003 (see Table 4.2). The last key success, that each faculty participant referenced, was the quality of the teaching and Ieaming that is taking place in the program. Table 4.2 Distance Learning Program Enrollment Year New DL Total DL Total Full-time Total F uIl-time Students Students Faculty Support Staff 2003 1 5 1 5 1 5 8 2004 1 5 30 1 7 8 2005 1 2 42 20 9 77 The previous sections provided an overview of Davis Theological School in general and the distance Ieaming Master of Divinity program specifically. The sections that follow will outline two main areas. The first area will examine the three factors that assisted in the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. The second will explore the two forces of resistance to the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. Factors that Assisted Implementation The following section will outline the categories that emerged after a careful review of site documents and multiple reviews of transcripts from the participant interviews. Three core categories were identified that assisted DTS during the implementation of distance Ieaming. The first category is motivating factors. The motivating factors helped lay a foundation and provided a rational for why the institution should pursue distance Ieaming. The second core category was initiating factors. Multiple policies and processes merged to help initiate the implementation of the program. The final core category is confirming factors. Several second level themes emerged under each of the core categories and helped confirm the commitment to continue with the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. Motivating Factors Two key themes emerged and were identified under the core category called motivating factors. Motivating factors lead an organization to reflect and explore how they can best accomplish their mission. At DTS, the first theme was strategic planning. Each participant commented on how the strategic planning 78 process helped identify and provide credible motivation for the school to pursue distance Ieaming. The second theme that was identified focused on the issue of access. DTS was motivated to implement distance Ieaming in order to provide greater access to students that lived outside the Midwest area. The school was also motivated to consider distance teaming because the lack of access to DTS had caused some students from within the denomination to select of other non- denominationat schools. Strategic Planning At DTS each participant, whether faculty or administrative, specifically mentioned that strategic planning was a key factor in the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. Strategic planning is a process whereby an organization considers its core values, mission, and purpose, and reflects on how it will best accomplish its mission in the upcoming months and years. Bill, an administrator at DTS for almost twenty years, commented how the planning process helped DTS in understanding how to better serve the school’s constituents. He said: When we developed the last strategic plan, it was really one of three initiatives that really emerged out of that. It just emerged as we talked to community people, talked to [denomination] church people, talk to the Board and how to best serve the church. Other participants commented, the significance of the strategic planning involved the participation of both internal and external constituents. Ralph, a senior faculty member, referenced how the planning process focused on the mission and need 79 of the school and asked how distance Ieaming may help address current and future needs. Ralph said: A more administration driven model in which [senior level administrator] and I essentially drafted an initial document that sketched out what we believe were some key areas that we needed to address. We engaged first of all the faculty and the Board in conversation around those issues and began to formulate a set of objectives that might be emerging out of the internal conversations and then tested that with external constituencies. But, we really reversed the sequence of strategic planning from the direction that we had taken first. One of the issues that we put on the table in the second strategic plan was broadly the question of DL. We didn’t, in that initial stage, say that we think this is what we need to do and this kind of program but rather the broad strategic issues that l narrated to earlier were in that document and just kind of putting that before the school and saying that we are hearing a lot of interest and request in this and we think its consistent with our mission and we think it serves the church, and we think it’s a possibility we could do this. How should we respond to these emerging realities? So we stepped back a second and worked really hard, at rather than focusing on, programs to really focus on the mission and need. And broadening awareness around those issues with the school as part of the strategic planning process. Participants also described the planning process as a brainstorming session with time for meaningful reflection. The process involved members from the board of trustees, faculty, and one student, for a total of nine members. Doug, a senior administrator, said, “based upon our identity of who we were, what our basic mission was and then out of the mission statement came the church’s need [lack of pastors with graduate theological education]”. Listening to External Constituents. The strategic planning process was informed by the voice of external constituents. Gilman, a faculty member, commented that the distance Ieaming program “ came out of a consultation and strategic planning process and was really the push for a long time of the 80 denomination”. Esther, an administrator, also referenced the cry for distance education from external constituents when she said: As part of our strategic plan, about five years ago, we Ieamed that our denomination was asking for this. We teamed that some key players in the denominational structure were really clamoring for non-traditional mode of theological education delivery. The academic dean clearly was a main instigator in this. He was convinced that this is what we had to do. If we didn't do it, someone else would step in and we were going to lose the market. Now, we do see other seminaries coming into it. So he was probably right on that. Key pastors, administrators and bureaucrats within the denomination but also key pastors and congregations have influenced it. Steve shared a similar comment about listening to external constituents when he said: We engaged a [strategic planning] process of denomination-wide listening. We started with some intemat questions of where we’d be called and what kinds of things do we need to do, what kind of structures that needed to be in place, and how could we better meet the needs of the church in the next ten years. Then we took many of those questions outside our walls. We went to denominational leaders within the [denomination], donors, constituents, alumni, as well as non-donors. Out of that, grew some things that brought us to three initiatives [distance Ieaming, continuing education, and building expansion]. Planning Tied to Mission/Purpose of Organization. The mission statement of DTS is “to prepare Christians called by God to lead the church in mission”. Steve, a senior administrator, commented on how the distance Ieaming program grew out of the school’s desire to be faithful to its mission and purpose. He said: It really grew out of the desire to serve the church. It has potential to do other things for us down the road. The potential to increase the residential program and the potential to become a revenue stream. None of those were motivating factors but to serve the church. That has been the calling since 1866. In that regard, we’ve been true to that. 81 About three-quarters of participants commented on how the denomination was facing a possible shortage of pastors in the near future and that implementation of a distance Ieaming program was one way to address this need and still remain faithful to the mission of the school. Ralph was a key faculty member in the planning process and a strong supporter of the distance Ieaming initiative. One of the key motivating factors for him was how the distance Ieaming program could help DTS better serve the church. He said: I continued to believe that, broadly speaking, that the effort to try to develop a DL model to better meet the needs of the church. I was convinced that there was a real need for this. Was convinced that it was a faithful expression of our core mission, which is to serve the church and to contribute to the strength and renewal of the church. I continued to believe that some approach in DL was consistent with our core mission. I continued to have lots of conversations with folks within the institution about these questions. In the next year or two as we moved toward the strategic planning process. Issue of Access Throughout North American and Canada, Association of Theological Schools has approximately two hundred and fifty accredited graduate theological schools. While many of these schools are strategically located across the country, the issue of access can be a significant problem. Participants addressed the issue of access from two perspectives. First, many prospective students that would like to attend seminary are not able due to careers, ministry commitments, and family. Given these commitments, it is very challenging to relocate in order for a loved one to pursue formal theological education. Implementing the distance Ieaming program to address the issue of access was a key factor in 82 motivating DTS to pursue the program. In an admissions flyer one current student in the distance Ieaming program said: Being in this program is the most amazing thing I’ve ever done. I feel like I’ve waited all my life to be here. Without this distance Ieaming M.Div. I would not have been able to consider seminary at this time in my life. ...[DTS] has ensured the rigor of its M.Div. while expanding access beyond the local campus. Participants commented on the fact that it is difficult for many who want to pursue theological education to “uproot their families” and attend DTS. Jane, a new faculty member, said, “the question was how could the seminary serve these students that felt called... but who might not do it unless it was this way". Another segment of students that find great difficulty in pursuing graduate theological education are second career women, who sense a call to ministry, but are not able to make a geographical move because of commitments to spouses and children. Herb, a faculty member, referenced that not only the opportunity was ripe for implementing a distance Ieaming program but the school also had a duty to serve those without access. He said: I think the main persuasive point that came down from administration was that basically the church needs it. A big selling point for us is that there are students out there that were no longer able to attend in-residence. There is this market of students out there and we have a duty and opportunity to tap into that. The second perspective on the issue of access that participants commented on was the fact that many prospective students who desired to attend a denominational school were self-selecting a graduate theological school outside the denomination because access to DTS was limited. While these other graduate theological schools were viewed as educationally sound institutions, 83 many participants expressed concern about students attending seminaries of a different denominational affiliation and the impact this would have (i.e., on the denomination and DTS) in the future. Goliath, a faculty member, said, access and the fact that students were going to other seminaries helped initiate a desire to move fonrvard with distance Ieaming. He said: One factor that precipitated our moving more quickly was the situation in our denomination which was many of students in parts of the country were saying they couldn’t afford or didn’t want to come to [Davis] to study and they had been for years going to other seminaries. Herb, a faculty member, referenced the value of educating denominational pastor at denominational schools when he said: There are two aspects. On this topic there was quite a bit of give and take initially. There was a certain need for more ministers. Another thing in the denomination, is a rising need to offer seminary education to where they are. Another factor is that the rising of tendency of some of our students to go to non-denominational seminaries. To be trained and acculturated in ecclesiastical traditions than becoming [denomination] pastors has produced some disconnect. Initiating Factors Four themes were identified from participant transcripts that come under the core category of initiating factors. These factors helped start the implementation process at DTS and built momentum. The first theme was the creation of new policies, support structures and positions. In any change initiative, new policies and support structure will be needed to address the demands of a new program like distance Ieaming. The second theme focuses on how the design and implementation process was collaborative in nature. Faculty and administration both affirrned that the spirit of collaboration was a key 84 initiation factors. The third initiating theme was around faculty development. While some faculty were very hesitant to teach with technology, the faculty development process (i.e., using new technology, readings on pedagogy, and individual and group training) helped calm these anxieties and serve as an initiating factor. The final theme is senior administrative support. At DTS the fact ‘that senior level administration supported the distance Ieaming program verbally and by providing resources (i.e., budget, time, incentives, etc.) was a key initiating factor. The following paragraphs will explore each of these themes in great detail. Creation of New Policies, Support Structures & Positions In order for a graduate theological school to implement a new initiative, policies support structures and sometimes even new positions need to be created. Whenever a new program is implemented, a ripple effect can take place and significant changes are often required at multiple levels in the organization. At DTS, participants commented on several such ripple effects to existing policies, such as the need to create new support structures and the need to develop new positions to support the distance teaming program. Participants specifically commented on how the hiring of new support staff and faculty, changes in faculty load/compensation, implementation of new hardware and software, scheduling and sequencing of curriculum and the creation of new student service policies and procedures helped initiate and assist the implementation process of the new distance Ieaming degree. 85 Hiring of new support staff, administration and faculty. One significant factor that assisted in the initiation of the distance Ieaming program at DTS was the addition of new support staff (i.e., a director, an administrative assistant to the director, and a technology support specialist) and new faculty. Dan, a faculty member for five years, referenced the importance of hiring a director with experience when he said: One of the first things to come about was discussion on how far to get into the planning process before we actually hire someone to do it. If I am reconstructing this correctly, it was a mind of the community, was to not get too far into it before hiring someone to come in because they are going to bring expertise. At some point, eariy in the process, [DL Director] was brought on board. The administration strategically determined to bring the new director of distance Ieaming in early in order to help with implementation because DTS did not have significant experience in this field. Doug, a senior level administrator, commented on the value of having the new director come in well ahead of the start of the first classes when he said: Our greatest concern was the sense of having the faculty own the DL and in the abstract it was relatively easy as we became closer to the realization of it and more of a reality as we appointed a director so we could get things going. We appointed her in advance of quite awhile before our first class. Maybe one and half years before. Another faculty member outlined that a key hire was the addition of an education technology specialist to the staff and that this “was a new hire to specifically work with this program”. The education technology specialist supports faculty and students in the distance teaming program. Faculty receive assistance in areas of course development and education (both one-on-one and group) on how to implement technology (hardware and software) in the distance Ieaming 86 courses. The education technology specialist also provides resources and education for distance Ieaming students. These new positions clearly communicated that someone would have oversight and be accountable for the new distance Ieaming initiative. The hiring of new support staff, administration and faculty also demonstrated that the distance Ieaming program was of such a priority that it deserved staff, budgets, and office space at DTS. Faculty load/compensation. One of the areas that multiple faculty participants commented on was the need for new policies in the area of faculty load and compensation when teaching a distance Ieaming course for the first time. Jane, a faculty member, who was initially hesitant to teach in the distance Ieaming program commented on how the compensation structure helped in managing the preparation of her course. She said: We have some courses that are three credits and some that are one and a half that are seminars. So how my schedule works is l have two in the DL and two in the residential. For the first time anyone teaches residential they get an extra course relief. For a three credit class, I get five credits. For my one and a half credit class, I get two and a half credits. Doing two and two will fulfill my load. Another faculty member commented on the fact that the academic dean is “doing a pretty good job of providing some course release in the semester before DL course rolls out in order to give proper prep time”. Jane, a new faculty member, was aware of changes when she said the “tenure document is updated and the new handbook has been updated. I think its coming to a pretty good clarity". A distinguishing factor for the distance teaming degree at DTS is that a majority (two thirds) of courses are taught by full-time faculty members with the teaching being part of the faculty member’s standard course load. Recruitment 87 materials for the distance education program emphasize that distance Ieaming students will “study with the same dedicated faculty who love teaching and take the time to know you” and participate in “the same rigorous curriculum that residential students experience”. New student service policies and procedures. Implementing a graduate theological distance Ieaming degree that will meet the rigorous standards of ATS accreditation is no small task. ATS has multiple standards (i.e., standard five on library and information resources and standard seven on student recruitment, admission, services, and placement) that focus on student service issues. Participants commented on multiple areas (i.e., library resources, admissions, financial aid, registration, advising, etc.) that needed to be revised and in several instances new policies created in order to best serve the unique needs of a distance Ieaming community. Bill, an administrator for almost twenty years commented on even simple processes, like having a student sign for a student loan check, is not as simple as having the student drop by the Financial Aid Office before or after class. He said: Even things like financial aid, we process all our student loans on paper and in turn we get checks send to us. You don’t have a student come to our office anymore to endorse a check, so when the check gets here, it has to be sent out to the student for endorsement because you only have so many days for them to endorse the check and then it comes back here. It turned out to be a lot of extra steps in the process for everyone. Gail who oversees the registration process for both in-residence and distance Ieaming students said she has to be in “consultation with the dean and the director of the program on setting up different policies because they are slightly different, in a lot of areas, than with the in-residence program”. 88 The distance Ieaming program also required the Admission Office to rework its application and admission processes and policies. Matthew, a mid- level administrator, commented on how new policies helped initiate a more receptive environment for the distance Ieaming program. He said: Some of the administrative individuals were deeply concerned about whether the DL Ieaming program would eliminate candidates from the in- residence program. We dealt with that up front by establishing over and under the age of 30 as a target. I know some institutions have used geographical designation if you are beyond certain distance then you can be in this program otherwise you have to consider a commuter for our in- residence program. We have not done that. One of the things that emerged as individUaIs in the institution began to experience our DL learners was that resistance was lowered. Standard four in the ATS Bulletin (2005) focuses on library and information resources. Library staff faced significant challenges with the implementation of the distance Ieaming program because ATS demands that all students, whether in-residence or Ieaming at a distance, have access to both the physical and electronic holdings of the library. Elizabeth made the following comments on how new and adapted policies assisted the initiation process by allowing the same services to distance Ieaming students as afforded the in- residence students. She said: ATS, for its accreditation in the DL component, was a concern. It required us to provide the same library services for both DL students and in- resident students. That meant we needed to be able to check out books, answer reference questions and do inter-library loan. We did things like adapt our own rules for DL to check out books and make sure there would be time for the students to be mailed the books and mail them back without being overdue. We made arrangements with the college [library]. We are jointly automated with them for students to walk back and forth to check out their materials as well. We got permission from [the college library] to allow us to circulate their materials to our DL students as well. They need to not be tardy in doing the work. There is a running rule to 89 have items shipped within 24 hours. We pay for shipping to the student. They are responsible for shipping them back. We provide a box for return shipping. Scheduling and sequencing of curriculum. One of the more challenging and still contentious aspects of the distance Ieaming program, for some faculty, is the scheduling issue. It was necessary to make other significant changes to the curriculum such as: moving to a hybrid model, changing the number of credit hours for some courses, and redefining what constitutes full time status for student enrollment. DTS determined a flip-flop sequence of courses would be the best approach for multiple reasons. First, it reduced the number of courses needed to be prepared and delivered during the initial startup of the program. Herb, a faculty member said that although the flip-flop model was not ideal, the alternative, for a mid-sized school, would have been cost inhibitive. He said: We realize that with this program it's going to have challenges. We look at the possibility of not doing a flip-flop but the cost would prohibit it. We anticipate we could not bring in enough students and revenue to justify doing a kind of non-sequenced program that we have in-residence. We quickly came to the conclusion we would have to flip-flop it in order to husband our resources. Second, the flip-flop model would allow cohort one, and all following cohorts, to serve as mentors for new students as they entered the distance teaming program. This mentoring was strategic, on part of DTS, in order to provide new cohorts with mentors that have gone through the distance Ieaming program. The cohort, in its second year, would be able to assist the entering students during their first and second semesters, as a blended cohort. The following tables outline how the flip-flop delivery helps limit the number of courses that need to be offered and how the cohorts overlap. 90 Table 4.3: Courses Offered: Arranged by Year Year Courses Offered 2003/04 A 2004/05 B 2005/06 A, C 2006/07 B, D 2007/08 A, C, E 2008/09 B, D, E 2009/10 A, C, E 2010/11 B, D, E Table 4.4: Courses Offered: Arranged by Graduating Class 03/04 04/05 05/06 06/07 07/08 08/09 09/1 0 10/1 1 Class of 08 A B C D E Class of 09 B A D C E Class of 10 A B C D E Class of 11 B A D C E Class of 12 A B C D Class of 13 B A D Having faculty support and approve the flip-flop sequencing of course was a significant factor in the success of initiating the distance Ieaming program. One of the challenges encountered was that courses offered in both the “A” and “B” years could not have prerequisites, and that the “A” courses could not assume the material covered in the “B” courses, and vice versa. This same fact must also be assumed for the “C” and “D” years of the sequencing. Another key change during the implementation process, that reduced concerns of faculty and ATS accreditation, was adopting a hybrid model for course delivery. Gilman, a faculty member for over fifteen years had concerns about the quality of a virtual community. His fear was reduced with a hybrid model that provided twenty hours of face-to-face time. He said: It’d be very important to understand the faculty hesitation of a virtual 91 community versus a face to face community. That was resolved in a very satisfactory way by having a hybrid model, where there is two weeks of intensive on campus in addition to the distance intemet facilitation. The hybrid model of delivery allows students to complete the program without uprooting to DTS but still affords twenty hours of face-to-face community interaction between faculty and students and among peers in each course. In order to implement the hybrid model and maintain the commitment to use mostly full-time faculty members, the distance Ieaming semester needed to be offset from the traditional in-residence semesters. Ralph, a key faculty member in the planning and implementation of the distance Ieaming program, said, the initiation was helped by off setting the distance Ieaming semester from the in-residence program. He said: There were some key design features that are still controversial, that were absolutely critical in getting the program to work, like the scheduling for example, is something that a lot of faculty still is not happy with. That was one of the decisions that I made and l was trying to work as much with folks that took responsibility for it in the process. But my concern was running two or three programs parallel with each other and we needed to design it in a way that faculty were available to both programs. Any school doing DL has to have availability and do both at the same time. Another early commitment that we made was to this hybrid model. As a result of the above changes support staff and administration had to implement further changes to existing policies in order to accommodate the distance Ieaming program. Gail, a mid-level administrator discussed some of the changes when she said: We consider them [distance Ieaming sessions] traditional semesters but we had to set up two different schools. One is recorded at different times than the other. DL is recorded at seven and a half hours for fulltime. We’ve had to list it all separate with all of our reporting. Half time is three and a quarter, or one half of the DL fulltime. Our summer semester we only offer one, three credit course. 92 Faculty, administration and support staff all agree that flexibility and creativity in developing new support structures and making modifications to existing support structures was a key element that assisted and helped initiate the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. Collaborative Process A collaborative change process can be defined when interaction, communication and diverse participation work in union to facilitate a course of action. At DTS both faculty and administration noted that the implementation of the distance Ieaming program was assisted because it was a collaborative process. Faculty perspective. Herb, a faculty member, referenced the need of a collaborative environment because distance Ieaming is so unique from the in- residence program. He said: I think the whole school had ownership of the fact that it came through the strategic planning process with the entire committee goal setting and fundraising. It has to be a very shared thing... This is much more collaborative and supervised than anything we do in-residence. The old faculty knows how to do this, and even better than my supervisor, so leave me alone and let me do it. As long as I’m performing and the students are teaming, just stay out of the way. With DL, now the faculty realize they need a lot of help in tying into ANGEL and scheduling and learning. Another faculty member, Richard, commented that, “as we were leading up to months before it [distance Ieaming program], we had a report every faculty meeting”. While communication is a key part of any change process, dialogue must take place in both directions. Gilman, also a faculty member shared, the same affirmation of the collaborative nature of the implementation process when 93 he said: The faculty was part of the team that developed the DL program and it wasn't just the director and IT person or administrator. It was administration and faculty together. And it had the full support of the administration and the Board. Administration/staff perspective. Administration and staff also presented a unique perspective on how the implementation process was assisted by being collaborative in nature. Matthew, an administrator that oversees recruitment and marketing, referenced the atmosphere of teamwork when he said: I have a very close working relationship with [DL Director], which has helped tremendously because most of our initiatives of advertising and promotion occur in the collegial effort between the two of us. It’s not something I had to push for or demand. It emerges. Steve, a senior level administrator, referenced how implementing a distance Ieaming program would have been impossible, given the size and scope of the initiative, unless it was a team approach. He said: It’s been a team process all the way through. We had to buy into this. It couldn’t have happened with only one person pushing it. We had to have support services, IT service, hardware infrastnicture and faculty who were willing to team a new way to teach. So there certainly was a couple shepherding the process. In terms of a team approach, it has implicated virtually every employee. Whether it’s the logistics onsite or interaction with other means. Clearly it was an institutional team approach. Gail, a mid level administrator, commented specifically on how the board of trustees was also part of the collaborative process. She said, the “board was updated and involved from before day one and that has been important for us to have that kind of support”. Faculty Development Faculty development is critical for an organization of higher education to 94 foster new knowledge and skills. Whenever changes are implemented in an institution, knowledge gaps and skill shortages can often emerge. Development initiatives help assure that people are receiving both information and new skills to help implement and support new initiatives. Gilman, a veteran faculty member, referenced new training when he said: Obviously one was getting the software. Getting faculty equipped with day-long training, where everybody had a computer and could try the new software. That was a major one. Glenda, a faculty member for over twenty years, didn’t find the established day- long training sessions as helpful as having a teaching assistant during the day in and day out development of the course. She said: I think getting us trained on ANGEL was helpful. I am the kind of person that whenever they had a training session I was out of town. So that TA really helped. Quite frankly if I had gone to the training session when they offered it I would’ve forgotten by the time I actually had to do it. The real Ieaming came for me when I had a specific thing in mind that I had to do. The development initiative at DTS was successful in the initiation process of distance Ieaming because it took a two-pronged approach. The organization recognized that some faculty would benefit from day-long training in preparation for teaching the first distance Ieaming course, while others would rather wait and team as they went with the assistance of a teaching assistant. Senior Administrative Support Senior administrative support is a significant factor in any implementation process. Senior administrators often have access to key resources and the ability to help make changes in governance, policies, incentives, and administrative structures. Participants commented that administration provided support and 95 helped initiate the process when they made adjustments to things like faculty workload and compensation. Bill, an administrator, commented on the benefit to faculty of having workloads reduced and proper equipment provided when he said: Probably the incentives of reducing people’s workloads in the semester before they taught. The standard load is two classes per semester and I think was reduced to one in the semester where they had to develop their classes. Laptops were purchased for people to whoever wanted it. Several participants commented on how the president was on the ground level of the strategic planning and that he really owned the distance Ieaming initiative from the very beginning. The president also played a key role in representing the distance Ieaming program to external constituents (i.e., denomination, churches, and financial supporters) and raising funds for the program. Gilman, a faculty member, referenced that although the president was not a tech sawy person by nature, he fully supported the initiative. Gilman said: The president was deeply committed to this. He, at the time, was one of the least technologically in-depth of the faculty, but he was behind it and pushedit While the president played a crucial role in supporting and raising funds, the process was also very collaborative. Victor, a key administrator of the distance Ieaming program, commented how the academic dean was a key champion of the program. Victor said: Absolutely, there are three faculty supporters who were the leaders of the search committee. They really did the groundwork in examining existing programs and learning what was needed to be supportive and be successful. That team was made up of the [three senior administrators, with one] member, who at the time, was the Academic Dean. That team of three really had the firsthand knowledge about what it was that would 96 make this program successful. They carried the banner of the program but most especially, at that time, was the Academic Dean. In March of 2005, DTS submitted a formal petition to the Association of Theological Schools seeking preliminary approval for the distance Ieaming program. This petition affirmed the presence and commitment of senior administrative support when it said: [Davis’] DL M.Div. program appropriately fulfills standards relating to the character of theological scholarship in Standard 3.2 Because [Davis] has made a broad commitment of the entire school to distance Ieaming, the seminary administration is committed to resourcing [sic] every sector of the seminary in order to become effective in serving the distance Ieaming program. Confirming Factors The final core category that assisted the implementation of distance Ieaming at DTS is the confirming factors category. The two confirming factor themes were teaching and Ieaming factors and visible action. The teaching and Ieaming theme, examines how the faculty’s concerns about distance Ieaming were not only reduced, but in most cases served as a confirmation of the value of implementing the distance Ieaming program. The second theme is visible action. Visible action was important because participants were able to see concrete example of progress and this progress demonstrated the commitment of the school to continue the pursuit of the new program. Teaching and Learning Factors Research participants at DTS consistently referred to multiple teaching and learning themes that confirmed in the implementation process of the distance education program. Gilman, a veteran faculty member at DTS for almost 97 two decades said, “It [distance Ieaming program] stands on its own and even challenges what we do in-residence. The first year and a half of operation has been a kind of validation or reducing the anxiety of the program”. Participants referenced the following themes as key confirming factors to the successful implementation of the distance Ieaming program: quality of distance Ieaming pedagogy, benefit of exploring new models of teaching and Ieaming, and the positive impact on face-to-face teaching as a result of teaching in the distance Ieaming program. Quality of pedagogy. A recent DTS publication states that the school “provides an intimate atmosphere that best fosters Ieaming” and has professors who “are readily accessible for academic assistance, mentoring, and spiritual guidance”. Several faculty commented that they had initial concerns about the ability of the distance Ieaming program to live up to the high standards of the traditional face-to-face program. However, a consistent theme emerged from participants that the quality of the distance Ieaming program was very high, and in the view of some faculty participants, even higher than the face-to-face context. One faculty member said, “It’s [distance education program] improving the quality of teaching across the board for both programs and will continue to do so”. Dan, also a faculty member, commented on how the director of distance Ieaming helped faculty focus on pedagogy rather than the technology. He said: I tend to think it has been a positive impact as a whole. It certainly has details and problems that emerge during the implementation but it at least helped us in issues of pedagogy. [DL Director] was a person who drilled into us, and I also believed her, that the larger question of DL is not technology but pedagogy. I think that is correct. It’s raised a lot of issues 98 about how we are going to communicate and facilitate people Ieaming. It raises a lot of good questions. It has had a positive effect on our in- residence teaching as well. Glenda was pleasantly surprised that her “concerns really didn’t materialize” as they related to the quality of the teaching and the relationships she was able to build with her students. Along with commenting on being encouraged with the quality of Ieaming, participants also commented on how teaching an online course forced them to explore new models of teaching and Ieaming. Exploring new models of teaching and learning. Given the fact that most faculty in graduate theological education come from either an exegetical or theological discipline, many have not had formal education in teaching and Ieaming theory. When asked to teach a class in a new environment, like distance education, one is forced to explore new models of how teaching and Ieaming take place. Faculty members commented on how teaching in the distance Ieaming format was “a very different kind of teaching experience that’s been a very positive thing”. Ralph, a faculty member for fifteen years, reflected on how his journey of exploring distance teaming radically impacted how he is now teaching in the classroom. He said: My own experience in teaching is the unexpected impact on how deeply teaching online could reshape the way I taught in the residential classroom. I honestly didn’t expect, for me personally, that it would change as radically as it has in the classroom. I hear other faculty say the same thing. There are a number of ways teaching online really stretches you. You can talk all you want about a Ieamer centered pedagogy but online forces you to design courses, from the get go, much more. The crucial question is: A) How am I going to deliver information to students; B) How am I going to assess if they are really Ieaming it or not? In a traditional residential course faculty assumes that: A) Am I going to do this as Iecture?; B) I will intuitively know whether my lecture is succeeding or failing by the intuitive reaction. And then I will confirm that through testing. 99 What DL interrupts is that intuitive process. You don’t have it. I think the faculty sees this as being a better teacher for doing this. Richard, a newer faculty member at DTS, commented that the process of teaching in the distance education program was very rewarding because it forced him to think about teaching and Ieaming in new ways. He said, “Every course that I teach, I team a lot. I think I’ve Ieamed more in this course than any other and I think that has something to do with the approach”. Positive impact of teaching in distance learning on face-to-face teaching. Another theme that was consistent with all faculty members interviewed was the impact that teaching in the distance Ieaming program has had on how they view teaching and Ieaming in the traditional face-to-face classroom. One faculty member, Gilman, who has been teaching in graduate theological education for over fifteen years, discussed how his assumptions of teaching had to change. He said: The way I think about teaching has had to shift. I’ve Ieamed a lot of things I’d do differently in the face-to-face classroom and I think that would be the testimony of most of my colleagues. It’s [DL] improving the quality of teaching across the board for both programs and will continue to do so. Those interviewed who had taught in the distance Ieaming program commented on the fact that, as a result of working through the process to teach a distance Ieaming course, they have seen a benefit in their in-residence courses as well. Jane, a new faculty member, commented on how there has been “a new creative way in self-reflecting that is filtering over into the in-residence courses”. Goliath, a veteran professor of almost twenty years, commented on how the 100 crossover benefits have served to lessen concerns about the new program and even confirm the value of distance Ieaming at DTS. He said: Most people teaching it are finding it fairly interesting in Ieaming things and what we hadn’t expected is the crossover of the in-residential teaching. So it’s just another complication to the teaching. Not in a bad sense but in a good sense. It makes it more complex and more possibilities for relationships and interconnections with students that we didn’t have before. So that’s been a discovery that lessens anxiety and resistance as you begin to see how it’s unfolding and that it isn’t just something entirely different from residential teaching but something that can be a crossroad in teaching. Visible Action In any implementation process, seeing or hearing about progress is crucial. Such actions communicate to both internal and external constituents that movement is taking place and things are happening. Participants identified multiple examples of visible action as being a factor that assisted the implementation process by confirming progress was taking place. The following examples of visible action will be explored in the succeeding paragraphs in greater detail: allocation of resources, hiring new staff and faculty, addition of new technology internal communication, and external communication. Allocation of Resources. New initiatives often require new resources or the re-allocation of existing resources. At DTS participants commented on how the allocation of both people and product resources assisted the implementation process of the distance Ieaming program. Dan, a faculty member, referenced the value of being given resources on distance Ieaming when he said: [DL Director] gave us all sorts of books, folders with information, course design, teaching with technology. There were all sorts of things provided to us. We were also encouraged to participate on an online course in DL. A person there to ask questions is helpful. We also brought in teaching 101 times provided to actually sit at a computer and be part of it. Participants commented on how one-on-one tutoring, timelines, weekly group lessons, books and articles helped to not only inform participants on how to do things, but just as importantly, it demonstrated that progress was happening and visible action was taking place. DTS made a significant statement to faculty participants when changes were made to the compensation structure for teaching a distance Ieaming course for the first time. Esther talked about how preparing for a new distance Ieaming course was treated differently, when she said: Teaching a course for the first time counts as one and two thirds. In addition, the semester before they teach a DL course, every effort is made to [make the] previous semester as light as possible. That means they teach only a course that they have taught before. No new preps. Other participants commented on how some faculty were provided with a teaching assistant to help with preparing and delivering distance Ieaming courses. Participants said a tangible action that confirmed the commitment of the institution concerning implementing a distance Ieaming program was the hiring of the distance Ieaming director, the educational technology specialist and new faculty members. Seeing the institution make the commitment to hire new staff (as evidenced in the category describing the creation of new positions) and faculty, communicated that the school was dedicated to moving forward with the program. Addition of New Technology (Hardware/Software). Faculty participants commented on receiving new technology, both new computers and software programs, and how it was significant in building momentum and assisted in the 102 implementation of the distance Ieaming program. One faculty member specifically said “things that would make the work easier were provided," referring to each faculty member receiving a new computer, new software, and other resources (i.e., USB drive, digital camera, microphone, etc.) to help with creating and delivering the new distance Ieaming courses. Participants commented specifically about how DTS provided hardware and software resources to help meet the growing needs of faculty who were developing and teaching in the distance Ieaming program. Victor talked about how DTS provided both tangible and intangible resources to faculty as they began teaching in an online format: Victor said: Removing the fears and apprehension of the faculty became really two key pieces: 1) I could relate to them as an experienced educator who taught for many years at a seminary. I came along side of them and said I am going to help you be successful and coach and mentor and give any resources available. [I’m going] to take your desires and goals for your course and look at how to adjust it to work in DL. I came alongside of them to build trust. 2) We immediately brought SMART technology into the classroom so they could experience it. There was no requirement to use it but they could begin to experience it within their choice of freedom and comfort zone. We then had some training sessions. The next thing we did was get the course management software up. I selected that [the software] very carefully with this faculty in mind. So that they could walk into something very intuitive. All of the courses at the seminary were enrolled in the software so that every professor could choose to use it in their face-to-face courses. Then I came along and shared suggestions and ideas of how to best help them. Whatever they disliked about teaching, I showed them how the software could help them. Then they thought it was worth Ieaming. Those were several really critical things we did. Internal Communication. Effective and consistent communication is a key foundation of any healthy organization. While faculty participants did not comment on a formal communication initiative, most described an informal 103 process that helped keep the distance Ieaming initiative visible and moving fonivard. Dan, a faculty member, commented on how he was resistant to the program at first but gradually became more open to it as other faculty members communicated their experiences. Dan said, overhearing such dialogues from respected colleagues really helped confirm the benefits of moving forward with the program. He said: For me to get excited and my belief in it, it took me a gradual process. It was only when I heard [two other faculty members] talk about their courses that I could see that it could work, that is key because both of them were part of the people who questioned more. They both saw a lot of possibilities that they were excited about, so I felt like that was many of the things that made me a believer in the process... A lot of the behind the scenes, as well as the syllabi were passed around to the entire faculty for the first couple of classes. Then also for me, I remember very distinctly going and meeting the DL class, at a party at the President’s house, where I was introduced as a future faculty member. Faculty also commented, that at the formal faculty meetings an update was always given. Richard stated, there “was a lot of interaction between the committee and faculty”, both informally and formally. External Communication. DTS had multiple people that actively communicated progress of the implementation process to external constituents like the denomination, churches, and financial supporters. Participants commented that this communication helped assist the implementation of the program in several ways. First, the external communication helped the institution reflect on the distance Ieaming program and how it could best be presented to external constituents. Second, the external communication assisted in helping the institution feel the burden to keep progress moving in a timely fashion. This 104 communication was helpful because it served as a feedback loop to the very constituency that was asking for such a distance Ieaming program. Bill, an administrator, talked about how the director spent a large amount of time traveling and promoting the program. This activity helped communicate a message both externally and internally. lntemally it confirmed that DTS was committed to distance Ieaming because someone was externally committing the institution to the project. Bill said: [Director of DL] did a lot of traveling including to our denomination and to other denominations. Each year the [denomination] has a general [conference] where they bring together people from all over the church to do business of the church in about a 5-6 day period. They have pastors and lay people from all over the denomination. [Director of DL] had a chance to address the people shortly to let them know what is happening. She was able to promise some time frames and when to expect this from us. It was probably clearer how it was done externally than lntemally. This section reviewed three core categories and eight themes that emerged from the data concerning factors that assisted the implementation of the distance Ieaming Master of Divinity degree at DTS. The next section will explore the forces of resistance to the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. Two core categories and seven themes emerged from the data that represent forces of resistance to the implementation of distance Ieaming at DTS. Forces of Resistance to Implementation of DL When implementing any change initiative, multiple supporting factors and forces of resistance are often at work. At DTS participants commented on several forces of resistance during the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. While the overall tone of most participants was very favorable and supportive of the distance Ieaming initiative, several legitimate concerns were voiced by both 105 faculty and administrators. These concerns will be detailed under two core categories: diminishing forces and persisting forces. These categories will be outlined and discussed in the following sections. Diminishing Forces Most organizations would state that one of the reasons for implementing a change or a new initiative is to bring about increased productivity, or maybe even to raise employee moral. However, Bergquist (1992) would argue that such changes typically bring just the opposite, at least initially. Over time many of these challenges diminish. Participants commented on four themes that have diminished, or subsided over time, during the implementation of the program. The four themes are: financial considerations and issues, concerns about quality of teaching and Ieaming, accreditation issues, and fear and resistance of technology. Financial Considerations and Issues The financial costs to implement and sustain a quality distance Ieaming program are significant. DTS worked hard to anticipate what would be needed to effectively equip faculty and administration. A funding campaign was launched and $830,000 in startup costs were allocated specifically to the distance learning initiative. These funds were designated to cover items such as: course development, building needs (i.e., new computer lab, new server room, etc.) and technology needs (i.e., new computers, new software, etc.). Matthew, an administrator, said “an enormous expenditure takes place up front before the degree program ever becomes something that pays for itself”. Financial 106 projections estimate that the distance Ieaming program will be self-sustaining by its fifth year of enrolling cohorts. Even with aggressive fund raising in place, some unforeseen challenges emerged. Dan, a faculty member, commented on the challenge to correctly estimate the costs when he said: Of course, there is money and all the practical aspects. The expense of technology, we had no idea. It’s hard to estimate what kind of technological structures as well as personnel structures [will be needed]. We were also trying to take a hard look at the kind of implementation structures that would be needed in order to bring this off well. Another challenge is that, while the funding campaign reached its target, a significant amount of the gifts were estate gifts. As a result of these funds being estate gifts, they were not available immediately and therefore, financial resources at first were strained at times. As the program has continued however, most of the financial concerns have diminished. Concerns About Quality of Teaching and Learning While many participants commented that the level of teaching and Ieaming in the distance Ieaming program is high, this was not initially a presumption for some faculty. Several participants commented that they were vocally resistant to the distance Ieaming initiative due to concerns about a potential lack of quality in teaching and Ieaming. One participant said the questions that had to be answered were, “is it really going to be effective". While participants have strongly affirmed the quality of teaching and Ieaming as being very high, these concerns were not removed until they had either experienced it first-hand or heard multiple positive reports from other faculty. During the initial discussion and implementation stages of the program, faculty concerns in this 107 area proved to be a force of resistance. Gilman said those “who resisted were those that didn’t think it [distance Ieaming] would be as good as the in-residence M.Div.”. Participants commented specifically on the fact that DTS values community and sees formation, whether personal, intellectual or spiritual, as best taking place in a face-to-face community. For some faculty, it was challenging to see how community could be developed if it was not in a traditional face-to-face context. Dan, a faculty member raised his concerns about how well community and relationship could take place in a distance Ieaming environment. He said: There are all sorts of things. Questions having to do with the philosophy around it. I raised some of these questions myself. I wasn’t sure coming in late how much I should even be part of these conversations and decisions. I came into the process with some pretty negative attitudes about DL in general. One of the things [seminary] prides themselves on is community and relationships with people. Obviously, that raises issues of whether or not community can even be structured through DL. Elizabeth discussed that while concerns over the ability to have healthy community has since diminished, the concerns were initially strong. She said: The divide would be those that were more comfortable with technology versus the less comfortable. I do think there was some concern in the faculty of teaching modes. Particularly there was talk on community and how would we be sure we have the community when these people aren’t on campus. Accreditation Issues Regional accreditation associations provide many benefits to higher education in general as does ATS to graduate theological education specifically. ATS accreditation standards for distance education did present some forces of resistance initially to the implementation of the distance Ieaming program at DTS. 108 The following paragraphs are not intended to either challenge or support the standards, but rather to outline how the standards were perceived by participants as being a force of resistance during the implementation process, but diminished over time. In the ATS Bulletin (2005), the standard for distance education states that an “adequate ratio of support services personnel to faculty and students” must be maintained to fully support an institution’s distance education courses and programs. Elizabeth, an administrator, commented that it was initially challenging to see how the library would meet ATS standards for the distance Ieaming program. She said: There was concem in ATS, our accreditation, that there would be library usage by the DL students. That, at this point, has not been comparable to the in-resident students. That partially is due to the nature of the design of the program. They were taking courses that had library references. The other is from the library standpoint we have no onsite training until they are here in January. Support services, such as the library, are placed under significant pressure to deliver resources that are readily available in a face-to-face context but are more challenging and difficult to provide to those students in a distance teaming context. Another support services at DTS that faced challenges was technology support and staffing for both students and faculty. The hybrid nature of the distance teaming program at DTS also presented some unique forces of resistance in terms of ATS accreditation. Some of this difficulty arises from the fact that ATS standards are written in such a way that they more adequately address programs that are wholly delivered in either a 109 face-to-face model or in a distance education model. The hybrid nature of DTS program does not fit cleanly into the accreditation standards and therefore has cause some confusion and difficulty, most likely for both ATS and DTS. Fear and Resistance of Technology Multiple participants commented on how fear and anxiety of technology was a force of resistance during the initial implementation process. Gilman, a veteran faculty member of almost twenty years, said “fear of technology and not being familiar or comfortable with it was a key resistor in the beginning”. Another faculty member who was more comfortable with technology, expressed concern not with technology itself but rather her ability to “loot up” her technology skills to a level that was adequate to teach a distance Ieaming course. One participant commented that the institution as a whole was not “very technologically sawy". Matthew, an administrator, expressed concern about the comfort level of faculty with technology when he said: A secondary issue has to do with the professors and their comfort level in technology. It was a brand new style and some of the tenure professors are accustomed to teaching in a certain format. Helping them to team software and develop techniques and help them feel comfortable with the new techniques was a concern. While most participants would agree that this fear and resistance to technology has been displaced or diminished over time, it was a real and present force of resistance during the initial implementation of the distance Ieaming program. Persisting Forces The second core category of resistance to the implementation of distance learning at DTS is persisting forces. Although many forces of resistance have 110 diminished over time, three themes emerged from participants addressing forces of resistance that are still present. Persisting forces are issues or concerns that, in the thinking of participant’s still remain unresolved and therefore, continue to hinder the full adoption of the distance Ieaming program. These persisting forces are: faculty concerns, lack of needed support structures, and communication with support staff. The following sections will explore these themes in greater detail. Faculty Concerns Faculty participants focused on two primary concerns regarding the implementation process of the distance Ieaming program. The first concern was the amount of time required to prepare a new course for the distance Ieaming program. The second concern was the impact the new distance Ieaming program (specifically the unique timing of when DL courses started and finished) has on a faculty members ability to conduct research and writing. These two forces were significant to some faculty and have remained a persistent tension and, therefore, have continued to cause resistance to the distance Ieaming initiative. Preparation time needed for DL. Faculty commented that while they expected preparation of online courses to be more time intensive, few were prepared for how much more the course development actually took. Gilman said, “It is labor intensive and takes a lot more time preparing for these courses”. Faculty comments about the amount of time needed to prepare for a distance Ieaming course and the level of stress created by the task are strong. Herb, a faculty member, commented on how strenuous the time demands were for teaching in distance Ieaming for the first time when he said: 111 The main thing, that was half anticipated, has come to fruition is that teaching DL takes a great deal of time, especially in the first course. Seeing it all on computer and ready to go. Another thing we foolishly attempted was that in the first year of it, the full regular faculty members who taught the program had add-ons to their full normal role. This produced a great deal of difficulty. I think everyone felt like it was brutal and strenuous. There is greater course relief. That has happened with [current academic dean]. She is much more careful to analyze and direct loadissues. Glenda, a long time faculty member at DTS, reflected that if she knew up front how much time it would take and the level of stress that would result from teaching in the distance Ieaming program, she never would have agreed. She said: The last thing I needed at that point was that kind of stress and that kind of schedule. I was spending more time working than I had when writing a dissertation and teaching full time and it made me really angry. That was a point of which I was thinking, look I signed on for this but if I had known it was going to be this way, I wouldn’t have. It’s easy for me to forget that anger now but those were dark times for me. And if I had a nervous breakdown it would’ve come as no surprise to me. Another faculty member, Ivan, talked about how teaching in the distance Ieaming program takes more time than teaching a traditional in-residence course. He also questioned, given the greater workload, if the compensation was truly adequate for the extra time and effort. He said: Everybody that has taught in the DL program says it is more work than we reckoned and we do not feel we are compensated for what we do. Summers are shot because if we teach through the previous semester then we teach through the summer. So we don’t have a summer. Impact on research and writing. Closely related to the issue of time demands for preparing a new distance Ieaming course, almost every faculty member interviewed expressed significant concern regarding the impact of 112 teaching in the distance Ieaming program on research and writing. One faculty member said, “it does have a way of invading your entire life if you’re not careful”. Faculty commented on how the unique schedule of the distance Ieaming program removed key blocks of time during the traditional winter and summer breaks. Faculty now found themselves with limited time to conduct research and writing. Jane expressed a continuing concern about how summers were no longer available for research and writing when she said: In terms of on-going concerns is that it makes for really heavy teaching loads because of the overlap in semesters. And because we have a summer semester, faculty lose their writing time. That I think were the two biggest concerns. Glenda, a faculty member for over twenty years, expressed the same concern about the distance Ieaming schedule when she said: I deeply resent the fact that the DL schedule is not in sync with the rest of the academic community... As a faculty member, I am just really ticked off at my summer being taken away. It’s not that I want to go to the beach but that’s my writing time, which is important to me. Faculty also commented on how the online format of having discussion boards and email dialogue takes more time than a traditional face-to-face course. Gilman said “just monitoring the discussion boards and interacting with the students takes a lot of time. I spent two or three hours per day just dealing with the interaction in that”. Other participants commented that it was not uncommon to have over two hundred interchanges from the message board. Differing opinions continue to exist on how timely and how frequently faculty should interact with student’s emails and the discussion boards. Some faculty feel that once or twice a week is sufficient and parallels what is done in the traditional in- 113 residence program. Other faculty participants commented that the expectation of the distance Ieaming director is much higher. These forces have had an impact on faculty in a deep way and as a result have created some persisting resistance to the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. Lack of Needed Support Structures While the creation of new support structures and policies was a factor that assisted in the implementation of the distance Ieaming program, most participants were unified in expressing concerns that some support structures were still lacking or underdeveloped. Participants commented specifically on the area of human resources. Rapid growth in both the traditional (from 90 students in 1994 to 180 students in 2005) and distance Ieaming programs (from 0 in 2002 to over 40 in 2005) has placed a great deal of strain on support staff and administration. While faculty have maintained a consistent ratio of faculty to students, the ratio has not been as consistent as it relates to administration/staff to students. Jane, a faculty member, referred to this inequity when she said: A bigger institutional issue is around human resources. Because we moved, in the last ten years, from a mom and pop organization to a mid- size seminary, the administrative infrastructure just isn’t in place. That’s without the DL program. Add the DL program onto it and the changes that it requires. The fact is that there are missing pieces in the administrative structure. Everything from financial aid to library services needed to be evaluated to see if it would be able to service a distance Ieaming community. Participants commented that significant progress has taken place and this progress has assisted in the implementation process. However, several key areas, such as copyright policies and maintaining accordance with the “Teach Act” (legislation dealing with 114 copyright issues that are specific to online courses), serve as an example of policies that have not been addressed and still need attention. While some faculty were aware of the copyright issues related to protected material being used in an online format, many were not. Change never takes place in a vacuum and forces of resistance can be intensified when unrelated issues develop. Elizabeth, an administrator, commented on one such issues when she referenced staff turnover and unexpected events arising in her department. She said: I think we had meetings, on the things coming up, we needed to do and how we wanted to do it. I guess I don't feel there was sufficient support provided. It was a very intense, trying time. Particularly in the library, that wasn’t just the DL, the library changing and significant staff changes at that time also, that merely goes down as the worst summer experience ever. It was too much. Setting up a program like this shows that you can’t always control the variables. I think the seminary tried hard to identify what it was that needed to be done and to make steps to do it. There is always something we don’t think of and things are not always going to go the way we want. To control the outside variables, like the other half of the library database deciding they were changing software, or to have the staff changes we had, all related to family things, we could not control and made it more difficult. Communication with Support Staff Healthy and consistent communication is a core factor in any organization. At DTS such communication was reported by participants as a factor that assisted in the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. However, the bulk of that communication was between faculty and took place during faculty meetings, which most support staff and administration do not attend. Elizabeth, a mid-level administrative person, referenced a specific example dealing with adjunct faculty when she said: 115 An example is the DL adjunct faculty. We don’t know who they are in a timely manner. From a library standpoint that means we have had adjuncts want borrowing privileges that we don’t realize are on faculty. We are constantly trying to figure out who these people are and trying to bring them up to speed. The communication is very hard. Other support staff referenced their frustration is not with the distance Ieaming program itself or even necessarily the people leading it but rather with not having timely access to what is expected or happening. Even faculty participants alluded to having concerns about support staff not being informed during the implementation process. Jane, a new faculty member, commented on her concerns about communication with staff when she said: I heard of it because I am on the DL committee. It was also brought up to the faculty. It was shared in cabinet meetings and faculty meetings. I’m not sure if it was shared with the staff, which is interesting, because I think there is more resistance to the program among the staff. Part of that has to do with personality conflicts with leadership in the DL program as well as the lack of support to our staff overall and lack of proactive training in taking on new responsibilities. Another participant shared a similar concern about a persisting lack of administrative and staff support: There is no one who really understands what is going on in the program on the administrative side who is bringing the administrative side of the institution along [i.e., support staff/services]. The lack of communication with support services has caused a degree of angst and misunderstanding among staff and between staff and faculty at DTS. These misunderstandings continue to persist and cause some difficulty with the successful implementation and function of the distance Ieaming program. 116 Managing the Tensions of Implementing DL Implementation of even basic changes in graduate theological education can result in significant tension. DTS has experienced such tensions during the implementation process of the distance Ieaming program. While some of these tensions have been addressed and relieved to varying degrees, many have continued. At DTS, participant data were not conclusive concerning how tensions have been managed. Given that the program has been functional for less than three years, and full ATS accreditation is pending, a full program evaluation and site visit in 2008, it is difficult to determine any definitive categories for how DTS is managing the tensions of implementing a distance Ieaming program. Overall, the institution is still in the midst of wrestling with multiple areas (i.e., scheduling, resource allocation, support services, time demands of distance Ieaming, etc.) and more time is needed to determine the final outcome. Multiple reviews of the participant interviews identified several areas that may assist DTS in managing the tensions of implementing distance Ieaming. The first concern is how adaptive and open the organizational culture is to change. The second relates specifically to the implementation of a distance Ieaming program and how well the faculty understand teaching and Ieaming theory. Finally, while distance Ieaming opens new opportunities for many who would not be able to pursue graduate theological education, one wonders at what cost to graduate theological schools is this opportunity afforded. Participants expressed some concern regarding the cost to faculty time, especially in the areas of research and writing, and the cost financially. Two key questions remain. First, is 117 online distance Ieaming the best stewardship of the limited resources of most graduate theological schools? Second, what will the cost be to graduate theological schools, and the churches they exist to serve, if they do not explore the possibilities of online distance Ieaming programs? The analysis of the data demonstrates that implementing change of any magnitude is messy at best and extremely complex. The final chapter will discuss the factors and forces that assist and hinder the implementation of distance teaming programs and consider their implications for graduate theological schools. 118 CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION Higher education is constantly facing the challenges of how it should adapt to the changing needs of the constituents it serves (Bender & Schorske, 1997; Johnstone, 1997; Kett, 1994; Newman, Couturier, 8r Scurry, 2004; Rudolph, 1990; Schuller, 1995). In recent years, online distance education has emerged as one of the most significant issues of change facing institutions of higher education (Dolence & Norris, 1995; Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Johnson, Hanna, & Olcott, 2003). Faculty, administrators and staff are faced with determining what role online distance education courses and programs will serve at their institution (Hanna, 2000; Lamb, 1999; Novak, 2002; Willis, 1994; Verduin & Clark, 1991). Similarly, one of the specific challenges facing graduate theological schools is the growing need and expectation to provide online distance education opportunities (Dolence & Norris, 1995; Ferris, 1990; Messer, 1995) Although many institutions of higher education have been implementing online distance Ieaming programs (National Center for Educational Statistics), graduate theological education as a whole has been somewhat resistant to such practices (Amos, 1999). The purpose of this research was to understand the processes of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. The research questions that provided direction for this study were: 119 - What are the key factors that assist graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - What are the key forces of resistance that hinder graduate theological schools during the implementation of online distance education programs? - How have some of the graduate theological schools that have implemented online distance education programs managed the tension between the factors that led towards and the forces that resisted the implementation of online distance education programs? This study was conducted at a graduate theological school located in the Midwestern United States. The data was collected by means of document review and semi-structured interviews with nine faculty and nine administrative/staff personnel. Each interview lasted between forty-five and seventy—five minutes. Each interview was tape recorded and transcribed verbatim. The data were analyzed using the “category construction" process outlined by Merriam (1998). Summary of Findings One significant finding from this study was that implementing distance Ieaming programs is an extremely complex and messy process. The activity of change takes place in the unique context of a given institution. The fact is that no two institutions are identical, therefore, one can conclude that no two graduate theological schools approach an implementation process in exactly the same fashion. However, data from this research, based on a study from one institution, suggest that certain factors may assist and certain forces may cause resistance 120 during the implementation process of online distance Ieaming programs in graduate theological schools. Factors That Assisted Implementation of DL Three major categories of factors were identified from the data of this study that assisted in the implementation of the online distance education program at Davis Theological Seminary (DTS). These factors are: motivating factors, initiating factors, and confirming factors. A motivating factor is a factor that creates a desire or incentive for an organization to pursue an initiative. An initiating factor is a factor that serves as the first steps in the implementation of a new program or task. A confirming factor is a factor that helps establish the certainty or validity of a decision or initiative. Motivating Factors Motivating factors help create awareness and curiosity in an organization to team more about something. A motivating factor can be illustrated by the metaphor of a travel brochure that promotes a relaxing seaside vacation in the Mediterranean. The brochure uses beautiful pictures of sand, relaxing blue waters, and magnificent accommodations to motivate someone to take a break and just get away. While a travel brochure helps motivate individuals to invest in a vacation, strategic planning and the issue of access motivated DTS to explore the possibility of implementing an online distance Ieaming program. Strategic planning. The first motivating factor that emerged from the data of this study is strategic planning. Strategic planning helped the institution listen to intemat and external constituents. Strategic planning also helped force the 121 organization to evaluate whether the current planning and action items were in harmony with the core values, mission and purpose of the school. A direct result of the strategic planning process was the distance Ieaming initiative. The distance Ieaming program was identified as a key initiative and, as such, was afforded valuable resources (i.e., human resources, financial resources, etc.) in order to ensure its successful development and implementation. One key finding of this study that is confirmed in existing literature is that strategic planning is a key factor in healthy organizations (Collins & Porras, 1997; Daniel, 1996; Davies, 1999; Kouzes & Posner, 1988). Through the strategic planning process (Bates, 2000a), constituents, both internal and external, are able to see the connections between the core values and vision of an organization and the implementation of new initiatives. Through strategic planning processes an organization is able to identify the needs of the constituents it serves and respond with appropriate action. Kotter (1996) outlined an eight stage process for creating major change in his work entitled Leading Change. The first stage is to establish a sense of urgency by identifying and discussing crises and major opportunities. At DTS, the strategic planning process was an opportunity for faculty, board of trustee members, and administrators to identify both crises and opportunities. Once the crises and opportunities are identified, they can help serve as a means of motivation for developing new initiatives. Similarly, Eckel and Kezar (2003) outlined five core strategies that help promote organizational change (i.e., flexible vision, collaborative leadership, 122 senior administrative support, staff development, and visible action). Flexible vision is defined as vision that “is consistent and has a targeting direction, and yet is opportunistic and does not foreclose important opportunities” (Eckel & Kezar, 2003, p. 93). The literature confirms the finding of this study that organizations need a consistent vision that can still be opportunistic. Issue of access. The second motivating factor that emerged from the data of this study was the issue of access. While opportunities for graduate theological education exist, a key finding of this study was that many prospective students did not have convenient access to DTS. Given the intensity and rigorous nature of how traditional graduate theological courses are scheduled, most students need to be within at least sixty to ninety minutes of the school in order to realistically complete a full degree program. Many prospective students who would like to attend seminary are not able to relocate due to career commitments and family responsibilities. Similarly, literature (Dolence, 1995; Twigg, 2001) confirmed that distance education programs provide more flexibility concerning when and where students are able to pursue education. Distance Ieaming programs open up new avenues of access. Online distance education also allows graduate theological schools to reclaim students that would have preferred to attend a school in their denomination but were unable to do so because the school was too far away. Recruitment literature at DTS proclaimed to prospective students the opportunity to pursue graduate theological education at a school that falls within their faith 123 tradition without having to uproot their current ministry commitments, community involvement, and most importantly, their families. Initiating Factors The second category of factors that assisted in the distance Ieaming implementation process is initiating factors. Initiating factors are factors that help lay a solid foundation or provide the first steps on a new journey. Using the vacation or travel metaphor, one initiates the journey by making sure the travel reservations are made, passports are secured, appropriate clothing and personal items are purchased and packed, and the remaining details for a trip oversees are attended to. In a similar fashion, Davis Theological Seminary (DTS) initiated multiple activities that assisted in the distance Ieaming implementation process. Four initiating factors were identified in the study. These factors helped to facilitate the distance Ieaming implementation process and served to build momentum. The initiating factors were: 1) the creation of new policies and support structures; 2) the collaborative nature of the change process; 3) faculty development; and, 4) senior administrative support. Creation of new policies, support structures and positions. The first initiating theme that emerged from the data of this study was the creation of new policies, support structures and positions. In order for a graduate theological school to implement a new initiative like distance Ieaming, new structures and additional human resources are often needed. One significant factor that assisted in the initiation process at DTS was the addition of new administrative leadership and support staff (i.e., distance Ieaming director, technology support specialist, 124 etc.). These new hires not only brought needed expertise to the organization, but they also significantly increased the amount of human resources available to the distance Ieaming project. Faculty also commented on the importance of new faculty load structures and new compensation structures. These structures helped provide greater incentive to those faculty preparing to teach in the distance Ieaming program for the first time. Similarly, literature suggested that creating new support structures is a key element in any implementation process (Bates, 20003; Eckel & Kezar, 2003). One of the facets of new support structures is creating or reallocating the necessary human resources. Bates (2000a) outlined four levels of human support that are required to maximize technology in distance Ieaming programs. The first is technology infrastructure support staff. These individuals oversee that networks and equipment are properly installed and functioning. The second group is called educational technology support staff. This group of staff help with things like, interface designers, graphic designers, and video editing. The third group of human resources is the instructional design staff. The instructional design staff provide instructional design, faculty development, project management, and evaluation. The final group is the subject experts. The subject experts group is made up of professors, instructors, and teachers who provide the content knowledge that will be communicated through the technology infrastructure. Bates (2000a) argued that an organization needs human resources covering each distinct group. If the organization is not large enough to have staff 125 for each group, then versatile staff may be able to produce the outcomes of each group. The finding of this study suggest that leadership at DTS recognized this need and hired an experienced director of distance Ieaming and a full-time educational technology specialist. These new support structures were foundational to the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. , Collaborative nature. The second initiating theme that emerged from the data of this study was the collaborative nature of the distance Ieaming implementation process. Faculty and administrators at DTS indicated that a collaborative spirit was a key factor that assisted with the initiation of the distance Ieaming program. Participants viewed the implementation process as being collaborative because everyone from students to board of trustee members were involved. The dialogue was extensive, and the planning and implementation process were a shared assignment. Collaborative leadership is seen in the literature (Bimbaum, 1992; Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Kotter, 1996; Lick, 2002; Lucas, 2000) as an essential component in successful change initiatives. Eckel and Kezar (2003) outlined essential conditions that need to be present in order for collaborative relationships to flourish. The five conditions are: 1) trust (between faculty, staff and administrators, and between departments; 2) recognizing, encouraging and reconciling diverse opinions; 3) being open to challenge, criticism, and different ways of operating; 4) developing a common language and shared goals; and 5) teams or task forces that are truly representative of the campus constituents. The findings of this study suggest that while present to varying degrees, each of 126 these conditions were in place during the implementation process. Faculty, administrators, and staff participated in a distance Ieaming committee that wrestled with the challenges and criticisms of implementing a distance Ieaming program. Faculty development. The third initiating theme that emerged from the data of this study was faculty development. Development of personnel is critical for any organization moving through a transition process. Development initiatives help ensure that people are receiving both new infoMation and the necessary new skills to meet the unique challenges that come with change. Participants commented that the faculty development plan at DTS was successful because it used a multi-prong approach and didn’t rely on a single training style or philosophy. Similarly, in Managing Technological Change, Bates (2000a) suggested that in order for institutions to truly embrace technology, the majority of faculty must embrace technology first. Bates (2000b) recommends that institutions focus first on answering the question of why it is important for faculty to use technology in their teaching before attempting to solve the issue of how. After the why question is adequately addressed, then just-in-time opportunities can be provided for faculty to team new technology skills, new pedagogical paradigms, and new behaviors. Senior administrative support. The fourth factor which emerged from the data of this study and helped initiate the distance Ieaming program at DTS was senior administrative support. Senior level staff have access and oversight of key 127 assets (i.e., budgets, policies, staff, etc.) and can reallocate essential resources in ways to help initiate change. At DTS, participants identified specific ways senior level administration helped initiate the distance Ieaming program. The first way administrators helped with the initiation process was by changing faculty workloads. The second way administrators helped initiate the distance Ieaming program was by providing new computer equipment and software for faculty. The third way administration at DTS helped initiate the implementation of distance Ieaming was by authorizing the hiring of key personal (i.e., distance Ieaming director, technology support specialist, etc.) for the initiative. Eckel and Kezar (2003) outlined the following change initiating activities that are typically only possible for senior level administrators to accomplish: 1) changes in administrative and governance processes; 2) creating new support structures; 3) providing incentives; and, 4) the creation and/or reallocating of financial resources. The findings of the current study align with Eckel and Kezar (2003) in regards to the influence of senior administrators supporting change processes. At DTS, senior level administrators (i.e., president and vice president for advancement) secured necessary financial resources for the implementation of the distance Ieaming program through a capital campaign. The academic dean also worked hard to establish new incentives for faculty preparing and teaching for the first time in the distance Ieaming program (i.e., teaching a class for the first time counted one and half times toward load, in the semester before teaching a distance Ieaming course faculty were provided with a reduced load to help with course preparation, etc.). Existing literature and the findings of this 128 study suggest that senior level administrators are able to help shepherd change initiatives by providing necessary resources and reshaping institutional priorities. Confirming Factors Confirming factors are factors that serve to reaffirm the validity of a decision or change process. Continuing with the travel metaphor, most people return from a trip with pictures or video that highlight the places and experiences they enjoyed. These images, and the correlating stories that are intimately attached to them, serve to confirm the trip as beneficial and a worthwhile investment. At DTS, multiple confirming factors helped validate the implementation of the distance Ieaming program as a worthwhile investment. The two confirming factors were: teaching and Ieaming issues and visible action. Teaching and Ieaming factors. The first confirming factor that emerged from the data of the study related to teaching and Ieaming. Faculty specifically commented that the quality of the distance Ieaming students at DTS and the Ieaming that took place were key factors that assisted in the distance Ieaming implementation process. Most faculty at DTS entered the distance Ieaming initiative with significant concerns about the quality of distance Ieaming. As faculty began to see first hand, and hear reports of the program “standing on its own”, this knowledge helped confirm the value of the initiative and reduced faculty angst concerning the quality of distance Ieaming. Faculty members also commented on how teaching a distance Ieaming course was a new experience that forced them to explore new technology, but more importantly new pedagogies. The result of engaging these new pedagogies included 129 improvements in the distance Ieaming courses, as well as, improvements in the face-to-face classroom. The findings of this study are consistent with the current literature (Delamarter, 2004) that described one of the key benefits of faculty engaging distance Ieaming is the impact that crosses over to the faculty member’s face-to- face teaching. At DTS, faculty suggested that a by-product of developing and teaching in the distance Ieaming program was a positive impact on their face-to- face classrooms. Faculty specifically said teaching in the distance Ieaming program helped them develop and facilitate a more critically reflective and informed classroom discussion. Faculty also suggested that teaching in the distance Ieaming program helped them gain greater appreciation for various Ieaming styles. The last benefit faculty described was the advantage of using more technology to serve the needs of both student and the faculty member more efficiently (i.e., online syllabus, submitting papers electronically, etc.). Researchers (Bates, 2000; Ramage, 2002; Twigg, 2001) argued that institutions considering the use of technology will have to reexamine how they conceive of and practice teaching and Ieaming. Similarly, the findings of this study may suggest that with the effective use of technology graduate theological schools will not be able to solely focus on a classical teaching paradigm. At DTS, the process of exploring and embracing the “Ieaming” paradigms served as a foundational step in the confirmation of the distance Ieaming program. Over a relatively short period of time, faculty became more and more comfortable with the Ieaming paradigm and confident with the quality of teaching and Ieaming in 130 the online distance Ieaming program. This growing level of confidence became a key factor that helped confirm the implementation of the distance Ieaming program was a worthwhile initiative. Visible action. The second confirming factor that emerged from the data of the study was visible action. Visible action communicates to intemat and external constituents that movement is taking place and things are happening. At DTS, visible action helped build momentum and assisted in keeping the graduate theological school focused on the tasks at hand. The re—allocation of resources, the addition of new technologies, internal communication, and external communication all served as examples of how new program developments were made visible. As a result, momentum began to build and helped assist the implementation process. Bates (2000) argues that teaching with technology cannot be implemented sufficiently unless additional resources are provided. The findings of the current study support this assertion. At DTS, a capital campaign served to provide necessary resources for the distance Ieaming initiative, but also was a visible reminder of the high value the leadership placed on the project. The capital campaign raised funds (i.e., initial start up costs and sufficient continuing costs until the program would be self-supporting) that would reduce the burden of the distance Ieaming program on the existing budget. Kouzes and Posner (1988) outlined how effective communication is essential in any change implementation process. Key leaders or committees overseeing a change process must develop a communication strategy. The 131 findings of this study are confirmed in the literature that suggested communication strategies have to address issues such as: 1) helping intemal and external constituents understand why a change is needed; 2) how the communication will facilitate buy-in to the change; and, 3) how progress will be shared. Kotter (1996) recommended regular communication updates in order to provide confirming evidence or visible action that progress is taking place. The significance of this visible action is that it will generate what Kotter calls “change momentum” and serves to, not only confirm the value of the implementation process, but also, to help in aiding future progress. At DTS, effective communication took place in multiple forums. During the initial stages of strategic planning and implementation, a detailed update was provided at faculty meetings on the status and issues relating to the online distance Ieaming program. At the quarteiiy and yearly denominational meetings, either the president, the academic dean, or the director of the distance Ieaming program provided an update on the program and the implementation process. All of these communication elements are supported in the literature and served as factors that assisted in the implementation of the distance Ieaming program at Davis. Forces That Resisted Implementation of DL Two major forces of resistance were identified that hindered the implementation process of the online distance Ieaming program at Davis Theological Seminary: diminishing forces and persisting forces. Diminishing forces are forces that cause resistance and turbulence at the start of a change 132 process, but diminish over time. Persisting forces of resistance are forces that remain throughout the change process and sometimes even intensify as the change process progresses. Diminishing Forces Four distinct diminishing forces emerged from the data of this study. The diminishing forces included: financial concems, concerns about the quality of teaching and Ieaming, accreditation issues, and resistance to technology. Financial considerations and issues. While any new initiative typically has financial burdens, distance Ieaming programs have consistently placed significant financial pressures on organizations. Even with aggressive fund raising, participants commented that startup and maintenance costs of a distance Ieaming program caused some to question whether moving forward with the implementation was too much of a burden on the other units in the institution. Research (Bates, 2000b) suggested that major technology initiatives require significant funding to move fonivard. The findings of the current study extends the literature by suggesting the need not only for sufficient funding but also accessible resources. While DTS was able to successfully secure pledges for the start up costs of the distance Ieaming initiative, many of these funds were in the form of estate gifts. While these gifts were real and tangible resources, they were not immediately available or liquid assets. A result of not having access to the anticipated funds was that budgets were strained and financial challenges surfaced that worked against the implementation of the distance Ieaming program. Through budget cutbacks and reallocation of funds, DTS was 133 eventually able to reduce these challenges and the previous resistance caused by them. Concerns about quality of teaching and learning. Most Davis faculty indicated that a high quality of teaching and Ieaming exists in the distance teaming program. However, this was not the case initially. Initially, faculty expressed deep resistance to the idea of distance Ieaming due to theological and educational concerns. These concerns were rooted in questions about how Ieaming and religious community could take place in a distance Ieaming environment. Faculty also questioned whether the quality of education in the distance Ieaming program could be equal to the high level of quality in the face- to-face classroom. DTS has a strong reputation for quality academics and faculty were concerned that the distance Ieaming program might tarnish this solid reputation. Every faculty member who participated in this research affirmed that, after participating in the distance education program, they were confident that the quality of teaching and Ieaming was equal if not higher than what was traditionally taking place at DTS. While faculty concerns about the quality of teaching and Ieaming in the distance education program initially served as a force of resistance to the implementation process, this diminished as faculty had opportunity to participate in the program. Accreditation issues. Professional accreditation standards also produced some initial resistance to the implementation process of the distance Ieaming program. Accreditation standards demanded the institution provide the same 134 resources and experiences to distance Ieaming students that it afforded in- residence students. The hybrid nature of the distance Ieaming program also produced some initial resistance, because the accreditation standards did not adequately cover such a unique approach. As a result, the institution was unclear at first about how to communicate with the accrediting body on the new initiative. Fear and resistance to technology. Multiple participants also commented that fear and hesitation concerning the use of technology served as a force of resistance initially. While most faculty and staff had some level of comfort with technology, most understood that they lacked the skills needed to fully engage in a distance Ieaming environment. As a result of just-in-time Ieaming opportunities and a multi-faceted approach of equipping faculty with the effective use of educational technology, this force of resistance diminished over time. Most faculty at DTS became familiar and comfortable with technology and facilitating its use in the distance Ieaming program. Research (Bates, 2000b; Cobb, 1997; Clark, 1994; Delamarter, 2004) demonstrates that many faculty are resistant to distance Ieaming because they are not comfortable or familiar with technology. Bates (2000b) says some faculty are fearful of technology because faculty fear being replaced by a machine. The findings of the current study continue existing research. At DTS, most faculty and even many in administration were not using technology for more than basic word processing and basic email. The idea of having to team a new teaching paradigm and new technology skills appeared an overwhelming task. Senior level administration overcame this force of resistance by hiring an educational 135 technology specialist, developing a multifaceted training program for faculty, and providing release time for faculty to become comfortable with technology. As a result, the fear and resistance to technology was a force of resistance that diminished over time. Persisting Forces The following three themes were identified as persisting forces that continued to hinder the implementation of the distance Ieaming program at Davis: 1) faculty concerns about the time demands of the distance Ieaming program; 2) lack of needed support structures, and; 3) poor communication with support staff. These forces of resistance have not been addressed by the institution and continue as a resistance to the implementation process of the distance Ieaming program. Faculty concerns regarding time demands. At Davis, faculty participants expressed significant concerns regarding the time demands of the distance teaming program. Faculty expressed two specific concerns about the distance Ieaming program. The first concern was the amount of time that was needed to prepare and deliver courses in the distance Ieaming format. Faculty commented that preparing for a distance Ieaming course is extremely time intensive and has to be approached in a new and unfamiliar fashion. The second concern dealt with the unique scheduling of the distance Ieaming courses. Distance Ieaming semesters overlapped with the traditional semesters, and as a result continue into the January and summer breaks. Faculty also expressed significant concern 136 regarding the impact the new distance Ieaming initiative has taken on scholarly research and writing. Similarly, the literature (Baldwin, 1998; Bates, 2000b; Cannell, 1999; Ehnnann, 1998; Gandolfo, 1999) suggested that teaching in a distance Ieaming format often takes a significantly greater amount of time than traditional face-to- face courses. Several faculty at DTS were very adamant about their frustration over the time expectations of administration. Some faculty commented that they could have over 200 emails in one week relating to a single distance education course. When the faculty member approached a senior level administrator about the time demands, they were told it was the nature of distance Ieaming and that the faculty member needed to respond to each email and discussion thread posting within twenty-four hours. Lack of needed support structures. While many new support structures and policies were created for the implementation of the new distance Ieaming program, participants commented that some structures were still missing. Distance Ieaming has brought unique challenges (i.e., copyright issues, student service issues, etc.) that still need new or updated policies and structures. Participants commented on areas such as: 1) more training and policies in the area of copyright and fair use restrictions; 2) lack of online student services (i.e., need for online registration, financial aid processing, online payment, etc.); 3) lack of faculty advising for distance Ieaming students; and, 4) feedback loops for assessment of student Ieaming and degree program goals. 137 Poor communication with support staff. The final theme that emerged from the data of this study as a force of resistance to the implementation of distance Ieaming was poor communication with support staff. Healthy and consistent communication is vital in any organization, but it is especially important during periods of change. While communication between and among faculty and administration has been very healthy at DTS, several participants commented on how communication of information to support staff has often been lacking. Effective communication is not just providing information in general, but providing specific details and making sure the information is communicated in a timely fashion. The lack of good communication with support staff has persisted throughout the implementation process and continues to cause resistance and challenges in the distance Ieaming program. While communication has been strong in many areas, lntemally and externally during the implementation process, it would appear that a core constituent has been left out of the communication circle. Senior level administration and all faculty regularly participate in monthly faculty meetings. The problem is that most support staff do not participate in faculty meetings, and as a result, fail to have opportunity to speak into or hear about the implementation process of the distance Ieaming program. As a result of the communication breakdown with support staff, multiple challenges have emerged that cause resistance to the distance Ieaming program. Some of the challenges are: 1) a lack of understanding for support staff of the primary and secondary objectives of the distance Ieaming program; 2) a breakdown in how support staff 138 are to present issues or concerns relating to the distance Ieaming program; and, 3) an inability of support staff to convey consistent messages to students about the distance Ieaming program. As a result of this communication breakdown, support staff often feel like second-class citizens. The natural outcome of this breakdown of communication is an eventual breakdown in the professional relationships between faculty, administration, and support staff personnel, which in turn impact the effectiveness of implementing a change process. Managing the Tensions Even basic changes in higher education organizations often result in the creation of tension. DTS experienced such tensions during the implementation process of the distance Ieaming program. While some of these tensions (i.e., fear of technology, lack of support structures, etc.) have been addressed and relieved to varying degrees, some have continued (i.e., poor communication with support staff, impact on faculty time for research and writing, etc.). At DTS, participant data were not conclusive concerning how tensions have been managed. Given that the program has been functional for less than three years, it was difficult to determine any definitive categories for how DTS is managing the tensions of implementing a distance Ieaming program. Overall, the institution is still in the midst of wrestling with multiple areas (i.e., scheduling, resource allocation, support services, time demands of distance Ieaming, etc.) and more time is needed to determine the final outcome. 139 Discussion Over the past decade, growth of distance Ieaming courses and programs has been staggering (NCES). Last year well over three million students were enrolled in distance Ieaming courses for credit (NCES). Dolence and Norris (1995) vehemently argue that institutions of higher education must wrestle with what role distance Ieaming will play at their organization or face possible extinction. Graduate theological education is not exempt from having to wresting with the issues of distance Ieaming as well (Cannell, 1999; Delamarter, 2005). While a significant amount of literature exists that addresses various issues of distance Ieaming in higher education in general and graduate theological education specifically (Cobb, 1997; Clark, 1994; Ehnriann, 1995; Phipps & Merisotis, 1999; Saba, 1999; Twigg, 2001), literature is lacking that addresses the processes by which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. The following paragraphs will outline some key values that may be helpful for organizations considering change. Value of Using a Systems Approach While systems thinking is not a new concept (Bolman & Deal, 1997; Bergquist, 1992; Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Kotter, 1996; Senge, 1990), it would appear that many organizations fail to implement change from a systems perspective. Given the very nature of higher education in general and graduate theological education specifically one is able to see why this takes place. Higher education has a tradition of placing an emphasis on specialization rather than generalization. Most graduate theological schools have fragmented departments 140 (i.e., exegetical, theological, ministry, etc.). The result is often a struggle to find opportunities to synthesize and focus on the whole. While systems thinking is challenging for most institutions, it becomes an even a greater challenge when attempting to implement change. The value of a systems approach when implementing change is that it allows an institution to see how all the various parts make up the whole and the unique interactions that take place between the parts. Eckel and Kezar (2003) outlined the value of creating “connections and synergy" when implementing change. Graduate theological schools that can identify and create linkages among various departments and activities will be better served in creating and sustaining change momentum. In this research, systems thinking was evident in the strategic planning process. During this process multiple constituents gathered to focus on how multiple units in and outside the organization could come together to best serve the needs of the denomination. Implementing a distance Ieaming program needs to be more than just a faculty, administrator, or support staff activity. Systems thinking argues that the implementation process is better served when it is a synthesis of key departments and constituents that is representative of the whole organization. Senge ( 1990) argued that Ieaming organizations make a shift of mind: from independence to inter-connectedness. People in a Ieaming organization are consistently looking for the causal loops and relationships. It is in these relationships that people are able to reflect on how to best leverage alignment 141 and test different ideas. Graduate theological schools may benefit from greater synergy within individual institutions but also in collaborative efforts among multiple institutions. Value of Using a Collaborative Process The importance of using a collaborative process when enacting a change, like the implementation of a distance Ieaming program, is documented (Bimbaum, 1992; Eckel & Kezar, 2003; Kotter, 1996; Lick, 2002; Lucas, 2000). A key finding in this study was that implementation processes that involve the creation of new programs or courses need to have top down support, from senior administrators, and the bottom up support, from faculty. The top down support from senior administrators is significant because they have access and influence over budgets and fund raising initiatives. The bottom up support is essential because faculty overseeing existing curriculum and the creation of new courses and degree programs. Similarly, Kliewer (1999) in her book entitled The Innovative Campus: Nurturing the Distinctive Learning Environment commented on the importance of having both “core” faculty members and senior administrators supporting an innovation. The core faculty members serve as models and mentors for other academics. When key faculty members support a new initiative it can quickly generate a cascading wave of reinforcement for the change initiative. In a similar fashion, the support of key administrators, when evidenced through fund raising, incentives, the reallocation of recourses, and changes to policies, serves to communicate a high level of interest in and support for the change initiative. 142 Value of Using a Hybrid Model In this research, the decision to use a hybrid model for the distance Ieaming program proved to be a significant factor in the implementation process. In the hybrid model at DTS, courses include twenty hours of face-to-face interaction. This interaction takes place during two week intensives each fall and spring semester. The hybrid model relieved concerns faculty had about the ability to facilitate spiritual and community formation in a distance Ieaming program. Similarly, Delamarter (2004) outlined several benefits of using a hybrid approach to distance Ieaming in graduate theological education. The first benefit of a hybrid model is it allows the strengths of each medium to be maximized. Delamarter argued that strategic decisions need to be made about the Ieaming objectives of each context. Achieving certain objectives will be more feasible when placed in either the distance Ieaming or the face-to-face context. Delamarter and Brunn (2005) suggested that hybrid models of Ieaming may be more conducive to ministry and spiritual formation. Distance Ieaming affords students the opportunity to remain in an established ministry context. Several benefits are present when students are allowed to remain in an existing community of faith. The first benefit is deep relationships are often already established and the community has a working knowledge of the candidate’s strengths and challenges. The second benefit is the student, and his or her family, will not have to experience the trauma of uprooting and relocating. The third benefit is that since students do not have to relocate they avoid the challenge of needing to find a new ministry context that not only fits their 143 theological and personal commitments, but is willing to allow a new person to have ample ministry opportunities (i.e., teaching, serving, leading, etc.). Value of Moving from Teaching to Learning This research affinns current literature in higher education (Banks, 1999; Barr & Tagg, 1995; Batson & Bass, 1996; Delamarter, 2004; Dolence, 1995; Gandolfo, 1999; Weimer, 2002) that is calling for a paradigm shift: moving from providing instruction to producing Ieaming. This study found that institutions may be better served when they approach distance Ieaming from a pedagogical perspective, rather than just a technology perspective. When faculty work through the pedagogical issues of moving from teaching to Ieaming they see the possibilities of distance Ieaming in a new fashion. Focusing on the pedagogical side allows some of the unique advantages of distance Ieaming to counter balance the fear and lack of comfort many faculty have concerning the use of technology. This study found that institutions working through change initiatives, are better served when they are teaming organizations at every level. This finding is also confirmed in literature (Barr & Tagg, 1995; Senge, 1990). Moving towards a Ieaming paradigm requires institutions to take responsibility for Ieaming at two levels: the organizational level and the individual level. In this case study, faculty development provided multiple opportunities for faculty to engage in Ieaming about pedagogical issues in general and facilitating Ieaming in distance education programs specifically. The individual Ieaming, that resulted from the 144 faculty development, helped foster an organizational context that, in turn, was more open and supportive to Ieaming as well. In summary, graduate theological schools that implement online distance Ieaming programs may be well served in the implementation process by using a systems approach. Balancing the factors that assist the implementation process (i.e., motivating factors, initiating factors, and confirming factors) is no small task. These factors help create a sense of urgency for change, action toward change, and serve to confirm the implementation process. Forces that hinder the implementation process may be diminishing forces or persisting forces. By managing these tensions graduate theological schools may be able to more skillfully and effectively implement distance Ieaming programs. Implications Distance Ieaming is making a significant impact on the face of higher education. How graduate theological schools choose to implement distance Ieaming will have significant ramifications. These ramifications will not only affect current and future students but also the faculty and administrators in graduate theological education. This research has implications for the following groups: faculty, administrators/staff, and accreditation associations. Recommendations for Faculty Graduate theological education faculty would be well served to grow in knowledge of and respect for the educational philosophies. Most biblical and theological faculty have had little training in educational theory and practice. This is not to say that biblical and theological faculty are not skilled as teachers and 145 facilitators of Ieaming. The challenge emerges when faculty attempt to reproduce what they have successfully accomplished in the traditional face-to-face classroom in an online format. The challenge with online distance education is seen by most faculty as being a technology issue when in truth it is more of a pedagogical issue (Delamarter, 2005). Faculty resistance to using technology and embracing distance teaming is well documented and confirmed in this study. Faculty concerns (i.e., time demands, fear of technology, concern about the quality of education, etc.) are well founded. Most faculty that teach in Bible and theology have minimal education in pedagogical theory. Graduate theological schools would be well served if faculty would pursue greater understanding and appreciation of some of the more recent theories on teaching and Ieaming. Recommendations for Administrators/Staff Senior level administrators are positioned in a key location to assist in the implementation of distance Ieaming in graduate theological education. Having this key location, however, is not sufficient by itself to successfully implement significant changes, such as distance Ieaming. Senior level administrators need to team to lead in truly collaborative fashions. Distance Ieaming initiatives impact a graduate theological school at too many levels (i.e., financial, pedagogical, support structures, accreditation issues, etc.) to simply be a directive mandated from the top down. Administration and staff will also benefit from becoming effective at systems thinking and developing the skills to reframe organizations and issues 146 from multiple perspectives. Distance Ieaming initiatives are far too complex to simply be viewed from just one perspective. Administrators need to create cultures that can effectively reframe issues and challenges from multiple perspectives in order to determine the best course of action. Recommendations for Accreditation Associations The findings of this study suggest that professional accreditation associations have significant influence in how graduate theological schools implement distance Ieaming programs. Through the standards of accreditation, especially standard ten, the Association of Theological Schools has a significant influence on how distance Ieaming will be developed and delivered. Having a consistent level of compliance for all ATS schools is beneficial but more work needs to be accomplished in how ATS understands and defines distance education. It would appear from the standards that the ATS is more focused on past technological and physical constraints of distance education, rather than exploring new and creative pedagogical models of Ieaming and how technology can assist in this activity. Accreditation associations need to engage in more research and publication in the area of distance Ieaming. Distance Ieaming is moving so quickly and new technology is developing so rapidly that publishing and reviewing the effectiveness of accreditation standards every decade is not sufficient. Accreditation bodies need to have a consistent and regular review process of standards in areas that are rapidly changing. 147 Limitations A limitation of this study is that research (i.e., participant interviews, documents analysis, etc.) was conducted at a single institution and this institution may not be representative of all graduate theological schools in North America and Canada. Additionally, the administrators/staff and faculty who participated in the study may not be representative of all administrators/staff and faculty in North America and Canada. A second limitation of this study is that, while the graduate theological school for this study was average in size compared to other ATS schools, it is not representative of some of the very large or much smaller schools in ATS. Furthermore, the institution studied was a graduate theological school within a specific denomination, and while the institution would be similar to many graduate theological schools, it would not be representative of all ATS schools. Since only one school was studied, generalizations from the findings must be limited to graduate theological schools with like characteristics. Suggestions for Future Research Although this study advances our understanding of the processes by which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs, further research needs to be conducted on this topic. First, since this research was conducted at a single institution, future research needs to be conducted at other institutions with differing faculty and student body sizes in order to determine how both smaller and larger schools implement online distance Ieaming programs. Second, more comparative research is needed that focuses on various graduate theological institutions both in the United States and 148 Canada. This would include schools from various denominational and non- denominationat backgrounds. It would also include graduate theological schools that are either connected with or independent from an undergraduate institution. Although most of the studies on distance education have focused on traditional higher education, this study focused on graduate theological education. More research is needed concerning the unique nature of graduate theological education and the hybrid model of distance learning. Research is needed that specifically explores the character and quality of hybrid distance Ieaming. Graduate theological education is unique from much of higher education due to its unique history and educational goals (Messer, 1995). Given this specific context, future research is needed to help answer if graduate theological education would benefit from a refined change model specific to the culture and needs of graduate theological education. Further research is also needed that explores the relationship between professional accreditation agencies and the implementation process of distance education programs at graduate theological schools. Delamarter (2005) indicated that professional accreditation agencies often lag behind and fail to adapt to the rapidly changing technologies available in distance Ieaming. Therefore, accreditation standards are often out-of-sync with the most current models of distance Ieaming and schools are left with ambiguity in understanding how to implement quality distance education while also meeting existing accreditation standards. 149 This study reached two primary conclusions. First, implementation of online distance Ieaming is assisted by the following types of factors: motivating, initiating and confirming. Second, implementation of online distance Ieaming faces resistance from the following types of forces: diminishing and persisting. Further research is needed to both validate the current findings, but, also to explore what additional factors of assistance and forces of resistance are present during the implementation of online distance Ieaming programs. Further research is also need to address the question of how institutions that implement distance teaming programs manage the tensions that are inherent between the factors that assist and the forces of resistance. Conclusions When graduate theological schools choose to implement online distance Ieaming programs, multiple challenges will surface. While these challenges are not insignificant, they are also not insurmountable. The context of change is messy and complex, but with disciplined planning and activity graduate theological schools can successfully implement online distance Ieaming programs. Based on the findings of this study, faculty and administrators/staff must team to understand the factors that can serve to assist (i.e., motivating factors, initiating factors, and confirming factors) the implementation process. Faculty and administrators/staff will also be well served to adequately respond to the forces of resistance (i.e., diminishing forces and persisting forces) that can hinder the effective implementation of online distance Ieaming programs. 150 Appendix A INTERVIEW PROTOCOL Organizational Change in Graduate Theological Education Note: While this is the basic interview protocol that will be followed, given the fact that the interview will be a conversation, some natural adjustments may take place during each individual interview. Introduction: This interview is being conducted to better understand the processes of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. You are entitled to ask detailed questions about the research, and I will provide detailed responses. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary and you may withdraw from the study at any time. Do you have any questions? If not, will you please sign the consent form so we can begin the interview? All participants, participant responses, and related institutions will remain confidential. The researcher will alter names and sensitive information to protect your identity and the identity of your institution. The interviews will be audio recorded, though the use of these tapes will be limited to the purpose of this study and will only be reviewed by myself and my advisor. The tapes will not be duplicated and will be destroyed two years after the end of the study. Subjects will be assured that the researcher is not looking for a “right answer" but rather a better understanding of the participant’s experiences and thoughts in relation to the following: Part A: Participant’s Role at XYZ Seminary 1. What is your title and role at XYZ seminary? 2. How long have you been employed here? In graduate theological education in general? 3. What role have you played in relation to the online distance education program at XYZ seminary? 151 Part B: The Online Distance Education Program Implementation Process 1. Tell me about how XYZ seminary decided to implement the online Master of Divinity distance education program? What factors encouraged the development of the online distance education program? What factors were barriers or obstacles to the development of the online distance education program? Who where the key supporters and opponents to the development of the program? In what specific ways did they support or oppose the process? How would you describe the overall impact of online distance education at XYZ seminary? Part C: Possible Key Supporting Factors and Key Forces of Resistance to the Implementation of Online Distance Education Programs (Probing Questions) 1. What were some of the key accomplishments during the implementation process of the online distance education program at XYZ seminary? a. During the development of the online distance education initiative in what ways was progress made visible and widely promoted? b. In what ways did the institution remain focused and committed to the online distance education process? 152 c. Did the institution run a pilot of the online distance education program? Who encouraged or hindered the implementation of the online distance education program at XYZ seminary? a. In what ways did senior administration assist or hinder the implementation of the online distance education program (i.e., providing resources)? b. In what ways has faculty assisted or hindered the implementation of the online distance education program? c. In what ways has the senior administration created new administrative structures to assist in the development of distance educafion? d. What were the key factors that led administration to implement online distance education? What were the key forces of resistance to the online distance education program? What steps were taken to assist faculty and staff during the implementation of the online distance education program at XYZ seminary?? a. What programmatic efforts did the institution make to help current and new individuals team skills and knowledge relating to online distance education? 153 How were the goals or objectives of the online distance program at XYZ seminary presented? a. In what ways did the institution present a clear and desirable picture of the future of the seminary and the role online distance education would play? b. In what ways did this picture include goals and objectives related to that future? c. In what ways did this new vision relate to the existing vision of the institution? How did the implementation process progress? a. What were key successes or setbacks during the implementation process? b. Who worked on the process? (i.e., who was involved, how were people involved) c. In what ways was the implementation process a team or collaborative process? (I. In what ways were those holding non-fonnat leadership roles involved in the implementation process from the beginning to the end? What other factors encouraged the implementation of the online distance education program? What was the role of students in the implementation process of the online distance Ieaming program? 154 10. Is there anything else you would like to share about implementation process or the online distance education program at XYZ seminary? 155 Appendix B CONSENT FORM Project Summary: The purpose of this project is to use qualitative techniques (document review and subject interviews) to examine the processes of organizational change through which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. Who is conducting this study? This study is being conducted as part of my (Peter G. Osborn) dissertation research, under the supervision of Dr. Ann E. Austin (my dissertation director/advisor at Michigan State University). Estimate of Subject’s Time: Your participation in this study will take approximately one to two hours and involve participating in an interview, reviewing a typed summary of the interview created by the researcher, and answering any follow up questions from the researcher by email or in a brief phone conversation. Voluntary Participation: As a subject your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You may refuse to answer any question at any time or even discontinue participation at any time during the study. The interviews will be tape recorded and transcribed verbatim. Confidentiality: All data from the interviews and the document sampling will be held in strict confidence and privacy by the researcher. Each participant’s identity and the identity of the graduate theological school will be kept confidential and any information that would identify either will be altered to protect the individuals and the institution. Access to participant responses and data from this study will be limited to my advisor (Dr. Austin), myself (Peter G. Osborn), and the transcriber. What are my rights as a participant? As a participant you are entitled to ask detailed questions about the research, and I will provide detailed responses. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary and you may withdraw from the study at any time. Do you have any questions? If not, will you please sign the consent form so we can begin the interview? 156 What will be published? The primary purpose of this study is to complete the dissertation requirement at Michigan State University. However, the findings from this study may also be disseminated through scholarly presentations and publications. Contact Person for More Information about Study: Peter G. Osborn Dr. Ann E. Austin, Professor 3921 Whirlwind Drive NE 430 Erikson Hall Rockford, Ml 49341 Michigan State University 616.222.1437 East Lansing, MI 48824 posborn@comerstone.edu 517.355.6757 aaustirflmsuedu For questions regarding participant’s rights: Dr. Peter Vasilenko Chair of the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) 202 Olds Hall East Lansing, MI 48824 517.355.2180 ucrihs@msu.edu Based on the above information, I agree to participate as a research subject in the project, “Organizational Change in Graduate Theological Education”. I understand that I may contact Peter Osborn or Dr. Ann Austin with any concerns or questions. Subject’s Name (printed) Date Subject’s Signature Date Researcher’s Signature Date 157 Appendix C INVITATION LETTER Dear ; At the recommendation of , I am contacting you to invite you to participate in a research project on the factors that have influenced the implementation of online distance education programs in graduate theological schools. Your involvement would be beneficial because of your experience in graduate theological education and the perspective you offer in relationship to the processes by which some graduate theological schools implement online distance education programs. This study is part of my doctoral dissertation in Higher, Adult, and Lifelong Education (HALE) Ph.D. program at Michigan State University. Your participation would: involve one interview that would last for approximately ninety minutes and in certain situations a follow-up contact for clarification after the initial face to face interview. I will contact you within the next several days to see if you would be available and willing to participate. I can be reached by e-mail at posborn@cornerstone.edu or by phone at (616) 222-1437. You are also welcome to contact my project advisor, Dr. Ann Austin at aaustin@su.edu. Thank you for taking the time to consider participating. Sincerely, Peter G. Osborn Doctoral Student Higher, Adult, and Lifelong Education Michigan State University 158 Appendix D PARTICIPANT INFORMATION FORM Dear (Participant Name), So that I may contact you as needed for this study, please complete the following information. To maintain confidentiality of participants, this information will be kept separate from the other study data in a secure location. Thank you. Name: Title: School: Preferred Method of Contact: _ Phone: Day: Evening: _ Email: _ Written Correspondence: Address: City: State, Zip Please select a pseudonym that I can use in place of your name in this study: 159 Appendix E IMPLEMENTATION TIMELINE moo_~ 0:2. meow. octaw meow :.o:ms. voom ...oLNS. meow Loch>oz meow $5200 A _ _ _ _ _ _ moon .0 :o_.m:_m>o Smack. .5 on... 522.5 3228 852.3 9.3 ..m. :_ ._m_> cum Emacs. 9... n6 .9053 283 m 5236 .>5..2 .5 6:“. $58 45 .8... 68:8 53 60:36 Em:.E_.oa .5.— cn 2 mm; 858 .o BEE: m...< ocm 8959: 562.8 m..< 20.58 .5 .2... c... 45 9.. -EE $338 #6583 .9... ncm :38 Lo. .9995 meEow .5 283 >555sz “.o .3058: w...< «Ewan m...< 8cm Lax—.582 88.19... .88 “8:8 Sewage Sow 9.8%.. ooo~_ __m.._ . _ _ _ _ . v 5.5258500 8909a $959: E5388 8985 9.58. 825.530 ccm €2.95 .5 3c: 05 .>5..2 .5 m5 .3 883:8 cocmfic 5:.Emc. t .Ecan.c>c5 L2 5sz32: So 5696 Sc: .68. .2 5.. now: 3:86 5:825 5:30:50 :_ ES: Eco 26: woe: meEcm :o_.mbm_:.Enm 85%.: 5.3 .Eoan.c>on. a 028$ 350$ ccm 283.. 3:05 3.38“. 68.3% 9:3-..2 ..< 2.33 655m... goo". .839. 3:23:65 0.9395 @555 9:3 $53 a 2:583. 03 :mo 26:. €058.95 .:o=m:_Eo:ou EmLmoLn. xmm 9 E9328 :8 28m mLo>oo ..coEzooo Emom .258 553. mg: 32.8% 160 REFERENCES Amos, K. E. (1999). Report of the survey of ATS schools on educational technology and distance education. Theological education. 36, 1, 125-140. Aragon, S. R. (Ed.). (2001). Beyond access: Methods and models for increasing retention and teaming success among minority students [Special issue]. New Directions for Community Colleges, 112. Argyris, C. (1982). How Ieaming and reasoning processes affect organizational change. In Goodman (Ed.), Change in organizations. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass. Argyris, C. (1994). On organizational learning. Oxford, England: Blackwell. Association of Theological Schools. (2005). Bulletin 46. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Baldwin, R. G. (1998). Technology's impact on faculty life and work. New directions for teaching and learning. Winter, 76, 7-21. Banks, R. (1999). Reenvisioning theological education: Exploring a missiona/ alternative to current models. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Bama, G. (2004). A new generation of pastors palces its stamp on ministry. Retrieved June 12, 2005, from The Bama Group web site http://www.bama.org/FIexPage.aspx?Page=BamaUpdate&BamaUpdatel D=158 Barr, R., & Tagg, J. (1999). From teaching to Ieaming: A new paradigm for undergraduate education. In J. L. Bess & D. S. Webster (Eds), Foundations of American Higher Education. Need ham Heights, Massachusetts: Simon 8. Schuster Custom Publishing. Bates, A. W. (2000a). Giving faculty ownership of technological change in the department. In, Leading academic change: Essential roles for department chairs. Edited by: Lucas, A. F. & Associates. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Bates, A. W. (2000b). Managing technology change: Strategies for college and university leaders. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Batson, T., & Bass R. (1996). Primacy of process: Teaching and Ieaming in the computer age. Change. March/April, 28, 42-47. 161 Bender, T., 8. Schorske, C. E. (1997). American academic culture in transformation: Fifty years, four disciplines. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Bergquist, W. H. (1992). The four cultures of the academy: Insights and strategies for improving leadership in collegiate organizations. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Bimbaum, R. (1992). How academic leadership works. San Francisco, California: Jossey—Bass Publishers. Bimbaum, R. (1988). How colleges work: The cybernetics of academic organization and leadership. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Bolman, L. & Deal, T. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Bower, B. L., & Hardy, K. P. (2004). From correspondence to cyberspace: Changes and challenges in distance education. New Directions for Community Colleges, Winter, 128, 5-12. Bowers, P. (1982). Accreditation as a catalyst for renewal in theological education. In, Evangelical theological education today: Agenda for renewal. Edited by: Bowers, P. Nairobi, Kenya: Evangel Publishing House. Bridges, W. (1980). Transitions. Boston, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Brown, J. S. (2000). Growing up digital: How the web changes work, education, and the ways people team. Change, March/April, 11-20. Burns, J. (1999). Transforming Leadership. New York, New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. Cannell, L. (1999). A review of literature on distance education. Theological education. 36, 1, 1-72. Carter, P., 8. Alfred, R. (1998). Breaking out of the box: Making change happen. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The Consortium for Community College Development. Carter, P., & Alfred, R. (1996). Breaking out of the box: New colleges for a new century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The Consortium for Community College Development. 162 Cheldelin, S. l. (2000). Handling resistance to change. In, Leading academic change: Essential roles for department chairs. Edited by: Lucas, A. F. & Associates. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Chute, A. 6., Thompson, M. M., 8. Hancock, B. W. (1999). The McGraw-Hi/l handbook of distance learning. New York, New York: McG raw-Hill. Clark, R. (1994). Media will never influence Ieaming. Educational technology research and development. 42, 2, 21-29. Clark, B. R. (1998). Creating entrepreneurial universities: Organizational pathways of transformation. Great Britain: IAU Press. Cobb, T. (1997). Cognitive efficiency: Toward a revised theory of media. Educational technology, research and development. 45, 4, 21 -35. Collins, J. C. 8. Porras, J. l. (1997). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, New York: Harper-Collins Publisher. Conner, D. R. (1992). Managing at the speed of change: How resilient managers succeed and prosper where others fail. New York, New York: Villard Books. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Catifomia: Sage Publications. Cyrs, T. E. (Ed.) (1997). Teaching and learning at a distance. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey—Bass Publishers. Daniel, J. (1997). Why universities need technology strategies. Change. July/August, 11-17. Daniel, J. (1996). Mega-universities and knowledge media: Technology strategies for higher education. London: Kogan Page Limited. Davies, P. (1999). A new Ieaming culture? Possibilities and contradictions in accreditation. Studies in the Education of Adults, 31, 1, 10-20. Delamarter, S. (2005). Theological educators, technology and the path ahead. Teaching Theology and Religion, 8, 1, 51 -55. Delamarter, S. (2004). A typology of the use of technology in theological education. Teaching Theology and Religion, 7, 3, 134-140. 163 Delamarter, S., & Brunn, D. L. (2005) Theological education and hybrid models of distance Ieaming. Theological education, 40, 2, 145-164 Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Catifomia: Sage Publications. Dey, E. L. 8. Hurtado, S. (1999). Students, colleges, and society: Considering the interconnections. In, American higher education in the twenty-first century: Social, political, and economic challenges. Edited by Altbach, P.G., Berdahl, R.O., & Gumport, P.J. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. Dingman, R. W. (1994). In search of a leader: The complete search committee guidebook (2nd ed.). Westlake Village, Catifomia: Lakeside Books. (Original work published 1989) Dolence, M. (1995). Transforming higher education: A vision for learning in the 218‘ century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Society for College and University Planning. Drucker, P. E. (1994). The age of social transformation. Atlantic Monthly. 274 (5): 53-80. Duck, J. D. (1993). Managing change. Harvard Business Review. November/December, 55-81. Eckel, P. D., & Kezar, A. (2003). Taking the reins: Institutional transformation in higher education. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. Ehnnann, S. (1995). Asking the right questions. Change. March/April. 20-27. Ehrrnann, S. (1999). Asking the hard questions about technology use and education. Change. March/April. 25-29. Ehrrnann, S. (1998). Using technology to transform the college. New Directions for Community Colleges. Spring. (101). 27-33. Farley, E. (1983). Theo/ogia: The fragmentation and unity of theological education. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press. Ferris, R. W. (1990). Renewal in theological education: Strategies for change. Wheaton, Illinois: Billy Graham Center. Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 164 Gandolfo, A. (1999). “Brave new world? The challenge of technology to time- honored pedagogies and traditional structures”, New Directions for Teaching and Learning. Winter. Gilbert, S. W., 8: Ehnnann, S. C. (2002). Dealing with technology: Administrative issues. In, Field guide to academic leadership: A publication of the national academy for academic leadership. Edited by: Diamond, R. M. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Green, M. F. (1997). Institutional leadership in the change process. In, Transforming higher education: Views from leaders around the world. Edited by: Green, M.F. Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press. Green, M. F., 8. Hayward, F. M. (1997). Forces for change. In, Transforming higher education: Views from leaders around the world. Edited by: Green, M. F. Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press. Green, K. (1996). The coming ubiquity of informational technology. Change. March/April. Greenleaf, R. K. (2004). Who is the servant-leader? In, Practicing servant- Ieadership: Succeeding through trust, bra very, and forgiveness. Edited by: Spears, L. 0., Lawrence, M., & Bennis, W. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey—Bass Publishers. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the power of emotional intelligence. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press. Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In, Handbook of qualitative research. Edited by: Lincoln, Y.S. Thousand Oaks, Catifomia: Sage Publications. Gumport, P. J., & Chun, M. (1999). Technology and higher education: Opportunities and challenges for the new era. In, American higher education in the twen ty-first century: Social, political, and economic challenges. Edited by Altbach, P. G., Berdahl, R. 0., & Gumport, P. J. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. Hanna, D. E. (2000). Higher education in an era of digital competition: Choices and challenges. Madison, Wisconsin: Atwood Publishing. Hannum, W. (2002). Technology in the Ieaming process. In, Field guide to academic leadership: A publication of the national academy for academic leadership. Edited by: Diamond, R. M. San Francisco, Catifomia: Jossey- Bass Publishers. 165 Harcleroad, F. F. (1999). The hidden hand: External constituencies and their impact. In, American higher education in the twenty-first century: Social, political, and economic challenges. Edited by Altbach, P. G., Berdahl, R. 0., & Gumport, P. J. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. Jackson, W. C. (1997). A brief history of theological education including a description of the contribution of Wayne E. Oates. Review and expositor. 94, 503-520. Johnson, M., Hanna, 0., and Olcott, D. (Eds.). (2003). Bridging the gap: Leadership, technology, and organizational change for deans and department chairs. Madison, Wisconsin: Atwood Publishing. Johnstone, D. B. (1997). The United States. In, Transforming higher education: Views from leaders around the world. Edited by: Green, M. F. Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press. Judin, H. (1957). A history of the Council of Trent. London, England: Nelson. Keegan, D. (1996). Foundations of distance education. London: Routledge. Kett, J. F. (1994). The pursuit of knowledge under difficulties: From self- improvement to adult education in America, 1 750-1990. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. Kezar, A. J. (2001). Understanding and facilitating organizational change in the 21St century. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, Volume 28, 4. San Francisco, California: Jossey—Bass Publishers. Kliewer, J. R. (1999). The innovative campus: Nurturing the distinctive learning environment. Phoenix, Arizona: The Oryx Press. Kotter, J. (1996). Leading change. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press. Kotter, J. P., & Cohen, D. S. (2002). The heart of change: Real-life stories of how people change their organizations. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press. Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (1988). The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Lamb, A. C. (1999). Virtual sandcastles: Teaching and learning at a distance. Emporia, Kansas: Vision to Action. 166 Levy, A., & Merry, U. (1986). Organizational transformation: Approaches, strategies and theories. New York, New York: Praeger. Lick, D. W. (2002). Leadership and change. In, Field guide to academic leadership: A publication of the national academy for academic leadership. Edited by: Diamond, R. M. San Francisco, California: Jossey—Bass Publishers. Lucas, A. F. (2000). A teamwork approach to change in the academic department. In, Leading academic change: Essential roles for department chairs. Edited by: Lucas, A. F. & Associates. San Francisco, California: Jossey—Bass Publishers. Marsden, G. M. (1996). The soul of the American university: From Protestant establishment to established nonbelief. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. McGreal, R. (1997). The intemet: A Ieaming environment. In T. E. Cyrs (Ed.), Teaching and learning at a distance: What it takes to effectively design, deliver, and evaluate programs (pp. 67-74). San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education (2nd ed.). San Francisco, California: Jossey—Bass Publishers. Merriam, S., 8. Caffarella, R. (1999). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (Second Edition). San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Messer, D. E. (1995). Calling church & seminary in the 21St century. Nashville, Tennessee: Abingdon Press. Milam, J., Voorhees, R. A., & Bedard-Voorhees, A. (2004). Assessment of online education: Policies, practices, and recommendations. New Directions for Community Colleges, Summer, 126, 73-85. Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Moore, M. G., & Thompson, M. M. (1997). The effects of distance Ieaming. ACSDE Research Monograph. University Park, Pennsylvania: American Center for the Study of distance Education, Pennsylvania State University. Morgan, G. (1997). Images on organizations. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. 167 Musselwhite, C. (2003). Managing change: Styles, stages, and effective leadership for academic leaders. In, Bridging the gap: Leadership, technology, and organizational change for deans and department chairs. Edited by: Johnson, M. J., Hanna, D. E., & Olcott, D. Jr. Madison, Wisconson: Atwood Publishing. Newman, F., Couturier, L., & Scurry, J. (2004). The future of higher education: Rhetoric, reality, and the risks of the market. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Niebuhr, R. H., Williams, D. D., & Gustafson, J. M. (1957). The advancement of theological education. New York, New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers Novak, R. J. (2002). Benchmarking distance education. New Directions for Higher Education, Summer, 118, 79-92. Phipps, R., & Merisotis, J. (1999). What’s the difference? A review of contemporary research on the efiectiveness of distance learning in higher education. Washington, D. C.: The Institute for Higher Education Policy. Ramage, T. R. (2002). The “no significant difference”phenomenon: A literature review. Retrieved July 22, 2005 from the University of Southern Queensland at http://www.usq.edu.au/electpuble- jistldocslhtml2002/ramage.html Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of innovations. 4th ed. New York, New York: Free Press. Rudolph, F. (1978). Curriculum: A history of the American undergraduate course of study since 1636. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Russell, T. L. (1999). The no significant difference phenomenon. Raleigh, North Carolina: North Carolina State University. Saba, F. (1998). Is distance education comparable to "traditional" education? Distance Education Report. 3, May. Schein, E. H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership (Second ed.). San Francisco, California: Jossey—Bass Publishers. Schuller, T. (1995). The changing university?. Buckingham, Britain: Open University Press. Scott, W. R. (1998). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open systems. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 168 Seid man, I. (1998). Interviewing and qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. New York, New York: Teachers College Press. Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization. New York, New York: Currency Doubleday. Stackhouse, M. L. (1988). Apologia: Contextualization, globalization, and mission in theological education. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Swail, W. S., & Kampits, E. (2001). Distance education and accreditation. New Directions for Higher Education, Spring, 1 13, 35-48. Twigg. C. A. (2001). Innovations in online Ieaming: Moving beyond no significant difference. The Pew Symposia in Learning and Technology. US. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics. (1997). Distance education at postsecondary education institutions (NCES Publication No. 2000-013). Washington, DC. Verduin, J. R. Jr., & Clark, T. A. (1991). Distance education. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Virkler, H. A. (1992). Choosing a new pastor: The complete guide. Nashville, Tennessee: Oliver Nelson. Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Williams, M. L., Paprock, K., & Covington, B. (1999). Distance learning: The essential guide. London, Britain: Sage Publications. Willis, 3., (Ed.) (1994). Distance education: Strategies and tools. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Zusman, A. (1999). Issues facing higher education in the twenty-first century. In, American higher education in the twenty-first century: Social, political, and economic challenges. Edited by Altbach, P. G., Berdahl, R. O., & Gumport, P. J. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. 169 EEEEEEEEEEEEEE lllllllllljlljllIllllllllllllllllllIlll 3 02845 1346