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ABSTRACT

A DESCRIPTION OF THE USE OF A VALUE CLARIFICATION

APPROACH IN THE TEACHING OF EARTH SCIENCE CLASSES
BY
Virginia M. Chamberlain

Whether one looks to John Dewey's comment that all
education has a moral purpose or at the more recent com-

ment of Charles Silberman who, in his book Crisis In The

 

Classroom, said that "The job of the educator is to teach
in such a way as to convert ideas about morality into moral
ideas," the issue of the role values should play in instruc-

tion is one of abiding concern. This concern, coupled with

 

another educational concern which has had renewed atten—
tion—-the need for equal emphasis upon both cognitive and
affective instructional objectives--poses central issues
for the review and synthesis of approaches designed to
foster the clarification of values and student choices or
valuing about those educational experiences which they
face in schools.

Although any subject in the curriculum should be
equally concerned about the role values play, this concern

is uniquely appropriate to modern science education.

 

Virginia M. Chamberlain

Modern technology, an outgrowth of scientific erudition,
has come under attack in recent years. Lack of clear
understanding about the effects of technology and a corre-
sponding lack of application of "moral" issues--be1iefs,
attitudes, values--has often resulted in the tendency to
act upon or utilize scientific knowledge because it was
possible to do so——regardless of whether the action was
desirable.

In this descriptive study, a value clarification
approach-—based primarily on the work of Louis Raths,
Merrill Harmin, and Sidney B. Simon, as reported in the

book, Values and Teaching-~was used for a three month pe-

 

riod in the author's instruction of four earth science
classes in a medium—sized rural school. Two major con-
cerns were of interest:

1. Does a value clarification approach lead to in-
creased valuing of science as a meaningful part
of daily life, and

2. Does a value clarification approach lead to in-
creased student respect for, and use of, diver-
gent questioning patterns?

A variety of strategies are discussed in the re-
view of the literature; the appropriate concerns raised by
various learning theories are also considered. In the
methods actually employed by the researcher, various strat-

egies, as reported, is for the integration of cognitive and

 

Virginia M. Chamberlain

affective objectives rather than emphasis upon one area at
the expense of the other.

Evaluation of the strategies used was based upon ob-
servations and upon opinionnaire data collected by means of
instruments designed by the researcher. No attempt was
made to provide "normative" evaluation which would permit
generalizations to other situations. From the evaluation,
the following findings emerged:

1. Girls increased in their perception of relationships
between the study of science and the problems of their
daily lives. Boys did not change in this respect; the
perception of positive relationships were at the same
level for both boys and girls by the end of the experiment.

2. Boys showed an increase in action activities re-
lated to science, e.g., voluntary science demonstrations
in class and voluntary participation in ecological issues
arising within the local community.

3. Girls showed increases in cognitive data collecting
activities, e.g., reading of articles, the bringing to
class of newspaper clippings, and letter—writing aimed at
either the collection of materials or at ecological issues
upon which they wished to express a point of View.

In conclusion, analysis of this experimental and
initiatory use of a value clarification approach led to
some concern on the part of the researcher as to whether

the effects of any teaching strategy or method are

Virginia M. Chamberlain

measurable in terms of changed student behaviors as a cri-
teria of success, i.e., is it the method which leads to
changes or is it the changed behaviors and perceptions on
the part of the teacher which arise through use of a method.
Regardless of the answer to this moot question, the value-
clarification approach appears to be deserving of additional
attention by educators interested in exploring ways of ef-

fectively providing for both affective and cognitive goals.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE USE OF A VALUE CLARIFICATION

APPROACH IN THE TEACHING OF EARTH SCIENCE CLASSES

BY

Virginia M. Chamberlain

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1971

 

To everything there is a season,
and a time to every purpose

- Ecclesiastes 3:1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . .
Significance of the Study. . . .
Focus of the Study . . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . .
Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . .

II.

Definition of Terms. .
Organization and Reporting of the Study.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON VALUES AND
TEACHING WITH A FOCUS ON A VALUE CLARIFI-

CATION APPROACH. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . .
The Traditional View of values and the
Teaching Function. . . . . . . . . . . .

A Review of Science Methods and Values
in Teaching. .

Changing Concepts of Science Methods

and Values in Teaching . . . . .
Teaching Science with a Value Clarifi—
cation Approach. . .
Values and the Valuing Process . .
Values and Teaching in the Open Environ—
ment . . . . . .

Value Clarification and Science Teaching

Value Clarification and Classroom Climate.

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

22

29

38

43

59
61

67
74

87

Chapter

III. METHODS AND APPROACHES USED IN TEACHING
SCIENCE WITH A VALUE CLARIFICATION APPROACH.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction of the Value Clarification
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Organization of Value-Related Content.
Organization of the Classroom. . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF A VALUE CLARIFICATION
METHOD IN EARTH SCIENCE CLASSES. . .

Introduction . . . . . . .
Observational Information. . . . . . .
Opinionnaire Results . . . . . . .
Use of Classroom Reaction Forms. . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . .

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX Examples of Materials Used in the
Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example I: "Lost on the Moon: A
Decision—Making Problem".
Example II: "Strip— Mining Scars
Appalachia" . . . . .
Example III: Action: "Mining in

Minnesota Boundary Waters Canoe Area"
Resources and Materials

Example IV: Zig Zag. . . . . . . .

Example V: Value Sheet "More than

Minerals" . .

Example VI: "Youth' 5 Bill of Rights" .
Example VII: "Values Grid". . .
Example VIII: "7- -Criteria of Values"
Example IX: "Truthfulness" . .
Example X: "Using the 16— Forced Choice

Item Exercise" . . . . . .

o

Page

89

89

94
114
115
117
117
119
122
128
136
137
137
137
138

143

150

150
157

163
164
168

170
171
174
175
176

177

Table

l.

10.

LIST OF TABLES

Approaches For The Study Of Each Unit. . . . .
Approaches For The Study Of Each Unit. . . .
Approaches For The Study Of Each Unit. . . .

Chronological Order of Activities and Clarifi-
cation Techniques Used . . . . . . . . . . . .

Group I Changes in Satisfaction as Measured by
Pre-test and Post-test Responses on Classroom
Reaction Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Group II Changes in Satisfaction as Measured
by Pre—test and Post-test Responses on Class-
room Reaction Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Group III Changes in Satisfaction as Measured
by Pre—test and Post-test Responses on Class—
room Reaction Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Group IV Changes in Satisfaction as Measured
by Pre-test and Post-test Responses on Class-
room Reaction Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Changes in Satisfaction of Students as Measured
by Pre-test and Post-test Responses on Class-
room Reaction Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Scores on Space Problem . . . . . .

Page
95
96

97

98

131

132

133

134

135

153

 

LIST OF F IGURES

Figure Page
1. The Value Clarification Process to Learning . . 105
2. Applying the Valuing Method . . . . . . . . . . 106
3. Applying the Scientific Method. . . . . . . . . 107

vi

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

In spite of all the fashionable rhetoric about
this era of revolutions, we are running down a new road;
there can be no return by the old route. Whether our
journey is marked by violent confrontation or accomplished
in quiet dignity, changes in human affairs are taking place
at an ever more rapid pace. Paul DeHart Hurdl has labelled
the scientific and technological revolutions as cultural
mutations. Hurd further states that now is the time for
the age of science to come forth and help bridge the gulf
between yesterday's world, today's world and the world of
the future.

Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner2 echo the

above concern and stress the incredible task of preparing

 

lPaul DeHart Hurd, "Scientific Enlightenment for
the Age of Science," The Science Teacher, Vol. 37, No. 1
(Jan., 1970), p. 13.

 

2Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner, Teaching
As a Subversive Activity (New York, Delacorte Press, 1970),
p. 208.

 

youth for their world-—the world of the future. How should
children be educated for an environment in which the pri—
mary condition is that of change? How many traditional
concepts are needed to provide a bridge from yesterday to
today and to the future? Postman and Weingartner see it
this way:

Survival in a rapidly changing environment depends
almost entirely upon being able to identify which

of the old concepts are relevant to the demands im—
posed by the new threats to survival, and which are
not. Then a new educational task becomes critical:
getting the group to unlearn (to "forget") the irrela-
vant concepts as a prior condition to learning. What
we are saying is that "selective forgetting" is nec—
essary to survival.

 

Is our first task, then, to look to the environ-
ment-~to the technologically produced changes which have
impacted upon it--to determine the body of knowledge nec-
essary to bridge these gaps? Is it the task of the sci-
entist to weed the irrelevant old concepts from the abyss
of accumulated knowledge? Is our education at the same
crisis-survival level as that of our environment?

Charles Silberman has said that education:4

. . . is inescapably a moral as well as intellectual
enterprise. "The moral purpose," as John Dewey empha-
sized in his neglected little classic, Moral Princi-

ples in Education, is "universal and dominant in all
instruction--whatsoever the topic.

 

 

31bid., p. 208. Italics added for emphasis.

4Charles Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom, (New
York, Random House, 1970), pp. 8-9.

Silberman is not inferring that education should be moral—
istic.

Talking about morality, honesty, or kindness in no way
insures that people will act morally, honestly, or
kindly. The job of the educator is to teach in such

a way as to convert ideas about morality into moral
ideas. What educator's must realize, moreover, is

that how they teach and how they act may be more impor—
tant than what they teach. The way we do things, that
is to say, shapes values more directly and more effec-
tively than the way we talk about them.5

However, Silberman is candid in pointing to the need for a
purposeful education. The time-line of our lives does not
allow for rediscovery of all knowledge. Therefore, it is
evident that education must not depend upon a casual, hap-
hazard process of learning.

Charles Silberman strikes at the heart of the edu-
cational problem and at the heart of the educator with

this indictment of the public school:6

It is not possible to spend any prolonged period
visiting public school classrooms without being
appalled by the mutilation visible everywhere--muti-
lation of spontaneity, of joy in learning, or plea-
sure in creating, of sense of self.

To many educators there are two separate entities
in the teaching function, there is a practicing dichotomy

between subject matter (or the "cognitive" domain) and

 

51bid., p. 9.

6Ibid., p. 10.

 

thoughts, feelings (or the "affective" domain). William
Boyer7 suggests that the school, because of the fragmenta-
tion and isolation of knowledge into separate compartments
coupled with the traditional pressure to transmit this
knowledge, has perpetuated ignorance of the needs of the
child. It has also perpetuated the "existing order." The
attitude that any specific body of knowledge, per se, is
necessary for educating the young is now giving way to a
question as to how educational patterns have a vital con-
nection to human life today?

The traditional method of lecturing-—giving the
student what the teacher knows—-has been educating the
student for a world of the past, not the present. And
certainly, such techniques have not educated for the tech-
nological and science-oriented society of the future.

Science teachers are aware of how modern science
has made myths of our traditional educational goals and ap-
proaches in science and also has rendered much of our text-
book subject matter obsolete. If science educators are
aware of this credibility gap between school science cur-
riculum and society, why is the chasm continuing to widen?

Hurd8 states that, because science is integrated into all

 

7William H. Boyer, "Education for Survival," Phi
'Delta Kappan, Vol. LII, No. 5 (January, 1971), p. 258.

 

8Hurd, op. cit., p. 13.

phases of our culture, its significance as a part of gen-

eral education becomes more and more important. The pro-

blem according to Hurd is that:
. . . a majority of adults are unaware of or are mis-
informed about the meaning of science and its influ-
ences on the material, social, and intellectual life
of our time. As a result, they have little insight
into the meaning of problems which plague mankind
today--environmental pollution, poverty, disease,
overpopulation, and the management of leisure.

The scientist and the science teacher have concentrated on

the study of the natural world and have neglected inter-

preting or relating "pure" science to the issues created

 

by modern technology, and especially to its management for
the good of man.

To confront this dilemma, science educators and
curriculum designers must consider the connections between
science, technology, society and the individual. How can
the science curriculum directly relate science to the real
affairs of man and to human conditions? Certainly the sci-
ence curriculum must be remolded--the frame of reference
must be societal and personal. F. H. T. Rhodes9 reminds
us that we are aboard a relatively small spaceship--Earth-—
which we share with three and a half billion other members
of the human race. Demographers predict that, by the year

2000, seven billion people will be confronted with the

 

9F. H. T. Rhodes, "The Intellectual Value and Edu-
cational Advantage of Earth Science Studies," Journal of
Geological Education, Vol. XVIII, No. 5 (Nov., 1970),
p. 187.

 

exhaustion of known and predictable supplies of minerals
and fuels: "Nothing could be more relevant to the last
third of the twentieth century than the challenge of sur-
vival in a crowded world."109

If our major educational problem is how to prepare
young people to become happy, self-actualized individuals--
causal agents--in this historical change, our approach to
education must, indeed, be revolutionary.

Robert Gagne,ll in a recent article in the Phi

Delta Kappan, discusses the newer conceptions of learning

 

as being much more than connections and repetition. Learn—
ing must be highly analytical about "events that take place
in learning, both outside the learner and also inside."
Each learner approaches the learning task with his own
frame of reference, collection of perceptions, skills, and
needs; therefore, the task of instruction means more than
merely communicating something to be stored. Instruction
must stimulate the capacities the learner already possesses
and offer requisite experiences for both the task at hand
and for tasks of the future.

We are now at the dawn of at least two basic atti-

tudes of conceptual change: (1) the rejection of subject

 

l01bid., p. 188.

11Robert Gagne, "Some Views of Learning and
Instruction," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. LI, 9 (May, 1970),
pp. 469-472.

 

matter as the single most important aspect of the teaching
function and (2) the inclusion of value clarification tech—
niques as planned instructional activities by which to help
both students and teachers discover and clarify values for
their lives today as well as for a future point in time.
The traditional approaches to educating for values

(moralizing, persuading, imposing, inspiring, hoping, pass-
ing the buck to the school) have not worked too effectively.
One major reason has been the continual change in the Amer-
ican family. Often the home is a place of aimless gather-
ing and confusion (working mothers, broken homes, geograph—
ical mobility) rather than a haven for either value clari-
fication or the indoctrination of values. The traditional
inculcation or indoctrination of values is limiting (but
preferable to no value education at all). To persuade a
child to accept the "right" value is neglecting to help
the child develop a process for continuous valuing. In
John Gardner's words:12

All too often we are giving our young people cut flow-

ers when we should be teaching them to grow their own

plants. We are stuffing their heads with the products

of earlier innovations rather than teaching them to
innovate.

 

12John W. Gardner, Self Renewal: The Individual
and the Innovative Society (New York, Harper and Row,
Publishers, 1964), p. 21.

 

 

13

According to Raths, Harmin, and Simon, in Values

and Teaching, schools should include a procedure for inte-

 

grating the value clarification program within the total
curriculum. In this book, procedures are presented which
can be used with present programs by simply applying crit-
ical thinking techniques to matters that are mainly in the
affective domain.

The whole subject of values is complex. According
to Fay L. Corey,l4 "a value is an attitude, a standard, or
a belief which the individual has selected and reconstruc-
ted from the many concepts that beset him in his environ-
ment and the feelings that struggle within him." These are
the things people consider desirable. If the focus of edu-
cation is to be on the values and attitudes of students,
then educators must ask themselves what kind of attitudes
they wish students to consider desirable. How will we as-
sess what is happening in the interpersonal interactions
which occur? What kind of classroom environment is the
optimum "climate" and how do we measure it?

Traditionally teachers and school authorities have

established the classroom pattern, set the rules, and

 

3Louis Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney Simon,
Values and Teaching (Columbus, Ohio, Charles E. Merrill,
1966), p. 47.
l4Fay L. Corey, Values of Future Teachers: A study
of Attitudes Toward Contemporary Issues (New York, Bureau
of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University,
1955), P. 5.

 

 

 

called the plays. Herbert Kohl15 reminds us of the tidal-
wave of possible implications resulting from a changed set
of classroom priorities:

To have a free classroom is to present an environment

where many people can discover themselves, and there

is no simple set of rules to prescribe how this can

be created. There will always be the fear that one

is wrong in letting people choose their own lives

instead of legislating their roles in society.
Although Kohl's open classroom is revolutionary compared
to applying the principles of valuing to a traditional
program, we can still expect some tremors in the tradi-
tional foundation.

Raths, Harmin, and Simon16 refer to the value the-

ory, as outlined in their book, as a teaching theory,

 

which can be tested and evaluated in any classroom. Harmin,
Kirschenbaum and Simon have suggested that the science

classroom offers an ideal opportunity for focusing on val-

ues. As they have stated:17

The factual sufficed in an earlier, less complex and
confusing world, but today, with nuclear holocaust
just outside the window and the polluted atmosphere
already seeping in, we simply cannot afford to train

 

15Herbert R. Kohl, The Open Classroom (New York,
Random House, Inc., 1969), p. 115.

16

 

Rath, Harmin, Simon, op. cit., p. 8

l7Merrill Harmin, Howard Kirschenbaum, and Sidney
B. Simon, "Teaching Science with a Focus on Values," The
Science Teacher, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Jan., 1970), p. 17.

 

10

a generation of students who know the how and the why
of scientific phenomena, but do not hayE—a process—IBr
inquiring into the value issues raised by the topics
they study.
When we recall that science teachers have long been con—
cerned with the process of inquiry, or searching for con-
cepts and arriving at generalizations, it would seem fea—
sible to consider use of valuing processes to raise the
factual aspects of science to a deeper and broader under-
standing for the individual. Science teachers are also
aware that the teaching, testing, and talking about these
facts and concepts will not assure that higher level learn—
ing will be realized. If the subject matter of science is
looked at on three levels——facts, concepts, and values—-
a planned approach to the much neglected values area might

become a part of the science curriculum.

Statement of the Problem

 

The purposes of this study are (l) to describe the
use of a high school science teaching method centered upon
value clarification strategies, (2) to report on the ini-
tial use of this method in high school earth science clas-
ses, and (3) to report on apparent changes in behavior

after use of the method.

ll

Significance of the Study

 

The emphasis of this study on a humanistic ap—
proach to science teaching does not intend to neglect the
basic subject matter, concepts, laws, theories, and meth—
ods of science, i.e., can the necessary or expected sub—
ject matter be covered so that both cognitive and affec-
tive needs can be met? The aim, then, is to move to a
level of developing insights for more personal apprecia-
tion and valuing of the facts and concepts of science en—
countered by each individual student in the classroom.
This study attempts to evaluate the effect of the applica-
tion of the value clarification method in earth science
classes.

Young people have long been aware, in spite of
many new types of science curricula, that schools provide
science for science—-for a yesteryear and not for the pre—
sent conditions of this earth. We need an upgrading of
the discipline and in many cases great strides have been
made with the discipline—centered curricula. Little or
nothing, however, has been formulated for the integration
of science teaching and its application to the lives of
students. Many of the newer science curricula have looked
to the inquiry approach to bridge this gap——much more is
needed. If we View education as a change in behavior,

then young people must be given the opportunity to think

 

12

and question on their OWn; to consider, in a direct way,
what they believe and value. To arrive at this vital lev-
el within the classroom requires new approaches, unortho—
dox when compared to more traditional methods. The liter-
ature reveals research conducted at all levels of educa-
tion using various strategies of the value clarification
method. The values concept takes a focal point in many
studies of human behavior, and value clarification ap—
proaches do alter behavior patterns of students.

. . . l
Harmin, Kirschenbaum, and Simon, 8 have proposed

 

this means of moving school science into the "real world"
of students: "Values issues must become so much a part

of science teaching that almost no topic in any science

 

class will be taught without some opportunity to consider

 

the values implications for that content." These authors

 

suggest looking at subject matter as three levels: (1)

fact level or level one, (2) concept level or level two,

(3) values level or level three. They caution that values

as teachers sometimes presume, are not automatic by—

products of the teaching of facts and concepts. "There needs
to be a real connection with the students' lives, attitudes,
and feelings for the questions to be raised to the third

level, the values level."19

 

l81bid., pp. 16—20.

19Ibid., p. 18.

13

The strategies to accomplish the valuing process

20

are based on the book, Values and Teaching. Its thesis

 

is that we should not only define what values are, but

look hard at the process by which people acquire them.
Because values are a part of living, they often operate

in complex circumstances and involve more than simple good
and bad or right and wrong answers. Traditional approaches
to values (persuading and convincing, imposing regulations,
cultural and religious dogma, setting examples, appeals to
conscience, and limiting choices) have not been as success—
ful as we have hoped, primarily because they have the air

of indoctrination. In Values and Teaching, explicit pro-

 

cedures for integrating values with other classroom mate—
rials and with the total curriculum are presented. The
procedure could be objective, but eventually the values
approach leads to doing something about the topic studied.
As the authors have stated: "There are an infinite number
of topics in science that lends themselves to action pro—
jects." Hurd21 also speaks of the great need to widen the
science teaching picture to include the broad perspective
of the humanities. He states that the science classroom
must "challenge man to revise his social outlook and value
assumptions as new knowledge and technology extend the

range of what he can do."

 

2ORaths, Harmin, and Simon, op. cit., pp. 51—162.

21Hurd, op. cit., p. 15.

 

 

 

l4

 

Focus of the Study

 

After extensive review of the literature describ—
ing the use of the value clarification method and the care—

ful consideration of the learning process in the interrela-

 

tionships of the affective, cognitive, and psychomotor do—
mains, only two major concerns were selected for investiga-
tion. As a primary descriptive study, these concerns have
not been listed as formal hypotheses--no statistical opera-
tions are being used. The two concerns which are to be re—

ported upon, and evaluated, are:

 

1. Does use of a value clarification approach cause ap—
parent increases in student perceptions of personal respon-
sibility and involvement in the processes of science, par-
ticularly as related to classroom actions and local environ-
mental issues?

2. Does use of a value clarification approach encourage
a classroom climate more conducive to freedom of thought and

acceptance of divergent thinking?

Limitations of the Study

 

This study is restricted in scope. Major limita—
tions include:
1. Use of a method by one teacher (results may be re—
lated to the idiosyncratic behaviors of the teacher rather

than the method).

15

2. Use within only one subject area (the applicability
of the method to other areas cannot be assumed).

3. Use within only one secondary school environment
(the particular "climate" of the school being used may be
a factor although this can be neither assumed nor ignored).

4. Reliance upon descriptive techniques for reporting
of activities and observations. (Simple opinionnaire data
collected by self-constructed instruments are also present—

ed).

Assumptions of the Study

 

The basic assumption of this study is that the
teaching of science must involve an integrated approach
which gives equal emphasis to three levels of teacher ac-
tion and teacher-student interaction. These three levels
are: facts, concepts, and values. A further assumption
is that the emphasis of past or present teaching methods
has been primarily on the transmission of facts while re-
cent approaches have strengthened the inquiry approach
necessary for improving conceptual generalizations and
skills. Far less has been proposed for improving--or even
using--approaches designed to help students identify and
clarify values. In preparing a descriptive study of the
use of a value clarification method in earth science clas-
ses, the assumption was that students would become more
positive in their perceptions of the role of science and

its meaning in their everyday lives.

16

Definition of Terms

 

Writers in the area of values and science have
used a variety of definitions for the key words used in
this study. However, the following interpretations will
be used throughout the paper:

Facts (Level I) are defined as isolated incidents of 3
information or verbal learning. Science facts are means,
not ends.

Concepts (Level II) are defined as the application of
facts or generalizations (use of abstract thought) select—
ed in learning experiences. A statement of relationship
or generalization between two or more concepts is a prin—
ciple. The laboratory experiment is a demonstration in
the application of concepts and principles.

Values (Level III) are defined as the demonstration
of concepts, e.g., science laws, elevated to a personal
connection with students' lives, attitudes, and feelings.
Values are a conceptualized desirable standard that in—
fluences a person in choosing among alternative factors
faced in life. A. D. Woodruff22 states the definition
simply: "a value is any object, condition, or activity

which the individual feels has an effect on his well-being."

 

22A. D. Woodruff, "The Roles of Value in Human Be—
havior," Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. XXXVI (1952),
"p. 98.

 

 

 

17

Value clarification process is defined as the use of

 

strategies and techniques planned to help the individual
make value choices.

Value clarification method is defined as a teaching

 

theory using the value clarification process in an open
classroom (democratic) climate.

Clarifying responses are defined as statements oral

 

or written planned for the purpose of stimulating examin—
ation of existing values and value choices.

Open-classroom is defined as an environment where

 

democratic procedures are practiced and where students
are free to discover themselves and things that interest
them.

Traditional classroom is defined as an environment

 

where the teacher plans and directs the learning exper-
iences and where emphasis is placed almost solely on the
learning of subject matter.

Classroom climate in the formal, or psychological

 

sense, is measured by comparing the needs of the individ-
ual with the requirements or restrictions imposed upon
him-~the "press"—-of a situation. As used in this study
the climate of the classroom is used much as Andrew

Halpin described "climate,' i.e., as the subjectively
"felt personality" of a situation.

Traditional approaches are defined as the communica—

 

tion of facts and concepts by repetition as in lecturing

18

or by the inquiry approach to learning subject matter.
Science is defined as a truthful activity. It is the
formal ordering of a succession of facts into a network of
scientific laws. It also refers to understanding the func-
tion of concepts, laws and theories--the delicate sequences
and balances of the earth. J. Bronowski24 distinguishes
the humanness of science: "science is not a mechanism
but a human progress, and not a set of findings but the
search for them."

Technology is defined as a mechanical science. J.
25

 

Bronowski refers to technology as the body of technical

science without the spirit of science. Paul Goodman26
refers to technology as a branch of moral philosophy, not
of science. Scientific technology is a confusing term

related to the theoretical sciences and its treatment for

commercial and political purposes.

 

24J. Bronowski, Science and Human Values (New
York, Harper & Row Publiéfiérs, 1965), p. 63.

25

 

Ibid., p. 70.

26Paul Goodman, New Refgrmatign; Ngtes gf a Neg-

lithic Conservative (New York, Random House Publishers,
1970), PP. 12-13.

 

19

Organization and Reporting of the Study

 

Four earth science classes in a medium—sized rural
high school with an enrollment of approximately 700 stu-
dents were used as the experimental classes reported upon
in this study. These classes were composed entirely of
ninth-grade students; the earth science course is a re-
quired course.

The first half of the academic year was conducted
in the same manner as had been previously used by the teach-
er in other years. By beginning with the same format and
then, at a later point, introducing units and methods con-
cerned with value clarification, it is possible to make
comparisons. Such comparisons can be made regarding observ-
able changes in the behaviors of the student exposed to the
value clarification method; comparisons can also be made
by reference to the actions which had occurred in earlier
classes taught under traditional methods.

To assist in the description, evaluation, and re?
porting of the effects of the use of a value clarification
approach, the following steps were taken:

1. A diary was kept of the researcher's feelings and
reactions as the experimental teaching period progressed.
2. Other teachers, in other subject areas, who worked
with the same students, were asked to observe any changes

which might occur.

20

3. Occasions on which students became involved in iden-
tifiable "affective" behaviors, e.g., voluntary materials
provided for classroom use, involvement in outside-of—class
ecological issues, etc., were noted for purposes of compari-
son.

4. Two teacher-constructed instruments were used. Both
of these instruments were given before the use of the val-
ue clarification methods; both were reapplied at the con-
clusion of the three—month experimental period.

5. Students kept a daily record of classroom activities.
These records--kept on a class basis--were used for the re-
cording of classroom activities, student reactions, and stu—
dent feelings.

Reporting of the Study. This study is divided into

I

five chapters. In this chapter, Chapter I, the basic prob—

 

lem has been introduced and outlined. Terms have been iden-
tified and the scope of this descriptive study has been de—
fined.

In Chapter II, a review of the literature on values,
value clarification, and learning theory (as applicable to
the value clarification approach) has been given.

Methods and approaches which can be used for the
introduction of a value clarification approach in science
classes have been identified in Chapter III. Chapter III
also describes, in detail, the specific classroom proce—

dures and materials used by the author of this study in

 

21

working with the four earth science classes reported upon.
Chapter IV contains a descriptive analysis of the
observations and opinionnaire data used by the author as
a means of evaluating and reporting upon the effectiveness
of the use of value clarification strategies in the science
classroom. Chapter V provides a brief conclusion to the
research reported upon here and also gives some limited
consideration to the types of problems and issues which
should be considered in future efforts to evaluate such
issues as the effectiveness of the value clarification ap—
proach or the development of satisfactory classroom cli—

mate.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON VALUES AND TEACHING

WITH A FOCUS ON A VALUE CLARIFICATION APPROACH

Introduction
The deep unorganized examination taking place in

our nation today seems to be world wide. The perfections
of the moon landings have intensified and clarified the
images of imperfections on the earth—-particularly those
of the brotherhood of man. The picture of the amazingly
beautiful, tiny agate earth surrounded by the vastness of
space has projected clearly not only its uniqueness in the
universe, but its limitations as a spaceship. Michael
Collins1 observed the earth from his moonship and wrote
the following words:

Suddenly I knew what a tiny, fragile thing Earth is.

Such a little gem, such an incredible balance of the

universe's rarest ingredients, one that can be ruined

all the more easily just because it is so small. And

I determined in that moment that I would do all I

could to let people know what a wonderful home we

have—-before it is too late. There is only one Earth.

It is a tiny, precious stone. Let us treasure it;
there is not another one.

 

1Michael Collins, "The Garden of Earth," Guide—
posts, Vol. 26, No. 1, (March, 1971), p. 18.

22

 

23

Collins' View of the world was not fragmented or polarized;
he saw the whole world and sensed its basic needs. Philip
Handler2 has also outlined a thesis of basic universal
need:
I cannot help but believe that youthful protest is not
really addressed to its supposed targets--Vietnam, the
draft, the environment, even the ghetto. There is,
rather, a deep drive for an ultimate justice and moral-
ity.
How can understanding and purpose rise from today's turbu-
lent society? What is the line between purposeful, permis-
sible dissent and that which is destructive and unaccept-
able? Answers to the posed questions seem inherent to, and
are conditioned by, the values and social standards of to-
day. It is clear that American life--or universal life--
cannot retreat to the traditional attitudes and values of
the past. Society with its social standards and values
are in flux--in process. In Alvin Toffler's words:3
Indeed the future is arriving so swiftly that for all
practical purposes, we are superimposing a new, alien
culture with new values, esthetics, politics, sexual
roles, on top of the old. And we are doing it so fast
that we are creating cultural shock in our society--
future shock.
The basic question then,becomes one of how to guide youth

toward the process of dealing with a rapidly changing fu-

ture, with a new culture and with new values.

 

2Philip Handler, "The World We Want," The Science
Teacher, Vol. 37, No. 5 (May, 1970), P. 18.

3Alvin Toffler, "What is Happening to Our Lives
and Values Future Shock—-The Clue to Understanding, Detroit
Free Press (Aug. 9, 1970), p. 3.

 

 

24

Traditionally the school has backed away from val-
ue education responsibilities, assuming that was the task
of the church. Probably the lack of understanding of the
Supreme Court decisions on prayer and Biblereading in the
school has caused both teachers and administrators to fear
any reference to values or "moral" behaviors. The result
is that teachers have been concerned or comfortable only
with the teaching of facts and concepts. Simon and Harmin4
challenge traditional teachers to wrestle with the age old

problem of the real purpose of education by answering these

 

questions: Do the facts and concept deal in any way with
the current concerns of our society? How much of the stan-
dard subject matter is to be set aside to make room for
subject matter which speak to the times and to the stu-
dent's values? These authors stress the need to go beyond
facts and beyond Bruner's well presented concept level,
and above all, to integrate these two levels into a higher
third level--a values level--which penetrates the student's
life.

There is no question about the importance of sub-
ject matter. Students must be informed if they are to
make value choices. However, there should be deep and

abiding questions lurking in the conscience of every

 

4Sidney E. Simon and Merrill Harmin, "Subject
Matter With a Focus on Values," Educational Leadership,
Vol. 26, No. 1 (October, 1968), pp. 34-39.

 

25

educator: Has this information any personal, higher level
meaning to students? Robert Blume5 has this to say:

Education must include more than the acquisition of a
few more facts and a faster reading rate. It must be
the instrument through which people release the tre-
mendous creative potential that was born into all of
us. Whatever methods and materials are needed to do
the job——that is education. But this isn't enough.
We must also help our young to develop compassion,
concern for others, faith in themselves, the ability
to cooperate with others, the ability to maintain
good health, and above all, the ability to remain
open to other people and new experiences. This is
humanistic education.

Blume not only indicates that the teacher must bring know—
ledge as well as human values into the teaching function,
but the teacher must become "humane."

Perhaps one of the main difficulties facing tra—
ditional teachers today is the assumption that all humans,
particularly teachers, are humane. As Alburey Castell6
points out:

When someone asks, "What am I, anyway?" an excellent
answer is, "You are a rational animal." To make this
point clear I would involve the notion of responsible
doubts, questions, and denials, by analogy with re—
sponsible beliefs and knowledge—-claims."

Castell is saying that teachers, more than any other tribe,

have lost sight of the thesis that he reasons and can be

 

5Robert Blume, "Humanizing Teacher Education," Phi
Delta Kappan, Vol. LII, No. 7 (March, 1971), p. 411.

6Alburey Castell, "What it means to become Human:
The Rational Animal," in To Nurture Humaneness; edited by
Mary-Margaret Scobey and Grace Graham, (Washington D.C.:
Association Supervision and Curriculum Development, N.E.A.,
1970), P. 19.

 

 

26

reasoned with--that he is a rational animal. This seems
to be a strong statement against people in the business
of "getting to know." For further emphasis on loss of
humaneness, Castell presents this scene:
If your thesis is that man is an ignorant and irratio-
nal animal, you will get a concessive hearing, pro-
vided it does not take you too long to make your point.
But to claim that man is undeniably a rational animal
is, for many, no more plausible than to claim he is a
sinner as much in need of forgiveness as in need of
knowledge.
Castell's thesis is that we are already rational animals,
but to capture again, some of our humaneness and to learn
more fully what it is to be humane is our goal——our call—
ing. He says:
My point is that it will not do for a person to say,
"I am a rational animal; therefore, I have no stake
in logic or ethics or aesthetics or semantics."

What seems to be apparent is that humanistic edu-
cation or a humanistic teacher is not described by specif-
ic traits, but by a comprehensiveness of fulfillment, a
"fully functioning," a "whole." Herbert Thelen7 calls the
"humane" person the truly "educated" person. The educated
person seeks purposive inquiry. The self realizing quality

of inquiry, however, is not enough for the "whole" child;

the attitudinal context, or the spirit that animates

 

7Herbert Thelen, Comments on "What It Means To
Become Human," in To Nuture Humaneness. Edited by Mary-
Margaret Scobey and Grace Graham, TWashington D.C.: Asso-
ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Development, N.E.A.,
1970), p. 30.

 

27

inquiry, must be considered. Can we create new education—
al patterns that will involve the whole child and his en-
vironment?

Educational literature over the past two decades
has given us some guidelines to more purposeful and ex-
citing schools. Several new teacher education programs
are underway based on principles resulting from the re-
search conducted by Arthur Combs and associates, Carl
Rogers, and others. If we assume teachers teach in the
manner in which they were taught, eventually new teachers
will not be programmed by the old patterns and old assump—
tions--the dehumanizing cycle will be broken. Students
taught by humanists will become humanists, listeners,
people of understanding of values, and feelings. Perhaps
educational technology will help teachers rise to this
higher calling by freeing them from the drudgery of dis-
pensing facts and information, so that more time can be
spent on the clarification of values--or the meaning of
it all.

Although the curriculum reform movement presented
much progress in what to teach, particularly in science,
the relationship of the new curricula to the human situa—

tion is still found lacking. These lines from On Staying

 

Awake: Talks With Teachers8 describe the problem:

 

 

8Ole Sand, "How Much Does Gray Matter?" On Staying
Awake: Talks With Teachers (Preliminary Series, published
by National Education Association Center for the Study of
Instruction, 1970), pp. 46-47.

 

 

28

When the teacher dominates the learning process; when
parents and the community set unimaginative expecta-
tions; when cultural value systems emphasize end over
means, material possessions, and economic ascendancy;
and when those value conflicts go unresolved, there
will be no humane environment.
If these barriers could be changed, i.e., if we could learn
to value the learner as a central decision maker in the
schools; to value divergent behaviors of learners; to pro-
vide multiple options for learning opportunities; to pro-
mote true two-way communication between school and commu-
nity; to behave toward colleagues and students with trust
and honesty; and, above all, to help students resolve their
value conflicts, then, the humane environment or the demo-
cratic, open classroom climate is possible. Singer Aretha
Franklin suggests the requirement of one additional factor.
She poses the crucial question:9
Has it got soul? Man, that's the question of the hour.

If it has soul, then it's tough, beautiful, out of
sight. It passesythe test of withitness. . . But what

is soul? It's like electricity. "We don't really know
what it is," says Ray Charles, "but it's a force that
can light a room." The force radiates from a sense of

knowing where you've been and what it means. Soul is
a way of life--but it is always the hard way. Its
essence is ingrained in those who suffer and endure to
laugh about it later.
This is the magnificent challenge: When the heart and soul
of education is back in the classroom, the climate will be
open; although diversities will abound, the "route to the

stars" will be more clearly mapped for each individual stu-

dent.

 

Ibid., p. 47.

29

The Traditional View of Values
and the Teaching Function

 

 

To understand more clearly the harvest of confu-
sion we are now facing in regards to our responsibilities
toward the teaching-learning of values--moral, spiritual,
and religious—-in our schools a review of this country's
foundation values (now often referred to as middle-class)
seems to be a sensible approach. According to Edwin A.
Roberts,19 middle-class values are not associated with in-
come level, but are derived from the Protestant ethic.
"The foundations of this country were framed by the Prot-
estant Englishmen who believed in the inherent rightness
and efficiency of self—discipline, hard work, thrift, and

11 Accordingly, the public

the sanctity of contracts."
school curriculum became emmeshed within this moralistic
value system geared to what is now referred to as middle-
class standards.

Arthur Foshay12 explains the gradual decay of our

moral code: "The old nineteenth century standards of hard

work and probity, taught through stories and maxims, were

 

10Edwin A. Roberts, "Middle-class Values," Today's
Education, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Jan., 1970), p. 20.

ll

 

Ibid., p. 20.

12Arthur Foshay, "The Moral Code of Children and
Teacher Education," in Approaches to Education for Charac-
ter: Strategies for Change in Higher Education edited by
Clarence H. Faust and Jessica Feingold (New York: Colum-
bia University Press, 1969), p. 88.

 

 

 

 

30

replaced with nothing, nothing at all." Foshay lists five
reaSons for the decline in the teaching of values:
1. Confusion of "moral" with "religious" belief
2. The culture changed in reaction against Puritanism
and religious fundamentalism
3. Sharp social class distinction between the religious
and the intellectuals
4. Emergence into popular consciousness of the social
and behavioral sciences
5. Emergence of cultural pluralism

"The simple, rural virtues of McGuffey, et a1. Survived all

 

of this for a surprising long time, but disappear they did--
at least from the books."13 H. B. Pepinskyl4 presents fur-
ther evidence of the loss of the traditional moral code in
an unpublished study done in 1955-1956 at the Ohio State
University Campus School" He found that the children stud-
ied had two entirely different vocabularies: the one asso-
ciated with prohibitions was subtle, direct, and rich; the
one associated with being a "good citizen at University
School"--i.e., the things to do, not the things to avoid--
was ambiguous, general and sparse. Pepinsky suggests that
much of the behavior we took to be evidence of social val-

ues and aversions was actually just avoidance. It is in-

teresting to note the elements of the social code at this

 

l3Ibid., p. 89

l4Ibid., p. 90.

31

school (children age 6-12 years) given in order of decreas-
ing intensity. The intensity was established from the se-
verity of punishment associated with violation of the code.
Teachers did not punish the children physically. They only
"talked to them;" they asked reproachful questions or de—
nied them privileges. Here are the values and aversions:
property, honesty, vulgar or obscene language, irreverent
language, cleanliness, obedience, violent or physical cru—
elty, respect for offical authority, courteous speech to
adults, generosity of possessions, forbearance and comple—
tion of undertakings.15 However, note that the word gos—
sip, character assassination, respect for one another, and
assumption of sex roles is missing from the list.

16

Joseph S. Junell presents his views on how to go

about redeeming the teaching of values--particu1arly, basic
moral values:

Does the teacher have less right to tell it how he
thinks it ought to be told than dOes the dramatist
whose impact on moral attitudes is perhaps next to
that of the home? Does he have the same right to in-
culcate youth with the notions of trust, fidelity and
compassion when he knows fully half of the world he
lives in is still brutalized by violent struggles for
identity and survival.

Junell seems to be saying that some basic values must be

accepted on faith as an absolute or not at all. To modify

 

l51bid., pp. 90-91

16Joseph S. Junell, "Do Teachers Have the Right To
Indoctrinate?," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. LI, No. 14 (Dec.,
1969), p. 184.

 

32

or give alternatives is out of the question, the principle
is unconditioned. Junell points out that he has no argu-
ment with the employment of alternatives as a means of
teaching learned opinions and stresses that indoctrination
under these conditions would be intolerable. He goes on

to describe Lee J. Cronbach's beliefe that "the teacher. . .
has an obligation to intensify his influence by whatever
procedures will have the greatest effect." George S.
Countsl7 seems to concur with Junell in assessing the fate
of Homo sapiens as being dependent on the culture which in-
herits him. "Here is the supreme imposition." Counts

draws the following conclusion: "The big question there-
fore is not whether we should impose anything on the child
in the process of education, but what we should impose."l8
Arthur Laison19 cites the same opinion by stressing the
importance of the re-interpretation of old values which go
back to the teachings of Jesus. He stresses the importance
of children acquiring the basic values of kindness, loyalty,
fair play, honesty, pride of craftmanship, intelligence,

tolerance of ambiguity, and enjoyment in cultural diversity.

 

17George S. Counts, "Should the Teacher Always Be
Neutral?" Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. LI, No. 14 (Dec., 1969),
p. 187.

18

 

Ibid., p. 187.

19Arthur Laison, "Values for a Changing America,"
in Values for a Changing America. Edited by Helen Huus
(Philadelphia University Press, 1966), p. 35.

 

33

His argument is that a child from a poor neighborhood finds
the school represents a different society from what he
finds outside; but, this is where he learns the values that
he later reflects on and deals with, intellectually, to
guide his life. Laison says that educators should not mod—
ify their middle class values, but should learn to appre—
ciate cultural diversity; they should teach a value system
which will help these children find a more secure place in
America. He points out that we do not make provision for
enough intellectual examination, reflection, and interpre-
tation of values in our schools. In the slum areas the
values are negative ones which the school seems to be doing
very little about.20

Robert Mason21 speaks to the connotation of the
"religious" as to why teachers are not concerned about nur-
turing children's feelings about right things which hope—
fully leads to a distaste for the wrong things. He states
forthrightly that moral (doing right) and spiritual (want-
ing to do right) ought to be, and in reality, ii education.
Mason is simply referring to values as guides to behavior.

He places the internalization of moral values at the heart

 

ZOIbid., p. 39.

21Robert E. Mason, "Teaching Moral and Spiritual
Values in the Public Schools: The Philosophical Issues,"
in Values for a Changing America edited by Helen Huus
(Philadelphia: University Press, 1966), pp. 45-53.

 

34

of education for the secularist as well as for the reli-
gionist, but, for the secularist, moral education is a pro—
cess of socialization while for the religionist it is a pro-
cess depending upon spiritual reinforcement in the light of
religion. Mason says: "Moral education remains a central
responsibility of the secular school even after the realm

of the spiritual has been merged with aesthetic, and reli-

gious worship has been forbidden.22

23

Charles A. Glatt classifies values as either in-

trinsic (built in) or instrumental (developed out of). He
discusses these insights:

When thought to be intrinsic, values sometimes lead to
internal conflict for a person, especially if he de-
tects conflict between the behaviors they prescribe
and the ordinary behaviors that he enjoys or that oth-
ers around him seem to engage in. On the other hand,
when values develop from human transactions and be-
come flexible tools by which man guides his activities,
they can cause very disturbing problems for the person
in whose world rigid standards are necessary.

Glatt suggests that by the time a child enters first grade
he has learned half of all he will ever learn:

If he has internalized respect for the rights of oth-
er persons and for property rights, for "telling the
truth" and for not stealing, for neatness, for thrift,
for punctuality, for sobriety, for fulfillment of re-
sponsibility, he most likely will fit our image of the
good solid American citizen throughout his life. If
he has not, regardless of other factors, he probably
will wear a label like "disadvantaged," "deprived," or
"problem child," and in many ways always will have
trouble adapting to society's expectations.24

 

22Ibid., p. 58.
23Charles A. Glatt, "Values in Conflict," Pennsyl-
vania School Journal, Vol. 118, No. 3 (Feb., 1970), p. 179.

24Ibid., p. 179.

35

Seymour Halleck25 suggests that the generation gap
is in reality a crisis related to the manner in which val-
ues are generated and maintained in a rapidly changing
world. His two basic assumptions are: (l) as old values
are attacked, new ones are not being created to replace
them, (2) new technology and new mass media has created
almost unlimited alternatives, and freedom to choose among
them has become incapacitating and paralyzing. Halleck
warns that the real danger is that values of any kind may
be losing their power, and that young peOple may find them-
selves existing in a value—less world. He suggests that
certain basic guideline values become institutionalized,
because those entrusted with the teaching of values seem
totally unprepared to move from dogmatic to rational pre-
sentation of value systems. Halleck views these basic
guidelines relevant to all men as:

-Value of compassion, affection, love, sense of commu—
nity

-Openness to experience, self—understanding

-Find optimum amount of freedom

-Comprehension of his mortality, belief in a supreme
being. In any case, an ideology he can value.
-Innate need to interact with his environment and
sense a feeling of mastery over it

-A reverence for progress and order

-Assume responsibility for one's own behavior. This
provides dignity for the individual and stability for
the group

-Honesty, the willingness to avoid deceiving oneself
or others.

25Seymour L. Halleck, "The Generation Gap: A Pro-
blem of Values," Think, Vol. XXXIV, (September-October,
1968) I pp. 3-70

 

36

-The need to find a way of inculcating the value of non—
violence in our people. We have no other choice, if we
wish to survive.

-Reverence for elderly members of society. The creating
of a world which offers the possibility of aging with
grace, honor and meaningfulness, otherwise there will
be no future for our youth.

26

Stanley Coopersmith and Jan Silverman speak on the

child's background as determining his success at school.

 

These authors relate that in the study of 1,748 normal mid—
dle—class boys and their families, they found that parental
attitude was the key factor in the development of self—
esteem. They challenge the educator to examine his own
values and then ask whether he likes himself as an educator
and whether he likes and respects children. Several ear—
lier research studies have found a relationship existing
between the child and the effect of his immediate family
upon the attitudes and values he will develop. William F.
Itkin27 tested 400 male and female college students and
their parents and found that when students had favorable
parental attitudes they approved of their parents supervi-
sion regardless of whether their parents had dominant or
submissive attitudes toward control. Those students who

had negative parental attitudes regarded their parents

 

26Stanley Coopersmith and Jan Silverman, "How to
Enhance Pupil Self—Esteem," Todays Education, Vol. 58, No.
4 (April, 1969), P. 28.

27William F. Itkin, "Relationships Between Atti—
tudes Toward Parents and Parents' Attitudes Toward Chil-
dren," Journal of Genetic Psychology, Vol. LXXXVI (June,
1955), pp. 339—52.

 

 

 

37

dominant regardless of their parents' attitude toward con-
trol. The studies done by Arnold M. Rose28 also suggested
that the intimacy of family life is related to the child's
attitudes and values. William H. Truesdell29 presents a
similar thesis when he states that too many teachers are
poor models for those they teach. He asks the puzzling
question as to why teachers, who train youngsters to state
opinions, are reluctant at baring themselves to the analy-
sis of those they teach. His two questions and answers
give further insight:

1. Can they ever be convinced that firm commitments

are worth anything if their teachers project a va-
gue ambivalence?

2. When a teacher faces a class and voluntarily con—
signs himself to that growing mass whose members
really don't give a damn one way or the other, he is
condemning and denying the very essence of education.

0. R. Bontrager30 stresses the same idea in Approaches to

 

Values in Education. He takes a dim View of the panic and

 

despair shown by many educators when they View the gap be-
tween the values we verbally profess and our actions. He
reminds educators that children copy the action of adult

models they see on the stage of life before them. Great

 

28Arnold M. Rose, "Reference Groups of Rural High
School Youth," Child Development, Vol. XXVII (September,
1956), PP. 251-63.

 

9William H. Truesdell, "Teachers Should Commit
Themselves," Today's Education, Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan., 1969)
p. 37.

 

300. R. Bontrager, "On Evaluation and Values," Ap-
proaches to Values in Edugation, Belok et al. (Dubuque,
Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Co., Publishers, 1966), p. 16.

 

38

models such as Jesus, Aristotle, Mohammed and Marx were
used to support his View.

In summary of the traditional views on values and
education, W. R. Wees31 cites two main causes for the
failure of education to stress humane values:

1. Education's self-scrutiny of values is less than a
century old and psychology has paid systematic at~
tention to values only within the past hundred ‘
years. \\\

2. "The dominant method of instruction--exposition is 3‘
not suited to the development of deeply held and
rationally applied values. As long as education
is designed for the acquisition of knowledge, the
development of values will remain accidental and
fragmentary."

A Review of Science Methods
and Values in Teaching

 

 

"No man steps into the same river twice." Or so
Heraclitus said.32 Even to the ancient Greek change was
the major feature of civilization. Today all is change.
Because education must prepare each individual to cope
with the present change and changes of the unpredictable
future, we must face the obsolescence in education in

rapidly changing fields, particularly science. To meet

 

31William G. Carr, "Synopsis of the Conference,"
Values and the Curriculum, edited by William G. Carr (A
Report of the Fourth International Curriculum Conference:
National Education Association, 1970), p. 7.

32Bentley Glass, "Educational Obsolescence,"
Science, Vol. 190, No. 3962 (December 4, 1970), p. 1041.

39

this challenge we must dispense with the idea of schooling
and concentrate on educating. The scope of this task is a
life-long, never-ending "adult education" approach to keep-
ing up with the changes in, and accumulation of, knowledge.
There are differences of opinion among scientists and edu—
cators as to how best to either educate for change or use
the vast store of cumulative knowledge.

Paul F. Brandwein33 speaks of the textbook, of a
given domain, as being the basic tool for instructed learn-
ing. He states that "the act of learning in school is not
an acquisition of experience but an act of acquisition of
meaning out of designed experience; that is, out of in-
structed learning." Brandwein refers to the text as a
"part of a design to teach the young the art of acquisition
of knowledge, at present subsumed under such terms as dis—
covery, inquiry, and the like." He calls the "master
teacher" and the scientist "ever-learners." This teacher
depends on the text as the basic tool in inquiry or dis-
covery. As he states:34

All of us depend on the knowledge gathered by those who
have gone before us--our teachers and researchers. And
these teachers have garnered the knowledge of their
forebears-—teachers and scientists. Like other organ-
isms we are interdependent with our environment--and

part of this environment is that described by others in
books.

 

33Paul F. Brandwein, "Man's Cumulative Record--and

His Methods of Intelligence," The Science Teacher, Vol. 38,
No. 3 (March, 1971), p. 27.

34

 

Ibid., p. 28.

40

Dr. Robert L. Ebel35 also states that the command of know-
ledge is the primary objective of education. The two means
available for the school to help an individual toward per-
sonal adjustment, according to Ebel, are social betterment
and behavioral effectiveness. Teachers should support the
command of knowledge by:

l. Fostering the cognitive development of their pupils.

2. Using the processes of conditioning to establish
automatic, subrational responses.

3. Recognizing that different ultimate goals call for
different content to be learned, not for different
methods of learning.

Ebel makes it clear he is not referring to "information"
as "knowledge." The growth of knowledge is not a simple
cumulative process of the storage of facts in the head,
but rather, a structure and its present form always limits
its possibilities of growth. He further emphasizes:

The structure of knowledge I am talking about consists

of all the relevant knowledge and nothing else. Every

factual detail and every generalization that can be
related to other factual details and generalizations
becomes part of the structure.
Ebel refers to the textbook as an example of such a mean-
ingful and useful structure of knowledge. The inference
is that almost every individual can find, in almost every
subject matter field, some information that is useless to

him. However, if it is truly useless, it will never become

a part of his structure of knowledge and soon will be

 

35Robert L. Ebel, "Command of Knowledge Should be

the Primary Objective of Education," Today's Education,
Vol. 60, No. 3 (March, 1971), p. 36.

 

41

forgotten. The case for knowledge, as presented, cannot
stand alone when faced with such questions as: can know-
ledge alone guarantee wisdom or happiness or goodness?
What should be the emphasis on knowledge in the process of
learning?

Since it is clearly impossible for each individual
to achieve command of all knowledge, the question remains
as to what knowledge is necessary for successful work and
happy lives. Another hard question refers to the hgw_and
why of the selection of knowledge in the learning process.
Nebulous statements are being tossed about by educators
with reference to teaching students "the ability to learn"
rather than knowledge per se, and to teaching students,
somehow, the ability to cope with a rapidly changing envi-
ronment.

McGeorge Bundy36 has focused on four basic princi-
ples of the process of learning:

1. There is no learning except as someone learns.
There can be learning without teaching and there
can be teaching without learning.

2. All learning takes place in the present tense. . .
The student's motives for learning must be forces

that operate in the present.

 

36McGeorge Bundy, "What is Learning: Who Does It?"
Teachers College Record, Vol. 72, No. 2 (Columbia Univer-

 

42

3. Part of the process of learning is learning how to
keep on learning.
4. All learning is learning something. There is no
learning where nothing is learned.
Bundy clarifies the fourth principle by emphasizing that
all learning is not verbal. Succinctly stated: "To learn
is not the same as to learn to explain, although each pro-
cess can be reinforced by the other."37
The four simple principles stated by Bundy appear
to expose many of the hotly debated educational questions
as being unreal or falsely posed. Some of the tiresome ab—
stract arguments concerning the merits of books, machines,
methods or the teacher seems to miss the important point:
learning is what happens to the learner. Obviously, this
poses the difficulty of fitting the program both to the
learner and to something he wants to learn. However, these
are just technical problems, that lend to the possibility
of many different means of learning, as long as the "learn-
er is the center of learning, and that all learning is

38

learning something." The difficulty is in measuring a

process that is so inescapably individual.

 

37Ibid., p. 205.

381bid., p. 205.

43

Changing Concepts of Science Methods
and Values in Teaching

 

 

The science educator's concern, like that of other
educators, has started to shift from an emphasis upon the
mastery of common educational tasks to each child's learn-
ing to master his own individual educational tasks. The
current studies in developmental psychology of learning
also indicate there is a right time for acquiring certain
cognitive learnings. Research contributed by Bruner,
Bloom, and Piaget have clearly indicated that certain kinds
of learning are necessary prerequisites to other types of
learnings. The learning process seems to be a sequential
process that is functional by providing the appropriate
environment and the experience in proper sequence. Dif—
ferent classes of learning behavior should be arranged in
hierarchical order from the simple to the complex.

In classifying educational objectives, Bloom and Krath-
wohl separated them into three domains: The cognitive,
the affective, and the psychomotor. The cognitive do—
main deals with knowledge and understanding. The af-
fective domain deals with values, attitudes, and in-
terests. The psychomotor domain deals with relatively
simple motor skills, like typing and walking, as well
as the more complex skills of talking and writing.39
These findings pose several significant questions for

schools of the 70's:40

 

39Albert F. Eiss and Mary Blatt Harbeck, Behavioral
Objectives in the Affective Domain, National Science Teach-
ers Association, N.E.A. YWashington, D.C., 1969), P. 3.

40William L. Pharis, Lloyd E. Robison, and John C.
Walden, Decision Making and Schools for the 70's, National
Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1970), pp. 39-40.

 

 

 

44

1. Which learnings that are the legitimate concern of
the schools must be developed sequentially?

2. What are the best methods for determining when an
individual is ready to proceed from one level of
development to another?

3. To what degree can an individual perceive his own
developmental needs in intellectual growth?

4. How can the balance between an individual's self—
direction in learning and the school's view of the
need for uniformity of direction for learning best
be achieved?

One consistent message coming from behavioral psychologists,
cognitive psychologists, and learning theorists is that
nothing else causes an individual to seek success in the
present as much as past success. "Educators should concern
themselves not with a general concept of motivation, but
rather with the specific means of determining which partic—
ular motivators cause a particular child to respond to a
specific situation."41
There is a rapidly emerging debate over the wisdom
of emphasizing cognitive development at the expense of dev-
elopment in the affective areas, with the focus of the argu—

ment centered around the possible creation of value—confused

 

41Ibid., p. 44

45

students. Mary B. Harbeck42 states that educational objec-
tives can and should be formulated in the affective domain,
as well as in the higher levels of the cognitive domain.
Teachers do not often consciously teach or test for
objectives in the affective domain. More or less on
faith, we assume that peOple will develop a value com-
plex as they continue to learn.
Harbeck emphasizes that quality education demands that we
no longer make these assumptions and that we attempt to
measure our effectiveness in the affective domain. David
Krathwohl43 has classified educational objectives dealing
with attitudes and values in five major categories:
1. Receiving or attending--awareness, willingness to
receive, and controlled or selected attention
2. Responding--acquiescence in responding, willingness
to respond, and satisfaction in response
3. Valuing--acceptance of or preference for a value or
commitment
4. Organization or conceptualization of a value, or
organization of a value system

5. Characterization of a value or value complex, in-

cluding generalized set

 

42 Mary B. Harbeck, "Instructional Objectives in
the Affective Domain," Educational Technology (Jan., 1970),
p. 49.

 

43John P. DeCecco, The Psychology of Learning and
Instruction (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice—Hall,
Inc. 1968), p. 33.

 

 

46

Harbeck points out that learning cannot take place without
the first two. The third level, valuing, is often found
in a learning situation; however, levels four and five are
frequently ignored by teachers. According to Harbeck, we
are reaping the harvest of our neglect: "having spent sev-
eral decades teaching students to think for themselves, we
are now watching youngsters attempt to live by the value
judgments they are making for themselves."44 Where re—
formers in science education of the 60's placed almost all
their emphasis on subject matter, i.e., Chemical Education
Materials Study, the Chemical Bond Approach and the Bio—
logical Sciences Curriculum Study, some of the newer agen-
cies place emphasis on what is called "policy sciences."
Morris R. Lerner45 reports the field as being mostly prob-
lem-solving, decision-making, and forecasting techniques
developed by the "think—tank" research institutions.
Lerner states that the National Assessment of Education is
another force in the science teaching environment. "They
call for new emphasis in the teaching of physical sci-

"46
ences.

 

44Harbeck, op. cit., p. 50.

45Morris R. Lerner, "The Ecology of Science Teach-
ing," The Science Teacher, Vol. 38, No. 3 (March, 1971),
p. 15.

 

46Ibid., p. 16.

47

In the area of science two questions are apparent:
Who will set the level of adequacy: the science teaching
profession or an outside agency? Are changes necessary in
science education?

The literature points overwhelmingly to the need for
revolutionaly change. It seems quite evident that if the
science teaching community does not make the necessary
changes, they will be imposed upon us by other agencies.
The news media indicate science is already suffering from a
bad image. Many of our young believe that science is no
longer relevant. It seems fair to assume that part of this
poor image results from the failure of science educators to
explain science adequately to youngsters. There is a clear
mandate to the science teaching community to not only make
science and technology understandable, but to clarify its
effects on the quality of life and living. While the faith
in science is waning, the need for science to help estab-
lish environmental priorities for survival is urgent. Glenn
T. Seaborg47 is confident that we can win many of our young
people back, especially by showing them how effective we
can be in working toward the solution of our environmental
ills. According to Seaborg, science must return to the
broad and general philosophy from which it originated. As

the growing number of precise disciplines became more

 

47Glenn T. Seaborg, "Those Good New Days," Saturday
Review (March 6, 1971), pp. 52—53.

48

productive the narrower the focus became; however, "science
traded off wisdom for knowledge and, to some extent, know-
ledge for information."48 He is not suggesting less ef-
fort in the individual disciplines, but, rather, more ef-
fort in the correlation and transmission of knowledge in

an effective way to society. "We have a tremendous task
before us in humanizing the focus and feeling of science,
while at the same time organizing and rationalizing the

"49 Lerner50 presents the same idea

forces of humanity.

with these questions and answers:
Perhaps we must develop courses with social, economic,
philosophical or artistic facets. But where should
these aspects of science be developed? Should it be
in social studies class or a science class? I firmly
believe that it will be better and easier to develop
the necessary background in the science teacher.

Much of the literature presents the major weakness
in the present teacher education programs as a lack of ex-
perience in dealing with the human element in the class-
room. It is not surprising, then, that the science teach-
er has failed to integrate the facts and concepts with the
real issues and problems to which they apply. The impor-
tant question seems to be: Can we reform or repair the
old conventional system to meet the challenge of today?

Few educators believe this is possible without radical re-

construction.

 

481bid., p. 53.

491bid., p. 53.

50Lerner, op. cit., p. 17.

49

Possibly Carl Roger's51 plea for change has been
the most passionate and revolutionary. His basic thesis
is that the learning situation does not require a teacher--
i.e., one who imparts knowledge. Learning requires, in-
stead, a facilitation of change and learning. This chang-
ingness, "a reliance on process rather than upon static

knowledge, is the only thing that makes any sense as'a

 

goal for education in the modern world.

In light of the above goal for education, Rogers
lists the following ten "Implicit Assumptions" relative
to present graduate education as based on how they appear
upon analysis:52

1. The student cannot be trusted to pursue his own
scientific and professional learning.

2. Ability to pass examinations is the best criterion
for student selection and for judging professional promise.
3. Evaluation is education; education is evaluation.

4. Presentation equals learning: What is presented in
the lecture is what the student learns.

5. Knowledge is the accumulation of brick upon brick
of content and information.

6. The truths of psychology are known.

7. Method is science.

 

51Carl R. Rogers, Freedom to Learn (Columbus, Ohio:
Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1969), p. 104.

52

 

Ibid., pp. 169—202.

50

8. Creative scientists develop from passive learners.
9. "Weeding out" a majority of the students is a sat-
isfactory method of producing scientists and clinicians.
10. Students are best regarded as manipulable, not as
persons.
The above assumptions gathered by Rogers from observations
and graduate students lead him to seriously question the
pattern of scientific and professional education in our
colleges. He says, "when we examine what we d2, rather
than what we profess in this area, the picture which
emerges is, in my estimation, a sorry one."53
Rogers proposes the "Plan of Self—Directed Change"
as a View of what education might become. This plan im-
plies new techniques along with a new goal for education.
He believes that in the coming world it is more important
to be able to face the new than it is to know and repeat
the old. This requires that the educator be open and flex-
ible, and also involved in the processes of change. How
is this accomplished? Roger directs our attention to the
human element:

. . .unless we give strong positive attention to the
human interpersonal side of our educational dilemma,
our civilization is on its way down the drain. Better
courses, better curricula, better coverage, better
teaching machines, will never resolve our dilemma in a
basic way."54

 

53Ibid., p. 170

54Ibid., p. 125.

51

The most important tool in this plan is the inten-
sive group which is also known by such names as "T"-group,
laboratory training, sensitivity training, basic encounter
group and workshop. Rogers refers to it as the "workshop"
group, which consists of ten to fifteen people and a facil—
itator or leader.55 The group is mostly unstructured,
which provides a climate for freedom of personal expres-
sion, exploration of feelings and the all important inter-
actions among the group members. The route to realness is
easier in this atmosphere which encourages each member to
"drop his defenses and facades and relate directly and
openly to other members of the group--the 'basic encoun-

ter.'"56

The basic aim is to bring about improvement in
the learning and abilities of participants particularly in
leadership and inter-personal communication, which will
consequently bring about change in the organizational cli-
mate and structure in which members work. Industry has
found this approach helpful in many aspects of learning
and leadership.

Rogers presents the following steps as a plan for

57

educational systems at all levels: (It is assumed that

 

551bid., p. 304.

56Ibid., p. 304.

57Ibid., pp. 308—322.

52

the basic criterion is met——that one or more persons in
power in the school have the desire and willingness to be-
come involved in an intensive group experience.)

1. An intensive group experience for administrators
and school board members. (For one week)

2. Intensive group experience for teachers (small or
large groups--taken off campus for at least a week).

3. Encounter groups for class units (outside facilita-
tor working with the class for five full days).

4. Intensive groups for parents.

5. "Vertical" groups (For individuals involved in some
previous encounter groups, e.g., two school board members,
two administrators, two teachers, two parents and two stu-
dents).

The time schedule for carrying out the above plan
is that the various group experiences should be held with-
in a fairly short period of time, so as not to lose the
impact of the program. A suggestion for the first year
would be to hold nine workshops with, perhaps, ten encoun-
ter groups in each workshop. The plan should be designed
for continuing change and training. Rogers lists the fol-
lowing possible risks and objections:

1. The possibility of damage to individuals (openness
of group experiences revealing hidden feelings).

2. Possibility of too rapid a change (to a process-

centered organization from static stability).

53

3. Possibility of rejection by the community.

4. The possibility of criticism.

5. Financial aspects.

6. Assessment of change (assessment teams, a member
from each group, observe and interview prior to the pro-
gram and then compare with assessments taken at intervals
after the program has begun. (Members of the community
might be on the team).

According to Rogers, rigorous research opportuni—
ties are available in studying one or more encounter groups.
Such a research proposal has been developed and is ready
with the above plan.

Aspects of Roger's plan has been incorporated in
the Earth Science Teacher Preparation Project. This pro—
ject is an outgrowth of the teacher preparation activities
of the Earth Science Curriculum Project. The primary focus
of ESTPP is on pre—service training of teachers of earth
science and environmental science. "Teachers should learn
in the same kind of environment they expect to create."58
William D. Romey59 writes of the role of the teacher in

experimental learning in environmental science as that

 

58William D. Romey, "ESTPP. . . New Concepts in
Teacher Education," Environmental Science, No. 1 (Sept. 1,
1970), p. 3.

 

54

of facilitator of learning rather than dispenser of infor-
mation. In his words:
Much educational research suggests that learning of
science can only be significant when based on exper-
iences that have direct meaning to the learner.
As Romey has written, if we accept experimental learning
as the mode in which secondary school students should
learn science, the teacher should be educated in such a
manner that he will possess the fundamental competencies
to operate his own course. "He must have greater love for

his students than for the subject matter."60

Robert E. Samples61 hails the curriculum makers of
this decade as looking at "the other half of the human
being." He described the science curricula of the past and
that of the Woods Hole Conference of 1958 as being concerned
with two aspects of content: (1) basic inherent rational
structure and (2) how the human intellect accumulates know—
ledge. Jerome Bruner and others were the great "process"
spokesmen of the times. (It should be noted that Bruner,
in his March 9, 1971, keynote address at the 26th Conven-
tion of ASCD, expressed his current reservations about
the emphasis on process which has characterized the past

decade.) Psychologists were also adding recipes for the

working of the rational sides of the intellect. It was

 

6OIbid., p. 5.

61Robert E. Samples, "Get Out. . . and Learn," En-

vironmental Science, No. 1 (Sept. 1, 1970), p. 4.

 

55

the Sputnik rationality that was being heard. As Samples
describes:
Onward to the books, the equipment, the lab manuals,
the teacher's guides that now nostalgically populate
our classrooms.

Now after ten years invested in what one kpgws,
there is a new tune which is focused on how the human
being feels. Now many psychologists, along with social
critics, have attacked the joyless, coercive, institution
called the school. Their thesis is crystal clear. They
defend the students' right to "feel" about learning as
well as to "know" the content. Some of the current voices
singing the new tune are Carl Rogers, Leonard Engle,
Postman and Weingartner, John Holt, Richard Jones, Louis
Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney Simon. Their arguments
can be summed up in the claim that what happens at school
should be compatible with the social and personal condi-
tions called lifg. Edward Yeomans63 presents a similar

message from Terry Borton's book, Reach, Touch and Teach.

 

While schools for generations have been concerned with the
logical and the rational, only recently are more educators
allowing more access to the intuitive and emotional in the
educational process. Certainly both the emotional-intui-

tive inputs and the rational—logical inputs are equally

 

621bid., p. 5.

63Edward Yeomans, "Reach Touch and Teach" by Terry
Borton, Teachers College Record, Vol. 72, No. 3 (February,
1971), P. 465.

 

56

important in our lives. In Borton's words:64

The goal of the teacher should be to help each student
constantly increase his understanding of his feelings,
and expand that self-awareness by utilizing the vast
intellectual resources available to man. Such an edu-
cation will mean that students learn increasingly so-
phisticated processes for coping with his concerns
about his inner self, and the outer world. By stress-
ing the relation between processes and concerns, it
should be possible to make school as relevant, involv-
ing, and joyful as the learning each of us experienced
when we were infants first discovering ourselves and
our surroundings.

 

The literature clearly indicates there are two
camps writing the magic formula on how to make students
feel better. One group argues that activities should be
pre-determined and students should be guided into intellec—
tual activities so as to insure that the cognitive intel-
lectual levels are met. These theorists believe that the
sense of self-worth is nourished by the student's ratio of
success in accomplishing or conforming to the intellectual
criteria set up by the teacher as standards for success.
Gail Lueck65 refers to this argument when describing the
inquiry approach to laboratory investigations common in
contemporary science teaching. Inquiry takes either the
directed route or the open—ended route; most inquiry—

oriented teachers employ a directed inquiry approach.

 

64Ibid., p. 465.

65Gail G. Lueck, "Inquiry: Directed or Open-Ended?"
Journal of Geological Education, Vol. XVIII, No. 1 (Jan.,
1970), p. 40.

 

57

According to Lueck, directed inquiry presumes that, prior
to introducing an investigation, the teacher knows:
1. The specific problem to be investigated by the stu-
dents.
2. The methods students will use to solve the problem.
3. The quantitative data and qualitative observations
students will collect and make during the course of
the investigation.
Also, use of specific methods is usually assured by pla-
cing certain materials and equipment in the laboratory or
by giving the students duplicated laboratory instructions.
The students are exposed to the "desired concepts in the
order the teacher and curriculum writers have determined
to be most useful and logical."66 Samples67 points to
another facet of this camp's activities—-the measurement
syndrome. He writes:
We are now crushed by a wave of behavioral research,
and the dominance, of content has waved in the name of
progress. Currently the students are being tossed and
tumbled about in the result of that research, the work
of behavioral scientists who are infatuated with de-

finable, measurable objectives.

In summary, the behaviorist camp views education as extrin-

sically purposive.

 

66Ibid., p. 40.

67Robert E. Samples, "Toward the Intrinsic: A Plea
For the Next Step in Curriculum," The American Biology
Teacher, Vol. 32, No. 3 (March, 1970), p. 143.

58

The other camp, referred to by Sample as the sus-

picious camp, feel that education should be intrinsically

 

purposive. They argue that mere conformity to external

 

criteria is not a valid indicator of personal success.

The qualities inside the child are far more important than
those outside the child. They feel that children should
explore and discover assignments, as they see it. The
teacher's role, then, becomes that of facilitator, focused
on making each student reach in the direction in which he

points. Samples relates these thoughts to the Environmen—

tal Studies as:68

. . . "change" provides conceptual as opposed to con-
tent constraints, the students have far greater degrees
of freedom than otherwise. . .

Ambiguity has a higher potential for relevance than
does specificity. In the face of ambiguity concerning
a conceptual topic (like "change"), a student has a
far higher potential for serving his own (intrinsic)
needs than he does if the teacher announces, "Go out-
side and get evidence of erosion." Erosion is content,
whereas change is conceptual. Conceptual involvement
is far less constraining than content.

Gail Lueck expresses the fruitfulness of divergent think-

ing using the earth sciences as a framework and source of

problem areas. According to Lueck:69

If the teacher is viewed as the primary source of know-
ledge and teaching is equated with learning, the direc-
ted approach will be used; if learning is seen as a
student process resulting from his responsible, free
interaction with things and ideas, the approach will be
open-ended.

 

68Samples, op. cit., p. 6.
69Lueck, op. cit., p. 40.

59

As Lueck points out, the main value of the open-ended ap—
proach and also the primary difference between it and the
directed approach is the "need it develOps in the student
for self-reliance and self-motivation in the learning pro-
cess."70
These researchers have found that divergent think-
ing is the most rewarding quality, particularly, in the
early stages of problem solving. They do not aim to dis—
credit the convergent thinking that inevitably emerges in
the final steps of problem solving. However, this camp
comes forth with a loud and clear concern regarding the
pressure toward convergent thinking, traditionally estab-

lished in science curricula, as a result of the content

and process biases.

Teaching Science With A Value
Clarification Approach

 

No longer can we theorize about democracy and the bro—
therhood of man. We either bring these concepts into
reality in our classrooms or we face the alternatives
of the smoldering fires of feelings or the actual
flames of conflict.7

 

7OIbid., p. 41.

71Helen Godsey Murray, "Teaching Staff puts Value
into Action; Provides Anatomy for Integrated School," The
Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, Vol. XXXVII—Z, (Winter, 1971),
p. 32.

60

Margaret L. Smith's72 two basic questions as to
the purpose of education today brings into focus the be-
ginning of our search for values and teaching. These ques-
tions are: "Which direction should we go? Where do we
want to go?" "Without a sense of indebtedness to what is
around them in space and prior to them in time, people lose
a sense of direction and the meaning of the values which
our society has decided to live by." As Smith points out,
"no man is just educated; he is educated for something,
for some purpose." Listing some qualities of American life
of the 60's as change, fear, and confusion over values,
Smith moves to suggestions for meeting these needs, partic—
ularly value confusion:73

1. Parents and the school need to direct their great-
est attention and efforts toward identifying these values
and moving them from the twilight into the limelight.

2. Knowledge is only one determiner of human behavior.
Acquisition of basic facts is important, but only in re—
lation to the development of skill in using these facts-—
in decision-making, in social relationships, and in all

aSpects of daily living.

 

72Margaret L. Smith, "Which Direction Should We Go?
Where Do We Want to Go?" The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin,
Vol. XXXVII-Z (Winter, 1971), p. 43.

73

 

Ibid., pp. 44—45.

61

3. Needs, perceptions, attitudes, experiences, beliefs
and values also are determiners of our behavior.

4. That one basic, underlying purpose of education for
every individual is to help him to be a proud responsible
citizen of this United States of America.

We are reaping the fruits of neglecting to equip
students with the knowledge, attitudes, skills and values
necessary to maintain and promote a democratic government.
Perhaps in the zeal for the facts, teachers have consciously
or unconsciously debunked our heroes and made issues of
their human frailties. Accordingly, while minimizing the

importance of the heroes and their deeds, the significance

 

of the depth of feelings and basic values that promoted
the deed was never communicated. To bridge this gap, far
more is needed than revival efforts in the American his-
tory or science classroom. American ideals and our heroes
cannot survive isolated in the classroom, even with re-
newed effort to re-evaluate them. In this area, the home

and school must share the responsibility.

Values and the Valuing Process

 

What are values? What is the valuing process?
Values have been defined in Chapter I of this study as "an
attitude, a standard, or a belief which the individual has
selected and reconstructed from the many concepts that

beset him in his environment and the feelings that struggle

62

within him." Values may result from either indoctrination
or introjection or free choice. The valuing process has
been defined in Chapter I of this study as the use of strat-
egies and techniques planned to help the individual make
value choices. The criteria for value choice must satisfy

the seven steps of the valuing process.74

According to J. Bronowski:75

The problem of values arises only when men try to fit
together their need to be social animals with their
need to be free men. There is no problem, and there
are no values, until men want to do both.

The concepts of value are profound and difficult exact-
ly because they do two things at once: they join men
into societies, and yet they preserve for them a free-
dom which makes them single men. A philosophy which
does not acknowledge both needs cannot evolve values,
and indeed cannot allow them.

Clyde Kluckholm76

also brings in both personal values and
social values by defining a value as a "conception, explic-
it or implicit, distinctive of an individual or character-

istic of a group, of the desirable, which influences the

selection from available modes, means, and ends of action."

 

74See Chapter I: Also see the definition of "val-

uing process" and "criteria for value choice" as presented
by Louis Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney B. Simon, Values
and Teaching, (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publish—
ing Company, 1966), p. 46.

75Bronowski, op. cit., p. 55. Italics added for
emphasis.
76

Clyde Kluckholm, "Values and Value-Orientations
in the Theory of Action" Toward A General Theory of Action,
ed. Talcott Parsons and Edward A. Shils (Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts: Harvard University Press, 1962), p. 395.

63

Rokeach77 defines a value as:
. . . a type of belief, centrally located within one's
total belief system, about how one ought or ought not
to behave, or about some end-state of existence worth
or not worth attaining. Values are thus abstract
ideals, positive or negative, not tied to any specific
attitude object or situation, representing a person's
beliefs about ideals modes of conduct and ideal ter-
minal goals.' A person's values, like all beliefs may
be consciously conceived or unconsciously held, and
must be inferred from what a person says or does.
"The concept of values," he explains "seems to be a more
dynamic concept since it has a strong motivational compo—
nent as well as cognitive, affective, and behavioral com-
ponents." According to Rokeach, individuals possess fewer
values than attitudes, therefore, the value concept pro-
vides a more reliable analytical tool.

Mead78 noted in her studies of primitive peoples
that ritual was used to inculcate beliefs and values that
often run contrary to fact.

Rogers79 has interpreted the term value in three
ways:

1. "Operative values"——This is a tendency of any living
beings to show preference, in their actions, for one kind
of object or objective rather than another. It need not

involve any cognitive or conceptual thinking.

 

77Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values
(Calif., Jossey-Bass, Inc. 1969), p. 124.

8Margaret Mead, "Adolescence in Primitive and Mod-
ern Society," The New Generation, ed. V. F. Calverton and
S. D. Schmalhousen (New York: Macauley, 1930), pp. 169-88.

79Rogers, op. cit., p. 241.

64

2. "Conceived values"—-This is the preference of the4
individual for symbolized object, e.g., a preference for
"honesty is the best policy" is such a conceived value.

3. "Objective value"-—This is used when people wish to
speak to what is objectively preferable or in fact con-
ceived of as desirable.

Rogers speaks almost conclusively to definitions number one
and two. He states that the infant human being has at the
beginning, a clear approach to values. That is, he prefers
some things and experiences and rejects others. The change
in this innate, clear-cut value system takes place as the
child introjects the value judgments of others, taking
them as his own.

Rogers also refers to the infants approach to val—

ues as a flexible, changing, valuing process, not a fixed

 

system. This weighing of experience is organismic, opera-
tive--not conceived values. However, he believes that the
process can deal with complex value problems. Rogers is
saying that the infant approach to the valuing process is
located clearly within himself——he knows what he likes and
dislikes. The infant is not influenced by the latest
"experts" in the field, his parents' preference, or by
advertising. Rogers asks: "What happens to this highly

efficient, soundly based valuing process?"

65

80 believes that when the infant begins to

Erikson
explore the environment within his home, initiative devel-
ops and his values may conflict with those of his parents.
Consequently, the center of the valuing process starts to
shift from within the child to the external influence of
"significant others." It is by this process that the
child, in his attempt to view himself as a worthy, loved
individual, adapts the values of "significant others" and
begins to distrust his own innate valuing process. Peter
Caws81 refers to the value process when discussing science
and the theory of values. His words are:

Science is a kind of knowledge, and as such it

must. . . alWays be retrospective. But values are
different from knowledge; they do not come to us from
the world, but they go from us to the world; they re-
fer not to what is or was the case, but to what will
or may be the case. They are, therefore, always pros-
pective or future referential.

Current research efforts in the area of values and
teaching, particularly on values as process, can be classi-
fied as dealing with either values, valuing or the theory
of value. The value theory, in most occasions, is implicit
within the definition of a value. Therefore, value theory

emphasizes the varying definitions and categorization of a

value. The various disciplines of psychology, social

 

8OErik Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York:
W. W. Horton and Company, 1950), pp. 222-226.

81Peter Caws, Science and the Theory of Value (New
York, Random House, Inc., 1967), p. 54.

66

science, anthropology, social psychology and philosophy
have suggested the operation of values in both individual
and group behavior. The valuing processes are concerned
with enabling students to make choices which, according

to Dewey,82 place the emphasis upon the variable of the
problem situation as the key to value learning.. Raths,
Harmin, and Simon83 suggest the similarity between the
value theory and certain approaches to critical thinking.
Many psychologists interested in education today maintain
Dewey's position that values arise in the individual only
when problem situations require a behavioral choice. Ac-
cording to this position, values or the valuing processes
assume that the behavior of students in our classroom en-
vironments reflect confusion and conflict of values. Much
of the recent literature on the confusion and conflict in
values emphasize how children are caught between differing
messages received through the school, the home, the peer

group and the overwhelming multi-media.84 As value

 

82John Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education
(Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1913), pp. 21-42., and
John Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: The Mac-
Inillan Company, 1938), p. 5.

83

 

 

Raths, Harmin, and Simon, op. cit., p. 9.

84Charles Glatt, op. cit; Billy J. Paschal, "How
CIhildren Learn Values," School and Society, Vol. XCVI
(:Feb. 3, 1968), pp. 77-78; Caleb Gattegno, What We Owe
Cluildren: The Subordination of Teaching to Learning (New
YtDrk: Outerbridge and Dienstfrey, 1970); Paul Goodman,
Dkaw'Reformation: Notes of a Neolithic Conservative, 9p;
Cixt.; and Judy Neuman, Detroit Free Press, "Nixon Talks
figmbut Values: Families At Loose Ends" (Tues., March 16,

71).

 

 

67

confusion increases, there seems to be a proportionally
negative influence on behavior and achievement.85
Certainly the research indicates the urgent need
for new directions in the classroom. Teaching strategies
for the clarification of values must be a part of the
classroom process. Changes are needed in classroom cli-
mate so that more freedom and humanness are experienced by

both students and teachers as they search together for val-

ues in the learning-teaching environment.

Values and Teaching in the Open Environment

86 stated nearly two decades ago that

Kimball Wiles
our best technique for teaching of values is through the
operation of the classroom. "We learn what we live."
The open, democratic climate must constitute the basic
framework for value clarification to function.

Rogers87 has described the components of the class-

room, in which value-clarification is the goal, as being

 

85Eleanor Burke Leacock, Teaching and Learning in
Citnychools a Comparative Study (New York, Basic Books,
1969); Developing Programs for the Educationally Disadvan-
taged, edited by Harry Passow, (New York, College-Press,
1968); Bernice Waddles, "Teaching in the Inner-City
Schools," NEA Journal, Vol. 57, No. 3 (March, 1968), p. 39;
Stanley Coopersmith and Jan Silverman, op. cit.; and Sidney
Trubowitz, "How to Teach in a Ghetto School," Today's Edu-
cation, Vo. 57, No. 7 (October, 1968), P. 28.

86Kimball Wiles, Teaching for Better Schools, (New
York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1953), p. 146.

 

87Rogers, op. cit., p. 103.

68

conducive to the "facilitation of change and learning."
Teaching, he continues, is a "relatively unimportant and
vastly overvalued activity." The facililation of learning
does not rely upon teaching skills, methods or materials,
but "rests upon certain attitudinal qualities which exist

in the personal relationship between the facilitator and

 

the learner." The research of others, according to Rogers,
has estimated as many as 1,000 interpersonal interactions
may exist per day between the teacher and her students.
Caleb Gattegno88 refers to the subordination of
teaching to learning as building on the strengths or £322;

tionings of children. Gattegno continues:

 

Now, as soon as we shift from acquiring facts through
memory to acquiring them through functionings, we unify
our experience in the duration of one life--for we al—
ways build on and integrate with what already exists
and do not simply pile one fragment of information
upon another--and we recognize that inner meaning is
more important than outside authority.

There are other writers89 holding the same View
toward teaching as that of Rogers and Gattegno; several
have been previously cited in this study. Of those men—
tioned, perhaps Kohl90 is most adamant in his call for a
new way of teaching. His open classroom is difficult to

explain. It must be experienced. It is not a haphazard

 

88Gattegno, op. cit.

89In addition to those mentioned here and else-
where in this study, writers such as Holt, Jones, Leonard,
and Gordon should be consulted. Citations for these works
are listed in the Bibliography.

90Kohl, op. cit., p. 15.

69

or "permissive" environment. It is a human environment.

Kohl says that:
In an open classroom the teacher must be as much him-
self as the pupils are themselves. This means that if
the teacher is angry he ought to express his anger,
and if he is annoyed at someone's behavior he ought to
express that, too. In an authoritarian classroom
annoying behavior is legislated out of existence. In
a "permissive" classroom the teacher pretends it isn't
annoying. He also permits students to behave only in
certain ways, thereby retaining the authority over
their behavior he pretends to be giving up. In an open
situation the teacher tries to express what he feels
and to deal with each situation as a communal problem.

The typical View of the "open" classroom is equa-
ted with "messing around," "goof-off" and a diminution of
subject matter and real investigative activity. Certainly
there is more than one view of the open classroom. Also,
an open learning environment has possibilities for both
successes and failures.

Virgil Franks and Verna Todd91 relate their obser-
vations of an open earth science classroom rated by them
as unsuccessful: "a typical day in the class saw the dull,
cheerless faces of students aimlessly rather than purpose-
fully, doing the following activities, some of obvious and
some of questionable merit:

Four boys conversing for the period around a chemistry

setup they had assembled from a picture and didn't know

the purpose of or the chemical they had put into it.

91Virgil Franks and Verna Todd, "An Open Classroom:
One View," ES/ESTPP Newsletter, No. 3, p. 3.

 

70

Four or five students chatting all period, as they had
done for weeks, while waiting for the fish they wanted to
investigate to arrive at a pet shop. . .

Franks and Todd sum with this picture of total permissive-
ness: "One of the pictures of the class that remains in
my mind is Thompson toward the end of the year in front of
the room attempting to speak to the students about the
class--as they read magazines, tossed a ball back and
forth, and conversed."

Another View of the same classroom is related by

William Romey:92

What I learned on the first visit and have since real-
ized more fully in a number of open classrooms is that
the problems I have "seen" are largely my problems as
an observer rather than real problems for the students.
When I see students doing things other than what my
still narrow expectations demand, I am uncomfortable.
But I'm becoming more comfortable every day with what
students choose to do. After years of being coerced
and of coercing, I still find it difficult to be a
truly free person and to accept a student's right to
freedom.

The literature cited above and elsewhere in this
paper refers repeatedly to the subject matter orientation
of teachers as being the primary obstacle to both openness

and the value clarification approach to teaching. Jersild93

 

92William D. Romey, "An Open Classroom: Another
View," ES/ESTPP Newsletter, No. 3, p. 3.

93Arthur T. Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves
(New York, Horace Mann-Lincoln Institute of School ExperiF
mentation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955),
p. 61.

71

has expressed the basic idea: "There is no value in the
volume of what one knows or the quantity of what one does
unless one is achieving some kind of self-fulfillment in
the process of learning or doing." Or, as Jersild con-

tinues:94

If we as educators are to face the problem of meaning-
lessness, we must make an effort to conduct education
in depth. . . to move toward something that is person-
ally significant beyond the facade of facts, subject
matter, logic, and reason behind human motives and a
person's real struggles are often concealed. This
does not mean the rejection of subject matter. . .

far from it. . . but it does mean helping the learner
to relate himself to what he is learning and to fit
what he learns into the fabric of his life in a mean-
ingful way. Such an endeavor means an effort to over-
come the prevailing tendency in education to encourage
the learner to understand everything except himself.

Arthur Combs95 emphasizes the point:

What makes people human are matters of feelings, be-
liefs, values, attitudes, understandings. Without
these things a man is nothing. These are the qualities
which make people human. They are also the qualities
which, in our zeal to be objective, we have carefully
eliminated from much of what goes on in our public
schools.

Considering the merits and limitations of the sub-
ject matter or knowledge dilemna, as previously cited in
this study, the haunting question returns as to hpy_or hpp_
mpgh can educators serve the affective domain, while still
Inaintaining the necessary cognitive learnings. Harbeck and

943313., p. 80.

95Arthur W. Combs, "An Educational Imperative: The
Human Dimension," in To Nurture Humaneness, edited by Mary-

Margaret Scobey and Grace Graham (Washington C.C.: ASCD,
NEA, 1970): P. 174.

72

Eiss96 clearly outline the problem as this:
At the present state of our knowledge about the affec-
tive domain, it may not be possible to suggest behav-
iors that invariably will serve as indicators of the
achievement of a given affective objective, or to pro-
vide numerical values between overt behaviors and de-
sired goals. Of course, this is true to a lesser ex-
tent with the cognitive domain. It is only in the
psychomotor that the "credibility gap" is fairly closed
between behaviors and objectives.
This study has cited several suggested reasons why teachers
are more comfortable when dealing with the cognitive do-
main. Another important major factor is that it is easier
to evaluate the outcomes of cognitive goals than it is to
measure the attainment of affective goals. Harbeck97 has
listed the following problems related to the attainment
and evaluation of the outcomes of affective goals in edu-
cation:

1. Probably not possible to give a rigid list of de-
sirable behaviors in the affective domain.

2. Objectives in the affective domain may have to be
more Open, with flexibility to specify acceptable behav-
iors in response to a given situation.

3. Evaluation items will be less precise. "However,
any attempt to assess students' willingness and ability to
Inake value judgments and defend them will be some improve-

rnent over the present dearth of any attempt at measurement

i.n this area."

96Harbeck and Eiss, op. cit., p. 4.

97Harbeck, op. cit., pp. 51—52.

 

73

4. The credibility gap between the desired objective
and the student behavior that will be accepted as evidence
that the objective has been achieved. "In the affective
domain, it may be unwise to announce objectives to students
in advance of instruction. This is in contrast to good
practice in the cognitive domain, where a student's diffi-
culty in learning often stems from his inability to find
out what the learning objective is." Checklists and atti-
tude scales may be administered by an agent outside the
classroom as a possible means of assessment tasks.

5. "If learning to make judgments and build value sys-
tems is an important part of science, then this should be
reflected somehow in the evaluation system. However, it
seems impossible to give a student a grade for interest or
values."

6. "An effort must be made to build some quality into
learning experiences, so that there will be values in
learning in addition to the terminal cognitive objectives."
Harbeck closes by asserting: "The affective domain is cen-
tral to every part of the learning and evaluation pro—
cess. . . value systems provide the motivation for contin—
ued learning and for most of an individual's overt behav-

. "98
ior.

 

98Ibid., p. 52.

74

Value Clarification and Science Teaching

 

Considering Harbeck's belief that the cognitive

has an affective origin, the question returns as to how to
deal explicitly with the fundamental aspects of values in
the curriculum. Is any subject value-free? The literature
cited in this study has made it clear that those values im-
plicit in the present curriculum are either unknown, dys-
functional, irrelevant, or strongly questioned. Modern
technology is forcing us to restructure our views and cer-
tainly to reestablish our basic priorities in the class—
room. The question is no longer whether we should reexam-
ine our priorities and values; we must examine the new
possible routes and proceed. Faced with the challenge of
newer approaches, William G. Davis99 quoted the following
Victorian verse to indicate the similarity to our time:

Strength without hands to smile,

Love that endures for a breath,

Night the shadow of life,

and life, the shadow of death.
In some ways, perhaps, the young are more sensitive to
these lines and to the confused value issues of our times.
Students have lived their entire lives in a television-
dominated society with its horrendous volume of information

and entertainment being tossed haphazardly upon them. Cer-

tainly resolving some of these disparities are normal to

 

99William G. Davis, "Values and the Curriculum,"
Values and the Curriculum (Auxiliary Series, published by
N.E.A., a report of the Fourth International Curriculum
Conference, 1970), p. 96.

 

75

1ife-—f1exibility is central to human experience. How-
ever, today's students see the world and hear it speak
and what they hear and see are not the old values. They
are accusing the school and teachers of hypocrisy. Can
we help them to examine, and clarify the complexity of
100

the issues and decisions of our time? Ralph Ellison's

words describe one clear voice from the wilderness:

If you can show me how I can cling to that which

is real to me, while teaching me a way into a

larger society, then I will drop my defenses and my
hostility, but I will sing your praises and I will .
help you to make the desert bear fruit.

101 have presented a de-

Harmin, Kirschenbaum and Simon
scription of the value theory and strategies for value
clarification approaches which might be used by science
teachers for the practice of the teaching function as

a value clarification process. As indicated earlier in
this study, the value theory is designed to foster cri—
tical thinking which in turn, elevates the facts and
concepts of science to the higher values level. The

distinction from the other approaches to critical think-

ing such as the scientific method, is the affective domain.

 

 

100Develgping Program for the Educationally Dis-

advantaged, edited by Harry Passow (New York: College
Press, 1968), p. 72.

101

 

 

Harmin, Kirschenbaum, and Simon, op. cit.

76

All three levels, Level I-—Facts, Level II—-Concepts,
and Level III—-Va1ues become equally important in the
science teaching-learning situation. Raths, Harmin,

102 state the relationship between the cogni-

and Simon
tive domain of human activity and the affective domain
as where "the value clarifying methodology invades both
areas and might be seen as one way of synthesizing cer-
tain aspects of both. A value is a result of activa-
tion of both the affective and cognitive domains, then,
and seems to be one of the few connecting links that
has been carefully delineated."

103 offer the fol-

Harmin, Kirschenbaum and Simon
lowing examples to indicate how topics in earth science

are elevated through the three levels view:

The Earth's Crust

 

Level I (Facts)

1. What are the three major groups of rocks?

2. Name three ways water can change the earth's
surface.

3. What precious gems are found among the
minerals in the earth?

4. How are volcanoes formed? etc.

Level II (Concepts)

1. Show how two recent dramatic changes of the
earth's surface were similar to changes which
took place a million or more years ago.

 

102Raths, Harmin, and Simon, 0p. cit., p. 225.

103Harmin, Kirschenbaum, and Simon, op. cit.

77

2. Compare and contrast two theories of how
mountains were formed. Which do you accept?
Give your reasons.

3. Discuss the similarities and differences
between precious and semi—precious stones,
from a scientific point of view.

4. Where on the earth's surfaces are volcanoes
most likely to occur today?

Level III (Values)

1. Are you someone who is likely to become a
rock hound some day?

2. Are the mountains a place where you really
like to spend your vacation?

3. Should oil companies receive a depletion
allowance?
4. In some states, strip miners find it

cheaper to pay a fine than to do the re-
forestation the law requires. What is
your reaction to this? What other infor—
mation do you feel you need to know about
this?

5. Which, if any, of these worry you at all
or more than others?

a. Converting the Florida Everglades
into housing for senior citizens.

b. Bulldozing a mountain so a fourlane
road can go by.

c. The cities spreading out over the
earth's surface, leaving less and
less open space.

6. When you get married, do you think you
will give an expensive ring to your wife,
or if you are a girl, do you think you
will want one? Can you think of any
alternative ways a husband might show
affection for his bride?

These authors point out repeatedly subject matter is im—

 

portant, but that the teacher's role is that of elevating

 

subject matter to the third level, "that is making the

 

information taught relevant to the student's lives."

78

Thus, the teacher's role becomes elevated. The teacher
must help create a classroom climate which is conducive
to the search and clarification of values.

Raths, Harmin, and Simon104 see seven criteria
for definition of a value. These seven criteria are

based upon the process of choosing, prizing, and acting.

 

The criteria are:

1. Encourage children to make choices, and allow
them to choose freely.

2. Help them discover and examine available alterna-
tives when faced with choices.

3. Help them weigh alternatives thoughtfully reflect-
ing on the consequences of each.

4. Encourage them to consider what it is that they
prize and cherish.

5. Give them opportunities to make public affirma-
tions of their choices.

6. Encourage them to act in accordance with their
choices.

7. Help them to examine repeated behaviors or

patterns in their lives.

 

104Louis E. Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney B.
Simon, "Helping Children to Clarify Values," NEA Journal
Vol. 56, No. 7 (October, 1967), p. 13.

 

79

Teaching Strategies

 

Because the value clarification process rests on

the seven valuing criteria, the use of clarifying questions

becomes an important basic tool in this teaching method.

The clarifying response avoids any judgmental aspects and

 

is planned to cause the student to examine his own values.

Accordingly, the teacher must not ask questions to probe;

the clarification method is not meant to be therapeutic.

Some examples of clarifying responses taken from Values

105

 

 

and Teaching are:
1. Is this something that you prize?
2. Are you glad about that?
3. How did you feel when that happened?
4. Did you consider any alternatives?
5. Have you felt this way for a long time?
6. Was that something that you yourself selected or
chose?
7. Did you have to choose that; was it a free choice?
8. Do you do anything about that idea?
9. Can you give me some examples of that idea?
10. What do you mean by : can you define that word?
11. Where would that idea lead; what would be its con-
sequences?
12. Would you really do that or are you just talking?
13. Are you saying that. . . (repeat the statement?)
14. Did you say that. . . (repeat in some distorted
way?)
15. Have you thought much about that idea (or behavior?)
16. What are some good things about that notion?
17. What do we have to assume for things to work out
that way?
18. Is what you express consistent with. . . (note

something else the person said or did that may
point to an inconsistency?)

 

105Raths, Harmin, and Simon, op. cit., pp. 56-63.

80

19. What other possibilities are there?

20. Is that a personal preference or do you think
about your idea?

21. How can I help you do something about your idea?

22. Is there a purpose back of this activity?

23. Is that very important to you?

24. Do you do this often?

25. Would you tell others about your idea?

The clarifying response does not follow a precise pre-
planned experience for molding student's thinking. It is
not used as an interview or as a means of obtaining data,
but as an opportunity for the student to clarify his ideas
and life, if he wishes to do so.

The clarifying response is a useful technique to
use as written comments on student papers. The questions
may be modified to become appropriate to the specific sit—
uation. In short, the clarifying response "avoids moral-
izing, criticizing, giving values, or evaluating."

The second most important value clarification strat—
egy is the value sheet. The usual value sheet contains a
written, provocative, sometimes even threatening, value—
laden statement, which is followed by "you" questions. Dis-
cussion on value sheets becomes effective only after stu-
dents have individually considered the clarifying questions.
The value sheets can be used with subject matter as a means
of elevating the subject to the value level or as single
value lessons. The value sheet may be constructed by the
teacher or by the students. Small group work provides an

excellent opportunity for either the construction of value

81

sheets or to focus on their use in the classroom. The au-

thors of Values in Teaching give the following example of
106

 

good questions:

Do you have a reason for your choice? If so, please
mention it. What alternatives did you consider

before you arrived at your choice? List the conse—
quences that you desired from your choice and also

the consequences from alternative choices that you re-
jected. Also ask questions about actual behavior,
about what a person does or intends to do about his
choice.

These authors emphasize that the purpose of the value the—
ory, and the strategy of the value sheet, is to help stu-
dents think through the important areas of their lives and
in the process gain more respect for their own decision-
making abilities.

Another useful approach in science teaching is the
strategy called rank order, which in many ways is similar
to the incomplete value sheet. The aim is the search for
priorities by helping students place their value choices
into perspective with possible alternatives. There are
no "right" or "wrong" answers involved in the exercise.
After completing the rankings several different students
may be called on to explain the order of their ranking.

Another variation of this approach is called the "16 Item

 

Ibid., p. 110.

82

Forced Choice," listed with other strategies compiled by
Sheila Jarsonbeck.107

A fourth strategy is the thought sheet or weekly
value card, which is designed to help students to discover
and articulate values. Students may use an index card for
recording the thoughts important to them during the week.
The ideas recorded by the students may or may not be rela-
tive to topics currently being studied in the classroom.
This approach, like that of the value sheet, offers a
sharing of peer thinking. (If a student does not wish to
share his thoughts, he may write, "please do not read to
class" on his card.) From time to time, the value cards
should be returned to students with the teacher's comments
or questions checked, so that the student is aware of the
pattern of his thinking.

The diary is a valuable clarification technique
which is similar to the value card in the way it can be
used by students. A time diary may also be kept as a re-
cord of activities (Level I, II, and III) that have taken
place in the classroom. This record becomes a summary of
the recorders views of the events that have taken place.

Repeat and comparison exercises, then, might be useful.

 

107Sheila Jarsonbeck, Who Are You? Are You In
Touch With Your Feelings? Do You ReallyiKnow What You Val-
ue in Life? compiled by Sheila Jarsonbeck from a Workshop
in Values at Canandaigua, New York, conducted by Sidney Simon
and Howie Kirschenbaum (Summer, 1970), p. 3.

 

 

83

Another useful approach for clarifying, particular—
ly controversial, issues in the classroom is the role-play.
In the beginning, this strategy is more effectively struc—
tured by the teacher with the involvement of the more out-
going students. Gradually the structure can be more stu-
dent—centered with the involvement of the less out-spoken
students. These simulated situations regarding real issues
often help students to clarify their thinking and bring
forth and develop their own pattern of choosing and prizing.

Raths, Harmin, and Simon list twenty—one clarify-

ing strategies in Values and Teaching. Since the publica—
108

 

tion of this book others have been compiled by Simon.
Chapter III of this study presents examples of using var-
ious strategies in the earth science classroom. A desirable
outcome of the valuing approach is the action it promotes.
Therefore, particular exercises to help students see alter-
natives for action are included in this study. (Example
noted in Chapter III). Although, only a few strategies

were briefly described, the science classrooms offer a
fertile ground for unlimited use of the value clarification
method. This experiment in teaching, like all experimental
teaching, will only be as successful as the teacher's faith

in, and use of, the method.

 

108The author of this study attended the Values
Clarification Workshop, June 15-19, 1970, in Warminster,
Pennsylvania conducted by Dr. Sidney B. Simon. Forty value
clarification strategies were presented in this workshop.

84
Value Clarification and Classroom Climate

Raths, Harmin, and Simon109 list as the first im-
portant guideline to value clarification the psychologically
safe classroom climate. They are not referring to complete
permissiveness; however, the completely autocratic climate
is ruled out.

More important than permissiveness is respect and con-
cern. Students must feel that, even though rules exist
and there is teacher direction, the teacher respects
values of the student and is concerned that the student
works at those values in his own way.

This teaching theory, according to the authors, is
based on a testable hypothesis and they suggest three basic
steps for assessing what happens in initial attempts at ap-
plying the value clarifying process:

1. Take an initial inventory (measurement of classroom
and value-related behavior).
2. Use the value—clarifying method.
3. Take a second inventory (measurement of classroom
climate and value-related behavior).
Accordingly, three or four months is suggested as a workable
length of time between the first and second measurement.
The assumption is that not only will the post-test show a

positive effect on classroom climate, but the clarifying

experience will have a positive effect on value related

 

109Raths, Harmin, and Simon, op. cit., pp. 168-169.

85

behaviors toward the specific subject matter. Teachers

using this theory are given these words of encouragement:110

Squeezing value approaches into the crowded schedule may
be the large investment that has even larger divi-
dends. . . Few teachers, and we hope this is reassur-
ing, fall flat on their faces when using this theory.
About the worst that can happen is that there will be

no change. (But be cautious in attributing no change

to the theory or one's use of it; it may be nothing
more than insufficient dosage.)

The design does not provide positive, conclusive
evidence of the degree of affective behavioral changes that
have occurred, however, it does help the teacher to discover
what value—related effects are occurring from the attempt to
apply the value clarification method. By examining the ini—
tial inventory, teachers can determine the input necessary

for meeting their objectives. As Harbecklll

has suggested,
if measurement of behavior in the affective domain is to be
done so we can assess the effectiveness of instruction, it
would probably be necessary to produce a list of behavioral
descriptions and action words. According to the first re—

112 the science exer—

ports from the National Assessment,
cises that were performed correctly by both l7—year olds

and adults were those that were applicable to everyday life

 

110Raths, Harmin, and Simon, op. cit., pp. 168—169.

lllHarbeck, op. cit., p. 50.

112Ralph W. Tyler, "First Reports from the National
Assessment," Educational Leadership, Vol. 28, No. 6 (March,
1971), p. 578.

 

86

or "can be learned from out—of—school experiences." The re—
port continues:

The development of democratic, humanitarian attitudes is
commonly viewed as one of the major goals of education
in American citizenship. These goals are not univer-
sally attained as in the acquisition of knowledge and
skills. The curriculum in this area should be carefully
reviewed to see whether students are actually involved
in activities that give them a chance to sense the way
other people feel and see the effects of their own atti—
tudes on others.

 

 

The best presently, available instruments, for measuring at-
titudes are checklists and attitude scales, which for best
results should be administered by an independent agent out—
side the classroom. These instruments are limited to the
assessment of students' willingness and ability to make val-
ue judgments and perhaps defend them. Other checklists are
available as means of measuring a degree of interest and
attitudes. Observation of the students reactions and activ—
ities is probably as valid as checklists for this purpose.

There seems to be little doubt regarding the re—
lationship between positive student growth and the classroom
in which the student is unthreatened, free enough to consid-
er divergent thinking a necessary approach to learning.

113

Raths, Harmin, and Simon caution teachers regarding rapid

movement toward a more open climate.

Indeed, we have seen teachers develop an unsafe class-
room climate by rapidly removing controls and direction
in the mistaken belief that permissiveness was necessary
for value development.

 

113Raths, Harmin, and Simon, op. cit., p. 169.

 

87

As they continue: "The required climate is related more to
respect and acceptance of students than to freedom for stu—
dents."

Suggestions for the preparation of the instruments
used in this study were drawn from the above recommendations
and those of Albert F. Eiss and Mary Blatt Harbeck (as cited
in this study). The Classroom Inventory which was used in
the pre—test and post—test contained questions for checking
attitudes toward science, personal attitudes and values,
and classroom climate as determined by the author of this
study to be essential to the assessment of the stated hy—
potheses. The second instrument, The Classroom Reaction
Form was designed to assess, by student opinion, student
perceptions of classroom climate. Comparison of pre—test
and post-test data permits evaluation as to the effective—
ness of the strategies used in the classroom. These results

for the author's classes, are given in Chapter IV.

w
In summarizing Chapter II, it is essential to re-
turn to the concept of two basic threads to curriculum de—
velopment: those which center upon cognitive knowledge and
those which argue that feelings, i.e., the affective domain,
are as important as facts. The value clarification process
is clearly a method of instruction which seeks to actualize

the latter View.

88

In the remainder of this study, the author's per-
sonal convictions as to the need for equal emphasis upon
"facts and feelings" are expressed.

This chapter has been used to fully explore value
theory, learning theory, and strategies of value clarifica-
tion styles of instruction. In Chapter III, detailed atten-
tion is given to the strategies employed by the author in a

three month period of experimentation.

CHAPTER III

METHODS AND APPROACHES USED IN TEACHING SCIENCE

WITH A VALUE CLARIFICATION APPROACH

Introduction

 

I believe the Golden Age is now. Never before has
there been a more exciting challenge placed before science
teachers than the present task of guiding students through
the hierarchy of choices inherent in our technological
world. Perhaps the task is too great for the classroom to
accomplish alone; but, if we believe the school has any pur—
pose, we must determine what we as teachers wish to do and
what performance criteria we are going to set for ourselves
and our students. Too long we have taught our students
gpppp the conflicts of life and living, while only haphaz-

ardly have we taught them the process for making the choi-

 

ces, judgments, and personal commitments necessary to a

 

meaningful life.

 

We must develop ways to proceed with practical
intelligence toward methods, assessment of needs, and the
evaluation of outcomes. After we have worked out methods,
conducted for desired outcomes, and evaluated the impact of

methods on needs, we may be able to concern ourselves with

89

90

affective and individualized goals as well as with cognitive
and normative procedures. Science teaching must seek ways
of achieving such an increased emphasis upon affective edu-
cation.

Subject matter and the transmission of knowledge
remain necessary and important as means to the processes
of science and valuing. Earth science classes—~such as
those reported upon in this study--present a fertile area
for grappling with the problems within science and our
culture; e.g., the study of the earth's ecological systems
provides room for such a dual focus. This same total envi-
ronmental approach should become integrated into all of the
fragmental disciplines of the curriculum. Perhaps environ-
mental education or environmental ecology could be estab-
lished in the curriculum as a broad field. Life (science
and society) is a unit which is interrelated, interdepen-

dent, and changing, but certainly not a series of isolated

 

compartments. Perhaps the defects of our present curriculum
rest upon two foci: fragmentation, as mentioned above, and
secondly, that so many teachers still view our democratic
value system as fixed, intuitive, and beyond the need for
reconstruction and reexamination. On the other hand, the
following conditions are more nearly true today.

1. Our society is changing rapidly at the level of

findamental values .

91

2. The school is neglecting the affective domain at
that time in the student's social-moral development when

choice making among the alternatives of today's society is

 

the most important need in his life.
3. Most of the decisions regarding the use of the re-
maining resources of our natural environment--the earth--

will depend upon the basic attitudes and values of the stu-

 

dents we areppresently educating.

 

The experimental teaching outlined in this study
began with a few preliminary exercises used by the author
with four earth science classes. These classes were ninth—
grade students in a rural high school with a 9-12 enrollment
of 700 students; earth science is a required class for all
students. Students in these classes were told at the start
of the school year that some of the approaches and activi—
ties used during the year might very possibly be different
from those they had experienced before. During the first

week of school the following longrrange activities were

 

introduced:

1. The Student Diary-—a running record for the year.
This was a daily record of the activities of the classroom
as perceived by the student recording for that week. Each
week the recording responsibility shifted to a different
student. As an example, on September 9, the following
words were written in the sixth hour earth science class

record book:

92

Kirk Baese. . . . . . "Today we took a different look
at the Earth. And we found it is
not really round, it is in the
shape of a geoid. Our assign-
ment for tomorrow is to figure a
gravity problem. We are viewing
the movie "Scanning the Universe".
I think the class was interested
to know the earth has four "humps".
And we were interested in the

movie.

2. Establishment of a science library in the classroom.
The library consisted of current magazines, periodicals,
paperbacks in science, and professional magazines. Volun-
teer librarians were used in each classroom and a valiant
attempt was made to share the resources and maintain the
library services provided within the classroom setting.

3. Small groups were used for decision-making and prob-
lem solving experiences. The students decided as to which
group they wished to join, keeping within the parameters of
six groups with the class membership divided as equally as
possible among the six groups. Changes in group membership
were seen as an individual problem; changes were permitted,
when desired, as long as the groups remained fairly balanced
in membership.

4. Each class, operating as a large group, selected one
(sf three basic approaches for the study of each unit. These
tchoices applied only to individual or group project work:
(1) teacher-selection of topics for study with accompanying
VflDrk plan; (2) student-teacher selection of topics for study

“firth collaboration on the planning; (3) student selection of

93

their own topics for study and accompanying responsibility
for building the plan of study to be used.

Regardless of whether small group or individual
study was selected there was an option later in the term
for those wishing to do individual study rather than small
group work. Small groups were selected by all classes for
studies in Unit I, "Earth in the Universe."

The plans selected ranged about equally in each
class. One small group decision-making problem was given
to each small group as a group exercise in addition to
their selected tOpics. This exercise is shown as Example
I in the Appendix.

Besides the small group presentations, other reg-
ular classroom activities were carried out, e.g.:

l. Assigned reading from the textbook (Modern Earth Sci-

 

ence by William L. Ramsey and Raymond Burckly, Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1965).

2. Laboratory exercises (Exercises and Investigations

 

for Modern Earth Science by Henri Floch.

 

3. Readings in Current Science, which all students sub-

 

scribed to during the first week of school.
4. Teacher lectures.
5. Tests on Level I (Content) Lessons.
In the initial three months, all activities were
aimed at creating opportunities for increased student in-

‘KDlvement in classroom planning.

94

Introduction of the Value Clarification Approach

The week before the value clarification method was
formally launched, students were asked to select, as class
groups, one of three approaches to the study of a unit.
These three approaches-~ca11ed Plan I, Plan II, Plan III-—
are described in the chart on the following pages.

Students made their choices by popular vote. On
Plans II and III, some students worked in pair—learning or
small group situations as well as on individual projects.
Of the four class groups, one each selected Plan I and Plan
II; Plan III was selected by two classes.

One requirement, regardless of the plan chosen,
was the completion of laboratory and value—related assign—

ments. This was, however, the only common element.

Organization of Value—Related Content

To understand more clearly the value clarification
approach, as interpreted and applied to the four earth sci-
ence classes described for the three month experimental
period, the chart, beginning on page 98, has been prepared
to describe the chronological order of activities and tech—
niques used.

The activities shown in the chart should be more
fully explained. Each of the following paragraphs explains
in detail, the use or purpose of the item, strategy, or

aCtivity identified in the chart.

 

95

 

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moaono omouomlmH
Umummmum ucmpsum .mH

=mupmam

mo HHHm nusow:

Amcflump

Ino Mammy mEmUH
moaogo pmouomumH .eH

mummnm msHm>
pmummmum ucmpsum .MH

 

.Ammcw
nHmmm can mummocoo

Ampommv H Hm>mq

wmmumuum mcflsHm>

 

 

.mDOMH ou mcflxcflnu mcoflpmNHHmHmcmw wuH>Hu04
HMUHDHHO mcflmemé paw mmHmHocHHm
AmmsHm>v HHH Hm>mq Amummocoov HH Hm>mq

.Umscflucou .v mHnme

102

 

.ammHaOHz mo hyoymfla
UHmOHomm may no .mHamy mEHy UHmOHomm may .Emyamoyymme mo wyoym m ..m.m

 

 

 

 

 

.mmysyofim may HHm mmUsHoaH ymay >Hoym m HHmB .mmysyon oH yomHmm "GOHyoa .H
. . mHmHSyma mH ymaB
.Umammmma mma Hmysyma maHaymEOm mzoam ymay mysyoflm m mamy yo muDyOHm m maflym .a
.moamflymmxm may Eoyy mmaHHmmH mymOHGSEEOU .myommao mo
Hymflum> m mmmm :mEmm maHaosoy pHOHIGaHHm= .GOHymmoymm >y0mamm "mymyymaoEmo .n
.omm mEHy maoH m UmaooH yH Boa mam .mysysm may CH mEHy maoH m aooH HHHB
mmym may Boa maHEymympllmmysymmH m.ayymm may mo mmysyon yamumeHo mama .H
mayymm may mxHHas mam ayymm may maHH 50> mum mHmB ymaB aH .a
.mEmHaoym HmHoomlmoamHomllmoHoaU Umoyom EmyHImH .m
.mmamumaomnu=masmaao HHo pmxmmHa was. .p
.mHuymEHHy m ymymymyafl tam 30am .m
.wymmam msHm> yampsym co msoom .o
mmmaomoymmm m>HymmHo
myoE wa mmsHm> cam mymmoaoo .myomm may hpsym m3 amo 30m «msoym musm .o
=.ymmm may oy Hma m mH yammmym mam.= "aoyysm "mmOHomw UHHoymHm .a
=.yamp5ym @000 m ma oy 30m: .m
AmEHy HmyamEHHmmxm may maHymaHEHSUV "MHOB macaw HHmEm .mH
=mamm maflaosoy
pHoylpaHHm:
.aoHy
Immoymm HHOmamm .mH
.
.Ammaa .
. mGOHymNHHmHmamw r Amyommv H Hm>ma Smmymuym maflfiHm>

IHmmy mam mymmoaoo
.myomm 0y maflaaflay
HmOHyHyo maHHHmmal
lxmmsam>v HHH Hm>mq

Amymmoaoov HH Hm>ma

"i
Irl

mam mmHmHoaHHm _ myH>Hyoa

.UmsaHyaoo .w mHama

 

103

Descriptions

 

1. Classroom Inventory--The classroom inventory was
taken as a pre-test to measure attitudes toward science,
personal attitudes and values and classroom climate. It
was also given as a post-test.

2. Autobiography--Students were asked to write a story
of their life and to include anything they felt was signifi-
cant to them. These are useful to give general insights to
the teacher, as was the case in this study. Other uses of
the autobiography are: as a pre-test and post-test rating
for attitudes, as a means for establishing objectives for
independent study, etc.

3. Student Objectives-—Each student was asked to write
two objectives for the following reasons: to involve stu-
dents in classroom planning, and to help the teacher plan
classroom activities around individual objectives as much
as possible. These objectives were discussed and listed
as goals for planning activities.

4. Teacher Objectives--Teacher objectives were dis-
cussed and compared with the list of objectives submitted
by the students. Some of our common objectives were:

a. Classroom activities should promote the necessary
learning of facts, concepts and skills to promote in-
terest, attitudes and values in earth science.

b. Classroom activities should be open-ended and

flexible, according to individual student needs.

104

c. Students should be given a part in classroom
decisionémaking.

d. Students are given an Opportunity to communicate
among themselves and with the teachers.

e. Students and teacher are tolerant, Open-minded,
and respectful Of the Opinions of others.

f. Students' viewpoints which disagree with the
teacher's viewpoint are respected.

g. Students must realize that the inquiry process
and critical thinking applies both to science and to
our feelings about science.

h. Students must understand the importance of sci-
ence for understanding the modern world--the environ-
mental crisis.

5. The Value Clarification Process—~The value clarifi-
cation process, which was the central focus Of this study,
was presented to the students by means of the charts which
appear on the following pages.

6. Valuing Through Literature--"I Found an Important
Fossil and Lost It."1 This was the first exercise in which
students caught a glimpse Of the need for critical think-
ing as applied to both our feelings and to facts and con—

cepts. This was a general discussion concerning the pros

1"Science Newsmaker: I Found an Important Fossil
and Lost It," Current Science, Vol. 56, NO. 13 (January 6,
1971)! p. 3.

 

 

105

/ N
LEARNING

Level I & II 43/”—’———

APPLYING THE APPLYING THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD VALUING METHOD

 

   

 

    
   
   

\

    
  
      
 

Level III

 

Subject §;—~—— —""’/ Values

Matter LEARNING 4"””;Z

 

Figure l. The Value Clarification Process to Learning.

 

 

SUBJECT MATTER INDICATORS VALUE INDICATORS

1. Earth science facts are means, 1. Goals or purposes
not ends. . .

———— 2. Aspirations

2. Facts lead to understanding 3. Attitudes
generalizations.

3. Generalizations lead to understand- 4' Interest
ing ppinciples. 5. Feelings

4. Principles are used in problem 6. Beliefs and con-
solving. victions

5. Problems are solved by using the 7. Activities

scientific method and critical
thinking.

 

 

8. Worries, problems,
and Obstacles.

 

106

'x)

J
\u\\\\

q

s
l
\r

FREELY
CHOOSING

I 7

CHOOSING
0

FROM
ALTERNATIVES

  
   

    

   

DEFINING
A
VALUE FOR

?
a/k’”
( FE

 
 
   
 
   
 

  
  
 

CHOOSING

  

IN SOME
PATTERN
IN

LIFE

w:

‘

 
 

  

b\\\\\

 
 

after
thoughtful

y-

 
    
  
  
  
   

.1

 

ACTING

\
0§§

(Q
q’»

 

CHERISHING

being happy with
CHOICE

 
   

DOING
SOMETHING

WITH
the

CHOICE

   
 
  

 
 

    
   
 
 

     

PRIZING

  
 
   
 

willin
to
AFFIRM the

CHOICE
PUBLICLY

    

  

Figure 2. Applying the Valuing Method.

107

9m
J \‘0
\\\\\\

\

  
    
  
 

\
(
m

GATHERS

EVIDENCE
Reads Others'
works; listens
to Others

 
   

 
 
  

  

GATHERING
OF EVIDENCE,
ETC., ETC.

         
    
 
 
 
     
  
   
   
   
 
 

now he

 
 

which
again leads to ?

”4,
.A NEW
PROBLEM
ARISES

  
 

,Makes
a guess--

A HYPOTHESIS

--A trial
solution

which BUT--a scientist's 3
leads

SO

 

  
 
    
  

Experiments
Experiments
Experiments

   
      

A CONCLUSION

Was hypothesis I
correct?

Observations
Observation

    
 
 
 

1which finally
leads to

Figure 3. Applying the Scientific Method

108

and cons of whether a twelve year old student should give
his valuable fossil to scientists to further scientific
knowledge or to keep it for himself because it belonged
to him and he wanted it for his collection.

7. Valuing Through Literature—-"World Climate

2

Changed." This exercise was first considered individu-

ally, and then in a large group discussion. Later indi—
vidual opinions were considered as an Open forum or five
minute quote. The article appears in the following para—

graph:

World Climate Changed?

LONDON, England--A big irrigation program now
being planned in Russia could cause worldwide changes
in climate.

The plan calls for changing the direction of three
large rivers now flowing northward into the Arctic
Ocean. The waters of the rivers would be diverted
southward to irrigate desert areas in the southern
part of Russia.

The diversion would rob the Arctic Ocean of half
of its supply of incoming fresh water. This fresh—
water supply keeps the surface water of the ocean
fairly fresh so that it freezes more easily.

If the freshwater supply were reduced or cut
off, less water would be locked up in ice. The re-
sulting increase in open waters could cause changes
in climates throughout the world.

The animated discussion fell into two areas, the facts

and concepts of the oceans as a "climatic control," and

 

2"World Climate Changed," Current Science, Vol.
55, No. 24, (April 1, 1970), p. 6.

109

the "pigpp" of any country to change world wide climate.
The outcome, in my Opinion, demonstrated the teaching Of
science with a focus on values and the importance of
classroom climate to the exploration Of divergent views.
There were sharp differences of Opinion and the communi—
cation Of these ideas depended upon the feeling Of trust
and acceptance within the classroom. In the Value clar—
ification method, it is the communication of ideas for
examination that is important; value issues are not
solved or used as questions for evaluation.

8. Role—Play-—"Strip-mining Scars Appalachia."3
The material used (see the Appendix) as background study
for this role-play was presented to each student prior
to selecting candidates for the roles. The students

presenting the role—play volunteered for the parts

which were:

Cecil Combs, the farmer

The Bulldozer Operator

The Mining Company Lawyer

The Conservationalist

 

3George Pollock, The Conservation Story, (Columbus,
Ohio: American Education Publications Unit Book, 1969),
pp. 23-26. Not cited for duplication.

 

 

 

 

110

A large group discussion followed with some Of these value
indicators being used: I feel that. . ., I'm against
that. . ., I think if. . ., If you ask me. . . I be-
lieve. . ., etc. Students clearly revealed what they were
£93 or against. Certainly some potential values and ideas
for action were evident from the discussion. Several stu—
dents reported on hearing and seeing news reports on the
disasters Of strip-mining. One girl remarked, "If we had
not play-roled the issue, I would not have paid any atten-
tion to it." Teacher remark, "How did you feel as you
heard the report?" Student, "I felt like I was there."

9. The Action Side Of Valuing-—"Mining in Minnesota
Boundary Waters Canoe Area."4 This action exercise was
planned to help bridge the gap between wppdg and deeds.
The action exercise and resource materials address sheet
are found in the Appendix.

10. Filmstrips on the Environmental Crisis--Two days
were spent viewing two new (1970) filmstrips on the envi-
ronmental crisis and man's changing values. The discus-
sion following the filmstrips revealed some action com-
mitments at the local level, e.g., student: "I asked the
manager Of the I.G.A. store to consider pick—up service

for trash, instead of burning it in the Open trash-can."

 

4"Mining in Minnesota Boundary Waters Canoe Area,"
National Wildlife, Vol. 9, NO. l (December-January, 1971)
p. 17.

 

111

11. Zig-Zag--"Declaration Of Dependence.“5 The zig—
zag technique starts out as a contrived incident simply
by fielding questions either indirectly to or circumven-
ting the real value issue, yet being analogous to the sit—
uation. This exercise was planned to help emphasize EH2

interdependency of man and nature and man to man. (See

 

the Appendix for literature used.)

12. Value Sheet-~"More Than Minerals."6 This value
sheet was completed by each student as a homework assign-
ment. After clarifying responses were written on the
sheets and returned to the students, they were then shared
with the class. Again, the sharing by individuals was Op—
tional. (See the Appendix for these materials).

13. Value Sheets: Student Prepared.--Students were
asked to prepare three value sheets within a three week's
period as a homework assignment. These could be subject
matter related or a "pure" value lesson. This was a
highly successful assignment. Many more than the three
assigned, were turned in. Clarifying responses were
written on the sheets and they were returned to the stu-

dent tO be shared with the group and then filed in their

 

5Henry Gibson, "Declaration Of Dependence," Na-
tional Wildlife, Vol. 9, NO. l (December-January, 1971).

 

6Louis Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney B. Simon,
Values and Teaching (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill,
1966), P. 104.

 

112

folders. (Individual folders were set up for all students.
Valuing materials were filed in the individual folders for
use later in small group work).

14. 16-Forced Choice Items--"Youth Bill of Rights."7
Students were given this twenty-five item paper and asked
to select sixteen items and then to arrange these items on
the "Value Grid" according to "couldn't care less" to "very
strong Opinion." After the sixteen items were arranged on
the grid, the last four "very strong Opinion" were checked
on the "7-Criteria of Values" to determine whether their
choices were their individual values. (See the Appendix
for materials described).

15. l6-Forced Choice Items: Student Prepared--Students
were asked to select any sixteen items they wished, either
subject content or "pure" values, and rank—order them as
described.

16. Value Continuum: "Truthfulness."8--The concept Of
truthfulness and its various shades is a difficult value
lesson. The continuum is useful in projecting a range Of
possibilities in a problem or value situation. (See the

Appendix for materials used).

 

7George Lawton, How To Be Happy Though Young, New
York: Vanguard Press, Inc. 1959.

8J. Bronowski, Science and Human Values (New York)
Harper and Row Publishers, 1965), p. 63, p. 52.

 

 

113

17. I See (Perception): "Sky Garden."9--Students are
Often surprised to discover that each of them perceive
something differently from viewing the same picture. This
exercise helped students understand more clearly the ori-
gin Of variety in interpretations.

18. Sensory Perception: "Blind—Fold Touching Game."—-
TOO little emphasis is given to the need for development
of a keener sense of touch in science teaching. Students
were amazed at the sensations experienced taking part in
this exercise. Students who volunteered to play the game
were blind—folded and passed a variety of articles common-
ly found in the laboratory and then they communicated their
feelings to the class.

18. Small Group Work-—As culminating experiences, each
group (six) selected two activities which they worked out
within the group and then presented the lesson to the
class. Some of these experiences were taken from the stu-
dents' work (value sheets), some ideas came from the teach-
er, others were adapted from other sources, e.g., the En—

vironmental Studies and J. Weston Walch Materials.lo

 

9Taken from a student's value sheet: A picture of
Robert Rauschenberg's 7 1/2 ft. high lithograph and silk
screen "Sky Garden."

10Environmental Science, Boulder, Colorado: Envi-
ronmental Studies, 1971; and David E. Newton, Social Pro-
blems in Science. A poster series. Portland, Maine; J.
Weston Walch Publishing Co., 1970.

 

 

114

Some examples are found in the Appendix. These experiences
were planned to show the following:

a. TO interrelate the three levels of learning as
depicted in the chart.

b. TO show the dependence, the changingness, and
interrelations in all aspects Of the earth in the study
of earth science.

c. To focus on the importance Of both knowledge
Of the subject (earth science) and a consideration and

analysis of individual feelings toward it.

Organization of the Classroom

 

Patterns For Use Of Time

 

During the experimental period the classroom time
was divided into two thirty-minute modules, except occa-
sionally when the laboratory exercises took most Of the
fifty-five minute period. Thirty minutes was used by the
teacher for presenting and explaining new approaches and
materials, bringing some facts and concepts forward in
lecture, showing movies, filmstrips transparencies and the
all-important Opportunity for an "Open" discussion on a
current topic important to the students. The other half
of the daily class time was for small group meeting (e.g.,
on a long—range value clarification projects), laboratory
work, and independent study time for use Of classroom re-

sources. This time was also used for student-teacher

115

conferences. The Open discussions and value clarification
approaches were, in most cases, coordinated with the sub—
ject content. However, occasionally a "pure" valuing

lesson was used.

Small Groups

 

Small groups were used for both the organization
and completion of tasks--either Of subject matter orienta-
tion or the valuing strategies which focused on the group.
(The author and the students increased in their "prizing"
of the use Of the small group as an "instructional tool.")
Groups provide for fusion of individualities toward a com-
mon whole. In group work, both affective and task-oriented
components can be stressed. This process of individual
growth in cooperative living is democracy in action. De-
mocracy must be learned; sensitivity to the needs of others
must be acquired through eXperiences. This does not imply
harmony; it is more likely to be laced with competition
and conflict. However, it is through Open discussion that

conflicts are resolved and decisions are made.

Summary

In Chapter III, the content and organization of
value clarification strategies used have been described.
Students were able tO select from three patterns of organi—
zation: teacher-centered, teacher-student centered, and

student-centered. Regardless of the pattern used, all

116

students participated in the laboratory experiences and in
the value—clarifying experiences.

The organization of required experiences was de-
signed tO provide three types of learning: facts (Level
I), concepts (Level II), or values (Level III). Each
experience was designed in an attempt to reach all three
levels, i.e., to culminate in a value activity by which
students could clarify and choose positions on an issue.

A variety of strategies, used to build toward
Level III learning, have been described.

In the next chapter, attention is given to a dis-
cussion of the outcomes of the teaching strategies de—
scribed here. These outcomes are reported as Observed
and as available from the interpretations made of student
responses collected by Opinionnaires constructed by the

author for use with this study.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF A VALUE CLARIFICATION

METHOD IN EARTH SCIENCE CLASSES

Introduction

In the preceding chapter, the classroom procedures
and strategies used to implement a value clarification
method were described. Such a method represents a clear
choice between the two major "camps" described and defined
in Chapter II. As explained in Chapter II, education seems
to be divided between those who would stress the transmis—
sion of cognitive knowledge and those who would place an
equal or greater emphasis upon the realization of affective
objectives within the classroom. The choice of a teaching
philosophy which stresses the interdependence of cognitive
and affective objectives is the choice which has been ex-
pressed to this point. Such a choice does not, however,
"free" the teacher from the responsibility for observing
and reporting upon the results of the actions taken and
the methods employed within the classroom. The current em-
phasis upon "accountability" is, after all is said and done,
a demand for the teacher to be able to describe the out—

comes Of the actions taken.

117

g.

 

118

As presented in Chapter I, the use Of value clari-
fication strategies in the conducting of earth science
classes was undertaken with two basic concerns in mind:

1. To increase student perceptions Of personal respon-
sibility and involvement in the processes of science, par-
ticularly as related to classroom actions and local envi-
ronmental issues.

2. To encourage a classroom climate more conducive to
freedom of thought and acceptance Of divergent thinking.

In attempting to achieve these Objectives, plans were made
to provide students with options to the typical program of
teacher-centered activities which had been Offered prior

to this experiment. Instructional plans made provision for
the use Of, and inclusion of, value activities in addition
to the factual and conceptual issues which had been con-
tained in prior planning for instruction.

The limitations outlined in Chapter I should be
kept clearly in mind as findings are reported and analyzed.
NO claim can be made for the extension Of the observations
and Opinionnaire data reported here to other situations;
the procedures Of reporting do not permit generalization to
other teachers, other schools, or other subjects.

What, then, is the significance of this study? The
use of an approach to affective education, as reported here,
does provide some questions Of importance to those who may

wish to search further for ways in which to provide for the

119

integration of "facts and feelings." More importantly,
the approach used in the conducting of this study could be
adapted and adopted by classroom teachers as a means of
analyzing the effectiveness of any instructional method as

applied to their own individual situations.

Observational Information

 

The definition of "valuing" and "values" given by
Raths, Harmin and Simon stress the importance of actions
being taken as a result of value clarification having oc—
curred for the individual. During the course of the three
months in which the value clarification method was being
used in the earth science classes, the following Observa—
tions were noted:

1. More than 50% of the students in the four classes
wrote to one or more agencies for free resources and mater-
ials.

2. Approximately 18% of the students wrote letters de—
scribing their personal convictions regarding the issue of
whether mining should be permitted in the Boundary Waters
Canoe Area in Minnesota.

3. One student, employed at a local grocery store,
asked for advice on how to approach the owner to request
that he cease burning waste materials in uncovered areas.
The student followed up on this episode by interviewing the

store owner and making the request.

120

4. A year prior to this experiment, a college student
had organized a clean—up campaign to clear the Maple River,
a small waterway running through the school district. Many
students requested information on "how they could help in
this project."

5. For a number of years, students in the author's
earth science classes have been encouraged to bring mater—
ials and share them with other students. As noted earlier,
during the school year being reported, a classroom library
was established to provide for the organizing and sharing
of student or teacher contributed materials. Typically,
about 20-25% of the students have contributed materials for
classroom use. After the experimental period was well un—
der way, this figure rose to almost half of all students.

6. One of the freshman English teachers reported a
sharp rise in the number of themes written on scientific
topics. This increase occurred after the value clarifica—
tion experiment had begun.

7. Within the classroom, students began taking a more
active part in suggesting activities or in supporting and
opposing teacher—suggested activities. (In one class, stu-
dents became dissatisfied with the choice of classroom ac—
tivities and negotiated for a change).

8. Almost all students became very involved in bring—
ing newspaper clippings related to the topics under dis—

cussion.

Fr

121

9. Students continued to construct value sheets even
after these were no longer being assigned as part of the
experimental process. This was true for more than 10% Of
the students.

10. Students prepared, on their own initiative, demon-
strations for which they then requested class time for pre-
sentation.

Overall, the most impressive development has been
the generation of, and the collection or sharing Of mater-
ials. Girls tended to center upon the collection Of arti-
cles, clippings, and the construction of additional value
sheets on topics. Boys tended to be more active in pre-
paring demonstrations for classroom presentation and be-
coming involved in environmental projects. Overall, girls
were—~on an observational basis-—more actively involved
than boys. Compared to earlier years, the level of in-
volvement by students more than doubled in their reaction
to the class and its activities, i.e., in ten years of pre-
vious teaching of earth science in the same school system,
I have never had as much student involvement in the collec-
tion of information or willingness to translate study into

action.

122

Opinionnaire Results

 

At the beginning and at the end of the experimental
period, two instruments were given to the students. The
first of these instruments, the Classroom Inventory, was
intended to provide some general information about stu-
dent's perceptions of three areas: the importance of sci-
ence, personal attitudes toward science, the climate of
their science classroom. The Classroom Inventory is shown
on the following pages. The second instrument, a class—
room reaction form, was used to measure changes in the per-
ception of classroom climate.

On both occasions when the Classroom Inventory was
given, students tended to reject the same six statements:

1. Science promotes immediate answers.

2. Studying science is of no help to me.

3. In the scientific study of problems, there is only

one correct answer.

4. Science can solve all of our problems.

5. I might consider a career in science.

6. Scientific decision-making is based only on facts.
From student responses, it is possible to conclude that
the classes studied are composed of students who do not
intend to pursue an extended course of study in science.
The students do see their science courses as being help—
ful but reject the idea that science is totally objective

or capable of being used to provide immediate, correct,

Directions:

10.

ll.

12.

123

CLASSROOM INVENTORY

Use a pencil.

Answer each question according to your own
Opinion. There are no right or wrong answers.

Do not put your name on this booklet.

Use only the symbols given below for responding
to the question asked.

5 = Strongly Agree

4 = Agree

3 = Neither Agree or Disagree
2 = Disagree

1 =

Strongly Disagree
Questions
Science is important in our daily lives.

The study of science can help us solve problems
which face our society.

Science can solve all our problems.
Modern living is based on scientific methods.

In the scientific study of problems, there is
only one correct answer.

Use of scientific thought promotes different
opinions.

Scientific method requires the ability to be
able to state a problem.

One of the major parts of the scientific method
is the ability of the scientist to devise ways
of gathering information about an idea.

Science promotes immediate answers.

Scientific decision-making is based only on
facts.

I would like to take additional science courses.

I might consider a career in science.

 

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

124

Studying science is of no help to me.

I enjoy using scientific methods to solve
other kinds Of problems.

Science helps me understand life and make my
own choices.

I realize my problems cannot be solved by sci-
ence.

In studying science, I have learned to collect
evidence before making decisions.

Studying science has made me more curious about
how things work and how people act.

The study of science makes me more willing to
state my own Opinions.

The study Of science makes me more willing to
listen to the Opinions Of others.

In this class, students are involved in plann—
ing classroom activities.

In this class, a variety of methods and mater-
ials are available for student use.

In this class, students are encouraged to share
ideas with One another.

In this class, students are encouraged to share
ideas with the teacher.

In this class, students are allowed to disagree
with the teacher.

In this class other students listen to my Opin-
ions.

In this class, students are encouraged to state
their own Opinions and collect evidence to sup-
port their Opinions.

In this class people can be honest with one
another about their Opinions and feelings.

29. In this
work on

30. In this
teacher
me as a

 

125

class, students have Opportunities to
topics that are Of interest to them.

class, the directions given by the
are easy to understand and helpful to
student.

Please Complete the Following Information

Hour

Sex (F or M)

126

and factual answers. Acceptance of statements varied be-
tween the two administrations of the Classroom Inventory.
Variations were also present in the perceptions of girls
as compared to boys. The questions which received high
acceptance are given below:

1. Science is important in our daily lives. On the

 

pre-test, boys rated this item highest of any. Girls,
however, did not include it among their top five ratings.
On the post—test, both boys and girls saw this statement

as being the one they could most strongly agree with.
During the experimental period, students increased in their
perceptions of the importance of science in their daily
lives.

2. The study of science can help us solve problems

 

which face our society. The relationships are the same for

 

this question as for the one above. Boys ranked this item
as second in importance on both the pre-test and on the
post—test. Girls, who did not include it in their top five
on the pre—test, also ranked this item as second highest on
the post-test. It would appear that the use of the value
clarification method helped increase the perceptions of
girls as to the relationship between science and either
their daily lives (#1 above) or the solution of societal
problems.

3. Boys and girls, on both pre—test and post—test, gave
high ratings to the statement, "Use of scientific thought

promotes different opinions."

127

4. On the prevtest, both boys and girls gave high rat—
ings to the statement, "One Of the major parts Of the sci-
entific method is the ability of the scientist to devise
ways of gathering information about an idea." Boys con-
tinued their emphasis on this statement as reported by pre—
test rankings. Girls, however, gave increased emphasis to
the statement, "In this class, students are allowed to dis-
agree with the teacher." This shift, considering the rank-
ings given to the importance of different Opinions, leads
one to conclude that the climate of respect for divergent
thinking was increasing during the experimental period.
Girls had indicated on the pre-test, however, higher per-
ception (as reported by rankings given) to two related
questions. "In this class, a variety Of methods and mater-
ials are available for student use," and "In this class,
students are encouraged to share ideas with one another."
On the post-test, both boys and girls gave high ratings to
the latter statement.

5. "In this class, students are encouraged to state
their own Opinions and collect evidence to support their
Opinions." This statement, ranked in fifth place by both
boys and girls on the pre-test, does not appear in the top
five statements on the post-test. Boys replaced this state-
ment with increased emphasis on sharing ideas with other
students while girls gave additional emphasis to the impor-
tance of science in daily life or in solving societal pro-

blems.

128

When one compares the top and bottom five state-
ments, as ranked on the pre—test and post-test Of the Class-
room inventory, certain conclusions may be drawn:

1. Students see science as important to their daily
lives. This increased during the experimental period.

2. Students see science as being useful in dealing with
problems Of society. This increased during the experimen-
tal period.

3. Students have an increased awareness of the possi—
bility of divergent ideas about scientific solutions.

4. Students see increased in-class Opportunities for
sharing ideas with other students in a climate of respect
for divergent thinking.

5. Students see increased in-class Opportunities for
discussion or disagreement with the teacher, i.e., increased

human interaction is possible between teacher and student.

Use of Classroom Reaction Forms

 

During the experimental period, a classroom reaction
form was used to collect information from students. A copy
is shown on the next page. Students were asked to indicate
whether the emphasis in the classroom was (A) too much,

(B) about right or (C) too little. As a guide to interpre-
tation, the following rules were decided upon:

1. The preferred response was "about right." Changes
in either Of the other two responses were interpreted as

signaling potential concerns.

 

 

129

CLASSROOM REACTION FORM

Directions:

The ten items listed below are meant to check your
opinions about this class for the last month. Use a pen-
cil. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not put
your name on this sheet. For each question, use only one
of the following responses:

3 = Too much.
2 = About right.
1 = Not enough.
For each question, read it as though it said: "In
this class, during the last month, the attention or empha—
sis upon has been (too much,

 

about right, or not enough).

1. Learning new information.

2. Getting good grades.

3. Following the teacher's decisions.

4. Working with other students.

5. Helping to plan classroom activities.
6. Listening to the opinions of others.
7. Being able to state my own Opinions.

8. Understanding the teacher's directions.
9. Knowledge which I can use in my own life.
10. Being able to get individual attention from

the teacher.
Please complete the following information
Hour

Sex (M or F)

130

2. Changes between administrations of the test were to
be judged by a 5% shift in the "about right" response.
Either a positive or negative shift of this magnitude was
assumed to have significance.

3. Shifts of i 5% or less are coded as N. Shifts of
i 5% or greater are shown in percentages and the direction
of the shift is indicated.

The Tables of responses on the following pages pre—
sent changes in student perceptions as Obtained from the
classroom Reaction Form.

The tabled data gives no clear tendency. Collap—
sing the information into more usable forms, some addition—
al insight may be given: Boys showed increases in two
categories, decreases in two categories and no change in
six categories. Girls showed increases in eight categories
and no change in two categories. When all students are
combined, five categories show increases, one category
shows a decline, and four categories show no change. The
following results can be briefly stated:

1. Boys, as a total group, show no changes as a result
of the use of the method.

2. Girls show significant increases in many categories.

3 Combining all students, the net growth is less than

the 5% established as a criteria for evaluation. (The

change was a positive change of 3.9%).

I!

 

131

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5. Group I Changes in Satisfaction as Measured by
Pre-test and Post—test Responses on Classroom
Reaction Forms
Statement Boys Girls Total Class
1. Learning new information —16.6% + 6.2% N
2. Getting good grades N +18.8% +10.7%
3. Following the teacher's
directions —33.3% +12.5% - 7.2%
4. Working with other stu-
dents —16.7% + 6.2% N
5. Helping to plan class—
room activities +33.4% +62.6% +50.0%
6. Listening to the opin-
ions of others —33.4% +37.6% + 7.2%
7. Being able to state my
own opinions —32.4% +18.8% N
8. Understanding the teach-
er's directions + 8.4% +12.6% +10.8%
9. Knowledge which I can
use in my own life —25.0% + 6.3% - 7.2%
10. Being able to get indi-
vidual attention from
the teacher N +25.0% +14.2%
TOTALS -11.6% +20.7% + 6.8%
N = change of i 5% or less.

 

132

 

 

 

 

Table 6. Group II Changes in Satisfaction as Measured by
Pre-test and Post-test Responses on Classroom
Reaction Forms
Statement Boys Girls Total Class
1. Learning new information N —25.3% -9.6%
2. Getting good grades N —21.3% -10.3%
3. Following the teacher's
directions + 6.6% +10.1% + 7.1%
4. Working with other stu-
dents +26.6% -22.4% N
5. Helping to plan class-
room activities - 6.7% -21.2% -12.5%
6. Listening to the Opinions
of others +20.0% N +11.2%
7. Being able to state my
own opinions —l3.3% —16.2% —l3.8%
8. Understanding the teach-
er's directions +20.0% + 6.0% +16.0%
9. Knowledge which I can use
in my own life N N N
10. Being able to get individh
ual attention from the
teacher —33.3% +19.2% -13.5%
TOTALS N - 7. 8% N

 

N = change of i 5% or less.

 

133

 

 

 

 

 

Table 7. Group III Changes in Satisfaction as Measured by
Pre-test and Post—test Responses on Classroom
Reaction Forms,
Statement Boys Girls Total Class
1. Learning new information +25.6% +38.3% +34.3%
2. Getting good grades N + 8.3% N
3. Following the teacher's
directions +13.6% + 6.7% + 6.2%
4. Working with other stu-
dents +l3.6% +20.0% +19.5%
5. Helping to plan class-
room activities -12.9% +30.0% +15.7%
6. Listening to the Opin-
ions Of others -12.0% - 6.7% - 7.8%
7. Being able to state my
own Opinions -15.4% -18.3% -l4.7%
8. Understanding the teach-
er's directions + 5.9% +16.7% +12.6%
9. Knowledge which I can
use in my own life + 5.9% +35.0% +23.1%
10. Being able to get indi-
vidual attention from
the teacher +17.9% +11.7% +16.4%
TOTALS N +14.2% +11.0%
N = change of i 5% or less.

 

134

 

 

 

 

 

Table 8. Group IV Changes in Satisfaction as Measured by
Pre-test and Post-test Responses on Classroom
Reaction Forms
Statement Boys Girls Total Class
1. Learning new information - 8.3% + 9.9% N
2. Getting good grades +39.3% +11.5% +24.5%
3. Following the teacher's
directions +13.1% +17.6% +14.1%
4. Working with other stu-
dents -11.9% -19.8% -16.3%
5. Helping to plan class-
room activities + 9.6% —11.5% N
6. Listening to the opin-
ions Of others —l7.9% -19.2% -20.0%
7. Being able to state my
own Opinions - 9.6% + 9.4% N
8. Understanding the teach-
er's directions —l9.0% -19.8% —l8.9%
9. Knowledge which I can use
in my own life N +26.3% +13.4%
10. Being able to get indi—
vidual attention from
the teacher N -33.5% -16.4%
TOTALS N N N
N = change Of i 5% or less.

135

 

 

 

 

Table 9. Changes in Satisfaction of Students as Measured
by Pre-test and Post—test Responses on Classroom
Reaction Forms
Statement Boysr Girls Total Class
1. Learning new information N +11.l% + 5.5%
2. Getting good grades + 8.1% + 8.4% + 8.3%
3. Following the teacher's
directions N +11.3% N
4. Working with other stu—
dents N N N
5. Helping to plan class-
room activities + 5.5% +21.1% +13.9%
6. Listening to the opin-
ions of others — 8.5% N N
7. Being able to state my
own opinions —l6.8% N - 8.3%
8. Understanding the teach-
er's directions N +10.9% + 7.4%
9. Knowledge which I can
use in my own life N +19.9% + 8.3%
10. Being able to get indi—
vidual attention from
the teacher N + 5.8% N
TOTALS N + 8.8% N

 

N = change of i 5% or less.

136

Another insight can also be given. On the pre-test
of the Classroom Reaction Form, boys were more positive
than girls for nine of the ten statements. The post—test
indicated a reversal of this tendency; on the post—test,
girls were more satisfied than boys in eight of ten cate—
gories.

One other observation about the results of the re—
action form data should be noted: girls report changes in
excess of 10% in five of the ten areas. Boys show no such
gains in any category. This increased satisfaction by
girls may be related to the changes reported on the class~
room inventory, i.e., girls began to perceive a higher re—

lationship between science and their daily lives.

Summary

Upon examination of the data collected from four
earth science classrooms during the three months of using
the value clarification method, the question may be asked
again, can instruments and procedures be developed which
will enable the teacher to assess the results Of the clari—
fying strategies used? Limitations of this study make it
difficult to make concluding statements, however, certain
changes were Observed in student behavior which indicated
positive changes in their perceptions of the practicalness
of earth science in their daily lives. The ratings from
the Classroom Inventory indicated a similar movement toward

increase valuing of science as related to daily life.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

It has been said that most teachers teach as they
have been taught, i.e., they consciously or unconsciously
adopt a role model from among the teachers who taught them.
Such a route of selection of teaching strategies has built-
in assets and liabilities. On the positive side, the
teacher is able to select strategies with which they are
already familiar and which are "comfortable" to use. If
those strategies are unproductive or at least not as pro-
ductive as the individual might hope, it is always possible
to console oneself with the fact that the same set of strat—
egies were relatively successful for another individual.
This "adoption" of teaching strategies by "introjection"
has some negative characteristics as well; chief among
these is the tendency to neglect the assessment of class—
room environment and the relationship of strategies used to
clearly specified goals or beliefs held by the teacher.
With the acceptance of pre—established teaching strategies,

i.e., with the failure of the teacher to recreate teaching

137

138

strategies for his own use, teaching becomes a routinized
occupation rather than a search for meaning and understand-
ing.

The study which has been reported in the preceding
pages has been, to no small degree, a result of one teach-
er's attempt to recreate the teaching strategies used in
the continuing struggle to more adequately inform, guide,
help, and prepare the youth of today for a future which--
although unknown--belongs to them. It is, one might say,
a story of the way in which teaching strategies designed
for "our" world have been recreated for students so as to

prepare them for "their" world.

Conclusions

 

Both observations and the use of classroom pencil-
and-paper instruments indicate that the four classes re-
ported upon in this study maintained and/or increased their
valuing of science as important to their daily lives. For
the classes reported upon, positive changes in levels of
valuing are more easily perceived on the part of girls.
The significance of this finding is not clear, however.
Boys maintained as active an interest in classroom activi-
ties and--in some types of observed data--showed increased
in actions which could be characterized as being value-
related, e.g., preparation of demonstrations for use in

the classroom and involvement in out-of—school activities

 

139

related to ecological improvement. Considering the scores
obtained on the two pencil-and—paper instruments, boys
showed no change while girls moved upward——reaching or sur-
passing the levels reported by boys.

On the basis of the pencil—and—paper items used, it
must be concluded that there was no significant overall
gain in the levels of reported values given by the class-
room groups as a total, when all four groups are summed to—
gether. Changes occurred within different subgroups within
the varying classes; on a total basis, these were not signi-
ficant.

Observational ratings present a slightly different
story than do the pencil—and-paper instruments. On the
basis of classroom observations and on the basis of the ac—
tions entered into by both boys and girls, the conclusion
would be that the use of value clarification activities do
provide for a significant increase in the involvement and/or
commitment of students to science—related issues which they
face in their daily lives.

From the role of the teacher, it is also possible to
report and conclude that the use of the method led to basic
outcomes: (1) better organization of content so as to pro-
vide for valuing choices; (2) greater attention to the need
to provide for divergent thinking, and (3) an increased em-
phasis upon evaluation as a concept separate from, although

related to, "grading."

 

140

From the procedures followed in the conducting of
these four classes, certain conclusions can be drawn regard-
ing the use of the value clarification method.

1. Provision should be made for consideration of stu—
dent—selected objectives. Identification of student objec-
tives permits diagnosis of student needs and desires so
that these may be considered in the development of class-
room procedures and experiences.

2. The basic framework of cognitive activities should
be planned far enough in advance so that two goals can be
achieved: (a) Students can be involved in long—range plan-
ning and decision—making, and (b) Conducting activities can
be kept flexible as auxiliary issues or interests arise in
the course of following the planned strategies.

3. Basic classroom procedures, including a variety of
learning plans, should be identified; such identification
should clearly indicate the criteria for successful comple—
tion as agreed upon by teacher and students.

4. Value clarification is less dependent upon the par—
ticular type of conducting activities than it is upon the
readiness of the teacher to permit and support a climate of

open inquiry.

Recommendations

Although the results of this study seem to indicate

positive changes for both the students and the teacher

l4l

involved, those results remain highly speculative rather
than clearly nailed down and generalizable to other situa-
tions. Yet, the very "fuzziness" of specifying what the
value clarification method is——coupled with the vast array
of possible conducting procedures—-leads one to speculate
that additional research in the area might be unproductive
or incapable of systematic and sophisticated analysis and
reporting. As I proceeded with this study and with the re-
porting of the procedures and impressions gained, I became
more and more convinced that the particular environment
which exists in the classroom is probably more important
than the method which is being used, i.e., the "authenticity"
of the teacher and the opportunity for students to express
divergent views is more important than the teaching method.
And, the value clarification approach is primarily that-—a
teaching method. Future research might be more productive
by focusing on other methods which might show promise in
the improvement of classroom climate. Although Raths,
Harmin, and Simon speak of the value clarification method

as a "teaching theory, we seem to be far from the stage of
speaking of a clearly articulate theory which can adequately
postulate or explain the "right" classroom environment. To
an even lesser degree are we able to sharply delineate those
approaches by which teachers may create climates which en-

courage an equal emphasis upon the affective as well as the

cognitive domain.

142

The behavioral observations noted during the experi-
mental period (environmental-studies projects, value sheets,
and collecting of resource materials) continued to increase
during the post—experimental period. Because these behav—
ioral patterns have continued, for the author of this study,
a value clarification approach has been productive and re—
warding.

In all honesty, one should conclude that the effec-
tiveness of a value clarification method—-or any method——

is resident in its impact upon the individual teacher's

 

approach to classroom groups. If a method is merely super—
imposed, rather than causing clarification and change for
the teacher, its impact is likely to be quite moderate. We
do not have teacher-proof procedures—-only teachers who can
choose to seek to become more self-actualizing; in such a
search, the value clarification method can be helpful in

any classroom and for most teachers.

 

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(March 6, 1971) 52-53.

Silberman, Charles. Crisis in the Classroom. New York:
Random House, 1970.

 

Simon, Sidney B. and Harmin, Merrill. "Subject Matter
With a Focus on Values." Educational Leadership,
(October, 1968) 34-39.

 

Smith, Margaret L. "Which Direction Should We Go? Where
Do We Want to Go?" The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin,
(Winter, 1971) 43-45.

 

Thelen, Herbert. "Comments on What it Means to Become
Human." In To Nurture Humaneness. Edited by Mary—
Margaret Scobey and Grace Graham, Washington D.C.:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
N.E.A., 1970.

 

Toffler, Alvin. "What is Happening to Our Lives and
Values Future Shock—-The Clue to Understanding."
Detroit Free Press (August 9, 1970) 3.

 

Trubowitz, Sidney. "How to Teach in a Ghetto School."
Today's Education, (October, 1968) 28.

 

Truesdall, William H. "Teachers Should Commit Themselves."
Today's Education, (January, 1969) 37.

 

149

 

Tyler, Ralph W. "First Reports from the National Assess—
ment." Educational Leadership (March, 1971) 578.
Waddles, Bernice. "Teaching in the Inner—City Schools."

N.E.A. Journal (March, 1968) 39.

Wiles, Kimball. Teaching For Better Schools.r New York:
Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1953.

 

Woodruff, A. D. "The Roles of Value in Human Behavior."
Journal of Social Psychology, XXVI (1952) 98.

 

"World Climate Changed?" Current Science, (April 1, 1970).

Yeomans, Edward. Book Review of Reach, Touch, and Teach
by Terry Borton. Teachers College Record, (February,
1971) 465.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX

EXAMPLES OF MATERIALS USED IN THE CLASSROOM

 

EXAMPLES OF MATERIALS USED IN THE CLASSROOM

EXAMPLE I
A SMALL GROUP DECISION-MAKING PROBLEM
"Lost on the Moon: A Decision—

Making Problem"l

 

You are in a space crew originally scheduled to rendez-
vous with a mother ship on the lighted surface of the moon.
Mechanical difficulties, however, have forced your ship to
crash—land at a spot some 200 miles from the rendezvous
point. The rough landing damaged much of the equipment
aboard. Since survival depends on reaching the mother ship,
the most critical items available must be chosen for the 200
mile trip. Below are listed the 15 items left intact after
landing. Your task is to rank them in terms of their impor-
tance to your crew in its attempt to reach the rendezvous
point. Place number 1 by the most important item, number 2
by the second most important, and so on through number 15,
the least important.

(15) Box of matches

 

(4 Food concentrate
(6 50 feet of nylon rope
(7 Parachute silk

 

 

 

lBarbara Luke, Dorothy Mial, and Stanley Jacobson,
"Lost on the Moon: A Decision—making Problem," Toda 's Ed—
ucation, Vol. 58, No. 2 (February, 1969), pp. 55-56. (Num-
bers in parentheses represent the correct rank ordering as
given by the creators of the problem).

150

151

Portable heating unit

two .45 calibre pistols

one case dehydrated milk

two lOO—pound tanks of oxygen

stellar map (of the moonls constellation)
life raft

magnetic compass

5 gallons of water

signal flares

first—aid kit containing injection needles
solar-powered FM receiver—transmitter

 

Use In The Classroom

 

Participants worked on the problem alone, then
worked in groups of five, making six groups in each of the
four classes. They compared their individual rankings and
then agreed on a common ranking for the group. The leader
of the group scored the individual and group results accor—
ding to the correct rankings established by the space sur—
vival unit of NASA and posted the scores for class discus—
sion. Dividing naturally into three parts, this exercise
was completed in three consecutive laboratory sessions.

The groups were formed by free choice. The problem
was briefly introduced without going into details. Two
COpieS of the problem were given to each student. Each
group was given a number and that number was recorded on
the problem sheets. First, each student worked independent—
ly, ranking each item in order of its importance and record-
ing the ranking on both sheets. As the students finished,
the scoring committee collected one copy from each student,

keeping the group separated. Next, each group worked with

 

152

its members' copies to build a Group Summary Form by re—
cording individual rankings on a single fresh copy of the
problem.

While the groups were at work, the scoring committee

totaled the individual scores by comparing them with the

 

NASA key. For each item the score was the absolute differ-
ence between the student's ranking and the correct ranking.
The total score was the sum of the scores for each item.
The lowest score was the "best." For Part two, each group
was asked to complete one ranking representing the decision
of the whole group. It was emphasized that the decision
must be based on logic and fact rather than any personal
preference and should represent common agreement among the
members and not a simple majority vote.
When the groups finished, the scoring committee

(four students volunteered for the scoring committee and
they did not take part in the group decision) collected and
scored the group sheets by the same method used for the
individual forms. The scoring committee calculated and re—
ported the following:

(1) the difference between each group's score and the
average individual score for that group's members

(2) then a sheet was prepared for each group listing
the following information:
average individual score
range
group score

. difference between average individual and group
score

Q10 U'QJ

153

Table 10. Summary of Scores on Space Problem

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Individual Group
Group Number Average Range Score Net Change*

CLASS I

1 45 56—32 7 ’ 38

2 37 52—26 20 17

3 58 24—101 28 30

4 48.5 65-38 37 11.5

5 44 52—25 42 2

6 53 60—41 49 4
CLASS II

1 43 44—32 16 27

2 45 58—32 34 ll

3 52 60-36 56 —4

4a 42 56—30 34 8

4b 37 52—22 34 3

5 51 70—39 38 13

6 50 60—44 36 14
CLASS III

1 ' 41.5 47—36 43 (—) 1.5

2 49.8 60.38 41 8.8

3 48.4 58—42 42 6.4

4 42.5 52—18 42 .5

5 57.5 68-48 52 5.5

6 48.5 58.39 38 10.5

 

154

Table 10. Continued

 

 

 

 

Individual Group
Group Number Average Range Score Net Change*
CLASS IV
1 41.6 60-26 30 11.8
2 49.6 82—30 38 11.6
3 50 63—42 44 6
4 48 62—28 29 17
5 44 58-26 36 8
6 54 63—48 - 38 16

 

*Net change in scores are positive unless marked
with a minus (-) sign.

 

155

The third session was a discussion of what the stu—
dents had learned about working in groups. The scoring key
and scoring method were explained and each group received
the final sheet prepared by the scoring committee. (The
summary charts are included in this paper). The following
questions were written on the blackboard for group discus—
sion:

1. Did the group do better than any individual? Did
it do better than the average individual? Why?

2. Did some members have more influence than others?

3. How did your group reach agreement? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of that method?

4. How did you feel about working in the group?

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of work—
ing as a group?

The positive potentials of working as a group in a
decision making problem was true for all groups except one
(Number 1 group, fifth hour). I believe that all groups
realized and valued the importance of identifying member
resources, the different roles played by group members,
the value of collaboration, and different styles of deci—
sion making. I realize that the group process is not an
end in itself, however, it seems to be a useful tool for
integrating the three domains of learning. Two major con-
cepts evolved from the above group study: (1) joint wis-

dom, and (2) elements of personal feeling and conflict.

ll.—

 

156

There is some reason to believe that more effective and
creative solutions will be found by group action which
spends as little as 10% of its time on task activities

than can be produced by an individual working alone.2

 

2Edgar A. Kelley. "Improving Instruction Through
Group Dynamics," Unpublished working draft, University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1970.

 

157

EXAMPLE II
STRIP MINING SCARS APPALACHIA

The catastrophe that hit Cecil Combs was a conse—
quence of what is called strip mining.

The mining company whose operations ruined Combs
had a legal right to mine the coal and did not have to pay
damages to the mountain farmer. The mining company held
mineral rights to the land on the basis of a "broad—form
deed" purchased decades ago from the owner at that time.

Such a deed gives a mining company authority to do
whatever is "necessary and convenient" to remove coal, no
matter what the surface owner might say.

COURTS UPHOLD DEEDS

At the time of the sales, there was no way to know
what damage future methods and heavy machinery would be able
to cause to both land and people. Yet Kentucky courts have
consistently held the old deeds valid.

Courts have ruled that if surface damage is "arbi-
trary, wanton, or malicious destruction," the coal industry
must compensate property owners. But such intent is diffi—
cult to prove, and proof usually requires money for legal
services far beyond the resources of people like Cecil Combs.

A mining representative visited Cecil Combs later,
after the strip mining was finished. He explained to the
farmer that the company was under no obligation to him. He
gave Combs a token sum.

"There have been some unfortunate incidents," conce—
ded Fred Bullard, president of the Kentucky Coal Associa-
tion, "but it really comes down to a question of legal
rights."

FIELDS AND HOMES BULLDOZED

Because of strip mining, many mountain people such
as Cecil Combs have had their crops, fields, streams, and
homes bulldozed or filled in by mudslides. Large areas of
Appalachia's natural beauty have been scarred and its fish
and wildlife endangered.

Strip mining occurs in more than a dozen states, but
most intensively in the mountain states of Appalachia.

 

158

The Department of the Interior estimates that
3,200,000 acres of land have been disturbed by strip mining.
At least two—thirds of this land lies ruined. And the to-
tal of destroyed land has been rising by at least 200,000
acres a year.

Much of the damage is caused by "overburden," the
unwanted material that is shoved down the mountainsides.
This leads to erosion, stream pollution, and despoilment
of valleys.

Former Secretary of the Interior, Steward L. Udall
has described strip-mined land: "The face of the earth is
riddled with abandoned workings, gashed with quarries,
littered with abandoned structures, and piled high with
spoil and slag."

THE MOVING OF MOUNTAINS

Strip mining began on a large scale in the 1950's .
when mining men discovered that it was cheaper to mine coal 1
just below the surface by stripping away land on top, rather
than sending down deep mine shafts.

But strip mining today employs giant earth-moving
machines that can literally move mountains. Some companies
have supershovels that stand 20 stories—-higher than Niagara
Falls-—and take 350,000 pounds at a single bite. A man
standing by one of these giants appears to be only inches
tall.

FIGHT FOR CONTROLS

In recent years a strong movement has grown to con-
trol strip mining. One of its most eloquent leaders is a
mountain lawyer named Harry Caudill. His 1963 book, Night
Comes to the Cumberlands, presented a strong case against
strip mining.

"When man destroys his land, he begins to destroy
himself," Mr. Caudill wrote. "The pioneers farmed the soil
to death, timber companies stripped the trees, coal com—
panies gutted the hills. Now strip mining compounds the
destruction."

Former Governor Breathitt of Kentucky risked his

political life to fight for mining control laws. He urged
Kentuckians to "take a Sunday drive and see for your self
the devastation left in 50 counties." The Governor won the

support of conservationists, most public organizations, and
many leading newspapers in Kentucky.

159

In an editorial, the Louisville Courier—Journal
declared: "Every Kentuckian should share a deep sense of
outrage against what man is doing to desecrate and destroy
our natural heritage. Strip mining is a bell that tolls
for Kentucy." The newspaper later won a Pulitzer Prize
for its strong stand.

LAW IS OPPOSED

In 1966, Kentucky succeeded in passing a mining
control law that was the strongest in the nation. It con-
fined strip mining to slopes of less than 28 degrees, and
to areas that were more than 100 feet from any stream,
road, or public property. In addition, the mining com—
panies were required to reclaim and reseed the area.

The law was passed, however, over the determined
opposition of the mining industry. The industry contended
that the added costs would put them out of business. The
industry argued also that the land being strip—mined was
worthless to begin with.

Miners in hard hats, some limping from mining ac-
cidents, staged a march on the capitol to plead for their
jobs. Kentucky's 400 million dollar coal industry was the
state's biggest industry and one of its largest employers.

PROGRESS BLOCKED?

Many in the mining industry regard those who pro-
test strip mining as "bleeding hearts and dogooders who
don't understand the real issue." Industry spokesmen see
strip mining as a new and cheap method of mining an essen—
tial mineral, and this, the industry says, brings jobs and
prosperity.

G. Don Sullivan, a consultant to the American Mining
Congress, contends that the cheapest coal is the best coal
because it brings the most progress. Any other criterion,
Mr. Sullivan feels, would violate the "American free enter-
prise system."

Strip—mined land often can be successfully reclaimed.
A 1968 report of the U.S. Department of Agriculture said:
"Properly treated and managed, it can be returned to safe
and productive use. . . left alone, it may produce only
stream—fouling sediment and acid and ugliness.

A number of mining companies have done outstanding
jobs restoring land to farmlands, grasslands, forests and
wildlife havens, and recreation areas. The Kentucky Recla-
mation Association, sponsored by Kentucky's coal operators,
claims that land reclamation keeps pace with mining.

160

However, reclamation is all but impossible in
Kentucky's steep mountain country, where Cecil Combs lives.
And, frequently the mine operator's reclamation is just a
token effort.

Some strip miners, though, are beginning to figure
the cost of reclaiming land into the obst of doing business.
They have concluded that they can mine the coal, then re-
turn the land to a safe condition, and still make a pro-
fit——in money and public goodwill.

FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION

1. A MOUNTAIN FARMER, Cecil Combs, has his farm ruined
by strip mining; vast tracts of land are gouged and left in
desolation; and wildlife is endangered. But sufface coal
is mined, men are given employment, and the economy of a
region is greatly helped.

Are the effects of strip mining an acceptable price to f
pay for economic benefits? Or is the cost of strip mining
too high in exploitation of man and nature? Give some rea-
sons for your answer. Summarize briefly the positions of
the following: a farmer ruined by strip mining; a strip
mining operator; a mining company lawyer; a crusading con-
servationist.

2. HISTORICAL RELEVANCE: Compare today's strip min—
ing to the gold mining of the pioneers. Have conditions
changed too much for a valid comparison? Or does a com-
parison reveal that historic issues over land use have
persisted to modern times? Cite reasons.

161

'WHEN THEY TAKE A
MAN'S GARDEN. . .'

The day was warm and bright when the bulldozers
reached Cecil Combs's 30—acre farm in the Cumberland Moun—
tains of eastern Kentucky. For days he had heard their
coughing in the distance, growing ever louder.

Combs was 57 years old and gray haired—-his front
teeth were missing. He had never gone to school and could
not read or write—-even to sign his name. He had been a
coal miner. But now he was out of work—-displaced by new
machines.

He had married a widow. She had three retarded sons
who could not even shave themselves. Combs depended on the
farm for his family's livelihood. It was all he owned.

The soil was rich, and Combs grew potatoes, peas,
onions, and tomatoes. He also had a large cornfield on a
steep slope.

Combs watched as the bulldozers pushed into the
trees at the top of the slope, upending them by the roots.
Then the bulldozers shoved the trees and dirt aside to form
a large pile on the hillside.

Next, drilling rigs bored into the cut to reach the
coal seam that lay near the top of the slope. Then came
explosives. Power shoveles heaved the rubble onto the ever-
growing heap that clung to the side of the hill looking
down on Cecil Combs's farm.

When the coal was uncovered, huge machines shoveled
it by the ton into trucks. And before long bulldozers came
again to cut into new ground, and the process began all over
again. In this way, the operation moved around the moutain
and passed beyond Cecil Combs's farm.

But the slag heap the miners left behind soon broke
away and crashed down the mountainside into the creek not
far from Combs's house. The water backed up and covered
his vegetables and seeped into his house, forcing him out.
Combs finally moved into a deserted two-room shack in his
cornfield.

"They 'stroyed me, that's all there is to it,"
Cecil Combs said. "When they take a man's garden, I guess
they take the last thing he's got that counts for anything."

 

 

162

Did the mining company have the right to gouge the
mountain side for coal, or was this an illegal act subject
to prosecution?

Did the mining company have the right to destroy
the home and livelihood of Cecil Combs, or could the moun—
tain farmer sue successfully for full damages?

 

163

EXAMPLE III

ACTION

Mining in Minnesota Boundary Waters Canoe Area

The Facts:

The Boundary Waters Canoe Area, lying along the U.S.-
Canadian border in Minnesota, is a unique stretch of inter-
connected forest lakes in essentially virgin country. The
U.S. Bureau of Mines is considering the use of public funds
to explore for deposits of copper and nickel ore thought

to be in the wilderness area.

The Crisis:

The amount of wilderness near populated areas in the United
States is already critically short and the "need" for min-

eral exploration must be balanced against the preservation

of our national heritage.

What you can do about it:

 

Exercise your civic duty by expressing your opinion, regard—
less of what it is, to:

Acting Chief Charles W. Merrill, Bureau of Mines
Division of Field Operations, Interior Department
Washington, D.C. 20250

For more information, write:
Lawrence B. Carlson, President
Minnesota Conservation Federation

4313 Shady Oak Rd., Hopkins, Minnesota 55343

Yesterday's quote taken from Science and Human Values by
J. Bronowski, page 6.

 

The world today is made, it is powered by science;
and for any man to abdicate an interest in science
is to walk with open eyes towards slavery.

 

164

RESOURCES AND MATERIALS

 

Film Loan Service
Mich. Dept. of National Resources
Lansing, Mi. 48926

National Wildlife Federation

1412 16th st. N.W.

Washington D.C., 20036

(Packet for 9th graders, price—$1.50)

American Assoc. of University Women
2401 Virginia Ave., N.W.

Washington D.C., 20037
(Anti—pollution $.75)

National Parks Association
1701 18th St., N.W.
Washington D.C. 20036
(Free materials)

Conservation Foundation
1250 Connecticut Ave., N.W.
Washington D.C., 20036
(Free materials)

Environmental Action

Environmental Teach-In
2000 P St., N.W.
Washington D.C. 20036

Conservation Foundation

381 Park Ave., South

New York City 10016

"An Environment Fit for People" ($.25)

Supt. of Documents

Government Printing Office
Washington D.C. 20402
"Restoring the Quality of Our
Environment ($1.25)

Project Man's Environment

National Education Association

1201 16th St., N.W.

Washington D.C. 20036 K-12
Curriculum Environmental Study Areas.

 

 

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

165

Isaac Walton League of America
1326 Waukegan Rd.

Glenview, Illinois 60025

"Clean Water-Its Up To You"--Free

Public Affairs Pamphlets

318 Park Ave. South

New York, New York, 10016

#421 The Environment Fit for People

($.25 and #403-"The Battle for Clean Air"

Clean Water
Washington D.C. 20242 - Free

Superintendent of Documents
Government Printing Office
Washington D.C. 20402

"No Laughing Matter" - $.70
"Primer on Waste Water" - $.55
"Showdown" - $.65

"From Sea to Shining Sea" - $2.50

The Wilderness Society
729 15th St., N.W.
Washington D.C. 20005
"Air Pollution Primer"

U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office
Washington D.C. 20390

U.S. Government Printing Office
Division of Public Documents
Washington D.C. 20402

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
Post Office Box 62
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830

Office of Educational Programs and Services
NASA, 400 Maryland Avenue, S.W.
Washington 25, D.C.

U.S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Washington, D.C. 20242

National Council for Geographic Education
Illinois State University
Normal, Illinois 61761

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

166

Publication Sales American Geological Institute
1444 N. Street, N.W.
Washington D.C. 20005

American Geological Institute
1444 N. St., N.W.
Washington D.C. 20005

National Geographic Society
Washington D.C. 20036

U.S. Department of Commerce

Environmental Science Services Administration
Coast and Geodetic Survey

Washington D.C. 20235

National Anthropological Archives
Smithsonian Institution
Washington D.C. 20560

U.S. Department of Commerce

Environmental Science Services Administration
Coast and Geodetic Survey

Washington Science Center

Rockville, MD. 20852

United States

Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Washington, D.C. 20242

General Weather Science Study
Supt. of Documents

Government Printing Office
Washington 25, D.C.

National Anthropological Archives
Smithsonian Institution
Washington D.C. 20560

Department of Natural Resources
Publications and Tourism
Room 128—Stevens T. Mason Bldg.
Lansing, Michigan 48926

Photographic Library

United States Dept. of the Interior
Geological Survey

Washington D.C. 20242

 

 

 

 

 

 

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

167

National Education Assoc.
Sales Section 31, 1201-16th St., N.W.
Washington D.C. 20036

Commandant (OMS—1)
U.S. Coast Guard
Washington D.C. 20591

Oak Ridge Assoc. Universities, Inc.
P.O. Box 117
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
U.S. Dept. of the Interior
Washington D.C. 20240 (Animals)

National Park Service
Washington D.C. 20240 (Parks)

U.S. Forest Service,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
Washington D.C. 20250 (Forests, trees, plants)

Environmental Protection Agency
1129-20th St., N.W.
Washington D.C., 20013 (Pollution control, pesticides)

Your state Government (Fish and Game or Conservation
Department)

Zero Population Growth
330 Second St.
Los Altos, California 94022 (Population problems)

Defenders of Wildlife
2000 N. St., N.W.
Washington D.C. 20036 (Animals)

Keep America Beautiful
99 Park Avenue
New York, N.Y. 10016 (Litter control, recycling)

Sierra Club Endangered Species Newsletter
Atlantic Chapter

250 57th St.

New York, N.Y. 10019

168

EXAMPLE IV

ZIG ZAG

VALUE: Man's dependence and need for each other.

VALUE: Man‘s dependence and need for nature.

"Elements"
I used to I am a part of Nature.
Like I am a part of everything that lives.
Fresh air I am bound together with all living things
When it was there. in air, in land, in water.
And My life depends upon Nature-
Water. . . Upon its balance, upon its resources,
I enjoyed it and upon the continuity of both.
Each day To destroy them is to destroy myself.
The land's diminished. As a member of the human race
I think I am responsible for its survival.
I'm I am a part of Nature.
Finished. I will not destroy it.

Taken from TV's Henry Gibson's writings, "I Feel a Little
(of Laugh—In fame) Sick"

 

"The Wonder of It All"

There are so many small, incessant things-—
The constant whir of tiny unseen wings,

The steady beat of hearts too small to hear-—
That never reach the conscious eye or ear.

The crack of seedlings breaking through the pod,
The tender grasses pushing through the sod;

The bustle of the world down underground,

The air above so full of soundless sound.

The world within a world, where lives repeat
Their own small cycles, infinite, complete;
The unseen, steady flow of death and birth——
The business of an ever—changing earth.

The order and the wonder of it all-— t
A universe so great~-a world so small!

by Helen Marshall

 

169

QUESTION:

List some ways in which man is dependent upon one
another.

How is dependency related to earth science?
Can you think of areas of living in which man can
function by himself without the aid of anyone?

What are those areas? List as many as you can.

Make a list of people who depend upon you for
something specific.

 

170

EXAMPLE V

VALUE SHEET

More Than Minerals?

The human being is made up of oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, hydrogen, carbon
and calcium. There are also 12 1/2
gallons of water, enough iron to make

a small nail, about a salt—shaker full
of salt, and enough sugar to make one
small cube. If one were to put all of
these materials together and try and
sell it, the whole thing would be worth

about one dollar.

1. What is the point of this statement?

2. Are you serious in believing that
you are worth more than $1.00?
Explain.

3. What are some ways to measure the
worth of human beings?

4. Can you list some things you have
done which show what you think
human beings are worth?

 

 

 

171
EXAMPLE VI

Youth's Bill of Rights*
(A petition directed to parents, teachers
and other adults)

Stand by us, not over us
Give us the feeling that we are not alone in the
world, that we can always count on you when we are
in trouble.

Make us feel that we are loved and wanted.
We want to love you, not as a duty but because you
love us.

Train us by being affectionately firm.
You really will achieve more with us through patient
teaching than by punishment or preaching. Say "NO"
when you feel you have to, but explain your rules,
don't merely impose them.

Bring us up so that we will not always need you.
Teach us how to take on responsibility and become
independent of you. We will learn this faster and
better if you will let us question you, your ideas
and standards.

Don't act shocked when we do things we shouldn't.
It is going to take us time to learn how to grow
into life properly.

Try to be as consistent as possible.
If you are mixed up about what you want from us,
why shouldn't we be mixed up too in what we give
you?

Don't try to make us feel inferior.
We doubt ourselves enough without your confirming
it. Predicting failure for us won't help us suc—
ceed.

Say "Nice work" when we do something really well.
Don't hold back the praise when we deserve it.
That's the way to spur us on.

Show respect for our wishes even if you disagree with
them. '
Respect for you will flow naturally from your res-
pect for us.

 

lo.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

172

Give direct answers to direct questions.
But don't give us more than we ask for or can under-
stand. When you don't know, say so, but find some—
one for us who does know or work with us to find
answers.

Show interest in what we're doing.
Even though by your standards our activities may not
be important or interesting, don't reduce them in
our eyes by your indifference.

Treat us as if we are normal, even when our conduct
seems peculiar to you.
All God's children have problems. That doesn't
mean we're all problem children.

Sometimes all of us run into serious emotional diffi—
culties.
Should that happen, obtain for us professional
counselling. It isn't always easy for boys and
girls to understand themselves or know just what
they want. That's why there are specialists in
personal adjustments and vocational selection.

 

Teach us by example.
"What you are speaks louder than your words."

Treat each one of us as a person in his own right.
Children are people, not carbon copies of grownups.
Treat all children in your care farily; that is,
as of equal value to you. That is how we will
learn to respect the rights of other people and
to treat them fairly.

Don't keep us young too long.
We want a chance to prove what we can do as soon as
we are ready to give proof. Don't hold us back by
love which over-protects and paralyzes.

We need fun and companionship.
Help us share our interests and happy feelings with
groups of friends. Give us time to be with them
and make them welcome when they come to visit.

Make us feel that our home belongs to us.
We are at least as important as the furniture.
Don't protect "things" at our expense by making us
feel like intruding bulls in a china shop.

 

173

19. Don't laugh at us when we use the word "love."
The need to love and be loved starts early (and
never ends). Getting romantic is merely setting
to soft music the eternal desire to belong to
someone and have someone belong to us.

20. Treat us as junior partners in the firm.
Democracy starts at home. If you want us to be
worth successors to you, take us into your con—
fidence, and let us help you in managing our
family, our school and our community.

21. Make yourself an adult fit for a child to live with.
Prove to us "it ain‘t so" that parents are the
worst persons in the world to have children, or
that teachers are precisely the people least
suited to teach. Show that home and school are
not simply places where children learn how to
get along with disagreeable adults.

 

22. Prepare us to lead our lives, not yours.
Find out what we can do or we want to be before
you force us beyond our capacity or make us be-
come what you want us to become.

23. Give us the right to a major voice in our own lives.
Decisions that will affect our whole future should
be made with us, not for us. We have a right to
our kind of future.

24. Let us make our own mistakes.
To make wise decisions takes experience. That
means we have to try ourselves out and find out
ourselves. We can learn through our own actions--
not yours.

25. Permit us the failings of average children, just as
we permit you the failings of average parents and
teachers.

Let us both break the rules sometimes. We can
grow only at our own rate, which means in easy
stages. We want to become the best we can become,
but we would not be human if we were perfect.

 

*George Lawton, "How to be Happy Though Young," Vanguard
Press Inc., New York, N.Y.

174

EXAMPLE VII
VALUES GRID

WHO ARE YOU? DO YOU REALLY KNOW WHAT YOU VALUE IN LIFE?

Couldn't Care Very Strong
Less Mild Opinion Strong Opinion Opinion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The numbers in the boxes indicate the strength of
the opinion. While 1—4 are all in the "Couldn't Care Less"
category, 4 is stronger in feeling than 1. 16 is the
strongest of all.

Variations

Instead of plotting your own feelings on the grid,
pretend you are .
Plot the situation on the grid according to the way you
think he or she would feel.

Present 16 situations to go with the following:

 

 

 

175

EXAMPLE VIII
7—Criteria of Values

WHO ARE YOU? DO YOU REALLY KNOW WHAT YOU VALUE IN LIFE?

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In the item column there are 4 boxes. Put 1 item (in each
box) of which you have very strong feelings.

 

For each item, go along the row putting an "X" in each box
if you can answer the question at the top in the affirma—
tive. If you cannot, do not mark the box. Only items in
which all 7 boxes have an "X" can be true values. All
others are merely value indicators or beliefs.

Some value indicators are: GOALS OR PURPOSES, ASPIRATIONS,
ATTITUDES, INTERESTS, FEELINGS,
BELIEFS AND CONVICTIONS, ACTIV-
ITIES, PROBLEMS AND WORRIES.

176

EXAMPLE IX

Truthfulness

The Value Continuum

 

"Science is indeed a truthful activity. And whether
we look at facts, at things, or at concepts, we cannot dis—
entangle truth from meaning——that is, from inner order.
Truth, therefore, is not different in science and in the
arts; the facts of the heart, the bases of personality,
are merely more difficult to communicate.". . .Science and
Human Values, J. Bronowski, p. 52.

TRUTH UNTRUTH

Questions:
1. Do you want people to like you?

2. Do you always behave in ways so people can like
you?

3. If your friend buys a new hat that you think is
ridiculous, and she asks you if you like it, how
would you answer her? Where on the continuum
would you place your answer?

4. When does truth cease to be truth?
5. When our behavior lies in the right half of the
continuum, how do we justify ourselves for not

being wholly truthful?

6. How do you feel about the statement: "Honesty is
the best policy?"

 

177

EXAMPLE X

Using the 16-Forced Choice Item Exercise——
Rank Order these Science—Social Problems:

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

Noise

Wiretapping and Electronic Detectors
Atomic Weapons

Chemical and Biological Warfare

The "Greenhouse Effect" (caused by air‘
pollutants)

Defoliation

Pesticides and Herbicides
Fluoridation

Waste Disposal Problems
Genetic Transformations
Oil Spill

Population Problems

Space Research

"Big Science"

Atomic Power
Technological Progress and Conservation
Solid Wastes

Social Responsibilities of Scientists

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

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