ORGANIZATIONAL CORRELATES OF OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION AND SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DAVID MICHAEL BETZ 1968 ims Anna-u a». «If. 2:! 7'] LIBRARY “ Michigm ‘3‘- rate lJnivcrnty This is to certify that the thesis entitled ORGANIZATIONAL CORRELATES OP OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION AND SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION presented by DAVID MICHAEL BETZ has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ‘ Ph. D. SOCIOLOGY . I 7 ._degree in____ jor professor Date NOVEMBER 22, 1968 I 0-169 ' [’1 O I ABSTRACT ORGANIZATIONAL CORRELATES OF OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION AND SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION BY David Michael Betz The purpose of this study is to research the relationship between organizational arrangements and subjective states of individuals. To explain organizational variation of the workers' occupational orienta- tion (importance found in intrinsic aspects of the work role) and support of the negotiating organization, we utilized the variables of organizational size and centralization of occupational decision making. This research bases its reasoning on the theoretical importance of work autonomy for a highly trained work force. The literature suggests that workers who perform more prestigeful work and who receive specialized training will assign meaning, value, and self- importance to the intrinsic aspects of their work role and become concerned with having control over decision making in those central aspects of the tasks in which he finds meaning, especially when he finds his psychological investments jeopardized. The literature suggests that occupationally oriented workers will become concerned with centralized decision making. Also we place social importance upon organization size in facilitating peer support while limiting contact and understanding across subordinate--superordinate lines. Larger organizations, by virtue of their numbers, are felt to permit greater opportunities for the selection of friendships and member- ships in subgroups where sentiments about work can find support; because the proliferation of subgroups is in part a function of size, support for a greater range of occupational orientations comes with organizational size. anal simp the e to de Builq econ indiv Bile the a fOund David Michael Betz The following hypotheses were formulated: Hypotheses 1. Organizational size is positively related to variation in occupational orientation. 2. Centralization of decision making will be negatively related to an occupational orientation. 3. Organizational size is positively related to centralization of decision making. 4. Organizational size is positively related to variation in support of the negotiating organization. 5. Centralization of decision making will be positively related to support of the negotiating organization. 6. Organizations which are both occupationally oriented and central- ized in their decision making will contain workers who are more supportive of the negotiating organization than organizations which are decentralized in their decision making and not occupationally oriented. 7. Organizations which are both large and occupationally oriented will contain workers who are more supportive of the negotiating organization than organizations which are small and not occupationally oriented. To test these relationships, 38 elementary public school buildings were selected from five comparably large urban school districts. To analyze the data, Spearman's rank order correlations, Pearson's simple correlation and multiple correlation techniques are used. In the elaboration and specification analysis, contingency tables are used to determine the effect of latent roles within organizational contexts. Building experience, sex, marital status, education, and socio- economic level of the school neighborhood population are used to explain individual variation within organizational contexts. The analysis gave support to the hypotheses relating organization size to variation in occupational orientation and levels of support of the negotiating organization. However, hypotheses two, three, and five found no support from this data. Little support is obtained for hypothesis David Michael Betz six or seven. The correlations fall short of an acceptable level and therefore the hypotheses must be rejected. However, while these relationships are in the predicted direction the variable of school occupational orientation is rather consistently more powerful or effective in predicting most of the variation that the multiple corre- lation accounts for in explaining support of the negotiating organization. This seems to suggest that variables which contain measures of individual qualities are more predictive of behavior in this study than variables which merely represent an objective condition under which the faculty work; people need not and do not define or give similar meanings to objective external arrangements such as organizational size and decision making structure. ORGANIZATIONAL CORRELATES OF OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION AND SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION BY David Michael B etz A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology 1968 Copyright by DAVID MICHAEL BETZ 1968 t0 e) supp 0f the stud; my w cont:- and w ACKNOWLEDGM ENTS The writer wishes to express appreciation to those who made this study possible. My appreciation goes to Dr. Philip Marcus (thesis chairman) for his encouragement and tutoring throughout the long haul but particularly at the data gathering stages. And because of the lack of outside funds, Iwish to thank in a special way the departmental support given to me through the sponsorship by Dr. William Foam (committee chairman) and Dr. William Faunce. For their willing- ness to give council when it was sorely needed, I am grateful to Drs. Marcus, Form, and Faunce plus Dr. James McKee and Dr. Jay Artis who constituted my committee of five. For helping me maintain the capacity to laugh at myself, I wish to express my appreciation to Cyrus Stewart. Beyond this, the moral support and suggestions he gave were greatly needed and appreciated. I would like to thank the many school officials, representatives of the teacher organizations, and teachers who were supportive of the study and helped supply the data on which this research is based. Finally, a very very special kind of appreciation goes to Phyllis, my wife, whose encouragement, confidence, and helping hand contributed to the completion of this thesis. Without God, mother and wife, these projects are impossible. MB iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM AREA . Introduction . Outline of the Chapters THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Introduction . Literature on the Correlates of an Occupational Orientation The Organizational Correlates of Occupational Orientation . Organizational Size and School Occupational Orientation . Centralization of Decision Making and School Occupational Orientation . Organizational Size and Decision Making Structure . Organizational Correlates of Support of the Negotiating Organization; Organization Size and School Support of the Negotiating Organiza— tion . Decision Making Structure and Support of the Negotiating Organization . The Relation of Occupational Involvement and Decision Making Structure to Support of the Negotiating Organization . PAGE D-I O‘O‘U‘l 14 24 26 29 31 a . i / w r ‘,/ “ P O “I O‘ . .4‘7.‘ I ‘ fl- 7 I I ,-. ,_. f -.-*-"-* .~.’ ' ~ I CHAPTER III. IV. The Relation of Occupational Orientation and Organizational Size to Support of the Negotiating Organization . Intervening and Control Variables . Summary . Summary of Propositions and Hypotheses THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES. Introduction . The Logic of the Research Design . The Sample . Measurement of the Variables The Independent Variables . Intervening Variables . The Dependent Variables Index of Occupational Orientation . Index of Support of the Negotiating Organizations . Analysis Procedure Summary . ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION Introduction . Procedures . Findings . Summary . ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION . Introduction . PAGE 33 33 35 36 38 38 39 44 50 55 56 57 59 61 63 64 64 64 66 74 76 76 CHAPTER VI. Procedures . Findings . Elaboration and Specification by Latent Roles . Summary and Conclusions . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Research Hypotheses . Organizational Correlates of Occupational Orientation . Organizational Correlates of Support of the Negotiating Organization . Theoretical Implications . Methodological Limitations . Cons equenc es . BIBLIOGRAPHY . APPENDICIES APPENDIX A . APPENDD( B . PAGE 76 80 83 95 99 99 99 102 104 105 106 108 117 130 TABLE LIST OF TABLES PAGE Social characteristics of the cities containing the sampled districts. . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 The distribution of selected characteristics by district................... 43 The size distribution of elementary schools bydistrict................. 46 Response rates by district and school . . . . . 47 The distribution of elementary teacher characteristics by district . . . . . . . . . . 49 The distribution of school size by district . . . 50 . The distribution of centralized decision making structures by district . . . . . . . . . 54 The distribution of centralized decision making structures by organizational size . . . . 55 The distribution of socio-economic level of schools by district. . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Inter-item and item-total correlations of occupational involvement . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Inter-item correlations and item-total correlations................. 60 The effect of sex upon occupational orientations within schools varying by centralization of decision making . . . . . . . 71 The effect of highest college degree upon occupational orientations with schools varying by centralization of decision making. . . . . . 71 vii TABLE 14. 20. 21. 22. 23. viii PAGE . The effect of socio-economic level upon occupational orientations within schools varying by centralization of decision making . . . 73 The effect of experience in building upon occupational orientations with schools varying by centralization of decision making . . . . . . . 73 Distribution of school size by district within the high and low support districts . . . . . . . . 78 Distribution of centralized decision making structures by district within both high and low support districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 The effect of size upon the variation in support of the negotiating organization in high and low support schools . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 The effect of a centralized decision making structure upon support of the negotiating organization in high and low support schools. . . 82 The effect of both size and an occupation orientation upon support of the negotiating organization in high and low support schools . . . 84 The effect of a centralized decision making structure and an occupation orientation upon support of the negotiating organization in high and low support schools . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 The distribution of support of the negotiating organization by sex and marital status within high and low support districts while controlling centralization of decision making . . 87 The distribution of support of the negotiating organization by sex and marital status within high and low support districts while controlling by organizational size. . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 TABLE 24. 25. 26. 27. Al. A2. A3. A4. A5. A6. A7. ix The distribution of support of the negotiating organizations by educational attainment within high and low support districts while controlling for centralization of decision making The distribution of support of the negotiating organization by educational attainment within high and low support districts while controlling for organizational size . The distribution of support of the negotiating organizations by building experience within high and low support districts while controlling for centralization of decision, making . The distribution of support of the negotiating organization by building experience within high and low support districts while controlling for organizational size . The distribution of occupational orientation by school size and district using a two way analysis of variance program . The distribution of sex by organizational size . The distribution of education by organizational size . . . . . . . The distribution of experience in building by organizational size . . . . . . . . The distribution of socio-economic level by organizational size . . . . . . . . . . The distribution of experience in building by centralization of authority . . . . . . The distribution of sex by centralization ofauthority. . . . . . . . . . . PAGE 90 93 94 96 117 117 118 118 119 119 120 Q h 6'” no.0- o “"“. TABLE PAGE A8. The distribution of education by centralization ofauthority................ 120 A9. The distribution of socio-economic level by centralization of authority. . . . . . . . . . 121 A10. Socio-economic level and occupational orientation................ 121 All. Education and occupational orientation . . . . 122 A12. The distribution of support of negotiating organization by school size and district by a two way analysis of variance program . . 122 A13. The distribution of sex by centralization of authority within high and low support schools.................. 123 A14. The distribution of sex by organizational size within high and low support schools . . . 124 A15. The distribution of education by centrali- zation of authority within high and low supportschools. . . . . . . . . . .. . . 125 A16. The distribution of education by organizational size within high and low support schools . . . 126 A17. The distribution of building experience by organizational size within high and low supportschools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 A18. The distribution of building experience by centralization of authority within high and low support schools . . . . . . . . . . 128 A19. The distribution of support by organizational size within low support schools while controlling building experience . . . . . . . . 129 A20. The distribution of support by centralization of authority within low support schools while controlling building experience. . . . . . . . 129 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AREA Introduction Every age in an industrial society is to some extent an age of conflict. The impact of the division of labor upon society erodes the strength of shared moral values and beliefs as sources of social integration and solidarity. Role specialization focuses and seg- mentalizes experience so that different perceptions of reality and justice in the world of work arise. Because technological innovations lie at the roots of occupational and organizational specialization, and such positions are constantly changing in their skill levels, perceptions of reality and justice are thrown into limbo; such objective changes in technological positions foster instabilities of power, status, and conceptions of distributive justice. Thus the world of work is the scene of constantly changing occupational and technological relation- ships which periodically elicit organized challenges for more power and priviledge. Such organized coalitions of workers introduce mediating organizations which serve to reintegrate old relationships by tying them into a more complex web of functional interdependencies. There is a long tradition of study to support the assumption that certain social psychological phenomena can be predicted from social structure. In the area of work and the economic structure, Marx emphasized the importance of economic power and ownership in producing alienation at the time of the Industrial Revolution. After the managerial revolution, which separated ownership and control and increased organizational complexity, Dahrendorf and others demonstrated the importance of organizational authority differentially distributed to positions which produced feelings of powerlessness and a consciousness of similar interests. Recently, the more general analytical variables receiving research emphasis are work autonomy and training. This research lies within this general tradition, i. e. , the relation between the organizational conditions of work and training on the one hand and the worker's psychological investment and concern with intrinsic aspects of his occupational role and support of change agents to alter working conditions on the other. The general question raised is with the relation between organizational structure and social psychological states of individuals. Guiding this research were the questions, "Do particular organizational arrangements condition the worker's feelings and responses to the importance of his occupational role?" Similarly, "Do particular organizational arrangements condition workers' feelings and working relationships such as to encourage support of a negotiating organization which seeks to alter working arrangements for its members ?" This research bases its reasoning on the theoretical importance of a decentralized decision making structure for a highly trained work force and the social importance of organization size1 to explain organizational levels of occupational orientation and support of an outside mediating organization with programs for implementing change. Organizational size and centralization of decision making are felt to create experiences which facilitate the formation of individual definitions and orientations toward the importance of the work role and the development of support for organized means to change the conditions of employment. When workers have the right to organize and negotiate collectively over conditions of employment, the worker who is dissatisfied with aspects of work ranging from issues of salaries to centralization of decision making can join others and seek change through supporting one of the negotiating organizations. 1Seymour M. Lipset, Martin Trow, and James Coleman, Union Democracy (New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc. , 1962), pp. 118v226. ’onlm’.‘_ 3 Research on the impact of work autonomy usually takes the form of technological control as in the case of Blauner, Woodward and Shepardz or organizational control through supervision, formalization, or centralization of authority as exhibited in the work of Weber, Kornhauser, Corwin, and B1au.3 The research on training usually emphasizes the importance of ideology, values, and norms that an inductee learns or develops under an apprenticeship system; the importance and meaning found in work may be threatened under some organizational conditions as emphasized in the research of Kornhauser. Scott, and Glazer. 4 When such occupational involvements are jeopardized, discontent can result and give rise to organized expressions for change through formation of proposals or joining existing organizations which have programs for changing the conditions of employment. 5 ZRobert Blauner, Alienation 229 Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Joan Woodward, Management a_n_d_ Technology (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1958); and Jon Shepard, Man-Machine Relationships, Attitudes Toward Work flMeanings i_n t_h_e Work fl, (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, 1968). 3 . . . . Max Weber, Theory <_)_f Soc1al a__nd Economic Organization. Translated by A. Henderson and T. Parsons (New York: Oxford University Press, 1947); Ronald Corwin, "Militant Professionalism: Initiative and Compliance in Public Education, " Sociology o_f Education, Vol. XXXVIII (Summer, 1965), pp. 310-331; William Kornhauser, Scientists illndustry; and Peter M. Blau, "The Comparative Study of Organizations, " Industrial and Labor Review, Vol. XVIII (April, 1965), pp. 323-334. — 4 William Kornhauser, Scientists i_n Industry, 22. (fl' ; Richard Scott, "Reactions to Supervision in a Hetergenous Professional Organization, " Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. X (June, 1965), pp. 65-81; and Barney Glaser, "Differential Association and the Institutional Motivation, " Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. X (June, 1965), pp. 82-97. 5Seymour M. Lipset and Martin Schwartz, "The Politics of Professionals, " Professionalization. Edited by Howard Vollmer and Donald Mills (New York: Prentice Hall, 1966), pp. 299-310. 4 Thirty-eight public elementary school buildings within five comparablylarge districts in the state of Michigan constitute the sample upon which this research is based. Since the Michigan Public school teacher recently gained the right to organize and negotiate collectively over the conditions of employment, teachers who are dissatisfied with aspects of their employment can join with others and seek change through supporting either the local MEA or the MFT. While schools are in the public sector and semi-professional organizations, nothing is sacred about the selection of public schools. They are merely a context in which to collect data dealing with the impact of organizational variables upon social psychological states of workers. However, the combination of the legal structure, organizational and personnel characteristics provides a unique con- text in which to test new relationships that are emerging in the world of work. The importance of this research lies in its theoretical and practical contribution. By analyzing the relationships between organizational conditions surrounding work roles and work orientation, We hope to clarify the impact that various organizational conditions have in developing an occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization. Furthermore, we hope to identify forces motivating the professionally oriented teacher under differing con- ditions to become supportive of the negotiating organization. The practical significance lies in the fact that levels of occupational orientation have direct implications for the administrator and control structure needed for effective operation. Furthermore, the develop- ment of an occupational orientation may be partially a function of supervisory styles which suggests practical guidelines for developing the optimum balance between professional autonomy and administra- tive control to realize organizational goals. 5 Outline 91312 Chapters The presentation plan of this research shall be as follows: Chapter II contains the literature relevant to the research question, the derivation of propositions, and the research hypotheses. Chapter III contains a description of the logic of the research design, the research site, and the distribution of population character- istics of the sample. The rationales for measuring the variables, the statistics utilized, and the analysis procedure are also discussed. Chapter IV presents the analysis of the impact of organizational conditions upon school occupational orientation. Specifying variables are used to explain individual variation of occupational orientation within the context of organizational conditions. Chapter V presents an analysis of the organizational correlates of school support of the negotiating organization. Again. as in Chapter IV. specifying variables are applied to explain individual variation in support of the negotiating organization within types of organizational contexts. Summaries, conclusions, and further remarks are included in Chapter VI. The theoretical and practical problems of researching the impact of organizational arrangements upon social psychological responses are discussed and suggestions for additional research are considered. CHAPTER II THEOR ET ICAL CONSID ERA TIONS Introduction Today, fundamental changes are taking place in the organiza- tional structure of public education: new occupational roles and laws are creating different working relationships among school personnel. Contributing to these changes are the increasing size of schools due to population growth, population shifts, and the consolidation of districts. Also contributing to this change in the structure of public education is the increasing specialization of school personnel in both administrative and instructional roles and the passage of laws in states legalizing collective negotiations for teachers. Public education affords a unique opportunity to study the effect of an unusual combination of changing organizational and legal conditions upon orientations of the instructional personnel to their work and to their new negotiating organization. While some of these conditions taken singly may not be unusual, the combination of organizational, legal, and labor force characteristics makes such a study of public education theoretically important. Only recently have white collar, semi-professional, or public employees begun to collectively negotiate over conditions of employment. In addition, public education is now recruiting more males, and more specialized and highly trained members. 1 Given these characteristics, what effect is associated with these emerging organizational and legal arrangements? As the (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967). (I (.5 T .PL‘U 7 literature in this area suggests, the consequences of these organiza- tional and legal changes upon teachers await systematic examination. Some studies have related the personal characteristics of teachers to levels of occupational satisfaction but there has been no research relating the organizational context to occupational orientation or support of collective negotiations. 3 Nor have there been any studies showing how organizational conditions and occupational orientations relate to the support of collective negotiations. This research deals with the sociology of work and complex organizations. The purpose is to examine the organizational context in which an occupational orientation develops, then relating both occupational orientation and the organizational context to support of the negotiating organization. First, we shall analyze the theoretical I relevance of organizational size and the centralization of occupational 1.5.44 - 2Indicative of the lack of research data and even interest in the area of collective negotiations and teacher organizations is the virtual omission of the subject from comprehensive summary articles about sociology and education. For example see, N. Gross, "The Socio- logy of Education” in R. K. Merton, L. Broom and L. S. Cottrell, Jr. (eds.), Sociology Toda ax (New York: Basic Books, Inc. , 1959). pp 128-152; B. R. Clark, "Sociology of Education, " Handbook of Modern Sociology. Edited by R. L. Faris (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co. , 1966), pp. 734-769; C. E. Bidwell, "The School as a Formal Organi- zation, " Handbook of Modern Organizations. Edited by J. G. March (Chicago; Rand McNally and Co., 1965), pp. 972-1022. Bidwell denotes one paragraph to teacher organizations only in terms of latent identities and comments that both the AFT and MEA await systematic investigation, p. 1008. M. Lieberman and M. G. Moskow, Collective Negotiations fir Teachers (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co. , 1966). In their extensive bibliography, Lieberman and Moskow show just how little sociologists and social-psychologists have contributed to this important subject. 3See for example, John Colombotos, "Sex, Role, and Pro- fessionalism, " School Review, 71 (1963), pp. 27-40; Ray Kuhlen, Career Development ilPublic School Teaching Profession (New York: Syracuse University Institute of Research, 1959); and Robert Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagan, Characteristics o_f M_e__n W_ho Remained i_n a_nd Left Teaching (New York: Teachers Colleg—e, Colum—bia U—niv-ersity, 1960). 8 Literature on the Correlates of an Oc cupational Orientation A common theme in occupational studies focuses upon the meaning and importance that different individuals find in their work; work has a different meaning and salience for different people. For some, work is a central life interest providing intrinsic satisfaction and involvement while others pursue meaning and a sense of fulfill- ment in activities outside of work. For the latter, work is used primarily as a means by which to find satisfaction elsewhere. Organizational conditions which are not altogether clear, cause workers in different occupational positions to View their work as a consumatory rather than an instrumental activity. Work serves as an organizing principle for both the individual and society. Probably the single most important fact about both the individual and a society is in what productive roles they sustain themselves. Work is not only a way of maintaining a standard of living but it also relates to a wider system of values and beliefs, as Morse and Weiss report from their national sample of employed men. 4 They asked the question: "If by some chance you inherited enough money to live comfortably without working, do you think you would work anyway or not ?" Eighty percent said they would keep working for such reasons as "to keep occupied, " "it keeps the individual healthy, " "it's good for the person. " Others gave negative reasons such as "without work they would feel lost, go crazy, feel bored, or feel useless. " While productive activity in general may be valued. it is another question whether meaning and value will be found in specific aspects or operations of an occupational task. Work is a basic fact of existence 4Nancy Morse and Robert Weiss, "The Function and Meaning of Work. " American Sociological Review. Vol. XX (April, 1955), pp. 193-195. 9 for participation in work is not voluntary but a necessity for almost everyone. While work is an important organizing principle of social life, there is no certainty that work activities will provide a source of meaning and satisfaction for all individuals. Given the fact that work activities are the channels by which most social valuables are differentially distributed, we might expect individuals to differentially respond to their work; those receiving more will be more closely identified with their positions than those who receive fewer social valuables. The social characteristics of the role channel the valuables in society to their occupants and structure the identification process. Since people are social beings, they are influenced by what their friends and associates believe and value. To the extent that others value and reward activities which the individual performs, then we would expect that he would identify with that activity and define it as important. Such a rationale seems implicit in occupational studies which relate occupational prestige to work as a source of satisfaction, meaning, and self-identification. Conditions such as occupational prestige, the work place, and the occupational association help channel the distribution of valuables which result in patterns of individual involvement. The explanation sought is not psychological but social, i. e. , one which describes how reward structures result in patterns of individual response. The focus is upon the structure of a role which positions the occupant in a set of primary and secondary relations and thereby channels psychological investments in aspects of an activity. In order to clarify this, it is necessary to introduce several psychological assumptions which I assume operate in human society. Assumptions 1. People like to think well of themselves. 2. Self-regard is a function of the definitions and evaluations of others as the person engages in social activities. 10 3. The person will become more involved in activities which help him maintain a positive evaluation of himself. From the above assumptions, the following general proposition is derived: 1. The higher the positive evaluation of a person's activity as defined by himself or by others, the more likely a person will become involved in that activity--other things being equal. Several starting points can be used to infer the orientation and importance that people develop in their occupational role. One approach would compare the average level of involvement in one occupation to that of other occupations in order to infer the relative importance of work as a source of meaning and commitment, pursued as an end in itself. Another approach would be to take persons in the same occupation and compare their relative interest and involvement in work with non-work activities. A third approach would focus more closely upon the structural conditions which encourage the development of an occupational orientation or value in the activities of the work role within SEE occu ation. Utilizing the first approach of the work-non-work dimension, Chinoy examined how automobile workers defined and viewed their work. 5 By relating the opportunity for achievement in work to the worker's length of exposure to it, he traced a withdrawal of interest and aspirations from work over time toward non-work activities where the worker pursued rewarding experiences which were not available in work. For these factory workers, success in life meant the achievement of primarily non-work related goals. Reisman and Bloomberg carried this point further by suggesting that since working class jobs are frequently not distinguishable in terms of a prestige 5Ely Chinoy, Automobile Workers and the American Dream (New York: Doubleday and Co., 1955). 11 hierarchy, this encourages the worker to find satisfaction and make status distinctions in leisure pursuits. 6 Dubin7 presents evidence to indicate that work and the work place are not ”central life interests" for almost three-fourths of a sample of industrial workers he studied; while Orzack, 8 using the same set of questions, found that for four-fifths of the registered nurses he studied, work and the work place were "central life interests. " The second approach compares the occupational importance and interest levels of workers as it differs along the occupational prestige hierarchy. As cited above, Morse and Weiss, in a study of the function and meaning of work, reported that persons in middle class occupations typically emphasized the interest their jobs held for them and the sense of accomplishment they derived from work; working class respondents tended to regard work as an activity which occupied their time. 9 The results of Lyman's study indicated that blue-collar workers generally viewed work as a means of providing income while white-collar workers emphasized the intrinsic aspects of the job and the opportunities it provided for self-expression. 10 Hyman presented evidence that persons from different socio-economic backgrounds 6David Reisman and Warner Bloomberg, Jr. , "Work and Leisure: Fusion or Polarity, " M, Work afl Society. Edited by Sigmund Nosow and William H. Form (New York: Basic Books, Inc. , 1962), pp. 35-41. 7Robert Dubin, "Industrial Worker's World: A Study of the Central Life Interests of Industrial Workers, " Social Problems, Vol. III (January, 1956), pp. 131-142. 8Louis H. Orzack, "Work as a Central Life Interest of Professionals, " Social Problems, Vol. VII (Fall, 1959). pp. 125-32. 9Nancy Morse and Robert Weiss, pp. c_it. 10E. L. Lyman, "Occupational Differences in the Value Attached to Work, " American Journalgf; Sociology, Vol. LXI (September, 1955), pp. 138-144. 12 used different criteria to judge what constituted a good job;11 middle and upper class people exhibited more concern with occupational success. Wilensky12 found that more than three times as many workers from a low socio—economic level compared to a high socio- economic level were "indifferent" to work. The conditions behind the variables of occupational prestige and socio-economic level which appear to encourage an occupational orientation include: (1) a training program, (2) responsibility, (3) a system of incentives which lead to positions of higher income, prestige and authority, and (4) a public or colleagues who highly evaluate the activity. 13 Becker and Strauss suggested that a formal training program or schooling is an essential part of getting people commited to careers. A long period of training or socialization into the role involves an investment of time, energy, and money; it also helps internalize a set of attitudes and values appropriate to the role. Responsibility, while permitting more autonomy to make decisions, also is part of the criteria by which occupations are evaluated and placed on a scale of higher and lower respect. A system of increasing rewards offers a set of valuables thereby encouraging the individual to stabilize his life goals and plans around the accumulation of these rewards. Lastly, colleague relations help reinforce the importance and criteria of the occupational role, 11Herbert H. Hyman, "The Value Systems of Different Classes: A Social Psychological Contribution to the Analysis of Stratification, ” in Reinhard Bendix and Seymour M. Lipset, Class, Status fl Power (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1953), pp. 426-442. 12Harold L. Wilensky, "Varieties of Work Experience, " Man in a World of Work. Edited by Henry Borow (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. , 1964), pp. 125-154. 13Among others Faunce talks about the importance of these variables. See "Occupational Involvement and the Selective Testing of Self-Esteem, " (paper read at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, 1959). 13 thereby supporting involvement through primary ties. A third possible approach and the one utilized in this research would analyze varying structural conditions within one occupation. While the above research shows that differences exist in levels of occupational involvement across occupational categories, almost no one has analyzed the differences within an occupational category. In comparative studies using different occupations, researchers have assumed great uniformity in the conditions within an occupation so as to infer relative importance of and commitment to the work role. To permit comparison across occupations, the differences within an occupation are minimized so that differences across occupations become clear. But the work conditions existing within some occupations are so different that the researcher may average within differences which are greater than some of the differences across two occupations. For example, the three occupational categories of farmer, medical doctor, and lawyer contain great variation in whether they are self-employed, in the size of the organi- zation if they are employed by others, and in the degree of autonomy regarding occupational decisions. I would conclude that greater understanding of our theoretical question will come from an intensive investigation of variations within those occupations which are employed under diverse conditions. It is this variation in the form of organizational conditions surrounding work within one occupation that is under study here. In this way, the broad conditions of occupational prestige and the general task and skill are held constant. The purpose is to further refine our understanding of the relative contribution that different organizational 4Howard S. Becker and Anselm L. Strauss, "Careers, Personality and Adult Socialization, " American Journal_c_)f Sociology, Vol. LXII (November, 1956), pp. 253-263. 5Robert Blauner, pp. c_i_t., p. 187. 14 conditions have in (1) developing an occupational orientation and (2) encouraging support of the negotiating organization. The Organizational Correlates o_f Occyational Orientation We will review the literature relevant to the following three questions: (1) the relationship of organizational size to variation in occupational orientation; (2) the relationship of centralization of decision making to occupational orientation, and (3) the relationship of organizational size to centralization of decision making. A body of literature in sociology is developing on organizations correlating global properties of the system to group relations, group structure, or individual behavior. The variables currently empha- sized include technology or the technological stage, organizational size, authority structure, degree of formalization, and standardi- zation. In this study, organizational size and centralization of decision making have been selected for explaining organizational variation in occupational orientation. Organizational Size and School Occupational Orientation Size is often cited as a variable having theoretical significance for behavior within the organization. If size is an important socio- logical variable for explaining individual behavior, its actual impact is not often theoretically justified or empirically demonstrated as to its primary and secondary implications. Nevertheless, crude correlations have been found between size and individual behavior such as level of occupational specialization, work satisfaction, and morale. But because the relationship between organization size and individual behavior is not simple but contains such possible inter- vening conditions of informal group relations, primary and secondary 15 relations, and formalization, particular findings are misleading and do not contribute to much understanding outside the particular time and context in which the study was conducted. In attempting to fill in the secondary consequences of size, Tallachi16 suggests that larger organizations help bring about job specialization which in turn lowers the satisfaction and morale workers find in their task. The result he suggests is greater absenteeism and turnover. Similarly, Worthy argues that size leads to a division of labor which narrows the scope of responsibility and deprives the worker of pride and satisfaction in his work. 17 However, findings relating size to satisfaction were not supported in the replication study by Meltzer and Salter, 18 who found that no simple correlation existed. They discovered a curvilinear relationship between size and work satis- faction. Size of the interactive unit may be powerful in its consequences but it is not a pure variable in that it does not structure interaction in any direct or necessary direction; its effect is exerted through other intervening or secondary consequences such as the degree of formali- zation or the opportunity to develop friendships and social support. However, our direct concern is (1) how size relates to the formation of subgroups or informal groups, and (2) its impact upon supporting different work orientations. Four relevant propositions can be gleaned from the literature which relate to the discussion that follows: 6Sergio Talacchi, "Organizational Size, Individual Attitudes and Behavior: An Empirical Study, " Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. V (1960), pp. 398-420. 7James Worthy, "Organizational Structure and Employee Morale, " American Sociological Review, Vol. XV (1950), pp. 169-179. 18L. Meltzer and J. Salter, "Organizational Structure and Performance and Job Satisfaction, " American Sociological Review, Vol. XXVII (June, 1962), pp. 351-362. l6 PROPOSITION 1. A positive orientation in an activity is more likely when there is social support for performing that activity. PROPOSITION 2. Large organizations provide greater opportunities for individuals to develop voluntary friendships among status equals than small organizations. PROPOSITION 3. Large organizations provide greater opportunities for small communication networks to develop which encourages the formation of subgroups. PROPOSITION 4. Large organizations provide greater opportunities through friendships to find support for a wider range of interests and orientations. One of the principal agencies of adult socialization in an industrial society is the friendship or work group in formal organi- zations which prepares or adjusts the new member to the work role. In work organizations, the work group is a major source of sociali- zation and social support as the new employee is inducted into the necessary social and technical skills. Gross, in reviewing this area. suggested that such informal groups serve four important functions: (1) providing protection and assistance to members, (2) serving as important communication lines linking different parts of the organi- zation, (3) controlling their member's behavior. (4) and serving as a context of self-expression and providing personal satisfaction. 19 The informal group in the work organization also helps bridge the gap between formal expectations and individual preparation and thus may help reduce the turnover or dropout rate for new recruits. 19N. Gross, "The Sociology of Education, " Sociology Today. Edited by R. K. Merton, L. Broom and L. S. Cottrell, Jr. (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1959). pp. 128-152. 17 Evan. 20 in a comparison study of new and experienced engineers and scientists, found that the turnover and dropout rates for new trainees was several times higher than for experienced trainees and scientists in the same organization. He suggested that the formation of peer group bonds was a necessary condition for successful sociali- zation and integration of new trainees into the large-scale organization. Work organizations provide varying opportunities for primary relations to develop. If primary ties are the basic supports upon which feelings of well-being are maintained, then it follows that the more primary ties developed while pursuing an activity, the more likely a community of shared values and interests will emerge thereby increasing the likelihood that those activities will become objects of psychological importance. In their study of the International Typo- graphical Union, Lips et et. a1. concluded that larger organizations up to a point provided greater opportunities to develop friendships and primary ties because larger organizations provided a larger pool of members from which to select. 21 Closer friendships were more likely to develop among status equals where the selection opportunity was greater. Sayles22 found that relative size and importance of the group among other factors to be important in explaining the presence of friendship groups. Also, the more solidary groups were often the larger rather than the smaller groups. Close friendships within informal groups facilitate the develop- ment and support of beliefs and sentiments about the importance work 20William M. Evarfi,’ "Peer Group Interaction and Organizational Socialization: A Study of Employee Turnover, ” American Sociological Review, Vol. XXVIII (October, 1963), pp. 436-440. 21Seymour M. Lipset, Martin Trow, and James Coleman, pp. 22Leonard Sayles, Behavior 2f Industrial Work Grou s (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1958). 18 should or should not have; and within larger organizations, one might expect that a greater range of occupational sentiments and orientations could be held by different persons because the larger organization could support a greater number of small groups in which to find social support. In a study of role conceptions Gross found that organization size was related to how similarly superintendents defined their work. 23 Thomas, in his study of welfare workers, found a correlation between organizational size and the degree of role consensus among different members of the organization. 24 Size of the organization appears to at least lead to the differentiation of work conceptions and the demise of group consensus over role expectations; size encourages subgroup formation where a range of work conceptions and sentiments can find social support. The structure of sub-groups within the work organization is crucial in directing experiences and channeling rewards so that the worker's sentiments and orientation can be reinforced whatever they may be. 25 Glazer26 found that the association of scientists with colleagues led to an induction into the field which correlated with a strong motiva- tion to participate in the goal-reward pattern of science. Geer et. 7 al. support this notion by emphasizing the importance of the Z3Neal Gross, Ward Mason, and A. N. McEachern, Explo- rationsin Role Analysis (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1958). 24 Edwin Thomas, ”Role Conceptions and Organizational Size, " American Sociological Review, Vol. XXIV (1959). pp. 30-37. 5Howard Becker, "The Teacher in the Authority System of the Public School, " Journal _o_f_ Educational chhology, Vol. XXVII (1953). 6 Barney Glaser, "Differential Association and the Institutional Motivation, " Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. X (June, 1965), pp. 82-97. 27Blanche Geer, Jack Hoos, Charles ViVona, Stephen Miller, Clyde Woods, and Howard Becker, "Learning the Ropes, " Among th_e People: Studies 2 the Urban Poor. Edited by Irwin Deutscher and Elizabeth Thompson, 1966. 19 occupational group as a social context in which neophytes learn the "ropes, " the added tips which affect the individual's progress and success in the field. From these propositions and supporting research findings follow the hypothesis that: ORGANIZATIONAL SIZE IS POSITIVELY RELATED TO VARIATION IN OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION OF WORKERS. Centralization of Decision Making and School Occupational Orientation There is a developing body of literature on the relationship between job complexity. centralization of decision making, and interest in work. Important studies on restrictions in work autonomy have been made in both industrial and other types of work settings with various types of workers. Blauner28 examined the comparative impact of different technologies upon fostering work alienation. He found that various technological stages imposed different degrees of control and hence they involved different implications for feelings of fragmentation and separation of power, meaning, norms, isolation, and self-estrangement in the work process. Four different kinds of industry were examined: printing which is characterized by a craft technology, textiles which is characterized by a mechanized machine tending technology, automobile assembly work which is a mechanized assembly line technology, and the chemical industry which is characterized by a continuous process technology. An inverted U curve emerged with alienation as the general index being lowest in an industry characterized by a craft technology, highest under the assembly line and machine tending technology and sloping down again under settings with continuous process technologies. 8Robert Blauner, pp. Ei_t. 20 Organizational settings which employ more skilled and highly trained workers have stimulated similar research but here the variable utilized is organizational control or centralization of decision making. Persons who invest long years of training and specialization develop conceptions of how work should be performed in addition to developing a value and meaning in its operation and performance. Friedson and Rhea show that a professional education with a theoretical orientation instills values and a conception of excellence which results in frustration and discontent when the authority structure precludes their attainment. 29 Similarly Aiken and Hage demonstrate that a centralized decision making structure can lead to alienation from work. 30 Those who were alienated from work reflected a feeling of disappointment with the opportunity to realize occupational norms and standards learned during training or from the work group within the work context. Professions can be viewed in terms of degree to which they possess a set of ideal structure characteristics. The most important characterizing attribute of a profession is a power relationship where the members as a formal body have a mandate or license from the society to exercise judgment which is justified by the theoretical knowledge they possess. The degree of progress toward professionalization is associated with (1) the level of its educational standards for entrance into the field. (2) the advances it has made in its prestige and economic standing and (3) the autonomy or license the members as a body have achieved in controlling their own work as an occupational association. Education serves as a controlled 2 9Eliot Friedson and Buferd Rhea, "Knowledge and Judgment in Professional Evaluation, " Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. X (June, 1965), pp. 107-124. 0 Michael Aiken and Jerald Hage, "Organizational Alienation: A Comparative Analysis, " American Sociological Review, Vol. XXXI (August, 1966), pp. 497-507. Aufl.'d““e. a. 21 socialization experience where occupational norms of excellence, autonomy, and expertise are instilled. Yet the context in which most of these trained members work is in a large organization which limits autonomy and coordinates diverse functions. Teachers have virtually no control over many important standards of their work. As Lieberman indicates, 31 teachers have little control over the subjects to be taught, the materials to be used, the criteria for deciding who should be admitted, retained, and graduated in the schools, the forms to be used in reporting pupil progress, school boundary lines and criteria for permitting students to attend, qualifications for teacher training and other characteristics that affect teacher status. Even where textbook adoption and curri- culum is in the hands of local authorities, the decisions are often made by the administration or by other supervisory staff with little or no consultation of the teachers concerned. Authority is located in the administrative rather than in the professional sphere; the important decisions are made at levels above teachers. The following three propositions appear in this literature: PROPOSITION 4. The more positive the orientation in an activity, the more likely the desire for control and autonomy in that activity. PROPOSITION 5. The lack of control or autonomy will more likely frustrate the highly occupationally oriented than the low occupationally oriented. PROPOSITION 6. Centralizing decision making in an activity curtails autonomy. Blau and Scott note that one of the major dilemmas of modern organizations concerns the dual basis of authority on which they are Myron Lieberman and Michael Moskow, Collective Nggotiations for Teachers (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co. , 1966). 22 typically founded. 32 As they put it, "On the one side, it is adminis- tration based on expertise, while on the other, it is administration based on discipline. The dilemma they pose is between compliance and expert judgment: one of the major characteristics of employees is their willingness to suspend their own judgment and follow the directives of their superiors. Solomon's paper on professional persons in bureaucratic organizations presents one of the most systematic outlines available on the major incompatabilities between professional and bureaucratic ideologies. 33 He correctly observes that bureaucratic and professional organizations legitimate authority in different ways. In bureaucratic organizations, one derives his authority primarily from the position that he holds; whereas one derives authority in a professional organization primarily from his expertise. Organizational decision making structures can be arranged either with a decentralized authority structure which relies upon skills and expertise where standards of performance are internalized and supported by colleague contact or with a centralized authority structure which relies upon rules and close supervision as a mechanism of control. Corwin, 34 in a study of work orientations, found that professional and bureaucratic norms and values were very distinct and incompatible because both orientations were never simultaneously held by the same 32Peter M. Blau, "The Comparative Study of Organizations, " Industrial aid Labor Review, Vol. XVIII (April, 1965), pp. 323-334; Richard Scott, "Reactions to Supervision in a Hetergenous Pro- fessional Organization, " Administrative Science Quarterll, Vol. X (June, 1965), pp. 65-81. 33Ben Solomon, "The Role of Teachers in Educational Decision Making, " (Chicago: Reprint Series, 125), pp. 253-266. Ronald Corwin, "Militant Professionalism: Initiative and Compliance in Public Education, " Sociology o_f Education, Vol. XXXVIII (Summer, 1965), pp. 310-331. . s f E v . " £1; "— -I‘I_.“‘: '-.‘ 'I .~‘ ‘ . ’4 1 EE ‘ "I I ‘9 ‘j E: I . . I I / . i' ' ..- , < ) r l I ’1’" no . O In.u-_I_ .Liv :1 q.“ .5. (u . 23 person. From this we might expect that the strong adherence to professional norms means the rejection of the bureaucratic norms. With regard to authority and decision making, professional norms and values suggest that the occupational member, because of his training and competence. should make decisions of work procedure and tools. Yet the bureaucratic norms and orientation dictate that such decisions are routine questions and should be made by higher administrators who are legally entrusted and sanctioned by public loyalty to make such decisions. Studies of scientists and professionals indicate that less conflict and a more productive performance comes with a decentralized authority structure. Kornhauser, 5 in one of the first of such studies emphasized the importance scientists place in working in an organizational authority structure which permits a great deal of autonomy. When scientists are surrounded by a centralized and restrictive authority structure in the work organization, conflicts between occupational and organizational norms often result. The literature on professionals working in government and industry documents this conflict over this semi-independent and variable principle of authority by which administrators can organize and coordinate specialized efforts. While trained specialists are expected to value (1) expertise, (2) autonomy, (3) commitment, and (4) responsibility to society for maintenance of standards, the values of the bureaucrat are that (1) administration should decide who is competent, (2) administration should decide how the job will be done, (3) individual loyalty should be to the organization, (4) and adminis- 36 tration alone should be responsible for discipline. Baumgartel 5William Kornhauser, Scientists iglndustry: Conflict and Accommodation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963). George Strauss, "Professionalism and Occupational Associations, " Industrial Relations, Vol. II (1963). 24 found that the performance and job satisfaction of researchers in a laboratory was related to the style of supervision and the hierarchical control of authority. Similarly, Scott, 37 in a study of social workers, found that acceptance of supervision varied by the orientation of both workers and supervisors. The professionally oriented were more critical of centralized decisions than the non-professionally oriented; and workers supervised by professionally oriented super- visors were less critical of the centralized decisions than workers supervised by less professionally oriented supervisors. From the above, we hypothesize that CENTRALIZATION OF DECISION MAKING WILL BE NEGATIVELY RELATED TO AN OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION. Organizational Size and Decision Making Structure Sociologists have often assumed some necessary relationship between organizational size and the centralization of decision making. While size permits greater differentiation and specialization of function, size does not create specialization nor do size and specialization necessarily bring about the centralization of decision making regarding occupational matters. For example, doctors in large hospitals or professors in large universities have authority in the area of their competency due primarily to the fact that their task is non-programmed and non-routine. The number of occupational specialities, the amount of professional training, the prestige of the task, and other variables intervene between size and decision making 7Richard Scott, pp. .‘lt' "u . -.a94v0“““;'" 25 structure. 38 However, with other things equal, size does present greater problems of coordination and organization of orderly human efforts towards some larger purpose and therefore we could expect some correlation between size and centralization of decision making. This leads to a proposition from the literature. PROPOSITION 8. Large organizations, for purposes of coordination, develop more standardi- zation and restrict autonomy--other conditions equal. The requirements for coordination and standards within the organization pressure administrators to tighten the controls, centralize more occupational decisions, and standardize activities. But as Meltzer and Salter concluded in their study of organizational size, size is not uniformly related to organizational structure, autonomy, or degree of supervision. 39 In a study of school systems Harper40 found that size was related to more orderly organization of behavior which occurs through an organization chart, rules, etc. However, schools might be expected to be more organized around authority based on competence than other organizations of similar size. 41 From previous research then we hypothesize that ORGANIZA- TIONAL SIZE IS POSITIVELY RELATED TO CENTRALIZATION OF DECISION MAKING. 38Jerald Hage and Michael Aiken, "Relationships of Centrali- zation to Other Structural Properties, " American Sociological Quarterly, Vol. XII (June, 1967), pp. 72-92; Robert L. Peabody, "Perceptions of Organizational Authority: A Comparative Analysis, " Administrative Science Quarterly (March, 1962), pp. 463-482. 39 . L. Meltzer and J. Salter, pp. p1_t. 4O . Dean Harper, "The Growth of Bureaucracy in School Systems, " The Journal pf Economic Sociology, Vol. XXIV (July, 1965), pp. 261- 272. 1 4 Robert L. Peabody, pp. c_i_t_., p. 477. 26 Organizational Correlates o_f Support o_f the Negotiating Organization; Organizational Size and School Support pf tip Negotiating Organization Four relevant propositions emerge from the literature which were also us ed in the section relating organizational size and 0c cupational orientation. PROPOSITION 2. Large organizations provide greater opportunities for individuals to develop voluntary friendships among status equals than small organizations. PROPOSITION 3. Large organizations provide greater Opportunities for small communication networks to develop which encourages the formation of subgroups. PROPOSITION 1. A positive orientation in an activity is more likely when there is social support for performing that activity. PROPOSITION 4. Large organizations provide greater opportunities through friendships to find support for a wider range of interests and orientations . However, in addition, two propositions relate to the discussion of conditions which motivate workers to support negotiating organizations which follows: PROPOSITION 9. The desire for more rewards for performing an activity encourages political activity. PROPOSITION 10. Support of organizations mediating differences is mostly a function of unfilled or discrepant expectations which have not been satisfied by individual means. Organizational size affects behavior through the combination of secondary relations which are brought about by size on the one hand and primary relations which are made possible by size on the “WI .1(_—.— __‘ other concI relat form The brei ' my. ~ . ., VI... -amfitifi 27 other. In their study of the typographical unions, Lipset et. a1.42 concluded that the size of the unit affects both primary and secondary relationships. The size of the interacting unit encourages more formal, impersonal relations between the manager and the managed. The lack of face-to-face contact between administrator and worker breeds more formal demands which bypass the personal and operating situation; situational idiosyncrasies are not easily or informally interpreted or adjusted to. Indeed, as Lipset shows, Marx long ago suggested, large shops lead to impersonal and indirect contacts between employees and employers. When the mediating function of face-to-face relations is eliminated, differential interests develop in accord with the structure of experiences and this leads to a conflict of interests. Colleague interests and peer norms develop if the organization is of sufficient size to permit the structure of the work organization and the relations within it to channel a consciousness of interests. Wildman suggests that organizational size, degree of bureau- cratization, and styles of administrative leadership relate to the joining of unions and the conditions motivating participation. Supporting this further is Lieberman and Maskow's work, 45 the most comprehensive on teacher organizations and negotiations, which emphasizes the importance of school size as it fosters a formality in administrative relations. Such relations breed conflicts which 42Seymour M. Lipset, Martin Trow, and James Coleman, 22- <=.1 43Seymour M. Lipset, "White Collar Workers and Professionals: Union Behavior and Attitudes, " Readings i_n Industrial Sociology. Edited by William Faunce (1967). 44Wesley A. Wildman, "Implications of Teacher Bargaining for School Administration, " Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. XLVI (December, 1964), pp. 152-158. 5Myron Lieberman and Michael Moskow, pp. cit. 28 encourage the formation of organizational mechanisms and support of a negotiating organization to mediate differences. Larger organizations further support this worker-administrator cleavage of interests by providing greater opportunities to choose their contacts and friendships at work. Size serves to strengthen the interests and norms of colleagues through closer friendships and subgroups. Keene's research46 demonstrates that larger schools tend to be more internally complex and specialized as to roles and formalized which in turn fosters the formation of subgroups; subgroups help develop a consciousness of interests and norms regarding matters of administrative interference. Work groups provide a comfort in numbers and serve to keep many kinds of values and sentiments alive. 47 Lipset et. a1. refer to the relation ’ between organization size and support of the union. The personal ties of small-shop men with their employees tend to weaken their identification with organizations pre- dicated on a conflict of interests between workers and employees . . . In the large shops management is remote and the union is near, visible, and important; in the small shops the union is remote and the owner and foreman bulk large.48 4 The work of Sayles 9 also implicitly supports the importance of organizational size in structuring work groups and behavior at work. The relative size and importance of the group was found to be important in explaining the presence of friendships. Roland Keene, ”Operational Freedom in Complex Organi- zations" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, 1962). 47 . . . Jack Barbarh, The Pract1ce o_f Uniomsm (New York: Harper and Row, 1956). ' 48 ' ll ' Seymour M. Lipset, Wh1te Collar Workers and Professionals: Union Behavior and Attitudes, " pp. cit. 49Leonard Sayles, pg pi_t. ' ' / 4'3 f , , 7‘ i' ’ .; . .I / . n \ I I) J T i”; ‘ . I" '. . {I V I t r' U: . t . j .i ‘ .t I 29 In his research Sayies developed a typology of such work groups in terms of their participation in the grievance process. The continuum of types included (1) apathetic groups which are least likely to engage in concerted action or develop grievances; (2) erratic groups which are touch and go in their planning and concern with grievance issues; (3) strategic groups which shrewdly calculate their strategy of demands; and (4) conservative groups which are slow and timid in presenting their demands or pressure action. Larger organizations support various subgroups which hold different work sentiments as developed earlier in addition to different orientations to the union. Spinrod, in his review of the literature on union participation, concluded that organizational size leads to solidary work groups where beliefs and sentiments about work and the union develop and find support. The above literature suggest the following hypothesis. ORGANI- ZATIONAL SIZE IS POSITIVELY RELATED TO VARIATION IN SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION. Decision Making Structure and Support o_f t_h_e Negotiating Or ganization As developed under the section relating decision making structure and occupational orientation, occupations which require a specialized training program bring about the internalization of a set of values and conceptions of how a task should be performed. With a tightly structured socialization program, members learn to value and sometimes even demand autonomy from outsiders. When little authority to exercise occupational decisions exists among highly trained workers, tension and conflict are likely to result; when these sentiments are shared, organized forms of protest and support are likely to follow. The opportunity to alter individually the decision making structure from the middle or bottom of an organization is not very 30 great. While individual chances to increase one's autonomy are very small, the legal means to alter those conditions are available in industry and now increasingly in public employment. In the case of teachers, they now have the local affiliations to the National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers as vehicles to represent their interests. Given the recent availability of teacher organizations as a means of obtaining individual and collective gains, support of the negotiating organization should come from teachers who are dis- satisfied with arrangements within the schools. Centralized decision making is such an arrangement which frustrates professional ideology and teachers norms. The following two propositions are relevant here. PROPOSITION 8. Large organizations, for purposes of coordination, develop more standardization and restrict autonomy. PROPOSITION 9. The desire for more rewards for performing an activity encourages political activity. Anderson, in an analysis of school organization, relates the question of complexity of goals and competency of personnel to the organization of human effort and the allocation of decision making power in realizing complex and abstract goals. In the absence of a public confidence in teachers and a strong teacher organization to guarantee a uniform quality of new members he concludes that school administrators have been unwilling to invest authority in the teacher. This lack of teacher prestige and power results in an organization where educational authority is centralized which inadvertently fosters casual attitudes over time among teachers toward their work. 0James Anderson, "The Authority Structure of the School: System of Social Exchange, " Educational Administrative Quarterly, Vol. III (Spring. 1967), pp. 130-148. 31 Also Hage and Aiken51 found that non-uniform tasks are more likely to be coordinated in a decentralized structure. Training and professionalism increases demands for job autonomy and more power in general. The expectations of reward in the form of income, prestige and power on the part of highly trained workers such as professionals may lead to a political orientation in the work place, the community, and the society. Keene, 52 in his study of teachers in schools of various sizes and authority structures, reports that centralized decision making correlates with the emergence of teacher concerns with operational freedom and groups norms on interference. This leads to the following hypothesis. CENTRALIZATION OF DECISION MAKING WILL BE POSITIVELY RELATED TO SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATmG ORGANIZATION. The Relation o_f Occupational Involvement and Decision Making Structure EpSupport pf as Negotiating Organization The above hypothesis suggests a relationship between the decision making structure and support of the negotiating organization. However, occupational involvement in combination with the decision making structure should help strengthen the power to explain variation in school support of the negotiating organization since both independent variables set up propositions which relate to the functions or goals of the negotiating organization. Public educational instruction requires at least a four year training program which emphasizes an ideology of professionism where authority is based upon expertise and supported by colleague contact. But often 51Jerald Hage and Michael Aiken, pp. cit. 52Roland Keene, _o_p. cit. 32 eXperience in the school contradicts the ideology when decision making is hierarchically ordered. The research of Kornhauser, Corwin, Glazer, and others point to this conflict over the authority structure and the orientations of scientists and professionals in industry and government. The problem for the professionally oriented or occupationally involved is what to do about a frustrating authority structure. With the scientist in industry there is the opportunity to change to another company or to the university where he can generally find more autonomy. But the alternatives for the public school teacher are more limited in number and range. The opportunity to increase one's autonomy by changing the place of employment is not great and so if autonomy is desired, the way to gain it is not by moving but by seeking to alter the conditions which prevail. With the rise of the teacher organizations as a viable instrument of change, the occupationally oriented can now utilize the local Educational Association or Federation of Teachers as a means of changing the authority structures. This leads to the expectation that the variable of occupational orientation in combination with the decision making structure will interact to strengthen the relationship to support of the negotiating organization. The hypothesis is: ORGANIZATIONS WHICH ARE BOTH CENTRALIZED IN THEIR DECISION MAKING AND OCCUPATIONALLY ORIENTED WILL CONTAIN WORKERS WHO ARE MORE SUPPORTIVE OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION THAN ORGANIZATIONS WHICH ARE DECENTRALIZED IN THEIR DECISION MAKING AND NOT OCCUPATIONALLY ORIENTED. . ~ a ‘ . J... ‘ -. L- . "2 I" I . I "s . -.' ”I ‘I .I I ‘ 'I II ' . ‘I _ .7, , '1 l V I I .. ' n. " .I _ I‘ -. 1"II_' c M‘. . . - s-Ir-r I _ '__z 33 The Relation iOccupational Orientation and Organizational Size £p_Support o_f the Negotiating Organization Schools which are both large and occupationally oriented can reinforce sentiments of professional integrity, autonomy, and norms on interference. With larger size comes a greater formalization and less face-to-face contact between the principal and the instructional staff. As Lipset points out, large units help develop a kind of awareness psychology of administration where the lack of face-to-face contact fosters problems of coordination. The principal and his policies will seem more restrictive in large schools. By this logic administration should seem remote but the teacher organization visible, near, and important in the large unit. Such divorcing of world views and norms would be less likely in the small unit where face-to-face contact facilitates the informal mediation of differences while limiting the number of areas that need coordinating. Indeed size facilitates the separation of interests between adminis- tration and instructional staff. And when the larger unit contains occupationally oriented teachers, size will encourage and reinforce occupational sentiments among colleagues. This leads to the hypothesis that ORGANIZATIONS WHICH ARE BOTH LARGE AND OCCUPATI’ON- ALLY ORIENTED WILL CONTAIN WORKERS WHO ARE MORE SUPPORTIVE OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATIONS THAN ORGANIZATIONS WHICH ARE SMALL AND NOT OCCUPATIONALLY ORIENTED. Intervening and Control Variables We expect variation from several intervening variables, the first of which is sex. Work carries a different meaning and assumes more importance for men than it does for women. Similarly single or divorced women engage in work with different purposes than married women. Men and single females are primary breadwinners. 34 Equally important is the fact that men are expected to find meaning, satisfaction, economic success, and a sense of achievement in work; this suggests that in addition to being good providers, men are expected to be work oriented and find a career in work. For women, work often becomes a secondary role which must be adjusted to the demands of homemaking, child raising and being a good wife. Usually her satisfaction and sense of achievement are found in roles other than work. Consequently, men will tend to become more involved than women in both their teacher organization and occupa- tional role. A second variable expected to create variation is educational attainment. Education is a form of investment which is expected to condition the interest or psychological investment in work; education will also create feelings of competency and the desire for autonomy. Investing in training in the form of education sets up both expectations of reward and commitment to a set of occupational values and senti- ments. Highly educated workers will be more occupationally oriented workers and more supportive of the negotiating organization. The third intervening variable is socio-economic level of the population served by the school. The socio-economic level will affect teacher interest and involvement in at least two ways: the educational interest and aspirations of the students in the school, 53 and the support and importance given to education on the part of parents and citizens of the school community. Conant's Slums and Suburbs points out that the school serving middle class families can realistically expect that most of its pupils will be positively motivated toward educational goals and adequately prepared for classroom experiences, but that motivation and preparation is much more of a v 3Howard S. Becker, ”The Teacher in the Authority System of the Public Schools, " Journal pf Educational Sociology, Vol. XXVII (November, 1953), pp. 128-141. 35 problem for schools serving lower class families. 54 Other research documents this relation between social class and interest in and support of educational programs. 55 The interest and cooperative behavior students and parents demonstrate will be positively related to the teacher's interest and occupational orientation. The fourth variable expected to create variation is length of experience in the building. Teachers who are new in a building are not expected to be as integrated into subgroups as those who have had more years to develop close friendship ties. 56 Neophytes to the school will not feel confident or supported by peers until they become part of the social fabric by learning the ropes and developing strong primary relations. More years of experience in the building can strengthen both occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization. Summary In summary, we have hypotheses with organizational size and decision making structure as independent variables and sex. education, building experience, and socio-economic level as intervening variables to explain variation in school occupational orientation as the dependent 4James B. Conant, Slums and Suburbs (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1961). _ 55See, for example, William Sewell, "Neighborhood Context and College Plans, " American Sociological Review, Vol. XXXI (April, 1966),l pp. 159-168; Ralph Turner, 21: Social Context o_f Ambition (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co. , 1964); and Frederic W. Terrien, "Who Thinks What about Education, " American Journal pf Sociology, Vol. LIX (September, 1953), pp. 150-158. 56W. W. Charters, "Sense of Power and Length of Service Among Public School Teachers: Some Further Analysis, " (an unpublished paper, December, 1964). variai the de indepi and e negot follov n1 orgm size deck orga size deci occu pro] ion i If _/ _ . a w I (A .. I II o . I & 'I II K II 3 I 1 ~ 36 variable. A second set of hypotheses deal with organizational size, the decision making structure and school occupational orientation as independent variables and intervening variables of sex, education,I and experience in the building to explain variation in support of the negotiating organization as the dependent variable. The relation between the variables can be diagrammed as follows: Independent Variables organizational conditions: size decision making structure organizational conditions: size decision making structure occupational orientation Intervenig and Control Variables sex education socio-economic level experience in building sex education socio-economic level experience in building Dependent Variables occupational orientation support of the negotiating organization This chapter has presented the research question, developed propositions from reviewing the literature, and deduced a set of hypotheses. The propositions and hypotheses are summarized as follows: Summary of Propositions and Hypotheses Propositions l. A positive orientation in an activity is more likely when there is social support for performing that activity. 2. Large organizations provide greater opportunities for individuals to develop voluntary friendships among status equals than small organizations . 3. Large organizations provide greater Opportunities for small communication networks to develop which encourages the formation of subgroups. 4. Large organizations provide greater opportunities through friendships to find support for a wider range of interests and orientations than small organizations. 37 5. The more positive the orientation in an activity, the more likely the desire for control and autonomy in that activity. 6. The lack of control or autonomy will more likely frustrate the highly occupationally oriented than the low occupationally oriented. 7. Centralizing decision making in an activity curtails autonomy. 8. Large organizations, for purposes of coordination, develop more standardization and restrict autonomy. 9. The desire for more rewards for performing an activity encourages political activity. 10. Support of organizations mediating differences is mostly a function of unfulfilled or discrepant expectations which have not been satisfied by individual means. Hypotheses 1. Organizational size is positively related to variation in occupa- tional orientation. 2. Centralization of decision making will be negatively related to an occupational orientation. 3. Organizational size is positively related to centralization of decision making. 4. Organizational size is positively related to variation in support of the negotiating organization. 5. Centralization of decision making will be positively related to support of the negotiating organization. 6. Organizations which are both occupationally oriented and centra- lized in their decision making will contain workers who are more supportive of the negotiating organization than organizations which are decentralized in their decision making and not occupationally oriented. 7. Organizations which are both large and occupationally oriented will contain workers who are more supportive of the negotiating organization than organizations which are small and not occupationally oriented. The next chapter contains the procedures, the logic of sampling, and the analysis procedure. CHAPTER III THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES Introduction The purposes of this chapter are to: (l) recapitulate the general theoretical background for the hypotheses; (2) describe the logic of the research design, and (3) present the measurement procedure and the strategy of analysis. This research deals with the impact of organizational variables of the work place upon the social psychology of the workers as indicated by occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization. Schools, because of their increasing size and changing decision making structures, are undergoing a change in teacher- principal and teacher-teacher relationships. Changes in school size and the decision making structure provide opportunities or the lack of opportunities for personnel to find social support and professional integrity in their work. Where conditions frustrate occupational norms, feelings of injustice mature into organized forces to change the organization through collective negotiations. Global organiza- tional conditions such as organizational size and decision making structure are hypothesized to be instrumental in encouraging an occupational orientation as well as causing workers to support organizations which seek to alter conditions of employment by collective means. The hypotheses formulated in the last chapter, require a sample of organizations which vary by size and centralization of decision making authority. For theoretical and practical reasons, 38 public elementary schools from five comparably large school districts in Michigan were selected for a comparative analysis of the effect of organizational size and the decision making structure upon the psychological states of workers. 38 s chc the or vs. St 39 The Logic Si the Research Design Before discussing the sample and basis of selecting the specific schools, it is fitting to present a rationale for how the selection of the research sites helped in designing controls into the study. In order to provide an adequate test of the above hypotheses, the research design must be capable of detecting when "environmental variables” operate to confound the relationship between organizational structure and behavior in a particular setting, e. g. , community size and the legal constraints of different states. By the American system of public education and its conception of "grass roots control, " much educational policy gets formulated at the local level thereby making the community of the school district and its population a variable to the extent to which different levels of occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization stem from different evaluations of the importance of education and public school teachers.1 Local communities may create very different working conditions and incentives for teaching in the public schools because of its size, wealth, and general occupational, ethnic, and racial composition. Educators are dependent for many things on the population they serve for the district is the context within which taxes are levied, salaries are set, and administrative styles are practiced. Some districts, for example, require Masters degrees for employment. To eliminate extreme variation, large districts serving large urban areas were selected because large urban areas will most likely have a diversified industrial base, a broad occupa- tional composition, a similar tax base and state equalized valuation per resident student, a similar salary schedule for teachers, and a similar set of urban-industrial values. lFrederic W. Terrien, pp. cit. dfiie teat 40 The state in which school districts operate can also create great differences. Each state has its own configuration of laws on taxation, teacher tenure, textbook selection, and the rights of teachers to organize and collectively negotiate over the conditions of their employment. For example, many states have passed laws permitting public school teachers to organize and negotiate collectively while others still prohibit collective negotiations in the public sector. However, among the states with laws permitting negotiations in the public sector, few require that representatives of the public must negotiate in good faith with the teachers' representatives. 2 Varying legal arrangements of the state can create very different consequences for the negotiating organization and teacher-administrative relation- ships even when all other conditions or characteristics of the state are the same, e. g., degree of urbanization, proportion of males, latent roles of the teachers, and structure of authority and size of the schools. The law can bring about accommodations which create new directions and paths of development once alternatives are forced. Because community and district arrangements could confound the relation between organizational structure and behavior, schools were drawn from five comparably large districts which serve cities of similar size in the same state so that the effect from these "environmental variables" could be determined and controlled by use of the comparative method. Large districts make it possible to obtain variation in school size and authority structure within the district; several districts of comparable size make it possible to determine if differences across districts are created by its district administration. And because school districts usually correspond roughly to city boundaries, the Michigan census was used to select cities where the study could be Howard G. Foster, "Dispute Settlement in Teacher Negotiations, " Industrial and Labor Relations Research, Vol. XII (February, 1967), pp. 2-12. 0 .0. .l C 41 done. Michigan in 1960 had six urban places where about 100, 000 or more people live with five of these containing school districts of about the same size. Only five of these urban places were used in that the sixth urban place was relatively much larger than all the others. These five urban areas share many similar characteristics: they are all large diversified communities between the sizes of 96, 000 and 197, 000; and the median educational attainment and income level are about the same. However, it should be noted that two cities differ from the others in the percentage of workers employed in white collar occupations; city one has 53. 4 percent of its employed population in contrast to the 36. 4 percent of the employed population in city two engaged in white collar occupations. Table 1 summarizes these comparisons of the cities which contain the sampled districts of the present study. Similarly, each of the school districts servicing these five urban areas are comparable. But because there is some variation in city size, the total number of certified employees which includes teachers, librarians, counselors, etc., varies by district somewhat. However, the important incentives of salary schedules and pupil-teacher ratios are very similar. Also, the sizes of the high schools, junior highs, and the range of elementary schools are very comparable. Yet, this research utilizes only the elementary schools thereby controlling for level to make organizational and administrative units more comparable. These comparisons appear in Table 2. Large districts not only allow one to infer if there are differences in degree of occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization but the large districts are also the arenas in which precedents are forged and set today as well as representing a trend in what many smaller districts are becoming through mergers, i. e. , large consolidated school districts. Rather than 42 3.980 com: ”condom 49883: :dEom >3 on. nephews." on H33 33.“qu pad momfio .cuHOHoonom * as .m o .2. m .2 8o .3 533m > E. s o .8. o .: ooo .wS masses 2 moo .o o .m¢ w 3 ooo .5: mpamm nacho HHH ovm .o v .om o .2 ooo #2 33h 3 mm: .w v .mm NH 000 .N : anonudoQ H @8065 mcoflmadooo UOHUEEOU 03m :dnuD * >fi0 scape: .3200 333 5 nude? po>oafim ucoouonm Hoonom scape: .muowuumfip moan—Hum on» wcacfimucoo moflmo on“ .«o mowumwuoaomhdso Huaoom .H dank. 43 $3:qu we? ream: .H. pom noXoom .m >3 woiboofi 6»me mqu «3.3me cmwmcomz “condom 5‘ com .o h LVN vmo J > om coo .b o .om omw J >H Nb 000 .0 Dem 000 J H: em omo .o 0 .mm omo .N 5 HM oomd w.- vow J H “Shawna E 3ch wbuhoofi 03mm mootwoaam uofinomzfl o>3m3mfific€< .HoH mogponom nozomoh noun—.30 Ho Ho uobEdZ H.308 >umfinm 53.552 Idadnm Hongz H.308 .uomuommp >3 moflmfimfidudfio pouoofiom mo Cowodflnumwp 2:. .N “:an just in Ia kind sizi fro am gins-s rat“ was?! is” . ‘ ' “.‘I 4 am 44 just study what typically exists in an average size district, a sample in large districts may illuminate cause-effect relationship under the kinds of conditions which will prevail tomorrow. Furthermore, much variability within local schools can not be explained by the size of district alone for some of the fundamental influences stem from the neighborhood school population served within the district and are not due to the district as such at all. It is possible to have large local schools in small districts and small schools in large districts. In this way local school size, specialization, and administrative structures are responsive to external conditions and are, therefore, reasonable bases of generalization, apart from how large the district in which the school is housed. The external occupational and income characteristics of the community they serve, condition the internal operations and relationships which develop. The Sample Once the general cities and districts were selected, the individual schools were categorized in each district into sampling levels: k-6, 7-8, and 10-12. To insure comparability, it was necessary to discard several schools which did not conform to the k-6, 7-9, and 10-12 patterns; units such as k-3, k-9, or k-8 were eliminated from the sample. In this research, only the k-6 units are utilized and all others are omitted. A total of 183 elementary school qualified to be included in the sampling population. Because of great size variations within the elementaries, these schools were stratified into two size groupings. Schools with a faculty size ranging from 4 to 14 were classified as small and schools with a faculty size over 14 were classified as large. A proportionate number of elementaries were randomly selected from within the two size groupings in each of the five districts. 45 All five districts agreed to participate and 39 elementary schools within these districts were asked to participate with 38 consenting. One elementary school refused for reasons of schedule load and timing, leaving a school response rate of 98.2 percent of school units. The distribution of elementary administrative units and their size by district appears in Table 3. District II contains a somewhat different size range of elemen- tary schools from the other four districts; the sampling of schools in this district was such as to take this into account by selecting the two schools in the size category from 5 to 14 teachers. However, all districts by school level were sampled so as to be self-weighing and representative. The response rates as shown in Table 4 for both schools and district were pleasingly high. Only three schools dropped below the 60 percent level. The distribution of teacher characteristics appears in Table 5. The typical elementary teacher in this sample is a female, a member of the local chapter of the Michigan Education Association, who has taught in the same building for more than three years, and has earned credits beyond the Bachelors degree. However, there are variations from district to district in the proportion of teachers with these characteristics. For example, district four has fewer male teachers, almost all teachers in our sample from district five are members in one of the two teacher organizations, teachers in district one have taught longer in their present building and have attained more credits beyond the Bachelors degree. However, the districts do not differ greatly on these character- istics but compare rather evenly. 46 mm o w o m o oouooHom >~Eopcnn mfioonom mo .33ch H.308 8 a. m m a w 3-2 on: E93 8832.. 138593." mHooSUm mo nongz 2 N m p N N 3... 02m 8.8... possess >~Eopcdu mHoozLom mo nongz o3 NM 8 a mm : 3-2 mm m 3 mm N p 31. “as... 3308 >3 poafinnum mafia: 05.3.0.3 nmwnwcupm 04x .«0 hexagon Hun—0H. 3.; 3-... 31. $13 3; of do was .3163 5 swaps m2 om we 3. 3. S spasms. 5 min: o>fiduomficd§m oux 30km: mo Henson HduoH 138.. > Z a d H HUMHumMQ .uoTSmSu >9 mHoonom >umucogofio mo 83323:. our. 25 .m «Bee 47 Table 4. Response rates by district and school. Number Percent School Size of of of number faculty returns returns District I 1 17 13 76 2 21 21 100 3 24 22 92 4 30 27 90 5 11 5 45 6 27 24 89 Total 130 113 86.9 District II 1 15 10 6O 2 12 14 100 3 20 17 85 4 18 14 72 5 19 19 100 6 20 22 73 7 26 27 100 8 3O 31 100 9 29 16 60 Total 189 169 89. 4 District III 1 9 9 100 2 7 7 100 3 16 15 94 4 16 13 81 5 17 12 70 6 14 14 100 7 17 15 88 8 13 11 85 9 22 18 82 Total 131 114 87.0 District IV 1 26 16 62 2 14 14 100 3 24 23 96 4 20 18 9O 5 21 15 71 6 8 7 86 7 19 16 84 8 21 17 81 Total 153 126 82. 4 48 Table 4. (continued) Number Percent School Size of of of number faculty returns returns District V l 12 11 92 2 14 18 95 3 14 14 93 4 25 13 52 5 19 15 79 6 19 20 100 Total 103 91 88. 3 The response rates for the five districts were 86. 9, 89.4, 87. O, 82.4, and 88.3 respectively; the response rate for all five districts averaged 86.8 percent. 49 om .mo 8 .S o .3 3 .Na 3 .ww Z .3 3&3 S 8&3. muofiunodm a 5m? cofluomoum Ho .om ¢w .mm mo .2“ och mo .mm mo do magmas. 203.3 E 02.8.2698 6.85 no mudv> 06.25 o .ow ow .wo ma .ow mo .mo oo 4w 3 .5 cofiwnwcmwuo nosomou E aEmanEoE wow Hodw 9mm. cow 06w o.~w 0353 2...: wwdfl 05* 2.2 34.3 $60.2 wade 38m 1308 > >H a HH H moflmmuouomngo 3:0de uofifimwm .uomuumfio >9 mofimfiueuomhmno uvsodou >HducoEvH0 mo cowusfluummp oFH. .m oBMH 50 Measurement o_f the Variables The Independent Variables The independent variables in this research are organization size and centralization of decision making. Operationally, size of the organization is a continuous variable and was defined as the number of professionally certified personnel who work within or operate from that school as a home base, excluding the principal, the principal's assistants and academic deans. The Michigan Education Association Yearbook, which lists the number of teachers in all schools in all districts throughout the state was used to determine school size. Due to human error and natural growth, the size of the schools vary somewhat from year to year. The staff size within the 38 elementaries range from 5 to 31. The large- small split of schools by district can be seen in Table 6. Table 6. The distribution of school size by district. District School Size I II III IV V Total 4 - 14 2 2 6 3 2 15 15 - 31 4 7 3 5 4 23 Total 6 9 9 8 6 38 x7- : 4.11, d.f. = 4, P = .40. The second independent variable, the decision making structure, was more difficult to operationalize. Researchers make the distinction between concept and measure for there are problems in obtaining reliable and valid measures of the actual operations of abstract concepts. This problem of measurement becomes more apparent when the concept involves extra-individual phenomena, 51 i. e. , social facts obtained from individuals within some system of interaction. However, most researchers collect data from individuals within that system to use in measuring such system properties as standardization and centralization of decision making. Centralization of decision making, like several other concepts employed in this study, is a complex concept which is difficult to assess using one simple questionnaire item. In order to under- stand a system of decision making in operation, one must discover who actually makes occupationally relevant decisions and at what level. If the measure of a decision making structure is to be of an operating system, it follows that a cross section of organiza- tional participants in the organization will likely provide a more accurate picture of the decision making structure than other methods such as participant observation method or an analysis of the formal chart. The observer may not understand how the system operates and the chart often does not correspond to the operating practice. Thus an instrument has been developed to assess who in the decision making structure made certain decisions which affect the teacher's classroom work, insofar as teachers perceive them. In choosing items as measures of the above structure, 38 questions from the studies of both Corwin's and Charter's work on control structure3 were given to five judges to separate the professionally relevant questions from the non-professionally relevant questions. These five persons were familiar with both classroom work and public education generally because all of them Ronald Corwin, The Development of an Instrument for Examining Staff Conflicts in Public Schools (Research supported through the Cooperative Research Program of the Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare); Gerald Moeller and W. W. Charters, "Relation of Bureaucratization to Sense of Power Among Teachers, " 4drninistrative Science Quartfly, Vol. X (March, 1966), pp. 444-465. 52 were either elementary and secondary teachers with three of these five teaching in the sampled districts. By this method, questions from the educational studies have been updated and contextually rooted by the judgment of educators and this suggests the face validity of the 14 questions used. Teachers and principals in the sample were asked their perceptions of who actually had the most influence over a set of ’ l4 important occupational decisions which appear in Appendix B. / A11 teachers and principals Were asked to select from among 12 forced choice alternatives which included different positions, groups, or combinations thereof. The items Were recorded and given a limited range of six codes to represent levels of centralization where decisions were made. The levels of decision making range from 1 to 6 - decentralized to centralized - with the response of teacher has the most influence coded as 1, the response of the faculty of a specific department has the most influence coded as 2, the teacher organization, the entire faculty of the school, or a committee of teachers has the most influence coded as 3, the principal's assistant, or the principal has the most influence coded as 4, the administrative assistant of the superintendent has the most influence coded as 5, and the super- intendent or school board has the most influence coded as 6. From this scoring procedure, we obtain a scale with intervals based upon decision making levels ranging from a decentralized system where teachers make the decisions to a centralized system where the superintendent and school board control these decisions. The distribution of responses for each item was analyzed in two different ways: the degree of consensus within each building on who had the most influence over a particular decision and secondly the power of the item in discriminating between schools by their decision making structure. On several of these items, there was little concensus among the respondents within a school concerning who 53 actually had the most influence over certain types of decisions; these low consensus items, as detected by high standard deviations within the school, were eliminated from the scale. While there was some intra-school disagreement among the respondents, one might expect a certain amount of disagreement about who makes each type of decision, since, not all decisions of the same general type are handled consistently in each department. It will be assumed that decisions are actually made at that particular level of organi- zation where the majority of teachers in each school indicated; furthermore, the average score will be taken as the level at which the authority to make that decision resided. First an average or mean score for each item was computed for the 38 different schools from all the teachers so as to estimate the loci of decision making for different occupationally relevant decisions. By computing a mean for each item, idiosyncrasies and distortion due to personality or psychological differences could be diluted while reducing errors that may be associated with the survey approach of collecting data. Four items did not elicit as high a consensus among fellow building members within the 38 schools as evidenced by four or more high standard deviation scores relative to the other 34 school scores. Five other items exhibited a smaller variation in mean response from school to school and did not qualify because they could not distribute schools along a continuum of centralization with much variation. Six out of the original fourteen items were used in summing the mean scores for each school. The school means for these six items were then summed and rank ordered by the summated score. Each item was plotted using the rank orders of the total six items to determine which items contributed the most to distributing the 38 schools along a continuum of centralization. The use of graph paper to plot the distribution of each item permitted both a graphic or visual test of whether the item contributed to the overall correlation 54 and was stable, 1. e. , little variation from the line of least squares in their rank orders. Three, out of these six items, exhibited a narrower range from the highest to the lowest or contained unstable rank orders with great fluctuation and thus were not very powerful or effective in distributing schools on this continuum. The resulting index is a summated score of three items on the issues, who selects textbooks, who determines the required courses and who determines what kinds of courses will be offered. Theoretically, any of the 14 items could have been used. However, on empirical grounds, the three items chosen elicited more consensus within each school while creating a good range of differences across schools. These items created a range of 4.2 points out of a possible range of 18 points. The distribution of schools with high and low centralized decision making structures based upon the three items is in Table 7. Table 7. The distribution of centralized decision making structures by district. Centralization * District of decision making I II III IV V Total Low 3 6 3 4 3 19 High 3 3 6 4 3 19 Total 6 9 9 8 6 38 x2: 2.0, d.f. :4, P: .70. *Note that centralization is utilized in the three categories of low, medium, and high in the elaboration analysis of sex, education, etc. For purposes of testing centralization by district, the 3 - level categories were collapsed into two to eliminate low frequencies in the cells. The distribution of schools by degree of centralized decision making structure is shown in Table 8. 55 Table 8. The distribution of centralized decision making structures by organizational size. Centralization Size Low Medium High Total Small 4 4 7 15 Large 8 10 5 23 Total 12 14 12 38 XZ- 2.67, d.f. = 2, P- .30. This distribution is what we might expect by chance when no relation exists between size and the decision making structure. Intervening Variables To test the above hypotheses, the effect of variables which intervene in either time or place must be analyzed. The variables selected for this study include sex, education, experience in the building, and socio—economic level of the neighborhood population of the school. Sex, work experience, and education were measured by straight- forward questions to teachers and appear in Appendix B. The socio- economic level of the neighborhood population was defined as the white collar composition of the population served by the school. This measure was used because accurate up-to-date information on the education, income, and occupational composition of neighborhoods is difficult to obtain since neighborhoods change over time and the latest census was taken in 1960. Also census tracts and school areas are not coterminous. Thus, the proportion of white collar workers was utilized to measure socio-economic structure of the neighborhood served. This information was obtained by asking both the principal and 56 district personnel director to check the proportion which best described the occupational composition (blue and white collar) of the people living within the boundaries of the sampled schools. The question appears in Appendix B. With intervals based on 10 percent the alternatives become an eleven point, interval scale which was collapsed into a three point interval scale with the cut-offs at 50 percent blue-collar or less, 51 percent to 70 percent blue collar only, 71 percent blue collar and above. This distribution by district appears in Table 9. Table 9. The distribution of socio-economic level of schools by district. District Socio-economic level I II III IV V Total 0 - 50 6 2 2 0 1 11 51 - 70 0 4 2 1 2 9 71 - 100 0 3 5 7 3 18 Total 6 9 9 8 6 38 While the distribution of socio-economic levels is somewhat skewed, there is no significant difference across districts in occupational orientation. However, as will be discussed later, differences exist between districts I, III, V and districts II and IV on the dependent variable, support of the negotiating organization but the socio-economic differences as shown in Table 9 do not explain this variation. The Dependent Variables For the present study, the following procedure was used in constructing indexes of occupational orientation and support of the 57 negotiating organization. 1. A number of items were formulated on the basis of questions utilized in similar studies and theoretical definitions. This suggests some face validity to the initial item selection. 2. A pretest was conducted where almost all of the items were checked to insure that the items could produce variations among the respondents. 3. Each item showing an adequate frequency distribution along the continuum of responses for any particular index was correlated with the sum of the scores of all the other items potentially to be included in the index. Items showing a correlation coefficient below the arbitrary level of . 30 were exduded. 4. The size of the inter-correlation indicates the degree of internal consistency of an index. To obtain a measure of occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organizations, respondents were asked to mark the choice which reflected the intensity to which they felt or agreed with a set of statements. Responses ranged on the forced choice alternatives from the minimum of 1 to the maximum of 5 on each attitude item. Scores for the scales were obtained by summing the responses to all items within the scale. For example, when there are three items in a scale, the possible scores would range from 3 to 15. Index 2f Occupational Orientation To measure occupational orientation, five questions were asked which appear in Appendix B. Several items were included from 4This description is patterned after the presentation of index construction found in F. B. Waisanen and Jerome T. Durlak, A Survey 2f Attitudes Related t_o Costa Rican Population Dynamics (American International Association for Economic and Social Development, San Jose, Costa Rica, 1966), pp. 101-115. I'll llllllllll 58 questions developed by Gross and colleagues and Corwin. 5 Attitude items were used to measure the importance of four aspects of teaching which are an integral part of teacher's work and also an integral part of the teacher's professional ideology. These questions ask for the importance of: (1) the students with whom they have contact, (2) the opportunity to be creative and original in their work, (3) educating the future generation. and (4) working with books and ideas. To measure commitment to the career, we asked the question from Ward Mason's nationwide study of beginning teachers measuring whether they would enter the field of education again if they could start over again. The simple inter-item correlations of these five questions indicated that willingness to enter education again was tapping a different dimension for each of the 38 schools and so it was eliminated To obtain the simple correlations, each item was correlated with every other item; correlating each item with the sum of all the other items yields the item-total correlation. Both the simple inter-item and item-total correlations for the 613 respondents appear in Table 10. Table 10. Inter-item and item-total correlations of occupational involvement. Item-total Inter-item correlations correla- tion 1. Student contact 1. .33 2. Creative and original .26 l. . 33 3. Educating the future generation .34 . 22 1. .44 4. Working with books and ideas .25 .30 .39 1. .41 5. Enter education again .04 .07 . 11 . 10 1. .42 5Neal Gross, Ward Mason. and A. N. McEachern, pp. c_it.; Ronald Corwin, The Development o_f a_n_ Instrument fo_r Examinating Ill I I‘II‘I‘II‘I \I I‘ .lll' \' 59 To test the reliability of the remaining four questions across schools. school means were calculated for each of the four items; the four items were then added together to obtain 38 grand means which Were in turn rank ordered so that each item could be plotted by school to determine which of the four items contributed the most to distri- buting the schools along a continuum of occupational orientation. Three of these items contributed consistently to creating a continuum of occupational orientation with 2.37 point range of school means out of a possible range of 12 points. The items include remaining in teaching: (1) because of the students with whom they have contact; (2) because they are educating the future generation; and (3) because they can work with books and ideas. Index o_f Support pf th_e Negotiating Organizations Four questions were used to obtain an index of support of the negotiating organizations which appear in Appendix B. Attitude items were used to measure the respondents support and importance given to the negotiating organization. These questions ask how active they are in the teacher organization and how supportive they would be to protect the right to collective negotiations through their teacher organi- zation. The general idea for the other two questions came from Lipset et. al. in m Democracy. 6 These two questions ask for the number of teacher organization meetings they attended last year and if they voted in the last election of officers in the teacher organization. Although all of these questions were positively correlated with each other, the correlations were not high and thus none of them were combined except for the two questions on attendance and voting which did cluster and cohere suggesting a common dimension. The inter-item and item-total correlations appear in Table 11. 6Seymour M. Lipset, Martin Trow, and James Coleman, 22.213. 60 Table 11. Inter-item correlations and item-total correlations. 1t em -tota1 Inter-item correlations correlations 1. Support the teacher organization 1. 2. How many meetings did you attend . 18 1. 3. Did you vote in the election .07 .38 1. 4. Active in teacher organization . 12 .28 . 27 1. However, upon further analysis, the average response to questions 2 and 3 in the form of an index indicated that districts I, III, and V were much more active than the other districts in voting and attendance of meetings. Those responses seem to reflect the fact that these three districts experienced more conflict between the teacher organizations and school administrations due to negotiations and the strikes which preceded the time when the study was in the field. This led to a questioning of whether the items necessarily reflected the higher sentiment and support of the teachers in the three districts in contrast to teachers in the other two districts or whether the two questions partly reflected a different Opportunity in the different districts to vote and attend meetings thus reflecting the amount of activity available. That is, the strike districts would probably call more meetings and have more times to vote than the districts which had no renewal of contract or where the contract was settled easily and early. The question used in this study does not take account of the opportunity structure by asking the respondent how many times out of the total number he voted or attended meetings. Therefore, the decision was made to rely upon one of the other questions which was less situational and time bound, thus 61 averting this problem of the opportunity structure and question of rates. The questionnaire item on activity in the teacher organization elicited little variation from school to school and was omitted. The item asking the amount of support the teacher would give to the teacher organization became the measure of support of the negotiating organization. This item also had a slight district effect. Anabrs is Proc edur e Given the quality of the data and the nature of the hypotheses, the present study will utilize an analysis of variance, multiple correlation, partial correlation, rank order correlation, and con- tingency tables with chi square and Goodman and Kruskol's Tau tests. The above forms of analysis use both parametric and non- parametric statistics; certain assumptions are presumed met by the data. These assumptions include: random selection, and the desired variables are normally distributed in the sampling population. For the simple and multiple correlation, measures of independent and dependent variables are at the interval level. There is no reason to think that the present study does not satisfy these requirements. 1. Analysis of variance. A nonparametric two way analysis of variance will be us ed for first determining whether there is a district effect, i. e. , if there is a difference in occupational orientation or support of the negotiating organizations across districts after school size is dichotomized. A nested design will be used with an unequal number of schools in the cells since the number of schools by size varies across districts. The .05 level will be us ed to decide whether the distribution differs more than what we would expect by chance. 7Hubert M. Blalock, Social Statistics (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., Inc., 1960), pp. 232-234. #77 ‘I' “-“'.“..f.- -" *4 62 2. Rank order correlation. To test the hypotheses on organi- zational size and variation in school occupational orientation of the organization and organizational size and variation in organizational support of the negotiating organization, rank order correlation will be used. The rank orders of size and standard deviations will be used to compute the Spearman Rho correlation. 3. Multiple correlation. The theoretical framework suggests that both occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization are in part a function of organizational size and decision making structure. Multiple correlation analysis permits one to ascertain the predictive power of both organization size and decision making structure in combination with regard to levels in occupational orientation and then in support of the negotiating organizations. 4. Simple correlation. The Pearson simple correlation technique will be used to test the relationship between the decision making structure and the three conditions of size, occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organizations. 5. Contingency tables and chi squares. By way of refuting the power of alternative hypotheses, sex, building experience. education, and socio-economic level will be analyzed to determine if their distribution could confound the relationships between organizational conditions and school scores of the dependent variables. For the elaboration and specification beyond the effect of global properties of size and decision making structure, contingency tables will be used to determine the power of building experience, sex, education, and socio-economic level of the neighborhood to explain individual variation Within organizational contexts. 8 The chi square will be used to test if the distributions differ more than what could be 8Herbert H. Hyman. Survg Design and AnalLsis (Glencoe. Illinois: The Free Press, 1955), pp. 276-327. 63 expected by chance. To test the strength of the relationships, the chi square and Goodman and Kruskol's Tau test will be us ed where appropriate. Summary This chapter contains a discussion of the district and school sample and the logic of its design. Also discussed were character- istics of the sample, measurement of the variables, and the analysis procedures. The following two chapters contain the data analysis. CHAPTER IV ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION Introduction Thus far I have presented the general question under study, delineated its theoretical perspective, reviewed the literature, developed support for a set of hypotheses, outlined the research design, and briefly sketched the analysis procedure. Now it is time to test the hypotheses and present the findings on the relationship between organizational variables and occupational orientation. Procedures In this chapter our procedure will be to (1) state the informa— tion that is needed to examine each hypothesis, (2) present the statistical technique by which this will be done, and (3) provide the guidelines by which to interpret the outcomes. Before any hypotheses can be tested, the question of whether significant differences in occupational orientation occurs across districts must be answered. If there are unequal parameters in different districts, then the assumption of a normal distribution would be unwarranted and districts would be analyzed separately, rather than with the total sample of 38 schools. The data needed to test this question are average scores of respondents by small and large schools within each of the five districts. To determine if variables within the district are operating to condition occupational orientation, a Friedman's two-way analysis of variance will be us ed. If levels of occupational orientations are distributed by chance across districts the chi square should not be significant. 64 65 Providing the above test is not significant, we will test the hypotheses utilizing a sample of 38 schools which vary by organiza- tional size and centralization of decision making. To test the hypothesis relating organizational size to variation in occupational orientation of the school, both faculty size and the standard deviation scores of the school's occupational orientation must be ranked from 1 to 38. The Spearman Rho rank order correlation will be us ed to test this relationship. With an N of 38, a correlation of .34 is significant at the .05 level. 1 Any correlation of or above a . 34 then would be a signifi- cant relationship. The hypothesis relating the decision making structure and organi- zational level of occupational orientation requires the average occupational orientation score of the school and its centralization of decision making score. To test this hypothesis, the Pearson zero order correlation technique will be used. Again as with the Spearman and the N of 38, any correlation of or above a . 34 is a significant relationship. To test the last hypothesis relating organizational size and the decision making structure, scores for both variables are needed; the Pearson zero order correlation technique will test this hypothesis. Any correlation of or above a .34 is significant. Contingency tables will be used to determine if sex, education, experience in the building, and socio-economic level of the school neighborhood are distributed by school size and centralization such as to confound the relationship between organizational variables and average responses within those schools. To specify further the conditions under which an occupational orientation is likely to develop, contingency tables will be used to analyze the effect of the above latent roles upon individual occupational l 0" Sidney Siegal, Nonparametric Statistics (New York: McGraw— Hill Book Co. , Inc. , 1956). (see his tables on correlation levels in the Appendix. ). 66 orientation scores within the contexts of organizational conditions. The strength of the comparative method is that one can more thoroughly analyze data became the effect of environmental factors can be determined. However, this becomes advantageous only when the effect of the larger environment is taken into account. To determine if conditions within the district were operating to affect occupational orientations, a Friedman's two-way analysis of variance was used. The data were fit into a stratified design where school size and district factors were assumed fixed. The distribution of small and large schools by districts, as discussed in Chapter III was not significantly different from what c0u1d be expected with chance operating. The results of the analysis of variance yielded a chi square which was not significant, indicating that occupational orientations do not vary from district to district any more than what might be expected by chance when school size is controlled. The distribution resulting from this test is in Appendix A, Table A1. Findings With the question of a normal distribution answered. We can proceed to test hypotheses on the effect of organizational conditions upon occupational orientations with the total sample of 38 schools. The first hypothesis is: SCHOOL SIZE WILL BE POSITIVELY RELATED TO VARIATION IN OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION. There was a weak relationship between size of school and variation in occupational orientation held by the faculties of the different schools. While the size of the Spearman rank order correlation was in the predicted direction with a . 11, this was far from reaching the .34 correlation needed for a significant relationship. HOWever, upon close scrutiny, three schools out of the 38 were far out of rank order with the other 35 so they were removed. By removing these three schools and recomputing the correlation, We obtain a .35 correlation 67 between size of the unit and variation in occupational orientation. This new correlation is both significant and in the predicted direction, thereby supporting the hypothesis that larger organizations are related to greater variation in levels of occupational orientation. In trying to account for these three anomolies, it should be noted that all three schools are from different districts. Two schools are large with their variation rank very low while the third school is small in size with its variation rank very large. The reason for these three anomolies is not readily apparent and so no explanation can be given. Hypothesis II: CENTRALIZATION OF DECISION MAKING IS NEGATIVELY RELATED TO AN OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION. A very weak Pearson zero order correlation of -. 12 was obtained between centralization of decision making and occupational orientation. While the relationship is in the predicted direction. it falls short of a significant relationship and thus the hypothesis must be rejected. Yet centralization of the decision making structure is weakly associated with lower levels of an occupational orientation. It appears that the lack of autonomy in occupational decisions on the part of trained workers does affect occupational interest in and satisfaction from the intrinsic aspects of work. Hypothesis III: SCHOOL SIZE 15 POSITIVELY RELATED TO CENTRALIZATION OF DECISION MAKING. The relationship obtained between organizational size and centrali- zation of decision making is both weak and in the opposite direction from what was expected; the zero order correlation is -. 09. Such a correlation is a bit difficult to interpret but the relationship might suggest that schools are somewhat different from many other organiza- tions in that they can permit a loose decision making structure even as organizational size increases because of the training and education of the work force. Larger schools appear to permit a little more autonomy than smaller ones. The size of the correlation does not suggest a clear 68 relationship but organizational size in such a professional organization may in fact permit a form of greater autonomy (1‘18 to lower Visibility. A lack of face-to-face contact with the principal may withdraw the persona authority of administrator and open up pathways for the teacher in the larger school to exercise self-judgment. Elaboration and Specification By Latent Roles In order to test fully the above hypotheses, a set of intervening variables must be analyzed to determine if their distribution by organizational size and centralization of decision making might explain away any of the relationships we found. If the distribution of these variables is very uneven and the variables are differentially related to occupational orientation, then their effect must be controlled. The variables of sex, education, building experience, and socio-economic level of the neighborhood school population are the conditions judged in this study most likely to intervene between organizational arrangements and school behavior. These variables, if analyzed by their distribution within organizations could create the illusion that only organizational properties of size and the decision making structure were operating to explain all the variation in the dependent variables. Thus the distribution of the above four variables will be analyzed by school size and decision making structure to determine if each could explain school variation in levels of occupational orientation. While the question of the distribution of sex, education, experience. and socio-economic level deals with problems of spurious relationships at the school level, another concern of this study deals with the effect of the above four variables in explaining individual variation within organizational contexts. Within the context of schools of various organizational sizes and degrees of centralization, what effect do these four latent roles of the individual have upon further specifying or strengthening an occupational orientation? This process of elaboration 69 follows With the four variables first considered as controls and then as specifying variables. The distribution of the four control variables of sex, education, building experience, and socio-economic level by the independent variable of organizational size did not depart from what might be expected with chance. These distributions appear in Appendix A, Tables A2 through A5. Similarly, the distribution obtained between the two control variables of sex and building experience and the independent variable of centralized decision making did not vary from what would be expected by chance as Table A6 and A7 indicate in Appendix A. However, the distribution of college degrees and socio-economic level as Tables A8 and A9 show, are not randomly distributed by schools with centralized decision making. By further analyzing the effect of highest college degree and socio-economic level upon individual variation, in occupational orientation scores, we find that no relationship or unusual distribution is obtained in Tables A10 and Al 1. This control analysis, as exhibited in Appendix A suggests that any relationship between occupational orientation and the organizational conditions of size and centralization of decision making is not caused by the effect of sex, education, experience or socio-economic level of the school neighborhood. While these four variables do not confound the general relationship between organizational conditions and school occupational orientation at the group level, these same latent character- istics may operate and explain variation at the individual level within centralized schools. Thus, sex, education, work experience, and socio- economic level will be analyzed with the intention of explaining individual variation within the context of centralized schools; these latent roles serve to specify whether an occupational orientation becomes strengthened with these four individual characteristics, given the original effect of centralization of the decision making structure. 11 111 iii 70 Table 12 contains the distribution of dichotornized high and low occupational orientation scores by males and married females within school settings of low, medium, and high centralization. To emphasize the relationship, single and CllVOI'CCd females have been left out because we believe they represent an intermediate position in their reasons for working and the importance they give to it. However, as can be seen in Table 12, males are not significantly different from females in their responses in any of the three levels of centralized schools. Yet the variables of sex and centralization appear to interact; males become much more occupationally oriented with increasing centralization, i. e., from 35. 7 to 59.4, to 61. 5 percent. Centra- lization then is associated with a higher occupational orientation among men but not with married women. A possible explanation of this may be that centralized schools attract more occupationally oriented males. The effect of educational attainment upon occupational orienta- tion Within schools varying by decision making structure is not great as can be seen in Table 13. For purposes of contrast, those at the bachelor degree level were left out so that those with less than the bachelors degree could be compared with those beyond the bachelors degree by their occupational orientation within schools of low, medium, and high centralization of decision making. Personnel with both high and low educational attainment are eq~.;,a,11y oriented t ward their occupation in decentralized schools. However, a stronger pattern emerges in schools with highly centralized decision making structures; educational attainment increases occupational orientation within schools of centralized decision making: those with more education are associated with a high occupational orientation while those with less education, while noting the instability of such a pattern, are associated with a low occupational orientation. Those with low educational attainment within intermediately centralized schools .. "vflfiudfi‘ r, . 71 ov~.0um.o~.unm 50.0 m om.unm woo.0uw.mo.unm fin .mfi .Nmmé u NX ~u .mo .ommd u MK an .mfi 4006 u Nun me o mm mm on o~ H33 2. GE. am N an .2 ON so .3. 2 GE .3. mm a? .S, m so .8 $3 .35 mm cam .ow w 9.3. So om $0 .om 9 $9 .3, 0* ebb .om m axoo .om 30H .9600 muoHoLUMQ mnofiosomn, muofiozomn muofionomn muofimnomn muofionoma, ovuwmw pcocnom 33mm pco>om 303m pco>om 33mm owozoo swam E382 264 $235 cofimnfimuuaou .wcgda cofimfioop mo comudnflduucoo >3 mega: goosom 5MB mcofimucmfiuo Hmcofimmdooo coma common owogoU 30sz mo “comma oFH .MH QBMH ONH.Ouw.om.unm who.0uw.mm.unm soduwéum H“ .mo .meAnNX an Q6 .nhm.-NX H... go .omom.umx 2: cm NNH mm . m: 0N H30» nw cam .3» A: cam .3 me use .mv «i saw om om cam .3, N. exam .mm £33 .3030 am a? .mm 2 an? E $3 2 so .3. 3 an .3 2 so .3 33 9.80 mmHmEow monE mofimgom mofimE moans”; mvaE xom powuumg Sm powuumg 2d @03me dd swam 8332 304 defianfimhucou >3 mcm>ud> mHoozom Casi? mcomumucomuo Hmcofidmdooo com: xvm mo uoomwo 0:8 .wfixme commmoop .«o :oflumNMHHHCoo .N~ 3an 72 break the pattern somewhat by being more occupationally oriented than teachers with educational attainment beyond the bachelors. Yet a very weak pattern emerges across the table with greater centrali— zation of decision making; personnel with work beyond the bachelors tend to be more occupationally oriented. Personnel with less than a bachelors degree do not provide a pattern with greater centralization. The data do not provide any conclusions. Table 14 indicates that socio-economic level of the neighbor- hood population orders a rather consistent relationship to occupational orientations of personnel within schools varying by centralization of decision making. Again to emphasize the relationships, schools with a 51 to 70 percent blue collar neighborhood composition are not used in the table following. Within both decentralized and centralized schools, socio-economic level of the neighborhood population varies directly with an orientation toward the intrinsic aspects of the occupation, i. e. , the higher the socio-economic level of the neighbor- hood population, the more likely the teacher serving that population will be occupationally oriented. Socio-economic level creates no difference in levels of occupational orientation within schools of an intermediate level of centralization. Similarly, no pattern emerges across organizational centralization. Therefore. the consequence of a high socio—economic level in schools of low and high centralization is generally to increase occupational orientation. The number of years experience in the building also exercises an effect within schools varying by centralization upon an occupational orientation as Table 15 shows. The neophyte to any system will generally be cautious and with- hold his involvement until the particular norms or the rOpes are learned. With time, friendships develop and this source of support builds confidence so that psychological investments are more feasible and less susceptible to jeopardy. moo.unm Slum ow.unm 3” .mo .mm3>.w uNX 3" .mo .wowh. u MN 3” .mo .ooo. "NX vm 3w may no mm mm 3.303 cm £1. .00 mm can .ow hm cam .om Ev cam .wv mm cam .hv 0* sad .ww 393 .2030 m: exam .mm ww cam .om 3N saw .mv om cam Am mm oxow .Nm «3 axe“ .mm 303 .Qsooo mumo> mudo> Nuo whoo> mumo> ~uo mano> mado> Nio $36253 of w pco>o3 m pco>o3 m vco>o3 E .uoaxm :33 8332 son coflmnfimhuCoU ili ll I'll $5me cowmwoov mo :oflmuflduucoo >3 w5>um> m3003om 33MB moon—3:030 Hmcofimasooo com: $351.33 5 vocotoaxo mo goon» 038 .m3 033mg. 3 midnwffm wonduwmium Slduwdo "a 7 a. as .moo.~u~x an .2. Sodumx a” as gamma“ am a: pm mo 3 E :33 X 0% .3. 3. an .3. 2 OS .2, 3 at? S osmém w~ $.me is .228 3. 03.3 3 saw .3 2 $73 3. $93 E. $33 2, so .8 33 .988 :33 33 39$ 304 if 304 as: swam 5:502 304 .Gooo :oflmufimhcmfiu nomoom $5me commmomp mo comudnfimbcoo >3 mcm>um> mfioo3om 5533 mcofimucfiuo Hacofimadooo com: 30>: omEocoooquUOm mo «ovum 03H. 4; 33oF 74 To enable the comparison of empirical extremes, personnel with three to eight years of working experience in a building will not be used in this table. In lov, medium, and high centralized schools, personnel in this sample of schools with more than eight years of experience working in the building are consistently more occupa- tionally oriented than those with two years or less experience. Differences in years experience differentiate between those with a h. gh versus a low occupational orientation in both intermediate and highly centralized schools but not in decentralized schools. From this sample of schools, the effect of more experience becomes more powerful in differentiating between those with high and low occupational orientations as the organizational decision making is more centralized. Therefore, in schools with a centralized decision making structure, the consequence of experience in the building may be generally to increase occupational orientation. But further study is needed to analyze why under conditions of greater centralization, the more experienced are mor e occupationally oriented. Summar y This chapter contains the analysis of organizational correlates of occupational orientation. Support was obtained for the hypothesis that larger schools contain a greater variation in levels of occupational orientation. Larger schools by virtue of their numbers permit greater opportunities for the selection of friendships and membership in sub- groups where sentiments about work can find support; the formation of a greater number of subgroups is in part a function of size. The data did not support the hypothesis that centralization of decision making curtails occupational orientation. The magnitude of the correlation does not point to any alternative explanation, merely acceptance of the null hypothesis. Also no conclusion could be drawn from the data relating school size to centralization of decision making. 75 By using sex, education, building experience, and socio-economic level of the neighborhood population as specifying variables within organizational contexts varying by centralization of decision making, we found r32 11'. generally these latent roles of the individual do not signi- ficantly differentiate the occupationally oriented from the less occupationally oriented within contexts at any given level of centrali- zation. The one exception is socio-economic level of the neighborhood population; those who work in higher socio-economic schools are generally more occupationally oriented than those who work in low socio-economic schools. Schools in higher socio-economic areas may attract occupationally oriented teachers; the type of student and parental support in such areas will most likely cause the teacher to respond with a greater concern and psychological investment over time. However, beyond the question of occupational orientation level within a given level of centralization, we found that men and the more experienced in the building were more occupationally oriented in more centralized schools. No clear theoretical explanation was found for this outcome. The next chapter builds upon the organizational and occupational variables to examine the correlates of support of the negotiating organization. CHAPTER V ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION Introduction The findings on the correlates of occupational orientation were discussed in the preceding chapter. This second phase of the analysis presents the hypotheses and findings on the relationship between organizational variables and school support of the negotiating organi- zation. Procedures In this chapter as it was in Chapter IV, the procedure will be to (1) state the information that is needed in each hypothesis, (2) present the statistical technique by which hypotheses will be tested. and (3) provide the guidelines by which to interpret the outcome. Before the hypotheses relating support of the negotiating organi- zation can be tested, the question of whether significant differences in support occurs across districts must be answered. As with occupa- tional orientation in the last chapter, if there are unequal parameters in different districts, then the assumption of a normal distribution would be unwarranted and districts would be analyzed separately. rather than with the total sample of 38 schools. The data needed to test this question are average scores of respondents by small and large schools on the question of support within each of the five districts. To determine if variables within the districts are operating to condition support of the negotiating organization, a Friedman's two-way analysis of variance will be us ed. If there are equal parameters and the distribution of scores across districts are in accord with a chance distribution, the chi square should not be significant. 76 77 To determine if significant differences exist across districts, the Friedman"s two-way anaivsis of variance is used as it Viias in Chapter III. This test as shown in Appendix A, Table A12, yielded a chi square which is significant so the assumption of a. normal distribution across districts is unwarranted; differ ences exist from district to district beyond What could be expected by chance. Further examination revealed that a split into high and low support districts could be justified by a natural break with three districts clustering into one sample and two falling into another sarnp'ie. Thus ir. analyzing the correlates of support for the negotiating organization, all operations will be split into two groups with 21 schools in the three high support districts and 17 schools in the two low support districts. Since the districts will be split into high and low support districts for analysis in this chapter, it is wise to determine if the new distribution of school size and centralization of decision making is skewed. First, the distribution of small and large schools in both the high and low support districts appears in Table 16. These distributions are not significantly different from what we might expect by chance from district to district by the chi square test and using the .05 level of significance. Sirnilarily the distribution of centralized decision rr-aking structures in both high and low support districts does not significantly differ from what we might expect by chance. These distributions appear in Table 17. With the question of the distribution of dependent and independent variables satisfied, we can proceed to test the hypotheses reiating organizational variables to support of the negotiating organization by the two samples of 21 high support schools and the 17 low support schools. While no hypotheses were formulated relating organization scores of occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization. Table 16. _ . _ -' "r , :' "‘rf “ ... , ' l/ ‘ I i I .__I-: :3 ' ~ ‘. F v. -- V :7 v . . x ' 1‘ _ (Avi‘w 78 and low support districts. Distribution of school size by district. within the high Low Support Districts District II IV Total School Size: Small 2 3 5 Large 7 5 12 Total 9 8 17 x2 = .476155, d.f. = 1,13 = .50 High Support Districts District I III V Total School Size: Small 2 6 2 10 Large 4 3 4 11 Total 6 9 6 21 x2 = 2.2909, d.f. : 2; p = .35 Table 17. Distribution of centralized decision making structures by district within both high and low support districts. Low Support Districts District II IV Total Centralization: Low 6 4 10 High 3 4 7 Total 9 8 17 x3 = .485712, d.f. . 1; P - .50 High Support Districts District I III V Total Centralization: Low 3 3 3 9 High 3 6 3 12 Total 6 9 6 21 x2 = .58333, d.f. =2;\P=.75 79 it may be of interest to know that their relationship is within the high and low support schools. In the 21 high support schools, the Pearson zero order correlation between organizational scores of occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization is . 21 in contrast to a .29 correlation in the 17 low support schools. To test the hypothesis relating organizational size to variation in support of the negotiating organization, both faculty size and the standard deviation score of the school°s support of the negotiating organization score must be ranked from 1 to 21 in the sample of high support and from 1 to 17 in the sample of low support schools. The Spearman Rho rank order correlation will be used to test this relation- ship. With an N of 21, a correlation of .36 is significant and with an N of 17, a correlation of .41 is significant at the .05 level. To test the hypothesis relating centralization of decision making to support of the negotiating organization requires both the actual scores of centralization and the support of the negotiating organization for the 38 schools. The Pearson zero order correlation technique will be used to test the relationship. Any correlation of or above a .36 with an N of 21 or a correlation of or above .41 with an N of 17 would be significant. The hypothesis relating the combination of centralization of decision making and school occupational orientation to school support of the negotiating organization requires organizational scores of centralization, occupational orientation, and support of the negotiating organization. The multiple correlation technique will be used to test this hypothesis; the .36 correlation with an N of 21 and a .41 with an N of 17 would suggest a significant relationship. The same technique will be us ed to test the hypothesis relating the combination of organi- zational size and school occupational orientation to support of the negotiating organization. This test calls for organizational measures of faculty size, occupational orientation, and support of the negotiating organization. 80 To test for confounding effects. we will analyze the distribution of sex, education. and building experience by both organizational size and centralization of decision making. To further specify the conditions under which support of the negotiating organizations develops, sex, education. and building experience will be examined for its power to explain individual variation within the organizational contexts of size and centralization of decision making. Contingency tables with chi square tests will be used; the percentages and the Goodman and Kruskal measure of association will be the guidelines for judging relationships, and their relative strength. Findings The first hypothesis is: THE LARGER THE SCHOOL. THE GREATER THE VARIATION IN THE SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION . The 21 high support schools obtained a strong positive relationship with a. rank order correlation of .35; this is just .01 from reaching significance. However, the sample of 17 schools from the low support districts yielded a significant relationship but in the opposite direction with a correlation of —. 41. Upon close scrutiny it should be noted that two very small schools from the same district deviated greatly from the others thereby inflating the size of the rank order correlation. Dropping these two schools brings the correlation down to a -. 23 which is still in the unexpected direction but the correlation is greatly diminished and no longer significant. In spite of not being able to clearly accept the hypothesis in the case of the 21 high support schools, organizational size appears to be associated with variation in faculty support of the negotiating organization. These 21 schools exhibit greater assurance of a relationship through the stability of a larger N and a more even overall contribution to the least squares of the . 35 correlation. 81 HOWever. in the case of the 17 low support schools, the hypothesis is not only unsupported but there is a Weak relationship in the opposite direction; this correlation emerges with a greater instability found in a lower N and an uneven contribution to the least squares of the correlation. These correlations, their significance level, and the sample size upon which they are based appear in Table 18. Table 18. The effect of size upon the variation in support of the negotiating organization in high and low support schools. Number of Significance Schools Correlation Level High Support Schools 21 +. 35 .051 Low Support Schools 17 -. 41 .05 Low Support Schools 15 -. 23 > .05 The next hypothesis is: THE GREATER THE CENTRALIZATION OF OCCUPATIONAL DECISION MAKING POWERS. THE GREATER THE DEGREE OF SUPPORT OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION. In the case of the 21 high support schools, the relationship between centralization and support is very low. The correlation is .07 which is far from attaining significance and therefore confirmation. Similarly, the correlation obtained in the 17 low support schools is .04. HOWever, if we remove one of the same schools which was removed from the correlation in the first hypothesis of this chapter, the corre- lation increases to . 14; although this figure is in the predicted direction it still remains short of a significant relationship and therefore, the null hypothesis could not be rejected. These correlations, their significance level, and the sample size upon which they are based appear in Table 19. 82 Table 19. The effect of a centralized decision making structure upon support of the negotiating organization in high and low support schools. Number of Signific; .zcc Schools Correlating Level High Support Schools 21 .07 > . 05 Low Support Schools 17 .04 > . 05 Low Support Schools 16 . 14 > .05 The next hypothesis is: SCHOOLS WHICH ARE BOTH LARGE AND OCCUPATIONALLY ORIENTED WILL BE MORE SUPPORTIVE OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION THAN SCHOOLS WHICH ARE SMALL AND NON—OCCUPATIONALLY ORIENTED. The correlation between the independent variables of organiza- tional size and occupational orientation and the dependent variable of support of the negotiating organization for the 21 high support schools as appear in Table 20, is .36. While this a little short of the corre- lation size required for a significant relationship, the relationship is in the predicted direction and it explains 13 percent of the variance. The correlation for the 17 low support schools was also in the predicted direction with a correlation of .30 which is again short of a significant relationship and therefore there is no acceptance of the hypothesis. With these variables in the low support schools, 9 percent of the variation in the dependent variable is explained. By analyzing the relative contribution which size and occupational orientation give to the size of the multiple correlation, we find that organizational size plays a much more important role in the high support schools than in the low support schools. Organizational size contributes to explaining almost all the variation accounted for by the multiple correlation in the high support schools in contrast to the low support schools where the variable occupational orientation contributes 83 to explaining most of the variation accounted for by the multiple correlation. Hypothesis: SCHOOLS WHICH ARE BOTH OCCUPA— TIONALLY ORIENTED AND CENTRALIZED IN THEIR DECISION MAKING WILL BE MORE SUPPORTIVE OF THE NEGOTIATING ORGANIZATION THAN SCHOOLS WHICH ARE DECENTRALIZED AND NON-OCCUPATIONALLY ORIENTED. The relationship betWeen the independent variables of centrali- zation and occupational orientation and the dependent variables of support of the negotiating organization for the 21 high support schools was in the hypothesized direction with a correlation of .24; but this R is again short of the .05 level of significance and explains six per- cent of the variation in the dependent variable. Similarly the relationship for the 17 low support schools was in the predicted direction with a .30 correlation which is also short of a .05 level of significance while explaining nine percent of the variation. These correlations appear in Table 21. The partial correlations in both high and low support districts suggest that occupational orientation by itself explains almost all the variation accounted for in the multiple R. While recognizing that the total correlation is low, high occupational orientations of the school are so much more powerful in explaining levels of school support of the negotiating organization. Clearly. orientations toward work are more important than centralization in differentiating levels of support of the negotiating organization. Elaboration and Specificationby Latent Roles In order to fully test the above hypotheses, a set of intervening variables must be analyzed to determine if their distribution by organizational size and centralization of decision making might explain away any of the relationships we found. If the distribution of these variables is very uneven and the variables are differentially related to support of the negotiating organization, then their effect must be mo. A. am . mo .A on. so. 482° .958 2 285m mo . A mo . .Nflduucoo «Hommsm Bod mo. A 2 . mo . A 3. so. .338 .968 Z Begum mo . A Na . .Nfiduusoo «nommdm nwmm 3.64 .0580 H264 m a 832388 285m .nnmzm 4380 .mcmsm N winter so dofiudnm nongz .maoosom uuommdm Bo~ one am“: 5 nomadsmsdmno mcmumflomod of mo uuommdm dons coflmucofiuo cofimmsooo so was ouduosuum magma sommwuop posfiduuaoo d .«0 «come ssh. AN 03d? 4. 8 mo . A NN . noflmunomuo mo. A 2 .- mo . A om. so. 1253838 2 385m sumo «nomadm 304 8. A Z . aosflaoto mo. A on. mo. A 3.. ,2 . 3832308 am 285m 05m «.8995 swam 425A .omwmooO Ho>o1m m NM Gowuddmebou afloonom .mcmam 43.80 .ncmam Spat; so HNMHHMAW H0952 .maoosom «nommdm 30.. pasta”; 5 nomadsmsnwuo mcfldflomoc 05 mo anomasm com: somuaucofiuo aoflmmsuoo as and 03m 509 no auommo can. .ON 3an 85 controlled. The variables judged to most likely intervene between organizational arrangements and union behavior include sex, education, and length of experience working in the balding. These variables, if analyzed by their distribation Within organizations could create the illusion that only organizational pro— perties of size and decision making structure were operating to explain all the variation in the dependent variable. If there is no skewed distribution of the three latent roles, we will ass ime that the relation— ship between organizationai conditions and support of the negotiating organization can not be explained away by the latent roles. Therefore, the distribution of the above three variables will be analyzed by school size and decision making structure to determine if each could explain school variation in levels of support of the negotiating organiza- tion. While the question of the distribution of sex. education, and building experience deals with questions of spurious relationships at the school level, another concern of this study deals with the effect of the above three variables in explaining individual variation within the context where the above relationships have been established. This kind of analysis merely attempts to specify additional conditions beyond the organizational ones under which support of the negotiating organization develops. Within the context of schools of various organizational sizes and degrees of centralization, what effect do these three latent roles of the individual have upon further specifying or strengthening a support of the negotiating organization? This process of elaboration follows with the three variables first considered as controls and then as specifying variables. The distribution of the three control variables of sex, education. and building experience by the independent variable of organizational size was not significant. These distributions appear in Appendix A, Tables A13 through A20. Tables A13 through A16 indicate that no 86 unusual distributions exist to contaminate the relationship between the organizational conditiors of both size and centralization of decision making and the dependent variable of support. HO‘WeV‘eI, Tables A17 and A18 suggest by their chi squares in the low support districts that building experience is not distributed randomly in schools of different sizes and centralization. But as Tables A19 and A20 demonstrate, building experience is not significantly related to individual support scores of the negotiating organization. While the tables in Appendix A demonstrate that sex, education, and building experience do not confound the general relationship between both the organizational conditions of size and decision making structure and school support scores, these same latent characteris- tics may operate and explain variation at the individual level within the contexts of organizational size and centralization. Therefore, sex. education, and building experience will be analyzed with the intention of explaining individual variation within the context of organizational size and centralization; these latent roles serve to specify whether support of the negotiating organization becomes strengthened with these three individual characteristics, given the original effect of size and centralization. Table 22 contains the distribution of dichotomized high and low support scores of the negotiating organization by the category combi- nation of sex and breadwinner roles of all males, and females who are single or divorced and the category of married females within schools varying by degree of centralization. The effect of this combination of sex and employment dependency upon the distribution of support for the negotiating organization is not significantly different from what might be expected by chance within and across organizational contexts; this applies to both low and high support districts. However, in comparing the tables for the high and low support schools, the role of married females is reversed: the percentage of married women being highly 87 .mofimgwm pomuumg u h .monEow poouozp paw ofiwcmm n ham .moHdE n 2 an meta Sim min 2 u as .32. u Mon 2 u .3. .33 u Nx z n as .mmmv. n Nx E S em 3 3 «v E89 mm 034$ om «3.3 mm $93 8. ages «N $33 3. «14$. :33 .09 2 $33 3 $73 MN 0%.; 3. 9%.; MN $93 2 $9.2. 304 .33. muofiuumfifl unommdm swam N. H mm o . 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The effect of the same categories of sex and marital status upon support of the negotiating organization within small and large schools is not significant either as shown in Table 23. Sex and marital status differences appear to be more operative in small organizations in both low and high support schools. The categories of males and single and divorced females within small organizations are very consistently less supportive of the negotiating organizations in both high and low support schools; the pattern is not clear for married women in large organizations in both high and low support schools. However. in both high and low support schools. the category of males and single and divorced females become more supportive in large schools. Thus larger organizations are associated with greater support of the negotiating organization on the part of males and single and divorced females. The effect of educational attainment upon support of the negotia- ting organization is fairly consistent within schools varying by centralization of decision making. Table 24 indicates that personnel with an education beyond the bachelors degree are more supportive of the negotiating organization than personnel with just a bachelors degree or less in all school contexts varying by centralization of decision making except for decentralized schools in high support districts. Similarly, more highly educated personnel are more supportive of the negotiating organization as the decision making 89 .mofimEom pounds n .m .moamgow poouozfio pom oawfim n .QO :3de n 2 * 02:01.04: um ooodumdium an :imSOHNx :qssmwdumx OS 3 S 3 38. 00 s3 3 $0.3 mm 0? .om am $75. swam .09 ow $3. cm 02.3 mm $0.3 Z no.8 son .asm muowpumwfl anomadm swam owQOuu.mN.um mNN.0um.S.um an as as: "Nx an as .Sm.mu~x a2 ow .3. 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E swam. w 02 .3 3. spam >64 .asm 98000000 30000 no muofim0um0 30000 no mu00000m0 30000 no moumop p00>00 mu00000m0 000.030 mu00000m0 0:9»00 m000000d0 owofiou swam EsSeE Bod smegma 003.330.3000 muowuuwMQ uuommdm 304 @5me 0003000 .00 coflduflduucvo ~00 9:303:00 0:03 30:33 anomasmfl 300 pom 030 50003 0005:0030 300030.900 >0 mcofimfiommuo wcfimflowoc 000 mo anommsrm mo 003500.330 00H. 6N 000MB 91 structure becomes more centralized with the percentage of high support in high support districts moving from 25., 85. 7, to 86.2 and the high supporters in 10*“ support districts moving from 52.9 to 78. 9. The one exception to this pattern is with the highly centralized schools in low support districts where the personnel T- ith high and low education divide equally into high and low supporters of the negotiating organization. Centralization then has a greater effect upon developing a support of the negotiating organization among more educated personnel than among the less educated. The effect of educational attainment upon S’lppOl‘t of the negotiating organizations is generally consistent within schools varying by organi- zational size. Table 25 indicates that respondents with an education beyond the bachelors are more supportive of the negotiating organiza- tions than those with merely a bachelors or less in both small and large organizations in both high and low support schools. However, respondents with both a higher and IOWer educational attainment are more supportive of the negotiating organizations within the larger organizations. Organizational size appears to reinforce the educational effect upon support of the negotiating organization. In the high support districts. 49. 4 percent of the respondents with the lower education attainment are highly supportive of the negotiating organization within small schools in contrast to 53.7 of this same kind of teacher in large schools; 59.4 percent of the respondents with the higher educational attainment are highly supportive of the negotiating organization within small schools in contrast to 74. 3 percent of this same kind of teacher in large schools. Similarly, small organizations contain 36. 6 percent of the respondents with lower educational attainment in low support districts who are highly supportive of the negotiating organization in contrast to large organizations which contain this same kind of teacher with 43.2 percent being highly supportive of the negotiating organizations. The higher educated in the low support 92 district depart slightly from this overall pattern; 52. 6 percent. of these teachers in small schools in contrast to 50.7 percent 1:. large schools are highly supportive of the negotiating organizations. With this last exception, organizational size reinforces the effect educational attainment has upon support of the negotiating organizations. The number of years experience in the building exercises a fairly clear and consistent effect upon support of the negotiating organizations within schools varying by centralization of decision making. Ln all school contexts varying by degree of centralization, the respondents with more than two years working experience in the present building are more supportive of the negotiating organizations than respondents with two years or less experience in the building. Table 26 shows in the case of the high support districts, building experience exercises a clear, significant, and consistent effect both within and across contexts varying by centralization of decision making: respondents with more than two years experience are more supportive of negotiating organizations than those with two years or less experience in the building by low, medium and high centralization with the percents being 41 to 66. 7, 39 to 64.4, and 43.2 to 72.5; the effect of building experience upon support of the negotiating organization across schools varying by centralization is curvilinear with the percentage of more experienced highly supporting the negotiating organizations ranging from 66.7 to 64.4 to 72.5 percent with the less experienced ranging from 41 to 39 to 43. 2 percent. Using the data from the low support districts, the more experienced respondents in the buildings within contexts varying by centralization of decision making are again consistently more supportive of the negotiating organizations than the neophytes of two years of less experience in the present building. However. the relationship of building experience to support of the negotiating organizations across contexts varying by centralization of decision making forms a U-shaped curve which is an inverted curve moo. "m: u .mfi .memfi n X m. unm: u .wfi 603.0» K N N we MNH NM E. #308 mm osmél. co 052mm «2 asqum mm esvév gmwm .O..H. m: oxen .mN hm exam .0“. mH $0 .ov om $0 .om BOA .umdw 33.3me anommsm swam m.unm:u .md .mhwoAnNX mN.unm:u .mfi 4m>m4u~N % as mg m: 3‘ 1308 em as .8. S an .2. 2 OS .3 2 as .3. swam .o .9 mm cam .ov ww sew .om 0 saw .5. om flag .mo >54 .uadm muoaosodn >90an no muofiwnodo. 3033 no oouwup pco>on muoauzudn «Boron muoaonodn umwfloo owned 2.29m $6:me vim 33.3me «.8995 304 .onmm dmcofidndfimwuo no“ mcmdouucou 333 30333 uuoaadm 33 pad :3: 58:3 305533 Hacofimnvspm >9 cofldficmmuo mcmumfiowv: 65 mo uuoaadm mo “5355.53“. ash. .mN 3an 94 3°an Sim No.um H” as .omsmd ” Nx : as .mes " Nx an us «33. u MN ow cm am 2. 3. mm Eon. mm osmss 3 an .3 mm $13 3 scam 3 $53 2 as? swam .09 MN $95 5. ea .3 S so .3 mm s3 2 $92 MN som Bed .33 33.5.0.3“ anommdm swam Siam mots m.um : as «KEN; u Nx a" as $35 u Nx : as .mmso. u New 3 S 3 «m S Ne duos 2 ea .mv 2 $58 mm swam S swam Nm $93 2 a? .3 swam .OH 2 an em 3 a? .3 3 so :2. mm 02 .3 mm «swam eN ease so; .35 mum?» N mud»; Nuo mud?» N mum?» Nuo mum“; N mum?» Nuo vucofiuomxm o>ond o>onm frond wcmvfldm smE cassava s64 COUMNSMSCQU 33...? ”L «homadm BOA .wcwxds cowmmovv mo somudNSMquo “0m mcmzouucoo 333 33.33% «.8995 30H pad 5mm: 55?» cucofiuoaxv Masada >9 mcomumficdwuo mcflmfiomo: 05 .«o anomasm mo con—533mg 65H. .oN MSNH 95 from that found between building experience and support of the negotia- ting organization within the high support districts. Still We are left with the conclusion that building experience is an important factor in determining who supports the negotiating organization within contexts varying by centralization of decision making. Building experience also exercises a significant effect upon support of the negotiating organizations in both high and low support districts. The distributions in Table 27 show that respondents with more than two years experience in the building are more supportive of the negotiating organizations than those respondents with two years or less experience in the building within both organizations varying by size and high and low support districts. Both large and small schools which contain teachers with more experience are associated with higher support scores because experience tends to bring about a consciousness of interest and willingness to seek gains with colleagues through collective means. In addition. organizational size increases the relationship betWeen building experience and support of the negotiating organization across high and low support districts. The percentages supporting this pattern among the low experience respondents are 34.2 and 39 who are highly supportive of the negotiating organization from small to large schools within low support districts and 26.2 to 46. 6 of these same kinds of respondents within high support districts were highly supportive of the negotiating organizations. Thus. organiza- tional size generally reinforces the effect of building experience as an important factor operating in who becomes supportive of the negotiating organizations. Summary and Conclusions In this chapter. we have analyzed the effect of organizational size. decision making structure and school occupational orientation upon school support for the negotiating organizations. Because of unequal 96 No. “mm: H .mp .SwmhuNX No. “mm: H .wp .NmHNhnNX m2 2 we .2. 309 mm DE .3 3. so .3. 3. 0% .S S «a .3. swam .0 .9 mm £1.90 am 03 .3 MN «a. .Nm 3 «a .2. Bog .33 83:30 “possum swam so “an: ad woovsuNx m.nm:u us .33....Nx «.2 m2 3. mm 38. 3 can. .3. 3. so». .2 GE .3. 2 can .3. swam .09 S «a .3 3 $3 a so .2. mm as .8 2.3 .Esm mum?» N 0>onm mum?» Nuo mum?» N 0>onm mums.» N-o 088:0me smug :mEm $2315 3.5 muofinpmMQ uuommdm 304 .muflm Hmcofimficmwuo u0w mESOSCOU 03:3 3333p uuoamdm Bog cam cw“: c3015 0050:0me mcfipddn >3 COUMNEmMuo wcfimfiowmc we: mo uncannm mo comudflhmfip 2:. .NN 03mm. 97 parameters in support of the negotiating organizations within the different districts, the total sample was divided into high and low support districts. The analysis lends some credence (in the high support sample) to the argument that larger organizations contain a greater variation in support of the negotiating organization. (R = .35) More subgroups can form in a larger organization. for they provide the numbers from which friends can be selected from choice and not by mere proximity factors. Close friends in subgroups lend social support for sentiments. And where more subgroups and close friendships develop, a wider variety of views and sentiments can find social support. The relationship between centralization and school support of the negotiating organization received no support from the data. (R = .07 and R ' . 14). Similarly, this data gave little support to the relation- ships between the combination of organizational size and school occupational orientation to support of the negotiating organization, (R = .36 and R = .30) or the combination of centralization of decision making and school occupational orientation to support of the negotiating organizations. (R = . Z4 and R = .30). In both of these relationships. occupational orientation is generally more powerful than size and centralization in determining support of the negotiating organization. By using sex, education, and building experience as specifying variables within the contexts of organizational size and centralization of decision making. the following conditions were associated with higher support of the negotiating organizations: men and single and divorced females become more supportive with larger organizational size; the highly educated are more supportive than the less educated in contexts varying on centralization and the highly educated become more supportive with both greater centralization and larger organizational size and the highly experienced are more supportive than the neophytes in contexts varying by both organizational size and centralization. CHAPTER VI SUMMAR Y AND CONCLUSIONS Guiding this research were the questions, " Do particular organizational arrangements condition the worker“s feelings and responses to the importance of his occupational role°" Similarly, "Do particular organizational arrangements condition workers' feelings and working relationships such as to encourage support of a negotiating organization which seeks occupational gains for its members '3" This research bases its reasoning on the theoretical importance of work autonomy for a highly trained work force and the social psychological importance of organization size in facilitating peer support while limiting contact and understanding across subordinate-superordi- nate lines. Organizational size and centralization of decision making are felt to create experiences which facilitate the formation of individual definitions and orientations toward the importance of the work role and the development of support for organized means to change the conditions of employment. Given the fact that the law now gives Michigan public school teachers the right to organize and negotiate collectively over conditions of employment, the teacher who is dissatisfied with aspects of work ranging from issues of salaries to centralization of decision making can join others and seek change through supporting the local Michigan Educational Association or the Michigan Federation of Teachers. To test these relationships, a sample of thirty-eight public elementary school buildings were selected from within five comparatively large districts. The following hypotheses were formulated from the theoretical literature for testing the impact of organizational size and centralization of decision making upon average scores of occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization. 98 99 Research Hypotheses 1. Organizational size is positively related to variation in occupational orientation. 2. Centralization of decision making will be negatively related to an oc cupational orientation. 3. Organizational size is positively related to centralization of decision making. 4. Organizational size is positiver related to variation in support of the negotiating organization. 5. Centralization of decision making will be positively related to support of the negotiating organization. 6. Organizations which are both occupationally oriented and centralized in their decision making will contain workers who are more supportive of the negotiating organization than organizations which are decentralized in their decision making and not occupationally oriented. 7. Organizations which are both large and occupationally oriented will contain workers who are more supportive of the negotiating organization than organizations which are small and not occupa- tionally oriented. Organizational Correlates of Occupational Orientation The structure of our argument found empirical support with larger organizations containing a greater variation in levels of occupational orientation. Our explanation is that larger organizations by virtue of their numbers permit greater opportunities for the selection of friend- ships and membership in subgroups where sentiments about work can find support; because the proliferation of subgroups is in part a function of size, support for a greater range of occupational orientations comes with organizational size. The data did not support the hypothesis that centralization of decision making curtails occupational orientation. The magnitude of l. '6 )t ‘ TN 100 the correlation does not point to any alternative explanations, merely acceptance of the null hypothesis. In the analysis, we assumed that the data were "real, " i. e. , they were valid and accurate measure of the variables. One explanation of no relationship is that we do not have valid measures of what we believe are two antithetical properties-- centralization and occupational orientations. The literature suggests the logical incongruity between a worker finding meaning, value, and self-importance in the intrinsic aspects of his work role, and not being concerned with the decision making structure over those central aspects of the tasks in which he finds meaning. Empirically as well, the literature reports that occupationally oriented workers are concerned with centralized decision making especially when that decision is not legitimized by their conception of expertise. When decisions are legitimized by non-occupational criteria with occupationally commited workers, conflict is often the result. It may be that teachers do not define principals and superintendent's authority to make such central occupational questions as illegitimate; they may define principals and superintendents as colleagues who have the right to exercise more influence over their occupational decisions. The hypothesis relating organizational size to centralization of decision making found no support from these data. A possible problem is that of measurement; we may not be capturing where decisions are in fact made. However, a more feasible interpretation is that in fact . no relationship exists between size and centralization. Schools. being semi-professional service organizations, employ a highly educated work force who have internalized a set of standards and norms by which to make judgments. Consequently, greater self and colleague control limits the necessity for organizational control through use of rules and centralization. In the elaboration analysis, we found that generally sex, education and building experience did not significantly differentiate the occupa- tionally oriented from the less occupationally oriented within ° 101 organizational contexts at any given level of centralization of decision making. The one exception to this is socio-economic level of the neighborhood population; as the school is more centralized in its decision making, high socio-economic level becomes increasingly associated with high occupational orientation. Schools in higher socio- economic areas may attract occupationally oriented teachers. However. when working with well-behaved and interested students who are programmed early for school work by their parents, teachers appear to develop a greater concern and psychological investment in the work role due to both student interest and the support and interest given to education by parents and citizens of the school community. Social class is positively related to interest and active support of educational programs. Beyond the question of occupational orientation within a given level of centralization, we found that both men and the more experienced in the building become more occupationally oriented with greater centrali- zation. One explanation for these unexpected findings is that certain types of men and experienced teachers are left behind after the selective withdrawal of other men and experienced teachers who find the authority structure frustrating. After selective withdrawal of the frustrated male and less experienced teachers, only the less frustrated would be left behind. Alternatively, men and highly experienced teachers may not in fact generally desire autonomy and control over occupational decisions at all. Still, highly competent administration may tend to centralize occupational decisions within schools without jepordizing the teacher's sense of autonomy and involvement while still commanding respect and instilling in others a sense of dedication and commitment to teaching. -;u-.ob”".“A“ ‘ l||| luv. 102 Orflnizational Correlates o_f Support 1213 Negotiating Organization The analysis lends some credence to the argument that larger organizations contain a greater variation in support of the negotiating organization. Larger organizations provide the conditions conducive for subgroups to form where social support can be found for a wide variety of views, and sentiments. In contrast, small organizations limit the members choice of friendships. Colleague interaction or contact may be due largely to proximity, not common sentiments, values, and interests. Through face-to-face contact, differences become mediated and dulled; differences of opinion are avoided for the sake of getting along and for smooth working relations. The hypothesis relating centralization of decision making and support of the negotiating organization found no support from these data. Again, Our measure of centralization may not capture where decisions are made. Alternatively, since centralization of decision making and occupational orientation have almost no correlation and occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organizations are not highly correlated, supporters of the negotiating organization may be largely those who are instrumentally oriented toward their work and who support the negotiating organization to obtain bread and butter gains. Still, teachers could be occupationally oriented and define the authority of principal and superintendent as legitimate and therefore centralization is irrelevant to motivations for the negotiating organi- zation. Little support is obtained for the relationships between the independent variables of organizational size and school occupational orientation and the dependent variable of support of the negotiating organization, or for the combination of centralization of decision making and school occupational orientation in predicting support of the 103 negotiating organization. The correlations fall short of an acceptable level and therefore the hypotheses must be rejected. However, while all of these relationships are in the predicted direction the variable of school occupational orientation is rather consistently more powerful or effective in predicting most of the variation that the multiple corre- lation accounts for in explaining support of the negotiating organization. The school occupational orientation score consistently contributed the greater part of the multiple correlation, and in some cases almost all of the explained variation. This seems to suggest that variables which contain measures of individual qualities are more predictive of behavior in this study than variables which merely represent an objective condition under which the faculty work; people need not and do not define or give similar meanings to objective external arrangements such as organi- zational size and decision making structure. In the elaboration analysis again sex and education generally do not operate to differentiate the high and low supporter within particular organizational contexts varying by size and centralization of decision making. However, the highly educated in high support districts are generally significantly more supportive of the negotiating organization than the less educated within organizational contexts varying by centralization. Also personnel who are more experienced in teaching in the building are significantly more supportive than neophytes of the negotiating organization in contexts varying by both organizational size and centralization. Years of service in a particular work role are in part a form of investment which people tend to build up with their work and the intrinsic aspects of the occupational role. Neophytes to any system will generally be cautious and withhold involvement or support of very much until the particular norms are learned. With time, friendships develop and this source of support builds confidence so that psychological investments are more secure and free from jeopardy. Thus, both the social network and the stable nature of the task help encourage an occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization to protect them. 104 Theoretical Implications What very general conclusions can de drawn: Larger organi- zations are associated with diversity or variation in both the average level of occupational orientation and support of the negotiating organization. Size as a condition of a system of interaction either allows people who enter the system with differences to maintain them over time or it encourages the emergence of differences through permitting selective interaction with friendships in subgroups. However, size does not bring about centralization of decision making or generally greater support of the negotiating organization. Size does not appear to present such coordination problems that centralization is the result. At least this is the case with theSe data on schools with their semi-professional work force. Similarly, union support is not associated with organization size. The occupational orientation is generally much more important than size of the unit in explaining variation. Centralization of decision making does not affect occupational orientation or support of the negotiating organization when occupational orientations are high. The decision making structure may not be nearly as important as the literature suggest in frustrating an occupational orientation or in driving the occupationally oriented to support organi- zations which seek to change conditions of employment. A more important consideration is whether decision making from above coin- cides with occupational norms and professional criteria of teachers. If I Were to do it all over again, I would be more social psychological and determine not only where decisions are made but also where teachers thought crucial occupational decisions should be made. Sociologist often expound on the importance of global properties in predicting social psychological states or actual behavior. This study calls into question the empirical importance of organizational properties 105 such as size and centralizaion of decision making in explaining variation of social psychological states. There is little corres- pondence between the external structure of the organization and the structure of individual attitudes and orientation tcward aspects in that organizational structur . While the decision raking structure may not be objectively arranged to provide autonomy an individual discretion, individuals, because of their values, perceptions, etc., may not define the organization structure as limiting autcnomy and freedom at all. As Dennis Wrong suggests, too often sociologists operate with an over-socialized view of man and as sume the inter- nalization and integration of a system of norms and beliefs within a social system. There may be a great discrepancy between the global arrangements such as organizational size and centralization as con- ditioners of experience and the psychological factors which individuals carry into the work organization and selectively experience, define, and interpret the world around them. Methodological Limitations For social scientists, it is very easy to poke methodological holes in research which fails to confirm or even provide solid conclusions one way or another. In order to avoid this kind of self abuse, Iwill but reiterate one problem of measurement. That problem relates to the question of operationalizing a variable in order to quantify the quality of mind or action free from the specific, substantive and situa— tional issues. Several of the questions used in this study were eliminated because they were too substantive and situational. The question on attendance of meetings and voting are examples. We tried to measure attitudinal variables by frequency of behavior without noting the opportunity structure for expressing such behavior. Because the opportunity to express such overt behavior differed from district to district, the measures were useless for the purposes desired and the questions had to be abandoned. 136 Consequences With greater size, we found greater variation in occupational orientations and support of the negotiating organization. As schools become larger in size, and this does appear to be a trend, we can expect greater variation in the orientations that workers have toward their occupational role and the negotiating organization. The implications for teacher organizations are that with greater variation in occupational orientation, the kinds of concerns and goals sought in work will also be very diverse. Some educational personnel will exhibit an instrumental orientation toward their occupational role and they are expected to push bread and butter issues to facilitate the enjoyment of activities outside work. Other educators will regard their work as a source of meaning and enjoyment and these workers would be expected to push for both bread and butter issues and beyond to wider concerns of teacher-principal, teacher-pupil, and teacher-community relations. However, if the organization of schools becomes larger, the implications for the power of teacher organizations is that the teacher organizations would not have a solidary unit, agreed in its goals when it confronts community representatives at the negotiating table. Internal diversity would diminish the potential strength of the teacher organi- zation but it would also cause it to seek a wider set of gains and negotiate to please the internal interest groups; similar to the micro unions which Sayles describes in his research. Such diverse interest groups would be expected to facilitate more internal conflict and therefore the model of democracy in union organization. Many questions have not been resolved and the research itself raises further questions. While school occupational orientation is not highly correlated with school support of the negotiating organization, what is the relationship of these two variables when the individual is the unit of analysis ? Which latent roles correlate most highly with support of 107 of the negotiating organization. In contrast to global organization variables or latent roles specified within organizational contexts, what are the individual latent role correlates of occupational orien- tation and support of the negotiating organizations ? What motivational differences are there in the reasons why these workers support the negotiating organization and do these types of motivations correlate to some latent roles more than others? In the event that individual occupational orientation does not correlate highly with support of the negotiating organizations, can it be that the occupational role and the negotiating organization are alternative channels of involvement? Perhaps the occupationally oriented are separate from those who are oriented toward occupational gains or a career in the negotiating organizations. Only further research can answer these questions. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Aiken, Michael, and Jerald Hage. "Organizational Alienation: A Comparative Analysis, " American Sociological Review, XXXI (August, 1966), 497-507. Alderfer, C. P. "An Occupational Syndrome, " Administrative Science Quarterly, XII (December, 1967), 440-460. Allen, James E. , Jr. "Interest and Role of the State Education Department with Respect to Employer and Employee Relations, " Employer-Emplpyee Relations 13th: Public Schools, Robert Doherty, editor. New York: New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, 1967. 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The Motivation, Productivifl, and Satisfaction 2f Workers. Boston: Harvard University Press, 1958. Zeigler, Harmon. The Political Life o_f American Teachers. Engle- wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. , 1967. ' ‘ """"i!tt"~. ... , , l‘.“ APPENDICES l . .\ \it, . ..\\\ APPENDIX A Table A1. The distribution of occupational orientation by school size and district using a two way analysis of variance program. APPENDIX A Districts Totals above Median II III IV V Respondents in: Small Schools 9 38 20 13 Large Schools 72 21 42 39 Totals below Median Small Schools 15 30 19 12 Large Schools 72 24 45 72 N = 613, x2 = 11.79, d.f. Table A2. The distribution of sex by organizational size. Organizational Size Sex Large Total Male 13. 8% 12. 8% Female 30. 6% 133 30. 4% Female - Married 55. 6% 242 56. 7% Total 435 2 X = 1.4510, d.f. 3 2, P f ’x. "H ‘» 1" , . 4 ‘ .‘ ’ ' ' \ . 1r ’ / x . “-5 . . a. . _, " . 7 ' -q . l - ' ' " " *9. ,,.-. ..~ . ‘ . -' :y" . l‘» , 'r . w . 14...”...q-xfiv. K . f . 2‘, Iii-.- - .- .. .. 4 ‘_.. 444.4 . 118 Table A3. The distribution of education by organizational size. Organizational Size Education Small Large Total Less than a bachelor's degree 6. 3% ll 6. 2% 27 6. 2% 38 A bachelor's degree 63. 8% 111 60. 0% 261 61.1% 372 Beyond a bachelor's degree 29.9% 52 33. 8% 147 32. 7% 199 Total 174 435 609 2 - - X =.8760,d.f.-2,P-.65 Table A4. size. The distribution of experience in building by organizational Experience in the Organizational Size Building Small Large Total 0-2 years 47. 4% 83 42. 3% ‘ 185 43.8% 268 3-8 years 31.4% 55 30. 2% 132 30. 6% 187 above 8 years 21. 1% 37 27.5% 120 25.7% 157 Total 175 437 612 2 _ - .. X - 2.7452, d.f. - 2, P - .25 Table A5. The di tional 119 stribution of socio-economic level by organiza- size. Socio- economic Organizational Size level Small Large Total Low 29.1% 51 31. 5% 138 189 Medium 25. 1% 44 22. 1% 97 141 High 45. 7% 80 46. 3% 203 283 Total 175 438 613 2 - X = .7648, d.f. = 2, P - 7 Table A6. The distribution of experience in building by centrali- zation of authority. Experience in the Building Centralization Low Medium High Total 0-2 years 3-8 years above 8 years 43.1% 88 45.0% 98 43.2% 82 268‘ 30.4% 62 32.6% 71 28.4% 54 187 26.5% 54 22.5% 49 28.4% 54 157 Total 204 218 190 612 X2 = 2.1560, d.f. =4, P=.7 120 Table A7. The distribution of sex by centralization of authority. Centralization Sex Low Medium High Total Males 9.9% 20 14.8% 32 13.7% 26 78 Females - single and divorced 33. 2% 67 25. 5% 55 33.2% 63 185 Females - married 56.9% 115 59. 7% 129 53.2% 101 345 Total 202 216 190 608 2 - _ X =5.606, d.f. -4, P=.25, c=.095 Table A8. The distribution of education by centralization of authOrity. Centralization Education Low Medium High Total Less than a bachelor's degree 5. 0% 10 10. 2% 22 3. 2% 6 38 A bachelor's degree 55. 9% 113 63. 4% 137 64. 2% 122 372 Beyond the bachelor's degree 39. 1% 79 26. 4% 57 32. 6% 62 198 Total 202 216 190 608 2 - X = 15.34, d.f. =4, P= .01, C: .166 Table A‘ Low Medium High 121 Table A9. The distribution of socio-economic level by centrali- zation of authority. Socio-economic Centralization Level Low Medium High Total Low 45.1% 92 17. 4% 38 31.1% 59 189 Medium 20.1% 41 39.3% 86 7.4% 14 1.41 High 34.8% 71 43.4% 95 61.6% 117 283 Total 204 219 190 613 2 X =88.358, d.f. =4, P: .005 Table A10. Socio-economic level and occupational orientation. Occupational Socio-economic Level Orientation High Medium Low Total Low 0 - 11 29.9% 56 29. 9% 44 34.3% 96 196 Medium 12 - 13 34.8% 65 38.7% 53 38.9% 109 227 High 14 - 15 35.3% 66 29.4% 40 41. 8% 75 181 Total 187 137 280 604 X2=3.9033, d.f. :4, P: .45 Tot; . r “I ' Jab-5;; : " ‘ . J ' I. .-. ‘ "- ~ 6‘; n. A—_ 122 Table All. Education and occupational orientation. Occupational Education Orientation Low Medium High Total Low 0 - 11 27. 0% 10 34.1% 125 30. 6% 60 195 Medium 12 - 13 40. 5% 15 37. 2% 136 37. 8% 74 225 High 14 - 15 32. 5% 12 28. 7% 105 31. 6% 62 179 Total 37 366 196 599 X2: 1.4914, d.f. =4, P: .85 Table A12. The distribution of support of negotiating organization by school size and district by a two way analysis of variance program. District Totals above Median I II III IV V Respondents in: Small Schools 12 11 34 14 11 Large Schools 62 69 26 34 33 Totals below Median Small Schools 7 11 33 24 13 Large Schools 30 73 19 53 27 2 n=613, X 3'- 20.79, d.f. 3 8, P: .01 .NHOOSUD ukOAwnmfim 30H mead Sm“: Cain—«3 unuukOSudfl N0 COMHNNMHIHHCOU 1A3 unom H0 COuoun—uhn—MNU 06:“ .M~< Ouflflrfi L A 123 mm. 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APPENDIX B APPENDIX B TeachingQuestionnaire Counting the present year. what is the total number of years of full-time teaching experience you have had iithis school? (Consider counseling as teaching experience.) (write in number) I have had years of full-time teaching experience in this school. People remain in an occupation for many different reasons. How important are each of the following for remaining in teaching? very great some slightly not impor- great impor- ' impor- impor- tant at impor - tanc e tanc e tant all fiance the students with whom I have con- tact in this school the opportunity to be creative and original in the work I do educating the future generation working with books and ideas If the state legislature were to consider a law limiting the activities of teacher organizations, to what extent would you work with your organization to defeat this law ? CHECK ONE. To a very To a To some To a slight To no extent great extent great extent extent extent at all Most teacher organizations hold regularly scheduled meetings for all members, or for all people who work in a particular building. About how many of these regular meetings have you attended last year? (write in number) meeting (8). 130 131 Did you vote in the last election of officers in your teacher organization? CHECK ONE. Yes No Suppose you could go back in time and start college over; in view of your present knowledge, would you enter the field of education again? CHECK ONE. Definitely no. Probably no. Undecided. Probably yes . Definitely yes. th_OaOU'W To what extent are you active in your teacher organization? CHECK ONE. To a very great extent. To a great extent. To some extent. To a slight extent. To no extent at all. (DD-OCT” Please indicate your sex and marital status. CHECK ONE. a. Man, unmarried. (Go to question 9. ) Man, married. c. Man, widowed, divorced, or separated. (Go to question 9.) U d. Woman, unmarried. (Go to question 9.) e. Woman, married. f.. Woman, widowed, divorced, or separated. (Go to question 9. ). 8a. Is your husband or wife gainfully employed? CHECK ONE. 1. Yes; full-time employment. 2. Yes; part-time employment. 3. No, but draws retirement pay. 4. No. What is the highest college degree you hold? (If you hold a degree not listed below, check the one that is most nearly equivalent to the one you hold. Do not report honorary degrees. ) CHECK ONE. a. No degree. d. Master's degree b. A degree based on less than four e. Education Specialist years' work. f. Doctor' 3 degree c. Bachelor's degree The per Wh. peo lZ34567890-1 ll . -.-ooo.o.“".7. 132 The following question was given to principals and the district personnel director. What is the occupational composition (blue collar/white collar) of the people living within the boundaries of this school? 100% blue collar 90% blue collar/10% white collar 80% blue collar/20% white collar 70% blue collar/30% white collar 60% blue collar/40% white collar 50% blue collar/50% white collar 40% blue collar/60% white collar 30% blue collar/70% white collar 20% blue collar/80% white collar 10% blue collar/90% white collar 100% white collar HOxomxlO‘U'It-AUJNH H...- . \— J. fir .' . H‘Id... _ 1 1er I .r L -l- -w.- um}. - =:a'-'r:-'r. 111111111171 TIM) 3057 293 0 R” W." Hui U" T“ u H H "