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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION
OF THE "PICKING KNIFE" AS AN APPROPRIATE OIL PALM
HARVESTING DEVICE IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

presented by

ALEXANDER JOHNSON AKOR

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. Agr'l & Ext. Educ.

degree in

 

 

02.me

O. DONALD MEADERS

Major professor

 

Date June 4, 1986

 

MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771

 

 

 

MSU

LIBRARIES

 

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RETURNING MATERIALS:
Place in book drop to
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FACTORS ASSOCIATED'ITTE TEE ACCEPTANCE AID REJECTIOE
OP TEE 'PICKING KNIPE' AS AN APPROPRIATE OIL PAL!
HARVESTING DEVICE IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

BY

Alexander Johnson Akor

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Agricultural and Extension Education

1986

ABSTRACT
FACTORS ASSOCIATED'NITN TEE ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION

OF THE 'PICKING KNIPE' AS AN APPROPRIATE OIL PLAN
HARVESTING DEVICE IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

BY

Alexander Johnson Akor

Previous studies about oil palm harvesting especially in
Rivers State, Nigeria, have been focused almost exclusively
towards the deve10pment of mechanical devices, genetic height
reduction and attributes of the first bunch. These past
studies have been directed at solving the problems of health
hazards to the pickers and increasing the productivity of the
farms. This study was directed toward the factors associated
with adoption and rejection of the picking knife for
harvesting oil palm.

The picking knife seemed to have all the desirable
qualities for an oil palm harvesting device in the Rivers
State situation, but had not been accepted to a high degree
by the oil palm operators. The problem, therefore, was to
identify those factors that were associated with the adoption
of the picking knife as an appropriate oil palm harvesting
device.

The identification and analysis of the factors
associated with the adoption of the knife in the Rivers State
was done by using the innovation-decision and social theory

(a case study). Data were collected through personal

Alexander Johnson Akor
interviews with operators, some of whom had never used the
knife, as well as users and ex-users. An intensive
description of the operators and their social institutions in
the Rivers State was prepared along with the analysis and
interpretation of the responses.

The factors identified were categorized into attributes
of knife, individual characteristics of operators (e.g., age,
education, experience), and situation.

The interrelationship between the social system, the
operators' occupational biases, the historical heritage of
the operators and the geographical influence on the adoption
of the knife were discussed. A comparison between the Rivers
State situation with that of Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm
Research (NIFOR) and Malaysia showed some similarities but
major differences in the interrelationship of factors and the
social and historical setting. Most of the factors
identified were more serious in the Rivers State than in
NIFOR.

Finally, conclusions were drawn and recommendations made
based on the conclusions in a way that the findings could be
incorporated in programs aimed at adoption of the knife and

for further research work in this area.

TABLE 0? CONTENTS

2393
List Of Tables. 0 0 O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 v
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v11
List Of Plates. 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O V111
List of Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
CHARTER
I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O I O I O O O O O O O O O 1
Background of the Problem. . . . . . . . . . 1
Problem Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Theoretical Basis for Study. . . . . . . . . 11
Theories of Innovation Diffusion

and Social Change . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Social Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Questions to be Answered . . . . . . . . . . 14
Research Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Significance of the Study. . . . . . . . . . 17
sources Of Data. 0 O I O O O O O O I O O O O 18
Potential Beneficiaries. . . . . . . . . . . 18
Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Organization of the Remainder of
this Study 0 O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 25

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Innovation-Diffusion Research. . . . . . . . 26
Attributes of the Innovation . . . . . . . 28

Other Dimensions of Innovation-
Diffusion Research . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Oil Palm Harvesting Techniques . . . . . . . 38

III. RESEARCH DESIGN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Design of the Stucy. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Rationale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Operationalization of Variables. . . . . . . 48

Null Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Collection of Information. . . . . . . . . . 52

ii

IV.

Interview Opening. . . . . . . .

Interview Format . . .

Description of Interview Procedure

Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . .

sumaIYoooooooooo

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction . . .

Description of Study Participants.

Outline of Factors .
Relative Advantage
Compatibility. .
Complexity . . .
Trialability . .
Reversibility. .
Observability. .
Physical Factors
Employment . . . .
Years of Experience.
Education. . . . .

Hypothesis Testing .
Relative Advantage
Compatibility. . .
Complexity . . .
Trialability . .
Reversibility. .
Observability.
Physical Factors .
Employment Category.
Years of Experience.

Education (Formal and Non-F

Magnitude of Factors . . .
Characteristics of Factors
Relative Advantage . . .
Compatibility. . . . .
Complexity . . . . . .
Observability. . . . .
Physical Factors . . .
Employer Category. . .
Years of Experience. .
Education. . . . . .
Interaction Among Factors
Comparison of Factors. .
Comparison With Findings
Other Countries. . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . .

H

ooOoooooooooooo

oomooooooooo

iii

5

O O 0 O I O O O O O O O o. O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

r a )

O
O
m

i

V.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
Discussions and Conclusions.
Relative Advantage . . .
Compatibility. . . . . .
Complexity . . . . . . .
Observability. . . . .
Physical (Health) Status
Employment Category. . .
Experience of the Operato 8.
Education. . . . .
summary. 0 I O I O O I 0
Recommendations. . . . .
Relative Advantage . .
Compatibility. . . . .
Complexity . . . . . .
Observability. . . . .
Physical (Health) Status

t

Employer Category. . .

Experience of the Opera 0

Education. . . . . . .
Summary. . . .
Comments by the Author .

O
O
I
O
r
1:

APPENDIX

A
B
C
D

E

INSTRUMENT O O I O O O O C C O C O O
HISTOGRAMS C O O O O O O O O O

AGE CATEGORIES AND THEIR FREQUENCIES
MAJOR CATEGOIRES OF PARTICIPANTS AND
LOCATIONS O O O O O O O O O C C C
CONTINGENCY TABLES . . . . . . . . .

REFERENCES. 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O O 0

iv

137
143

144
145

153

2.1
4.1

4.2

4.4
4.5
4.6

E.1A
E.lB
E.2A
E.ZB
E.3A
E.3B
E.4A
E.4B
E.5A
3.53

E.6A

LIST OF TABLES

World Production of Palm Oil (1000 tonnes). .

Characteristics of Study Participants of
the Different Age Categories. . . . . . . . .

Frequency of Responses for Factor Categories-
ComparisonO O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O

Chi-Square Values and Degrees of Freedom

for Ten Factors Which were Hypothesized

to Be Associated with Adoption of the

PiCking Knife 0 O O I O O O O O O O O O I O O
Level of Factors in Rivers State and NIFOR. .
Hierarchy of Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Side By Side Comparison of the Rivers State
and NIFOR Data Using Equation 3.4 . . . . . .

Contingency Table for 301, Rivers State . . .
Contingency Table for H01, NIFOR. . . . . . .
Contingency Table for H04, Rivers State . . .
Contingency Table for 804, NIFOR. . . . . . .
Contingency Table for 307, Rivers State . . .
Contingency Table for 807, NIFOR. . . . . . .
Contingency Table for HOB, Rivers State . . .
Contingency Table for H08, NIFOR. . . . . . .
Contingency Table for H09, Rivers State . . .
Contingency Table for H09, NIFOR. . . . . . .
Contingency Table for 3011, Rivers State . .

V

29

64

65

76
97
98

119
145
145
145
146
146
146
147
147

147

148
148

8.63
E.7A
3.73
E.8A
E.83
E.9A
8.93
E.10A
8.103
E.11A

E.113

Contingency
Contingency
Contingency
Contingency
Contingency
Contingency
Contingency
Contingency
Contingency
Contingency

Contingency

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

Table

for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for
for

for

vi

3°11,
3°12,
3°12,
3°13,
3°13,
3°14,
3°14,
8°18,
8°18.
3°25,

3°25,

NIPOR . . .

Rivers State

NIFOR .

Rivers State

NIFOR .

Rivers State

NIFOR .

Rivers State

NIFOR .

Rivers State

NIFOR .

148
149
149
149
150
150
150
151
151
151
152

1.1

1.2

LIST'OP FIGURES

Ladder Method of Harvesting Oil Palm
Bunch in Rivers State. . . . . . . . . . .

The Operator Falls Off His Tree Because of
a Poisonous Snake on the Top . . . . . . .

vii

1.1
1.2
1.3

4.1

LIST 0? PLATES

Cultured 24 Year Old Oil Palm Tree .

Wild Oil Palm Tree .

The Map of Nigeria Showing the Locations of
the Rivers State, the Four Plantations, and

NIFOR. . . . . . . .

A 14 M Picking Knife, too Long for a Short—

Sighted Operator . .

The Chisel in Use.

viii

2392
6

6

107
107

EEO

Ma

LIST OF NOIENCLATURB

Area under consideration in the histogram.
Number of columns.

Column frequency total.

The number of cases expected in a cell.
Distance of center of area from reference point.
Area moment of difference.

Total number of Rivers State participants.
Total number of NIFOR participants.
Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research
The number of cases observed in a cell.
Phi statistic.

Number of Rows.

Row frequency total.

Total frequency for each comparison.

The chi-square statistic.

ix

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
THE RESEARCH PROBLEI

W

The oil palm tree is an important cash crop in the
Rivers State, Nigeria because its two main products (palm
oil and kernel) constitute the bulk of the state
agricultural export products, and a large portion of these
products are consumed internally. Oil palm production in
the Rivers State has steadily declined over the years since
the end of the Nigerian Civil War at the same time that
most of the operators of the oil palm harvesters migrated
to the cities. As a result, the production of palm oil and
palm kernel is now mainly on plantations. The plantations
which produce the palm products exclusively from cultured
plants seem to be experiencing serious harvest labor
problems. Experiences in other countries like Malaysia and
Indonesia have shown that in similar situations, the
adoption of the oil palm bunch picking knife provided an
effective solution to the labor problem in harvesting.
There has been no reported death due to oil palm bunch
harvesting in these countries since the adoption of the
picking knife method. The picking knife has a better

safety record than any of the other harvesting methods.

The operator uses the knife to harvest the bunches while
standing at ground level and so the question of falling off
the tree is eliminated.

Traditionally, the oil palm bunch is harvested using
the cutlass almost exclusively. The operator climbs the
tall trees using a ladder or a locally woven rope while
holding the cutlass with one hand or between one shoulder
and the head (Figures 1.1 and 1.2). The cutlass is not a
handy implement for harvesting oil palm bunches (Hartley,
1977), however, and climbing the tree with a ladder or the
rope is slow and sometimes dangerous. The ladder or rope
has to be carried from one place (tree position) to
another, placed in the operating position and then the
operator propels his body up to his reach of the bunch, and
cuts off the bunch along with green leaves. This is a time
consuming exercise. Once on the top of the tree close to
the bunch, the operator is exposed to all sorts of
dangers: snakes and/or wasps inhabiting the tree top;
inadvertently cutting off the rope; falling off due to
ladder instability or weakness. Operators are known to
have been maimed by falling off the rope or ladder, and in
some cases death has resulted. These are the problems that
plague the traditional harvesting methods and the operators

in Rivers State.

 

Figure 1.1 Ladder Method of Harvesting 01’] Palm
Bunch 1n Rivers State

   
   

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Figure 1.2 The operator falls off his tree because
of a poisonous snake on the tap

5

Plate 1.1 shows a 24-year old cultured oil palm tree
for which the knife is used. The cultured trees have
approximatly 30 years of economic life. Plate 1.2 shows a
wild oil palm tree, too tall for the use of the picking
knife. The wild trees are not popular because the yield
from them is low and it requires more time and energy to
harvest them.

Elsewhere in the world, the traditional methods have
largely given way to the picking knife, a method developed
in the Far East (Hartley, 1977, p. 459). However, the
picking knife has received only a token acceptance from the
Rivers State operators. It is not popular as an oil palm
bunch harvesting tool, in spite of the fact that a similar
device is native to the State for harvesting plantain and
banana.

The need to study the adoption of the picking knife as
an oil palm bunch harvesting device in the Rivers State
arises from the fact that there is a genuine concern about
the safety of the operators and reducing the injury
resulting from fall-off accidents.

A similar situation necessitated the introduction of
the Malayan Knife into the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm
Research, Benin, in 1960. According to Hartley (1977), the
introducton of the knife into NIFOR reduced the number of

accidents at harvest and improved productivity per operator

-
n
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.

9.-
:4 1.3!

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3‘ J ,l

 

 

Plate 1.1. Cultured 24 Years Plate 1.2. wild Oil Palm Tree
Old oil Palm Tree About 27 Years
15 :4 to the Lunch 42 M to the bunch

7
in that plantation. Thus, in this study, the current
situation in the adoption of the knife in NIFOR is included
to serve as base for comparing the case in the Rivers
State. This is important because the picking knife was
introduced into the Rivers from NIFOR.

The fall in the production of palm oil now has been
particularly critical for Rivers State because it was the
second major export of the State, and with the rapidly
dropping price of petroleum (the primary export product of
the State), the oil palm products assumed a new and higher
prominence in the State's and Nation's economies. The
production of palm oils in the country fell below the
amount needed to satisfy local consumption and so companies
that use them had to import from other countries.
Increased oil palm production could reduce expenditure on
importation and even earn foreign exchange for the Country
and the State. The palm oils are used in making
confectioneries, lotions, medicines, soaps, and as frying
and cooking oil. They also are used raw with other food
materials like potato, yam, cassava, plantain, and banana.
The raw oils are a vital source of vitamins and carotene
for the people of Rivers State.

The Rivers State had a population of 2,581,000 and
occupied 2,185,000 hectares of the Niger delta of Nigeria

(Figure 1.3). About 240,000 farmers in the Rivers State

PEDERAL REPUBLIC

NIGERIA

 

Plate 1.3. The Map of Nigeria Showing the Locations of
the Rivers State, the Four Plantations, and
NIFOR.

Key:
0 Capitals of States

3 Plantations in Rivers State
A NIFOR

9

operated oil palm bunch harvesters either on a part-time or
full-time basis. One-third of the operators were profes-
sional operatorsI' All of the operators were small scale
farmers on other crops (yam, cassava, cocoyam, plantain, or
banana). ‘The professional operators had an average farm
size of 0.8 hectares.* The non-professional operators had
other occupations such as weaving of baskets, chairs,
hampers, etc. There were 86 employed operators in NIFOR
and each had a garden of other crops behind his house.

With the production of palm oil and kernel now mainly
in the plantations, and lack of interest in the oil palm
harvest labor force in the State, the adoption of the
picking knife seemed a reasonable alternative approach to
solving the oil palm bunch harvest problem in the State and
reducing the hazards to the people doing the harvesting.

Wm
Over the years, the climbing methods for harvesting
oil palm bunches has resulted in the loss of lives for
many, and physical deformation for others. An alternative
which reduces the risks as well as saves time of harvesting
has received little or no attention from the Operators.
Obviously, no operator would want to die or be maimed

harvesting the oil palm bunch. The problem, therefore, is

 

*Annual Abstract of Statistics 1981 Edition. Federal
Office of Statistics, Lagos, Nigeria.

10

that the picking knife alternative had not been adopted to
a high degree by the operators in Rivers State, in spite of
the seeming positive attributes of the knife. There must
be some factors that are responsible for this poor adoption

of the knife.

mm
It is the purpose of this study to examine all

possible factors associated with the adoption of the knife,
with a view to determining which of these factors are
actually associated with the adoption of the knife in
Rivers State, Nigeria.

The knowledge of these factors could be helpful in the
design of programs to facilitate the adoption of the knife
in the State and possibly with subsequent saving of lives
and a reduction in medical bills of operators. (The
government is not legally responsible for any injuries
incurred during harvest.)

Specifically, the study was aimed at determining which
of the:

1. attributes of the innovation were associated with
the adoption of the knife;

2. “people differences" were associated with the
adoption of the knife;

3. communication factors were associated with the
adoption of the knife; and

11

4. the contributing factors resulted from the
cultural geographical setting and historical
background of the operators.

So, the problem, was to determine the reasons why
operators in the Rivers State had not accepted and adopted
the use of the picking knife as an appropriate oil palm
bunch harvester. The picking knife, an individualized tool
like the traditional cutlass, makes it possible for the
operator to harvest the oil palm bunch while standing on
the ground. The risk of falling off the tree is minimized.
The picking knife is the only currently available oil palm

harvesting alternative to the hazardous climbing methods in

Rivers State.

c as's 0 ud

This research was based on innovation decision and
social change theory.

Rogers (1984) conceptualized five stages of the
innovation-decision process. His model consists of the
following stages: (1) knowledge, (2) persuasion, (3)
decision, (4) implementation, and (5) confirmation.

According to this model, knowledge of an innovation
occurs when the individual is exposed to it as a need or to
generate a need. Exposure of the individual to innovation
occurs through communication (education). Then people
perceive innovation according to their individual

experiences (Rogers, 1984).

12

The steps in the persuasion phase include: motivation
of potential adopters through the improvement of the
attributes of the innovation and providing incentives and
information about the improvements. Incentives create
attitude formation towards the innovation (positive or
negative). At this point, the individual seeks social
reinforcement for adopting the innovation - social
appropriateness, support system perception and social
consequences (Fear, 1985). The individual may decide to
try or abandon the innovation. If he decides to try the
innovation and evaluate it from the trial (implementation
stage), then he either decides to adopt or reject the

innovation (Roger, 1984).

eo nno 'on ' us n d c n

This study was based on both existing theories of
innovation diffusion and social change as proposed by
Zaltman, Duncan and Holbeck (1973), Lin and Zaltman (1973),
Zaltman and Duncan (1977), Rogers (1962, 1971, and 1983).

The theories of innovation diffusion provide the
underlying explanations for the general behaviors of the
oil palm harvest operators in the Rivers State towards the
adoption of the picking knife.

The theories of innovation diffusion explain the
tendencies of potential adopters of innovations to be a

function of the perceived attributes of the innovation.

13

These attributes have been described by Zaltman and Duncan
(19T7) as: (1) relative advantage, (2) impact on social
relationships, (3) divisibility, (4) reversibility, (5)
complexity, (6) compatibility, (7) communicability, and (8)
time dimension. Rogers (1983) summarized these as: (1)
relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3) complexity, (4)
trialability, and (5) Observability. These characteristics
have been found to be modified by age, experience,
education, historical, cultural and geographical
differences of the persons involved. More details of these

attributes are given in Chapter II.

oc n

Major social change principles have been summarized by
Davis (1973), and Davis and Salasin (1975), under a
framework described by the acronym ”A VTCTORY' explained
below:

A = Ability; the resources and capabilities of the
individual or organization to implement and
subsequently evaluate the innovation; sanctions
of decision makers to adopt the innovation.

V== Values: the degree of accord with the

individual's or organization's philosophy and
operating style.

H
II

Idea; the adequacy of knowledge about the
innovative procedure and the proposed action
steps.

C = Circumstances: features of the individual's or
organization's environment relevant to successful
adoption.

.14

Timing: readiness to consider the innovation; the
particular combination of events at a given time
that might affect the likelihood of
implementation.

Obligation; the felt need to change from existing
modi operandi - or at least to try the proposed
change.

Resistance: inhibiting factors - the
organizational or individual disinclination to
change, for whatever reasons.

Yield; the benefits or payoff from the innovation
as perceived by potential adopters and by those
who would be involved with implementation at the
operating level.

These principles form a part of the basis for this

study.

The innovation decision theories are an integral

part of the above principles.

ue on to b s e ed

The questions that will be answered by this study are

as follows:

1.

How do the operators perceive the attributes of
the picking knife? Which factors among the
attributes are associated with the adoption of
the knife? How important are these factors?

Through what channels of information do the
operators in Rivers State receive their learning
about the picking knife? Is communication a
factor in the adoption of the knife?

What individual factors such as health, age,
experience, educational status, and employer
policies of the operators are associated with the
adoption or rejection of the knife?

How important are the factors in the user's and
ex-user's decision to adopt or reject the use of
the knife?

15

5. ‘Which of these factors should be or could be
changed to enhance the adoption of the picking
knife in Rivers State?

6. 'What types of conditions would the operators
perceive as appropriate for them in the adoption
or continued use of the picking knife?

7. What social, cultural, historical, and
geographical resistances are there on the

adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers
State?

W

These questions could be answered by posing the

following hypotheses of independence:

301

aa1

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
is independent of the relative advantage of the knife
over the ladder or the rope method. (Each of the
subfactors under the relative advantage of the knife
is tested for independence in this way.)

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends (Hi the relative advantage of the knife over
the ladder or the rope methods.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
is independent of the compatibility of the knife with
social and individual orientations.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the compatibility of the knife with social
and individual orientations.

The adoption of the knife in the Rivers State is
independent of the complexity of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the complexity of the knife.

The adoption of the knife in the Rivers State is
independent of the trialability of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the trialability of the knife.

HOS
Has
806
Has

no?

3010

Halo

16

The adoption of the knife in the Rivers State is
independent of the observability of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the observability of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
is independent of the experience of the operator.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the experience of the operator.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers States
is independent of the educational status of the
operator.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the educational status of the operator.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
is independent of the age of the operator.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the age of the operator.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
is independent on the employer of the operator.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the employer of the operator.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
is independent of the reversibility of the picking
knife.

The adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
depends on the reversibility of the knife.

These hypotheses were posed with the hope that the

data collected will lead to the rejection of the null

hypotheses in favor of the alternative hypotheses.

'While these hypotheses were used to identify and

characterize the factors associated with the adoption of

the picking knife, conclusions drawn from the analysis of

17

the data and the observed modifying effect of the culture,
history, and geography of the Rivers State operators were
used to generate new hypotheses that would form the basis

for further investigations in this area.

W

The objective of this study was to identify those
factors associated with the adoption of the picking knife
in the Rivers State by analysis of responses to interview
questions would provide these factors. The conclusions
drawn from this study (which include the factors), would
provide a resource base for planning programs to facilitate
the adoption of the picking knife.

Based on the conclusions from this study, it will be
possible to advise the government on policies towards oil
palm harvesting; agencies and corporations engaged in the
improvement of the productivity of the oil palm industry in
Rivers State (e.g. The World Bank) on strategies for
improving the safety record of oil palm harvesting by
improving some of the attributes of innovation associated
with the adoption, incentives for the operators and the
information channels for the diffusion of oil palm
harvesting innovations; and the research institutions on
the direction of research works on oil palm harvesting in

Rivers State.

18
Finally, the data from this study may provide the
basis for the formulation of hypotheses for more detailed
investigation of the interrelations of the factors

associated with the adoption of the picking knife as the

oil palm bunch harvesting device in Rivers State.

Sgurceg 9: Data
The participants for this study included selected

current and former users of the oil palm bunch picking
knife in Rivers State; a sample of the users in the
Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research, Benin from where
the picking knife was first introduced into Nigeria, and
some operators who had never used the knife in the Rivers
State. Thus, some conclusions from the study could apply

in the Rivers State of Nigeria, as well as NIFOR.

n ' n c'

The stakeholders in this project were: the oil palm
bunch operators, Rivers State Government, extension agents
in Rivers State; and institutions engaged in oil palm
harvesting research. However, because of the fact that
some information about the adoption of the picking knife
was drawn from the Malaysian experience (the world
innovators), and because of some generalizations of the
psychology and sociology of planned change as presented by

Rogers (1984), and Zaltman and Duncan (1977), and the

.19

similarities in the oil palm industry (Corley, :5. a1”
1973), Hartley (1977) and Durfrane and Vanderweyen (1954),
there was little reason to believe that some aspects of the
conclusions from this work could not apply elsewhere in the
world. (According to Rogers, Zaltman and Duncan, the
general compelling fomces in the innovation-decision
process apply cross-culturally. Differences occur in the
values, beliefs, attitudes or behaviors of the individual
potential adopters, change agents and the socio-political
systems.

Borrowing from Zaltman (1983, p. 312):

The particular concepts, principles and . . .

propositions presented . . . here . . . are to be

viewed as rules of thumb that change agents . . .

should use with considerable poetic license.

e ' on

The following terms are defined in the context in
which they are used in this study. Unless otherwise noted,
the definitions are as presented by Rogers and Shoemaker
(1971).

Acceptance: The act of approval (Webster).

do on: A decision to make full use of a new idea
as the best course of action.

Adoptign_ngyels: The four levels of adoption as
delineated by Bouterse (1975).

Level 1- No action on the part of the person in
relation to adopting the innovation.

20

Level 2- Awareness that the innovation is available.
Level 3- Information sought regarding the innovation.
Level 4- Action taken to implement the innovation.
n nt : The professionals who optimize the
direction of social changes. They are catalytic in

function.

Communicatign: The process by which messages
containing ideas are transmitted from a source, through a
medium to a receiver. The message is encoded by the
transmitter and decoded by the receiver using past
experiences. The message is transmitted to the receiver
with a view to modifying his/her behavior.

Communicatign Channel: The means or medium by which
the message gets from the source to the receiver, for

instance:

--Mass Media communication channels-~All those means
of transmitting messages that involve a mass medium
such as radio, television, movies, newspapers,
magazines-- anything that enables a source of one or a
number of individuals to reach an audience of many.

Impegsonal communication channels: Those channels of
communication that do not involve a face-to-face or voice
exchange between two or more individuals. These are
one-way communication channels. Most of the mass media
(including the computer) are in this group.

Diffiggign: A special type of communication concerned

with the spread of messages that are new ideas. The main

2_1

elements of diffusion are the innovation which is communi-
cated through certain channels over time among the members
of a social system (like the Rivers State Operator). It is
the element of time that distinguishes diffusion from other
types of communication.

Hagyggtgg: Any device that is used to detach the oil
palm bunch from the palm tree. Usually refers to
mechanical devices. A harvester can be used to prune the
palm tree. (Technical definition)

n v on: The introduction of something new,
modified from existing similar material or immaterial
objects. In other words, innovation could be an idea or
machine. (Technical definition)

ngggrds: The last set of adopter categories. Late
adopters as different from early adopters of innovations.

s u’ 3: These are oil palm fruits detached from

the bunch.

nggatgg: Artisan or workman who uses the harvester

(Webster).

Assumptions
The adoption pattern of the oil palm bunch picking
knife has followed mainly the research and development
model of social change in its introduction to Nigeria with
elements of other models, as is evident from the

publications of the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm

22

Research (NIFOR).** Thus, it is appropriate to assume in

this study that:

1.

There was a rational sequence in the application
of the innovation. This sequence included:
research, development and dissemination of the
information to the potential adopters (Havelock
and Havelock, 1970). This sequence was in the
dissemination stage for the picking knife in the
Rivers State.

The operator in this case was a passive but
rational consumer of the technology. The
operator did not develop the idea but would use
it if he considered it useful.

The operator adopted or rejected the picking
knife through the innovation-decision sequence of
knowledge, persuasion, trial, decision,
implementation and confirmation.

The operators accepted the innovation when
offered in the right place at the right time and
in the right form.

Self-applied innovation had the best chances for
long-term survival.

The wide-spread adoption of the knife in the
Rivers State would result in decreased hazards to
the persons involved in harvesting the oil palm
bunches.

These assumptions served as the basis for gathering

the data for this work.

Limitations.

The findings from this study will only apply to a

limited extent beyond the Rivers State and the Nigerian

Institute for Oil Palm Research from where the data were

 

**

u n i u ' e

(1960, 1961, 1964, 1965).

23
collected because of cultural, geographical, and socio-
political differences as stated earlier.

The data were collected by interview only, because
most of the participants could not read or write the
English language or their own languages, and the questions
had to be translated into their native language (Ogba,
Eche, Ekpeya and Ikwerr). There are, therefore, chances
for misinterpretation or misconception of words or
sentences.

A major limitation was imposed by the total number of
participants - defined as current users and discontinued
users. In the Rivers State, the total number of
participants was 71 (21 users, 25 ex-users, and 25
operators who had never used the knife). In Rivers State,
the lastest census information (1981) indicated the total
population to be 2,581,000. The population in the rural
areas, where the oil palm was grown, was reported as
1,720,667. 'The scope of this study was confined to the
areas where the four major plantations were located and to
the population which provided the source of persons who did
the harvesting on those plantations. In NIFOR, a two-
thirds sample size was 57 (38 current users and 19 ex-

***

users). The total sample size of 103 with so many

 

***The 25 operators who had never used the knife were
not included in the statistical analysis because of the
unanimity in their responses.

24
variables did not allow for accurate detailed analysis
beyond the general identification of the factors.

The empathy on the part of the interviewer and the
homophyly between interviewer and participants determined
the extent to which the participant was able to answer
interview questions and the extent of understanding between
them. Even when the study participants were able and
willing to describe their experience and feelings about the
picking knife, it was not known to what extent they
revealed what there was to disclose about their decision to
adopt or reject the innovation. Thus, the amount and
authenticity of information gathered depended on the
participants' cooperation and capability.

Qualitative studies using interviews to gather data
are subject to concerns about both reliability and
validity. Reliability could be managed by using a single
interviewer (the researcher) and following the pre-
established areas of inquiry. The question of reliability
and validity could be enhanced by careful documentation of
all aspects of each interview session, recapitulation,
confirmation and correction of the description given by the
study participants. This is easier to achieve if all of
the interview sessions are recorded on a tape. However,

replication is not expected nor consistent with the open-

25
ended interview approach that is appropriate for a case
study methodology.
Finally, the focus of this study is not on individual

farmer-operators, but on operators in general.

WWW

Chapter II of this dissertation contains a review of
the literature with the intent of supporting the
assumptions made in this study and providing background
information about the adoption of the picking knife in the
Rivers State and elsewhere. Chapter III describes the
theoretical basis for research design and the exact
procedures followed in the study. Chapter IV presents an
analysis and a discussion of the major findings. Chapter V
offers conclusions of this study, implications and

recommendations for further study.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The purpose of this chapter is to identify those
factors that may be associated with the adoption of the
picking knife as an appropriate oil palm harvesting device
in the Rivers State. This chapter, therefore, presents and
discusses the literature relevant to theories and
assumptions on which the study is based. Together, the
literature of social changes and innovation-decision
factors and processes fulfill the intent of this review.
The two kinds of literature also provided a basis for
discussing the relevance of the findings of this study and
for suggesting their implications.

Finally, because of the peculiarity of oil palm
harvesting, the available literature in this area was
reviewed and related to the theories for the sake of

clarity and support.

nnova ' n- ' u 'on se c
Most of the early published work in innovation-
diffusion was in the field of agriculture, and focused on
the farmer adopting progressive farm.pmactices or newly
developed field crops. Included in the study of adoption
processes were the innovation characteristics, the role and
effectiveness of extension services, and the reactions of

the clients.
26

27

Since the early 40's, when a pioneer study of the
diffusion and adoption of hybrid corn was made (Ryan and
Gross, 1943), diffusion researchers have repeatedly
observed that adoption occurs as "a process composed of
learning, deciding and acting over a period of time"
(Wilkening, 1953). The adoption of an innovation is an
evolutionary process that results from a series of
interrelated actions and mental decisions guided by the
attributes of the innovation and proceeding from the
initial knowledge of the innovation to its complete
adoption. According to Zaltman and Duncan (1977) and
Rogers (1983), the innovation adoption process involves
need or problem recognition, basic and applied research to
problems, technology development, diffusion and adoption,
commercialization and the social consequences.

The problems of the increasing number of injuries
sustained by operators at harvest, and the dwindling palm
oil production in Rivers State were recognized after the
civil war in Nigeria, when oil prices in the local market
tripled and Unilever and other soap manufacturers started
to import oil from other African Countries (Federal Office
of Statistics, 1977). Research carried out in the Elele
Oil Palm Plantation showed that within a period of two

months, there were 8 recorded cases of operators falling

28

off the tree, resulting in two deaths.* In an attempt to
solve this problem, the government increased the number of
cultured trees planted in the plantations only to discover
that the real problem was in harvesting the palm bunches.
There were not enough operators to harvest the trees
because the number of accidents was high. The plantation
owners and managers then decided to introduce the picking
knife which was already developed and had been found to
reduce the injury sustainable by the operator at harvest
(Hartley, 1977).

However, this did not increase production or reduce
the accident rate to the level of expectation of the
plantation owners/managers, and thus there was a need to
re-evaluate the harvesting system, of the oil palm in the

Rivers State. (See Table 2.1)

W

The failure of the introduction of the picking knife
in the Rivers State (1974) to reduce the number of
accidents, or increase the production of palm oil was
probably due to the fact that the rate of adoption of the
knife was visibly slow. This slow adoption of the knife in
the Rivers State may be attributed to some factors

associated with the adoption of such innovations. The

 

*Mechanization of the Oil Palm Processes in Nigeria
(Akor, 1977). Proceedings of the NSAE on "Agricultural
Mechanization and Operation - Feed the Nation," University
of Ibadan, April 4-7, 1977.

29

reception given to a new idea is not so fortuitous and
predictable as it sometimes appears to be. The character
of the idea is itself an important determinant (Barnett,
1953, p. 313).

Table 2.1

World Production of Palm Oil (1000 tonnes)

 

 

 

__Qggntrv 1912, 1976 1980 1984
Peninsula Malaysia 657 1,250 1,721 1,916
Nigeria 460 510 438 441
Indonesia 269 450 772 933
Zaire Rep. 180 170 163 159
Ivory Coast 93 176 198 235
Sabah 72 140 182 201
Angola 70 40 36 27
Cameroon 58 60 68 74
Benin (Dahomey) 39 35 31 33
Others 317 487 511 596
Herld_19tali 2:216 3-318 4.121____42§15

 

Source: FAO Production Yearbook.

Unfortunately, a careful search of the literature
showed that little effort had been devoted to analyzing
”innovation" differences (that is, in investigating how the
properties of an innovation affect its rate of adoption).
This type of research can be of great value to change
agents seeking to predict the reactions of their clients to
an innovation, and perhaps to modify certain of these
reactions by the way they name and position an innovation
and relate the new idea to existing beliefs (Rogers, 1983).

According to Rogers, diffusion researchers in the past

30

tended to regard all innovations as equivalent units from
the viewpoint of study and analysis. This oversimplifica-
tion could be responsible for the poor adoption stance of
the picking knife in the Rivers State.

v dv . This aspect of an innovation
refers to the unique benefit the innovation provides that
other ideas, practices, or things do not provide at all or
as well. The relative advantage is important at the
interest and evaluation stages of the adoption decision
process. It may take the form of more economy, a lessening
of social conflict, psychological security, greater
production, and so fbrth (Zaltman and Duncan, 1977). The
relative advantage of an innovation, as perceived by
members of a social system, is positively related to its
rate of adoption (Rogers, 1983).

tib' t . Zaltman and Duncan (1977) equates
compatibility of an innovation to the “goodness of fit' the
idea has with the situation in which it is to be used. The
situation includes psychological, sociological, and
cultural factors. According to Rogers, the compatibility
of an innovation, as perceived by the social system, is
positively related to its rate of adoption.
Complexity. The complexity of an innovation can be
seen in the light of its use (ease of operation and

maintenance) and understanding of the principle of

31

operation. The greater the degree of difficulty in using
and understanding a change, the less the likelihood that it
will be adopted voluntarily (Zaltman and Duncan, 1977). It
is important that the change agent be able to distinguish
between complexity-in-use and complexity-in-understanding,
because different people may respond differently to the
same change (Lionberger 1960 and Smith and Sheppard, 1959).
Zaltman and Duncan cautioned against change agents not
giving enough time to explain about the technical aspects
of a change and instruction in its use (relationistic and
technocratic biases).

Trialability. Rogers (1983) describes this aspect of
the attribute of innovation as the degree to which an
innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis.
Trialability of an innovation can be separated into two
closely related parts - divisibility and reversibility
(Zaltman and Duncan, 1977). Divisibility refers to the
extent to which a change can be implemented on a limited
scale. Thus, a new product like the picking knife can be
purchased at a relatively low cost and tried without the
fear of a major economic loss if it is not adopted for that
particular use. Even if it is not used in some other ways,
the loss would not be too much to bear.

The reversibility on the other hand, refers to the

ease with which the status quo ante can be reestablished if

32

a change is introduced but is later rejected. The greater
the ease with which a change may be discontinued, and the
fewer the permanent consequences of having tried or adopted
the change, the more likely it is that the change will be
accepted (Fliegel and Kivlin, 1962). Trialability is
important at the trial stage of adoption and greatly
facilitates the trial use of an innovation.

Qbsgrvgbiligy. This is the degree to which the
results of an innovation are visible and can be
communicated to others (Rogers, 1983 and Fliegel and
Kivlin, 1966).

The ease with which information about a change can be
disseminated is a critical dimension of the attribute of
the change or idea. Some innovations and some social
structures are more amenable to word-ofémouth communication
than others (Blau, 1974 and Rogers and Argarwala-Rogers,
1976). Communicability is important at the awareness and
interest decision-making stages. Certain industrial
structures, as well as organization structures, are more
conducive to communication about innovation than others
(Czepiel, 1973; Zaltman, Duncan, and Holbek, 1973: and
Rogers and Argawala-Rogers, 1976).

The observability of an innovation, as perceived by
the potential adopters, is positively related to its rate

of adoption. White (1967) found that using a large volume

33

of mass media does not necessarily lead to increased
knowledge about one innovation. The specific media used
and the type of material consumed should be considered when
designing a communication program. White also found that
interpersonal communication is important in spreading

knowledge about innovations particularly for adopters.

ons v ' n- u

11mm. The speed with which an innovation is
introduced is an important dimension. It is necessary to
think in terms of optimal time (Zaltman and Duncan, 1977).
The most appropriate rate of change may not correspond to
the maximum rate of change possible. Change can be
introduced too quickly or too slowly (Fliegel, 1956).

Cmmmimmgmt. The commitment required to adopt and
implement change is also important. The greater the
commitment, that is, the greater the amount of time, money
and other resources that must be allocated, the less likely
change is to take place. Susceptibility to successive
modification is important where technology is changing
rapidly or where different persons or groups use the change
or innovation but have somewhat different use patterns.

Ag_. The variations within the ages of potential
users of an innovation is an important consideration among
the factors associated with the adoption of the innovation.

The physical demands of the innovation have to be matched

34

to the physical condition of the target group (Copp, 1956).
Generally, the more the physical requirement for an
innovation, the less the chances for its adoption.

Egmgatigm. In his paper "Agricultural Technology for
Increased Food Production in Developing Nations: Problems
and Opportunities,“ Sen argues that the reasons for the
slow rate of diffusion of innovations in the Third World
countries include, lack of consideration for certain
sociological, cultural and economic consequences. He
suggested that when research is oriented towards a target
group, the provision of effective and imaginative nonformal
education opportunities, extension services closely
supported by feedback arrangements, and greater
geographical and social mobility are likely to reduce many
of the cultural and social barriers, because although
technology itself is important, technology by itself is not
enough (Sen, 1978). Sen contended that the slow adoption
of technologies, especially in the Third World, usually
have specific cause factors which have to be identified in
every situation, as an important first step towards change
at the grass root level, and that this should be followed
by appropriately educating the target group.

‘Writing about agricultural education and development
in Taiwan, Meaders agreed with Harbison that the high rate

of economic growth was the consequence of a constellation

35

of policies designed to utilize, with maximum effective-
ness, the countries' (both Korea and Taiwan) great wealth
of human resources (Meaders, 1979). The great wealth of
human resources can be maximized through education. In the
case of the oil palm picking knife, the education of the
target group could take the form of planned demonstrations,
diffusion effect, radio and television programs. This
requires the involvement of the Extension Division of the
Ministry of Agriculture.

According to Lionberger and Gwin, background such as
education, childhood environment, and parents' education
and occupation obviously affect a person's reaction to a
new idea (Lionberger and Gwin, 1982).

Applying Miller's analysis to the oil palm harvesting
methods, one is inclined to predict that a healthy oil palm
harvesting situation in Rivers State will exist only when
the operators have sufficient facts about the advantages
and disadvantages of different alternatives that are
available, and making a choice of procedure based on the
social and economic rationale (Miller, 1965).

Emplgxmemt. Appropriate mechanization can be selected
so as not to replace all human labor and increase
unemployment, but rather increase overall production and
improve the living conditions and optimism of rural people

(Esmay, 1978). The identification of the factors

36

associated with the use of the picking knife as an
appropriate oil palm harvesting device in the Rivers State
is important in the type of selective mechanization
mentioned above.

The oil palm tree has a peak as well as a low (trough)
period of yield. Thus, the plantation managers do not
usually need fully employed harvester operators. Operators
are recruited on a daily basis during the peak harvest
period and laid off at the trough period making the
operator's job uncertain. As a result of this uncertainty
in the operators' labor market and the unhealthy harvest
conditions, there were bound to be some negative
consequences on oil palm harvesting in the Rivers State.
Such consequences could reflect on the factors associated
in the adoption of the picking knife as a harvesting
device.

Writing about ”Agricultural Process Technologies in
West Africa," Byerlee and his co-workers observed that
despite the wide range of agricultural processing
techniques which are in use in Africa and the importance of
this sector for employment and income generation, there are
very few economic studies of this sector (Byerlee, et. al.,
1977).

Other areas of concern in the adoption of the picking

knife include the experience of the potential adopters and

37

other social resistance to change. Resistance is not
simply the lack of acceptance or the reverse of acceptance
(Zaltman and Duncan, 1977). Although the same factors are
relevant for both acceptance and resistance, they may be
relevant in different ways. For example, when an
innovation is incompatible with a particular norm (the
relevant factor), it may be adopted as a symbol of defiance
for one person and rejected by another person for fear of
social disapproval. Similarly, the uniqueness of an
innovation may be a cause of attraction for innovators and
a cause of resistance for more conservative people (Zaltman
and Pinson, 1974).

One very major barrier to change stems from cultural
values and beliefs (Foster, 1962). Weber (1947), for
example, ascribed lack of a work ethic, the absence of
desire for upward mobility, and so forth, as major barriers
to economic development prior to the use of capitalism in
Europe. Rostow (1960).,‘also discussing economic
development, noted the absence of entrepreneurship and
willingness to accept innovations as sources of resistance
to change. Hagen (1962) described as barriers, the lack of
socialization in early childhood of key social values such
as achievement and autonomy as barriers causing resistance
to change. Similarly, McClelland (1961) noted as the major

barrier to change the absence of the central social values

38

he called achievement motivation, which is an inner drive
to compete or do well relative to some standard of
excellence. Strongly related to the absence of such
cultural values and attitudes (such as thrift and
achievement motivation) is a trust in traditional ways of

doing things.

a v c u s

The techniques of harvesting the oil palm bunch did
not receive organized research attention until recently.
In the early 50's, some colonial research workers started
to put together pieces of information about the oil palm
cultivation and harvesting. This information was obtained
primarily in the Belgium Congo (now Zaire), West Africa and
Malaya (now Malaysia and Singapore). In the area of oil
palm harvesting, this information was merely documentation
of the existing traditional practices.

Vanderweyen in 1952 presented some data from the
Belgium Congo on the time required for each section of the
harvesting process - cutting, walking, and carrying. This
data showed a dramatic savings in the average time (75%)
required to harvest a bunch of oil palm fruit by using the
picking knife instead of the traditional climbing method.
It was obvious from Vanderweyen's data that carrying (which

includes bunch and fruit collection) the fruit was the most

39

time consuming component of the oil palm harvesting
process.

The picking knife saves time in cutting the bunch, but
does not address the fruit and bunch collection problem.
Fruit collection demands assiduity on the part of the
collector, and causes back-ache because of the arched
position of the collector's body in the process of picking
up the small fruits. Thus, using vanderweyen's data, one
could argue that the adoption of an oil palm harvesting
device would be enhanced by serious consideration of the
fruit and bunch collection components in the design of the
harvester.

Dufrane and Berger (1957) overwhelmingly supported
Vanderweyen's view in their publication “Etude Sur la
Recolte Clans les Palmerais.‘

These research publications were among the first
publications to devote some attention to the oil palm
harvesting process. Subsequently, there were more and more
discussions and research work about the various harvesting
procedures and innovations in relation to them. In every
situation, the innovations were products of descriptions
and comparisons of the alternative processes. This is
particularly evident in the following publications: “The

Oil Palm in Malaya" (Ministry of Agriculture and

40

Cooperatives, Malaysia, 1966: Toh, 1972: and Hartley,
1977).

The publications mentioned above also contained a
common emphasis on the need for timeliness, efficiency and
the effectiveness of a harvesting procedure. Each of them
agreed that the oil palm harvesting process consists of:
cutting the bunch, collecting the bunch, and carrying the
bunch and loose fruits to the processing mill. Cutting the
bunches is accomplished by the use of the picking knives
(or in the traditional method, the cutlass), while the
loose fruits and bunches are collected by workers and
transported to the processing factory by tractors, rail
trucks, trucks, bullock-drawn carts, mule packsaddles or
the workers. In all the estates in Rivers State, a
combination of tractors, trucks and the estate workers are
used to transport the bunches and loose fruits.

Turner and Gillbanks (1974), and Hartley (1976)
provided the historical background of the origin of the
Malayan Knife and the chisel. According to these authors,
the Malayan Knife originated from Malaya (now Malaysia and
Singapore) in the late 50's and the chisel originated from
Honduras a little earlier. These tools were adapted from
other harvesting operations primarily by the operators.

It is interesting to note that these tools, which are

indeed basic technologies, have been in use in Rivers State

41

Nigeria for many years for harvesting other tree crops like
the banana and plantain. The devices seem to provide
natural alternatives to climbing the tree during
harvesting. Though basic, the picking knives could be
regarded as the intermediate technology in oil palm
harvesting. The oil palm harvesters of the next generation
(high technology devices) could be expected to carry the
picking knife in a powered vehicle and provide a catchment
for the bunch and loose fruits.

Hartley described, in his book, a machine which was
the result of research in this direction. Nwanze (1965),
reporting about the same harvester, noted that the
harvester-carrying booms were nmmnted on trucks or high
flotation wheeled tractors. This type of machine was used
in Honduras and Costa Rica in the 60's.

Attempts to increase the efficiency of the picking
knives are evident from the mathematical curvatures of the
Malayan knife, the axe, and the chisel. Toh (1974) found
that 60 percent of the harvesting time and energy is spent
on bunch and loose fruit collection. Thus, in order to be
mechanically attractive to the operator, any solution to
the problem of oil palm harvesting, through the design of a
harvester, has to take into consideration the fruit and
bunch orientation on the tree, and collection (relative

advantage).

42

In 1981, a group of agricultural engineers in Malaysia
decided to further improve the efficiency of the harvesting
system by introducing a mobile bunch catchment cart that
follows the operator through the field (Ahmed, 1981). This
innovation, the John Deere oil palm harvester, and the
current oil palm harvester research in Rivers State are all
attempts to integrate the other components of the harvest-
ing system into the oil palm harvesting mechanism at
different levels, as to further improve on the attributes
of the knife.

The cart catchment addition seems to be a step in the
right direction as far as the picking knife research is
concerned, but there is no indication as to the perception
of the operator on this. The John Deere harvester does
not, however, provide for loose fruit collection, but has a
cage for handling the bunch. This, unfortunately, is the
result of adapting the date palm harvester to harvest oil
palm without considering the physiological differences in
the fruits of the trees. The current work on the develop—
ment of oil palm harvesters in the Rivers State is
considering the addition of a bunch or fruit catchment as
well as the economy and size of machine, and the social
consequences of the harvester. In this respect, the oil
palm harvester research in Rivers State may benefit from

the results of this work.

43

Unfortunately, agricultural research work in general
in the Rivers State is biased in favor of "technology
supply" and rarely considers the “technology need and
demand". A consideration of "technology need and demand“
must necessarily involve the consumers of technology
(McLaughlin, 1978).** However, the picking knife is a
simple tool that should easily fall into the technology
demand category, in which case, it could meet the need of
the operators. But it seems that like similar innovations
in the Third World Countries (Roger, 1976), the picking
knife was presented to the operators as products of
research centers, university or industry in the big cities,
and hence the need for the classical diffusion model in
disseminating the information about it to the operators.
The classic diffusion model is mostly concerned with what
happens to the innovation in the process of diffusion and
adoption rather than what happens to the adopter and
society.

In summary, a search of the literature revealed an
interesting variety of possible factors that could be
associated with the adoption of the picking knife in Rivers
State. These factors include the relative advantage of the

innovation, the compatibility, complexity, trailability,

 

**McLaughlin was quoting Denis Goulet in his
publication "Value Conflicts in Technology Transfer."

44

observability, time dimension, education, employment,
social, economic, and psychological resistances. The
literature cited for the oil palm harvest techniques are
supposed to throw some light on the research about the
harvester itself, as a re-enforcement to the attributes of
the innovation.

Based on the findings and recommendations of others
doing research in the field, the present study evolved as
one step towards improving the palm oil and kernel
production in Rivers State through reducing the health
hazards for the workers, by identifying factors responsible
for the adoption of the picking knife. To this end, the

following chapters contain a description of the study.

CHAPTER III
RESEARCH DESIGN

IHLLQQQSLIQH

The purpose of this study was to determine those
factors that are associated with the adoption of the
picking knife as an appropriate oil palm harvesting device
in the Rivers State. This chapter contains an overview of
the primary pminciples and features of the theory of
diffusion of innovation and social change methodologies
that serve as the basis for the study. The rationale
focusing theories are also discussed along with the source
of data (sample and population), instrumentation, data

collection procedures and analysis.

SW

The innovation diffusion and social theories (case
study) were used as the theoretical base. The innovation
diffusion and social theory provided the explanation in
general form for the behaviors of the target group. The
case study, according to Merriam and Simpson, was used to
explain areas of human interaction or social process as in
the case of the adoption process of the picking knife in
Rivers State. This was a substantive theoretical situation

that dealt with real-world phenomena. Generating

45

46
substantive theory “is, or should be, a concern of
researchers in applied professional fields such as adult
education“ (Darkenwald, 1980, p. 67). Among the areas of
adult education and programs listed by Darkenwald, the
adoption of the picking knife as an appropriate oil palm
harvesting device in Rivers State should comfortably fit
51L. The major purpose of doing case study research in an
applied field "is to improve professional practice through
gaining a better understanding of it" (Darkenwald, 1980, p.

69). In essence that was what this study was all about.

u c o t

Glaser and Strauss (1967) recommend selecting a
population that seems to be the most likely group to
provide data related to the problem area. The most obvious
group to seek data from, for this study were those
operators that adopted the use of the picking knife and
those that had discontinued the use of the knife for some
reasons, and all other oil palms harvest operators in
Rivers State. However, this population seems so broad and
diffused that a more specific population was defined. Such
a specific population that could easily be identified was
the oil palm harvest operators currently using the picking
knife and those who had discontinued the use of the knife

after some time of use.

47-

A sample of 25 operators who had never used the knife
‘was also interviewed. This sample was limited to 25
operators because of the unanimity in their responses. A
detailed description of their responses is presented in the
next chapter.

Because the total population size as specified above
‘was small (about 46) in the Rivers State, the entire
population was interviewed. In addition to this
population, a simple random sample of a similar population
in the Nigerian Oil Palm Research Institute where the
picking knife was first adopted and from where it was
introduced into Rivers State, were interviewed. Data from
this sample served as a reference source for the population
of current users and discontinued users of the picking
knife in Rivers State.

The Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (formally
known as the West African Institute for Oil Palm Research)
was established in Benin (Bendel State) to serve as a
research center for oil palm in West Africa. In 1960, the
Nigerian Government assumed the full responsibility for the
station and renamed it. Currently, it serves as a research
center as well as a center to disseminate information about
the palm tree and its products.

The population for this study was located in four oil

palm estates in the Rivers State — Elele, Ahoada, Omoku and

48

Echie Plantations, surrounding villages and NIFOR. Plate
1.3 in Chapter 1 shows the location of NIFOR and the Rivers
State and the Plantation. As can be seen from the map, all
four plantations in the Rivers State are located in the
north of the State. The south of the State has mostly man-
grove vegetation and does not easily support the palm tree.

The population for this study as described above was
grouped into two major categories as follows:

1. Current users of the knife.

2. Discontinued users of the knife (Ex-users).
Operators who had never used the knife were used to support

or refute evidence from these categories.

n f a b1
Data on each of these two major categories were
further classified under the following discrete variables.
A. Eleven age groups - l6-70 years.

8. Education level
- Formal
- Non-formal

C. Employer
— Public
- Private
- Self

D. Wage level
- Below minimum
- At minimum
- Above minimum

E. Provider of knife
- Employer
- Employee

49

F. Physical condition

Sight problems
Muscle and joint problem
None of the above

G. Years of experience in oil palm harvesting

5 or less
5-10

10-15

15 and above

H. Years of experience using the knife

5 or less
5-10

10-15

15 and above

I. Perception as to:

The following are the null hypotheses posed for

Savings in effort (positive, same, negative)
Time to harvest (faster, same)

Cost of knife (more, less)

Status placement (positive, same, negative)
Social impact (positive, same, negative)
Cultural belief (positive, negative)

Met need (yes, no)

Use (easier, difficult)

Visibility (visible, not visible)
Communication (demonstration, diffusion,
effect)

W

testing each variable:

H01 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
who is required to provide the pdcking knife - the

employer or the operator.

H02 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of

the cost of the knife.

H03 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of

the pay-back period of the knife.

304

806
307

308

50

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the saving in effort as a result of the use of the
picking knife.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the degree of discomfort in the use of the picking
knife.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the average time required to harvest a bunch.

The adoption of the knife is independent of the wage
level of the operator.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the status placement of the adopter as perceived by
him.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the social impact of the use of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the consistency of the innovation with social,
cultural values and belief of the adopter.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the past experiences of the adopter under similar
social changes.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the real need of the operators.

The adoption of the picking knife in Rivers State is
independent of the perceived ease of use of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the perceived maintenance and repair requirements.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the construction requirements of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the small scale demonstrability and trial requirements
of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the reversibility effect of the adoption of the knife.

The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the visibility of the knife.

51

H019'The adoption of the picking is independent of the
communication system available for disseminating
information about the picking knife.

H020 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the time allotted for diffusion.

H021 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the body structure, the health status and the age of
the adopters.

H022 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the employer category to which the operator belongs.

H023 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the number of years of experience of the adopter in
oil palm harvesting.

H024 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
number of years of experience of the adopter in using
the picking knife.

H025 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the education categories of the operators.

The expectation is that each null hypothesis will be
rejected in favor of the alternatives in which case, the
variables are identified as factors. It is also expected
that these hypotheses will identify general similarities
between the Rivers State operators and the NIFOR operators.
However, in specific instances, there could be major
differences, even Opposing trends, because of the
differences in the people, geography, history, and socio-
political set up between the Rivers State plantations and

the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research.

52
921W

The instrument was developed first by considering all
of the possible factors that the interviewer perceived to
be associated with the adoption of the knife. Open-ended
questions were prepared to allow the participants to
respond in whatever manner seemed most appropriate.

The first day of the interview was used to pretest the
questions. The pretest was administered to five oil screw
press operators. This group of people were chosen because
they had the most characteristics in common with the oil
palm picking knife operators. They all had little or no
formal education, received about the government minimum
wage, and were hired laborers. The oil screw press itself,
has more similarities to the picking knife than any other
recently adopted innovations in the Rivers State. The
press is manually operated, processes oil palm fruits, and
was introduced to the Rivers State through the Nigerian
Institute for Oil Palm Research.

Based on the results of the pretest, some questions
*were reworded and others added. The added questions
include questions 8 and 9 of the first part of the
interview questions, questions 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 of Section
B, and questions 4, 5, 6, and 7 of Section C. The reworded
questions are question 4 of Section A and questions 2 and 3

of Section 3 (Appendix A).

53

MW

At the beginning of each interview, the study
participant was put at ease with casual conversation,
taking into consideration the values, beliefs and norms of
the society. In these initial conversations, the
participants were assured that the interview results would
be used to improve their job.

The interview opening was made easier by traveling
with an operator who was widely known in the area. This
gave the interviewer acceptance within the villages and
access to some information about the villages.

The operators were encouraged to respond without fear

of government or individual persecution in any way.

TM

All of the interviews were conducted by the
researcher. This procedure contributed to the reliability
of the findings. Because the interviewer was the
researcher, data collection, coding and analysis were done
concurrently. The interview format was semi-structured
using open-ended questions, which varied according to
individual participant's response orientation. This way,
there was a high degree of freedom in the exercise.

Open-ended questions were used because of the several

advantages as cited by Stewart and Cash (1974), and Borg

54

and Gall (1979). According to these authors, open-ended

questions:

1. Allow the participant to do most of the talking
while the interviewer can determine the nature
and amount of information to retain.

2. Help put the interviewer at ease because the
participant can determine the nature and amount
of information to be given.

3. Are more effective in learning about feelings and
attitudes and the intensity of feeling and
attitudes of the participant.

4. Are less likely to telegraph or lead the
participant to respond in a particular way.

5. Help enable the interviewer to determine
participant's frame of reference or stereotypes.

The disadvantages associated with this method of
questioning are mostly related to the skills of the
interviewer and replication, especially when several
interviewers are employed. The disadvantages are not
expected to be significant since the researcher served as
the sole interviewer and because the researcher had some
knowledge of and experience with the situation. The
interview was conducted in Pigeon English and in the
researcher's native languages - Ogba, Ikwere, Echie and
Ekpeya.

The responses to the interview questions were taped
with the consent of the study participants. However, there

was no assumption that the operators would agree to be

55
taped, so the researcher was ready to write down responses

in the best way possible.

W

Beginning from the second day of the exercise, all of
the operators that were using the knife and those who had
discontinued the use of the knife in the Rivers State and a
sample of both users and ex-users in the Nigerian Institute
for Oil Palm Research were interviewed. The users as well
as the discontinued users were identified with the help of
their employers who provided the interviewer with their
employee list and instructed the fereman to help in the
identification process.

After the interviews with the users and ex-users,
interviews 25 operators who had never used the knife were
also interviewed (Appendix D). Seventeen of them were
unemployed, while eight of them had been recently employed.

All except one of the participants agreed to the
request that the interview be recorded with a tape
recorder. This made the exercise faster and more reliable,
because at the end of each day, it was possible to play the
tapes and review the conversations in a more relaxed
condition, making it easier to pick up the important
points. Since there was minimum note-taking, the
interviews were allowed to flow freely, thus reducing the

time required for each interview.

56

The interviewer visited each participant without
previous notification because the custom of the society
permitted this. Besides, there were no telephones in the
oil palm plantations and letters could possibly be delayed,
mis-interpreted or lost. Usually, in this part of the
world, previous notification would emphasize a formal
meeting and serious government involvement, which had to be
avoided, because it would lead to withholding and
exaggerating of information.

In each case, the researcher casually walked into each
participant's house. After a brief exchange of greetings
with members of the household, he requested a short meeting
with the operator (participant).

When seated, the problem was presented to the
participant in his own language because they neither spoke
nor wrote the English language, nor wrote in their own
language. The interviewee was then promised that this was
a personal study of the problem and that it would not be
used against him in any way. Then, a gallon of prized,
locally made wine ($3.00) plus $5 in cash was given to him
as a gift for the season (Christmas). The participant was
further put to ease by sharing of previous experiences
(some of which were common) about the oil palm industry.
ZBefore starting the interview, the permission to use the

tape recorder was requested. Then, the interview questions

57

were asked in the sequence as presented in the instrument.
A temporary misplacement of the tape recorder resulted in
one interview that was not taped. (On the average, there
was (”1 hour and fifteen minutes of tape for each
interview.) At the end of each day, the data for that day
were analyzed and compared to previous results.

The last day of the data collection process was used
to review the data with the help of three members of the
staff (two Doctors £9 Extension Education and one Doctor of
Agricultural Engineering) of the University of Science and
Technology Port-Harcourt. These colleagues were given a
brief of the research objectives and procedure before the
commencement of data collection, and were consulted
individually at least twice while the data collection was
going on. The group reviewed the results and made
suggestions, some of which were incorporated in the final

analysis and interpretation of data.

W
This study was aimed at identifying those factors
associated with the adoption of the picking knife as an
appropriate oil palm harvesting device in the Rivers State.
The data collected in the interviewiyere, therefore,
analyzed using appropriate statistical methods to reflect

the purpose of the study.

58

First of all, the data were laid out in a table
according to the age categories of the participants. Then,
the data were divided into two groups (Rivers State and
Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research), and analyzed
based on two categories - current users and ex-users. The
analysis of data was done for each hypothesized factor
within these two categories. Using the chi-square
procedure (equations 3.1 and 3.2), the significantly
dependent factors to current users and ex-users of the

picking knife were identified.

E.
E T O C O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O 3.1

x2 = m2 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 302

(See Nomenclature on page ix.)

The chi square is an important statistic which is used
to test whether two discrete variables are independent of
each other. In other words, if the observed frequencies in
the cells deviate markedly, one would expect the two
variables were not related to each other. A large chi-
square statistic would indicate that the observed
frequencies differ significantly from the expected
frequencies. The cells with high values in the
"contribution to the chi-square" are the ones that

"contribute" the most to the significance of the chi-

59
square. All tests of hypotheses were done at the 0.05
level of significance.

In order to rank the magnitude of the effects of the
factors identified by the chi-square statistic, the area
moment procedure was used (equation 3.3).

Ma 8 LA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 (Appendix B)
(See Nomenclature on page ix.)

The factors were further examined by making a table of
the coded rejection differences. This helped to visualize
and understand the data. The comparison of the Rivers'
State participants' responses to those of the Nigerian
Institute for oil palm research was done by using the phi
statistic (equation 3.4). This statistic measures the
strength of the relationship between the two variables in
question. When there is no relationship, phi is zero, and
when there is a perfect positive relationship, phi is one.
When there is a perfect negative relationship, phi is minus

one.

£2
¢% 8 N I o o o o o o o o o o o o 304

(See Nomenclature on page ix.)

A table of 82 values was used for the between group
comparison, because the phi statistic corrects for the fact
that the chi-square statistic is directly proportional to
the number of cases. In other words, phi could be used to

compare two cross tabs with unequal observations.

60
Finally, an Omnibus hypothesis was tested for
interaction using the multi-dimensional log-linear model
and by tapping from the adoption decisions as portrayed by

the responses of all participants.

SETEQIX

In summary, open-ended questions were the basis for
interviews with selected user and non-user operators on
four plantations in Rivers State and at the Nigerian
Institute for Oil Palm Research. All except one of the
interviews were tape recorded. There were 25 research
hypotheses which were tested using the following
statistical tests: chi-square, area moment, phi, and
multi-dimensional log-linear model. The personal
interviews, all conducted by the researcher, provided an
opportunity to collect additional information and

impressions about the people and their customs in the area.

CHAPTER.IV
PRESENTATION OP FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

1.211195122121231

The purpose of this study was to determine the factors

associated with the adoption of the picking knife as an

appropriate oil palm harvesting device in the Rivers State.

This chapter presents the data obtained from the

interviews, analysis of data, findings and a discussion of

findings from other countries. The presentation is

accomplished under the following sections:

1.
2.
3.

U (D \l 0‘ 0' :5
o

10.

Description of Study Area.

Description of Study Participants.

Outline of all Factors Hypothesized to be
Associated with the Adoption of the Picking
Knife.

Testing of Hypotheses.

Magnitude of Factors Identified.

Characteristics of Factors Identified.
Interaction Between Factors.

Comparison of Factors Identified.

Comparison with Findings from Other Countries.

Summary

' t n o tud

Geographically, the plantations and the wild palms

were located in a tropical rain forest region. The

61

62

topography was relatively flat. The Rivers State is
located in the Niger Basin formed by the alluvial deposits
of the River Niger and its tributaries. It rains all year
round with a diminished amount of rainfall in the fall
months and early winter (known as the dry season), and the
yield of the oil palm tree tends to follow the seasons,
with high yield in the rainy season and a lower yield in
the dry season. The high yield season of the palm
coincides with the intense farming season for yam, cocoyam
and cassava in the Rivers State.

Historically, the oil palm farming always supplemented
crop farming. The products of the oil palm tree were used
with other food crops or as medicine. The palm oil was
eaten with yam, cocoyam, plantain, banana or cassava.

Until the coming of the Europeans, the palm kernel oil
was used as medicine for the skin and stomachache; and the
raw palm oil as part of a variety of other cures. From
1944, when it became increasingly difficult for the
Europeans to obtain the palm oil and palm kernel oil from
the Far East because of the Second world war, oil palm
became commercialized in Nigeria and the trade through the
sea dramatically increased. The Rivers State became the

major terminal for exporting the oils.

63

W

The respondents were described according to age,
users/ex-users of the harvest knife, years of experience in
the industry, years of experience with the knife,
education, employment, wages received and physical
condition (See Table 4.1). In addition, a brief
description of the families was provided. A general
description follows (See Table 4.2):

Age. More than 50 percent of all the respondents were
age 35 or under. Most of the respondents who were current
users of the knife (60 percent) wer age 35 or under. Most
of the respondents who were ex-users (63 percent) were over
age 40.

Education. Most of the 103 respondents (66 percent)
had no formal education. All of those who had some formal
education (34 percent) were age 45 or under.

Emplgxmggt. The public sector (government and
corporations) employed 86.41 percent of the operators
interviewed. The Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research
is a government institution and all operators working there
were employed by the government. On the other hand, all of
the privately employed operators were from the Rivers
State. 'The private employers were the small-holders oil

palm farmers who received some financial assistance from

64

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a m I: o m m m H mNIHN
NH H II n a v N N ONuoH
-... ... :J 0.. . _- 0.. . . . . .. -
082 uses Ta 236 Illuugaumll llama—III on:
oHomsx
Igguflgl
mm-mH H«.wm wcqmu mm.¢m mm.mm NH.Hw ucuuuum
«H mm mm mm Ne mNH..H ad G 459..
o m m o N cm-mm mmH m o ownwc
o N h o m co.mh NHN m N mwnHo
o m m c m co.Nw omH m m colmm
o a m o e om.Nm oHN o m mmIHm
o N N o m om.mN mmH m e cmnov
H m m H v mN.wm mvH n n mvnHv
o a w m m oc.mN mHH v m oeumm
N NH a m N vH.mH Nm m HH mnuHm
v NH N m a mn.o Hm m NH onumN
m u v N HH un.n pm N a mNuHN
N HH v a c mN.H «H m oH cNImH
.. . . o v 2.5; .:o.. H. . .-.o.. u 1... . u. .8 u NT. or? n.
nudznaanxnunullu .Iuaquuuauulu oucoHuoaxm oocoHuomxm oocoHuoaxm acuuuzu omc

acououuHo on» no mucaaHoHuuom Nessa no uoHumHuouoounzu

mo ammo»
mesa

moHuomouao om:

H.v oHnma

no mono»
no.8

65

Table 4.2

Frequency of Responses for Factor
Categories - Comparison

 

 

...El:flfi££§__
Rivers Rivers
State NIFOR State NIFOR
Category .nle n=38 n=25 n=19
We: 8
Employer 14 29 8 11
Employee 7 9 l7 8
L:SS_§QSL. 21 38 25 19
Positive 13 26 5 4
Same 2 9 9 5
Negative 6 3 11 10
Time
Faster 21 38 25 19
'k
W
Above 5 14 l 5
At 10 17 4 3
Below 6 7 20 11
Positive 13 30 5 6
Same 3 8 6 13
Negative 5 0 14 0
Positive 7 26 14 6
None 12 4 3 9
Negative 2 8 8 4
W
Positive 21 38 25 19
W
Positive 18 33 9 8
None or Negative 13 5 16 11
W
Yes 16 31 ll 9
No 5 7 14 10

 

*Government minimum wage level is $120.00 per month.
There is no strict enforcement of this wage level in
the rural areas.

66

Table 4.2 Cont'd.

Frequency of Responses for Factor
Categories - Comparison

 

 

Rivers Rivers
State NIFOR State NIFOR

Category naZl n-38 n=25 n-19

Q5:
Easier 16 29 10 7
Difficult 5 9 15 12
Visible 13 34 7 13
Not Visible 8 4 18 6
Demonstration 19 38 25 19
Diffusion Effect 2 0 0 0
Sick 0 2 ll 13
Over 45 3 5 l4 6
Healthy 18 31 0 0
Public 21 38 ll 19
Private 0 0 l4 6

NW

LXfiaLfiL
5 or Less 12 23 0 0
5 - 10 6 9 0 6
10 - 15 3 6 6 ll
15 or Above 0 0 19 2

Wane:

113.113.).
5 or Less 15 22 25 17
5 - 10 6 9 0 2
10 - 15 0 6 0 0
15 or Above 0 O 0 0
Formal 8 24 1 3
Non-Formal 13 14 24 16

 

67

the WOrld Bank Project in the Rivers State. There were no
self-employed or female operators among the participants.
This was not a chance event. All operators in the Rivers
State work for the government or some richer oil palm
estate owner. All operators who had enough money to own an
oil palm plantation had to give up the harvesting job.
This was what was expected by the society, and explains why
there were no privately employed operators. Also, the
society regards the operator's job as a man's job and so
there are no females.

flaggg. Table 4.1 also shows that 42.72 percent of the
;participants were below the government paid minimum wage
level, while 36.89 percent are at the minimum wage level
and 20.39 percent are above this level. Here again,
curiously, the older age categories have more operators
below and at the minimum wage level than the younger
categories. More than half of the Rivers State operators
were employed on a temporary" basis. They were paid
according to the number of bunches harvested. The daily
wages paid operators were all below the government paid
minimum wage level and the operators were not entitled to
any benefits. This finding is discussed in more detail in

Chapter V.

 

*
Under temporary employment, the operator can only
work and, therefore, receive pay whenever the employer
wants him to. He has no rights to any benefits.

68
The description above indicates that most of the

participants from the plantations in Rivers State were
among the poorly paid. The wage structure shows some
inconsistencies. The plantation records showed some newly
employed operators promoted, without justifiable reasons,
over others who had been on the job for a longer period.
The discontinued users of the knife were mostly the older
operators with little or no formal education.

Ehx§1231_ggndigign§. Most of the older participants
had sight problems, and as a result, found it difficult to
use long picking knives. The sight problems were
particularly serious for the older operators, most of whom
had discontinued the use of the knife because it was
becoming increasingly difficult for them to locate the
peduncle of the bunch from the ground level. In all, 33.01
percent of the participants had sight problems.

During the interview, most of the discontinued users
of the knife also complained of fatigue of the muscles of
the arm due to continuous carrying of the knife, as against
the intermittent carrying of ladders.

Unfortunately, employers had no contract obligations
to part-time (temporarily) employed operators injured on
dutyu Operators who had been incapacitated by accidents
due to oil palm harvesting could only return to their

villages to be cared for by their families. The

69

interviewer met two of the previously injured opreators in
the village by chance.

All 25 of the operators who had never used the knife
were from the Rivers State. All of the operators in NIFOR
had either used the knife or were still using the knife.

Among the 25 who had never used the knife, only eight
of them were found in the plantations. Seventeen of them
were interviewed from the surrounding villages - Elele,
Alimini, Ahoada and Omoku. The number of this category was
only left at 25 because of the unanimity in their
responses. In other words, most of their responses were
unanimous (Table D.l, Appendix D). This was also the
reason why their responses were not included in the
following statistical analysis. Such responses did not
lend themselves to statistical analysis. Therefore, their
responses were used as supporting evidence to conclusions
drawn from the statistical analysis of the data for the
users and the ex-users.

Incidentally, all 17 of the operators interviewed from
the surrounding villages had never heard of the idea of
using the picking knife to harvest the oil palm bunches.
If they had heard, they could not remember. One of the
reasons for this was that these operators did not harvest
the cultivated oil palm plants. They specialized in

harvesting the tall wild plants that could not be reached

70

with the knife. Another reason was that nobody seriously
talked to them about the idea. They joked at the
researcher's suggestion that the knife could be used on the
younger wild palm varieties. They pointed out that wild
plants have tougher branches and bunch peduncles than the
cultivated varieties.**

Unlike the plantation operators, all of the operators
in the villages were full-time farmers in other crops and
only harvested the wild palm occasionally depending on when
a land owner invited them to harvest for him or when the
wild palms on their own land were ripe for harvesting (an
average of two month intervals).

The eight plantation operators who had never used the
knife were all newly employed and had never seen one of the
periodic demonstrations. Three of them indicated interest
in the knife but were afraid it could be more difficult to
use than their ladder rope.

About 80 percent of the operators interviewed were
married men living with their families on the plantations.
Most of the wives were employed in other aspects of the oil
palm processing, e.g. bunch and loose fruit collection,

bunch stripping and fruit separation from the persistent

 

**This was also confirmed by a research work conducted
in NIFOR by Nwanze (1960).

71
calyx. All of the families had small farms and gardens
which provided a supplement to their cash incomes.
Some of the wives of both the plantation and the
village operators were also petty traders in consumer
goods. More than 60 percent of all of the participants

were married to more than one wife.

WIS.

The ten factors that were hypothesized to be
associated with the adoption of the picking knife as an
appropriate oil palm harvesting device in the Rivers State
are presented below. Data about each of these factors were
studied to confirm whether or not they influenced the

adoption of the knife.

W

The factors associated with the relative advantage of
the picking knife were as follows:

1. Who provides the knife.*

2. Cost of picking knife.**

*

3. Pay-back period of the knife.*

4. Savings in efgprt as a result of the use of the
picking knife.

5. Degree of discomfort in the use of the knife.**

6. Average time required to harvest a bunch using
the knife.

 

*Statistically tested (Appendix E).

**Discussed - Data not statistically testable.

72

7. The wage level of the operator.*
8. Status placement of the user as perceived by the
user himself.
9. The social impact of the use of the knife.*
Wu

The compatibility factors included:

1.

2.

3.

Consistency with social, cultural values and

beliefs.

Past experience of operatqgs as perceived by him

in similar social changes.

The perceived real need of the operators.*

Complain

The factors involved in the complexity of the

innovation were:

1. Ease of use of the knife as perceived by
operators.

2. Perceived maintenance requirements.*

3. Perceived repair requirements.*

4. Perceived construction requirements.**
1321.19.11.19:

Trialibility of the knife included:

1. Small scale demonstrability.**

2. Trial requirements.**

 

*Statistically tested (Appendix E).

**Discussed - Data not statistically testable.

the

73
Bszsraibilitx

The factor involved in the reversibility of the

innovation was the fear entertained by the operators about

the known and the unknown effects of discontinuation of the

practice.**

Qbasrxabilitx

In this case, three factors of importance were:

1. Visibility of the picking knife.*

2. Communication system available for dissemination
of information about the picking knife.

3. The time allotment for diffusion.**

S C actors

These included operator health factors that could

hinder or enhance the use of the picking knife in oil palm

harvesting. They were:
1. Body structure.**
2. Health status.**

3. Age factors.**

Emelexment

The employment factors involved the
operator:
*

1. Public.*

2. Private.**

 

*Statistically tested (Appendix E).

employer of the

**Discussed - Data not statistically testable.

74
W
Years of experience factors were:
1. On oil palm harvesting in genera1.**

2. On oil palm harvesting using the picking knife.**

due
The education factors were:
1. Formal training (education).*

2. Non-formal training (education).*

H!22£h§§i§.l§§£iflg

In order to verify that the above factors were indeed
associated with the adoption of the picking knife, the
outcome variable (adoption) was tested for independence
with each of the predictor variables as outlined above.

The most appropriate test procedure for this study was
the chi-square test procedure using crosstab tables and
histograms as visual display models. The chi-square test
was used because both the predictor variables and the
outcome variable were discrete quantities. The factors
were tested in the sequence presented in the outline.

Data from Rivers State were treated as a sample rather
than a population because the list of operators who were

currently using the knife and those who have discontinued

 

*Statistically tested (Appendix E).

**Discussed - Data not statistically testable.

75

the use of the knife was provided by the estate managers

who made it clear that there existed the possibility of

some users and non—users not being in their records.

However, if this was correct, then the unlisted operators

must be a very small fraction of the total.

Two statistical calculations (chi-square and standard
critical chi-square) were made for the responses regarding
each of the ten factors. The calculations were made
separately for the responses from Rivers State and from
NIFOR. A summary of the chi-square values and the degrees
of freedom for each are shown in Table 4.3. (For
additional details, see the Contingency Tables E.1A through
E.11B in Appendix E.)

W

Emma:

Hol The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
who is required to provide the picking knife - the
employer or the operator.

Hal The adoption of the picking knife depends on who is
required to provide the picking knife - the employer
or the operator.

At 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was
rejected, in both cases in favor of the alternative and it
was concluded that the adoption of the picking knife was
not independent of the person required to provide the knife

- employer or employee. The strength of rejection was

greater for NIFOR than for the Rivers State, showing that

 

 

 

 

Standard
Degrees of Cited
Freedan Chi-Squars Chi- e Decision
Factors (r-l) (c-l) Value (x ) Value (x cr) ( 8.05)
I. t'
1. Provider
Rivers State 1 5.910 3. 841 Sign.
NIFOR l 14 . 450 3. 841 Sign.
2. Cost of Knife
Rivers State
NIFOR unanimous Not Sign.
30 Pay-Ba“
Rivers State - .
NIFOR Unanimous Not Sign.
4. & 5. Savings in Effort
Degree of Discomfort
Rivers State 2 9.180 5.991 Sign.
NIFOR 2 16.560 5.991 Sign.
6. Time to Harvest
Rivers State
NIFOR [manimous Not Sign.
7. Wage Level
Rivers State 2 12.520 5.991 Sign.
NIFOR 2 9.700 5.991 Sign.
8. Status
Rivers State 2 8.520 5.991 Sign.
NIFOR l 12. 210 3. 841 Sign.
9. Social Inpact
Rivers State 2 11.090 5.991 Sign.
NIFOR 2 10. 620 5.991 Sign.
Legend:

Sign. 8 Significant
Not. Sign. = Not Significant

manimous = Responses were not statistically tested.

77
Mle 4.3 Cmt'd.

 

 

 

 

Standard
Degrees of Cited
Freedan Chi-Squars Chi- e Decision
Factors (r-l)(c-l) Value (x ) Value (x or) ( -.05)
11. Wis!
10. Social Inpact
Eggs State Unanimous' Not Sign.
11. Past aperience
Rivers State 1 11.620 3. 841 Sign.
NIFOR l 12. 570 3 . 841 Sign.
12. Needs Met
Rivers State 1 4.870 5.991 Sign.
NIFOR 2 7.070 3.841 Sign.
III. mm
13. Ease of Use
Rivers State 1 6.090 3.841 Sign.
NIFOR 1 7.070 3.841 Sign.
14. & 15. Maintenance and
Repair/Construction
Rivers State 1 0.070 3. 841 Sign.
NIFOR l 2. 060 3. 841 Sign.
IV. mantis:
16. Demonstrability
Rivers State -
NIFOR Unanimous Not Sign.
V- W119.
l7. Reversibility
Rivers State Unanimous Not Sign.
Legend-

Sign. = Significant
Not. Sign. a Not Significant

Unanimous = Responses were not statistically tested.

78
Table 4.3 Cait'd.

 

 

Degrees of Cited

Freedcm Chi-Squars Chi-Squa e
)

Factors (r-l) (c-l) Value (x

Decision

value (x or) ( -.05)

 

 

‘VI- Observabilitz
18. Visibility
Rivers State 1 5.340 3. 841 Sign.
m l 3. 890 3. 841 Sign.
19. Commication
Rivers State Unanimous Not Sign.
20. Time to Diffuse
Rivers State -
manimous Not Sign.
‘VII- Ehxsisal_East9r§
21. Body, Health and Age
Rivers State Unanimous Not Sign.
VIII.
22. Employer
Rivers State Unanimous Not Sign.
IX.
23. Without Knife
Rivers State .
NIFOR Unammous Not Sign.
24. With Knife
Rivers state Unanimous Not Sign.
X. Edusatieu
25. Education
Rivers State 1 8.420 3. 841 Sign.
NIFOR 1 ll . 400 3. 841 Sign.
Legend-

Sign. a Significant
Not. Sign. = Not Significant
Utmnimous = Responses were not statistically tested.

79
this factor was of greater concern in NIFOR than in the
Rivers State.

While the NIFOR operators seemed to be consistent with
expectations, (more participants favored employer-
provider), the Rivers State ex-user operators presented
strange responses. One would have expected that the ex-
users would favor employer-provider instead of employee-
provider.

W:

802 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
cost of the knife.

H32 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the cost
of the knife.

This hypothesis is similar to the above hypothesis
(801) in that the knife at no cost to the operator was
equivalent to the employer providing the knife in the case
of a publicly or privately employed operator (all
participants were employed by the government, an individual
or a cooperative). When asked about the cost of the knife,
if the operator had to provide it, there was a unanimous
response from all of the Rivers State participants, that the
cheaper the knife, the easier it would be to purchase and
adopt its use. This response was what one would expect in a
normal situation, holding all other variables at a constant
level. However, the participants in NIFOR did not consider

the cost of the knife as a significant factor in their

80
decision to adopt the use of the knife, because they already
knew they would not purchase the knives themselves.

The conclusion was that, in a situation where the
operator had to provide the knife, the adoption of the knife
was not independent of the cost of the knife. When the
employer provided the knife, it was not considered as a
factor, as was the case in NIFOR.

W:

HOB The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
pay-back period of the knife.

Ha3 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the pay-
back period of the knife.

In response to question 88 (see Appendix A), every
participant indicated that there was no conscious effort to
evaluate the pay-back period of the knife in the adoption
decision process. The average cost of the knife was $15.00.
Usually, the operator could reduce the cost of the knife by
purchasing the cutting edge and assembling the knife using
locally available materials. The average cost of the knife
to an operator, in this way would be approximately $6.50.
The participants apparently equated the pay-back period of
the knife to the number of hours of harvest necessary to
earn the cost of the knife - 1 hour on the average. Thus, a
picking knife could pay for itself in the first day of
harvest. The pay-back period was considered as a part of

the total cost of harvesting. The pay-back period was,

81
therefore, a factor of negligible intensity on itself in the
adoption decision process of the picking knife.
W:
804 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
saving in effort as a result of the use of the picking
knife.

Ha4 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the saving
in effort as a result of the use of the picking knife.

In both tables E.2A and 8.28 of in Appendix E, the null
hypothesis was rejected in favor of the alternative, and it
was concluded that savings in effort was a factor associated
with the adoption of the knife in the Rivers State as well
as in NIFOR. The rejection of the null hypothesis was
stronger in NIFOR probably because they were more used to
the knife.

In both Rivers State and NIFOR, responses showed
similarities in the perception of the operators. The
direction of the responses of the current users was
expected, however, the responses of the ex-users was not
consistent with expectation. Probably, since they were no
longer using the knife, they did not give serious
consideration to the question.

W:

HOS The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
degree of discomfort in the use of the picking knife.

Has The adoption of the picking knife depends on the degree
of discomfort in the use of the picking knife.

It turned out that the participants preferred to

combine the degree of discomfort and savings in effort

82

involved in the use of the picking knife, in their
assessment of the innovation. This combination seems
obvious from the fact that any savings in effort reduced the
degree of discomfort. The inverse relationship was
maintained in all of the investigation. Thus, the decision
reached in HOS was true in the reverse for this hypothesis,
concluding that the adoption of the picking knife was not
independent of the degree of discomfort experience in the
use of the knife.

Time to Harvest:

806 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
average time required to harvest a bunch.

Ha6 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
average time required to harvest a bunch.

In responding to question B9, no participant would
adopt the picking knife if the rate of harvesting using the
knife was slower than rope and ladder methods. Every
participant would consider the adoption of the knife only if
the rate of harvesting was faster than the traditional
methods. Thus, the conclusion was that the adoption of the
picking knife was not independent of the average time
required to harvest a bunch.

H§Q£_L§1§l=

807 The adoption of the knife is independent of the wage
level of the operator.

Ha7 The adoption of the knife depends on the wage level of
the operator.

83

Using the results of Tables E.3A and E.38 in Appendix
E, the null hypothesis was rejected in favor of the
alternative and it was concluded that the adoption of the
picking knife was not independent of thewage level of the
operator.

Comparing the Rivers State data to the NIFOR data in
the contingency table, there was almost a reverse in the
frequencies. In the Rivers State, most operators were at or
below minimum wage while in NIFOR, most operators were at or
above the ndnimum wage level. This could be explained by
the fact that all of the operators in NIFOR were employed by
the government and were supposed to be at or above the
minimum wage level, while in the Rivers State, most of the
operators were daily recruits who were paid on a production
basis.
§£é£2§=

808 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
status placement of the adopter as perceived by him.

Ha8 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the status
placement of the adopter as perceived by him.

At the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis
was rejected in favor of the alternative and it was
concluded that the adoption of the picking knife in the
Rivers State was not independent of the status placement of
the adopter.

In each case, more of the current users considered

status as positive while more of the ex-users thought status

84
was not affected by the use of the knife. The trend was the
same for the Rivers State and NIFOR showing similarities in
their perception of this factor.
W:

809 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
social impact of the use of the knife.

H39 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the social
impact of the use of the knife.

At the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis
was rejected in favor of the alternative in both cases. The
conclusion then was that social impact was a factor
associated with the adoption of the picking knife in both
Rivers State and NIFOR.

In the Rivers State, a majority of the current users
believed that the use of the knife had no social impact,
while a majority of the ex-users felt that the picking knife
had positive social impact. Generally speaking, a majority
of the participants in the Rivers State perceived the use of
the knife as having positive or no social impact. This was
also true of the participants in NIFOR. This similarity was
expected since the social structure of the two communities

had a lot of commonalities.

85

W

W:

Ho 10 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
consistency of the innovation with social, cultural
values and belief of the adopter.

Halo The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
consistency of the innovation with social, cultural
values and belief of the adopter.

Responding to question C6, the participants pointed to
the fact that the picking knife had been a part of the
culture from time immemorial. They suggested that it could
not be used on the tall wild oil palm trees because of the
height of the trees. This response was unanimous. They
would not consider using the knife if the use of the knife
was against their social and cultural belief and values.
Thus, the conclusion was that the null hypothesis was
rejected at a high margin, and it was concluded that the
adoption of the picking knife was not independent of the
social and cultural values and beliefs.

W:

Hall The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
past experiences of the adopter under similar social
changes.

Hall The ad0ption of the picking knife depends on the past
experiences of the adopter under similar social
changes.

In both Tables E.6A and E.6B in Appendix E, the null
hypothesis was rejected in favor of the alterative, that the

adoption of the picking knife was not independent of the

past experiences of the participants.

86

In both the Rivers State and NIFOR, the trend was
similar - more positive experiences with current users and
more IN) or negative experiences with ex-users. These
experiences could possibly contribute to why the current
users adopted the use of the knife and why the ex—users
discontinued the use of the knife.
8931M:

H012 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
real need of the operators.

Halz The adoption of the picking knife depends on the real
need of the operators.

At the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis
was rejected in favor of the alternative, that the adoption
of the picking knife was not independent of the real need of
the adopters. However, the magnitude of rejection was
curiously low, especially for the Rivers State.

It is possible that the current users whose needs are
not met would discontinue the use of the knife or leave the
operators' job as soon as they can find some more attract-
ive alternatives. Another possibility is that some of the
ex-users discontinued the use of the device because it did
not meet their needs. However, for both categories, the
Rivers State and NIFOR data show consistency with the

expectations.

87
mm
W:

Ho 13 The adoption of the picking knife in Rivers state is
independent of the perceived ease of use of the knife.

IIaIB The adOption of the picking knife in Rivers State
depends on the perceived ease of use of the knife.

In testing this hypothesis, the reference point was the
"ease of using the ladder" because this was the most common
means of harvesting the cultured trees.

At the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis
*was rejected for both cases and thus, the adoption of the
picking knife was not independent of the ease of use of the
knife as perceived by the adopter.

As expected, the data for "ease of use“ shows a
similarity in trend for both Rivers State and NIFOR. The
participants who perceived the use of the knife as more
difficult than the traditional methods could have some other
reasons, such as ill-health or need for more practice with
the knife.

nt n nc nd ' :

Ho 14 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
perceived maintenance and repair requirements.

H al4 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
perceived maintenance and repair requirements.

For the participants, maintenance and repair of the
knife were related activities. Thus the responses to the
questions on maintenance and repair of the pdcking knife

were the same.

88

At the 0.05 level of significance, there was a failure
to reject the null hypothesis. The conclusion was,
therefore, that the adoption of the picking knife was
independent of the perceived repair and maintenance
requirements.

Here again, data from both the Rivers State and NIFOR
show consistency with expectation and have the same trend.
With the local interpretation for repair and maintenance and
the fact that the knife was also native in this locality
(though for harvesting another plant), it would be expected
that repair and maintenance would not be a factor of
importance in the operators' decision to adopt the
innovation.

9211132914211:

H015 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
construction requirements of the knife.

Ha15 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
construction requirements of the knife.

Here again, the responses of the participants were
exactly like the previous hypothesis on repair and
maintenance. There was a very close relationship in the
meaning of the words construction (manufacturing) and repair
in the local languages. The local languages imply that
anyone who was able to construct or manufacture a device
could also repair it. Thus, the adoption of the picking
knife was considered independent of the construction

requirements.

89

W:

Ho 16 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
small scale demonstrability and trial requirements of
the knife.

Hal6 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the small
scale demonstrability and trial requirements of the
knife.

In response to questions about the picking knife, all
the participants made it clear that the small scale
demonstrability of the knife and trial requirements were not
considered in the adoption of the knife, because the
plantain harvesting knife was a small version of the picking
knife and the practice had been going on for years in the
society. Thus, the null hypothesis was accepted and it is
concluded that the adoption of the picking knife was

independent of the small scale demonstrability and trial

requirements of the knife.

W
W:

H017 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
reversibility effect of the adoption of the knife.

IIal7 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
reversibility effect of the adoption of the knife.

Here again, the unanimous response was that the
participant entertained no fear about the known and the
unknown effects of discontinuation of the practice, and so

did not consider the reversibility effect of the knife in

90
their decision to adopt or discontinue the use of the knife.

Thus, there was a failure to reject the null hypothesis.

W111

Observability of an innovation is the degree to which
the results of the innovation are visible to others (Rogers,
1983). The hardware of the picking knife innovation is
quite observable. The tool can easily be seen. However,
the productive capacity of the knife depends on many of the
other factors (such as physical factors, complexity, etc.),
and may not be easily visible to adopters.

Visibility:

H018 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
visibility of the knife.

Hal8 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
visibility of the knife.

From the chi-square computation, the null hypothesis
was rejected for Rivers State and just barely rejected for
NIFOR at the 0.05 level of significance.

Visibility was slightly more significant in the Rivers
State than in NIFOR because of the irregularity of
demonstration in the Rivers State as compared to the better
organized and regular demonstration in NIFOR. Also, in the
Rivers State, the demonstration only took place in one of
the four plantations and operators from the three
plantations did not usually actively take part the

demonstrations.

91

W:

8019 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
communication system available for disseminating
information about the picking knife.

Hal9 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
communication system available for disseminating
information about the picking knife.

The communication channel that had been most frequently
used in the dissemination of information about the picking
knife in Rivers State and in the Nigerian Institute for Oil
Palm Research was the formal demonstration method. In the
Rivers State, this had only been done once since 1975 when
the knife was first introduced. On the other hand, the
demonstration of the use of the knife is done every two
years at NIFOR. As was determined by the study, 'diffusion
effect" plays a limited role in the communication of the
innovation because NIFOR has a demonstration every two years
and within this period no operator took interest in trying
to use the knife except those introduced to it. In the
Rivers State, even the village operators were not aware of
the idea. The newly recruited operators were usually few in
number within this period, whereas, in the Rivers State
there was little incentive to do this and there seemed to be
no consistency on the part of the management in the
dissemination effort. Besides, all of the activities were
nearly confined to workers in the oil palm estates.

In the Rivers State, 97 percent of the participants

were introduced to the picking knife by demonstrations,

92
while 100 percent of the participants at NIFOR heard about
the picking knife from demonstration.

All of the participants in this study (users and ex-
users) agreed that they were convinced to use the knife
through the demonstrations and very few through fellow
operators already using the knife. Thus, it was concluded
that the adoption of the picking knife was not independent
of the communication system available for disseminating
information about the knife.

Diffusion Time:

Ho 20 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
time allotted for diffusion.

Ha20 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the time
allotted for diffusion.

There was no time allotted for the diffusion of the use
of the knife by the government, the estate management or the
operators themselves. Thus, time allotment for diffusion
was never a factor in the adoption of the picking knife

method in the Rivers State.

s'ca act

Body structure, Health and Age:

Ho 21 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of the
body structure, the health status and the age of the
adopters.

HaZl The adoption of the picking knife depends on the body
structure, the health status and the age of the
adopters.

93

On the average, an operator in the Rivers State is
5'6" tall with a broad and powerful upper body. The
participants said that they did not consider body structure
in their decision to use the knife because none of them had
any problem carrying the knife in the field. However, ill-
health (like arthritis, painful joints, hypermetropia,
etc.) which are also related to aging, were major factors
in their decision to discontinue the use of the knife.
Thus, age and ill-health were co-factors that affect the
use of the picking knife. Most of the ex-users were old

operators (See Table 4.1).

m nt te o
EEElQXQI=

Ho 22 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the employer category to which the operator belongs.

Ha22 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
employer category to which the operator belongs.

Among the participants in the survey, all the current
users of the knife were employed by the government and
their knives were provided by the employer. Some of the
privately employed operators indicated that they might
consider using the knife if they were encouraged through
incentives. The public sector provided the knife and
demonstrations as part of these incentives.

Thus, to a large extent, the chances of an operator

using the knife were reduced if he was privately employed

94
and enhanced if publicly employed. Therefore, the adoption
of the picking knife was not independent of the employment
category of the operator. The null hypothesis was thus

rejected in favor of the alternative.

Zears of Experience

W:

H 023 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the number of years of experience of the adopter in
oil palm harvesting.

a23 The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
number of years of experience of the adopter in oil
palm harvesting.

The responses indicated that the operators who had
been in the business for a long time were the older
operators and these have fewer members among those who were
using the knife currently and a majority of those who were
the ex—users. The majority of the current users were those
who were new to the profession (see Table 1.1). Thus, it
could be concluded that the longer the number of years of
experience in oil palm harvesting, the more difficult it
was for the operator to adopt the innovation. This was an
expected trend (Appendix C. a1 a2) because in most cases,
the inertia of social change is more when an individual is
used to a particular way of life for a long time (Rogers,
1983). Therefore, it can be concluded that the adoption of

the picking knife was not independent of the number of

years of experience of the adopter in oil palm harvesting.

95

W:

Ho 24 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
number of years of experience of the adopter in using
the picking knife.

Ha 24 The adoption of the picking knife depends on number of
years of experience of the adopter in using the
picking knife.

Most of those who discontinued the use of the knife

did so because of age or sickness, or the discontinuation

of provision of the knife by the employer. The indication

was that the longer an operator uses the knife, the more he
was willing to continue using the knife, all things being
equal. The reason given by the operators was that the more
experience gained in the use of the knife, the easier, and
faster the operation, and consequently, the more money the
operator was able to make per day of work. Thus, the

adoption of the picking knife was not independent of the

experience of the adopter in the use of the knife.

duc a -

Ho 25 The adoption of the picking knife is independent of
the education categories of the operators.

Ha25'The adoption of the picking knife depends on the
education categories of the operators.

At the 0.05 levels of significance, the chi-square
computed for the Rivers State and NIFOR showed a rejection
of the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative. Hence,

the conclusion was that the adoption of the picking knife

96
was not independent of the education category to which the
operator belonged.

The education categories showed the most unexpected
results. It was expected that education would be a very
important factor in the adoption of the knife. The
opposing trend in the case of current users for the Rivers
State and NIFOR could be explained from the employment
requirement (6 months of oil palm harvesting experience or
five years of formal education) as opposed to no required
educational standard for the Rivers State operators.

However, the results for education cannot stand alone.
They have to be considered in line with the age of the
operator, which also interacts with the health status.
Most of the older operators had no opportunity to be

formally educated.

W

The factors that were associated with the use of the
picking knife as an appropriate oil palm harvesting device
in the Rivers State, as identified by this survey are
listed below (Table 4.3) by their magnitude as defined by
the descriptive terms: very low (1), low (2), moderateLy
low (3), moderately high (4), high (5) and very high (6).
Table 4.4 shows the identified factors and their level as
determined by the chi-square computations or the

hypotheses.

97
Table 4.4

Lexal_2f_Fa2t2ra_in.312sr§_Stata_and_NIEQB*

 

etc

I. Relative Advantage:
1. Provider of knife x O

2. Cost of

3. Saving in effort
4. Degree of discomfort

5. Average

6. Wage level
7. Status placement x
8. Social impact

knife x

00

time of harvest

8 0 MN
ON

II. Compatibility:
1. Consistency with culture E
2. Past experience D
3. Real need x 0

III. Complexity:
1. Ease of

use X 0

IV. Observability:
l. Visibility of knife 0 x
2. Communication system H

V. Physical Factors:
1. Health status and age D

VI. Years of Experience:

1. Without
2. With

VII. Employer

VIII. Education:

X 0

 

10.1 -15
15.1 and over
Unanimity

eve x = Rivers State
0 = NIFOR
Very Low (1) D = Both
Low (2)
Moderately Low (3)
Moderately High (4)
High (5)
Very High (6)

x2 - x2cr = The magnitude of significance of factor (i.e.
the difference between computed chi-square and
standard critical chi-square).

g

98

Histograms of the factor magnitudes are shown in
Appendix B, with their area moments. 'Ma' represents the
area moment for each factor. These area moments were used
to grade the factors associated with the use of the
picking knife (in the Rivers State and compared to NIFOR)
hierarchy is shown in Table 4.5. This table simply
indicates the intensity of factors, which could be useful
in resource allocation planning for any oil palm bunch

picking knife diffusion program in the Rivers State, and at

 

 

 

 

 

NIFOR.
Table 4.5
'erarc o c n cto s
Riyers State NIFOR

Fegtor eLeyel Fectorw .Lexel
Relative Advantage 29 Relative Advantage 31
Compatibility 12 Compatibility 13
Years of Experience 12 Years of Experience 12
Observability 8 Observability 7
Employer Category 6 Employer Category 6
Physical Factors 6 Physical Factors 6
Education 3 Education 4
Complexity 2 Complexity 3

 

The area moment was an indicator of the strength of

population of operators that identify with each factor.

99
W
W

As stated earlier, relative advantage of an innovation
as perceived by members of a social system is positively
related to its rate of adoption. In this study, eight sub-
factors under relative advantage were identified as
associated with the picking knife. These sub-factors were
listed in Table 4.4.

The current users (adopters) of the picking knife in
the Rivers State would prefer the employer to provide the
knife, rather than the employee, at a ratio of 2 to 1.
Those who felt that they would still use the knife even if
they, rather than the employer, were to provide it, claimed
that they would do so if their employers would increase
their wages. They could obtain the pole from the bush and
the curved knife from a nearby blacksmith and assemble the
picking knife by themselves. Among the ex—users, 68
percent would provide the knife by themselves but for other
factors (in which cost and physical condition were
prominent). Thus, the current users and the ex-users
tended to go in the opposite directions in their perception
of who should provide the knife. As a result, it can be
argued that the opinions were divided as to who should

provide the knife. However, this statement ignores

100
possible interaction effects between variables as discussed
later in this chapter.

In the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research, both
current users and ex-users favored their present situation,
that is the employer provided the knife. In this case, an
employer-provider situation was a perceived attribute of
the knife. The cost of the picking knife was considered as
a factor because the operators were not highly paid. In a
situation where the employer provided the knife, the cost
of the knife was not an important issue in the adoption of
the picking knife. The picking knife was perceived as a
fairly cheap device (about $15 altogether) and thus, the
cost of the knife contributed immensely to the attributes
of the knife.

Savings in effort and degree of discomfort were
perceived as related factors by the participants and were
given an equal level of importance. To those who were in
good health, savings in effort and degree of discomfort
contributed positively to the attributes of the picking
knife. Except the older and sick operators, every
participant agreed that the packing knife was easier to
use; saved effort of climbing the tree; reduced the danger
of attack of snakes, insects, and fall; and reduced the
degree of discomfort involved in the oil palm harvest,

compared to the ladder or rope systems.

101

The average time of harvesting was intrinsically
related to the wage level, particularly for the operators
employed on a daily basis, and paid on production rate. If
the rate of harvesting with the picking knife was faster as
claimed by Hartley's experiment, then the operator would be
able to harvest more bunches per day with the knife,
thereby increasing his earning power.

Sixty-two percent (Table E.2A) of current users felt
that the use of the picking knife resulted in a slightly
higher level of regard (status) by their friends and
neighbors. Among these there were cases of increased
responsibility and respect from friends, and neighbors.
The operators had acquired a new skill in their job. They
had been delegated to teach newly recruited operators the
skill of using the picking knife. Fourteen percent of the
current users of the knife perceived their status in the
society as not affected in any way by their using the
picking knife; while 24 percent felt that the use of the
picking knife negatively affected their social standing.
Most of these, for some reason, could not learn to use the
knife as fast as others. Others lost some earnings from
the making of the ladders and climbing ropes, now replaced
by the picking knife.

The ex—users showed an opposite trend in their

responses. Fifty-six percent of them perceived their

102
status was negatively affected by the use of the picking
knife. This contributed to their decision to discontinue
the use of the knife.

Although the knife was a common tool for harvesting
bananas and plantains, its use for oil palm harvesting was
a new idea. Fortunately, there was no known taboo
associated with the knife, and so it had a highly
favorable social image. As perceived by the participants,
the use of the picking knife had more positive social
impacts than negative ones (Tables E.3A and E.38). Forty-
six percent of participants from the Rivers State perceived
the social impact of the use of the knife was positive: 33
percent perceived it had no social impact; and 21 percent
perceived the social impact was negative. There was a
realignment of leadership roles in the plantations. New
groups of skilled men who sometimes were called upon to
teach their skills to new recruits now exist in the
plantations and their presence was felt in the surrounding
villages. Some of the operators who used the picking knife
and had been noticed teaching others, were now occasionally
invited to arbitrate in minor village disputes.

A combination of the above factors (the relative
advantage) constituted the most important factors
associated with adoption of the picking knife as an

appropriate oil palm harvesting device in the Rivers State.

103
mm

The use of the picking knife as an oil palm harvesting
device was a new way of using an existing idea in the
Rivers State. A similar device was used to harvest
plantains and bananas in this area. This statement was
confirmed by the responses of the participants. The
respondents would not consider using the knife to harvest
the oil palm if there were any taboos or individual
negative attitudes associated with it. The social
consistency of the use of the picking knife in oil palm
harvesting was largely recognized by the operators, who
believe that it was a positive force in their adoption of
the use of the knife.

In the Rivers State, 86 percent of the current users
had positive past experiences in similar social changes.
On the other hand, 64 percent of the ex-users have had
negative or no past experience in similar social change.
The same trend was seen in NIFOR, where there were only
three participants who had no past experience in a similar
social situation. The overall effect of "past experience“
was high as indicated by the chi-square difference in Table
4.3. Responses from a majority of the operators were
favorable towards their past experiences.

Most of the participants believed that the use of the

picking knife was not meeting their need per se. They were

104

in the oil palm harvesting profession because they had no
better alternative. The job paid poorly and did not have
high social status. They had to rely on multiple self-
employment to survive. Thus, most of the operators in the
Rivers State did not put much emphasis on the use of the
picking knife meeting their real need. However, 76 percent
of the current users and 44 percent of the ex-users
believed that the use of the picking knife partly met their
need (sufficiently to maintain them in the job).

The combined effect of consistency, past experience
and need placeu compat10111ty at a ra1rly high level among
the factors associated with use of the picking knife as an

appropriate oil palm bunch harvester in the Rivers State.

W

The result of the interview indicated that 23 percent
of the current users and 60 percent of ex-users considered
the use of the picking knife more difficult than the
traditional method. Most of these were among the ex-users
above 40 years of age, who complained of muscle pains and
short sightedness. The average current user viewed the
picking knife as a relatively easy tool to use in
harvesting oil palm bunch compared to the ladder or the
rope methods. Thus, the attribute of complexity was
positively reflected at a low level in the adoption of the

picking knife in the Rivers State.

105
W

The visibility of the knife was low in the Rivers
State because the knife was confined to the oil palm
estates and usually left in the field after harvest. Thus,
only those people in the demonstrations and some other
people living in the oil palm estates, actually saw the
knife in use.

The system by which information about the picking
knife was diffused to the operators played a very important
role in the adoption of the knife. This assertion, which
was echoed by many authors and confirmed by this study, is
enhanced by the fact that knowledge is the gateway to all
the other activities involved in the innovation decision
process. Communication is a major vendor of knowledge.
The 17 village operators had not heard about the idea. The
operators in the Rivers State were limited as to the
sources and time of information about the picking knife.
The Extension Division of the Ministry of Agriculture in
the Rivers State was not actively involved in the effort to
diffuse the information about the picking knife. The
demonstrations which were done once in two years were
usually more of a formality than learning and they missed
many operators. Diffusion effect was weakened by limited

social interaction between the estates and villages. So,

106
communication had a high magnitude among factors in the

adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State.

W

The body size and conformation of the average operator
in the Rivers State was an asset to the adoption of the
knife by this population. The broad, muscular and powerful
upper body could easily carry the knife and use it in the
field. However, as the length of the pole (handle) of the
knife increases, the older and smaller (weaker) of the
population of operators tended to discontinue the use of
the knife.

The assessment of the individual capacity to carry the
knife with any degree of discomfort was done by sight and
handling.

Among the older operators, ill-health was the main
complaint.

A poor sighted individual can hardly see the stalk of
the bunch of a tall tree clearly from the ground level
(Plate 4.1). He would find it difficult to position the
knife for cutting. An operator who suffers from painful
arm muscles and/or arthritis would prefer the intermittent
carrying of the ladder or the rope, to the continuous
carrying of the picking knife through the field.

Thus, health was an important factor associated with

the use of the knife in the Rivers State. This was a

107

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nounuomo wouzuHm
luuoam a you mean 03
$35. 9:qu : Z a H4 3an

2H

.4.»—

.
>3

£~\

 

108
factor which could easily force an operator to discontinue
the use of the knife, even if all other factors were

positively disposed.

Em2121£r_£atsgerx

The private ownership of the oil palm estates neither
encouraged nor discouraged the use of the knife as an oil
palm harvesting device. The operator was responsible for
whatever method he employed in harvesting. Because the
operator was accustomed to the traditional methods, he
usually fell back to it when there was no effort to
persuade him to use the knife. In the Rivers State, 21
current users were employed by the government which
provided the knife. The employer category was, therefore,
a major factor associated with the adoption of the picking

knife in the Rivers State.

8 ' nc

The number of years of experience of the operator in
harvesting with the traditional methods, increased with his
age. As was mentioned earlier in this dissertation, the
older operators had more militating factors aided by aging.
Thus, years of experience in traditional oil palm
harvesting was negatively related to the rate of adoption

of the picking knife.

109

On the other hand, the number of years of experience
of an operator using the picking knife was positively
related to its rate of adoption. At a certain age level,
the aging factors could intrude and reduce the effect of
experience with the use of the knife.

As a result of the interaction of the years of
experience with aging and health, the years of experience
factor had a high magnitude of rating by the hierarchy
table.

d c on

Sixty-two percent of the operators currently using the
picking knife had some non-formal education, while 96
percent of the ex-users were in this category. This placed
the type of education an operator had at a moderately low
level among the factors associated with the adoption of the
knife as an appropriate oil palm harvesting device in the
Rivers State.

There was a high interaction effect between age and
education in this population. Most of the non-formally
educated persons were those who were age 45 years and
above. Most younger operators had some classroom education
of some sort. The interview results indicated that the
younger operators tend to adopt the use of the knife more

than the older operators.

110
The education category was, therefore, a factor
associated with the adoption of the picking knife as an oil

palm harvesting device.

nt n on

An omnibus hypothesis, that there was no interaction
effect among the factors associated with the use of the
picking knife as an appropriate oil palm harvesting device
in the Rivers State, using the log mean statistic, was
rejected at the 0.05 level of significance. This indicated
that there existed some interaction effect among some
variables, as perceived by the operators.

It will require an independent apriori (planned)
contrast study to examine in detail, the interacting
factors and the nature of the interaction among the
factors. In such a study, hypotheses are posed as to
determine the magnitude and direction of the interaction
effects for each pair of factors. A plot of the log mean
values would indicate points of interaction and proportion
of interaction attributable to each component.

It is important to understand these interaction
effects and to adjust for them when planning for programs
to diffuse the use of the picking knife as oil palm bunch

harvester in the Rivers State for the sake of optimization.

111
W

The comparison of factors that are associated with the
use of the picking knife as an appropriate oil palm
harvester in the Rivers State was done using the chi-square
procedure, according to the level of rejection of the null
hypothesis, and by the cell values. Table 4.3 showed the
between comparisons.

The within comparison was done by comparing the cell
sizes. The cells with high values in the "contribution to
the chi-square" are the ones that "contribute" the most to
the significance of the chi-square.

Thus, it could be said, from Tables E.lA and E.lB of
Appendix E, that the employer providing the knife has a
significant influence on the operator's decision on the
average. This was consistent with the opposing trend of
employee-provider and employer-provider. On the other
hand, it could be said that employees required to provide
the knife contributed to the high number of ex-users in the
Rivers State. The cost of the device seemed also to have a
greater effect on the decision of the ex-users than that of
the current users.

Savings in effort was shown to be the largest positive
contributor to the significance level of this factor.
Thus, the participant perceived "saving in effort“ in the

use of the picking knife as a positive factor. Other

112

significant factors perceived to be positively associated
with the adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State
are: time required to harvest a bunch, social impact,
cultural belief, past experiences of participants in a
similar social change, met needs, ease of use, status,
education, employment of operators, and experience in using
the knife.

The factors that were perceived to be negative, on the
average were: wage level, visibility of innovation,
communication strategy, age (older were more sickly), and
education, in that the educated operators tended to more
actively look for other employment.

Generally, the same trend was noticeable at NIFOR.
However, because of differences in employment conditions
and management, there were some differences between the
Rivers State and NIFOR data.

In the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research, the
current user, employer-provider category was the biggest
influence on the significance of the factors, whereas, in
the Rivers State, the ex-user employee-provider was the
biggest influence.

On the average, the wage level at NIFOR was higher
than that of the Rivers State. It was difficult to make a
solid statement about the effect of wage level because of

the many other variables that interacted with it. The

113
operators at NIFOR enjoyed a better status in their society
than those in the Rivers State.

Current users in NIFOR perceive social impact,
cultural belief, past experience, met need, ease of use,
visibility, communication systems, past experience, and
employment conditions as positive attributes of the picking
knife. Table 4.5 shows a side by side comparison of the
Rivers State and NIFOR data using equation 3.4.

The table indicates that on the average, the factors
associated with adoption of the picking knife played a
slightly more important role in the decision to use the
knife at Rivers State than in NIFOR. The mean phi values
for Rivers State were slightly higher than those of NIFOR.
However, the differences were so small that the two
populations of operators could be said to be fairly in
agreement about the factors they perceived to be associated
with the adoption of the picking knife.

This result was expected because the Rivers State
operators look up to NIFOR operators from whom the use of
the picking knife came to them (interaction effect).

The similarity in the trend of concern between the two
groups was an interesting phenomenon, because both groups
were heterogeneous in ethnic constituent. However, this
work tested only the omnibus hypothesis, therefore, the
analysis indicated a general trend. A detailed study of

each observation would reveal particular differences.

114

Table 4.6 ‘
Sids_Bx_S1ds_C2m2ariaen_2f_ths_nizera_5tate
d s n

 

 

 

.Easters :3 QE_____JEL_____Q3
Relative Advantage:

Provider of knife 5.91 .13 14.45 .25

Cost of knife 20.00 .43 -- --

Degree of discomfort

Saving in effort 9.18 .20 16.56 .29

Average time of harvest 20.00 .43 20.00 .35

Wage level 12.52 .27 9.70 .17

Status placement 8.52 .19 12.21 .21

Social impact 11.09 .24 10.62 .19

MEAN .27 .24
Compatibility:

Beliefs and values 20.00 .43 20.00 .35

Past experience 11.62 .25 12.57 .22

Met need 4.87 .11 7.07 .12

MEAN .26 .23
Complexity:

Ease of use 6.09 .13 8.48 .15
Observability:

Visibility 5.34 .12 3.89 .07

Communication 20.00 .43 20.00 .35

MEAN .28 .21
Physical: 20.00 .43 20.00 .35
Employment Category:

Experience 1 20.00 .43 20.00 .35

Experience 2 20.00 .43 20.00 .35
Education: 8.42 .18 11.40 .20
NOTE: The cost of the knife was eliminated by the

employer-provider situation for NIFOR.

115
MW

Malaysia stands out in the use of the picking knife as
an oil palm bunch harvester. The popular use of the knife
for harvesting oil palm bunches started in Malaya, now
Malaysia and Singapore, even though Malaysia was one of the
late entrants into the commercialization of the oil palm
industry. History traces the origin of the oil palm tree
to equatorial Africa, from where it was transferred through
Deli to Rantan Panjang in the Kuala Selangor district of
Malaysia in 1911 and 1912 (Hartley, 1977).

Before World War II, the routine of manual cutting and
carrying of oil palm fruit in Malaysia was undertaken by
the same workers. This meant that for trees over two
meters, the operator had to climb the palm tree by some
means. Climbing the palm tree was done primarily by hand
or ladder.

The picking knife came into use for oil palm harvest
about the same period cultured plantations started to
emerge. According to Hartley, this was about 1917 when the
Rantan Panjang palms were in full bearing. However,
activities in the oil palm industry were sluggish until
after World War II. Rehabilitation of the oil palm
industry was faster in Malaysia after the war than in
Sumatra and production was again in full swing by 1947.

Acreages of oil palm grew at a slow but steady rate at

116
first, then at a faster rate. 011 palm companies in
Malaysia started to experience serious operator labor
shortages. At this time, the companies had confidence in
the future of the market for palm oil. The companies had
also felt a need to diversify to reduce their dependency on
rubber.

Thus, the widespread use of the picking knife for
harvesting oil palm bunches in Malaysia was a matter of
necessity. The diffusion of the use of the knife was,
therefore, a major effort by the companies. The companies
supplied the knife to operators and carried out frequent
demonstration programs aimed at showing operators how to
use the knife and the profitability of the use of the
knife. Because the production of palm oil was mainly in
the hands of competing companies and small holders,
operators were cared for and were actively involved in
production decisions. They were, therefore, in touch with
available improved methods. Record has it that within a
decade, almost every operator in Malaysia was using the
picking knife for oil palm harvesting.

Company programs to promote the adoption of the
picking knife included: intensive education of operators
about the use of the knife, monetary incentives - a
harvesting contractor was paid $8.00 or higher per ton of

fresh fruit bunches delivered at factory site; in 1966-

117
companies provided the knives, and encouraged operators to
increase production through employment conditions (Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Malaysia, 1986).

Thus, the Malaysian situation has taken into
consideration most of the factors identified in this
dissertation.

In other palm oil producing countries, the trend was
similar to that in Malaysia. Sumatra - Java has achieved a
high adoption rate for the picking knife.

The earliest of the American planting was established
in Honduras in 1943 by the United Fruit Company. Since
then, efforts have been made to improve oil palm harvesting
in this area. The company research efforts resulted in the
development of axe and the famous John Deere tractor-
mounted boom for conveying the operator to his reach of the
bunch, in the early 60's.

In all other countries involved in oil palm
production, the adoption of the picking knife was in
varying levels, but there were similarities in other

methods of harvesting.

SBEEQIX
This chapter presented the description of the study
participants, the data collected, analysis of data and the
discussion thereof. Situations in other palm oil producing

countries were also surveyed and compared to the case of

118

Rivers State. The analysis of data indicated that eight
major factors were identified as being associated with the
adoption of the picking knife as an appropriate oil palm
harvesting device in the Rivers State. These factors
included relative advantage, compatibility, years of
experience, observability, employment category, health
factors, education and complexity.

The factors were sequenced according to the magnitude
of importance using the area moment approach for rejection
differences. The chi-square per observation was used to
compare within group and the phi statistic for between
group data. The Rivers State data is compared to the data
from the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research. Most of
the participants were skeptical about the development of a
fully mechanized harvester because of possible job losses
for them and their wives. They, however, believe that it
was possible to have a fully mechanized oil palm bunch
harvester some day.

An omnibus hypothesis indicated that there are some
forms of interaction between source of the factors. This

is, however, an area for future investigation.

CHAPTBR‘V
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDAIIONS

In this study the factors associated with the adoption
of the sucking knife as an appropriate oil palm bunch
harvester in the Rivers State were identified based on
innovation-diffusion and social change theories.

This concluding chapter includes a summary, discussion

and conclusions, and recommendations.

Findings

Among the ten major factors hypothesized as being
associated with the adoption of the picking knife for oil
palm bunch harvesting in the Rivers State, eight were
identified as those that influenced the adoption-decision
process of the participants. Those factors were:

1. Relative advantage

2. Compatibility

3. Complexity

4. Observability

5. Physical conditions

6. Employment

7. Years of experience

8. Educational category

119

120

We:

Relative advantage was composed of eight sub-factors:
provider of knife, cost of knife, savings in effort, degree
<of discomfort, average time required to harvest a bunch,
wage level of operator, perceived status enhancement, and
social impact. The cost of knife, average rate of harvest
and social impact ranked highest in the level of considera-
tions among the positive sub-factors in the Rivers State. A
comparison between the magnitude of association of relative
advantage to the adoption of the knife in the Rivers State
and the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR),
showed Rivers State to be slightly higher than that of NIFOR
on the average.

The provision of the knife by the employer eliminated
the cost of knife as a significant sub-factor at NIFOR,
whereas in Rivers State, the employer provided the knife and
the cost of the knife became a significant factor. There-
fore, it can be concluded that the employee providing the
knife was a negative factor associated with the adoption of
the picking knife in the Rivers State.

In Malaysia, where the adoption of the knife was
accomplished within a short period, the wage level was
comparatively higher and the operators were permanent
employees of the companies with full benefits. The

operators were included in the decision making processes and

121

other aspects of the running of the companies, thereby
enhancing the status of the operators. The same was true of
the situation of the operators in NIFOR, though to a lesser
extent. (hi the other hand, in the Rivers State, the
operators were hired and paid less than minimum wages on a
daily basis with no benefits. Comparing the adoption rates
within these institutions, it could be said that low wage
level and low status enhancement were negative factors
associated with the adoption of the picking knife in the
Rivers State.

The younger and healthier operators perceived the degree
of discomfort and savings in effort of the picking knife as
positive among the participants. On the other hand, the
apposite was true for the older and sicker operators. Thus,
it could be concluded that the degree of discomfort, savings
in effort, health status and the age of the operator were
positive factors associated with the adoption of the picking
knife for younger operators but negative for older
operators. The cumulative effects of all of the sub-
factors make relative advantage a positive factor associated

with the adoption of the knife.

: !°!'Jit

The picking knife was found to be culturally and
socially compatible with the values and beliefs of the
Rivers State operators. Previous experiences in similar

social changes for the operators in the Rivers State were

122

positive forces in the adoption of the knife. Most of the
operators interviewed seem to be willing to participate in
similar social change activities such as the picking knife
innovation. They had nothing to regret about their previous
involvements in projects similar to the adoption of the
picking knife.

It was concluded that adoption of the picking knife was
compatible with the values held by the operators in the

Rivers State.

(amalgam

The complexity of the knife was seen from how much
mental and physical effort was required from an operator to
become conversant with the use of the knife. The knife was
generally perceived on the average as easier to use than
either the ladder or the rcpe systems. A device very
similar to the picking knife is a traditional tool for
harvesting plantains and bananas. The operators who still
depended on the tall wild oil palm trees did not consider
the use of the picking knife because it would require a very
long knife handle and would be difficult to harvest the tall
trees using the knife.

The maintenance of the knife involves a regular
sharpening of the edge in the same way the cutlass is
sharpened using the file, and replacement of the knife
handle (pole) or reconstructing a broken handle. It

requires more time and effort on the average to construct

123
the ladder or the rope than to construct a picking knife
when the cutting edge is provided. It can be said,
therefore, that the use of the picking knife is relatively

simple (not complex) compared to the other methods.

(11152112211131

In the Rivers State, the use of the picking knife is
still restricted to the plantations for the obvious reason
that only the plantations grow the cultured plant for which
the picking knife was developed. Thus, the visibility of
the knife was low outside of the plantations. The major
formal means of communicating the benefits and the use of
the knife to potential adopters was found to be through the
irregularly scheduled demonstrations in Elele Oil Palm
Plantation to employees only. Demonstrations at NIFOR were
more regular and better organized than those in the Rivers
State, but were restricted to the employees. Therefore, in
the Rivers State, "diffusion effect" was more important in
the communication of the picking knife idea than it was in
the Institute.

The observability of the picking knife is an important
factor associated with the adoption of the knife in the
Rivers State and has potential for improving the adoption
image of the knife.

124

W

The result of work indicated that the younger operators
were more receptive to the use of the picking knife than the
older operators because of health problems. Harvesting with
the picking knife requires better sight than harvesting with
the ladder or rope where the operator is close to the bunch.
Poor eyesight was observed more in the older operator and so
‘were muscle pains and arthritis. The conclusion was,
therefore, that better health and lower age of the operator
were positive factors associated with the adoption of the

knife.

m nt ate

The employer's identity was not an importantfactor on
its own, as long as the employer provided the knife and paid
fair wages to the operator. The operators considered the
employer's identity in their decision to adopt the use of
the knife only when they thought of how they would obtain
the knife, and the incentive in the wage level. Thus,
employment category is a factor that has to be considered in
line with the employment policies of the employer, and the
wages received per ton of fresh fruit bunches.

Once an operator is fully employed as a worker for the
government or a private company, he receives the government
minimum wage or higher plus retirement benefits. Therefore,
the full employment of the operator could be used as an

incentive tx: induce the operator to adopt the use of the

125
knife. This is possible if the use of the knife becomes a
condition for full employment. (The wages for fully

employed operators were not based on productivity.)

W

The operator's years of experience harvesting oil palm
bunches using the ladder or rope tended to have some inverse
association with the adoption of the picking knife. This
inertia of change may be due in part to habit formation, and
so would differ with individuals. The years of experience
on the job also increased with age which reinforced the
previous statement.

On the other hand, the years of experience of an
operator using the knife seemed to have a sort of
proportional relationship. Experience in using the knife
should normally improve the efficiency of use, if all other
factors are held constant. The conclusion, therefore, was
that the longer an operator harvested the palm without the
knife, the more difficult it would be for him to adopt the
knife, and the more an operator used the knife, the easier

it would be for him to sustain the use.

due i n

Surprisingly enough, the type of education (formal or
non-formal) an operator possessed was about the least
important factor associated with the adoption of the picking

knife among the factors identified. This could possibly be

126
as a result of the interaction effect of age, as stated
earlier. However, education was a more important factor at
NIFOR than in Rivers State. Education was even more
important in a place like Malaysia where the operators were
hired by companies on the same basis as other services. The
direction of development in oil palm harvester operation was
becoming more technical in Malaysia as shown by the trend
toward motorizing the picking knife. History has shown that
education on oil palm harvesting has been done informally
through the generations. There is no real need for formal
classroom work in learning to use the knife.The conclusion,
therefore, is that the education of the operator, though not
a major factor now in the use of the picking knife for oil
palm harvesting in the Rivers State, would become one in
time when modern technology finds its way into the oil palm

bunch business in Nigeria.

Summerx

The Rivers State operators perceived the attributes of
the picking knife as positive. The factors identified to be
associated with the adoption of the picking knife in their
order of importance included: years of experience,
observability, employer, physical factors, education, and
complexity.

Communication was found to be an important factor
negatively associated with the adoption of the knife. Most

of the operators were informed about the use of the knife

127

through demonstrations. The visibility of the knife was
found to be low and so was diffusion effect. These were the
negative communication factors needing improvement. Also,
the employer policies, target group for education about the
knife, relative advantage and the complexity of the knife
are important factors needing improvement. The operators
perceived employer providing the knife and increasing their
wage level as conditions appropriate for them in the
adoption of the knife.

Finally, the positive social and cultural consistencies
of the knife and partially met needs of the operators were
found to be factors associated with adoption of the knife.
There were no historical or geographical resistances to the

adoption of the knife in the Rivers State.

Becommendetiege

Based on the conclusions drawn from the analysis and
discussion for this study, the following recommendations are

made:

811W:

The conclusions reached indicate that the Rivers State
can enhance the attributes of the picking knife if the
employer provides the knife to the operators.

Although a detailed investigation as to the type of
relationships between wage level, status enhancement, degree

of discomfort, savings in effort, the ease of use of knife

128

with the rate of adoption of the knife, and their
interaction effects, would provide useful information about
optimum wage level, and the direction to which modifications
of the knife should follow to be more readily acceptable to
the operators in the Rivers State, it is important first to
further investigate how employment opportunities, government
policies and plantation owner/manager relationships affect
the operator's decision to adopt the innovation.

Then studies could concentrate on one or two factors at
a time and should attempt to determine the interaction
between each pair or group of factors, using planned
orthogonal multiple comparison techniques. Such studies
should pose the hypothesis of no effect and no interaction
between the factors and the dependent variable (adoption)
and between the factors themselves.

'These factors 1J1 relative advantage were selected
because they are the ones that can more easily be
manipulated.

If the safety of harvesting is enhanced, the wage paid
to the operators increased, the improved safety and increase
in earning power would improve the image of the operator job
in the society (higher social placement) as is evident in
the case of Malaysia. The increased productivity of an
individual operator through the use of the picking knife
could logically be the basis for increased earnings by the

operator, thereby helping to meet more of his financial

 

129
needs. Fortunately, the social impact, savings in effort
(degree of discomfort) and time required to harvest a bunch
are all positively associated with the adoption of the
knife.

It might be interesting to measure how the wage level
interacts with need of the operators. Sociologists and
economists believe that at the operator's economic level,
met needs increase proportionately with increase in monetary
income. However, this should not be at the expense of
safety. The measurement and analysis of the interaction
between wage level and met needs will use the hypothesis
testing for planned multiple comparison as mentioned above.
In each case, it will be necessary to examine the trend of

relationships in order to use the optimum values.

; !.!.].!

Research efforts on oil palm harvesting (mechanization)
in the Rivers State should be based on proven need and
consistency of the outcome. This is important because some
of the processes in oil palm harvesting provide jobs for the
wives and children of the operators, and the diffusion of
innovations that seem to threaten this relationship would
meet with serious resistance from the communities. The
operators were not particularly excited by research on fruit
and bunch catchments and automation in harvesting procedures
because these were seen as causes of unemployment for

themselves, their wives and their children.

130
W

Any attempts to motorize the picking knife in the Rivers
State should go along with the provision of alternative
employment opportunities. The topography of the State is
particularly suitable for the motorization of the knife as
long as such vehicles run on track wheels, because of the
deep alluvial soil.

The vehicles should be supplied by the government or
employers and should have maintenance crew employed also.
If left for the individual operators, the motors could not
be afforded by the operators who are poor and not used to
the operation of engines.

Modifications in the picking knife should make it
simpler and easier to handle and maintain by the operators

if such is to be acceptable to them.

Willi}:

A reasonable target audience for the picking knife
innovation should be the younger operators (up to the age of
40 years). Though no age group should be left out in any
diffusion program, more effort should be concentrated on
younger operators because they have more years to expect to
use the knife before they begin to experience the health
problems that were mentioned above.

Diffusion effort should not be restricted to the
plantations only. Small holders should be able to gain

access into diffusion programs. Diffusion programs should

131
use methods of communication that are available and known to
have been successful in this area - demonstrations, home
visits, and posters. The government could also provide
legislation that would make the information about the knife
available to everybody.

In fact, the employer could take up for the training of
operators in the same way it does for other operators like
laboratory technicians, tractor drivers, etc. This would
also help the inmge of the job of the oil palm bunch
operator. The government should seek to standardize the
wages receivable by operators, to save them from ruthless
plantation owners.

Except in the negotiation for the loan from the central
bank, the government is not directly involved at any level
with promoting the use of the picking knife in both Rivers
State and in the Institute.

It seems, therefore, obvious that in order to improve
the adoption of the picking knife in the Rivers State, more
should be done in communicating the idea to the potential
users. The increasing number of plantations in the Rivers
State requires an intensified dissemination network for the
picking knife in order to realize the intended improvement
in the safety of harvesting the palm bunches, and (increase)

in the output of the oil palm products.* With the ladder or

 

*The government of the Rivers State has started to
build two more oil palm plantations.

132
rope methods the oil palm industry in the Rivers State will
continue to suffer from manpower shortages and low
productivity, especially at the peak period, because of poor

safety records and other competing employment.

We).
While every operator should be involved in the diffusion

of the picking knife, effort should be concentrated on the
younger operators (from the youngest, up to 40 years),
because they have few health problems, are more receptive to
the idea and have more years to use the knife before they
begin to experience the health problems associated with
aging. On the other hand, it would be interesting to
investigate the possibility of mounting a simple telescope
on the handle of the picking knife. This presents a real
possibility because such a telescope could be inexpensive
and light in weight so as not to add too much to the cost
and weight of the knife.

W

Legislation that requires all employers of operators to
provide the knife should eliminate cost of knife and
employer category as a factor associated with the adoption
of the picking knife. An additional factor to be considered
is the need to slash the thick undergrowth on the plantation
periodically to make it easier for the operator to move

through the field with ease, carrying the knife.

133

W

The negative effect of experience in oil palm harvesting
without using the knife can be reduced by intensive and
aggressive diffusion programs directed towards operators in
this category. Such program should stress the safety
record, the economic advantage of the knife and the relative
ease of use. Operators who have already started to use the
knife should be encouraged to continue to use it because

perfection comes with continuous practice.

W

There is need to study in detail the effect of education
(formal or non-formal) in the oil palm harvesting business.
Through such study, it would be possible to formulate a
structure for operator education in vocational schools. As
technology creeps into the oil palm harvesting processes,
formally educated operators would have an advantage in
handling and nmintaining the picking knife. Besides,
structured operator education would further enhance the

image of the operator in the community.

SHEEQL!

Oil palm bunch harvesting is and continues to be an
important component of the palm oil production system. It
is, therefore, necessary that the number of operators who
can use the picking knife increase as the population of

cultured trees increase in the Rivers State. This should

134
result in an increase in production of palm oil and the
other products of the palm tree with fewer accidents
(safer) in oil palm bunch harvesting. It will also work
more towards stabilizing the labor force in oil palm bunch
harvesting than any of the traditional methods. There is a
decline in the oil palm harvest labor force because of urban
migration and the danger involved in climbing the palm tree,
and since the picking knife is known to increase product-
ivity, perhaps more than the ladder or rope methods, fewer
operators will be needed to harvest a given quantity of
fresh fruit bunches. The increased productivity by the
operators through the use of the knife, should result in

higher daily wages received.

0 11 t

This study was necessitated by the humanitarian
consideration of the operators' situation in the Rivers
State. However, a fringe benefit from the adoption of the
picking knife as an oil palm bunch harvester in the Rivers
State could be the increment of the operators' productivity
which could translate into increased earning for the
operator and consequently an overall increase in the
production of the palm oil and palm kernel oil. This
comment arises from the fact that the use of the knife was
experimentally shown to increase the productivity of the

operator (Hartley, 1977), though not linear in time. Even

135
then, the productivity of the operator with the traditional
climbing methods declined too, with time.

In order to improve the communication network for the
dissemination of information about the knife, the Rivers
State Government has to be directly involved in the
diffusion process through the Extension Division of the
Ministry of Agriculture. As long as the plantations depend
on the irregularly scheduled demonstrations and social
interaction, most of the operators will have no access to
information about the picking knife, because the plantation
owners/managers do not seem to be interested in the
potential of the knife. They either do not know enough
about the knife or do not think it is their responsibility
to help reduce the number of accidents in oil palm bunch
harvesting.

Finally, there seems to be a potential for the study of
the Rivers State Operators and the adoption of the picking
knife using the grounded theory approach. In such a study,
all existing social and scientific theories would be ignored
with the assumption that the relationship between the Rivers
State operators and the picking knife is a unique one that
has not yet been understood. A study of this nature would
generate theories based on the particular aspects of the
operators resulting from the distinctive nature of the
environment and socio-political details. According to

Glaser and Strauss (1965), Glaser (1978), and

136
Merriam/Simpson (1984), the grounded theory is a general
basis for generating theories that apply the research
regarding a particular problem.

It is particularly suited for descriptive studies such
as in this case where little prior or formal theory exists,
based on empirical data, about the Rivers State people:
their customs, social and economic linkages, and religious
beliefs. The major purpose of doing grounded theory
research in an applied field is to improve professional
practice through gaining a better understanding of it.

Grounded theory provides the flexibility and latitude
that is needed to develop initial hypotheses from which
formal theory and verification can later occur. The end
product of such a study is a set of conclusions derived from
the descriptions offered by the participants of the study.

A basic premise of grounded theory is that theory is an
"ever-developing entity, not a perfected product." Because
the study's conclusions are based on data rather than
existing theories, they are not likely to be completely
refuted by more data or replaced by another theory.

Thus, the conclusions and hypotheses emerging from such
a study are expected to provide a basis for further studies

which can add to, expand or refine them.

APPENDIX A

INSTRDNBNT

 

 

 

 

 

Was
1. Sex M F
2. Age
3. Employment Public Private ___ Self ___
4. Economic level Below ___ At ___ Above ___
5. Education Category Formal ___ Non-formal ___,
6. User Category Current ___, Ex ___
7. Years of experience (in oil palm harvesting)
8. Years of experience using the picking knife
9. Physical conditions
mutations
14 How did you learn about the oil palm harvest
picking knife?
2. Where was this?
3. When was this?
4. When and why did you decide to adopt the use of the

picking knife? What major factor(s) affected your
decision to try the use of the picking knife? What
major factor(s) influenced your decision to adopt
the use of the knife?

If you no more use the knife, when did you decide
to discontinue usage?

Why did you decide to discontinue usage?

What types of changes in the knife would
induce you to go back to using it?

Do you really need to use the picking knife? Why?

137

 

B.

138

 

Questions

1. What do you like about the picking knife?

2. What do you not like about the picking knife?

3. What aspect of harvesting with the picking knife do
you like most?

4. What aspect of harvesting with the picking knife do
you hate most?
repair ________ manufacturing

5. Who provides the picking knife?

6. Would you react differently if you or your employer
has to provide the knife?

7. Does it matter to you how much the knife costs in
money or in labor, if you were to pay for the
knife?

8. Have you thought of the pay-back period of the
picking knife. ZIf so, did it in any way affect
your decision to adopt or discontinue the use of
the picking knife.

9. Would you have adopted the use of the knife if the
average rate for harvesting a bunch was slower

, the same ______, or faster than the
traditional method.
10. What improvements would you like be made for the
picking knife and the use of it?
- add a fruit catchment (F.C.) ______
- add a bunch catchment (B.C.) _____
- add both ___...
- motorize the picking knife _____
- motorize the knife with F.C. ____.
- motorize the knife with B.C. _____
- motorize the knife with both _____
Questions

1. What would you like your employer to do about the
picking knife?

2. What incentives motivate you to continue using the

knife or go back to using the knife?

139

What do your friends and neighbors tell you about
your adopting the use of the picking knife?

What do your friends and neighbors tell you about
your discontinuing the use of the picking knife?

Are you concerned about the social impact of the
adoption of the knife? What impacts on (a) social
structure (organizations), (b) leadership, (c) land
tenure, social problem solving capacity.

Is the use of the picking knife consistent with
your values and beliefs? If not, what aspect of
the innovation is in conflict with your social,
cultural values and beliefs? Would you have
considered using the knife otherwise?

Where you required to learn how to use the knife
within a given time? Yes No

 

 

If yes, how much time?

APPENDIX B

 

 

 

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Freafuencv. Pregnancy FreQuencY

140

. 141

 

 

 

 

 

 

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142

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APPENDIX .C

APPENDIX D

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APPENDIX E

d oc n
LQEQEIQB C!£L§B§.fl§2£§ x- S
Rivers State
Blantatim
Omoku 5 6 3
Ahoada 5 7 1
Elele 9 4 -
Echie 2 8 4
Omoku - _ 4
Ahoada - - 4
Elele - - 5
Echie _; _- _4
Te§el 21 25 25
NIFOR 38 19 -
Note: The oil palm plantations were named according to

the nearest village. Thus, Omoku Plantation was
the oil palm settlement close to Omoku Village.

144

CONTINGENCY TABLES

Table E.lA

Contingency Table for H01
Rivers State

 

2re1ider___C1rrsnt_nsera___Ex:naera__Tetal

 

 

Employer 14 a 22 x2 = 5.910
Emelexeec I 17 24
xgr. 3.841
TOTAL 21 25 46
Table 8.18

Contingency Table for H01
NIFOR

 

 

 

u x- s 3 ct
Employer 29 11 40 x2 =.14.4so
8121222211. 9 8 17
x2: = 3.841
TOTAL. 38 19 57
Table E.2A

Contingency Table for H04
Rivers State

 

Savings in

 

n s s x- s a
Positive 13 5 18 X2 = 9.180
Same 2 9 ll
Negatixe. 6 11 17
xgr = 5.991
TOTAL 21 25 46

 

145

146
Table 8.28

Contingency Table for 804
NIFOR

 

Savings in

Eff2rt_____Qurreat_nser§___fix:n§sr§__metal

 

 

Positive 26 4 30 x2 = 16.560
Same 9 5 14
Negatixe_. 3 10 13
xg, = 5.991
TOTAL 38 19 57
Table E.3A

Contingency Table for H07
Rivers State

 

 

 

 

 

u en 8 S x-s S oa
Above 5 1 6 x2 = 12.52
At 10 4 14
83192. 6 .‘29 .25 2
xcr = 5.991
TOTAL 21 25 46
Table E.3B
Contingency Table for H07
NIFOR
a u nt 5 s x- s s t
Above 14 5 19 x2 = 9.7
At 17 3 20
Helen.. 7 ll 18 2
x01-. = 5.991

TOTAL 38 19 .57

147
Table E.4A

Contingency Table for H08
Rivers State

 

SiitQ§______S2II2flI_H§££§___E§:fl§§£§__12£il

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

positive 13 5 18 x2 = 8.52
Same 3 6 9
Negatixs. S 14 19 2
xcr = 5.991
TOTAL 21_. 25 46
Table 8.48
Contingency Table for H08
NIFOR
u u t s s x- se 3 ota
positive 30 6 36 x2 = 12.21
Same 8 13 21
Negatixs__
xgr = 3.841
TOTAL 38 19 57
Table E.5A
Contingency Table for 809
Rivers State
c' c u - 3
positive 7 15 21 x2 = 11.09
None 12 3 15
Negatixel. 2 8 10 2
xcr = 5.991

TOTAL 21 425 46

148

 

 

 

Table 3.53
Contingency Table for H09
NIFOR
S -s
positive 26 6 32 x2 = 10.62
None 12 9 13
8291112: 8 4 .12. 2
xcr = 5.991
TOTAL 38 19 57
Table E.6A

Contingency Table for H011
Rivers State

 

 

 

 

Past
' c u n x-
Positive 18 9 27 x2 = 11.62
H2_2£_N§Qé£i!£. 3 16 19
xgr = 3.841
TOTAL 21. .T25 46
Table 8.68
Contingency Table for Holl
NIFOR
Past
' c u nt x— t
positive 33 8 41 x2 = 12.57
N9 0; Negatiye .5 ll 16

 

x3, = 3.841
TOTAL .38 19 57

149
Table E.7A

Contingency Table for 8012
Rivers State

 

ueeQ_flst____QuLLent_n§§L§__Ez:n§eL§__12tal

 

 

 

 

Yes 16 11 27
HQ, 5 14 19
TOTAL 1T21 25 46
Table 3.73
Contingency Table for 3012
NIFOR
d u n s Ex- 5 s ota
Yes 31 9 40
Ho 7 10 17
TOTAL 38 19 S7

 

Table E.8A

Contingency Table for 8013
Rivers State

 

u nt x- s t
Easier 16 10 26
or D' cult 5 15 2Q__

 

TOTAL 21 425 46

x2 . 4.87
x2 = 3 841
CI '

x2 = 7.07
2
xcr = 3.841

x2 = 6.09
2
xcr = 3.841

150
Table 8.88

Contingency Table for 8013
NIFOR

 

 

 

Easier 29 7 36

o e 'cu 9 .12 21 _

TOTAL, 38 19 57
Table E.9A

Contingency Table for 8014
Rivers State

 

 

 

 

Maintenance
and Repair gugggnt nggs Ex-users Tgtgl
Easier 19 22 41
More Qifficult 2 3 5
TOTAL 21 25 46
Table E.9B
Contingency Table for H014
NIFOR
Maintenance
and u n se 8 x- 0
Easy 38 18 56
uogg Difficult 0 1 1

 

TOTAL 38 19 57

x2 . 8.48
2
xcr . 3.841

x2 0.07

2
xcr = 3.841

x2 = 2.06
2 _

151
Table E.10A

Contingency Table for 8018
Rivers State

 

 

s u n s x-
Visible ' l3 7 20
HQ; yisiblg 8 18 25 .
TOTAL 21 25 46

 

Table E.103

Contingency Table for 8018

 

 

NIFOR
i 'b' t u n s x- sers ota
Visible 34 13 47
Hot yisiblg 4 6 10
TOTAL .38 19 57

 

Table E.llA

Contingency Table for 3025
Rivers State

 

 

Education

Categorv Current users Ex-Qsegs Igtal
Formal 8 1 9
non-Eogmal 13 24 .37

 

TOTAL 21 25 46

x2 a 5.34
2
xcr a 3.841

x2 a 3.89
2
xcr = 3.841

x2 a 8.42
2 _

152
Table E.113

Contingency Table for 3025

 

NIFOR
Education
ate s s - 8
Formal 24 3 27 x2 - 11.40
ugn-Eogmal 14 16 30

 

x3. = 3.841
TOTAL .33 19 57

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GAS

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