A HISTORY OF THE'DEVELOPMENT: ,5: OF HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE ; PROGRAMS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA}?;}f::::};f;§;3,; Them for the Degree ofPh D . MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY , 12;; :i HAROLD Mm" BERGSMA ifi?:%2:::.;ji-*;3:.i*ii ud‘ This is to certifg that the thesis entitled A HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA presented by Harold Milton Bergsma has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education Major professor Date f/$/ é 9 0-169 M t“ W Agwili 4, ABSTRACT A HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA By Harold Milton Bergsma This historical study traces the development of Sixth Fomnor Higher School Certificate programs in Northern Nigeria, frmnthe earliest attempts at planning up until June of 1967. Inaddition to the tracing of the historical development of Ifigher School Certificate programs, this study presents an mwlysis and commentary on the develOpment oF the curriculum ofthe Sixth Form, on the products of this program, and on thesocial and administrative problems which occured in the establishment of Sixth Forms in Northern Nigeria. The research for this study was performed in Nigeria Frmnmay to July in 1967. During this period the writer trmmlled 5,500 miles in Northern Nigeria and visited eighteen sdmols which had Sixth Forms. At these schools Principals and teachers were interviewed. Prior to these visits, a question- Miretmd been sent to each school, and a follow-up letter was smw From the Ministry of Education. The questionnaire method prmmd to be only partially successful and the person—to—person hmerview method was widely employed. The writer began a collection of various types of written documents in Nigeria in June of 1965. This collection 75 WNW ‘IJI I25 C The E, W 'istIIicaI III III S LINN? VIII Harold Milton Bergsma wascontinued until July of 1967, at which time the research tour was completed. The study has dealt with four major problems: figst,what were the outstanding events which occured in the hiflmrical process which resulted in the establishment of the tflw of Sixth Form programs presently in operation in Northern Nigeria? Sggmg, how did these schools operate and what unique problems flcedthem when Higher School Certificate classes were added tothe normal programs? flfigg,umat were the programs of instruction established in Um Sixth Forms; how did each institution deal with the prob- lwm which arose out of staffing the Sixth Forms; how were thestudent bodies affected by the addition of the Sixth Forms tothe normal secondary school program; and what were the eflwcts of the Ministry of Education policies for Sixth Forms on the schools? Eggifl, what relationship did Higher School Certificate have touniversity programs in Nigeria, especially in the Northern Region? This study is divided into eight sections. Chapter One, "Hm Problem", outlines the problem to be studied and presents arationale for the study, a section of which defines terms, anda section defining the method of the study. Chapter Two, "hwroductory Section", presents a brief historical overview Ofthe develOpment of the Higher School Certificate in Eng- lam. Chapter Three, "The Historical Background To The fiaIeleNefi II I ETHII IIIztiIIII Harold Milton Bergsma Dmmlopment of Sixth Form Programs in Northern Nigerian Smfiety", briefly outlines and analyzes the major planning for emmation that occured prior to 1950. Chapter Four, "The Phase oingher School Certificate Expansion in Northern Nigeria", iea description and analysis of the planning for and estab-= liymwnt of Higher School Certificate programs in Northern Nigeria between 1951 and 1967. Chapter Five, "The Higher School Certificate Program and Its Curriculum", describes and compares Hm curricula presently existing in the Higher School Certifi- cateihstitutions. Chapter Six, "The Product - H.S.C. Leavers", mmlines placement procedures of the Ministry of Education. It cflsmmses the problem of student wastage and failures. Chapter fiven,"The Social and Administrative Climate in the Schools", describes the student "societies" in the schools, their atti- uMes to their own and other schools. Chapter Eight, the smmmry chapter, discusses the need for further study on the IWOIenmtter of Sixth Form and the Higher School Certificate Exaflnations and the feasibility of considering alternatives tothe Sixth Form program. A HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA By Harold Milton Bergsma A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1969 657237 7-5—47 .CDpyright by Harold Milton Bergsma 1969 To My Wife, Ruth Elizabeth Bergsma ii AC KNOWLEDGMENTS To Dr. Cole B-‘rembeck, Chairman of the advisory committee at the time of the oral examination, the writer expresses deep appreciation for the influence he has had both upon this study and the professional life of this student. His friendship, en- couragement, advice and sensitive criticism have been a pro- found help in completing this thesis. To Dr. John Hanson, who was the writer's personal student advisor during the entire doctoral program, and who- was the Chairman of the advisory committee during most of the phases of this student's program, the writer expresses sincere thanks for the substantial assistance, excellent advice and criticism given for this thesis. To Dr. George Ferns the writer expresses special thanks for assisting as Study Director in the absence of Dr. John Hanson, and for personal encouragement and kindness. To the other members of the committee — Dr. Richard Featherstone, Dr. James Hooker and Dr. Charles Kraft: - the writer is grateful for the significant contributions made to the writer's doctoral program and his professional growth for this dissertation. The writer acknowledges the help given to the study by the Principals of the schools visited in Northern Nigeria during 1967, to the administrators, university personnel, iii MIN 0 III Those F H iIIIatiIIn Nice an itIII MC muustry of Education officials in Northern Nigeria, and to allthose who showed kind hospitality during the research tour. Finally, to Dr. Carl Gross, Chairman of Secondary Emmation, the writer expresses gratitude for encouragement, amdce and assistance throughout the duration of this doc- toral program. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM The Rationale for the Study . . . . . . . . . 1 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Method : References Employed . . . . . . . . 12 An Overview . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Method Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Types of References Employed . . . . . . . 18 Overview of Subsequent Chapters . . . . . . . 21 IL INTRODUCTORY SECTION : THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND FOR PLANNING AND ESTABLISHMENT OF INITIAL HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS IN BRITISH SOCIETY Early Backgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 The Development of the Examinations System . . 28 The Education Act of 1902 . . . . . . . . . 28 Sec0ndary School Examinations Council . . . 30 The Spens Cemmittee, 1938 . . . . . . . . . 35 The Act of 1944 and the Norwood Report . . . , 36 Recent Reforms . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . 39 The General Certificate of Education . . , , 40 Certificate of Secondary Education . . . . , 42 CHAPTER III. THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIXTH FORM PROGRAMS IN NORTHERN NECERIAN SOCIETY Commentaries on Colonial Policies and Nor- thern Educational Development . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British Educational Policy . . . . . . . . Early Backgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The First Higher School Certificate Program in Northern Nigeria - 1950 . . . . . . . . . Planning for the First H.S.C. Program . . . Summary of Introductory Section . . . . . . . IV. THE PHASE OF HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXPAN- SION IN NORTHERN NIGERIA 1951-1960 Higher School Certificate and Post— Secondary School Programs . . . . . . . . . Plans for the Establishment of the First H.S.C. Program : Zaria . . . . . . . . . . Plans for the Development of Other Post— Secondary School Programs . . . . . . . . The Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology : Zaria . . . . a . . . . . . . Higher SChool Certificate Programs Institu- tionalized : Keffi . . . . . . . . . . . - Educational Programs and University Entry . vi PAGE 44 44 45 53 63 67 74 75 76 77 82 83 B6 jIMER CHAPTER PACE Administrative Policies During the Period of Planning and Rapid Expansion in Northern Nigeria, 1960-1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 The Ashby Report's Impact on H.S.C. EXpansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 A Report on Phasing and Costs of Post- SChool Certificate Work . . . . . . . . . . 93 Report of the Comparative Education Seminar Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 The National Universities Commission . . . . 106 Expansion of the H.S.C. Programs in Northern Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Committee of Vice-Chancellors . . . . . . . . 116 All Nigeria Principals’ Conference . . . . . 118 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 V. THE HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PROGRAM AND ITS CURRICULUM Overview of the Present Curriculum . . . . . . 124 The Curriculum of Sixth Form Related to. British Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Higher School Certificate Courses in Northern Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 The Expansion and Development of Sixth Form prPQI‘ams of Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . 142 142 Institutional Expansion . . . . . . . . . . vii INNER CHAPTER PAGE Development of Programs of Instruction . . . 147 Administrative Policies and Curricular Change. 153 The Influence of Examinations on the Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . o . o . . 161 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 VI. THE PRODUCT - H.S.C. LEAVERS Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Placement — Careers and Higher Educational Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Unemployment of School Leavers . . . . . . . 173 Limited Career Opportunities . . . . . . . . 176 Career Guidance and Employment Opportunities. 179 Summary. . . . . . .'. .'. . . . . . . . . . . 184 VII. THE SOCIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE CLIMATE IN THE SCHOOLS Internal Social Factors Relating to Housing and Amenities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Inter—Institutional Social Factors . . . . . . 188 Ministry of Education Policy Changes and the Sixth Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Staffing and Administration . . . . . . . . . 197 Expatriate Staff Recruitment . . . . . . . . 197 The High Rate of Staff Turnover . . . . . . 203 Nigerian Staff Recruitment . . . . . . . . . 205 Social Climate of Schools Affected by 210 Staffing. . . . . 9 . g . . . o n a o o o 0 viii lull (IT CHAPTER PAGE The Institution and the Social Community . . . . 213 The Socio-political Environment. . o . . . . . 213 Expansion of Sixth Form Programs . . . . . . . 216 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 VIIL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Higher School Certificate Programs in "Northern Nigeria" - Past and Future . . . . . . . . . . 222 Policy Statements for H.S.C. . . . . . . . . . . 229 Conclusions. . . . . . . a . o o . . . . . . . . 232 Vice-Chancellors' Committee . . . . . . . . . 233 Recent Proposals Concerning Sixth Form . . . . 233 Other Alternatives . . . . . . . , . . . . . . 234 BIBLIOGRAPHY . O a a o o 0 O O o o o o o o o o o o o o o t 237 primary sources . G O O i O D O C O C I O O O O O O O Q 23? secondary sou'rces . O I I O C C O O . 0 O C I O . O . . 244 SUPplementary Bibliography of References on Higher School Certificate Programs in the United Kingdom . . 24B APPENDICES . , . . . . . . . . e . . . . o . . . . . . . . 249 A. Conference of Principals of Secondary Schools To Discuss Post-School Certificate Work in Nigeria, 20th. January, 1950. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 9. Post-School Certificate Work . . . . . . . . . . . 266 C. Tradition and Innovation in Secondary Education . . 271 D. Structure of Educational Systems . . . . . . . . . 281 282 E. Letter Re : Hosoco o o o a O O ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ' . . . ix APPENDICES PAGE F. Educational Problems and Progress in 1952 . . . . . 285 H G. Report of the Visitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 H. Subject Grouping - General Education Through Specialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 L Timetable I - Lower VIth and Timetable II - Upper VIth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 J. Selected Samples of Higher School Certificate Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Government College Zaria, H.S,C. Enrollment Record.....................B1 2. Enrollment by Educational Levels (Secondary). . . 88 3. Higher School Certificate of Cambridge Univ- ersity in 196O Results . , . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4. Proposed Build-up of Numbers in Secondary Schools 1960-1970 . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5. Estimated Entry to First Forms of Secondary Schools (in thousands) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 6. The Development and Expansion of Higher School Certificate Work in Northern Nigeria . . . . .109w110 7. Northern Nigerian Educational Pyramid, 1964 . . . 114 5. Northern Nigerian Pest-Primary Educational pYramid, 1964 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 9. A Comparison of Proposed Enrollment Figures Based on the "Ashby Report" Recommendations, To Actual Enrollment Figures for the Period of 196141967 . g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 ‘ 10. Numbers of Pupils in Sixth Forms and H.S.Co Results Actual/Estimated 1961=1988 . . . . . .130=131 11- Higher School Certificate Courses : 1966 (1967) . 140 xi TABLE PAGE 12. Higher School Certificate Courses in Northern Nigerian Schools 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13. Higher School Certificate Courses in Northern Nigerian Schools 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 14. Higher School Certificate/General Certificate of Education Examination 1966 National Summary of Results Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 15. Calendar of Outstanding Historical Events for Northern Nigeria, 1950-1967 a o o o o o a a o o 214 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1' Higher School Certificate Schools in June 1967 (map) I o o o o o a a o o o a o I o o O I ‘ Xiii We? .. 191% I‘D/7070 571337 ;/7’%77‘.~er 7P, _-r-.AM—-w Northern Region DAHOMEY Western» Eastern CAMEROONS O ' EY31. Yola 6. Zaria(2 schools) 11. Ilorin(2 8CD.) 2. Maiduguri 7. Kaduna(2 schools) 12. Titcombe 3. Kano(2 schools) 8. Keffi 13. Okene 4. Katsina 9, Kuru 14. Aliede 5. Sokoto(2 schools) 1.0. Gindiri 15. Bida Cigars—.1 HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE SCHOOLS IN JUNE 1967 xiii "IIIII ha H of CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM I. THE RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY During the last twenty years the role of formal edu-- nation has become increasingly important in Northern Nigeria. Most of the educational programs which existed in the North before Independence were traditional Moslem, Koranic schools. Since Independence, however, the Northern Region, because of its geographical size, and because its peoples constituted a majority of the Nigerian population, has been thrust into the political arena. The Northern Government recognized that formal education was an essential part of the process of e[Ni-PP-‘lhg its citizens with the knowledge, skills and qual~ ities required for self—government as well as for national Political and social participation. Therefore, since the Independence of Nigeria, the Northern Region has, at an ever increasing rate, attempted to catch up educationally t0 the r8Qions bordering on the coast. Soon after Independence was aChieved, the Northern Region Opened many new secondary schools and established Higher School Certificate programs at Older established schools, This educational "institution" Called Sixth Form, represented an important link between the normal secondarys or School Certificate programs, and the Uni"SI'Sity or other institutions of higher learning. At the time of Independence the Northern Region had may a handful of men who had been trained up to, or beyond, Hm university graduate level. The Region lacked indigenous scientists, technicians, political scientists, educators and doctors, and relied greatly upon expatriate British colonial staff to serve in these capacities. In order to accelerate Hm training of this greatly needed body of high=level man» power, the Region invested heavily in primary schools and in secondary schools. Higher School Certificate programs were started so that Northern students would be able to enter university training. Two years after Independence the Nora Hmrn Region opened its own university, the Ahmadu Bello University. This study traces the development of the Sixth Form 0rHigher School Certificate programs in Northern Nigeria frmnthe earliest attempts at planning up until June 1967, by which time eighteen Higher School Certificate programs had come into existence. This study also presents an analysis and commentary W1the development of the curriculum of the Sixth Form, the product, and on social and administrative problems which occured in the establishment of Sixth Forms in Northern Nigeria, An attempt has been made to interrelate relevant hformation from one part of the study to anothero The roles and functions of these Higher School Cert» ificate institutions have not been described in any published work to date, other than in a few magazine articles, or in brief references made in books dealing with education. The history of Higher School Certificate programs has been buried in numerous government and private documents, letters and files. This study is intended to present a descriptive, historical account of the development of Higher School Cert= ificate programs in Northern Nigeria, by means of bringing together and analyzing much fragmented data. Nigeria is in an era of change due to political sub» division, war, national upheaval, the breaking up of the Northern Region as an entity, and the decentralization of files which occured after 1967 when new states were organ- ized. Therefore the collection, recording and analysis of historical data which would otherwise perhaps be lost in the Hmffle, is necessary, in order to preserve a unique aspect of Nigeria‘s history, that is, the development of Higher School Certificate programs. In summary, this study deals with four major problems. 1. First, what were the outstanding events which occured hithe historical process which resulted in the establishment ofthe type of Sixth Form programs presently in operation hiNorthern Nigeria? 2. Second, how did these schools operate and what unique Drablems faced them when Higher School Certificate classes were added to their normal programs? 3. Third, what were the programs of instruction estab~ lished in the Sixth Forms; how did each institution deal wifiithe problems which arose out of staffing the Sixth Forms; how were the student bodies affected by the addition of the Sixth Forms to the normal secondary school program; and what were the effects of Ministry of Education policies for Sixth Forms in the schools? 4. Fourth, what relationship did Higher School Certif-a icate have to university programs in Nigeria, especially in the Northern Region ? u Zertifit fevelopl 35m II° DEFINITION OF TERMS An understanding of terms relating to Higher School Certificate work is in order prior to any discussion of the development of this program in Northern Nigeria. 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AWIMWQWWHMmqu [If muoozum moor muoczum z0. Mejabi, presented at the 1966 All Nigeria Principals' )nference, Zaria. 161 beginning of the third year - only weaker pupils ‘ being put in the Arts stream. 32 The Influence of Examinations on the Curriculum The curriculum of the lower forms is amenable to more change than is that of the Sixth Forms. During the first three years of the secondary school program a great deal of latitude is given administrators and teachers in structuring the content of curriculum of the lower forms. The Fourth and Fifth form curriculum is set by the N.A.E.C. and the Ministry of Education. The Higher School Certificate or Sixth Form En— trance Examination and the terminal Nest African School Cer- tificate loom as large barriers during these two years. Thus the curriculum is tailored carefully to cover the syllabus for the West African School Certificate. Moreover, the West African Examination Council (w.A.E.c.) instructs Principals of secondary schools concerning the "set—books" on which certain examinations will be based, and advises them about physical apparatus or biolOgical specimens which must be on hand for the examinations. In a very real way, the curriculum of the secondary school is being strongly molded by the Higher School Certifu icate course because of every student's desire to get into Sixth Form and then hepefully into the university. Half-way “—— 2Circular No. SSG.4/Vol.II/336, Jan.4th, 1965, "Sac- ondary School Curriculum", Ministry of Education, Kaduna. th EX 8% ir ti 162 through the final year the students are given practice "mock examinations" as well as the Sixth Form entrance examination set by the Ministry of Education. Past H.S.C. entranCe exam= inations are carefully studied for content, style of ques= tioning, and the like, and staff members in the secondary schools attempt to out-guess those who will set the Sixth Form entrance examinations. Forms Three, Four and Five in the secondary school become a "cramming session" period, because students are preparing for the w.A.S.C. and H.S.C. entrance examinations. Thus students begin to "specialize" at this early stage, and are often encouraged to do so by their Principals and teachers Jecause the aggregate successes of the students in these ex= aminations become public knowledge. Principals frequently send their year—end results to the newspapers, especially if the "results" show a high pass percentage. In a system that is so examination ridden "one domino alls and the rest fall in turn". The university's require— ents mold the Sixth Form curricula. Sixth Forms mold the econdary schools. In such a closely knit structure of ex= minations, one may then ask about the meaning and purpose or it all. If this is the path that is going to be taken by he Northern Nigerian schools, where will it eventually lead? uch questions are being answered by Northern educators. Before one can decide what subjects to introduce in a school, one should first of all identify what exactly one wishes to accomplish. I can think of three important aims for secondary education, namely: 163 1. ‘To give a broad general education to boys and girls so that when they leave they will become educated enough to fit into the society and be able to earn their living and contribute effectively to the economy of the state. One might call this the utilitarian aim of secondary education. Under the general education I would include English, History, Language, Geography and Science as subjects that should be taugh . 2. To provide education that will give enough chall— enge to the mentally gifted so that they can go forward to the Sixth Forms and eventually to the university. For the students in this category, the high-level manpower needs of the country must be taken into consideration when providing for the challenge. Every effort must, therefore, be made to ensure that the foundations for the production of doctors, teachers, engineers, scien— tists, administrators, etc., are soundly laid in the secondary school. We are being pressed from various quarters to provide more and better facilities for science teaching in our secondary schools. We must not shut our eyes to the popular and necessary demand. 3. To provide education that will develop the potential aesthetic and cultural inclinations of our pupils. These will be achieved by the introduction into the curriculum of subjects like Art, Music, Crafts and Religious Knowledge. 33 Subsidiary Subjects. One major attempt to broaden the Sixth Form curriculum was the decision to introduce Subsid- iary Subjects in the Sixth Form. This decision was made in November of 1965, by the Ministry of Education. Prior to this time only two or three subjects, either in the Science area or in the Arts area, were studied by a student. These sub- jects were termed Principal Subjects and prepared the students for the Higher School Certificate Examination. The addition of the Subsidiary Subjects to the Sixth Form curriculum was an attempt to broaden the educational experiences of these 33 Concept Minutes: Speech of Mr. J.O. Mejabi to All Nigeria Principals' Conference, Tuesday, September 30th, 1966, Zaria. 164 students. The choice of the subject matter for these courses3 was left to the discretion of the Principals of the schools. 4 Principal Subjects. In late 1965 the Ministry of EdUe cation circulated a document, "Higher School Certificate Courses: 1966 and 1967"35to all secondary schools. This doc~ ument outlined course offerings in Higher School Certificate work for schools in the entire Northern Region. Students in the secondary schools were able to select various combines tions of secondary level courses as their major areas of emphasis. In order to qualify for entry into Higher School Cer— tificate courses the students were expected to earn "credits" in at least two out of the three H.S.C. subject areas, and a "pass" in the third subject. Also the students were expected to achieve a minimal pass in the W.A.S.C. in order to go on to do H.S.C. work. The main emphasis areas of many students were in the ifficult Science subjects and the failure rate was high for hese. Therefore, a student who had hoped to receive credits 'n Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry would find himself with asses in Geography, Chemistry and History. If this occured, 9 would not be able to enter an H.S.C. course as this 34Circular No. 555.22/134, Ministry of Education, Nov. 49 1965. "Subsidiary Subjects in Sixth Forms". "It is, home yer, desirable that_the subjects should be in the cpposite iscipline, i.e. an arts subsidiary subject for science stu- ents and vice versa." 355ea Table 11, p.140. CO 11 un V8 "E of Fe ir re se 1: 165 combination of subjects was not offered. (Table 11, p.140). The "Careers Guide" section (as shown in Table 11), listed the courses which would match various careers. The universities had stipulated their requirements for entry to various degree programs to the Ministry of Education, and the "Careers Guide" was based on their requirements. The Ministry of Education, Ahmadu 89110 University officials and Sixth Form Principals engaged in much planning for Sixth Form curriculum during the early months of 1966. Special academic area conferences included meetings of those in charge of planning for Mathematics, Science, English, Geog- raphy and History. British, Nigerian, American and Indian secondary school staff members had opportunity for much dia- logue, Part of each of these meetings was in the form of workshOp sessions. During these sessions the academic spec— alists drew up schemes of work and methods of study schemes or their own academic discipline areas. The external Higher School Certificate Examination, however, continued to set the uidelines for these discussions. The All Nigeria Principals' Conference was held in arch 1966, at Ahmadu Belle University. Conference Principals nd administrators heard speakers from each of the Nigerian niversities discuss their stand on the future of the Sixth arms. The Conference ended with a resolution to continue ith the Sixth Form. No basic changes for the curriculum are suggested at this time. One of the papers, "General ri bu ab CU f0 Ni UT 166 Education Through Specialization", presented to the Con- ference, a possible outlined set of changes to broaden the 3 scope of the H.S.C. curriculum. Summary By June 1967 little change had occured in the cur= ricuhunof the Sixth Form. Subsidiary subjects had been added, but the H.S.C. examination was still being administered from abroad and marked abroad. The universities continued to exert considerable influence on the curriculum by their requirements for a high level of specialization by the students. Northern Nigerian educators had begun to become more sensitive to the unique needs of their own region and initial proposals were made to change the curriculum. These proposals may contain the germs of ideas for change during periods of greater nau- timwalstability in the future. Under the new Federal plan which went into effect in April 1968, each new state will plan for its own future and these plans for progress will surely include discussions on the future of the school systems in each state. There will also be a great need for discussions between all the states during this period, regarding the future of the Sixth Form and its role in the total educational system. The new system Of states which presently exists, will affect the universities 36See Appendices H and I. 167 as well. What will be the role of the universities in re- lation to the new states which have been formed? Will the existing universities continue to exert influence on the schools in the geographical areas of the former Regions? Will the influence of the universities on the Sixth Form curriculum continue to be as strong in a more decentralized system? These questions and others regarding curriculum may imply that the Sixth Form has a role to play in lead- ership training in future years. CHAPTER VI THE PRODUCT - H.S.C. LEAVERS I. INTRODUCTION One theme of the Ashby Report was that educated and trained manpower is prerequisite to economic development. This theme was repeated frequently by planning committees in Nigeria during the post-Independence era. The Development Plan! 1962-1968, stated, a trained ". . . manpower is a pre— requisite to economic development and that a deficiency in educational facilities has been a major problem . . ." in carrying out this aspect of development for Nigeria.1To ach~ ieve the goal of providing an educated manpower nearly 20% of the “develOpment funds' for Northern Nigeria were allow :ated to the improvement of the educational system. The relevant figures for this asgect of educational axpansion for the North are as follows: Plan Target Actual Expenditure Estimated Expen- 1962 - 68 1962 - 63 diture 1963-64 L 000 Percentage 5 000 Percentage E 000 Percentage 17,637 19.9 1,258 17.4 1,231 12.0 _ 1Development Plan, 1962-1968, First Progress Report, nistry of Economic Planning, Kaduna, 1964, p. 10. Ibid, —— 169 The actual expenditure for education during the first two years of the 1962-68 period dropped substantially below the Plan Target estimates. The reason for this drop was the lack of funds available to the North, especially from foreign aid receipts. However, during the same period it has been shown that the Northern Region invested more of the available funds in order to expand the Sixth Form program than the Ashby Report had recommended. One reason a strong emphasis was placed on secondary school and H.S.C. development was because of the North's need to supply the universities with a sufficient number of candidates for entry into degree pro- grams. Another reason was that the H.S.C. program itself had been shown to have about a 50% failure rate; because of this, ‘more H.S.C. streams were opened. If a much higher pass rate could have been achieved and,therefore,a greater number of students had entered the university, the need to expand the Sixth Forms would have been much less. The "product" of the Higher School Certificate program has been utilized at a rate of approximately only 50% of the total numbers who have taken the examination at the end of the program. The high level of inefficiency of this program in the 1962-64 period, which has been previously mentioned, continued to be a problem in the 964~65 period as well. 35ea Tables 4 and 5, pages 100 and 102; of th 1e th er ar n2 is 170 The study Nigerian Human Resource Development and A Utilization, estimated that a total of 2,085 students in all of Nigeria entered the final year of Sixth Form in 1965. Of this number only 1,062 completed the course and passed at a level required for university admission. "It is estimated that about half the Sixth Form completers, or 1,042 actually entered Nigerian universities. The remaining 1,043 completers and the 243 drop~outs probably sought employment." 0n the national scale, therefore, H.S.C. as presently constituted is an inefficient means for providing students for university entry. The investments made for this institution had a low rate of return as far as the total output for the labor force for Nigeria was concerned. What occured in Northern Nigeria during the same pen riod? The West African Examination Council statistics for the 1966 examinations reveal a similar high rate of wastage (see Table 14, page 171). Out of the national figure of 2,079 H.S.Co candidates, only 363 completed the two year course in Northern Nigeria. Of these, 184 studying in the North were able to pass a minimum of two papers or more, the minimum requirements for university entry. Another 90 were able to Pass one paper. Thus a pass rate of barely 50% was achieved 4Nigerian Human Resource Development and Utilization, (Education and World Affairs) Committee on Education and Human esource Development, Nigerian Project Task Force, December, 967, New York, p. 144. 171 14 Table HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE/GENERAL CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION EXAMINATION 19 66 NATIONAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS STATISTICS + NO. OF CANDIDATES PASSING IN NO° OF SUBJECT 4.3.2.1 PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS PASSES TOTAL GENERAL OTHER CANDIDATE REGION 4 3 2 1 PAPER SUBJECTS ENTRIES * LAGDS 3 39 25 17 78 112 98 WEST 4 176 192 151 497 753 690 EAST 9 21B 206 171 568 BOB 755 NORTH - 99 85 9O 259 392 363 MID—WEST 2 34 47 32 126 198 173 FEDERATION OF NIGERIA 18 564 553 459 1528 2263 2079 * Excluding Absentees. + West African Examinations Council publication, 1966. by the are not pass? N that ma Class I guria? U T smared 1 those w 1 ‘ passed enrollm *— Senior, 172 he H.S.C. program in Northern Nigeria. ‘ The story is incomplete if the other 50%, the failures, not mentioned. What happened to all these who did not ? What careers were available to them in the North? In way were these H.S.C. failers able to be absorbed into 5 II and Class III levelseof manpower for Northern Ni= 1? Unfortunately. most of these questions cannot be ana ed well because of the lack of data and records about a who left the H.S.C. program in the North. Those who ed can more easily be accounted for in the university llments. 6Ths Class II and III were terms used in the Ashby ,, referring to skilled and less trained workers. The Nigerian Human Resource Development and Utilization, uses such terms as "intermediate manpower" and ' ralevel manpower" rather than the "Class" designation. region: inform: Certif that tl i such al 1 perhap: 1 probabl their 1 1 ‘ 1 became Unemgll the tyg ‘ has ofi 1 have f: ‘ usually school ‘ fails! taachir with tr Rather their ; \ 173 PLACEMENT s CAREERS AND HIGHER EDUCATIONAL ‘ OPPORTUNITIES One of the problems facing educators and national and inal planning boards is the lack of accurate statistical rmation about those who have failed the Higher School .ficate,or even the W.A.S.Co It is possible to assume 7 the majority of these entered the labor force, however, an assumption is optimistic to say the least. It is lpS more accurate to say that this group of H.S.Co failers .bly sought employment; however, the degree of success of * search is a matter of pure conjecture. These students a I“applicants". loyment of School Leavers Many H.S.C. failers have great difficulty in finding ype of job which they feel will suit them. The writer ften been approached by his own ex-=H.S.C° students who failed and who seek employment. The type of employment Ly sought was teaching, and teaching at the secondary . level,if possible. The writer has noted that the H.S.C. looking for work was uhhappy to be offered a job ng Year One or Two in Primary school, and more unhappy he offer of clerical work or manual work of any kind. than be thus employed,H.S.C. failers prefer to "keep iride" and remain at home in their fathers“ compounds. From h: Level) ures a! home 31 conduc: in ext: appllca | who art I ment. 1 I 1 city wl i joining ‘ fall tl dlfficn been p1 school times 1 their 1 medical pltal I ‘ to that More t1 mosqu ii 611 ha\ school: 174 n here they often apply privately for the G.C.E. (Advanced ‘ el) examination in hopes of making up H.S.Co subject fail~ s and eventually getting into the university. However, 9 study,with the lack of laboratories and libraries,is not ducive to success in external examinations. Failing success external examinations, these students write letters of lication from leads found in newspapers or from relatives are employed in the cities, in hopes of getting employw t. Eventually the student leaves home and heads for the y where he believes chances for employment are greater, ning numbers of other "applicants”. The psychological and social adjustment of those who I the H.S.Co to their family and home environment is ficult. For a period of seven years these students have 1 provided with the ”luxuries" of the life of a grammar 101 student. These luxuries have included being fed three is a day with a balanced diet, having had electricity in r rooms, running water and toilets, uniforms and adequate cal care with frequent visits to the dispensary or hos~ 1 provided. Allowances and pocket money have been given, 1em and travel money has been provided for the holidays. than this, their books, school supplies, spring beds, lito nets or screens, playing fields, sports equipment, ave been provided during the grammar school years. Some is in the cities had provided recreation rooms with radl of t high par ofte durl oxtr lday than high they back retu tram llat stud mlna 175 38 and even a television set.8Aside from having had many ' 1988 physical amenities, these students have been given social status by their people at home whq for the most are farmers and live very humbly. Their parents have 1 sacrificed much in order to pay high annual school fees 9 the grammar school period, as well as to pay for the clothes and shoes the students ask for during the helm , though in many instances the parents go bareafoot elves. Those who fail H.S.Co have been trained in a y academic tradition and have been taught to feel as if re "undergraduates" in their own schools. With such a round for seven years or more, the H.S.C. student who we home to fl“bush” with news of his failure, faces eXm Ly difficult problems of adjustment and socialassim-= in. The sense of despair and frustration faced by a t who takes 222 final examination which is the cul= ng experience of seven years“ work, and fails, is hard gins. The type of employment such a student seeks is, are,of a nature which will hopefully allow him to para a the type of existence he has lived for seven years. seldom seek a menial job which would get his clothes ds dirty. Higher School Certificate training as a Ntraining for 3These were noted by the writer in the Government Kaduna, and the Girls” Government Secondary School lif stu pre tui and pea ami stu if uai bi] on] his or 9x1 enl wht be: to: of Nb St 176 1" implies an extremely narrow concept of life for the ‘ lent. The "life" such a student seeks is the life of high ;tige on a university campus. This life, with its free ion, government scholarships, opportunities for travel, intellectual companionship among his peers, is the eXm led Ioright" of the Sixth Form student. Thus the final ex- ation at the end of the Sixth Form, either provides the tnt with the coveted passport to elite status if he 5 two Principal papers well, or damns him to frustration e fails. The examinations themselves may,or may not,act= y test his skills or abilities with any degree of relia— ty. At this point the student is oneudimensional, on paper . Those who mark the examinations do not know the student, last performance. his leadership skills, his daily work, .s personality traits. The papers are externally set and 'nally marked, and from this impersonal,external non- y, the judgment is made on behalf of other nonnentities ave written on paper. A bad day during the examination d, a headache, a bout of dysentery, can be the difference given student between success or failure. Fifty percent )89 taking these H.S.C° examinations fail and, hepefully, ' the labor market”. d Career Opportunities What career Opportunities are available for the student lls H.S.C.? This question is a great concern of the who has failed, his teachers and Principal and others in has H.S Kan far sot fai Oil in Cal pl: 1118 be fa vi ha it UlE 177 in Northern Nigeria. It is of particular concern to "Careers Masters" of schools located in rural areas. Aside from the H.S.C. schools located in large population centers such as Kano, Kaduna, Zaria or Jos, most of these schools are located far from urban centers. The Careers Masters in the urban H.S.C° schools complain of great problems of placing their H.S.Co ’ailers in jobs, though ”Ministry” offices and Native Autha Jrity offices, commercial firms, hospitals, schools and small industries are located in the cities. In the ”bush" areas the Iareers Master is faced with an even greater problem of ylacing H.S.C. failers. The Careers Master lacks information 'egarding possible job vacancies, because these tips seldom Take their way to the rural schools. Students leaving the H.S.C. program are usually farm eye and have little experience with city life. The rural arming community which surrounds schools in the "bush” prom ides very limited opportunity for employment for a boy who as soft hands and an academic training. Local Native Authors ty offices do at times offer work to H.S.C. leavers. This ork usually requires an unskilled worker in such roles as lerks, census takers, messengers and the like. These jobs, awever, are not eagerly sought by H.S.C.o leavers for many aasons. First, the social status for such work is low. acond, the pay is low. Third, the "highly trained" student 10 has been studying Botany and Zoology or Chemistry and lysics, is unwilling to become a messenger for Native Aut the Off lev lar Lag is hos H.S F or are My fam has the eac wor hel int BPE its 178 hority officials whose education,in many cases, is only at M Senior Primary level, or in the case of Administrative 'cers, at the secondary school plus administrative training 1. The result is that H.S.C° failers flock to the few e urban centers in the North, or head South for Ibadan, s, or Enugu to seek jobs. This migration pattern, however, reatly altered during periods of civil war, intermtribal ility and political instability. During such times, C. leavers tend to migrate back to their own tribal areas. any this means returning to an almost completely rural with no large city within the tribal boundaries. In order to survive, many students are forced by ical need to take any sort of work, or to return to the Ly group where he can be assured of being fed. The writer net previous students of his who were unable to continue * education, doing various types of jobs. The students in case were highly shamed to be recognized doing such menial as being a lorry driver”s "wedge boy" or a mechaniCVS r. Frequently the H.S.C° failer does not return to his ate home environment, but prefers to be thus employed he is not known.9 The migration to the cities is part of the problem for —-—__. 9This pattern may be different in urban areas. The gene ations drawn here are on the basis of the writer‘s limu ersonal experience in Benue Province rural areas. Car CU ina the 88C uni get fai add (Za I C pr: 191 179 eers Masters in the schools because they have great diffic lty in keeping records about their ex—students. The exam~ tion results are often published in the newspapers after student has left the H°5°C° school at the end of the nd year. Those who pass and wish to continue on to the ersity, contact their schools and paper-work is begun to them Formally enrolled into the university. Those who 9 however, often simply vanish and leave no forwarding see for their Principals or Careers Mastersa One Careers Master in a Government Secondary School 'ia) stated, we do not know how many of our school leavers fail to find employment and we do not really know the number who change their jobs once or twice in the year after they leave school, but the number is large and this again underlines the lack of preparation in our schools for vocational choice. Sometimes it is failure in a school subject that constitutes a main reason for the choice of a career. I have noticed a number of pupils who are one successful in all their subjects taking up careers in oolice, nursing and agriculture because they feel here at least are spheres of work in which general academic attainments are of little account. I am sure that we have all observed with some alarm how the majority of boys :urn up their noses at agriculture courses. I cannot :hink of 223 talented boy from either Government Secon= iary School Katsina Ala or Government Secondary School Zaria who has chosen an agricultural occupation° 10 r Guidance and Employment Opoortunities Career guidance programs are extremely limited in most 6 secondary schools with the Sixth Form classes. The 10Quoted from the Address of Mr. H. Thomas, Acting ipal of Government Secondary School Zaria, from a tape» ding by the writer of proceeding of the All Nigeria [pals' Conference, 1966. Career coneid Govern "Engli or C a a cone school staff fore, can mi imal. seek s 180 reers Master's job lacks status in the school and is often nsidered to be an extra burden. Mr. Thomas, Principal of vernment Secondary School Zaria, mentioned that in an nglish School" a Careers Master often receives a Grade D C allowance of E 450.0.0 per annum for this work, and has considerably lightened teaching load. In Northern Nigerian hools this is not the case. It is hard to delegate to a aff member a job that is usually performed gratis. There= re, in many cases, the Principal himself does the best he n with careers guidance, but such work is usually very min» al. The majority of students are not "placed", but rather ek some type of work on their own initiative. One of the biggest problems in placing H.S.C. failers lack of communication between the hiring agencies and the 10018. In May 1967, there was no central agency in the nistry of Education of Northern Nigeria whose role was to rordinate and publish careers information, and to send this the schools. Therefore, many possible areas for employment the fields of architecture, insurance, librarianship, ing, accountancy, police, armed services, aviation, banking, ad-casting, civil service, engineering, forestry, posts telegraphs, printing, publishing, salesmanship and teaching perhaps often overlooked by H.S.C, leavers. If an H.S.C. er does locate a job in these fields,it is usually through seeking and leg=work, or because of pure luck. H.S.C. failers seldom consider another type of em on ma dr pa] in 01 in in th te 8C CE 181 ployment. This is the area of industrial and commercial terprise. Such agencies as cigarette companies, cement nufacturers, coal producers, oil well refineries, soft= ink bottlers, breweries, textile manufacturers, tire cap» 5 and the like, would most likely have jobs for H.SoC. avers. Many H.S.C. students have had considerable training their schools in mathematics, physics, chemistry or bie gy, and could apply these learned skills to work in such dustrieso Such hiring would probably involve extra train~ g for H.S.C. failers, and training is costly. Moreover, e industries would prefer to hire boys directly from chnical schools, where the orientation was not purely ademic in nature. Other possibilities for careers also exist, but to :ry these out in actual work programs would involve admin- :rative decisions by various Ministries. The first is the :sibility of changing the entry requirements for the Nie Lan Certificate of Education course (N.C.E.). If students are unable to enter university because of a poor showing the Higher School Certificate Examination were given dit for at least a year of work of the two year H.S.C. gram, and this year was applied to the N.C.Eo program, students could be salvaged and become teachers in sec- ry schools. This would require a professional education" 89 of a year at the N.C.E. school. The NoCoEo program has uced many very able and enthusiastic young teachers in the pas .yea unf WA to ove of t tea eta tal coa her in woo MOI“ Dla c0U| roe: Dro! mun to l The dBV. 182 set. H.S.C° students, however, consider an additional two ears of training over and above their Sixth Form work to be nfair. The NaCoEo students are recruited directly from the .A.S.C. level, and are not considered to be academically up 0 the level of the Sixth Formers. Another area of work for H.S.C. leavers which is largely erlooked,is the area of athletic coaching. H.S.C. students 2ten are fine athletes and provide the backnbone of many aams of the secondary schools. Students who have shown out- ,anding athletic ability should be encouraged to use their lents. Most secondary schools lack well trained athletic aches or directors. Most athletic directors are staff mem» rs who devote their skills after hours on a voluntary basis. H.S.Co failers who possess athletic skills could be trained N.C.Eo programs of physical education a number of them 11d, in this way, be re-directed into useful and meaningful 7k. All this discussion relates to the great problem of cement for H.S.C. students. Placement involves careers nselling at the school level, tied to information about ca- safter the student leaves school. One can see that a major lem facing the student and the hiring agency is one of coma cations. It is the writer's view that there is a great need stablish a central Ministry of Education Careers Division. establishment of such an office, with a full—time person ted to aiding the schools and the various hiring agencies, 183 uld greatly enhance the possibility of placing many more S.C. leavers in meaningful jobs and re—directing much the wasted expenditure on H.S.C. toward filling the lower- vel manpower needs of Nigeria. 184 III. SUMMARY ‘ This chapter has indicated that,because of the need recruit students for the Ahamdu Bello University, H.S.C. grams in the North were expanded greatly. This expansion eeded the projected expansion envisioned by the Ashby Report. Of those students who entered the H.S.C. programs in ‘ North, only approximately 50% achieved sufficient passes university entry. This percentage is considered to be hly inefficient in terms of capital invested in Higher ool Certificate streams and in wastage of human talent energy. One problem which arises out of the high failure rate the Higher School Certificate programs is,that those dents who fail have difficulty in finding jobs because ir training has been geared to a very narrow academic :ialty in the Sixth Form. In addition to this, there is a It lack of suitable guidance for future careers for the 1ants who fail H.S.C. There is a need for broadening the curriculum of the h Form so that it is of greater value both to those who n to the university, with a broader liberal educational ground, as well as for these who fail, by providing them a broader educational experience than is presently ived in the Sixth Form. CHAPTER VII THE SOCIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE CLIMATE IN THE SCHOOLS INTERNAL SOCIAL FACOTRS RELATING TO HOUSING AND AMENITIES The first attempt to establish a Higher School Certifw te program in Northern Nigeria was at Zaria in 1950; home r, the attempt failed and no other major Sixth Form classes a attempted until eight years later. The Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology been established in 1952 on the Samaru campus a few miles 1 the Zaria Secondary School. The "Nigerian College" as it called, was federally supported. The students who had been Tcted for training here were young men who were, for all ‘nts and purposes, considered "undergraduates". At this no university facilities existed in the Northern Region, this school was, therefore, held in high regard socially. standard which the students of this College were attempt» to achieve was the General Certificate of Education (Ada ed Level), the paper equivalent of the Higher School Cer- :ate of the secondary schools. Academically, therefore, a was an equivalence with the type of work being carried / the nearby Sixth Form students in the Zaria Secondary Jl. Aside from this, there were few similarities between ;wo schools. 185 186 The students of the Nigerian College of Arts, Science ‘ d Technology at Zaria were treated as adults. They were not quired to wear school uniforms and had considerable freedom come and go from the campus. The Northern Region Scholar= Lp Board also awarded its Northern students at "Nigerian .lege" total scholarships. Their campus was built and mainm .ned by the Federal Government. The buildings were new and ractive, and laboratory facilities were excellent. This writer spent some time visiting this institution ing 1956 and again in 1959. The students enjoyed many ex= lent physical amenities, including separate bedrooms, or me shared by only two persons. They had a good library, ctricity, fine dining facilities, and the food was of j quality. Certainly "Nigerian College" was the most elite 301 in the Northern Region from 1952 until 1960. The Zaria Secondary School Sixth Form students who ad a few miles away, were considered to be young men, boys, 'ou will.1They were considered to be an integral part of secondary school student body. While given some extra 'ileges such as later 'lights-out time', extended town a, and a degree of authority over the lower forms, they required to wear school uniforms and eat the same food be other secondary school students. They were encouraged 1 ' ' ' ’ 'th Mr A.R Information received during interViews wi . _. . O9 Tutor at Ahamdu Bello University and the PrinCipals of Daul's Secondary School and Government Secondary Schools ids and Sokoto. 187 to take an active part in the school's external sports com- petitions. The school rules applied to them as strictly as to other students. Students from Zaria Secondary School were well aware of the privileged status of their brothers and ex-classmates n the "Nigerian College". The differences they noted became oints of dissatisfaction. Sixth Form students wished to be iven identical social status with students studying in the ederal "Nigerian College". Part of the reason for the fail- re of the H.S.C. program at Zaria in 1950 was because of tudent dissatisfaction in this area. 188 II. INTER-INSTITUTIONAL SOCIAL FACTORS Zaria Secondary School again began a Sixth Form class 1 1960. Those in the Sixth Form were well aware of their :hool's attempt to start a Sixth Form a decade before. Most ‘ them had visited frequently on the nearby campus of the igerian College". These students were also aware of the xth Form student disturbances which had occured at Govern- nt College Keffi in 1959 and 1960 (see pages 189 - 191). ese disturbances, and the mid-year departure of Keffi's incipal, were all centered about the Sixth Formers' demands privileges and physical amenities similar to those en- yed by students at "Nigerian College" at Zaria. Students at Jernment College Keffi were, by and large, successful in air "revolt" and were given many extra physical amenities I privileges during the 1959 and 1960 school years. Zaria °C. students followed suit and attempted to improve their lot by creating disturbances. One important factor in creating social unrest among dents at both Zaria and Keffi was that Nigeria received its apendence in 1960. This was a period of intense nationalism 19 young students. Moreover, Nigerians felt more free to rk of "injustices" they had experienced at the hands of r colonial masters, and some perhaps thought that the a- vement of Independence meant that all their wishes would ranted. In addition to this, all high-level Colonial adminis- Jrs became advisors to the Nigerian Ministers who were 189 pointed at the time of Independence. Therefore, though the itish advisors continued to function in much the same roles they had previously, they were ’without portfolio’. The re following Independence saw the departure of many British inistrators who had served in the Colonial era. Most deci— 5 about education were being made by Nigerians during the iod following Independence. Political parties were being ablished and beginning to exert their influence. These ial and political changes were discussed in the newspapers on radio broadcasts. Young students in the secondary schools kly got into the spirit of the times and reacted in a rather ictable manner against any "authoritarian or dictatorial" isions of their British school teachers and Principals. For as reasons the initial years of Sixth Form work were [bled ones for both of these schools. Student writers recorded their feelings in guarded s in the school magazines which were censored and controlled taff. The following quotations from the Pioneer Magazine, annual publication of Government College Keffi, are from year 1960: The year began badly for us, with the expulsion of ’our useful members of the (Benue) House, all of whom rare in the Sixth Form. It was indeed a blow, but we soon recovered from it. In the first six months we all passed through a very ifficult time, yet the spirit of friendliness and willin o-operation was never eclipsed ...(Niger House Dormitory . The loss of all but four members of the team caused reat anxiety. However, the gaps were filled by compet- nt members of the Sixth Form who come from other schools. football Team). (Italics mine). 190 Next came the period of troubles, when general unhapp- iness was in the air. Music of course, is an excellent barometer of the corporate mind of a school. If people are unhappy the last thing they can do is sing, and it is hardly surprising that the standard of the choir fell to an all- time low. (Choir). This morning we all witnessed a spectacular event when the Union Jack was lowered forever and replaced with our Nigerian national green and white banner. . . . take a quick glance at the situation in the world about us, more particularly in the continent of Africa. Consider Algeria, Angola, the Congo - focus of attraction today - and of course South Africa, to mention a few. In all these places our fellow-men are not what they should be, and in fact liberty in its real essence has still got to be discovered for them. Tltalics mine). The cumbersome Magazine committee of the past . . . has been replaced by a small committee chosen from the Sixth and Fifth Forms. These have taken active part, both in collecting and selecting material and suggesting policy. (Italics mine). The same publication lists the "Calendar of Important ts in 1960". The following items reflect the difficulties he school and attempts made by Nigerian and British offic- to settle the Sixth Form revolts. gag. 29th. The Premier addressed the school . . . Egg. 24th. The Speaker of the House of Assembly, Alhaji Jmaru Gwandu, called at the school on his way back from Bida and addressed the school . . . 0 Feb. 28th. The Principal, Mr. A. P. waters, left the school to take up a new appointment at Kaduna . . . Mar. 17th. The Minister of Education, Alhaji Isa Kaita, ladawakin Katsina, accompanied by the Acting Permanent iecretary, Mr. Ahmadu Coonassie visited the school and eld a discussion with the Higher School Certificate stu- ents. (This would be as if the Secretary of Health, Edu- ation and Welfare would visit a local High School in he United States). . June 2nd. A team of educational experts . . . visited 19 school to see the Sixth Form work. Sept. 7th. Mr. R.D. Price succeeded Mr. H.w. Ridley ; the Headmaster. 191 Oct. 6th. The Principal of Man O' War Bay, Mr. Snow- sell, visited the school on his way back from Indepen- dence celebrations in Lagos, and lectured the school on some problems confronting Nigerian youth. 2 In a period of less than nine months three different ish Principals attempted to administer the school. During early phase of the Sixth Form getting on its feet, Brita administrators were "transferred" or left the schools if Sixth Forms had discipline problems or created distur~ es. Students who were expelled from one school reportedly d up in another institution, which weakened the effect of r dismissal. The writer recalls conversations at this with expatriate Principals who were seriously concerned t the amount of power Sixth Formers were able to exert in the schools. Some expatriate Principals felt that the of discipline they were able to exert prior to Indepen- a was strongly undermined by permissive "Ministry" pol~ 3 regarding Sixth Formers, especially in allowing them to that they were,in fact,university students and deserved Special consideration. try of Education Policy Changes and the Sixth Forms Ministry of Education policy regarding the Sixth Form ad gradually during the next five years. By 1967 eighteen Ls had introduced Sixth Forms, but often without addie funds for special dormitories, special facilities or 2 The Pioneer Magazine, Annual publication, Government 9, Keffi, 1960. 192 cial H.S.C. school buildings.380th Provincial Secondary ools and Voluntary Agency Secondary Schools had to make with existing facilities for their Sixth Form classes. The standard of living of Sixth Form students in Zaria and i continued to be a bone of contention to Principals of ntary Agency schools and Provincial schools. The total er of H.S.C. students eventually enrolled in these other 015 soon exceeded those enrolled in Zaria and Keffi. In spirit of "misery loves company" both students and staff he Lesser favored schools endured the next few years. The stry of Education, moreover, became intolerant of student ctionaries". The Premier Alhaji Sir Ahamdu 88110 in 1965, e sternly to his own Alma Mater students warning them that Northern Region was full of students waiting in line to the places of those who did not try hard or who did not the rules (see page 144). Only approximately one-tenth oose who took entrance examinations for secondary schools selected and enrolled. Though complaints by Sixth Formers in the schools about lot continued, these were rather minor. For instance, ollowing excerpts from a letter from Sixth Farmers, in— es the concerns of these students about their own school's 3Letter No. PLAN/GEN/73/154, Ministry of Education, 17th 1964. "In case of new institutions the proposals are approved nciple only, etc. . . In view of the shortage of capital 9, these preposals are approved on the understanding that ital will be requested in the financial year." 193 Iities. V We the students of H.S.C. - — - - wish our Honourable Minister to know and look into these complaints of ours. We are among many other students that the Ministry sent to various H.S.C.'s in the Federation. Unfortunately this school hasn't got good amenities as the other H.S.Co's,‘ but we have done our best to bear the hardships. Our sole complaint has been about the all important thing - food. We have made several attempts through the Permanent Sec» retary and the Inspector of Secondary Schools seeking improvements but without success. The Ministry has made us to understand that we should be treated in the same way as other 1 - - — boys. In practice we get much less than they get. It is obvious to us now that the Ministry is not being fair nor considerate. Since the Ministry has refused to take any interest in our affairs we stu- dents here will'not be able to continue with our courses. 8 shall therefore, not be turning up next term for chool unless we are assured that our conditions will be ’mproved (an increase in our capitation grant). We would efer our Honourable Minister to our letter to the Per- anent Secretary dated 26th May, for further details. Signed, H.S.C. students of — — - - school. 4 Some H.S.C° students attempted to by-pass the Ministry ‘ucation officials who were taking a harder position on pline matters dealing with the Sixth Forms. They wrote tly to appointed officials in hopes of bringing pressure 1r on the "administration". Another letter written by students to the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of ion appears to have ’echoes' of the Ashby Report's theme 3 need of an educated manpower. We have received your letter No. --_dated May 16th a reply to our complaint. We can only express dis~ ointment, astonishment and surprise. He the students here are quite keen and we think we id be a good product for the region but it appears ' this is going to fail. .etter to Honourable Minister of Education, Northern May 26th, 1962. (Name of school withheld). 194 The Ministry will be wasting its money and more important, our time, if improvements are not made immediately. We students of H.S.C. - - - — are compelled by these conditions Not To Come Back To School Next Term . unless we are assured that our demands will be fulfilled and the living conditions improved. (Reference withheld). The eventual response of the Ministry of Education stated in this way: The present intention is that Sixth Formers should enjoy "parity of esteem'. Will you please obtain details from Principals of Government College - - - - and — - - - and then put in your final proposals. Higher School Certificate students were able to exert ertain amount of political pressure through the Minister, eventually were given such things as glasses, travel ex» :93 during holidays, special clothing, including sheeps~ hats and the like, which set them apart from the other ents. Special rooms were provided for H.S.C. students in of the Provincial and Voluntary Agency schools by conw :ting cheap partitions in larger dormitories and hanging ins in front of the openings of these cubicles. Students received a recurrent capitation grant of E 80.0.0. H.S.C. students who joined the ranks of their fellows next two years continued to enjoy some of the amen— which had been given to the first H.S.C. classes. How- IS more and more students were enrolled into Sixth Forms their presence in the schools became more commonplace, empts to obtain identical amenities to those enjoyed Reply of Ministry of Education, 20th June, 1962. a number withheld. ——— 195 Government College Zaria and Keffi lessened. ‘ In 1966 Northern Nigeria was under a military govern» nt. The statement made by the Governor at this time placed hool control firmly in the hands of the Principals and affs and warned against any student revolts. "The strong» t possible support will be given by the Military Government Northern Nigeria to the school authorities (italics mine) maintaining discipline and good tone. High disciplinary ndards are vital if we are to build a strong Nigeria." 5 shift to supporting "school authorities" came as a hard 1 to swallow for Sixth Formers who had enjoyed a great de- 9 of control over their own affairs by means of strikes. The assassination of Northern Nigerian leaders and Ibo ders, the political upheavals in Nigeria during the 1966~67 iod, the establishment of a Military Regime and the dec- Ition of war with Biafra, all were of such momentous na- 31 importance that these problems of Sixth Formers in sec- ry schools waned into almost complete obscurity by mid- ’ 1 On a research tour in the first quarter of 196?, all igher School Certificate schools in Northern Nigeria ad by the writer seemed to be quiet and serious. Students 6Address by His Excellency, the Military Governor, on Nigeria, Lieutenant-Colonel Hassan Usuman Katsina, wges on Boarding Policy and Discipline in Secondary ', 1966, Government Printers, Kaduna. 196 n the Sixth Forms had begun to exert positive leadership n the schools and were generally participating in the chool life in sports, drama, various clubs and other xtra-curricular activities. The only hint of student eelings about inter-institutional "parity" as far as enities was concerned, was the question put to the iter by one H.S.C. student who was interested to know 9 amount of pocket money received by H.S.C. students in ch of the other schools. III. STAFFING AND ADMINISTRATION ‘ Three major problems concerning staffing and admin- ration of Sixth Forms exist in Northern Nigeria. The first that of recruiting qualified expatriate staff to teach or inister the Sixth Forms. The second problem is the high a of staff turnover in the schools. The third is that it difficult to recruit sufficient ngmbers of Nigerian staff here for Sixth Form teaching. atriate Staff Recruitment. One problem in obtaining qualified staff for the h Forms is that such staff are difficult to recruit be- se of the fact that they are required to possess an ecu. nic degree in subject matter taught at the H.S.C. level. istry of Education officials and Sixth Form Principals, 1 whom the writer has spoken,agreed that all Sixth Form :hers should ideally hold a degree in the subject area in :h they are going to teach, and this should preferably n Honours Degree from a "recognized" British university Nigerian university. In addition to this,all Sixth Form here should possess a Diploma in Education, that is, be essionally trained and certified teachers. A survey of the staffing made by the writer of all the I. schools in Northern Nigeria, included as part of the arch for this study, indicated that the Ministry of Edu= Jn was unable to recruit sufficient numbers of staff with 2 qualifications. All Government Colleges as well as 198 overnment Secondary Schools had British Voluntary Service verseas teachers, Canadian C.I.D.A. teachers, or American eace Corps teachers on their H.S.C° staff rosters. In most ases, such teachers possess only the minimal qualifications 0 teach in Sixth Form, that is, they hold a degree from a niversity. In the case of American Peace Corps staff members he degree held is an American A.B. or B.Sc. Liberal Arts or cience degree. In Nigeria a college major in one subject, n such a degree program, is not held to be equivalent to the ritish Honours degree in a given academic area. This is true r the Canadian Volunteer Teachers' degrees as well, though anadian degrees are generally more highly esteemed than Amer- can‘ degrees. Few volunteer teachers are professional teaw were who have had a course of teacher training. Mission or Voluntary Agency Secondary Schools can be rouped in two categories as far as staffing is concerned. IS category consists of schools that are sponsored by Church encies from the United Kingdom, and in most cases this means sir staffs are rooted in the British educational tradition. e other category consists of schools that have staff members th roots in the American tradition. These latter schools e staffed and administered by American missionary agencies. In the case of H.S.C. Voluntary Agency schools, the llowing schools fell into the former category, that is, thin the British educational tradition: Mt. St. Michael's :ondary School Aliede (Roman Catholic), St. John's Secondary 199 001 Kaduna (Roman Catholic), Gindiri Secondary School dan United Mission), St. Paul's Secondary School zaria glican). Up until 1967 the only H.S.C. school sponsored by an rican missionary agency was Titcombe Secondary School at 9, sponsored by the Sudan Interior Mission. The problem of recruiting qualified staff for the untary Agency schools of British tradition is not as icult as for the Government Secondary Schools with Sixth us, or for the Federal Science School at Sokoto. The 31am of staffing was discussed during an interview with Principal of the Federal Science School, Sokoto. This Icipal indicated unique problems in obtaining qualified f. Federal schools operate under a policy which requires only in the case in which a qualified Nigerian staff or is 223 available for a post in these schools may an triate be recruited for a staff position. Because this 31 was located in the far North at Sokoto, qualified Ni- 1 staff of non-Northern origin were unhappy at being 9d far from their own regions, that is, from the Eastern lestern Regions. This school opened in 1966 during the of political and tribal unrest, when many Ibo persons ed to the Eastern Region and many Yoruba persons to the n Region. Because of this the school was forced to s with a minimally qualified staff. The total number of staff needed for any of the —f 200 Sixth Forms in Voluntary Agency schools is very small in omparison to the total number of Sixth Form staff the Nor- hern Ministry must recruit for all its schools. The Mission gencies operate through their own Mission Boards (or Mission ociety offices in the United Kingdom). These home Boards ave Opportunities to recruit staff from among their own 1urch memberships. The Principals are able to stipulate their ecific staffing needs to their home Boards. Principals of ‘A. schools also have a voice in making decisions regarding e suitability of a candidate. Expatriate Voluntary Agency incipals are on the look-out for staff, both in Nigeria, e United Kingdom and the United States during leave or rlough periods. Further, Principals of Voluntary Agency nools usually have a long tenure in their particular in- itutions, have a high degree of loyalty to their own in- Ltutions, and are personally concerned about the type of :ff they recruit. Therefore, V.A. Principals from British American backgrounds are able to recruit the type of staff y feel will be suitable for Sixth Form teaching to a much her degree than are Government College Sixth Form Principals. Expatriate staff are recruited for Government schools the Ministry of Education or by its recruiting agency rec sentative in the United Kingdom. Government school staff Jars are placed according to Ministry policy decisions, and frequently transferred to other schools for one reason or her. —_— 201 The American sponsored Voluntary Agency H.S.C. school Titcombe is different than the above schools because it :ruits its staff for H.S.C. from the United States. Therew >e, the matter of "quality" of their staff is difficult to .ermine according to British or Nigerian standards. One of r problems faced by the Ministry of Education in dealing h American sponsored schools is that of determining pre~ ely what a given American degree means in comparison to a tish degree. Each individual degree of an American staff ber is evaluated by the Ministry of Education for salary noses. It is difficult to determine what Ministry standards evaluation are employed in their rating of American den Is.7Teachers who possess a Master’s Degree in an academic iect area are usually considered to have the equivalent of itish B.A. or B.Sc. Honours Degree in that subject area. isely because of this problem of determining equivalence, ambe Secondary School was under close scrutiny by British digerian educators at the time the first H.S.C. students their final examinations during 1964 and 1965. In their 1 attempt the 1964 "results" for this school showed no res, five full H.S.C. passes and nine G.C.E° passes. The ‘results" again showed no failures, seven full H.S.C. 7The Northern Ministry of Education sought advice he African American Institute office in Lagos about agrees, and from the Federal Ministry of Education. ——— 202 8 [sees and ten G.C.E. passes. ‘ The highly esteemed Government College Zaria, staffed th teachers from the British academic tradition, during the me two year period, showed the following H.S.C. results: 64, nine full H.S.C. passes, twenty-three G.C.E. passes and e failure; in 1965, eight full H.S.C. passes, thirteen 9 C.E. passes and four failures. Though the equivalence of the American teachers' acac micand professional qualifications was difficult to deter- ne as far as S.I.M. Titcombe teachers were concerned, the amination results of their H.S.C. candidates established 1stitutional equivalence nevertheless. Higher School Certificate staff members serve other ran the H.S.C. students in their institutions. A Master of given subject teaches students from the senior classes of we w.A.S.C. program if time permits. Other staff members who Irk primarily in the W.A.S.C. program, but who have special :ills or academic training, are given classes of H.S.G; to rach. Thus,to a great degree,the staffing for H.S.C. is inn ‘grated with the staffing of the rest of the school. Because this rather fluid movement of staff between the W.A.S.C. d Sixth Form classes, it is difficult to pinpoint those who ————-———_—_ 8Figures for Titcombe Secondary School were taken from s school’s H.S.C. Examination Results Lists for 1964—65. 9Figures for Government College Zaria were taken from a school's H.S.C. Examination Results Lists for 1964-65. 203 )Uld be considered H.S.C. staff members, in a given in- [tution during a given year. avfligh flats of Staff Turnover The majority of staff members in all Northern Region 5.C. classes in the schools in 1967 were expatriates. The jority were either British, Canadian, American or Indian. vernment College Zaria for instance, listed fifteen staff rking with their H.S.C. program. All of these except one, Vigerian Vice-Principal, were expatriates. The Queen Eliz» 3th Girls' Secondary School at Ilorin had an.all-expatriate 3.C. staff. The same held true for Government Secondary 1001 Kano, The Federal Science School at Sokoto and the Iernment Secondary School at Okene each had four Nigerians :king with their H.S.Co programs.1U Because expatriates go home periodically for leave, a Th degree of staff turnover occurs. Many do not renew con- cts. In some cases contracts run for eighteen months, in are for as long as three years. Many teachers are hired on hort term contract basis and do not return to Nigeria when ir contract expires. Therefore, if a school hired six 3C. staff members at the time its Higher School Certificate gram was established, it would be quite possible that there .d be a 100% turnover of staff every two years. “-— These figures were extracted from data on staffing in Sixth Forms which was a part of the study research. 204 The Principal of Okene Secondary School indicated that . found it difficult to keep track of the number of staff who ne and went. Because of this,he had recorded each staff ange over a period of two years and one term. During this riod fiftyathree different staff members served the school r various durations. Constant changes of staff in this school sated problems of lack of continuity, and discipline prob= us as well. When schools receive Peace Corps volunteers, similar Jblems of turnover of staff occur. Every two years a new :ch of volunteers arrives and those who were just getting justed to a school program, leave. In the case of American [C8 Corp volunteers, this quick turnover of staff is more "ious than in the case of Volunteer Service Overseas staff m Britain. The U.S.U. staff members have personally gone ough the H.S.C. program in the United Kingdom and are com- tably oriented in the academic tradition. In addition to s, V.S.0. staff members from the United Kingdom join staffs :h are comprised mainly of their own countrymen. Peace Corps rnteer teachers face adJustments of adapting to a new Brit~ oriented curriculum, a different system of school discb= e and,in many cases, to being the only American on the f, in comparison to British volunteers. Another reason why staff were moved so frequently was ‘89 of illness. Dne expatriate returning to the United om because of sickness would create a whole shuffle of 205 staff transfers to fill this one vacancy. . There are reasons other than contract termination for such a high turnover of staff at most of the Government H.S.C. schools. New H.S.C. schools were opened in quick succession in Northern Nigeria between 1960 and 1967. Because of the impor» tance of H.S.C. work to the Ministry of Education, each new H.S.C. stream that was opened was provided, if at all possible, with a nucleus of experienced staff. Experience in this case, could consist of one or two years teaching in Sixth Forms in Nigeria. The Ministry of Education achieved this by trans- ferring experienced staff from existing schools. During the 1966-1967 period of great political unrest, Nigerian staff members from Eastern Nigeria returned to their own homes. These had to be replaced.110ne newspaper summarized the total movement of people in all of the Regions.12However, it is difficult to determine the accuracy of these figures. Many Roman Catholic secondary schools recruited numbers of their Nigerian staff members from Eastern Nigeria where the Roman Catholic tradition was strong, and where many Roman Catholic teacher training colleges had been established. h.— 1 . The writer was unable to obtain any statistical infor- Iation about the movement of Ibo or Yoruba educators at this ime. 12 ' The Nigerian Christian, V01.I, No.2, May 1967, p.10~11. sgion: Nc.Fled From: No. Beturned To: Population Gain or Loss ast: 20,000 1,600,000 + 1.580.000 ?st: 40.000 10,000 - 30,000 .dnwest: 13,000 45,000 — 32,000 rrth: 1,580,000 6,000 - 1,574,000 gas: 10,000 2,000 — 8.000 206 Voluntary Agency schools on the whole did not have . such great staff turnover problems as the Government schools. For one thing, they did not depend on the Ministry of EdU= cation to recruit their staff members. Moreover, each V.A. school was operated by an autonomous Board of Governors which appointed staff members to the school. Therefore, a lack of staff in any one school did not affect another school in such a system. In addition many missionary teachers were full-time missionaries assigned to Nigeria. For some, this meant that a major part of their life would be dedicated to service in Nigeria. After a short furlough, missionaries returned to the schools they had served previously. In Titcombe, a Sudan In- terior Mission school, many of the wives were career miss~ ionaries with their husbands and worked partctime or full- :ime in the school. igerian Staff Recruitment Nigerian staff members of the H.S.C. schools in 1967 era, in most instances, serving as Principals or ViceuPrin— ipals, rather than as full—time teachers. Maiduguri, Bida, ano and St. Paul’s Secondary Schools had Nigerian Principals. ese Principals administered the entire W.A.5.C, program in eir schools as well as the Higher School Certificate pro- . am. Therefore, they had very little time to devote to aaching at the H.S.Co level. The Nigerian staff members who were teaching at the SoC. level were young men who had recently completed their 20? training in Nigerian or overseas universities. These young ‘ teachers usually lacked teaching experience at the Sixth Form level. In most secondary schools, tradition holds that the Senior, most experienced teacher of a given subject is the one who is appointed to be the "head-master" of that subject in the Sixth Form. This tradition would have excluded all young Nigerian teachers from teaching in the Sixth Forms. This tradition was not held to rigidly by the Ministry of Educa- tion. New Nigerian teachers were put into Sixth Forms din sctlyand receivedtheirexperience in H.S.C. work rather than at the lower secondary school class levels. "Nigerianization" of all Sixth Forms in Northern Ni» eria was an impossibility in 1967; however, whenever qual— .fied Nigerian staff members were available they were placed n Sixth Forms and in the upper Forms of the secondary schools. net of these young men, however, were given administrative osts in the schools. In some schools a young Nigerian Prin— ipal, totally inexperienced in teaching H.S.C. subject matter, is placed over a number of experienced expatriate staff mem- 1 are. It is greatly to the credit of these young Nigerians at they managed to run these schools and take care of the sts of administrative problems which are the lot of any incipal of a Boarding School. On a Federal level the policy of "Nigerianization" the Federal Secondary Schools was difficult to accomplish_ noted in the case of the Federal Science School at Sokoto. 208 The intra-institutional social climate of the H.S.C. school is affected by its staff, be they American, British or Nigerian. It is difficult to document "school tone” or the "esprit de corps" that exists at a given school. The ob— server, however, is struck by the great differences that can be noted between different institutions at different times. The change of an administrator of a given school can create a completely different school tone. For instance, if one Principal is highly competitive and encourages competitive sports in the school and awards social privileges to those who "show their colors" for their school, an entire student body can quickly catch the competitive fever. Other adminis~ trators are extremely fastidious and stress hygiene in the schools to a great degree. Student Prefects and leaders are quick to note their Principal‘s emphasis on clean uniforms, swept compounds and the like, and stress these themselves. In like manner, the school tone of a school administered and staffed by an English staff reflects to a great degree the English "way of life". One aspect of this "way of life" is the British reliance on a strong Prefect system in the schools. H.S.C° students figure prominently in Prefect roles in all the schools in the British tradition. In a school where a Sixth Form has been introduced for the first time, discipline problems often arise when the H.500, students are selected for school Prefects rather than the Fifth Formers who had carried out these leadership roles 209 before the Sixth Formers came. Sixth Forms recruit their students from many schools. Therefore, when these students join a secondary school Sixth Form from a school of a difa firent tradition, their way of attempting to carry out their Prefect roles and duties often creates problems with students who have been in the school for five years. A Sixth Form student who had attended a highly dis~ ciplined Government College Secondary School, and was trans- ferred to a Voluntary Agency Sixth Form, often had problems of adjusting to a new school atmosphere and social environ= ment. If the student was used to the "fagging" system13which exists in most of the H.S.C. schools in the British tradition, and then finds himself in a new H.S.C. school with American staff whose traditions are highly egalitarian and who look down on the "fagging" practice, he feels he is not being shown the respect that he feels is his due. One student, leaving an "American tradition" secondary school for a "British tradition" school wrote: "The H.S.C. students are really respected here by junior students. They can ask the junior students to wash and iron clothes for them!"1 In this case the move was easier for this student —-———————_——. 3Fagging is a term which refers to the practice of up= Per-classmen lording it over junior boys. Junior boys earn ex- tra privileges from H.S.C. students by doing their laundry, carrying books and the like. 14Quoted from a personal letter from an H.S.C. student to the writer. 210 than for his counterpart in the paragraph above. ‘ Social Climate of Schools Affected by Staffing Each of the three major problems (page 197) dealing with staffing in the schools affects the SOCial climate in the schools. The need to recruit expatriates from abroad brings problems to the school. Expatriates have many adjust~ ment problems and their students in the schools likewise must adjust to their new teachers. Basically, the recruitment prob- lem is directly related to the second problem enumerated be- fore, that is the high rate of staff turnover. The social climate of the H.S.C. school is greatly affected by the high rate of staff turnover in the schools. Expatriate teachers face tremenduous problems of adjusting to a new country, a new school tradition, a new language and an often "isolated" social life. It takes time for new staff members to develop trust and friendships with students. Tea— chers who stay on for extended periods, such as those in the Voluntary Agency schools or career Government Education 0ff- icers, often are able to learn the local vernacular, visit the homes of students and develop friendships and the social skills needed to interact meaningfully with their students. Teachers who know they will leave and not return after two years, "muddle through" and very often band together with other short term teachers for the greatest portion of their social life. The "Club",rather than the Nigerian community around them,often becomes the hub of their social activities. 211 Schools which have a high rate of staff turnover have ‘ unique social problems. Short term staff members often resort to unreasonable or stern discipline measures in order to get their way. Students react negatively to insensitive or im~ personal treatment. They react strongly against a staff meme ber who runs rough-shod over long-standing school traditions or Nigerian traditions and customs. Generally speaking, lack of continuity of staff creates problems in almost every area of student life. Students who are extremely involved with the problem of mastering the syllabus set by an external body in Cambridge or London, strongly resent a teacher's repetition of material already covered, or his attempts to innovate outside the syllabus. A teacher"s speech is a matter of difficulty for many students. Just when students are learning to understand a teacher's "accent", be it Scottish, London, or Texan, the staff member leaves. The students are again forced to learn to understand a new accent, in this case perhaps of a newly appointed Indian 1 or Pakistani, speaking his brand of English. Traditions of all sorts are extremely important matters to students. One tradition is the school uniform. If this is changed by a short term administrator, and another uniform is substituted arbitrarily, students become unhappy. Changes of this sort often lead to discipline problems, student strikes and in- ternal upheaval in the school. Continuity of staff, on the other hand, tends to minimize the types of social problems described above. 212 Finally, Nigerianization of Sixth Form staffs created social problems of another sort. These problems usually arose from differences of opinion regarding school matters between new and young Nigerian staff members and more experienced expatriates. It is difficult to enumerate the ways in which the introduction of a Nigerian Principal or Headmaster affects the schools' social life. Briefly, however, it can be noted that communications problems between Principal and student are greatly lessened. Students and administrator "talk the same language" verbally and socially. Nigerian administrators and teachers seldom miss the intent of a student remark or the innuendoes behind remarks. Nigerian Principals are more likely to stress Nigerian music, dance, plays and folklore in the school life, than are their British counterparts. British Principals on the other hand, maintain traditions which are basically foreign to Nigerian students. Many of the schools visited by the writer, for instnace, had Principals who wore their formal collegiate gounsfor all assemblies. As many more young Nigerian educators emerge from the universities, many changes will take place in the schools, and many old traditions will be replaced by new and more uniquely Nigerian traditions. 213 THE INSTITUTION AND THE SOCIAL COMMUNITY IV. The major periods of Sixth Form development in Northern Nigeria coincided with major national and regional historic events. 5The first planning for and attempt at, the establish» ment of Sixth Form work in Northern Nigeria took place at Zaria in 1950. The first successful Sixth Form to be estab- lished was in 1959 at Government College Keffi. In the same year on March 15th, Northern Nigeria became self-governing. The Socio=politig§l Environment In January 1950, the "constitutional decade in Nigeria" 6 began. The constitution that emerged laid another portion of the foundation for Regionalism in Nigeria. It was rooted in the sentiments of the March 1948 Legislative Council which had stated: House approves of the unity of Nigeria by federation of the various regions which should become autonomous in due course, and that the whole country be developed towards self-government on this federal basis. 17 The concept of Regionalization led quickly to a stage that The late Alhaji Sir could be termed "Regional Nationalism". 1 5See Table 15, Calendar of Outstanding Historical Events, p.214. 16wale Ademoyega, The Federation of Nigeria, George G. Harrap & Co., Ltd., LondOn, 1962, p. 1 2 See also: "Proceedings of the General Conference on Review Of the Constitution", Lagos, January, 1950, p. 244. 1948, p.719. 17Legislative Council Debates, March 24, . 18James 8. Coleman, Ni eria, Background to Nationalism, University of California Press, Los Angeles, 1958, p. 426. Table 15 CALENDAR OF OUTSTANDING HISTORICAL EVENTS FOR NORTHERN NIGERIA, JUNE 1951. OCTOBER 1954. FEBRUARY 1956. MARCH 15th. 1959. OCTOBER 1st 1960. JUNE 1962. JUNE 1st 1962. OCTOBER 1st 1963. JANUARY 1966. JULY 1966. MAY 1967. 1950 - 1957 Revised 'Macpherson Constitution'. Regionalization within Nigeria. Visit of H.M. Queen Elizabeth II and H.R.H. Prince Philip to Northern Nigeria. Northern Nigeria became self governing. The Federation of Nigeria became an Independent Nation. The last British Governor of the Northern Region left for retirement. The first indigenous Governor of Northern Nigeria, Sir Kashim Ibrahim, was installed. The Federation of Nigeria became a Republic. Tiv rebellion in Benue Province. Major General Aguyi Ironsi takes over the Government. The Prime Minister, Sir Abu~ bakar Tafawa Balewa and Premier Sir Ahmadu Belle assassinated. Lieutenant-Colonel Yakubu Gowan takes over the Government as military commander. Ibo leaders assassinated. Regional migrations. Eastern Region declares itself the Independent Republic of Biafra. War declared. 215 Ahmadu Belle, Sardauna of Sokoto, as early as 1953, strongly supported the idea of self government. His suggestion for carrying this out "as soon as practicable" led to a heated debate in the House of Representatives which had proposed that self government be granted in 1956. After the House meeting, . . . Northern Members were subjected to insults and abuse by Lagos crowds, and during the ensuing weeks they were ridiculed strongly by the southern press. Upon their return to the North they determined never to be subjec~ ted to such indignities again; within a few weeks they announced an eight point program which, if implemented, would have meant virtual secession of the Northern Region from Nigeria. 19 Northern Nigeria did not, however, achieve self government until 1959. On October 1st, 1960, Nigeria became an Independent A distinguished Northern Nigerian, Sir Abubakar Taf- Nation. was elected to the office of Federal Prime Minis- awa Balewa, This leader stated: National unity is naturally uppermost in our minds, as it is self-evident that planning and prosperity can thrive only in conditions of peace and orderli— l ter. ness. Though such statements were made by Nigerian leaders on the heels of Independence, the strong feelings of cultural nae tionalism existed in the regions, especially in the North which ______________ 191bid, p. 399. 20Table 15, Calendar of Outstanding Historical Events, See also: Facts About Northern Nigeria, Ministry of Informa- tion, Kaduna, 1965, p.6. 21Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, "Nigeria Looks Ahead" Africa, 9d. Philip W. Ouigg, Frederick Praeger, London, 1964, p.304. 3 J 216 was far behind the other regions in economic development and the development of its educational system. Expansion of Sixth Form Programs The greatest periods of expansion of the Sixth Forms in Northern Nigeria came at three different periods of Ni- gerian history. The first attempts to expand this program were made in 1960 at the time of Independence.221n 1963 the second period of H.S.C. expansion occured and a number of H.S.C. schools were cpened. All but one of the Provincial Secondary Schools in the Northern Region became an H.S.C. school during the next two year period. On October first, 1963, the Federation of Nigeria became a Republic. By this time the majority of Northern Nigerian government and admin- istrative posts had been "Africanized", though expatriates continued to serve in advisory capacities in the Government Ministries, and especially in administrative posts in the secondary schools and training colleges. The opening of Ahmadu 09110 University in 1962 was a high point of pride for Northern Nigerian peoples. Thezgolicy of Northernization was strongly developed by this time and was _______________ 22See Table 6, pp. 109—110. 23Coleman, 2E. cit., p.427. 24A short summary of the deveIOpment of the Northern- ization policy is presented in "The Evolution of the Norm thernization Policy", The Nigerian Situation, Facts and Back~ ground, Gaskiya Corporation, Zaria, 1966, pp. 18-20. 217 another evidence of Northern political sentiment. To accel= U erate Northernization, attempts were made to ensure that the staffs of the secondary schools and the composition of the student bodies of secondary and postwsecondary schools were people of Northern origin to as great a degree as was possible. Dissident political elements in the Northern Region re— acted against the dominant influenca of the Northern Peoples“ Congress whose champion was the Premier of the North at that time, the Sardauna of Sokoto. The Premier represented the political feelings of the strong and dominant Moslem, Hausa element in the Northern Region. Under the leadership of TarKaa, the United Middle Belt Congress was formed. Part of this Con- grees consisted of the dominant tribal element in the "Middle Belt" area, the Tiv peoples. The mid~1960’s saw manifestations of intense tribalism in Nigeria as a whole, and among tribal groups in the Northern Region as well.25From the strong feelings of Regional Nation— alism which developed prior to Independence, the people of the North developed tribal or group nationalism. A polarization 1 into two major nationalistic groups occured, the Hausa nau- tmnalists, and the Middle Belt nationalists, which had a strong Tiv element.26 Though hostile intra-tribal forces were at work in the M SNalter Schwarz, Nigeria, Pall Mall PresS, London, 1968. pp. 240-244. Ibid, IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIC:—______________________________________f_________— 218 North, the Northern people as a body continued to exhibit a Y great degree of pride for their region, as opposed to an iden- tity with the Eastern Region with its dominant Ibo element, or the Western Region with its dominant Yoruba elements. The third period of H.S.C. expansion was that of 1966- 1967. In this period many tragic events occured such as the killing of the Northern leaders, the Ibo coups resulting in countermcoups of the North, and killing of large numbers of Ibos in the North, and the migration of the majority of Ibos to their home land. Many schools in the North had Ibo students and staff members. The gingerous political situation caused these persons to leave. Some of the effects of this national upheaval on the schools are difficult to document. There were many immediate noticeable effects, however; one was the lack of staff in many schools and the need to use expatriates and volunteer workers. There also were serious social effects in the schools. Northern students in many of the secondary schools which had 1 Sixth Forms took part in the disturbances which resulted in the migration of Ibo people to the East. One Sixth Form Nor- thern student writes passionately about the student involve- ment in this way: Unlike last year, this year should be a year of determination, reformation and obedience to authority. ________________ 27 See Chapter VI: Federal Science School Sokoto, re: Students migrating to the South. 219 Looking back to January of 1966 we see a series of killings, lootings and minor civil wars, which have disturbed the tranquility of this country. These calamities did not limit themselves to the army and the politicians but extended down to the students. 28 The major upheavals in the country set the tone for disrupw tions in the schools. One H.S.C. school after another was be-set with strikes, student unrest, disobedience, and stu~ dent participation in the riots. Another student newspaper commented on these diam turbances in this way: Who was responsible for the demonstrations and riots in so many schools last year? Was it the auth- orities or the students? Early in 1966 Offa Grammar School started by demonstrating against one member of staff which resulted in the suspension of the whole school for a few weeks. Bauchi Grammar School followed with a demonstration against bad food and treatment in the school - they too were suspended. Not long after Government Secondary School Maiduguri demonstrated and a few boys were expelled and the rest were punished one way or another. After a riot in Okene Government Secondary School, all the school Prefects were suspended for a while, then demoted. Maiduguri T.T.C., Waka Secondary School and Katsina T.T.C. were other schools which participated in the riots. During the 1966 and 1967 school years all the schools 1 in Northern Nigeria were affected by the social and polit- ical environment in the nation, of war, killing, looting, demonstrations and general unrest. Many students in the schools became personally involved in their Region's problems. M..— 28Quoted from a Northern Government Secondary School weekly newspaper of Feb.7, 1967. Name of H.S.C° pupil withheld. 29 Quoted from a Government Secondary School newspaper, 196?, name withheld. ‘ —‘— 220 H.S.C. students cannot be considered children for many were Y over 18. Many of these students (with their brothers and peers in Teacher Training Colleges and the Ahmadu 05110 University), joined in and participated in the riots, or often attempted to do so. Summary The Higher School Certificate program as an institu- tion in the educational system of Northern Nigeria has devela Oped and expanded in a decade of Nigerian history which has been filled with political unrest and social upheavals. Dur- ing the era that followed Independence, students in Sixth Forms exhibited strong nationalistic feelings which resulted in discipline problems in many schools. The staffing of these schools continued to be dominated by expatriates from the United Kingdom. This had the effect of preserving the Sixth Form curriculum in the British tradition. The Northernization policy affected the schools becaUSe a lack of qualified Northern staff members for the schools meant that expatriates were emplOyed in order to maintain Sufficient numbers of staff. The schools continued to expand and many volunteer teachers were sought to teach in Sixth Forms. Lack of staff continuity affected both discipline in the schools and the curriculum and general school adminis~ tration. Eventually young Nigerians were appointed as teachers 221 and Principals for many of the Sixth Form schools. The in- troduction of more uniquely Northern Nigerian traditions in the schools clashed with many of the long established British traditions. Finally, this decade was filled with major political and social changes which affected the Sixth Forms. In the North the general political unrest was reflected in the unrest and numerous student disturbances which occured in the schools in the 1966 — 1967 period. Tribalism as expressed by anti-Ibo feelings, played a big part in these distur- bances within the schools. CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS I° HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS IN "NORTHERN NIGERIA“- PAST AND FUTURE The Nigerian Higher School Certificate Examination which is the final evaluation device at the end of two years of Sixth Form, has been shown to be closely related to the British educational tradition (see Chapter II). Not only are the historical roots of the H.S.C. program embedded in past British educational tradition, but in its present form, it continues to be dominated by an external examining body which publishes syllabuses on which the final examinations are set. In Britain, however, Higher School Certificate came under much social criticism and was abandoned in favor of the Gen- eral Certificate of Education (Advanced Level). In Nigeria, l Higher School Certificate continues to persist as a device for screening candidates for university entry. As early as 1950, planning committees and boards dis- cussed the future of Sixth Form or Higher School Certificate work for Nigeria (see pages 71-72). Dr. Jeffrey presented sound warnings at this time about the dangers of premature establishment of Sixth Forms in Nigeria as institutions for preparing students for the university. As he understood it, Nigerian secondary educational programs had not developed 222 223 sufficiently to warrant the introduction of Higher School Certificate courses. In the Northern Region the development of secondary schools was far behind the other regions. One school only, the Government College Zaria, was considered to be suffic= iently develOped to start a Sixth Form program. This was attempted, and the program failed. Social pressure in the North (see Chapter IV) caused Northern leaders to seek means for training more Northern students to the H.S.C. level, in order that these could be enrolled into the newly established University College at Ibadan. During the fifties, however, only a handful of students from the North did in fact enter the University College. The Federal College of Arts, Science and Technology was the only institution of learning at the level of Sixth Form in the North during this period. This institution played an important role in training students in skills which could be immediately used when they finished the program, as well as in providing a number of students with sufficient academic background to pass the University College entrance examinations. The rationale behind the establishment of all Sixth Forms in Nigeria has been that they should be a training Ground for the university. The University College was ena couraged by some to lower its standards so that the Nigerian schools could evolve more slowly and not be strictly tied to university entry requirements. The opposite occured, 224 and University College Ibadan raised its standards in order ‘ to maintain standards similar to the United Kingdom univer» sities. The secondary schools followed suit and upagraded their programs so that Sixth Forms could be added. In the South, schools such as King's College Lagos, were successful in their attempts to establish Sixth Form work. The South, how« ever, had a much longer tradition of education than did the North. Regionalization, which occured in 1954, set the stage for intense tribal and area loyalties (see Chapter VII and Table 15). The North especially was concerned that it was behind the other regions educationally and was being dominated by leadership from the other regions. In 1959 the Northern Region became self-governing and soon after Independence in 1960, it began a Northernization policy. The Ashby Report (see pages 94-95) recommendations for an additional 150 Sixth Form streams in Nigeria by 1970, was a major factor influencing Northern planners to accelerate the expansion of Higher School Certificate programs. The On penfin of Ahmadu Bello University and other Nigerian univer- sities, created more pressures for the establishment of Sixth Forms and Higher School Certificate work. The Sixth Form curs riculum became a 'spoon-feeding'device to prepare students for the university. In Northern Nigeria insufficient numbers of students passed from the Sixth Forms into the universities, especially the Ahmadu Bello University. The universities were 225 obliged to establish preliminary courses to bring numbers of eligible w.A,S,C, level students up to university entry level. The Sixth Form curriculum became even more narrow and specials ized so that greater numbers of students would be able to obtain the minimum number of passes required for university entry, and so that the universities could eventually phase out the "preliminary“ programs. A "Commission on Sixth Forms" was envisioned by the Committee of VicewChancellors (see page 118) to study and review the role of the Sixth Form. The Committee of Vice- Chancellors recognized the bookish and academic nature of the Sixth Forms, and the high rate of wastage and failure in the Higher School Certificate examinations given at the end of Sixth Form. It looked to the future and suggested that the "Commission on Sixth Forms" study the possibility of the Sixth Forms being more than a preparation for university work but providing terminal education for other vocations as well. This Commission had barely begun to function when national political upheavals during 1966 and 1967 made the completion of its work impossible. The All Nigeria Principals' Conference which met in 1966 reviewed the role of the Sixth Forms; however, it rejec- ted the innovative suggestions which were presented by uni- wusity leaders from the University of Nigeria in the Eastern Region, the University of Ibadan and the University of Lagos. Administrators in the Conference were greatly affected by the plea for continuation and expansion of the Sixth Form 226 program, by the VicewChancellor of Ahmadu 89110 University, Dr. Sir Norman 8. Alexander. The Conference passed a resolu» tion to expand and support Sixth Forms. Few suggestions for innovations in the curriculum were considered. The Sixth Form was considered to have one main role, that is, preparation of students for the university. In the North, Sixth Forms continued to be established, and by May of 1967, nineteen Sixth Form schools were in exis= tence. Many of these schools, however, were established with minimal financial support. During 1966 the Ministry of Edu- cation approved the establishment of Sixth Forms at many schools; however, it warned that no capital funds would be given for these. Re-current grant-in-aids were provided to the schools on a perucapitation basis, and minimum basic book and laboratory grants were paid to new Sixth Forms. It appears that the civil war with Biafra has created severe financial problems in "Northern Nigeria". The Ministry of Education has warned Voluntary Agency schools that it is possible that severely limited grants will be paid to these schools in 1969 and that the Agencies may have to take over the majority of financial obligations for these schools. What then is the future for Sixth Forms in Northern Nigeria? At the present time it is extremely difficult to envision what the role of the Sixth Form will be. The Nora thern Region as a unique geographical, political and social entity no longer exists. Much of the planning for the develw 0pment of Sixth Forms in the past, was closely tied to 227 Northern Region educational policy and to the North’s Ahmadu ‘ 89110 University. Because new States have been established, the unique function of the Sixth Forms to serve the North as a political entity ceases to exist. What the role of the Sixth Form will be in the future depends to a great degree on future planning which will occur when the war with Biafra comes to an end. Because development funds are presently scarce, because of heavy expenditures for the armed forces, the Ashby recommendations and targets seem to be extremely unrealistic for future years. The States which have been established, appear to this writer, to be a factor‘ in compounding the problems for the development of truely national goals. The States have, by and large, been established along tribal lines, or at least along lines that will reinforce strong parochialism within the States. The Northern States appear to be divided fairly well into the social and polit- ical lines of the old emirates. The 9paganu tribes in the "Middle Belt" area have been lumped together in the Plateau State. What all of this means for future development of edu- cation in these States is uncertain. One conclusion, however, is clear. The present plan for decentralization of authority will make unified planning for education very difficult. The continuation of Sixth Forms in the future with their present "academic and bookish" orientation does not seem justifiable to this writer. The high rate of wastage which has been shown to exist for the Sixth Forms is a luxury which none of the Nigerian States can afford. If Sixth Forms are 228 to continue, the curricula should be expanded and broadened A so that more highly needed middle and high-level manpower can be produced. If Sixth Forms are to continue, Nigerians should have direct control of the examinations system and should carefully tailor the curriculum of the secondary schools and Sixth Forms to fit more closely to Nigeria's present needs as a nation and the greatly varying needs of the individual States. 229 II. POLICY STATEMENTS FOR H.S.C. ‘ Throughout various eras of the development of the Sixth Forms, various policy statements have been made which favored the expansion of the Sixth Forms. The earliest “policy" regarding the Sixth Forms was made by planning committees during 1950. The advice of Mr. C. Cox in 1949, that Cambridge University should set the examinations was heeded (see page 64). No discussion occured which envisioned a Nigerian examination agency which would co-ordinate the needs of the universities and the secondary schools specifically, to meet the needs of the nation. Rather, external control over the curriculum was assumed to assure that high academic standards would prevail. Dr. C.B. Jeffrey's advice was that an examination coun- cil should be established in Nigeria or West Africa, that would co-ordinate the examinations and curriculum of the sec- ondary schools (not including H.S.C.). The West African Exam- inations Council was established for this purpose. The Sixth Form, however, was not connected formally to the W.A.E.C., except that the W.A.E.C. acted as the co-ordinator for the H.S.C. examinations set in Cambridge and London universities (see page 65). The Ashby Report, through its general projection for manpower needs, affected Northern Region planning, and nu—- merous H.S.C. schools were opened. The basic assumption under~ lying this expansion was that Sixth Forms were training grounds for the university, (see page 95) which in turn was to produce the greatly needed high—level manpower for Nigeria. 230 One significant 'policy' statement was presented to the All Nigeria Principals' Conference in 1966 by Mallam Yaya Abubakar, the Acting Planning Officer for the Ministry of Ed- ucation. Mallam Abubakar's discussion of the "Second Devel= opment Plan" included the following statements: It is a foregone conclusion that secondary educa— tion_will go on increasing in size as rapidly as trained teachers and school buildings can be pro= vided. The country's manpower needs in the middle ranges are perhaps greatest of all. Emphasis has in the past been placed on the achievement of graduate status. Less has been done for the failed WASC stu- dent. It is he and the WASC holders (and HSC failers)1 who do not go on to university who are needed so urgently for middle ranges of manpower. 2 Mallam Abubakar pointed out that a possibility for various streams of H.S.C. existed, that is, that aside from the grammar stream, commercial sections could be established as well as technical-vocational and teacher preparation streams. This statement appears to the writer to be a statement which looks to the future in an insightful manner. If Mallam Abubakar"s concept of the role of the Sixth Form could have been deve10ped as early as 1960, much of the wastage could possibly have been avoided. This statement, though made as a suggestion to the Principals' Conference, and not made into Ministry policy for development, is significant. Embodied in _______________ 1Brackets mine. 2 Mallam Yaya Abubakar (speech), "Secondary Education Planning", recorded in the concept minutes of the All Nigeria Principals" Conference, Zaria, Sept. 30th, 1966. 3 Ibid. 231 this statement is the philosophy that Sixth Form work should ‘ be for the purpose of giving a broad liberal education; The statement reflects a Northern Nigerian's concern about the high degree of student wastage which the educational system in Northern Nigeria brings about. A small step toward the type of Sixth Form envisioned by Mallam Abubakar was made in Northern Nigeria in 1966. The Government College at Kaduna, in the Northern Capitol, had begun a commercial section in its secondary school program and had introduced a Sixth Form Economics course at Principal Level as well. Even if greater attempts are made to broaden the sec— ondary school and Sixth Form curriculum, one problem persists, This is the problem which arises out of the externally set syllabuses and the externally marked examinations. It is extremely difficult to envision what new policy decisions will be made in regard to Sixth Form expansion and development in the new States of Nigeria. There is, however, a need for a co-ordinated policy for the development of Sixth 1 Forms for Nigeria in the future at the national level. Such I a policy should take into consideration each State's unique social problems, finances, staffing and level of economic develOpment. M‘— The Lion, School Magazine, Government College Kaduna, 1966-1967, page 4. (The term Principal Level, designates the degree of success a candidate achieves on an examination. Certain marks rate a 'Principal Pass'. lesser, but still passu able marks are awarded a 'Subsidiary Pass'. _____# 232 III. CONCLUSIONS This study has traced the historical development of the Sixth Form and has described and analyzed various aspects of the work in the Sixth Form leading to the Higher School Certificate Examination. It has shown that the Sixth Form as presently structured and constituted, has as its exclusive purpose the training and preparation of students for univer= sity admission. Higher School Certificate Examination results clearly indicate that this objective for Sixth Form has been accomplished with a high degree of inefficiency. Only about fifty percent of these Higher School Certificate candidates have historically, been able to achieve minimal passes in two Principal subjects. Though some of the students who fail the H.S.C. Examination are probably absorbed into the man- power pool, and thus do not constitute an entire "waste", this loss of human talent raises questions about the efficiency and "shadow costs" of the Sixth Form program. It has not been one of the concerns of this study to focus in any depth on the problem of the costs of Sixth Form prOgrams, as compared to costs of an initial year of training in the university. This study has recognized that in the Sixth Forms, many problems have existed; however, this study is an initial historical overview and does not attempt to outline or prepose epecific recommendations for change. The future of the Sixth Form is uncertain. This study has shown that various groups and committees have been con. cerned about the role of the Sixth Form in the past, and 233 questions have been raised as to whether suitable alternatives to Sixth Form exist for the future. VicewChancellors' Committee A study group was commissioned by the ViceuChancellors of the Nigerian universities to carefully research the whole matter of the Sixth Form program, and bring specific recomm= endations and suggest possible alternatives for this program. The special committee for Sixth Form study was unable to carry out its work because it was disrupted by the civil war crisis. flgcent Proposals Concerning Sixth Form The most recent statements that have been made about the Sixth Form were made by the Committee on Education and Human Resource Development. This Committee published a doc~ ument, Nigerian Human Resource Development and Utilization, (Education and World Affairs), in December 1967.51n this doc- ument, the matter of Sixth Forms was discussed. Th0ugh this document was published six months after the research for this dissertation was completed, there are statements made in it that are significant. This document discusses three possible alternatives, in addition to the status quo, for Nigerian postusecondary education and speaks specifically about the future of the Sixth Form in this way: —_—_—_—.— Nigerian Human Resource Development and Utilization, (Education and World Affairs), Committee on Education and Human Resource Development, Ni erian Project Task Force, New York, December, 1967, (unbound). 234 10 The figs; would be to maintain and expand the Sixth Form system but to broaden its scape by adding terminal courses or associating it more closely with other post~sec~ ondary educational and training programs. 2. The second would be to eliminate the Sixth Form ens tirely, replacing it with an additional year in a fourmyear university course, which mould draw students directly from the secondary schools. 3. The thigg alternative would be the creation of a special institution to prepare students for university admission more effectively and at less cost than the present Sixth Form, by taking advantage of current undercutilized facilities and staff. The three alternatives mentioned above will, in all likflihood, be considered by any future committee or group commissioned to review the whole matter of Sixth Form and the Higher School Certificate Examination. Other'mlterflatives” or Questions Which Could Be Considered The writer concludes this study by suggesting the need to consider the following questions which could well be asked about Sixth Formsg 1, Should a nonuuniversity study committee be appointed? In addition to the committee commissioned by the ViceaChanm cellors of the universities, the Ministries of Education of the various States could appoint leading Nigerian Educators from rimar-, secondar , vocatioga; and teacher training levels to study the future of Sixth Forms. The work of the above 235 study committee could be co-ordinated by the Federal Ministry of Education, which could provide opportunity for discussions. between the above committee and the committee of Vice-Ghana cellors if it is able to resume its work. 2, Should the ”status quoW be maintained but broadened during this period of crisis? The Sixth Forms that presently exist could continue to operate and function as before during the period of crisis which exists because of the civil war. The question is asked, however, should the curriculum of the existing Sixth Form be broadened so that it will provide a broader academic education and/or vocational training for those who do not pass the Higher School Certificate Examination and gain entry into the universityz 3. Should the Sixth Form and the Higher School Certificate Examination be abandoned? The question is asked as to whether the two year Sixth Form program, as well as the Higher School Certificate Examination should be totally abandonedz This ques- tion or possible ”alternative" could be considered with the secondary schools in mind, rather than the universities and their entry requirements per se. The question of the abandon- ment of the Sixth Form could possibly be considered with the following questions in mind: a. Would it free qualified staff presently teaching in the Sixth Forms to teach in the five year secondary school Program? b. Would it free classroom space, laboratories and 11» braries presently used by the select few Sixth Form students? 236 0. Would it allow those who are bright and academically inclined and interested in pursuing university work, an opporw tunity for a much broader education in the secondary schools? d, Would it allow for expansion of the secondary school program at this time without the need to construct many addi» tional facilities, in an atmosphere free from external control? 9, Would it free funds now invested in training small numbers of Sixth Form students to be used for the introduction of sound vocational and technical training programs within existing secondary schools? f. Would it eliminate the "elitist" aura which surrounds the Sixth Form classes in the secondary schools at the present time? *****,* There is no doubt that the " . . . time has surely come for careful examination of the alternatives for prom university preparation 5 . ."6as well as considering the viability of Sixth Form pregrams and Higher School Certifi- cate Examinations for the future in Nigeria. h— 61bid, p.62. 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Annual Report of Education Department, 1947, Sessional Paper No.4, of 1949, Laid on the Table of Legislative Council, 1949, Government Printers, Lagos. Annual Report of Education Department, for year 1948, Sess- ional Paper No.8, of 1950, Laid on the Table of Legis- lative Council, Lagos: Government Printers, 1950. Annual Report of the Department of Education, for the year 949, Sessional Paper No. 16 of 1951, Government Printer, Lagos, 1951. Annual Report of the Department of Education, for period of Jan.1, 1950 to March 31, 1951, Laid on the Table of the House of Representatives as Sessional Paper No.9 of 1952, Government Printers, Lagos, 1952. (Para.70). Annual Report of the Education Department, Northern Region, April 1953 — March 1954, Government Printers Publisher, Kaduna, 1954. 237 Annual Summary of Education Department of Northern Nigeria, 1956~1957, Government Printer, Kaduna, 1957. I050, ViceaChancellors Annual Report, 1965-1966, Ahmadu 89110 University, Northern Nigeria, 1966, Audu, Dr, Circular, No. SSG.22/134, Ministry of Education, Nov,24, 1965, "Subsidiary Subjects in Sixth Forms". Circular, No, SSG.4/Vol.II/336, Ministry of Education, Kaduna, Jan. 4th, 1965, "Secondary School Curriculum"o Classes, Enrollment and Teachers in the Schools of Northern Nigeria, Planning and Development Division, Ministry of Education, Kaduna, Northern Nigeria, 1964. Classes, Enrollment and Teachers in the PostuPrimary Schools of Northern Provinces of Nigeria, 1966, Planning and Development Division, Ministry of Education, Kaduna, 1966. Committee of Vice~Chancellors, Record of Proceedings, Friday, October 15, 1965, (mimeographedj. Concept Minutes: Speech of Mr. J,O. Mejabi to All Nigerian Principals Conference, Tuesday, Sept. 30th, 1966, Zaria, (mimeographed). Conference of Principals of Secondary Schools, To Discuss Post—School Certificate Work in Nigeria, 20th January, 1950, "Minutes of the Meeting”, (mimeographed), Conference Report 1966, All Nigeria Principals'Conference, Zaria, TPrivate Circulation). Development Plan, 1962—1968, First Progress Report, Ministry of Economic Planning, Kaduna, 1964, (mimeographed). Draft Report of Dr. G.B, Jeffrey to the Secretary of State, March 1, 1950, "Extract from Draft", (mimeographed), Educational Development in Nigeria, 1961-1970, "A Report“, March 1961, Lagos: Federal Government Printers (Re- stricted)a "Educational Problems and Progress in 1952", Northern Region of Nigeria, Government Printer, 1953, (mimeographed), "Fact Sheets on Nigeria", Ref. No. F, Ministry of Information, Kaduna, Northern Nigeria, August, 1965. 239 Federal Education Department, Nigeria, Digest of Statistics, 1960, Published by Federal Information Service for the Chief Advisor on Education, Lagos, 1960. Form: Federal Education, ST/02/66, page S (mimeographed). Government College Zaria, H.S.C° Enrollment Record, Confid- ential File, Government College Zaria, H.S.Co Examination Results for 1964~1965, (mimeographed). "Legislative Council Debates", March 24, 1948, Lagos, Nigeria. Letter: "Post School Certificate Work", No, DEX 5102/105, Headquarters, Education Department, Lagos, Nigeria, Jan° 26th, 1950, for Director of Education, Letter:from A.w. Spicer, Principal Secondary School Zaria, 288 No. 271/26, 15th February, 1950, "Post School Cert- ificate Work“. Letter: Director of Education; Re: Resolution passed at Meeting of Principals of Secondary Schools on 21st January 1950, Lagos, 26th January, 1950. Letter: Re: H.S,C., No. 095. 3067/153,7th ApriL 1951, by R..J° Mason, Ag. Director of Education. Letter: Document 2526, parao1, Director of Education, Lagos, April 7, 1951, No. D.E° 3067/159. Letter: to the Honourable Minister of Education, Northern Nigeria, May 26, 1962. Letter: No. SSC.2/247, Ministry of Education, 20th June, 1962, "Parity Esteem". Letter: Ministry of Education, Re: Capital for Openings of New H.S,C, streams, July 17, 1964. Letter: Ministry of Education, "Sixth Form Selection", 1965 for admission 1966, April 3, 1965. Letter: Ministry of Education, "Development of Secondary Ed— ucation", PLAN/GEN/73/154, 1965. Letter: Ministry of Education, Kaduna, 29th December, 1966° Letter: Ministry of Education, "Development of Secondary Ed- ucation", PLAN/GEN/73/187, 1966. J,O,, Tape Recording: Speech presented at the 1966 All Nigeria Principals Conference, Zaria, Mejabi, Mr. Memorandum on Educational Policy in Nigeria, Laid on the Table of the Legislative Council as Sessional Paper N00 20, 1947. (Secretary of State"s Advisory Committee). Ministry of Education, Higher School Certificate Courses, 1966, (mimeographed , "Minorities Commission a Northern Region", Map 3, Federal Survey Department, Nigeria, 1958, "Minutes of the Meeting of the Northern Regional Board of Education, Held in Lugard Hall, 22nd and 23rd June,1960", Item 4, p.6. para,4(xiii), National Archives, Kaduna, File Noo DDN 1916, Sub-File 13, Secondary School Teachers, Subjects Taught. National Development Plap, Progress Report, 1964, Federal Ministry of Economic Development, Lagos, 1964. Nigeria: Report of the Commission Appointed to Enquire Into the Fears of Minorities and the Means of Allaying Thee, Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, by Command of Her Majesty, July 1958, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. Numbers of Pupils in Sixth Forms and H,S,C° Results, Actual/ Estimated, 1961-1968, Ministry of Education, Planning Division, Kaduna, Oct.31, 1966, (mimeographed , Pioneer Magazine, Annual Publication of Government College, Keffi, 1966. "Proceedings of the General Conference on Review of the Con~ stitution", Jan. 1950, Lagos, "Reference Committee on Secondary Education", Minute No.3, (Item III on Agenda), The Development of Sixth Form Work, April 1960, Lagos, Report of the Commission on Higher Education in West Africa, Her Majesty°s Stationery Office, London, June 1945o Report of the Comparative Education Seminar Abroad, Sept. 2 m Nov. 30, Ministry of Education, Eastern Nigeria, Official Document No. 21, of 1963, Government Printer, Enuguo 241 Report of the Education Department, Laid on the Table of Legislative Council as Sessional Paper 15 of 1947, 1st April, 1945 to 31st December 1946, Northern Nigeria, 1946, Report of the Visitation, Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, March/April 1958, Dr. Greenway and Sons Ltd., Day and Night Printers, London, 1958. Secret Document, The Permanent Secretary of Education, Kaduna, 1962. School Statistics of Northern Nigeria, 1962, Government Printers, Kaduna, 1963. Speech presented by Alhaji Sir Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto, to Government Secondary School Zaria, Sept.6, 1963, Government Printers, Kaduna. Steps On the Path to Progress, Ministry of Education, The Government of Northern Nigeria, (mimeographed). Ten Year Educational Plan, Government Printer, Lagos, Copy of the deepatch to Secretary of State for the Colonies and copy on comments on plan of Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, 1942. The Admissions Register, Government College Zaria, 1921=1967. The Lion, School Magazine of Government College, Kaduna, 1966-1967. The List, Government College Zaria, 1964. i H., Tape Recording of Speech, Government College Thomas, Mr. 1966° Zaria, All Nigeria Principals' Conference, Titcombe Secondary School: H.S.C. Examination Results, Lists for 1964-1965, (mimeographed). University of Ibadan and Sixth Form, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, (mimeographed, undated, but later than 1966)‘ West African Examinations Council, "Higher School Certifa icate/General Certificate of Education Examination, 1966", National Summary of Results Statistics, (mim~ eographed). 242 PERSONS INTERVIEWED DURING 1966-1967 ABOUT SIXTH FORMS AND HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE ESTABLISHMENT Note: Principals and Ministry of Education Officials were most kind in providing a great deal of printed matter about Sixth Forms. This printed material consisted of School Lists, Magazines and newspapers, Pass Lists, School Timetables, Lists of Set Books, Texts used for Sixth Forms, Library Accessions Registers information, Annual Reports, School Statistics for H,S,C, and the like. Most of this information has not been directly quoted in this dissertation, however comprises the bulk of the working files for each of the schools researched,and which was extremely helpful in the analysis of the H,S,Co programs in Northern Nigeria. Adeniyi, M,S,, Principal of St,”Paul's College Zaria, Feb, 10, 1967, and June 8, 1967, and Sept. 2, 1966° . Abolayan, Mr, T,A.F., Principal of Government College Kano, June, 1967. Allen, Mr. A.R,, Tutor at Ahmadu Bello University, June 21, 967. Carty, Rev. Father 5., Principal of St. John's College Kaduna, (RCM) June 12, 19 7 Cotton, Mr. M,B,, Principal of Boys" Secondary School Gina diri, (SUM) June 19~20, 1967, and Vice-Principal Mr. P,F. Bradford. Crampton, Mr. E,P,T,, Principal of Government Secondary School Katsina, April, 1966 and June 1967, and Vice» Principal Mr. Ogun Tebi, May, 1967. Davies, Miss E,B,, Principal of Queen Elizabeth Secondary School Ilorin, July 6, 1967. Davis, Mr. P,H., Principal of Federal Science School Sokoto, June 23, 1967. Eikenberry, Dr. Ivan, Secretary of N.E,A,C. Kaduna, June 8, 1967. Gordon, Mr. J., Principal of Government Secondary School Kuru, June 15 and July, 1967, and Mr. 5,1, Ocheja, Vice» Principal, and Mr. M,G, Ojo, Bursar. 243 Farrar, Mr. D.J,K,, Principal of Government Secondary School Okene, July 9, 1967. Haimes, Miss A., Principal of Government Girls College Kano, June, 1967. Kankiya, Alhaji Labo, Bursar of Government Secondary School Katsina, June, 1967, Marcroft, Mr. J,M., Principal of Government Secondary School Ilorin, July, 1967. Mejabi, Mr. J,O,, Acting Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Education, Kaduna, Four interviews during 1966-1967, Motojesi, Mr. C,A,, Geography Master at Government Secondary School Bida, 1967. Muhammad, Mr. Yakubu, Planning Division of the Ministry of Education, June 12, 1967. Ocheja, Mr. 5,1,, Vice-Principal of Government Secondary School Kuru, June 15, 1967. Ojo, Mr. M.G., Bursar, Government Secondary School Kuru, June, 1967. Oyeyemi, Mr. Y.F., Principal of Government Secondary School Bida, July 1~3, 1967, Patient, Mr. E.C., Government College Keffi, June 29—30, 1967. Pollock, Mr. C., Principal of Government College Kaduna, June, 1967. Roberts, Mr. T., Principal of Government College Zaria, June, 1967. Salako, Mr. J,A,, Examination Section of Ministry of Educ: ation, Kaduna, Four interviews during 1966-1967. Sambo, Mallam B°,Principal of Government Secondary School Maiduguri, June 1-2, 19670 Smart, Mr. R.J., Principal of Government Secondary School Yola, May 29-31, 1967. Spary, Mr. G.B,, Ministry of Education, Planning Division, Kaduna, June 13, 1967. 244 B. SECONDARY SOURCES BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS Ademoyega, Wale, B.A., The Federation of Nigeria, From Earl- iest Times to Independence, London: George G. Harrap & Co, Ltd., 1962. African Education, A Study of Educational Pelicy and Practice in British Tropical Africa, for the Nuffield Foundation and the Colonial Office, Oxford: Charles Batey, Printer to the University Press, 1953, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Northern Nigeria Government Printer, Kaduna, 1963. Alexander, W.P., Education in England, The National System s How It Works, London: Newness Educational Publishing Co. Ltd., 1956. Ashby, Eric, Universities: British, Indian, AfricanL A Study on the Ecology of Higher Education, Harvard University Press, Mass., 1966. Balewa, Sir Abubakar Tafawa, "Nigeria Looks Ahead“, quoted in Africa, ed. Philip W. Ouigg, Frederick A, Praeger, London, 1964. Bamford, T,W,, The Rise of the Public Schools, (A Study of Boys“ Public Boarding Schools in England and Wales from 1830 to the Present Day), London: Thomas Nelson Ltd., 1967. Bernard, H.C., A History of English Education from 1760, London: University of London Press, 1963. Barnard H.C., and Lauwerys, J,A,, A Handbook of the British Educational System, London: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1963. Baron, G., Society Schools and Progress in England, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1965. Batten, T.R., Problems of African Development, Part II, Government and People, London: Oxford University Press, 1948. Borg, Walter R., Educational Research, An Introduction, New York: David McKay Co, Inc., 1967. 245 Callaway, A., and Musone A., Financing of Education in Nig- . eria, African Research Monograph 15, UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning, 1968. Calendar, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, 1965, Coleman, James 5., Ni eria, Background to Nationalism, Berke=v ley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1958. Curtis, S.J., History of Education in Great Britain, London: University Tutorial Press Ltd., 1966. (Sixth Edition). Dent, H,C,,The Education Act, 1944, London: Univeristy of London Press, Ltd., 1957. (Sixth Edition). Growth in Education, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1964. Facts About Northern Nigeria, Ministry of Information, Kaduna, 1965. Garraghan, Gilbert, A Guide to Historical Method, New York: Fordham University Press, 1946. Good, Carter V., Introduction to Educational Research, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959. Gottschalk, Louis, Understanding History: A Primer of Hist- orical Method, New York: Alfred A. KnOpf, Inc., 1951. Handlin, Oscar, Schlesinger, Arthur,et al, Harvard Guide to American History, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1954. Hanson, John W., Education, Nsukka, A Study in Institution ’ Building Among the Modern Ibo, Michigan State University Press, 1968. i Hockett, Homer C., The Critical Method in Historical Research and Writin , New York: Macmillan Co., 1955. Ikejiani, Okechukwu, editor, (Co-authors, J.W. Hanson, P,U° Ikeke, J.O. Anowi), Ni erian Education, Nigeria: Long— mans of Nigeria, Publisher, Ikeja, Western Printing ‘ Services, Ltd., Great Britain: Bristol, 1964. Investment in Education, The Report of the Commission on Post-School Certificate and Higher Education in Nigeria, 1960, Federal Ministry of Education, Nigeria. 246 Kerlinger, Fred W., Foundations of Behavioral Research, Educ~ ational and Psychological Inquiry, New York: Holt, Rine- hart and Winston, Inc., 1965. Kilby, Peter, Technical Education in Nigeria, 1945-65, A Critical Survey, Preliminary Version, Nigerian SRP AID, August, 1966. Nduka, Otonti, Western Education and the Nigerian Cultural Background, London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Nigerian Human Resource Development and Utilization, (Educ- ation and World Affairs), Committee on Education and Human Resource Development, Nigerian Project Task Force, New York: (unebound) December, 1967. Okere, C,A,, Education in Nigeria, Considered in Connection with Educational Developeent in British Tropical Africa, unpublished M,Ao Thesis, Institute of Education, Univer- sity of London, 1945. Pedley, F,H,, M.A., The Educational System in England and Wales, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1964. Phillipson, S. (C.M,G,), Nigeria: Grant in Aid of Education in Nigeria, Government Printers, Lagos, 194B. 15 to 18: Report of the Central Advisory Council for Education -England, Vol.1, Ministry of Education, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, Vol.II, Report, 1959. Sasnett, Martena, and Sepmeyer, Inez, Educational Systems of Africa, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. Schwarz, Walter, Nigeria, London: Pall Mall Press, 1968. Secondary Examinations Other Than G.C,E:, (Report of a Committee Appointed by the Secondary School Examinations Council in July 1958), Ministry of Education, Great Britain, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1960. The Nigerian Situation, Facts and Background, Gaskiya Corpor— ation, Zaria, 1966. Travers, Robert M.W., An Introduction to Educational Research, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1958. University Development in Nigeria, Report of the National Un- iversities Commission, Federal Ministry of Information, Nigeria National Press, Apapa, 1963. 247 Williams, D,H,, A Short Survey of Education in Northern Nigeria, Nigeria: Kaduna, Ministry of Education North- ern Region of Nigeria, for the occasion of Self Govern- ment Celebrations, 1959° PERIODICAL LITERATURE Brown, G.N., "General Studies in the Sixth Form", West Af— rican Journal of Education, March 1962. Classen, C.J., "Quo Vadis, West African Education?" West African Jourqel of Education, February 1959. "Conference on the Development of Sixth Forms in Nigeria", West African Journal of Education, March 1962. Davis, P.N., "Problems Connected with the Introduction of a Sixth Form in a Nigerian Secondary School", West African Journal of Education, March 1962. Deakin, J., "Changes in Examinations for West African Seen ondary Schools", fleet African Jourqel of Education, June 1964. Gentle, Miss M., "The Sixth Form at Queen's College, Lagos", West African Jourqel of Education, March 1962. "The Sixth Form in Secondary Schools", West African Journal of Education, October, 1965. Keffi Government College Magazine, No. 7, 1959. Koerner, James D., "Reform and Revolution in English Educ- ation", The Saturda Review, January 21, 1967. Manley, RoEo, "The Character of Nigerian Grammar Schools", West African Journal of Education, February 1959. Nigeria, News from Information Division Nigerian Consulate- General, Features Service Bulletin, New York, (undated), Taylor, Professor A., "The Development of Sixth Forms in Ni, geria", West African Jourqel of Education, March 1962, The Nigerian Christian, Vol.1, No.2, May 1967, pp.10-11. "The Sixth Form and After", West African Journal of Education, February 1965. Woody, Thomas, "Of History and Its Method", Journal of Ex- perimental Education, 1947, pp.175-201. 248 SUPPLEMENATRY BIBLIOGRAPHY OF REFERENCES ON HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM "Assessing Work in School: Examination Changes Preposed", Times Education Supplement, 16922530, Oct. 4, 1947. Bailey, C.W., "Reform of Examinations in Secondary Schools in England", Education Outlook, 5:85—94, January, 1931. Carey, R.M., "Examinations Under Criticism", Journal of Educ- ation, (London), 63:233u235, April, 1931. Davies, H., "Grammar School and a Reformed School Certifi— cate", Journal of Education, (London) 782655-656, December, 1946. Douie, C., "Norwood Report", Journal of Education, (London), 75:406w September 1943. Elam, J.F,, "Certificate History", Journal of Education, (London), 78:312— October, 1945. "External Examinations; Major Reforms Proposed", Times Ed- ucational Supplement, 1621:245, May 25, 1946. Fowler, J.S,, "The Origin of the General Certificate", Brit- ish Journal of Educational Studies, 7:140—14B, May 1959. Jeffrey, G.B,, ed. External Examination in Secondary Schools: Their Place and Function, London, G. Harrap, 1958. Norwood, C., "Reform of the Secondary School Examination Sys- tem in England", Secondary Education, 13:16-18, Sept. 1968. Petch, J.A., "Comparison of the Orders of Merit of H.S.C° Can- didates Offering Two Modern Languages", British Journal of Educational Studies, 15:133-138, November 1945. "Reform of the Higher School Certificate; A Discussion", in Conference of Educatioqel Associations, 24th Annual Report, 1936. u Roach, J.O,, "Modern Studies and the Higher Certificate", Times Educationel Supplement, 1043:133, April 27, 1935. 1| Secondary School Curriculum; Tyranny of Examinations", Times Educational Supplement, 1383:520, November 1, 1941. Shelton, H.S., "Examinations in Secondary Schools", Journal of Education, (London), 80:16- January, 1948. APPENDICES 249 APPENDIX A CONFERENCE OF PRINCIPALS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS TO DISCUSS POST—SCHOOL CERTIFICATE WORK IN NIGERIA, 20th JAN. 1950 1) Letter. Headquarters, Educ. Dept. Nigeria, Lagos, 26th Jan. 195 . The Deputy Director, Northern Provinces, Kaduna. " " " Eastern " Enugu° " " " Western " Ibadan° The Colony Education Officer. 1. I forward herewith copy of a resolution which was carried at the recent meeting of Principals of Secondary Schools, University Colleges' delegates and Dr. Jeffrey. 2. Will you please bring this resolution to the notice of Their Honours and the Commissioner of the Colony, and do everything you can to ensure that the matter is fully dis- cussed at the forthcoming Area Developments Committee Meetings with a view to getting the priority so urgently required for the Regional Colleges. F.K. Butler, for Director of Education. 2) Resolution, RESOLUTION PASSED AT MEETING OF PRINCIPALS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS ON 21st JANUARY, 1950. This Conference, realising the urgency of the need for providing postaschool Certificate education for Nigerian stu— dents who are about to proceed to the United Kingdom and other overseas universities, requests the Government to give immed- iate attention to this question by accelerating the establish- ment of the Nigerian College which could provide such courses. This meeting urges that pressure be brought on the Area Dev= elopment Boards to this end. As an interim measure, it is sugn gested that the Government Secondary Schools be given, as a matter of priority, additional staff, equipment and accomm~ odation. 250 3) Those Present:- Mr. F.K. Butler, Acting Deputy Director of Education (HO)- Chairman. Miss G. Plummer, O,B.E., Deputy Director of Education (woman). Miss I.M. Judd, Registrar of Examinations. Mr. W.H. Thorp, Principal, Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology. Dr. G.B. Jeffrey, Director of the Institute of Education, London. Rev. Father Jordon, Educational Adviser to the R.C. Mission. Mr. A.W.A. Spicer, (for Chief Inspector of Education, Northern Provinces. Mr. T.B. Child, (for Colony Education Officer.) Miss M.M. Saunders, Colony Woman Education.Officer. Mr° R.J. Bunting, Principal, King's College, Lagos. Miss E. Hobson, Principal, Queen’s College, Lagos. Mr. B.A. Adelaja, Principal, C.M.S. Grammar School, Lagos. Mr. A.B. Oyediran, Principal, Methodist Boys' High School, Lagos° Rev. Father Mackle, Principal, St.Gregory's College, Lagos. Mr. N.P. Morris, Principal, Igbobi College, Yaba. Mother Mary Magdalene, Principal, Holy Child Convent, Lagos. Miss N. Wedmore, Principal, C.M.S. Girls' School, Lagos. Mr. A. Hunt-Cooke, Acting Chief Inspector of Education, Western Provinces. Miss U.M. Orme, Chief Woman Education Officer, Western Provinces. Mr. H.H° Jeffers, Principal, Government College, Ibadan. Rev. Sister Louis Bertrand, Principal, St. Theresa”s College Ibadan. Rev. S.A. Adeyefa, Principal, Oduduwa College, Ile Ife. Mr. A.H. Parnaby, Acting Chief Inspector of Education, Eastern Provinces. WIS. E.D. Mather, Acting Chief Woman Education Officer, Eastern Provinces. Rev. Father Clifford, Principal, Christ the King College, T Onitsha. Rev° Father Sandvoss, Principal, St. Patrick's College,Calabar° Rev. Mother Anselm, Principal, Cornelia Connelly College, Uyo. RSV. E.C. Clark, Principal, Dennis Memorial Grammar School, Onitsha° Rev. R.F. Steven, Principal, Hope Waddell Institute, Calabar. Rev. Mother McHugh, Principal, Holy Rosary Convent, Onitsha. ' Dr. K. Mellanby, O.B.E. Principal, University College, Ibadan° MT. E.A. Cadle, University College, Ibadan. Mr. C.J. Potter, University College, Ibadan. Mr, F.P.G. Hunter, Registrar, University College, Ibadan. Mr, G. Braithwaite, University College, Ibadan. Mr. E.E. Esua, M.B.E. General Secretary, Nigeria Union of Teachers. Rev. 5.1. Kale. ' 251 4) The Meeting:— The Chairman introduced Dr. Jeffrey, who Spoke as follows:= "As you know, I am here to advise on the setting up of a West African Examinations Council. When I have made up my mind about that I am to report back to the pe0ple who appointed me. In the meantime I think I might tell you the broad con» clusions at which I have arrived, off the record. I think a good purpose would be served by setting up such a Council. For good or ill the kind of examinations that operate here are going to have a big effect upon the develop: ment of education in all its aspects. Therefore one wants to be sore that there is a body that is competent to keep under constant review this whole problem of examinations from the point of view of doing the thingsithat will help the right development of education and avoiding some of the faults that we all know are inherent in examinations. I think we can only get a body sufficiently broad if we build up on a regional basis. I am therefore suggesting that we should have in the four territories seven regions, and committees, not too large, sitting in each of those regions, consisting of the approp- riate officers of the Education Department and substantially the principals of schools that are directly involved in ex- aminations. The job of these Regional Committees would be to give preliminary consideration to matters that ultimately would come before the full Council, and they would not, as I see it, be bodies with executive or administrative powers. There is a numerical problem of constructing a Council that can be sufficiently representative and yet be of a size that is practicable to meet at least once a year without undue ex- penditure of time and money. I think that could be built up by starting with a representation of, say, a couple of people from each of the seven Regional Committees, adding represen- tatives of the University Colleges, the appropriate ex-officio members such as the Directors of Education and so on - a body of about 30-35 that would be in a position to have an expert Opinion about the relation of examinations to educational needs here, and a body on the other hand whose opinion would carry great weight both within the territories and in U.K. and other places. That is really as far as my official business goes. It would be the job of'that Council, I think, when it was in ex- istence to consider some very big educational problems and one Of these problems is the matter that is chiefly occupying you this morning, the relation of schools to Higher Certificate work. If that is to be the job of an expert and weighty body of this sort, I do not think it is really for me to attempt to say what the answer to the problem is, At the same time I am going to venture, as a friendly observer, not very well informed, to offer a word of warning, that in this matter it does seem to me you are rather rushing your fences. The kind ‘ of qualification I have for offering an opinion of that sort, apart from being a friendly observer, is that I have lived through the whole period of the evolution of the Higher School Certificate in England; I have been concerned with its administration for a good many years and I was also one of a small group who were primarily responsible in the Univ— ersity of London for inducing the University to accept the responsibility which it has accepted towards Colonial Univ~ ersity Colleges. There are certain broad matters that have cleared themselves in mind through the consideration of that range of problems. One is, that there are very good reasons why administratively Universities should be under separate con- trol from the schoolsof a country and from its Education Departments or Ministries of the country. There are very sound reasons for that, but on the other hand one of the fundamental problems in the educational system of any country is to achieve the right kind of relationship between the universities serving that country and the secondary schools which feed those universities - in particular, a Sufficiently clear understanding of the rather hazy line of demarcation that marks where school work ends and university work begins. There is nothing absolute by which that line of demarcation can be determined at all° It varies from one subject to another - quite commonly in universities of the U.K. and elsewhere, subjects which are not commonly pursued at school begin from the very beginning in the university, such as Geology. It is a line too that varies from time to time in the evolution of the educational system in any country and I have got it very clearly in mind that in England there has been a period of 40 years over which a substantially complete transition has been made in relation to the field of studies, which we can broadly call Sixth Form work or First Year at the University, to be attempted in schools at all. University courses were organized on the footing that the undergraduates who came to them were at what we should now call School Certificate level. Over a period of 40 years we got a growing proportion of those who have been able to do this work at school, but it was only after 40 years that we arrived, a couple of years ago, at the conclusion that the time had come in England to shift that line in respect of all those subjects which are normally part of the school curri- Culum, and that the work which had formerly occupied the first year at the university could be handed over completely to the schoolsn It was the result of 40 years' evolutionary process in England, and while we might hope that some period Of less than 40 years might suffice in Africa, I was a little surprised to find that it was contemplated within 40 months. It seems an undue shortening of the period of evolution. 253 This must vary from country to country. It needs very careful watching, particularly in a period when secondary education is being formed, that you keep the right kind of adjunction between schools and universities. It is not to be supposed that every university will have its beginning point the same, though one would hope that it would be assumed that universities generally would have a fixed end point and that their degrees would represent substantially equivalent measures of achievement. That, I think, particularly applies within the scope of the University of London operating through its internal and external degrees; it would be contrary to your wishes and the University practice if it was possible for one moment to suggest that the standard required for degrees of London University awarded in west Africa was anything less than those awarded in the U.Ko But it does not follow from that, that the work of the University can begin at the same stage here as it begins in England, unless you are quite sure that the schools are able to work to that and that you are not leaving a quite dangerous gap between school and the university. It will be obvious to everybody that the dangers of that gap are of several kinds. You may take a period which is of very special importance in the development of an undera graduate, the initial period of university work in which his attitude towards study is formed and which is going to follow him through the rest of his academic life s and if you treat it in a weak or unsatisfactory way your university is going to be dogged by that circumstance, that there is something fundamentally wrong at the root of the training of its underu graduates. What I want tg suggest fig; your consideration lg that 3 fig ggt think that generally speaking the secondary schools i3 Nigeria ggg ready tg undertake Egg Sixth Form work £2“ gresented by a full Higher School Certificate with EBB 25¢ gectation that that work can be done in the immediate future ———u_—.—_—_—_—————————-—————————- in a way that would represent a sound foundation for univera sity worko I think your policy should be at this particular stage of development to consolidate the work of the secondary schools up to the Fifth Form level. There is still work of consolidation of that sort to be done in many of the secon— dary schools and it is worth doing because it is all import» ant that however far you go you should go on sound lines and be sure you have built up from the beginning. The immediate Problem is the consolidation of the work of the secondary schools up to that level. While that is going on, I see no reason at all why there should not be useful and tentative experiments with the forms of Sixth Form work which turn out to be most profitable. I am not sure that you are yet in a Position to say that Higher Certificate as conceived in the UOK. is the best form for all pupils who stay on after School Certificate in secondary schools. That range of problems needs 254 careful approach and experiment over a period of years. With that in mind I am venturing to question the tentative conclusion which has been arrived at here that the time is rips, or will come within a very short period of years, in which the University will say, "We will no longer tackle this kind of work," even if you say we will in the initial period hand it over only to certain schools. I am conscious of my limitations in this matter but am offering these remarks as a warning or a red light. If by chance my SUSpicions are well founded, then I think the consequences to secondary education here may be very serious. We have seen in England the very serious dangers to sound secondary school work which arise when a school which is not really quite ready to tackle the higher work in the Sixth Form feels that under the obligation of dignity or something else it must do it and put up a good show. It sucks the life blood out of the rest of the school and the work in the lower part of the school suffers because there is a premature effort to do things at the top. These are matters which you ought to consider very carefully at this stage.“ Following on Dr. Jeffrey's opening address, the Prin- cipal of King“s College asked whether Dr. Jeffrey would gals Ex the reguirements g: the universities 53erseas, i2- cluding America. He said that the standards 9: admission seemed tg 22 growing higher each year gag fig wanted 22 know what would haggen tg students i3 Nigeria EDS wished t2 gg abroad tg universities who did not come up to these stand- ards. Dr. Jeffrey replied that there would always be diffs iculty if one tried to gear the schools of one country to the universities of another. He hoped that the practice would grow up that West African students would look for their undergraduate studies to the West African University Colleges. and that the necessity for them to go abroad at the undergraduate stage would diminish, but that greater facilities should beavaflable for West African graduates to go abroad at the next stage. It appeared that at the mom~ ent Ibadan was not able to provide for all the potential Nigerian undergraduates and that therefore for some time to come there would be many Nigerians of the undergraduate type who would seek to come direct to England. This was not an ideal state of affairs and it gave rise to the practical problem that they had got to face up to the standard entrance requirements which entailed two subjects at substantially Higher School Certificate level. The Principal, Dennis Memorial Grammar School, agreed that the problem of "rushing fences" was a very real one. He said that they had been struggling for many years to try and make secondary schools a place where education was 255 provided rather than just "cram shOps" for the School Certificate examination and that just as they were be— ginning to go forward in this respect they had had this bombshell of having to provide for the Higher as well as the School Certificate if they were to get their students into a university. It was inevitable that School Certif» icate work would suffer. With their present staff they could not do both adequately for two or three years at least. He would like to suggest that the Ibadan Univer» sity College authorities should be asked to postpone their requirements for some little time after 1952. He had hoped that the Elliot Commission recommendations for territorial colleges would help to bridge the gap. He mentioned also that there was another problem in the question of staff, because University College, Ibadan, occasionally competed with secondary schools for staff. Mr. Braithwaite mentioned that students were trying to go to Ibadan to take an Intermediate course with a view to proceeding to another university abroad, and he did not consider that it was good for U.C.I. to accept this, namely providing what is in England a school course. Dr. Jeffrey agreed that U.C.I. should not accept the gosition gfi being g preparatory school for universities lg England. The Principal, Methodist Boys' High School, Lagos, asked Dr. Jeffrey to expatiate a little more on "tentative experiments" whilst consolidation took place. Dr. Jeffrey was glad of the chance to dispel any impression he might have given that he did not think well of secondary school work as being done in Nigeria at present. It was ineVitable that at this stage of developments examinations should bulk too largely in the mind of African students. He said that there was a great opportunity for experimenting with freer work in a secondary school that had done its job well up to the Fifth Form level and had encouraged a larger and larger probortion of boys and girls to stay on for one or two years after that level. There would be certain pupils at that stage who could undertake very useful studies not directed at any examination. Such students might not even be going on to a university. There was a whole field of discovery for experiment in theory and practice of what were the prow fitable forms of Sixth Form work other than plain Higher School Certificate. He gave it as his opinion that thefie l was no objection to tentative experiments in Higher Sc 00 courses but that there should not be a set programme. After some discussion on the Scottish Leaving Certif- icate, Deputy Director (Women) gave the meeting the cgnc us— ions reached at a recent conference of women princ pa 3. They now had eleven girls“ secondary schools at viiious levels; there were three which had been fairly we 256 established for a period of years and which now had Sixth Forms; the others were painfully building up their schools. The unanimous Opinion of the principals of these schools as expressed at the conference (Dr. Jeffrey’s views which they had heard only crystallised the opinions that the princip- als brought with them) was that as far as girls“ education was concerned, the time was not ripe for the introduction of Higher School Certificate work. They wished to develop Sixth Form work in one shape or another and they would like to experiment with various forms of work, but as a matter of organic growth and not as forced development due to outside factors. It was true that many of the boys“ schools were much farther forward than the girls” schools, but at the same time the women principals did want to encourage the girls to go to the university on equal terms with the men. The principals felt very strongly that if they were forced to take even the first year necessary, at their present stage of development, they would lose all the benefits of the work they had put in so conscientiously and pains~ takingly over many years. These schools had got to con~ solidate and the roots in the lower part of the school must have time for a proper organic growth. The actual conclusion reached by the women principals was that the time was not ripe for the introduction of Higher School Certificate work in 1951 and that U.C.I. should be pressed to postpone the abolition of its pre-Intermediate year and the consequent raising of its entrance standards. The Principal of University College (Dr. Mellanby) said that U.C.I. was 13 g very difficult position. They were i3 danger g: becoming g preparatory school fig; British universities. He agreed that some compromise must be reached for this country regarding standards of entry but if they were to work to a final degree standard equivalent to that now being introduced at London University, it would take longer, if students entered at a lower stage, to reach that final stage, and that would mean taking in fewer students. If the course was put up to five years, only a hundred students a year could gain admission. If, on the other hand, those students could stay longer at school, it would mean that U.C.I. could turn out for the same amount of work, a larger number of graduates. He did not consider that there was any hope that they would be able to introduce, even in the next few years, a system in which the Intermediate course was eliminated, as it could be if the Higher School Certificate was taken at the standard at which it was taken at many schools in Britain at present. He assumed that they would still have to run an Intermediate course for some time, but what they hoped was as soon as possible to be able to eliminate a twg year Intermediate course. The suggestion that schools might put up their standards and take something equivalent to Higher School Certificate subsidiary subjects 257 would mean that students would go to University College, . Ibadan, amply prepared for a gag year Intermediate course. He thought that a compromise of that nature was probably the only solution at present, but that unless entry stand- ards could be raised they would have to keep students for a longer number of years, which would reduce the numbers and the efficiency. If the project of post-School Certificate work was started immediately, U.C.I° would be able to intro— duce onewyear Intermediate courses almost immediately. He was afraid that if they went on exactly as they were doing at present, it would mean that they would actually discour~ age schools from doing any Higher School Certificate work. He went on to say that subsidiary subjects would do for a onewyear Intermediate course, advanced subjects would be equivalent to the two-year course. Mr. Child mentioned that if schools undertook even the first year work after present School Certificate level they would require the same apparatus and laboratory accommodation as for two years. That equipment and accommodation existed in little more than one of the eleven secondary schools in Lagos. From the staffing point of view, four of those schools were incapable really of taking even School Certificate in Science. The whole of the Cambridge syllabus in science was set on a great depth of practical work, which was almost im- possible of achievement at that moment. It would take two or three years to obtain the necessary apparatus and get it working in Nigeria. The Chairman, and the Acting Chief Inspector, Eastern Provinces, agreed that these remarks applied both to the Eastern and Western Provinces also. The Chief Woman Education Officer, Lagos, said that in England it very often took three years' post-School Certs ificate work to reach Intermediate standard and that they might have to face three years and not just two in schools. The Rev. Father Jordan said that the real danger was that people might begin to think in terms of subjects rather than in terms of education, which was precisely what was wrong with the system in force in Nigeria. He said that they ‘ were turning out a race of Africans with very little phil— osophy or life and breadth of outlook, religious, social, and political. That was really not education, and a radical change of conception in Fifth Form work was required. In EurOpe they were developing a race of Specialists which had led people to the Atom Bomb Age. Was the same to be done in Africa? Mind training was needed, together with certain training in certain subjects. The Principal C.M.So Grammar School, Lagos, reminded 258 Dr. Jeffrey that in a previous speech he had said: "Educ- ation is the direct means by which a nation tries to shape its destiny and to transform itself from what it is to what it hopes to become." That tallied with what Father Jordan had said. Government planned to shape the destiny of the country. Dr. Jeffrey had said that the geogle in Nigeria were trying gg gg Egg fast; ggg gg IMF. AdelajET considered that they ggg ggg gg gg forward. fig agreed that consolidation ggg necessary ggg suggested that since U.C.I. seemed gg gg deciding what ggg gg gg done, 33 would gg necessary gg ggk Egg Princigal once more gg lower gig requirements. School Certificate ggg been grescribed gy universities ggg gag a——-—————.——_— what U,C.I, prescribed, gg gg eventually 3g gg eguivalent 3g United Kingdom standards. The Principal, University College, said that it was not a question of lowering standards but of the date on which those standards could be raised. If it was not pract- icable, it could not be done, and he was in favor of compromw ising as much as possible. But if he did not announce a firm policy he would be damaging the attempts the schools were making, by taking away their best people before they got all they could from the school course. If U.C.I, continued its present standard, he hoped that everybody at the Conference would on every occasion state that it was doing it to help, and not trying deliberately to keep people down. The Principal of Hope Weddell said that he had about 27 students experimenting in Higher Certificate work, with wider reading, especially in English, a good deal of citizen- ship, a little extra Mathematics and a little extra Science, and that they did have quite a successful and encouraging year and the boys did manage to get something out of it. People came in from outside departments and gave lectures on . their special work, and groups of boys were established, one of which went round rating the town and finding out how rates were established. The Rev. Father Clifford asked whether it would be possible to hold the Ibadan entrance examination in November. Students would then get one year in school after the School Certificate, whereas at present they could only get about three months. They would then go up to the University after two years. The Principal U.C.I., thought it would be excellent if schools could provide a course for two years. Mr. Potter, 0f U.C,I,, considered that the essential step to be taken at once was to see that as many people as possible spent one YBar at school after the School Certificate, irrespective of any examination, and in order to help, the University authoru ities might say that people who had taken School Certificate in December 1950 could not go to U.C.I, until October 1952. 259 Dr. Jeffrey thought that Dr. Mellanby had gone a very long way towards meeting the opinion of the schools, and ventured to ask him to go one step further and to accomplish this programme as it became practicable, in the closest consultation with the schools. fig advised against EEE University College laying down g golicy ggg schools trying to follow it, ggg recommended that g close ggg gggu tinuous watch on the state of grogress should be kegt and that a common decision should gg taken when Egg time gag come to move one steg further. Part of the difficulty of the College was _the two- -year Intermediate course against the one year common in the United Kingdom. That was very largely the question of the maturity of the individual student. If the principle was established that the boy or girl who had just taken School Certificate was not ripe to go to the university, it mi ht be best that there should be a further period (18months?§ at school not necessarily directed to accomplishing a half~ away stage in the separate subjects (because that led to difficulties in universities) but a period which was primarily devoted to the development of the student. If a college got students of that sort, they would find that they could do the Intermediate course in one year. London University would be anxious to help the College by envisaging an Intermediate course concerned more directly with the broad principles or philosophical approach to a subject than with a huge mass of detail that a student would accumulate later on anyhow. Dr. Mellanby agreed, they did not want to rush any- body but they were tied to the standards of British univ~ ersities. If some solution of the kind suggested by Dr. Jeffrey could be worked out, they would be very pleased. The Acting Chief Inspector, Western Provinces, warned against any attempt to force the extra year at school. Every school would feel obliged to provide something of that sort and there were enough difficulties as it was in doing ordinary School Certificate work; if something higher was forced on schools, it would only be at the sacrifice of work in the lower classes. Miss Plummer wondered whether a formula could be worked out which would satisfy everybody. Dr. Mellanby had intimated that he intended to abolish the first year of his Intermediate course at the end of 1951. Dr. Mellanby replied that that was what it was hoged to do in 1951 or 1952. He also said that the University College authorities would be prepared to consider postphoning it, but if schools could introduce a onemyear course starting at the end of 1951, the University could at the same time do away with the pre~Inter~ mediate course, i.e. in October of that year. ... -._.4. -_-—’ 260 Mr. Hunter stressed the importance of doing away as soon as possible with the two~year Intermediate course, which made it very difficult for the University authorities to do what they ought to do, if they had to spend one year simply teaching a student basic facts which he ought to have known when he came. The Principal, King's College, agreed that schools were understaffed and without equipment etc., but stressed the point that the staff and equipment would have to come sooner or later and therefore the sooner the necessary lib- raries and laboratories were provided, the better. He won— dered how many principals found that economic pressure prevented the boys from staying on at school. Many boys left school because the parents said they could not afford the money and frequently did not see the reason for keeping their boys on at school after they had passed the school leaving examination. The Chairman said that it appeared to be the general view that schools could not undertake Higher Certificate work immediately and that the Education Department would have to insist that schools undertaking post¢School Certificate work could only do so with extra staff so that the main body of the school did not suffer. He asked whether the University College authorities would be willing to defer their decision about the date of dropping the pre-Intermediate course until the schools could see their way to meeting him at least half—way. The Principal U.C.I,, said he was prepared to do so. Mr. Thorp suggested a double entry at U.C.Io, i.e., keeping going a system by which students could either come \ in after School Certificate or after one year post~School % Certificate, the choice to remain with the school and with the student. As had happened in England, gradually the stu» dents would find that it was easier for them to do the Univ— ersity course after a full school preparation rather than immediately after the School Certificate. If this double entry was allowed, the change over to Higher School Certif- icate work ultimately would be a process of organic growth rather than a forced development. He also expressed the opinion that U.C.I. would have to maintain a preelntermediate class but that the numbers would diminish and gradually die a natural death. Dr. Mellanby said that Mr. Thorp's suggestion would be possible in a number of subjects but that other subjects had a twouyear course which covered the whole syllabus and not an elementary year and an advanced year. If the Inter- mediate course which was less factual but broader based, it might be possible to get a compromise that some who failed could take it again. In British universities overseas 261 students often failed badly at the end of the first year and then repeated the course with success. The Chairman observed that the general feeling seemed to be one of compromise again - that the schools on their side would develop Sixth Form work as staff, equipment and buildings became available and that during that period U.C,I° would be prepared not to put down a deadline date for the change. Dr. Mellanby said that his personal view was that they ought to state that in October 1951 people came in to do a oneuyear Intermediate course. Dr. Jeffrey said that he could not commit the Univer- sity of London, but in the case of each colonial University College it had been prepared to set up an gg ggg scheme of matriculation to meet the circumstances. That meant that in a number of colleges students did not normally matriculate in a University until the end of their first year at College. After further discussion, Mr. Kale proposed that the Univ— ersity be asked to start the change not earlier than 1952. Father Clifford seconded the motion and it was carried. Entrance Qualifications for United Kingdom Universities and University College, Ibadan. Mr. Esua (General Secretary, Nigeria Union of Teachers), said that he noticed when in England last year that Nigerian students were at a great disadvantage because they had not got the Higher Certificate. He suggested that the solution locally might be one single institution run by Government which could take over this work and give other schools time to develop their Sixth Form work properly. He understood that the Regional College would undertake that work. Mr. Thorp said that this question had been discussed at Ibadan; it had appeared there that there was a strong opinion held by some people that this work should not be done at a centralized institution of that kind. It had also been SUggested that the Regional College might try to take this kind of work away from the schools - this was not the case. 50, working on the decisions of the Ibadan Conference he was trying to make provision for Higher Certificate work for the older students and for those who had no opportunity of taking it at school, purely with the idea of providing an entry to overseas universities in the first place and later with the idea that firms or Government Departments might prefer to employ somebody who had gone up to Higher Certificate level rather than taking them direct from School Certificate classes. His provision was really for the people who were outside the normal stream of education, i.e. "outside 262 candidates". His whole scheme had been built up on the assumption that schools would look after their own dev- elepment, and he envisaged a single class entry in arts and science for Higher Certificate. If changed circumstances brought forth a request that more Higher Certificate work should be done, it was a thing which the new College would have to consider very seriously. Mr. Thorp did not see how he could help with the immediate problem. The factor which made possible the rapid expansion of Ibadan also made it impossible for him to offer anything in the immediate future. Ibadan had been offered the only temporary buildings and equipment available, so the Regional College would have to start from the beginning. He saw no possibility of being able to build up a complete Higher Certificate class within two years. He had to find sites, put up buildings, lay on public services and obtain equipment and staff, and he warned that he might be delayed in his plans even further than the two years mentioned if decisions regarding finance were not reached very quickly - that is, if the Area Development Boards meeting next month did not vote for extreme priority. If they granted money straight away, then he could make pro- vision for this type of work as quickly as anyone could. Mr. Esua then proposed the following resolution, which was seconded by Mr. Adelaja and was carried by 7 votes to 2:- "This Conference, realising the urgenCy of the need for providing post~School Certificate educatidn for Nigerian students who are about to proceed to the United Kingdom and other overseas universities, requests Government to give im- mediate attention to this question by accelerating the estab= lishment of the Nigerian College, which could provide such courses. This meeting urges that pressure be brought on the Area Development Boards to this end. As an interim measure it is suggested that the Government secondary schools be given, as a matter of priority, additional staff, equipment and accommodation." Further questions regarding the entrance qualific- ations for U.C.Io were raised. Mr. Bunting asked whether a candidate taking the examination this year and answering questions only on the arts side would be allowed to take a science course. Mr. Braithwaite said that the Faculty of Science would welcome students whose main interest was Science but who showed a broader cultural background; if, however, the candidate answered arts questions only, the Faculty would want to know why he had neglected Science altogether. Mr. Jeffers wanted to know whether a boy coming from a school with a prOper two~year Higher Certificate course giving exemption from Intermediate, would be exempt from the 263 University entrance examination. Dr. Mellanby said that at the moment he got exemption from the entrance examination but that if there were a larger number of candidates later on they would have to review that policy. The next question to be discussed was which schools were prepared to start post~School Certificate work. Mr. Spicer, from Zaria Secondary School, said that they had not yet got their science equipment but would within the year, and that they were going to start at once with a class of five boys. Mr. Clark said that the Protestant Missions in the Eastern Provinces had decided provisionally to have courses at Dennis Memorial and HOpe Weddell but that they had not promised to take the Higher Certificate. There were 17 boys at Dennis Memorial, 15 at Hope Weddell, arts being taken at the latter and science at the former. They were also taking in boys from Methodist schools. Miss Plummer said that Queen's College had started in a limited way, that the Convent of the Holy Cross would start in 1951 in arts, St. Theresa's, Ibadan, in 1952 in arts and science, and the Convent of the Holy Rosary in Onitsha in 1952. Mr. Parnby (Acting Chief InSpector, Eastern Provinces) said that C.K.C., Onitsha, prOposed to start in 1951, and that St. Patrick’s Calabar, was starting this year experimen- tally. Sasse were already running a course and Government College, Umuahia, had the usual two terms posthchool Cert- , ificate. ‘ The Rev. Father Jordan, speaking for the Catholic institutions in the Western Provinces and Colony, said that it was hoped to start in 1951 at St. Gregory's and St. Peta rick's Asaba. Mr. Bunting said that King's College had started a post~School Certificate class this year and h0ped to start Higher Certificate work in October of this year if they got the staff and accommodation required (14 boys). Mr. Jeffers said that Ibadan Government College was the same as Umuahia, running a two-term course till July. There were 22 boys in it at present. Mr. Adeyefa said that Oduduwa College hoped to start in 1951. In answer to a question from the Chairman about staff, he said that there were two coming from Fourah Bay this year and there were two more in training there also. They preposed 264 to take in boys from other community secondary schools. The Chairman repeated that the Education Department would have to be satisfied that the starting of Sixth Form work did not harm the rest of the school. Mr. Adelaja (Principal, C.M.S. Grammar School, Lagos), said that they were starting a post-School Certificate class with 8 boys this year. Mr. Adeyefa said that Abeokuta, Ibadan and Ijebu—Ode Grammar Schools had decided to pool their resources with the intention of starting Sixth Form work. The Chairman stated that these schools were already hopelessly under—staffed and he could not see any chance of any of these schools under~ taking Sixth Form work for the time being. Mr. Kale asked whether Government could strengthen the staff at King‘s College sufficiently for them to begin at once and take in boys from other Lagos schools. In the past King's College had provided the School Certificate course and other schools had only gone up to Junior Cambridge standard; for the immediate future might not King's College provide the Higher Certificate work and transfer their Sec- ondary I and II boys to other schools? The Principal, King's College, said that King“s was fuller than ever before and there was no spare room. The Chairman remarked that it could be recorded that Mr. Kale"s opinion was shared by other mem— ,bers of the meeting, but pointed out that King's College was not a Lagos school but a territorial one. Mr. Adeyefa made the same suggestion regarding Government College, Ibadan, Mr. Jeffers said they would be taking in boys from Edo and Warri Colleges. Miss Plummer reminded the meeting that they could not spoil the general development of the school for the sake of Higher Certificate work. What Mr. Adeyefa was suggesting was a tepwheavy school in which it would be necessary to cease admitting bright young boys for the sake of taking in older boys who were thought to be capable of taking Higher Certif- icate work; she thought that the number of the latter was being over—estimated. Mr. Bunting suggested that if they merely wanted to get a Higher Certificate the University Evening Classes might be able to help. Miss Wedmore (Principal, C.M.S. Girls' School, Lagos), said she assumed that the idea of helping other schools was not discouraged by Government in principle, merely because of practical difficulties. This was confirmed. 265 Miss Plummer suggested that the Chief Inspectors should make a survey to find out how many boys who wished to go on to Sixth Form work were suitable for it. Mr. Mellanby pointed out that the problem being dis— cussed really concerned students who wished to go to over— seas universities and that U.C.I. could not grow any more quickly for the time being. The next question discussed was the qualifications of the students for entry to post-School Certificate classes. Part of the difficulty was that of getting results of the School Certificate quickly. Miss Plummer suggested that there might be two distinct examinations for internal and external candidates; if that came about, it would be easier to get the results more quickly from Cambridge and it might also be poss- ible to press for a different date for the examination. Mr. Hunt-Cooke (Acting Chief Inspector, Western Prov- inces), suggested that the qualifications for entry should be a Credit in English language and a Credit in the subject to be taken for the Higher Certificate or its necessary precursor subject, and that it was not essential for the student to hold a Grade I Certificate or exemption from London Matriculation. The Chairman pointed out that there were varying Opinions on this subject. Miss Saunders said that it was usually left to the schools whom they selected, and the meeting generally agreed. The final question to be discussed was the all—impor- tant one of cost. Mr. Esua suggested that when the estimate was made of what the extra cost involved would be, Government should find the money by some means or other. Mr. Child estim- ated the cost as a 10,000 a year for a class of SO. Mr. Thorp said that economy could be effected by combining Higher Cert~ ificate work with work at a similar level and that an estimate made ”in vacuo” would be unreal. The Chairman, supported by Mr. Kale, suggested that some of the cost involved might be met by raising school fees. It was generally agreed that the Education Department should make up as quickly as possible an estimate of the extra cost and ask Government what provision could be made to meet this cost. F.K. Butler, DDE HO, Chairman. 1 Feb. 1950. 266 APPENDIX B POST SCHOOL CERTIFICATE WORK 1) Letter. No. DEX. 5102/105 Headquarters, Education Dept. Lagos, Nigeria. 26th Jan. 1950. The Chief Inspector, Northern Provinces, Kaduna. Eastern Enugu. " " " Western " Ibadan. Colony Education Officer. The Chief Woman Education Officer, Eastern Provinces, Enugu. " " " " " Western " Ibadan. Copy to The Chief Woman Education Officer, Northern Provinces, Kaduna. The Chief Woman Education Officer, Lagos. Post-School Certificate Work. At the recent meeting of the Principals of Secondary Schools, University Colleges' delegates and Dr. Jeffrey, it was recommended that a survey should be made of the schools which intend to undertake Post-School Certificate work, and the years when it is considered that they will have the staff, accommodation and equipment available to enable them to begin. 2. It was further suggested that a survey should be made of the numbers of boys and girls in Secondary Schools who would wish to enter post School Certificate classes and who are fit to grofit gy_ the work therein. 3 It should be remembered in considering the first of these two points that post School Certificate classes should not be given permission to Open if this means reducing the quality of the staff in the rest of the school to such a degree that the work in the main body of the school will suffec I think, therefore, that you should impress on the proprietors Of all Secondary Schools that they should not start post- School Certificate work until they have had full consultation with you. F.K. Butler, for Director Of Education. 30/1/50 267 2) Letter. 255 No. 271/26. The Deputy Director of Education, Secondary School Zaria, Regional Headquarters, 15th February, 1950. Education Department, N,Po Kaduna. Post—School-Certificate Work With reference to your endorsement No. DDN. 2526/20 of the 8th February, 1950, it is difficult to give accurate ans- were to the Director's questions. Where Sixth Form work arises as a natural development in a School there is bound to be a certain amount of equipment available to make a start. In this School where a steady indent for stationery and other equipment has been made annually for four years the needs of an extra class can be met readily. It is when the question of Staff is considered that difficulties arise, because it depends on how far down the School the members are involved. For ex- ample in the Sixth Form here, where 38 periods are taught each week and where 15% hours are devoted to organised pre- paration periods, five Senior Service graduates are required for English, History, Geography, Mathematics and Science. If Science includes Biology — as it might next year - six officers would be needed. Now, each of these masters is teaching in other parts of the School where there has been an increase in the number of classes for which new masters have been provided, and even a careful perusal of the time-table analysis fails to give a definite indication of the exact increase in Staff con- sequent on introducing Sixth Form work. In actual fact there are 3 more classes in the School and 4 more masters than there were last year. But I should say that for the extra Sixth Form the increase in Staff required is two. I shall certainly need 2 new Junior Service Staff in 1951 for the lower part of the School when the Senior Service officers will have another Sixth Form, making two in all, to teach. 2. The answer to para. ii is presumable, yes. 3. Para. iii. In a complete Secondary School such as this, there is Sufficient accommodation. The only extra accommodation needed is that of Quarters. Cost of two Senior Service houses is E 4300. 4. Para. iv. I find this very difficult to estimate as I implied in my No. 271/11 of the 6th Jan. 1950, but for this school: Physics apparatus E 171.0.0 Biology " nil Text-books E 100.0.0 Total say E 300.0.0 26B 5. This sum can be met from the Vote 1950~51, in fact I have already paid for some of the text-books required, and so nothing is required from "Development Funds" except the E 4300 for quarters, and this I believe has already been requested. A,W.A. Spicer, Principal (17 Feb. 1950) 3) Letter. No. DDN. 2526/22 Regional Headquarters, The Honourable, Education Department, The Director of Education, Northern Province, Kaduna, Lagos. Nigeria. 20th Feb. 1950. Post—School Certificate Work. With reference to your Memorandum No. DE. 3067/23 of 4th February, 1950, the Principal, Zaria Secondary School has submitted the attached reply. 2. In the matter of Senior Service Staff, he does not mean that two more will be needed since he already has the two extra this year, but we have not yet obtained the funds for building their quarters. Where we are to find the two Junior Service men next year I do not know. J,B. Cott, Deputy Director of Education, Northern Provinces. 4) Memo. CONFIDENTIAL No. DE. 3067/43 Lagos, 27 February, 1950. DDE, NP, Kaduna. DDE, EP, Enugu. DDE, WP, Ibadan. CED! Lagos. py, for information, with reference to my No. DEX. 5102/105 of the 26th of January, 1950. F.K. Butler, Director of Education /50) 269 5) 1 March. 1950 EXTRACT FROM DRAFT REPORT FROM DR. 0.8, JEFFREY TO THE SECRETARY OF STATE° * * * * * 16. I think that provision should continue to be made for the holding of the Higher School Certificate Examination, but that this provision should be used with extreme care for a number of years to come. Some pressure is being put upon West African secondary schools to prepare candidates for the Higher School Certificate Examination in order that they may qualify for entry to Universities in the United Kingdom under the new conditions or for entry to the West African University Colleges. Very few schools have the staff or the equipment to undertake this work with any prospect that it will be really well done. The consequences of premature action might be quite disastrous. Students might proceed to University studies with the necess- ary paper qualifications but with a seriously inadequate foundation for a proper approach to University studies. At the same time the schools, by straining themselves to undertake this form of Sixth Form work prematurely, might seriously en- danger the soundness of their work at the lower level. The great majority of schools have not yet an adequate graduate staff to cope with the work up to School Certificate level and the effect of the diversion of such graduate staff as there is to Higher School Ceritficate work would be disastrous. West African secondary schools should look forward to the time when they are in a position to deal adequately with the whole range of secondary schools studies including Sixth Form work which in appropriate cases is directed towards the Higher School Certificate. The attainment of this aim will, for the majority of schools, take many years. I cannot express too strongly my conviction that the immediate policy for West 1 African secondary schools should be to improve and consolidate their work up to the School Certificate level and that they should abstain from embarking upon Higher School Certificate work until they are in a position to do so without detriment to the work in the lower part of the schools. The problem of African students proceeding to Universities in the United King- dom and the bridging of the gap between the School Certificate ‘ and the new entrance requirements of the Universities should be solved in some other way. These students would gain in mat- urity and would be better prepared to undertake University studies in the United Kingdom if bridging courses could be provided for them at a relatively small number of centres in West Africa either at University Colleges, Regional Colleges or at carefully selected secondary schools. The problem of students proceeding to the West African University Colleges 18, in many ways, simpler. It is the problem in the West 270 African setting which must arise in every country - namely, the adjoining of University studies to those of the secon- dary schools from which the University students come. It is a problem which must be solved in any country by consultation between the schools and the Universities with due regard to the needs of the latter and the possibilities of the former. I would hope that the Council would be able to play its part in the solution of this problem in West Africa. 271 . APPENDIX C TRADITION AND INNOVATION IN SECONDARY EDUCATION Address Given Before the Western Conference of Principals at the University College, Ibadan, Nigeria, on October 26th 1954, by Mr. J.R. Bunting. For many years the main trend of Secondary education in Nigeria has followed the pattern of secondary education in England. In consequence, as in England, the secondary school curriculum has for many years been highly academic in nature and largely controlled by the requirements of examinations set in England. Subjects which may be offered in the Cambridge School Certificate Examination have been included in our curr- iculum without question, and the introduction of other subjects has been done cautiously and often in the face of public and parental opposition, or not at all. The resemblance has been noticeable, too, in out—of—class activities, which have for many years consisted mainly of team games, often compulsory, and the House system also imitated from the English Boarding schools, has centred almost exclusively around internal com- petition in these games. The prefect system is another example of the influence of the English tradition, and very often we in Nigeria have been content with these posts as practically the only ones providing Opportunities for responsibility, con- fined though they have usually been to the senior members of the highest class in the school. Whether they have been used consistently to develop an attitude of responsibility and a spirit of service, rather than to provide opportunities for the exercise of unquestioned power and the wielding of a I little brief authority is a matter of opinion. The fact that the English tradition has been built up over many years and that it has stood the test of time is ev- idence of its strength; that it is a virile tradition is proved by its survival in recognizable form after having been transplanted to distant lands to serve so many different mem- bers of our Commonwealth family. It has withstood the test of wars and has helped to build not only a nation but a family of nations. Without analysing in detail the main characteristics of the British tradition, we might remind ourselves of the prominence of certain clearly marked features. These, not necessarily in order of importance, include the stressing of the importance of character, and, in particular, the 272 inculcation of the concept of unselfish service; the Strong foundation of religion on which the main edifice has been built; the importance of discipline; the stress on athletics in the broadest sense, with particular accent on the ideas of cowoperation and team spirit; and the importance of cultureuknowledge for its own sake, as opposed to vocational knowledge, I do not need to remind members of this Conference that the stress laid on the various aspects of the English tradition varies widely from school to school, but the fact that they are still discernible in our schools is evidence that the tradition of centuries lives on. There is, however, a danger which all of us who are concerned with education in Nigeria today might pause to consider. The pattern of the past is not always the best blue-print for the future. Changing needs often require changing treatment to satisfy them. In the field of medicine newly identified diseases demand further research and fam— iliar ailments receive new treatment. In the field of educ- ation, the demands of the twentieth century cannot be en- tirely met by the methods of the nineteenth century, and most important of all for us, Nigeria today may not always be served best by an approach to education which is based exclusively on what was fashionable elsewhere years ago. Tradition is a living thing; to keep alive and vital and remain strong it must adjust itself to changing needs, but by “needs" I do not mean the clamourings of public opinion, which is not always sound in assessing educational essentials. A few weeks ago a new Chapter was opened in Nigeria's history. Those who are now attending our schools will very soon be helping to write the contents of this new chapter, and in it the story of the most crucial years of this country will be recorded. Are we justified in thinking that our present standards and our present approach to the problems of secondary education are good enough? Do we feel that our present outlook will ensure that the youth of this country will be educated sufficiently well to meet the challenge of a changing Nigeria, with its problems and its opportunities? Or do we feel that unquestioning reliance on the traditions of the past, sound though they may be in many reSpects, is ' not enough? If we agree that we must adjust the education we give to our changing needs, I hope we shall also agree that a Policy of iconoclasm would be dangerous, if not disastrous. It is true that we must move with the times, but it is eqUally important that education must influence the way in which the times move. The horse-drawn vehicle is now almost a museum piece, but we still speak of horseepower. In this 273 connection, I would refer to the Inglia lecture given in 1939 to the graduate school of Harvard University by Charles Allen Prosser. His subject was "Secondary Education and Life", and during the course of his address he referred to a report which was adopted some years before by the National Educ= ation Association. This report named seven cardinal prin» ciples which were declared to be the objectives which the American secondary schools should follow in improving the adjustment of youth to life. "So far as any official action is concerned,"I he said, "they still remain the objectives on the basis of which all high school (i.e. secondary school) courses are supposed to be selected." He then suggested checking the content of the curriculum against these prinw ciples, which are health, common knowledge of fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure time and ethical character. The lec- turer then continued, "The results will be most disturbing, but that is what objectives are for ~ to measure what is being done against what it was proposed to do." I have referred to this passage not in order to "sell" the principles just mentioned, although we might consider individually whether we agree with any of them, and, if so, whether or not our own curriculum takes them into account. My purpose is to stress that we, too, should consider, almost every day, the principles and objectives which we believe are desireable and examine whether our aim is on the target or not. The ship of education is a sturdy one and it will not easily sink, but it can drift aimlessly and dangerously, unless the captain takes his bearings reg- ularly and steers well and truely on his course. I have from time to time heard discussions on what our aims and principles should be in Nigeria today. Sometimes the views expressed are helpful, enlightening and stimulating, but occasionally one deduces that the speakers are either at sea without a compass or that with the Ancient Mariner they might have said: "Day after day, day after day We stuck, nor breath nor motion..." It is, I believe, such Conferences as this that can guide and inspire our teachers to renewed efforts, and can help to widen the horizons of those who, often for lack of Opp- ortunity and guidance, are not sure where they are going or Why they should go. Let us, then, consider Nigeria's needs at this time, for our aims if they are to produce desirable results, de» pend on these needs. Increasingly, the Nigerian citizen will be expected to accept greater and greater responsibilities. It is fashionable to use the word "Freedom" but we must ask ourselves the question, "Freedom - for what?" Among the answers might be "Freedom to govern ourselves." This implies 274 the full acceptance of the responsibilities I have just mentioned; it also implies that the citizen must under- stand these reaponsibilities and be trained to accept them. Another answer might be: "Freedom to make up our own minds." This implies that the citizen must be capable of sound judgement independently. It should not imply license and the satisfaction of our own personal needs irrespective of the needs of others. If we agree that "Freedom" should not mean this, then, as a corollary we shall need to impart a clear concept of self—discipline and encourage a highly» develOped civic sense wherever poasible. What are we doing in our schools to help our young men and women to answer such questions as those correctly — and with deeds as well as words? What can we do to help them to give the most effective answer to problems which affect the nation”s destiny? If we agree that secondary ed~ ucation should help to make the youth of this country better human beings, better citizens and better workers and that this combined goal will help the country, then we must re~ examine our approach to secondary education, and, while courageously retaining what is good and vital we must weed out what is ineffective and dead, introducing innovations which will freshen and give new bloom to the tree of trad- ition. Pruning and budding and fertilizing are good prac- tices in agriculture; the same processes are not to be overlooked in education. An eminent British Member of Par— liament once shocked an informal gathering of rather serious= minded people by declaring that the introduction of the Cam— bridge School Certificate to West Africa had done more harm than all the gin ever exported to the same area. In common with all sweeping statements, this one has an element of truth in it and we might consider one aspect of its implic‘ ation for a few moments. For many years the possession of the Cambridge School Certificate has been the goal of most of our secondary school children; they and their parents have regarded it as the hall-mark of a good education and the quality of our schools has often been assessed by public opinion on the results obtained in this examination. Rever— ting to the aims mentioned a few moments ago, we should ask ourselves to what extent this school certificate provides reliable evidence that the holder has the qualities of a good human being, a good citizen, and a good worker. Its importance ‘ has been exaggerated out of all perspective by the additional fact that it has in many countries for many years been re- garded and used as a passport to a job. Without decrying the importance of external examinations, and the need for ob- jective standards of achievement in them, one cannot claim that the Cambridge School Certificate (or the C,C.E,) prom vides visible evidence of the holder's true worth or his Bmployability. It is a test of academic achievement, and therefore indirectly of a certain type of intelligence and 275 ability, but it is fair to point out that many of the world“s criminals have been men and women of intelligence who might have done remarkably well in an examination of this type. Most of Shakespeare’s villains, as I have said on another occasion recently - if they could be brought to life w would probably have little difficulty in obtaining a reasonably good Cambridge School Certificate. My aim in developing this argument is not to run down an examination which has for many years served a useful pur- pose in the framework of our educational structure, but it is to plead for a new outlook, for a revised sense of values which will place the examination and the certificate in their proper perspective and context. Public opinion must be educ- ated and helped to understand that our sole aim is not to produce generation after generation of what are loosely called "Cantab” Certificate holders who believe that pose— ession of this certificate entitles them to think that the world owes them a living. If our aim is to help the youth of this country to become good human beings, good citizens, and good workers, than our schools and those who leave them must not, in future, be assessed so exclusively on external examination results. We must indeed maintain and improve our academic standards, but we must do more, and children, parents, and some schoolmasters, I fear, must be brought to realise this. This brings me then, to the first innovation I would suggest for your consideration. In addition to any external examination certificate obtained, I would like to see every boy and girl on leaving given an internally awarded certif- icate, divided into three main sections which would provide in words a summary of the b0y°s or girl”s cumulative record throughout his or her school life. The first section would reflect development as a worker, and would show the academic record, including details of internal as well as external ex~ aminations; the second would reveal his or her qualities as a human being, and would be a character analysis based on the pooled opinions of the school staff. This section would include comment on the development of such qualities as re» liability, leadership, honesty, a spirit of service, co» Operativeness, moral courage, loyalty, consideration for others, punctuality, and so on. The third main section would reveal the holder‘s potentiality as a citizen, and in it would be recorded posts of responsibility, service, and lead— ership held in the school, as well as membership of various out-of-class activities. Comments on health, vocational guidance, etc., might form an appendix (in this connection, incidentally, the appointment of a careers master is still overdue in many schools). I have found that such a certificate, if explained to 276 boys as soon as they enter school, can have a useful effect in various ways. In the first place, it helps them to under- stand what is expected of them, and it also shows them how they can plan to help themselves by reminding them that there is more to education than mere bookwork. There is another point too, which is not without importance. Many employers in the country in which I first used this type of certificate assured me that they much preferred it for purposes of help- ing them to assess employability to any other kind of certif- icate simply because it covered more ground. It told them what they wanted to know, and although the report on the hol- der°s academic achievement was quite comprehensive they were also seen in perspective. The brilliant all-rounder lost nothing in this way, but the self-centered bookworm who had a good brain was helped to realise that character and citiz~ enship are important too. The boy who tried hard but who was, like Sir Winston Churchill, not distinguished in certain trad— itional studies, was encouraged to find that he was not a failure in life, having discovered that there are other things in heaven and earth which were not to be lightly re- garded merely because they were not "in the examination syllabus". Briefly then, I feel we all have a constant duty to remind ourselves and the public as a whole that we are educating in our schools not simply for the examinations of Cambridge or London, but for a far more important examination for which no definite syllabus can be prescribed but which everyone must take _ the Test of Life. From now onwards in Nigeria this will be a test which will demand the maximum efforts of each one of us and of those who are entrusted for a few brief years to the care and guidance of members of the teaching profession in this land. I mentioned briefly at the outset of my remarks the traditional use of the house system and pointed out that it usually centres round internal sports contests. Arising from what we have just been considering, I would now suggest for i your consideration that it is possible to make the house system more significant and more educationally useful in our schools if we widen its area of operation. Just as, in class, not every boy finds himself able to make a mark, so on the sports field many a youngster comes to feel something of a nonentity or even a social outcast because, to use a familiar phrase, he is "no good at games". If we are to try to make every member of our school develop civic sense he must first be brought to feel a member of a community and be able in some way to contribute actively and positively to the welfare of that community. If house activities and competitions are or- ganized so that they cover almost every aSpect of school life, it is fairly certain that every child will find that he or She is able to make some contribution in some way which will give him a real sense of belonging to his group and of being valuable to it. If this can be done, the battle of converting 277 the passive citizen to the active one is half won. The annual inter-house competitions, then, might be based not on games alone but on games, work, Arts competitions and so on. I mention this without expatiating on it. All I would add is that the House system can be made more effective and educationally useful if a few innovations are added to its traditional usage. I do not intend to encroach on the ground which I suspect will have been covered by your President in his address on the curriculum in Nigerian schools, but I would, if I may, put in a strong plea that you consider introducing a course of civics and citizenship training in your schools if it is not already there. It seems to me that anything we can do in our schools to help the youth of this country to understand the virtues of good citizenship and practice them is more than desirable. Preparation, training and coaching are regarded as essential for the good footballer, athlete and cricketer; every games player is expected to know the rules or laws of the game. Why, then, neglect as we have done for so long, the preparation and training so essential for good citizenship under a democratic form of government? Here the schools of the U.S.A° have been pioneers and we can learn from them, provided that learning does not deteriorate into mere slavish imitation. This brings me to the subject of the School Council which occupied the deliberations of this Conference briefly a year or two ago. We have seen the introduction of the pre- fect system into most of our schools. Where it has been used as a training ground for increased responsibility and duty rather than as a club for the exercise of privilege and power it has served and may continue to serve a most useful educational purpose - for the selected few who reach pres fectorial status by seniority, or, as I would prefer, by clear merit. But not all our boys and girls can be prefects, nor can all our citizens be leaders. All can however, be trained under wise and patient guidance to know what the acceptance of responsibility entails. There is much in the day to day affairs of school life which can be gradually turned into useful training ground for the acceptance of future civic duties, provided it is done gradually and wisely. Some extreme opponents of this idea talk sweepingly of what they call the "maddness of letting kids run the schools". I would personally be the first to agree that to , allow such a thing would be entirely unsound, but much can be done realistically and without sham here in Nigeria de= spite the views of those who oppose moving away at all from the traditions of the English public school prefect system. That it has been done in one school, and is being introduced with correct caution in some others may encourage us all to consider whether this is not annother innovation which might 27B help us to achieve our objectives. It is a peculiar fact that political advance has usually preceded wideescale educational developments, and this paradox has appeared in Nigeria as the milestones of Constitutional progress are passed. For many years we and our colleagues in the Primary and Secondary Modern Schools will be working to bridge the gap, so that in this country the education of the people may keep pace with the steps being made towards government by the people. It is with this in mind that I have mentioned four possible innovations for your consideration; first, a new form of School Leaving Cert— ificate to be given to all school leavers; secondly, the in- troduction of a course in Civics and Citizenship training with the stress laid on converting knowledge into action; third, a reconsideration of the nature of the House System, and fourth the expansion of school activities to include a School Council. To this might well be added the introduction of a wider variety of out—of—class activities generally. Not all our children are great games players, but all need more guidance in the right use of leisure. It may have been noticed that I have so far said very little of the things of the spirit. May we, therefore, remind ourselves of what were listed earlier as some of the enduring qualities of the British tradition of education. I stress these again now, for to discard them would be the first step in a rapid decline to the darkness of the totalitarian con- cept of education where man becomes a mere cog in the state machine, and where belief in the importance of the individual human personality is submerged and lost. An Italian statesman Mazzine once declared: "He who can spiritualize democracy will save the world". I wonder if you will agree with that, or with the statement that the soul of education is the educ- ation of the soul? If so, you may also wish to recall a phrase of Abraham Lincoln's neatly varied by Mr. Randall Hogarth when he lectured to teachers in Ibadan a few years ago. "Where there is no vision," he said, "the pupils perish." All this, then, implies for us the importance of re~ membering daily that in all our plans and in all our teaching, the ultimate Good - in the finest sense - of the individual child must constantly be in the forefront of our minds. If such things as Art, Music, Poetry and Drama have found little place in our schools so far, and if we have not given prom— inence to things of the spirit and the ideals taught in the raligion we profess to believe, we may wish to take stock and examine from whence we have come, and where we are going. Are we leading our children to the light, or down into the dark valley of materialism and self-interest? "Spero Lucem" is a motto well known to all of us who are concerned with education in Nigeria. 1 hope we shall not see future 279 generations perverting this noble concept into the all too popular "ideal" of this century - personal gain at any cost, and let the rest look after themselves. "Spero Lucrem" is bad Latin, I admit, but would be an even worse outlook A Are we still faithful to that aspect of tradition which places character before intellect? I fear myself that we have sometimes wandered down the by-paths to worship the false gods of external examinations, and in doing so, have moved away unconsciously from the concept of the importance of educating the whole man, body, mind and spirit, and have concentrated on cramming the mind. Let us beware of this danger, for we want citizens capable of independent and sound critical judgement, not citizens who are human parrots or sheep; we want from young men and women not selfishness and unscrupulous personal ambition but integrity, co—oper- ation, and a spirit of service. The words of a great school- master, Percival, come to mind here. During a sermon which he gave at Clifton College Jubilee he expressed feelings which will find an echo in the heart of all who hope to see the youth of today meet the challenge of tomorrow success- fully. This is what he said: "I still dream of the time when from some school, under some influence which as yet we know not, there shall go forth year by year a new generation of man, who shall be characterized not merely by some social, athletic or literary accomplishment, some conven~ tional varnish or culture, but by a combination of gifts and strength and moral purpose, which shall stamp them as prominent workers, if not as leaders and prophets, in the next stage of our country’s evolutionary progress. There is still abundant room, to say nothing of the crying need, for these social missionaries of a new type, who shall be men of simple and pure tastes, the declared enemy of luxury and self-indulgence and greed, whether vulgar or refined; men in whom public spirit, public duty and social purpose shall be practicable and guiding motives, not vague and intermittent sentiments; men who shall feel the call to alter the conditions of life, and remove the manifold temptations which are working so destructively among the multitudes of our poorer classes; men who, with all these, are not bigoted, but who realize that earnestness of purpose and a tolerant spirit are not incompatible, and above all, men whose life shall be guided by a serious and humble and reverent spirit who may fairly be described as true Christian citizens - strong, faithful, and not afraid.“ These words, one feels, have a not insignificant message for Us in Nigeria today whether we are Moslems or Christians. 280 Turning now to the remaining outstanding features of our tradition we find the importance of discipline is still accepted, but we might perhaps remind ourselves that external discipline through fear is the discipline of totalitarianism, and the weapon of dictators. Self-discipline born of know— ledge, understanding, and loyalty, has usually proved more real and therefore more lasting. Lastly, the prominence of games in our schools is again a reminder of a long tradition. All will be well if we continue to insist on fair play, chivalry, team spirit and the lessons of co~operation, and stamp out all signs of bad sportsmanship and that unfortunate attitude which attempts to persuade boys that victory is all important, and defeat is disgrace. These have no part in our tradition, and it were better that no games were played at all than that they were played in such a spirit. We stand, then, today at a very crucial stage in the educational history of this country. New problems have arisen, new opportunities present themselves. Of all countries it is true to say that "Upon the education of the people of this country, the fate of this country depends." Let us therefore take up the challenge together and by self-examination ensure that we are adjusting our secondary education to the needs of present day Nigeria. One man's educational meat may not pro- vide the best nutrition for his brother. Adherence to what has proved clearly valuable in the past together with wise innovation and modifications for the future will help to ensure the fulfilment of our aims. It is then, because I feel that we might find not only the safest but the best highway for our future progress along these lines that I have spoken today on tradition and innovation in secondary education. 281 APPENDIX D STRUCTURE OF EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS — Northern Region 0 igeria Federation of N msmem>m 4H s all >owpcmemam ounccmem > m or! ehmecmum H) m we: upencmem HHs e New 5 me W .m sued H w l .m maoocummm snot. HH 0 i: i mumwuufxb acaceouk cofipmoocu me! m \mcwuel c HHH modem xumccoomm euou HHH aw T mm owemcmoq we! 1 Hoocomh a snow >H we .m OCHCHmukwwM umzommk Am a < xwm eel m Hmoflccome HH mumuu WHDUHE omHm mm. muommnveuou > we e .cou .<.u.u.u A.hemuv.u.m.x .memxu a m musufipmcH acetamue. Hoozom dogma: oweouveuou H> me we % HMOHccumh uncomme Haou umaaaveuou H> or! pcmecum>ou umucm>u< .uu annex we " me 0N1 " memumouu coepwoscm we rm! . dogma: can we NNH w---1-----mwemum>ec: -- me mm: me vml om mmfl om quuoqum so mu< uwm m cm 3 coflmmm cumcuuoz n wHumOHz no coauwuwcmu > i p u pm 282 APPENDIX E LETTER: RE: H.S.C° D.E. 3067/153 7th April, 1951. The Deputy Director of Education, EP, Enugu. H M II [I H wp’ Ibadan. II H II II N Np, Kadunaa The Colony Education Officer, Lagos. There may be a danger that the Resolution recorded in Item XVII (The Jeffrey Report) of the Minutes of the Third Meeting of the Central Board of Education will obscure our intention and obligation, expressed elsewhere in the Minute, of introducing Higher School Certificate work into suitable schools as soon as we can. It has been reported to me lately, too, that there is a rising demand for Higher School Cert- ificate work and very possibly a reasonable number of pupils able and willing to follow the course. In my letter No. DEX 5102/105 of the 26th January, 1950, to Chief Inspectors and Chief Woman Education Officers ( a copy of which is attached) it was asked that a survey be made of the numbers of boys and girls in secondary schools who would wish to enter post- School Certificate classes and who are fit to profit by the work therein. Replies were somewhat fragmentary and, although I realise that it is a rather nebulous assignment, I shall be glad if you will arrange for a new survey to be made and the results sent to me by the end of July. 2. It has been suggested that the Regional College should undertake this work for a period of years and the Principal would reluctantly agree to this, if it were ab- solutely necessary. It is not within the planned scope of the College nor do its financial arrangements provide for it. The Principal made a very rough estimate that to provide for an annual entry of 50 pupils on a two year course would re= quire L 50,000 in Capital Expenditure and an annual recurrent expenditure of E 130 per pupil. These sums would have to be found by the Regional Governments in rough proportion to the number of pupils from each Region. The College might be ready to receive pupils in September 1952. The course would be located at Enugu. 3. Frankly I think that this is an expedient that should be avoided if possible and I would prefer to press on with Our intention of providing this course at certain Government Colleges and selected Voluntary Agency Schools. King's 283 College has already introduced the Higher School Certificate course, both on the Arts and Science side, with nineteen pupils, five of whom are girls. I should like special con~ sideration to be given to the possibility of Ibadan Covern~ ment College and Umuahia following suit in the near future. Already a considerable building programme is in operation at these Colleges and any extension that may be required to include the Higher School Certificate course could most suit- . ably be discussed soon to be in time for the 1952/53 estimates. Consideration can be given at the same time to the require- ments of the Voluntary Agencies which may be deemed suitable and are willing to undertake this work. As the additional expenditure will fall on Regional funds at least in regard to Government Colleges, regional action will be necessary, although I will, of course, represent the case, too, to Government as a Imajor overall Nigerian interest” when I have received your prOposals. The provision of additional funds for the Voluntary Agencies may be a central responsibility but I shall need your views and estimates to support an application. 4. I cannot help thinking that some of the requirements previously mooted for the staffing of Government Secondary Schools are a little extravagant. To ask for a staff of 24 teachers plus 6 leave reliefs (in addition presumably to the Principal) for a double-stream secondary school with a single~stream Higher School Certificate course seems to me to be "reaching for the stars“. While I would deprecate the conversion of our schools into "cramming shops', I suggest that we must also avoid the temptation of considering them in the terms of the more expensive Public Schools at home. 5. The Arts and Science Panels of the Secondary Syllabus Sub—Committee have made the following recommendations:- "Minimum Qualification for Teachers. After some discussion, the Board agreedzn (a) that postwcertificate work shall be considered extra to the graduate requirements of the school; (b) that the graduate requirements of the code (i.e. 1 grad— I uate per 90 pupils) was too low a ratio, and that every effort should be made to increase this in order to stren- gthen the foundations of School Certificate work and work prior to that; (C) that there shall be one graduate member for each subject taken at post-certificate level, with proviso that non~ graduate staff, with long and successful experience in this work, should be eligible for consideration; 284 (d) that all schools must be approved by the Chief Inspector of Education before undertaking post-certificate work; (a) that for Geography and Mathematics, a General Degree would be accepted; but for History, English and Latin an Honours Degree was preferred, though a good pass degree specializing in these subjects would be accepted; (f) for Science subjects, an Honours or Special Degree in the subject is considered essential. The Board suggested that, although it was not within their terms of reference, every effort should be made to induce graduates holding honours degrees and now employed in Administration, to revert to the teaching side of the Service." R.J. Mason, Ag: Director of Education. (12/4/51) MW 285 APPENDIX F EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS AND PROGRESS IN 1952 Northern Region of Nigeria, Government Printer, Nigeria, 1953. (17 pp page 10. VI. Post Secondary. "There are at the moment only nine Northerners at the University College Ibadan. The reason for there being so few is that only now are our secondary schools producing students of sufficient educational standard to pass the University En- trance Examination. This examination is competitive, that isr to say, candidates sit for the examination, and the University Examination Board select the best on the examination results. There is no question of a candidate obtaining a certain num- ber of marks and thereby automatically obtaining entrance.The reason for this is that the number of places available are still not sufficient for the number of those wishing to enter University College. The fact is that the Northern students have to compete on an equal basis with students from the other two regions. The North has had little success so far, but with much better results in School Certificate achieved in Zaria last year, the hopes for the future are brighter. Seven boys have just eat the entrance examination and there is good reason to believe that several of them will gain admittance. But there is another reason for there being only a few Northa erners at the University College. In the past, students have not wanted to go there, and for two main reasons. It has been easy to get a lucrative job with a school certificate qualif- ication, and a few of the Northerners have not been happy at the college; the large number of students from other regions has tended to make them feel very much in the minority and political tensions between the regions has not made the at~ mosphere congenial. page 12. The need in this Region for premuniversity training needs further explanation. It is not generally understood that a School Certificate, even Grade I is not a qualification which guarantees entrance to a University in the United Kingdom, even if there is an opening available. Nowadays with the increasing competition for university training in the United Kingdom, a Higher School Certificate or an equivalent examination is re— quired° The difficulties do not end there; a credit is required 286 in the particular subject or subjeCts which the university think are fundamental to success in studying for a parts icular career. For instance the student who wishes to be a Doctor must have credits in Physics, Chemistry and Biology." 287 APPENDIX C REPORT OF THE VISITATION Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, March/April, 1958. D. Greenway & Sons, Ltd., Day and Night Printers, London, 1958. From the Ahmadu Bello University Library. Members of the Visitation: Sir Daniel Lindsay, Chairman, Council for Overseas Colleges of Arts, Science and Technology. Anthony m. Chitty, D.H, Alexander. page 3. Colleg§_History. 11, The outline of the College history can be found in the ‘Report of the Visitation“, and it is only necessary to record here the origin, purpose and intentions of the College in sufficient detail to provide the backcloth to our invest- igation. The Secretary of State for the Colonies appointed a Commission in 1943 to consider higher education in West Africa; some of its views were endorsed by a delegation of the Inter-Varsity Council for Higher Education in the Colonies in 1947; in 1950 a working committee (Dr. FoJ, Harlow and Mr. WOA, Thorp) published its recommendation to establish the Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology a the College to be a Federal Institution with branches at Enugu, Ibadan and the Zaria headquarters, by direction of the Council of Ministers, being established at Zariao 12. The College was set up to be complementary to the other institutions of higher education in Nigeria - Univer- sity College Ibadan, and University College hospital ~ its main purpose being to provide courses leading to the attain- ment of full professional qualifications in subjects other than medicineo Page 4. Courses of Study. 15. Intermediate courses, leading to Advanced Level in the General Certificate of Education of London University or to the Preliminary examinations of various professional bodies, have in practice been confined to Arts courses in Latin, English, History, and Geography, and Science courses 288 in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany. The number of students enrolled for Intermediate courses has risen from 135 in 1954~SS to 401 in 1957-58, these repres» enting percentages of 53 and 56 respectively° The courses therefore form an important part of the College's teaching responsibility. SUpplying as they do teaching equivalent to that carried out in Sixth Forms of Grammar Schools, they are an indispensible supplementto the secondary school facil- ities which the regional Governments are endeavoring to pros vide, but which they can only provide slowly owing to short= age of buildings, equipment, staff and money, and in smaller or remoter secondary schools may never find its economics are even practicable to provide at all. These courses can therefore be regarded as a Federal Service provided free of cost to the Regions, which it is the advantage of the Regions to retain while their own secondary schools are being brought up to Sixth Form standardo page 7. Recommendations. 39. We now turn to consider what educational develOpments seem advisable during the next four years. In regard to Arts, Science, we put forward three recommendations- (1) that the present arrangements for post=School Certificate teaching should be continued for these four years and for one further year beyond, during which year a thorough reassessment of the College°s commitment in this field should be undertaken, having regard to the progress actually achieved by the Regions in providing Sixth Form work in their secondary schools. Mean- while no extension of the teaching at this level in the College should be authorized, either in respect of the number of subjects taught or of students admitted.... 289 APPENDIX H SUBJECT GROUPING m GENERAL EDUCATION THROUGH SPECIALIZATION Timetables I and II are possible ways of developing a wider range of studies offered to sixth form pupilsg they show that the provision of FOUR subjects to the Advanced Level, spread over the Arts and Sciences, would not present insuperable problems in devising sixth form or general school timetables. It is even suggested that most schools would benefit by the new arrangement in that the timetables give greater flexibility without incurring more teacher» hours. Note that a 35~period week is assumed. Each of the main subjects is given seven periods per week and the re- maining seven are reserved for Religious Instruction, Math» odology and PhilDSOphy, Physical Education, Arts and Crafts, etc. Current Affairs may be added but one often wonders what this subject really means, (better in an extracurriculum society). By arranging the subjects in FIVE blocks, there will be no timetable clashes providing that any pupil will take ONE subject and not more than one from each of the FOUR ex» amination subject blocks. A high pr0portion should take Mathematics and English is so arranged as to make it easy to include it in one of the FOUR advanced levels, The subjects are grouped as follows: 2222.1 (1) 9222.3 (2) $322.2 (3) Groue D (4) Maths. Hausa Physics Latin or Classical Biology 8 Yoruba Biology A Arabic African Ibo French Geography Studies French Ancient Chemistry Modern Hist. History English 8 English A (Maths.2) Group E (noneexam.) Religious Instruction Music (local or general) PhiIOSOphy & Methodology Arts or Crafts Physical Education 290 Assuming that there are at least TWO sixth form sets in all of the subjects taken, then the above combinations work well, staffing being considered optimum. To assist var= satility, two parallel sets, both in the first and second years, operate in Biology and English. The timetable allows that for each practical subject there will be TWO double periods and THREE single periods; also that specialist teachers would be able to teach all of the classes in their subjects. Linguists might find this last point difficult to apply, but than the languages could be shared out, Physical Educational and optional subjects like Art, Music, etc., could be interchanged if necessary (9.9, in coaed schools) with Philosophy and Methodology and any other Egg subjects. Where double Mathematics is required then a second Mathematics group could be added to Block D, 291 APPENDIX I TIMETABLE I - LOWER VIth 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 Vernacular Vernac. Latin Physics Physics Philos. fl Af. Stu. Mod.Hist. P.E° (Arabic) Biol. A Biol. A & Mod.Hist. Eng. A Geog. French French Method. Eng. A Chem. A.Hist. A.Hist. Eng. B Latin Latin Maths. Physics Physics Maths. 1 (Arab.) (Arab.) Biol. B Biol. A Biol. A Biol. B Geog. Geog. R.Io French French Chem. Chem. A.Hist. A.Hist. Eng. B Eng. 8 Physics Maths Vernac. Vernac. Maths. Arts fl Biol. A Biol. 8 Mod.Hist.Mod.Hist. Biol. 8 Music French Eng. A Eng. A Drama A.Hist. Crafts Vernac. Latin Physics Maths. Latin Latin Vernac. Ifi Mod.Hist. (Arabic) Biol. A Biol. B (Arab.) (Arab.) Mod.Hlst. Eng. A Geog. French Geog. Geog. Eng. A Chem. A.Hist. Chem. Chem. Eng. 8 Eng. B Eng. 3 Vernac. Latin Maths. Maths. Physics ‘ E, Mod.Hist. (Arab.) Biol. B Biol. B 8101. A Philos. p.5. Eng. A 0909, French & Chem. A.Hist. Method. Eng. B Notes 1 Maths. is counted as a science subject. 2: Geography is counted as an arts subject. 3. Nonwmathematicians must do geography. 292 TIMETABLE II - UPPER VIth 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 Maths. Maths. Physics Latin Latin Biol. B Biol. B Biol. A P.E. (Arabic) (Arabic) R.I. French Geog. Geog. A.Hist. Chem. Chem. Eng. B Eng. 8 Physics Physics Philos. Vernac. Latin Latin Vernac. 8101. A Biol. A & Mod.Lang.(Arab.) (Arab.) Mod.Lang. French French Method. Mod.Hist. Geog. Geog. Mod.Hist. A.Hist. A.Hist. Eng. A Chem. Chem. Eng. A Eng. B Eng. B Latin Vernac. Maths. Maths. Vernac. Philos. (Arabic) Mod.Lang. Biol. B Biol. B Mod.Lang. & n.5, Geog. Mod.Hist. Mod.Hist.Method. Chem. Eng. A Eng. A Eng. B Maths. Physics Latin Vernac. Latin Art Biol. B Biol, A (Arab.) Mod.Lang.(Arab.) Music French Mod.Lang.Mod.Hist.Geog. Drama A.Hist. Mod.Hist.Eng. A Chem. Crafts Eng. A Engo E! Maths, Physics Vernac. Vernac. Physics Physics Maths, Biol. B Biol. A Geog. Mod.Lang.Biol. A Biol. A Biol. E French Chem. Mod.Hist.French French A.Hist. Eng. B Eng. A A.Hist. A.Hist. Note: 1. Maths. is counted as a science subject. 2. Geography is counted as an arts subject. 3. Nonwmathematicians must do geography. 293 APPENDIX J SELECTED SAMPLES OF HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATIONS SYNDICATE Higher School Certificate and G.C.E. (Overseas Centres). CHEMISTRY. Paper I. (Monday Nov.22, 1965) 2% hours. Instructions: Answer five questions. Include question or 2 or both of these questions. Write on one side of the paper only. Mathematical tables are provided. How, and under what conditions, does acetaldehyde react with (a) sodium hydroxide, (b) sodium hydroxide and iodine (c) sulphuric acid, (d) hydroxylamine, (a) sodium bisulm phite? Describe one reaction of acetaldehyde not included in the above examples, that would distinguish it from acetone. Describe the preparation of phenal from benzene. Give two reactions to show how the preperties of the hydroxl group of phenol differ from those of the hydroxl group of ethanol (ethyl alcohol). How would you distinguish between phenol and benzoic acid by means of two chemical tests? What do you understand by the terms (a) proton (b) 918C= tron (c) neutron? Show how these particles contribute to the atomic structure of an atom with an atomic number of 13 and a mass number of 27, and deduce the valenCy of this element. Draw diagrams to show the electronic structures of (1) magnesium chloride, (ii) carbon tats rachloride. How do these structures account for three of the observed differences in properties of these two chlorides? Describe how you would measure the depression of the freezing point of water due to the addition of a solute. Illustrate your answer with diagrams of the apparatus used. Calculate the freezing point of a 0.75% solution of acetamide (C2H ON). What conclusion could you draw from the fact the a 0.50% solution of ammonium acetate freezes at the same temperature? (H=1,C=12,N=14,0=16; the cryoscopic constant, K, per 1000 gm. of water =1.86°C) 5. Explain the following facts: a) The pH of an aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate is greater than 7. (b) A solution of sodium hypochlorite can be obtained by electrolysing brine. (c) Iodine is 294 more soluble in an aqueous solution of potassium iodide than it is in water. (d) Calcium phosphate dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid but calcium sulphate does not. (e) The solid obtained when an aqueous solution of sod- ium sulphate is evaporated slowly at 25'C differs from that obtained at 40°C. 6. Outline the experimental evidence and give the reasoning upon which the molecular formula of ammonia is based. How and under what conditions does ammonia react with (a) silver chloride (b) sodium (c) carbon dioxide? 7. Outline one method for the industrial extraction...etc. 8. Explain what is meant by each of the following...etc.... BIBLE KNOWLEDGE Paper I. (Nov./Dec. 1966) 2% hours. Instructions: Answer four questions, 3 from Section A, one from Section B. What contribution did Moses make to the religion of Israel? What were the political and religious results of the entry into Canaan? Give some account of the organization of the kingdom under David and Solomon. Discuss the place of prophets in the political affairs of the nation up till the time of Jehu. “Each of the prophets in his own way emphasised an aspect of the truth of God needed in his contemporary situation.“ Discuss this with reference to either Amos or Hosea. State what you know about the place and function of priests in Israel in the pre—exile period. oIsaiah more than any other pre-exile prophet made pro- phecy an important factor in the life of the nation.‘ Discuss. What estimate of Jeremiah's character can be made from the book? (Jeremiah 38:4) How far was this allegation made about Jeremiah true? Summarize briefly the main elements in the message of Jeremiah. HISTORY Paper 3, ECONOMIC AND PUBLIC AFFAIRS Paper 5. 30 Nov. 1966) 2% hours. Answer four questions. 1. In what ways, and for what reasons, did working-class diet improve either between 1815 and 1914 or between 1920 - 1960? 2. Discuss the importance of overseas possessions for the Brit- ish economy during the nineteenth century. What were the main legal or organizational problems which faced trade unions either before 1848 or between 1848-1914? ‘Questions 4 a 12 are in like vien. 295 ENGLISH 2% hours. Paper 2 (Shakespeare) (Thursday Nov. 25, 1965) Instructions: Answer Section A and any two questions in Section B0 A 1. Choose two of the following passages, of which one, but not more, must be taken from passages (a) to (d) and then: (i) Rewrite each of your chosen passages in full in Modern English. Your chief object is to make the meaning as clear as possible. (ii) Indicate the exact context of each in not more than two or three sentences. (iii) Comment on those aspects of each passage which contrib~ ute most towards its particular poetic and dramatic effects. ( a.— 16 lines from Hamlet. b.— 14 lines from Hamlet. c.= 20 lines from Coriolanus. d.- 19 lines from Coriolanus. e.— 18 3 lines from The Tempest. f.- 16 lines from Much Ado About 3 Nothing. g.= 8 lines from Henry.) ‘ O 2. Either (a) How important is the theme of guilt in Hamlet? Or (b) Discuss the dramatic function of Hamlet's relation- ship with Laertes or with Ophelia. 3. Either (a) “Rome is the real hero Coriolanus'. Discuss. Or (b) “The Roman cult of uncompromising virtue is respon» sible for the downfall of Coriolanus‘. Discuss. 4. Either (a) 'Prospero“s Revenge'. How far do you think this is suitable sub-title for The Tempest? Or (b) Discuss Shakespeare's use of the supernatural in The Tempest. 5. Either (a) What evidence, if any, of cynicism do you find in Much Ado About Nothing? Or (b) What dramatic use does Shakespeare make of the contrast between Beatrice and Hero, or Benedick and Claudia? 6. Either (a) “A colourful pageant, lacking subtlety and real- ism." Comment on this estimate of Henry V. 0r (b) “In Henry V the characters held up for our admire ation are the least life-like'. Discuss. flfl_ Paper 5. CRAFTS A. (Nov./Dec. 1966) 3 hours. Instructions: Answer one question. Except where ques- tions ask for a particular medium can~ didates are recommended to consider the . choice of different media and processes; printing with lino, vegs, fruit, wax, stencil, inks, collage, poster and water colour. V 1. Write the following poetry into a book....Use good foundat— ional or italic hand, adding any decorative features you wish. 2. Design pictorial poster for exhibition of food, using only 3 the following words in the design: FOOD FAIR DECEMBER 1966. 3. Make a decorative bookplate for a book presented by musicians. 4. Make an all over pattern for and papers for album...in color. 296 GENERAL PAPER Friday Nov. 19, 1965) 2 hours and 40 minutes. Instructions: Answer two questions, each from a diff- erent section. Sec. B,C,D, require com- positions. All questions carry equal maximum marks. Begin each answer on a fresh sheet of paper. A. Read the following( passage dcarefully and then answer the questions (a),( (c),( on p. 4. Use your own words, and credit will be given for relevancy and logical pre» sentation. To admire pictures in the National Galler , cathedrals....etc. (75 lines from Elspeth Huxley, adapted . (a) Summarize in not more than 90 words the first 2 paragraphs. b Explain the first edonomic argument that the author ad- vances for the preservation of wild animals. (c) Explain what you think the author means by (i) heritage, (ii 'if beauty is no passport to survival“ (iii) pro- liferate (iv) habitat (v) a world becoming daily more drab and ridden by routine (vi) replacement capacity. (d) What prOposals does the author make about buffaloes in her last paragraph? 3. 1. “To understand another nation you must know something of its history“. Discuss this statement. . The greatest evil is fear. . “A twprarty system is not the only form of democracy.“ Discuss. 4. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of direct and indirect taxation. 2 3 O Sixty years ago the conservation of mass and the con- servation of energy would have been accepted by scien- tists as basic principles. How far have they had to modify their views since? 2. “Scientific training tends to destroy the power of artistic appreciation'. Discuss. . Sources of energy, today and tomorrow. “The wealth of a country depends on the work of its peOple rather than on its natural resources“. Discuss. . “It is better to do things than to read about them“. How far do you agree with this? “Studying past or present European cultures hinders us from developing a culture appropriate to our own sit— uation today“. This is often expressed by students in your country. Do you agree? In this age of mass production,on what grounds would you encourage the old crafts? 4. Storyutelling as an art in your country; its past, present and future. 297 PURE MATHEMATICS Paper 3. (Wednesday Dec.1, 1965) 3 hours. Instructions: Answers to not more than nine questions are to be given up. A pass mark can be obtained by good answers to about four questions or their equivalent. Begin each answer on a fresh sheet of paper and arrange your answers in numerical order. Mathematical tables and squared paper are provided. 1. Prove that 1 x2+zx+4 is positive for all real values of x, if 7» is numerically less than a certain positive quantity k. Sketch the graph of the function (i) when ?\=5, (ii) when IR :2, (iii) when ?,=k. 2. (i) If a, b, c, are the roots of the equation x + px + qx + r = O, form the equation whose roots are bc, ca, ab° (ii) If the roots of the equation 27x3~63x2+qx-8=O geometrical progression, find the value of q. 3. (i) Prove that ....etc. (ii) Find 3h? sum of the series (nw1)2+2(nw2)2+3(n-3)2+... +n<211 4. Find the general solutions of (i) tan2x+sec2x :1 ii 4cos x cos 2x cos 3x=1. 5 6 are in . The median AD of the triangle ABC makes......etc. . Ei) If x::.1, prove that.........etc. ii) Prove that ..... etc. (i) Evaluate to 3 significant figures ....etc. , (ii) If y=coszx prove that ......etc. DedUCB......etco Sketch the curve given parametrically by the equations.... Prove that in polar co~ordinates.... Determine the value 0F.... Obtain the polar equation of ....etc. (1) Obtain the solution of the differential equation.... .- (ii) Obtain the differential equation of the third order.... 10, 11. Prove that....(geometry, 3 sections)....etc. 12. In a tetrahedron VABC....etc. (2 parts). 13. Prove that circles....cut orthogonally....find the equat- ions of the circles....Verify that their common chord.... 14. Obtain in its simplest form the equation of the chord 15 joining the points.... prove that .... etc. Prove that the locus of the meets of perpendicular tan~ gents to the ellipse.... prove that .... etc. 16. Who were the mathematicians who, in your view, did most between 1600 and the present day to develop the methods and notation now available to us in algebra? Give the names, dates and countries of three or four of these men, and outline briefly their work in this field.